title: Johannes Kepler

text: Over the following years, Kepler attempted (unsuccessfully) to begin a collaboration with Italian astronomer Giovanni Antonio Magini, and dealt with chronology, especially the dating of events in the life of Jesus. Around 1611, Kepler circulated a manuscript of what would eventually be published (posthumously) as "Somnium" [The Dream]. Part of the purpose of "Somnium" was to describe what practicing astronomy would be like from the perspective of another planet, to show the feasibility of a non-geocentric system. The manuscript, which disappeared after changing hands several times, described a fantastic trip to the Moon; it was part allegory, part autobiography, and part treatise on interplanetary travel (and is sometimes described as the first work of science fiction). Years later, a distorted version of the story may have instigated the witchcraft trial against his mother, as the mother of the narrator consults a demon to learn the means of space travel. Following her eventual acquittal, Kepler composed 223 footnotes to the story—several times longer than the actual text—which explained the allegorical aspects as well as the considerable scientific content (particularly regarding lunar geography) hidden within the text.


title: Johannes Kepler

text: In 1611, the growing political-religious tension in Prague came to a head. Emperor Rudolf—whose health was failing—was forced to abdicate as King of Bohemia by his brother Matthias. Both sides sought Kepler's astrological advice, an opportunity he used to deliver conciliatory political advice (with little reference to the stars, except in general statements to discourage drastic action). However, it was clear that Kepler's future prospects in the court of Matthias were dim.


title: Johannes Kepler

text: Also in that year, Barbara Kepler contracted Hungarian spotted fever, then began having seizures. As Barbara was recovering, Kepler's three children all fell sick with smallpox; Friedrich, 6, died. Following his son's death, Kepler sent letters to potential patrons in Württemberg and Padua. At the University of Tübingen in Württemberg, concerns over Kepler's perceived Calvinist heresies in violation of the Augsburg Confession and the Formula of Concord prevented his return. The University of Padua—on the recommendation of the departing Galileo—sought Kepler to fill the mathematics professorship, but Kepler, preferring to keep his family in German territory, instead travelled to Austria to arrange a position as teacher and district mathematician in Linz. However, Barbara relapsed into illness and died shortly after Kepler's return.


title: Johannes Kepler

text: Kepler postponed the move to Linz and remained in Prague until Rudolf's death in early 1612, though between political upheaval, religious tension, and family tragedy (along with the legal dispute over his wife's estate), Kepler could do no research. Instead, he pieced together a chronology manuscript, "Eclogae Chronicae", from correspondence and earlier work. Upon succession as Holy Roman Emperor, Matthias re-affirmed Kepler's position (and salary) as imperial mathematician but allowed him to move to Linz.


title: Johannes Kepler

text: In Linz, Kepler's primary responsibilities (beyond completing the "Rudolphine Tables") were teaching at the district school and providing astrological and astronomical services. In his first years there, he enjoyed financial security and religious freedom relative to his life in Prague—though he was excluded from Eucharist by his Lutheran church over his theological scruples. It was also during his time in Linz that Kepler had to deal with the accusation and ultimate verdict of witchcraft against his mother Katharina in the Protestant town of Leonberg. That blow, happening only a few years after Kepler's excommunication, is not seen as a coincidence but as a symptom of the full-fledged assault waged by the Lutherans against Kepler.


title: Johannes Kepler

text: His first publication in Linz was "De vero Anno" (1613), an expanded treatise on the year of Christ's birth. He also participated in deliberations on whether to introduce Pope Gregory's reformed calendar to Protestant German lands. On 30 October 1613, Kepler married the 24-year-old Susanna Reuttinger. Following the death of his first wife Barbara, Kepler had considered 11 different matches over two years (a decision process formalized later as the marriage problem). He eventually returned to Reuttinger (the fifth match) who, he wrote, "won me over with love, humble loyalty, economy of household, diligence, and the love she gave the stepchildren." The first three children of this marriage (Margareta Regina, Katharina, and Sebald) died in childhood. Three more survived into adulthood: Cordula (born 1621); Fridmar (born 1623); and Hildebert (born 1625). According to Kepler's biographers, this was a much happier marriage than his first.


title: Johannes Kepler

text: On 8 October 1630, Kepler set out for Regensburg, hoping to collect interest on work he had done previously. A few days after reaching Regensburg, Kepler became sick, and progressively became worse. On 15 November 1630, just over a month after his arrival, he died. He was buried in a Protestant churchyard that was completely destroyed during the Thirty Years' War.


title: Johannes Kepler

text: Kepler's belief that God created the cosmos in an orderly fashion caused him to attempt to determine and comprehend the laws that govern the natural world, most profoundly in astronomy. The phrase "I am merely thinking God's thoughts after Him" has been attributed to him, although this is probably a capsulized version of a writing from his hand:


title: Johannes Kepler

text: Those laws [of nature] are within the grasp of the human mind; God wanted us to recognize them by creating us after his own image so that we could share in his own thoughts.Kepler advocated for tolerance among Christian denominations, for example arguing that Catholics and Lutherans should be able to take communion together. He wrote, "Christ the Lord neither was nor is Lutheran, nor Calvinist, nor Papist."


title: Johannes Kepler

text: Kepler's first major astronomical work, "Mysterium Cosmographicum" ("The Cosmographic Mystery", 1596), was the first published defense of the Copernican system. Kepler claimed to have had an epiphany on 19 July 1595, while teaching in Graz, demonstrating the periodic conjunction of Saturn and Jupiter in the zodiac: he realized that regular polygons bound one inscribed and one circumscribed circle at definite ratios, which, he reasoned, might be the geometrical basis of the universe. After failing to find a unique arrangement of polygons that fit known astronomical observations (even with extra planets added to the system), Kepler began experimenting with 3-dimensional polyhedra. He found that each of the five Platonic solids could be inscribed and circumscribed by spherical orbs; nesting these solids, each encased in a sphere, within one another would produce six layers, corresponding to the six known planets—Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn. By ordering the solids selectively—octahedron, icosahedron, dodecahedron, tetrahedron, cube—Kepler found that the spheres could be placed at intervals corresponding to the relative sizes of each planet's path, assuming the planets circle the Sun. Kepler also found a formula relating the size of each planet's orb to the length of its orbital period: from inner to outer planets, the ratio of increase in orbital period is twice the difference in orb radius. However, Kepler later rejected this formula, because it was not precise enough.


title: Johannes Kepler

text: Kepler thought the "Mysterium" had revealed God's geometrical plan for the universe. Much of Kepler's enthusiasm for the Copernican system stemmed from his theological convictions about the connection between the physical and the spiritual; the universe itself was an image of God, with the Sun corresponding to the Father, the stellar sphere to the Son, and the intervening space between them to the Holy Spirit. His first manuscript of "Mysterium" contained an extensive chapter reconciling heliocentrism with biblical passages that seemed to support geocentrism. With the support of his mentor Michael Maestlin, Kepler received permission from the Tübingen university senate to publish his manuscript, pending removal of the Bible exegesis and the addition of a simpler, more understandable, description of the Copernican system as well as Kepler's new ideas. "Mysterium" was published late in 1596, and Kepler received his copies and began sending them to prominent astronomers and patrons early in 1597; it was not widely read, but it established Kepler's reputation as a highly skilled astronomer. The effusive dedication, to powerful patrons as well as to the men who controlled his position in Graz, also provided a crucial doorway into the patronage system.


title: Johannes Kepler

text: In 1621, Kepler published an expanded second edition of "Mysterium", half as long again as the first, detailing in footnotes the corrections and improvements he had achieved in the 25 years since its first publication. In terms of impact, the "Mysterium" can be seen as an important first step in modernizing the theory proposed by Copernicus in his "De revolutionibus orbium coelestium". Whilst Copernicus sought to advance a heliocentric system in this book, he resorted to Ptolemaic devices (viz., epicycles and eccentric circles) in order to explain the change in planets' orbital speed, and also continued to use as a point of reference the center of the Earth's orbit rather than that of the Sun "as an aid to calculation and in order not to confuse the reader by diverging too much from Ptolemy." Modern astronomy owes much to "Mysterium Cosmographicum", despite flaws in its main thesis, "since it represents the first step in cleansing the Copernican system of the remnants of the Ptolemaic theory still clinging to it."


title: Johannes Kepler

text: The extended line of research that culminated in "Astronomia Nova" ("A New Astronomy")—including the first two laws of planetary motion—began with the analysis, under Tycho's direction, of the orbit of Mars. In this work Kepler introduced the revolutionary concept of planetary orbit, a path of a planet in space resulting from the action of physical causes, distinct from previously held notion of planetary orb (a spherical shell to which planet is attached). As a result of this breakthrough astronomical phenomena came to be seen as being governed by physical laws. Kepler calculated and recalculated various approximations of Mars's orbit using an equant (the mathematical tool that Copernicus had eliminated with his system), eventually creating a model that generally agreed with Tycho's observations to within two arcminutes (the average measurement error). But he was not satisfied with the complex and still slightly inaccurate result; at certain points the model differed from the data by up to eight arcminutes. The wide array of traditional mathematical astronomy methods having failed him, Kepler set about trying to fit an ovoid orbit to the data.


title: Johannes Kepler

text: In Kepler's religious view of the cosmos, the Sun (a symbol of God the Father) was the source of motive force in the Solar System. As a physical basis, Kepler drew by analogy on William Gilbert's theory of the magnetic soul of the Earth from "De Magnete" (1600) and on his own work on optics. Kepler supposed that the motive power (or motive "species") radiated by the Sun weakens with distance, causing faster or slower motion as planets move closer or farther from it. Perhaps this assumption entailed a mathematical relationship that would restore astronomical order. Based on measurements of the aphelion and perihelion of the Earth and Mars, he created a formula in which a planet's rate of motion is inversely proportional to its distance from the Sun. Verifying this relationship throughout the orbital cycle required very extensive calculation; to simplify this task, by late 1602 Kepler reformulated the proportion in terms of geometry: "planets sweep out equal areas in equal times"—his second law of planetary motion.


title: Johannes Kepler

text: He then set about calculating the entire orbit of Mars, using the geometrical rate law and assuming an egg-shaped ovoid orbit. After approximately 40 failed attempts, in late 1604 he at last hit upon the idea of an ellipse, which he had previously assumed to be too simple a solution for earlier astronomers to have overlooked. Finding that an elliptical orbit fit the Mars data (the Vicarious Hypothesis), Kepler immediately concluded that "all planets move in ellipses, with the Sun at one focus"—his first law of planetary motion. Because he employed no calculating assistants, he did not extend the mathematical analysis beyond Mars. By the end of the year, he completed the manuscript for "Astronomia nova", though it would not be published until 1609 due to legal disputes over the use of Tycho's observations, the property of his heirs.


title: Johannes Kepler

text: Since completing the "Astronomia Nova", Kepler had intended to compose an astronomy textbook that would cover all the fundamentals of heliocentric astronomy. Kepler spent the next several years working on what would become "Epitome Astronomiae Copernicanae" ("Epitome of Copernican Astronomy"). Despite its title, which merely hints at heliocentrism, the "Epitome" is less about Copernicus's work and more about Kepler's own astronomical system. The "Epitome" contained all three laws of planetary motion and attempted to explain heavenly motions through physical causes. Although it explicitly extended the first two laws of planetary motion (applied to Mars in "Astronomia nova") to all the planets as well as the Moon and the Medicean satellites of Jupiter, it did not explain how elliptical orbits could be derived from observational data.


title: Johannes Kepler

text: Originally intended as an introduction for the uninitiated, Kepler sought to model his "Epitome" after that of his master Michael Maestlin, who published a well-regarded book explaining the basics of geocentric astronomy to non-experts. Kepler completed the first of three volumes, consisting of Books I–III, by 1615 in the same question-answer format of Maestlin's and have it printed in 1617. However, the banning of Copernican books by the Catholic Church, as well as the start of the Thirty Years' War, meant that publication of the next two volumes would be delayed. In the interim, and to avoid being subject to the ban, Kepler switched the audience of the "Epitome" from beginners to that of expert astronomers and mathematicians, as the arguments became more and more sophisticated and requiring advanced mathematics to be understood. The second volume, consisting of Book IV, was published in 1620, followed by the third volume, consisting of Books V–VII, in 1621.


title: Johannes Kepler

text: In the years following the completion of "Astronomia Nova", most of Kepler's research was focused on preparations for the "Rudolphine Tables" and a comprehensive set of ephemerides (specific predictions of planet and star positions) based on the table, though neither would be completed for many years.


title: Johannes Kepler

text: Kepler, at last, completed the "Rudolphine Tables" in 1623, which at the time was considered his major work. However, due to the publishing requirements of the emperor and negotiations with Tycho Brahe's heir, it would not be printed until 1627.


title: Johannes Kepler

text: Like Ptolemy, Kepler considered astrology as the counterpart to astronomy, and as being of equal interest and value. However, in the following years, the two subjects drifted apart until astrology was no longer practiced among professional astronomers.


title: Johannes Kepler

text: Sir Oliver Lodge observed that Kepler was somewhat disdainful of astrology in his own day, as he was "continually attacking and throwing sarcasm at astrology, but it was the only thing for which people would pay him, and on it after a fashion he lived." Nonetheless, Kepler spent a huge amount of time trying to restore astrology on a firmer philosophical footing, composing numerous astrological calendars, more than 800 nativities, and a number of treaties dealing with the subject of astrology proper.


title: Johannes Kepler

text: In his bid to become imperial astronomer, Kepler wrote "De Fundamentis" (1601), whose full title can be translated as “On Giving Astrology Sounder Foundations”, as a short foreword to one of his yearly almanacs.


title: Johannes Kepler

text: In this work, Kepler describes the effects of the Sun, Moon, and the planets in terms of their light and their influences upon humors, finalizing with Kepler's view that the Earth possesses a soul with some sense of geometry. Stimulated by the geometric convergence of rays formed around it, the world-soul is sentient but not conscious. As a shepherd is pleased by the piping of a flute without understanding the theory of musical harmony, so likewise Earth responds to the angles and aspects made by the heavens but not in a conscious manner. Eclipses are important as omens because the animal faculty of the Earth is violently disturbed by the sudden intermission of light, experiencing something like emotion and persisting in it for some time.


title: Johannes Kepler

text: Kepler surmises that the Earth has "cycles of humors" as living animals do, and gives for an example that "the highest tides of the sea are said by sailors to return after nineteen years around the same days of the year". (This may refer to the 18.6-year lunar node precession cycle.) Kepler advocates searching for such cycles by gathering observations over a period of many years, "and so far this observation has not been made".


title: Johannes Kepler

text: Kepler and Helisaeus Roeslin engaged in a series of published attacks and counter-attacks on the importance of astrology after the supernova of 1604; around the same time, physician Philip Feselius published a work dismissing astrology altogether (and Roeslin's work in particular).


title: Johannes Kepler

text: In response to what Kepler saw as the excesses of astrology, on the one hand, and overzealous rejection of it, on the other, Kepler prepared "Tertius Interveniens" (1610). Nominally this work—presented to the common patron of Roeslin and Feselius—was a neutral mediation between the feuding scholars (the titled meaning "Third-party interventions"), but it also set out Kepler's general views on the value of astrology, including some hypothesized mechanisms of interaction between planets and individual souls. While Kepler considered most traditional rules and methods of astrology to be the "evil-smelling dung" in which "an industrious hen" scrapes, there was an "occasional grain-seed, indeed, even a pearl or a gold nugget" to be found by the conscientious scientific astrologer.


title: Johannes Kepler

text: Kepler was convinced "that the geometrical things have provided the Creator with the model for decorating the whole world". In "Harmonice Mundi" (1619), he attempted to explain the proportions of the natural world—particularly the astronomical and astrological aspects—in terms of music. The central set of "harmonies" was the "musica universalis" or "music of the spheres", which had been studied by Pythagoras, Ptolemy and others before Kepler; in fact, soon after publishing "Harmonice Mundi", Kepler was embroiled in a priority dispute with Robert Fludd, who had recently published his own harmonic theory.


title: Johannes Kepler

text: Kepler began by exploring regular polygons and regular solids, including the figures that would come to be known as Kepler's solids. From there, he extended his harmonic analysis to music, meteorology, and astrology; harmony resulted from the tones made by the souls of heavenly bodies—and in the case of astrology, the interaction between those tones and human souls. In the final portion of the work (Book V), Kepler dealt with planetary motions, especially relationships between orbital velocity and orbital distance from the Sun. Similar relationships had been used by other astronomers, but Kepler—with Tycho's data and his own astronomical theories—treated them much more precisely and attached new physical significance to them.


title: Johannes Kepler

text: Among many other harmonies, Kepler articulated what came to be known as the third law of planetary motion. He tried many combinations until he discovered that (approximately) ""The square of the periodic times are to each other as the cubes of the mean distances"." Although he gives the date of this epiphany (8 March 1618), he does not give any details about how he arrived at this conclusion. However, the wider significance for planetary dynamics of this purely kinematical law was not realized until the 1660s. When conjoined with Christiaan Huygens' newly discovered law of centrifugal force, it enabled Isaac Newton, Edmund Halley, and perhaps Christopher Wren and Robert Hooke to demonstrate independently that the presumed gravitational attraction between the Sun and its planets decreased with the square of the distance between them. This refuted the traditional assumption of scholastic physics that the power of gravitational attraction remained constant with distance whenever it applied between two bodies, such as was assumed by Kepler and also by Galileo in his mistaken universal law that gravitational fall is uniformly accelerated, and also by Galileo's student Borrelli in his 1666 celestial mechanics.


title: Johannes Kepler

text: As Kepler slowly continued analyzing Tycho's Mars observations—now available to him in their entirety—and began the slow process of tabulating the "Rudolphine Tables", Kepler also picked up the investigation of the laws of optics from his lunar essay of 1600. Both lunar and solar eclipses presented unexplained phenomena, such as unexpected shadow sizes, the red color of a total lunar eclipse, and the reportedly unusual light surrounding a total solar eclipse. Related issues of atmospheric refraction applied to "all" astronomical observations. Through most of 1603, Kepler paused his other work to focus on optical theory; the resulting manuscript, presented to the emperor on 1 January 1604, was published as "Astronomiae Pars Optica" (The Optical Part of Astronomy). In it, Kepler described the inverse-square law governing the intensity of light, reflection by flat and curved mirrors, and principles of pinhole cameras, as well as the astronomical implications of optics such as parallax and the apparent sizes of heavenly bodies. He also extended his study of optics to the human eye, and is generally considered by neuroscientists to be the first to recognize that images are projected inverted and reversed by the eye's lens onto the retina. The solution to this dilemma was not of particular importance to Kepler as he did not see it as pertaining to optics, although he did suggest that the image was later corrected "in the hollows of the brain" due to the "activity of the Soul."


title: Johannes Kepler

text: Today, "Astronomiae Pars Optica" is generally recognized as the foundation of modern optics (though the law of refraction is conspicuously absent). With respect to the beginnings of projective geometry, Kepler introduced the idea of continuous change of a mathematical entity in this work. He argued that if a focus of a conic section were allowed to move along the line joining the foci, the geometric form would morph or degenerate, one into another. In this way, an ellipse becomes a parabola when a focus moves toward infinity, and when two foci of an ellipse merge into one another, a circle is formed. As the foci of a hyperbola merge into one another, the hyperbola becomes a pair of straight lines. He also assumed that if a straight line is extended to infinity it will meet itself at a single point at infinity, thus having the properties of a large circle.


title: Johannes Kepler

text: In the first months of 1610, Galileo Galilei—using his powerful new telescope—discovered four satellites orbiting Jupiter. Upon publishing his account as "Sidereus Nuncius" [Starry Messenger], Galileo sought the opinion of Kepler, in part to bolster the credibility of his observations. Kepler responded enthusiastically with a short published reply, "Dissertatio cum Nuncio Sidereo" [Conversation with the Starry Messenger]. He endorsed Galileo's observations and offered a range of speculations about the meaning and implications of Galileo's discoveries and telescopic methods, for astronomy and optics as well as cosmology and astrology. Later that year, Kepler published his own telescopic observations of the moons in "Narratio de Jovis Satellitibus", providing further support of Galileo. To Kepler's disappointment, however, Galileo never published his reactions (if any) to "Astronomia Nova".


title: Johannes Kepler

text: Kepler also started a theoretical and experimental investigation of telescopic lenses using a telescope borrowed from Duke Ernest of Cologne. The resulting manuscript was completed in September 1610 and published as "Dioptrice" in 1611. In it, Kepler set out the theoretical basis of double-convex converging lenses and double-concave diverging lenses—and how they are combined to produce a Galilean telescope—as well as the concepts of real vs. virtual images, upright vs. inverted images, and the effects of focal length on magnification and reduction. He also described an improved telescope—now known as the "astronomical" or "Keplerian telescope"—in which two convex lenses can produce higher magnification than Galileo's combination of convex and concave lenses.


title: Johannes Kepler

text: As a New Year's gift that year (1611), he also composed for his friend and some-time patron, Baron Wackher von Wackhenfels, a short pamphlet entitled "Strena Seu de Nive Sexangula" ("A New Year's Gift of Hexagonal Snow"). In this treatise, he published the first description of the hexagonal symmetry of snowflakes and, extending the discussion into a hypothetical atomistic physical basis for the symmetry, posed what later became known as the Kepler conjecture, a statement about the most efficient arrangement for packing spheres.


title: Johannes Kepler

text: Kepler wrote the influential mathematical treatise "Nova stereometria doliorum vinariorum" in 1613, on measuring the volume of containers such as wine barrels, which was published in 1615. Kepler also contributed to the development of infinitesimal methods and numerical analysis, including iterative approximations, infinitesimals, and the early use of logarithms and transcendental equations. Kepler's work on calculating volumes of shapes, and on finding the optimal shape of a wine barrel, were significant steps toward the development of calculus. Simpson's rule, an approximation method used in integral calculus, is known in German as "Keplersche Fassregel" (Kepler's barrel rule).


title: Johannes Kepler

text: Kepler's laws of planetary motion were not immediately accepted. Several major figures such as Galileo and René Descartes completely ignored Kepler's "Astronomia nova." Many astronomers, including Kepler's teacher, Michael Maestlin, objected to Kepler's introduction of physics into his astronomy. Some adopted compromise positions. Ismaël Bullialdus accepted elliptical orbits but replaced Kepler's area law with uniform motion in respect to the empty focus of the ellipse, while Seth Ward used an elliptical orbit with motions defined by an equant.


title: Johannes Kepler

text: Several astronomers tested Kepler's theory, and its various modifications, against astronomical observations. Two transits of Venus and Mercury across the face of the sun provided sensitive tests of the theory, under circumstances when these planets could not normally be observed. In the case of the transit of Mercury in 1631, Kepler had been extremely uncertain of the parameters for Mercury, and advised observers to look for the transit the day before and after the predicted date. Pierre Gassendi observed the transit on the date predicted, a confirmation of Kepler's prediction. This was the first observation of a transit of Mercury. However, his attempt to observe the transit of Venus just one month later was unsuccessful due to inaccuracies in the Rudolphine Tables. Gassendi did not realize that it was not visible from most of Europe, including Paris. Jeremiah Horrocks, who observed the 1639 Venus transit, had used his own observations to adjust the parameters of the Keplerian model, predicted the transit, and then built apparatus to observe the transit. He remained a firm advocate of the Keplerian model.


title: Johannes Kepler

text: "Epitome of Copernican Astronomy" was read by astronomers throughout Europe, and following Kepler's death, it was the main vehicle for spreading Kepler's ideas. In the period 1630–1650, this book was the most widely used astronomy textbook, winning many converts to ellipse-based astronomy. However, few adopted his ideas on the physical basis for celestial motions. In the late 17th century, a number of physical astronomy theories drawing from Kepler's work—notably those of Giovanni Alfonso Borelli and Robert Hooke—began to incorporate attractive forces (though not the quasi-spiritual motive species postulated by Kepler) and the Cartesian concept of inertia. This culminated in Isaac Newton's "Principia Mathematica" (1687), in which Newton derived Kepler's laws of planetary motion from a force-based theory of universal gravitation, a mathematical challenge later known as "solving the Kepler problem".


title: Johannes Kepler

text: Beyond his role in the historical development of astronomy and natural philosophy, Kepler has loomed large in the philosophy and historiography of science. Kepler and his laws of motion were central to early histories of astronomy such as Jean-Étienne Montucla's 1758 "Histoire des mathématiques" and Jean-Baptiste Delambre's 1821 "Histoire de l'astronomie moderne". These and other histories written from an Enlightenment perspective treated Kepler's metaphysical and religious arguments with skepticism and disapproval, but later Romantic-era natural philosophers viewed these elements as central to his success.


title: Johannes Kepler

text: William Whewell, in his influential "History of the Inductive Sciences" of 1837, found Kepler to be the archetype of the inductive scientific genius; in his "Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences" of 1840, Whewell held Kepler up as the embodiment of the most advanced forms of scientific method. Similarly, Ernst Friedrich Apelt—the first to extensively study Kepler's manuscripts, after their purchase by Catherine the Great—identified Kepler as a key to the "Revolution of the sciences".


title: Johannes Kepler

text: Apelt, who saw Kepler's mathematics, aesthetic sensibility, physical ideas, and theology as part of a unified system of thought, produced the first extended analysis of Kepler's life and work.


title: Johannes Kepler

text: Alexandre Koyré's work on Kepler was, after Apelt, the first major milestone in historical interpretations of Kepler's cosmology and its influence. In the 1930s and 1940s, Koyré, and a number of others in the first generation of professional historians of science, described the "Scientific Revolution" as the central event in the history of science, and Kepler as a (perhaps the) central figure in the revolution. Koyré placed Kepler's theorization, rather than his empirical work, at the center of the intellectual transformation from ancient to modern world-views. Since the 1960s, the volume of historical Kepler scholarship has expanded greatly, including studies of his astrology and meteorology, his geometrical methods, the role of his religious views in his work, his literary and rhetorical methods, his interaction with the broader cultural and philosophical currents of his time, and even his role as an historian of science.


title: Johannes Kepler

text: Philosophers of science—such as Charles Sanders Peirce, Norwood Russell Hanson, Stephen Toulmin, and Karl Popper—have repeatedly turned to Kepler: examples of incommensurability, analogical reasoning, falsification, and many other philosophical concepts have been found in Kepler's work. Physicist Wolfgang Pauli even used Kepler's priority dispute with Robert Fludd to explore the implications of analytical psychology on scientific investigation.


title: Johannes Kepler

text: Modern translations of a number of Kepler's books appeared in the late-nineteenth and early-twentieth centuries, the systematic publication of his collected works began in 1937 (and is nearing completion in the early 21st century).


title: Johannes Kepler

text: An edition in eight volumes, " Kepleri Opera omnia," was prepared by Christian Frisch (1807–1881), during 1858 to 1871, on the occasion of Kepler's 300th birthday.


title: Johannes Kepler

text: A new edition was planned beginning in 1914 by Walther von Dyck (1856–1934). Dyck compiled copies of Kepler's unedited manuscripts, using international diplomatic contacts to convince the Soviet authorities to lend him the manuscripts kept in Leningrad for photographic reproduction. These manuscripts contained several works by Kepler that had not been available to Frisch. Dyck's photographs remain the basis for the modern editions of Kepler's unpublished manuscripts.


title: Johannes Kepler

text: Max Caspar (1880–1956) published his German translation of Kepler's "Mysterium Cosmographicum" in 1923. Both Dyck and Caspar were influenced in their interest in Kepler by mathematician Alexander von Brill (1842–1935). Caspar became Dyck's collaborator, succeeding him as project leader in 1934, establishing the "Kepler-Kommission" in the following year. Assisted by Martha List (1908–1992) and Franz Hammer (1898–1969), Caspar continued editorial work during World War II. Max Caspar also published a biography of Kepler in 1948. The commission was later chaired by Volker Bialas (during 1976–2003) and Ulrich Grigull (during 1984–1999) and Roland Bulirsch (1998–2014).


title: Johannes Kepler

text: Kepler has acquired a popular image as an icon of scientific modernity and a man before his time; science popularizer Carl Sagan described him as "the first astrophysicist and the last scientific astrologer". The debate over Kepler's place in the Scientific Revolution has produced a wide variety of philosophical and popular treatments. One of the most influential is Arthur Koestler's 1959 "The Sleepwalkers", in which Kepler is unambiguously the hero (morally and theologically as well as intellectually) of the revolution.


title: Johannes Kepler

text: A well-received historical novel by John Banville, "Kepler" (1981), explored many of the themes developed in Koestler's non-fiction narrative and in the philosophy of science. A 2004 nonfiction book, "Heavenly Intrigue", suggested that Kepler murdered Tycho Brahe to gain access to his data.


title: Johannes Kepler

text: In Austria, a silver collector's 10-euro Johannes Kepler silver coin was minted in 2002. The reverse side of the coin has a portrait of Kepler, who spent some time teaching in Graz and the surrounding areas. Kepler was acquainted with Prince Hans Ulrich von Eggenberg personally, and he probably influenced the construction of Eggenberg Castle (the motif of the obverse of the coin). In front of him on the coin is the model of nested spheres and polyhedra from "Mysterium Cosmographicum".


title: Johannes Kepler

text: The German composer Paul Hindemith wrote an opera about Kepler entitled "Die Harmonie der Welt" (1957), and during the prolonged process of its creation, he also wrote a symphony of the same name based on the musical ideas he developed for it. Hindemith's opera inspired John Rodgers and Willie Ruff of Yale University to create a synthesizer composition based on Kepler's scheme for representing planetary motion with music. Philip Glass wrote an opera called "Kepler" (2009) based on Kepler's life, with a libretto in German and Latin by Martina Winkel.


title: Johannes Kepler

text: Directly named for Kepler's contribution to science are Kepler's laws of planetary motion; Kepler's Supernova SN 1604, which he observed and described; the Kepler–Poinsot polyhedra a set of geometrical constructions, two of which were described by him; and the Kepler conjecture on sphere packing. Places and entities named in his honor include multiple city streets and squares, several educational institutions, an asteroid, and both a lunar and a Martian crater.


title: Johannes Kepler

text: A critical edition of Kepler's collected works ("Johannes Kepler Gesammelte Werke", KGW) in 22 volumes is being edited by the "Kepler-Kommission" (founded 1935) on behalf of the Bayerische Akademie der Wissenschaften.


title: Johannes Kepler

text: The Kepler-Kommission also publishes "Bibliographia Kepleriana" (2nd ed. List, 1968), a complete bibliography of editions of Kepler's works, with a supplementary volume to the second edition (ed. Hamel 1998).


title: Castle Rock (TV series)

text: Castle Rock is an American psychological horror streaming television series, featuring and inspired by characters, settings, and themes from the stories created by Stephen King and his fictional town of Castle Rock, Maine. The series premiered on July 25, 2018, on Hulu. It was created by Sam Shaw and Dustin Thomason, and stars André Holland, Melanie Lynskey, Bill Skarsgård, Jane Levy, and Sissy Spacek in its first season. On August 14, 2018, it was announced that the series had been renewed for a second season starring Lizzy Caplan, Paul Sparks, Barkhad Abdi, Yusra Warsama, Elsie Fisher, Matthew Alan and Tim Robbins, which premiered on October 23, 2019.


title: Castle Rock (TV series)

text: "Castle Rock" combines "the mythological scale and intimate character storytelling of King's best-loved works, weaving an epic saga of darkness and light, played out on a few square miles of Maine woodland."


title: Castle Rock (TV series)

text: On February 17, 2017, it was announced that Hulu, J. J. Abrams, and Stephen King were collaborating on a new series entitled "Castle Rock", based on King's large canon of work. It was further reported that the series would be written by Sam Shaw and Dustin Thomason, produced by Abrams' Bad Robot Productions, and distributed by Warner Bros. Television. Four days later, Hulu revealed that they had given the production a series order consisting of a first season of ten episodes, and executive producers would include Abrams, King, Shaw, Thomason, Ben Stephenson, and Liz Glotzer. On July 12, 2017, it was announced that Michael Uppendahl was joining the production as a co-executive producer and would direct the pilot episode.


title: Castle Rock (TV series)

text: On August 14, 2018, it was announced that Hulu had renewed the series for a second season, which premiered on October 23, 2019.


title: Castle Rock (TV series)

text: On May 11, 2017, it was announced that André Holland had been cast in the series' lead role. In June 2017, Jane Levy, Sissy Spacek, and Melanie Lynskey had joined the main cast. On July 10, 2017, Bill Skarsgård was set to join the roster. In August 2017, it was reported that Scott Glenn and Terry O'Quinn had been added as series regulars, and on March 1, 2018, it was announced that Chosen Jacobs had joined in the recurring role of Wendell Deaver, the son of Holland's character. On June 8, 2018, it was announced during the annual ATX Television Festival that Allison Tolman will have the recurring role of Lynsky's character's sister, and five days later, it was reported that Noel Fisher was also on board.


title: Castle Rock (TV series)

text: In March 2019, it was announced that the season 2 cast would feature Lizzy Caplan, Tim Robbins, Garrett Hedlund, Elsie Fisher, Yusra Warsama, Barkhad Abdi and Matthew Alan in lead roles. Hedlund's role was later recast with Paul Sparks. On April 17, 2019, it was reported that John Hoogenakker had been cast in an undisclosed recurring role for season 2.


title: Castle Rock (TV series)

text: Principal photography for the first season was expected to take place in Massachusetts, in locations such as Orange, Massachusetts, and at New England Studios in Devens, Massachusetts. In August 2017, production began in Devens and in Orange, where the downtown area had been refitted to appear as the town of Castle Rock, and where production was expected to continue through January 2018. That month, crews also shot scenes at Vernon Hill School in Worcester, Massachusetts, and at an old Victorian house in Lancaster, Massachusetts. Filming returned to Orange during the week of August 21 for production of the series' second episode. In late September 2017, filming took place in Tewksbury, Massachusetts, at The Public Health Museum on the campus of the Tewksbury State Hospital. In October 2017, filming took place at the Central Cemetery in Orange where a funeral scene was shot. The downtown area was refitted with a more modern look in November for another phase of production. From September 4, 2017, until the end of the month, production took place at the former West Virginia Penitentiary in Moundsville, West Virginia, which appeared as the fictional Shawshank State Prison. On November 21, 2017, filming took place in Worcester in the lobby of the Mercantile Building, which had been refitted into a boardroom. On December 18, 2017, production for the season finale began. By January, all filming in Orange was completed, and the production proceeded to donate $3,500 to the town. The Fire Department received $2,500 for helping facilitate production, and the Trustees of Soldiers' Memorial will receive another $1,000.


title: Castle Rock (TV series)

text: Visual effects were used to alter seasons, including adding snow to scenes in which there was no snow on location, as well as to create a forest fire in episode five.


title: Castle Rock (TV series)

text: In 2019, it was reported that filming for second season would take place at additional Massachusetts locations, including a former meat factory building in Clinton, and several properties in Gardner. Parts of season 2 episode 5 were filmed at a house on Prospect Street in Leominster, MA.


title: Castle Rock (TV series)

text: The song "Twenty Four Hours from Tulsa" is used three times during the first season, including the first song heard in the premiere (Gene Pitney's 1963 version) and the last song heard over the closing credits of the finale (Dusty Springfield's 1964 version). It captures the underlying situation of The Kid in the lyrics: "Dearest darling, I had to write to say that I won't be home anymore / 'Cause something happened to me while I was driving home / And I'm not the same anymore".


title: Castle Rock (TV series)

text: On June 8, 2018, the series took part in the annual ATX Television Festival in Austin, Texas, where a "first look" at footage took place. Following the premiere of the footage, a question-and-answer panel occurred with creators and executive producers Sam Shaw and Dustin Thomason. On June 19, 2018, it was announced that the series would hold its world premiere during the show's panel at San Diego Comic Con in San Diego, California, where cast members including Sissy Spacek, Bill Skarsgård, and Melanie Lynskey were set to be in attendance.


title: Castle Rock (TV series)

text: On September 7, 2018, the series took part in the 12th Annual PaleyFest Fall Television Previews, which featured a screening of the first-season finale and a discussion with creator and executive producer Sam Shaw.


title: Castle Rock (TV series)

text: The first season was released by Warner Bros. Home Entertainment on digital platforms on October 15, 2018. It was then released on Blu-ray, 4K UHD Blu-ray and DVD on January 8, 2019. All ten episodes of the season were made available in the set along with exclusive bonus content. The second season was announced to be released on digital platforms on January 21, 2020, and Blu-ray and DVD on May 19. The release was later postponed to July 21.


title: Castle Rock (TV series)

text: The first season has been met with a generally positive response from critics. On the review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes, the first season holds an approval rating of 87% based on 76 reviews, with an average rating of 7.49/10. The website's critical consensus reads, "A meticulously crafted mystery brimming with allusions, "Castle Rock" is bound to please even the pickiest of Stephen King fans — though mileage may vary for casual viewers." Metacritic assigned the first season a weighted average score of 66 out of 100, based on 35 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews."


title: Castle Rock (TV series)

text: Early reviews for the first season were generally positive. "Collider"s Dave Trumbore praised the series, saying, "Shaw, Thomason, Abrams & Co. really nail the core concepts of King's storytelling here. Each character gets a good amount of screen time to focus on introspection..."Castle Rock " is a can't-miss series for Stephen King fans and a must-watch horror show for fans of dark, thrilling, character-focused mysteries." In a similarly favorable critique, "Entertainment Weekly"s Kristen Baldwin gave the series a grade of "A−" and commended it, saying, "Though most characters are new (Scott Glenn's Alan Pangborn, a sheriff who appeared in "Needful Things" and "The Dark Half", is one exception), for King fans the world of "Castle Rock" will be inescapably familiar. Spending time here feels, in many ways, like coming home — with all of the excitement and dread such a visit entails." In another approving criticism, Ben Travers of "Indiewire" gave the series a grade of "B+" and complimented it, saying, "For a show that could've been dominated by its origins, "Castle Rock" sure has a good time breathing new life into them. Smart, fun scares; deeply felt, well-founded characters; layers of story to decipher, along with the references — what more could you want in a new piece of the Stephen King library?" In a mixed review, Dan Fienberg of "The Hollywood Reporter" criticized the series, saying, "The actors will offer the best incentive for the King-ambivalent to tune into "Castle Rock", but I'm not sure even they will ultimately be enough to overcome the sluggish and vague story." In a negative review, Daniel D'Addario of "Variety" was even more disapproving, saying, "It's eerie-by-the-numbers, repeatedly telling us quite how scared we ought to be, without yet building characters for whom we feel sympathetic fear."


title: Castle Rock (TV series)

text: Among all first-season episodes, "The Queen" received particular acclaim from critics with praise being directed towards the writing and Spacek's performance. On Rotten Tomatoes, the episode holds a 100% approval rating with an average rating of 9.75 out of 10, based on 14 reviews. "The Ringer"s Miles Surrey referred to the episode as "not only the best episode of the series, but one of the best episodes of television in 2018." "Vulture"s Brian Tallerico awarded the episode a rating of five out of five stars and was similarly enthusiastic, saying, "Television doesn't get much more heartbreaking than "The Queen," a showcase for the legendary Sissy Spacek and one of the best hours of television this year." Aiming commendation at the episode's instrumental score, "Birth.Movies.Death."s Jacob Knight wrote, "The music in "Castle Rock" – courtesy of composer Chris Westlake – has been nothing short of exemplary throughout the entire series, but in "The Queen" it practically becomes a character unto itself."


title: Castle Rock (TV series)

text: The second season has been met with a generally positive response from critics. On Rotten Tomatoes, the second season holds an approval rating of 89% based on 35 reviews, with an average rating of 7.77/10. The website's critical consensus reads, "Driven by an unsettlingly compelling Lizzy Caplan, "Castle Rock"s second chapter opens the borders of its titular town without losing any of its creeping atmosphere." Metacritic assigned the second season a weighted average score of 72 out of 100, based on 8 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews."


title: Melchizedek

text: In the Bible, Melchizedek (, , "king of righteousness" or "my king is righteousness"), also transliterated Melchisedech or Malki Tzedek, was the king of Salem and priest of (often translated as "most high God"). He is first mentioned in Genesis 14:18–20, where he brings out bread and wine and then blesses Abram and El Elyon.


title: Melchizedek

text: In Christianity, according to the Epistle to the Hebrews, Jesus Christ is identified as "High priest forever in the order of Melchizedek", and so Jesus assumes the role of High Priest once and for all.


title: Melchizedek

text: Chazalic literature – specifically Targum Jonathan, Targum Yerushalmi, and the Babylonian Talmud – presents the name ) as a nickname title for Shem.


title: Melchizedek

text: Joseph Blenkinsopp has suggested that the story of Melchizedek is an informal insertion into the narration, possibly inserted in order to give validity to the priesthood and tithes connected with the Second Temple. It has also been conjectured that the suffix Zedek may have been or become a reference to a Canaanite deity worshipped in pre-Israelite Jerusalem. An Ugaritic reference older than 12th century BCE to a god named ("righteousness") has also been found, a possible forerunner of Sydyk being included in personal names.


title: Melchizedek

text: In the majority of Masoretic Hebrew texts the name is written as two words, , rendered in one word in both the Septuagint () and Vulgate (). The Authorised King James Version of 1611 renders the name "Melchizedek" when translating from the Hebrew, and "Melchisedec" in the New Testament.


title: Melchizedek

text: The name is composed from the two elements: , "king", and , which means either "righteousness" or the proper name "Zedek". With the addition of the compaginis () indicating the archaic construct form, means "king of", so that the name literally translates to "king of righteousness" or "my king is Zedek", indicating that he worshipped Zedek, a Canaanite deity worshipped in pre-Israelite Jerusalem. The latter, however, is often dismissed, although Robert R. Cargill has recently argued in favour of that etymology. Mainstream scholarly understanding of these names ("My King is Righteousness" and "My Lord is Righteousness" respectively) is that they refer to the concept of righteousness and not to a god.


title: Melchizedek

text: The name is formed in parallel with , also a king of Salem, mentioned in Joshia 10:1–3, where the element ("king") is replaced by ("lord"). Parallel theophoric names, with Sedeq replaced by Yahu, are those of Malchijah and Adonijah, both biblical characters placed in the time of David.


title: Melchizedek

text: The narrative of Genesis 14 is part of the larger story telling how Abram returns from defeating king Chedorlaomer and meets with Bera the king of Sodom, at which point:


title: Melchizedek

text: Some textual critics classify the narration as not being derived from any of the usual pentateuchal sources. It has been speculated that verses 18–20 (in which Melchizedek appears) are an informal insertion into the narration, as they interrupt the account of the meeting of Abraham with the king of Sodom. There is no consensus on when or why the story might have been added. It may have been inserted in order to give validity to the priesthood and tithes connected with the Second Temple. It also may have been inserted to give validity to the superiority of the Zadokite priests over the Levite priests.


title: Melchizedek

text: Lebanese Protestant scholar Kamal Salibi (1929–2011) observes that , which literally does mean "tenth", might more loosely be used to mean "portion", and , or "from all", might refer just to food in the giver's possession, so that the whole verse might mean "He gave him a portion of food".


title: Melchizedek

text: Genesis 14:18 introduces Melchizedek a "Priest of the Most High God" (), a term which is re-used in Genesis 14:19–20 and Genesis 14:22. The term "Most High" is used another twenty times to refer to the God of Israel in the Psalms. Giorgio Levi Della Vida (1944) suspects that this is a late development, and Joseph Fitzmyer (1962) connects Genesis 14 with the mention of a god called "Most High," who may appear according to one of three possible translations of a 750 BC inscription found at Al-Safirah in Syria. Remi Lack (1962) considers that the Genesis verses were taken over by Jewish redactor(s), for whom El was already identified with YHWH, El-Elyon became an epithet for the God of Israel.


title: Melchizedek

text: Due to an ambiguity in the Hebrew text, it is unclear who gave tithe to whom: Abram to Melchizedek, or Melchizedek to Abram: the verse in question states simply, "And [he] gave him tithe from all" (, ). Most translations of this verse preserve the ambiguity, "he gave to him", but some modern translations make explicit the mainstream interpretation of Abram being the giver and Melchizedek the recipient.


title: Melchizedek

text: Targum Pseudo-Jonathan, the Book of Jubilees, Josephus, Philo of Alexandria, and Rashi all read Abram as the giver of the tithe to Melchizedek.


title: Melchizedek

text: The Rogatchover Gaon, also understanding Abram to be the tithe giver, comments that the presented tithe was not a standard tithe (Maaser Rishon) as described in the Torah (given on an annual basis), but was a one-time "tribute offering" (, ), such as Moses gave to God in Numbers 31:41.


title: Melchizedek

text: Expressing a kabbalistic point of view, the Zohar commentary to Genesis 14 cites Rabbi Yitzchak as saying that it was God who gave a tithe to Abram in the form of removing the Hebrew letter from his own throne of glory and presenting it to the soul of Abram for his benefit.


title: Melchizedek

text: Rabbi Meir Simcha of Dvinsk (1843–1926) interprets the phrase "And he gave him tithe from all" as a verbal continuation of Melchizedek's speech, i.e., Melchizedek exclaimed that God had chosen to gift Abram a tenth of God's possession of the entire human race (consisting of seventy nations as described in Genesis) in the form of the seven nations of the land of Canaan, including the cities of Sodom that Abram succeeded in saving. Rabbi Meir Simcha argues that continued speech of this sort was a common form of prophetic expression.


title: Melchizedek

text: The second and final Hebrew Bible mention of Melchizedek is in Psalm 110:4. The many translations that follow the Septuagint translate it as:


title: Melchizedek

text: Although the above is the traditional translation of the text, the Hebrew text can be interpreted in various ways, and the New Jewish Publication Society of America Tanakh, (1985 edition), for example, has:


title: Melchizedek

text: Another alternative keeps Melchizedek as a personal name but changes the identity of the person addressed: "You are a priest forever by my order (or 'on my account'), O Melchizedek" – here it is Melchizedek who is being addressed throughout the psalm.


title: Melchizedek

text: The majority of Chazalic literature attributes the primary character of the psalm as King David who was a "righteous king" () of Salem and, like Melchizedek, had certain priest-like responsibilities, while the Babylonian Talmud understands the chapter as referring to Abram who was victorious in battling to save his nephew Lot and merited priesthood. The Zohar defines the noted Melchizedek as referring to Ahron the Kohen Gadol (high priest).


title: Melchizedek

text: The Samaritan Pentateuch reads ( or in contextual flow "allied with him") in place of the Masoretic (Salem), with addition of a letter ().


title: Melchizedek

text: Regarding the residence of Malkizedek, Samaritan tradition identified a "Salem" as a place on the slopes of Mount Gerizim which served as a blessing place of the children of Israel upon their initial crossing of the Jordan river. The Samaritans allocate Gerizim (and not Jerusalem) as the site intended for the Temple, and thus the text serves an obvious sectarian purpose. However, this practice is not solely associated with the Samaritans: the possessive suffix is also found in the 3rd- or 2nd-century BC Book of Jubilees, and Greek possessive suffixes are even used in the Septuagint version of Genesis.


title: Melchizedek

text: With respect to Genesis 14:20, Hebrews chapter 7 and in the New Testament state that the patriarch Abraham gave a tenth of the spoil to Melchizedek.


title: Melchizedek

text: Psalm 110:4 is cited in the New Testament letter to the Hebrews as an indicator that Jesus, regarded in the letter as the Messiah, had a right to a priesthood pre-dating the Jewish Aaronic priesthood (Hebrews 5:5–6).


title: Melchizedek

text: Josephus refers to Melchizedek as a "Canaanite chief" in War of the Jews, but as a priest in Antiquities of the Jews.


title: Melchizedek

text: Philo identifies Melchizedek with the Logos as priest of God, and honoured as an untutored priesthood.


title: Melchizedek

text: The Second Book of Enoch (also called "Slavonic Enoch") is apparently a Jewish sectarian work of the 1st century AD. The last section of the work, the Exaltation of Melchizedek, tells how Melchizedek was born of a virgin, Sofonim (or Sopanima), the wife of Nir, a brother of Noah. The child came out from his mother after she had died and sat on the bed beside her corpse, already physically developed, clothed, speaking and blessing the Lord, and marked with the badge of priesthood. Forty days later, Melchizedek was taken by the archangel Gabriel (Michael in some manuscripts) to the Garden of Eden and was thus preserved from the Deluge without having to be in Noah's Ark.


title: Melchizedek

text: The "Story of Melchizedek" is a short pseudepigraphon composed in Greek in the first three centuries AD, probably in a Jewish milieu. It survives today only in Christian recensions, but in at least ten languages.


title: Melchizedek

text: 11Q13 (11QMelch) is a fragment of a text, dated to the end of the second or start of the first century BC, about Melchizedek, found in Cave 11 at Qumran in the West Bank and part of the Dead Sea Scrolls. Melchizedek is seen as a divine being in the text and is referred to as "El" or "Elohim", titles usually reserved for God. According to the text, Melchizedek will proclaim the "Day of Atonement" and he will atone for the people who are predestined to him. He also will judge the peoples.


title: Melchizedek

text: The Qumran Scrolls, also indicate that Melchizedek was used as a name of the Archangel Michael, interpreted as a heavenly priest; Michael as contrast with Belial, who is given the name of "king of wickedness". The text of the Epistle to the Hebrews follows this interpretation in stating explicitly that the name in Greek translation () means ("king of righteousness"), omitting translation of the possessive suffix; the same passage interprets Melchizedek's title of king of Salem as translating to "king of peace", the context being the presentation of Melchizedek's as an eternal priesthood associated with Jesus Christ (, "made like unto the Son of God abideth a priest continually").


title: Melchizedek

text: Hebrew-language Torah commentarians of the Rishonim era (11th to 15th centuries) have explained the (seemingly) abrupt intrusion of Melchizedek into the narration in various ways; Hezekiah ben Manoah () points out that the following verses have Abraham refusing any of the king of Sodom's possessions which, if not for the insertion of Melchizedek's hospitality, would prompt the query as to where Abraham and his weary men got their refreshments from. The Rashbam, Shmuel ben Meir (11th century), offers a similar explanation but varies by saying that only Abram's men partook in the booty (originally belonging to the king of Sodom) whereas the Melchizedek intrusion explains that Abram himself was sustained by Melchizedek since he refused to consume of the luxury of Sodom because his Lord was of the non-material world. Likewise, the commentary of Chaim ibn Attar (17th century) offers a three-pronged slew of reasons for the Melchizedek insertion.


title: Melchizedek

text: The narrative preceding Melchizedek's introduction presents a picture of Melchizedek's involvement in the events of his era. The narration details Abram's rescue of his nephew Lot and his spectacular defeat of multiple kings, and goes on to define the meeting place of Melchizedek and Abram as " which is ". The meeting site has been associated with (the Valley of Josaphat). Targum Onkelos describes the meeting location's size as "a plot the size of a king's ". Midrashic exegesis describes how a large group of governors and kings convened in unison to pay homage to the victor Abram and desired to make him a deity, at which point he declined, attributing his victory to God's might and will alone.


title: Melchizedek

text: The chronological work (published 1769) quotes that Melchizedek was the first to initiate and complete a wall in circumference of the city, and had to exit Salem to reach Abram and his men. Upon exiting Salem, he presented to them "bread and wine" with the intent to refresh them from their journey. Assuming the premise that Melchizedek was Shem, he would have been 465 years old at the time and Abram was 75 years of age.


title: Melchizedek

text: Chazalic literature unanimously identify Melchizedek as Shem son of Noah (Targum Yonathan to Genesis chapter 14, Genesis Rabbah 46:7, Babylonian Talmud to Tractate Nedarim 32b). The Talmud Bavli attributes him (Shem and his beth din court of justice) as pioneers in banning prostitution (Avodah Zarah p.36a).


title: Melchizedek

text: There is, however, disagreement amongst Rishonim as to whether Salem was Melchizedek/Shem's allocated residence by his father Noah or whether he was a foreigner in Salem which was considered the rightful land of his brother Cham. The Ramban is of the opinion that the land was rightfully owned and governed by the offspring of Cham, and explains that Melchizedek/Shem left his home country and came to Salem as a foreigner wishing to serve God as a . However, Rashi maintains that the land of Canaan was initially allotted to Shem, by Noah his father, and the offspring of Cham conquered the land by forced expansion.


title: Melchizedek

text: Although Melchizedek is the first person in the Torah to be titled a Kohen (priest), the medrash records that he was preceded in priesthood (kehuna) by Adam. Rabbinic commentarians to the Torah explain that Melchizedek – (sometimes associated with Shem) – was given the priesthood (Hebrew: ) by receipt of his father Noah's blessing "G-d beatified Yefeth and "will dwell in the house of Shem""; i.e., he will merit to serve and host God as a .


title: Melchizedek

text: Torah Laws require that the (priest) must be a patrilineal descendant of a prior . Leviticus Rabbah maintains that God intended to bring forth the priesthood () through Melchizedek's patrilineal descendants, but since Melchizedek Abram's blessing to that of God, God instead chose to bring the priesthood () forth from Abram's descendants. As the text states in regard to Melchizedek; "and "he is a Kohen" () meaning himself in the exclusive sense and not his patrilineal descendants.


title: Melchizedek

text: The Ohr HaChayim commentary presents that God was not angered by Melchizedek's preceding Abram's blessing to that of God, since Abram was rightfully deemed worthy of precedence for independently coming to recognize God amidst a world of Paganism, but Melchizedek gave the priesthood to Abram upon recognizing his outstanding uniqueness and godly character traits.


title: Melchizedek

text: Rabbinic authorities differ as to whether Kehuna was given to Abram there and then or after the demise of Melchizedek.


title: Melchizedek

text: The Midrash records that Shem functioned as (high priest) in that he taught Torah to the Patriarchs before it was publicly given at Mount Sinai, while the official title of High Priest was conferred upon Aaron after the erection of the Tabernacle.


title: Melchizedek

text: The Midrash quotes multiple aspects of both Melchizedek and Abram; the Rabbis taught that Melchizedek acted as a priest and handed down Adam's robes to Abram (Numbers Rabbah 4:8).


title: Melchizedek

text: Rabbi Isaac the Babylonian said that Melchizedek was born circumcised (Genesis Rabbah 43:6). Melchizedek called Jerusalem "Salem." (Genesis Rabbah 56:10.) The Rabbis said that Melchizedek instructed Abram in the Torah. (Genesis Rabbah 43:6.) Rabbi Eleazar said that Melchizedek's school was one of three places where the Holy Spirit () manifested himself (Babylonian Talmud Makkot 23b).


title: Melchizedek

text: Rabbi Judah said in Rabbi Nehorai's name that Melchizedek's blessing yielded prosperity for Abram, Isaac, and Jacob (Genesis Rabbah 43:8). Ephraim Miksha'ah the disciple of Rabbi Meir said in the latter's name that Tamar descended from Melchizedek (Genesis Rabbah 85:10).


title: Melchizedek

text: Rabbi Hana bar Bizna citing Rabbi Simeon Hasida identified Melchizedek as one of the four craftsmen of whom Zechariah wrote in Zechariah 2:3. (Babylonian Talmud Sukkah 52b; see also Song of Songs Rabbah 2:33 (crediting Rabbi Berekiah in the name of Rabbi Isaac).) The Talmud teaches that David wrote the Book of Psalms, including in it the work of the elders, including Melchizedek.


title: Melchizedek

text: Thus according to Jewish legend, confusion over Melchizedek being both King and Priest is solved by knowing that Shem was also a progenitor of the Davidic Monarchy, which descended from both Judah and Tamar, who was sentenced to 'death by fire' when accused of committing prostitution as the daughter of high priest Shem.


title: Melchizedek

text: The Zohar (redacted by Moses de León ) finds in "Melchizedek king of Salem" a reference to "the King Who rules with complete sovereignty". or according to another explanation, that "Melchizedek" alludes to the lower world and "king of Salem" to the upper world (Zohar 1:86b–87a). The Zohar's commentary on Genesis 14 cites a Rabbi Yitzchak as saying that it was God who gave tithe to Abram in the form of removing the Hebrew letter from his throne of glory and presenting it to the soul of Abram for his benefit. The letter is the letter God added to Abram's name to become "Abra-ha-m" in Genesis.


title: Melchizedek

text: In the New Testament, references to Melchizedek appear only in the Epistle to the Hebrews, though these are extensive (Hebrews 5:6, 10; 6:20; 7:1, 10, 11, 15, 17, 21). Jesus Christ is there identified as "a priest forever in the order of Melchizedek", quoting from Psalm 110:4.


title: Melchizedek

text: The association or identification of Melchizedek with the Messiah predates Christianity, developing in Jewish messianism of the Second Temple period.


title: Melchizedek

text: A collection of early Gnostic scripts dating on or before the 4th century, discovered in 1945 and known as the Nag Hammadi library, contains a tractate pertaining to Melchizedek. Here it is proposed that Melchizedek Jesus Christ. Melchizedek, as Jesus Christ, lives, preaches, dies and is resurrected, in a gnostic perspective. "The Coming of the Son of God Melchizedek" speaks of his return to bring peace, supported by God, and he is a priest-king who dispenses justice.


title: Melchizedek

text: The association with Christ is made explicit by the author of the Epistle to the Hebrews, where Melchizedek the "king of righteousness" and "king of peace" is explicitly associated with the "eternal priesthood" of the Son of God. The Christological interpretation of this Old Testament character being a prefiguration or prototype of the Christ has varied between Christian denominations. The Pelagians saw in Melchizedek merely a man who lived a perfect life.


title: Melchizedek

text: Typological association of Jesus Christ with Old Testament characters occurs frequently in the New Testament and in later Christian writings; thus, Jesus Christ is also associated with Adam (as the "New Adam") and with Abraham. The bread and wine offering of Melchizedek has been interpreted by church fathers including Clement of Alexandria as being a prefiguration of the Eucharist.


title: Melchizedek

text: Melchizedek is mentioned in the Roman Canon, the First Eucharistic Prayer of the Roman rite of the Catholic Church, and also figures in the current Roman Martyrology as a commemoration on August 26.


title: Melchizedek

text: He is commemorated in the Eastern Orthodox Church on May 22, and on the "Sunday of the Forefathers" (two Sundays before Christmas). In the Calendar of Saints of the Armenian Apostolic Church Melkisetek () is commemorated as one of the Holy Forefathers on July 26.


title: Melchizedek

text: Traditional Protestant Christian denominations, following Luther, teach that Melchizedek was a historical figure and an archetype of Christ.


title: Melchizedek

text: Tremper Longman III notes that a popular understanding of the relationship between Melchizedek and Jesus is that Melchizedek is an Old Testament Christophany – in other words, that Melchizedek Jesus.


title: Melchizedek

text: In the Latter Day Saint movement, the Book of Mormon makes reference to Melchizedek in (Alma 13:17–19). According to "Encyclopædia Britannica", Joseph Smith "appointed his male followers to priesthoods, named for the biblical figures Melchizedek and Aaron, that were overseen by the office of High Priest", incorporating selected practices from the Hebrew Bible. These priesthoods are laid out by Smith in Doctrine and Covenants 107:1-2, 4, 6-10, 14, 17-18, 22, 29, 71, 73, 76, as well as more than twenty additional references in that work.


title: Melchizedek

text: Although Melchizedek is not referred to in the Quran, some have identified him with the figure known as the Khidr. In Isma'ilism, Melchizedek (known as Malik as-Salām; ) is believed to have been the one to initiate Abraham into prophethood. An Ismaili treatise dated to the 1300s proclaimed that Melchizedek would return following the resurrection as a righteous judge and reveal the divine mysteries which the prophets have kept secret throughout the centuries.


title: Melchizedek

text: Melchizedek appears as a character in Paulo Coelho's novel "The Alchemist", where he guides the protagonist, Santiago. In Dickens' novel "Dombey and Son", a minor character, Mrs. MacStinger, attends an evangelical church presided over by the Reverend Melchisedech Howler. Two novels later, in "Bleak House", Dickens' lawyer character, Mr. Tulkinghorn, initially tells a debtor that he does not do bill extensions in his practice, so, "You must go to Melchisedech's in Clifford's Inn."


title: Yuvraj Singh

text: Yuvraj Singh (born 12 December 1981) is a former Indian international cricketer who played in all formats of the game. He is an all-rounder who batted left-handed in the middle order and bowled slow left-arm orthodox . He has won 7 Player of the Series awards in ODI cricket, which is joint 3rd highest by an Indian, shared with former Indian captain Sourav Ganguly. He is also the son of former Indian fast bowler and Punjabi actor Yograj Singh.


title: Yuvraj Singh

text: Yuvraj was a member of the Indian cricket team in One Day Internationals (ODIs) between 2000 and 2017 and played his first Test match in October 2003. He was the vice-captain of the Indian ODI team between 2007 and 2008. In a match against England at the 2007 World Twenty20, he famously hit six sixes in one over bowled by Stuart Broad — a feat performed only three times previously in any form of senior cricket, and never in an international match between two teams with Test match status. In the same match, he set the record for the fastest fifty in Twenty20 Internationals and in all T20 cricket, reaching 50 runs in 12 balls. During the 2011 World Cup, he became the first player to take a 5-wicket haul and score a 50 in the same World Cup match. He took a total of 15 wickets and scored 362 runs during the runs and won the man of the tournament award.


title: Yuvraj Singh

text: In 2011, Yuvraj was diagnosed with a cancerous tumor in his left lung and underwent chemotherapy treatment in Boston and Indianapolis. In March 2012, he was discharged from the hospital after completing the third and final cycle of chemotherapy and returned to India in April. He made his international comeback in a Twenty20 match in September against New Zealand shortly before the 2012 World Twenty20.


title: Yuvraj Singh

text: In 2012, Yuvraj was conferred with the Arjuna Award, India's second highest sporting award by the Government of India. In 2014, he was awarded the Padma Shri, India's fourth highest civilian honour. At the 2014 IPL auction Royal Challengers Bangalore bought Yuvraj for an all-time high price of 14 crore and, in 2015, the Delhi Daredevils bought him for 16 crore making him the second most expensive player ever to be sold in the IPL until Chris Morris was sold to the Rajasthan Royals for a record 16.25 crore in February 2021. In February 2014, he was honoured with FICCI Most Inspiring Sportsperson of the Year Award.


title: Yuvraj Singh

text: On 10 June 2019, Yuvraj announced his retirement from all forms of International cricket. He last represented India in June 2017, against the West Indies. His request for a return to domestic cricket and IPL was turned down by BCCI for participating in Global T20 League in Canada and T10 league.


title: Yuvraj Singh

text: Singh was born in a Punjabi Sikh family to Yograj Singh, a former India cricketer, and Shabnam Singh. Tennis and roller skating were Yuvraj's favourite sports during his childhood and he was quite good at both. He had also won the National Under-14 Roller Skating Championship. His father threw away the medal and told him to forget skating and concentrate on cricket. He would take Yuvraj to training every day.


title: Yuvraj Singh

text: Yuvraj studied at the DAV Public School in Chandigarh. He completed his graduation degree in commerce from DAV College, Panjab University, Chandigarh. He also did two short roles as child star in "Mehndi Sagna Di and Putt Sardara".


title: Yuvraj Singh

text: In 2015, Yuvraj got engaged to Hazel Keech and married her on 30 November 2016. In February 2021, he purchased a luxury pent-house in Chattarpur, South Delhi. The couple had their first child, a boy in January 2022.


title: Yuvraj Singh

text: Yuvraj began his career with Punjab Under-16s at the age of 13 years and 11 months in November of the 1995–96 season against Jammu and Kashmir-16s. In 1996–97, Yuvraj was promoted to Punjab Under-19s and scored 137 not out against Himachal Pradesh Under-19s.


title: Yuvraj Singh

text: Yuvraj made his first-class debut in late-1997 against Orissa during the 1997–98 Ranji Trophy but was dismissed for a duck opening the innings. His first break-out performance came in the Under-19 Cooch Behar Trophy Final of 1999 against Bihar at Jamshedpur; Bihar were all out with a score of 357 and Yuvraj batted at three for Punjab and made 358 runs himself. Yuvraj represented India in the series against Sri Lanka Under-19s in India in February 1999. In the third ODI, Yuvraj scored 89 runs from 55 balls. In 1999-2000 Ranji Trophy, he scored 149 against Haryana.


title: Yuvraj Singh

text: In the 2000 Under-19 Cricket World Cup which India won under the captaincy of Mohammad Kaif, Yuvraj's all-round performance earned him the Player of the Tournament award and a call-up to the national squad. His performance in the tournament included 68 off 62 and 4/36 against New Zealand in a group stage match, and a quickfire 58 off 25 balls against Australia in the semifinal. Yuvraj was subsequently selected in 2000 for the first intake of cricketers in the National Cricket Academy in Bangalore.


title: Yuvraj Singh

text: Yuvraj was selected in the Indian squad for the 2000 ICC KnockOut Trophy on the back of his impressive performances for the Under-19 team. He made his international debut against Kenya in the pre-quarterfinal. He bowled four overs conceding 16 runs but did not get to bat. In the quarterfinal match against Australia, Yuvraj won the man of the match for his innings of 84 out of 80 balls, against a pace attack consisting of Glenn McGrath, Brett Lee and Jason Gillespie, that helped India win by 20 runs. In the semifinal against South Africa, he scored 41 and picked 1/15. He scored only 18 against New Zealand in the final which India lost. The tournament was followed by a tri-series involving India, Sri Lanka and Zimbabwe. Yuvraj scored just 55 runs in five innings at an average of 11. Yuvraj averaged 15.50 in the ODI series against the touring Zimbabwe side in December 2000 after which he was dropped from the team.


title: Yuvraj Singh

text: Yuvraj made his comeback during the 2001 Coca-Cola Cup in Sri Lanka. He scored a crucial 98* against Sri Lanka in the fifth match of an otherwise disappointing series with the bat. However, he proved to be useful with the ball as he took 8 wickets at an average of 27. In the Standard Bank triangular series involving hosts South Africa, India and Kenya, Yuvraj managed to score only 69 runs from 6 innings, including a duck in the final against South Africa. Following this, Dinesh Mongia and Hemang Badani were chosen over Yuvraj in the squad for the home series against England in January 2002.


title: Yuvraj Singh

text: Yuvraj returned to domestic cricket in early 2002. After a disappointing run in the Ranji knockouts, Yuvraj struck 209 for North Zone against South Zone in a Duleep Trophy match in March 2002. He was immediately drafted into the national squad for the final two ODIs against Zimbabwe with India trailing the series 1–2. Yuvraj made an impact in his return match at Hyderabad, scoring an unbeaten 80 off just 60 balls, taking India to a five-wicket win and levelling the series. He won the Man of the Match award for his efforts. In the final ODI at Guwahati, Yuvraj made 75 runs from 52 balls, sharing a 157-run fifth-wicket partnership with Mongia who scored his career-best unbeaten 159, to help India post a total of 333 in their 50 overs. India went on to win the game by 101 runs and the series 3–2.


title: Yuvraj Singh

text: After winning the ODI series in the West Indies 2–1, where Yuvraj managed scores of only 1 and 10, the Indian team toured England in June for the NatWest triangular series, featuring England, Sri Lanka, and India, and a four-match Test series against the hosts. In the first match at Lord's, Yuvraj won the man of the match for his all-round performance (3/39 and 64*) as India successfully chased down England's total of 271. In the next match against Sri Lanka, he scored 31 and shared a crucial 60-run sixth-wicket partnership with Mohammad Kaif to set up another successful run-chase. India's next match against England was washed out due to rain after Yuvraj had scored an unbeaten 40 off 19 balls to take India to 285/4 in their 50 overs. Yuvraj's knock of 37, along with a fifty from Rahul Dravid, helped India recover from 59/4 to reach a target of 188 posted by Sri Lanka. This win eliminated Sri Lanka from the series with another round of matches still to be played. Yuvraj had scores of 5 and 8 in the final round of matches but proved to be useful with the ball as he picked one wicket in each of the two games. At the end of the round-robin matches, India topped the points table with 19 points while England finished second with 15 points.


title: Yuvraj Singh

text: The final was played at Lord's on 13 July between India and England. After winning the toss and electing to bat first, England posted a daunting total of 325/5 in 50 overs. In reply, India was struggling at 146/5 at the end of 24 overs, when Kaif joined Yuvraj at the crease. The pair initially stabilised the innings and later scored at a brisk rate. The pair shared a partnership of 121 runs for the sixth wicket which came to an end when Yuvraj was dismissed for 69 off 63 balls when he top-edged a sweep shot in the 42nd over off the bowling of Paul Collingwood resulting in a simple catch to Alex Tudor at short fine leg. India went on to win the game by two wickets with three balls to spare. This was India's first win in the final of an ODI tournament since 2000, after nine consecutive defeats. This win is regarded as one of India's greatest victories in ODI cricket.


title: Yuvraj Singh

text: Yuvraj batted in two games of the 2002 ICC Champions Trophy which was held in Sri Lanka in September. He scored 3 against Zimbabwe in the opening match, and 62 in the semifinal against South Africa. In November 2002, Yuvraj struggled in the first five games of the 7-match ODI series against West Indies, with a high score of 30. He returned to form in the sixth ODI at Jodhpur with a half-century that helped India win the match by three wickets and level the series 3-3. He top-scored for India in the 7th match with a 69-ball 68, but could not get support from any other batsman. India crashed to a 135-run defeat and lost the series. He struggled for runs in the seven-match ODI series in New Zealand in December 2002-January 2003, averaging just above 19 with a solitary fifty.


title: Yuvraj Singh

text: Despite his average form leading up to the 2003 ICC Cricket World Cup in South Africa, Yuvraj secured a place in the 15-man Indian squad for the tournament. He scored 37 in India's opening match against Netherlands. In the following games, he had scores of 0, 1 and 7* against Australia, Zimbabwe and Namibia respectively. He then scored a brisk 42 against England, followed by an unbeaten 50 against Pakistan setting up wins for India in both games. In the Super Six stage of the tournament, Yuvraj had scores of 58* against Kenya and 5 against Sri Lanka. He scored 16 in the semifinal against Kenya, and 24 against Australia in the final.


title: Yuvraj Singh

text: Yuvraj scored his maiden ODI century (102* from 85 balls) against Bangladesh at Dhaka on 11 April 2003. In May 2003, Yuvraj was signed-up by the Yorkshire County Cricket Club for the 2003 county season. He became only the second Indian after Sachin Tendulkar to represent the county. Yuvraj's Test debut came on 16 October 2003 at his home ground Mohali against New Zealand. Batting at six, he scored 20 in the first innings, and 5* in the second innings. In the TVS Cup tri-series in October–November 2003 involving India, Australia and New Zealand, he scored 113 runs from 7 games at an average of 18.83 and top-score of 44.


title: Yuvraj Singh

text: Yuvraj returned to form in early-2004 in the tri-series involving Australia and Zimbabwe. He scored 314 runs from 8 innings at an average of 39.25, including his second ODI hundred - 139 runs from 122 balls, with 16 fours and two sixes - against Australia at the Sydney Cricket Ground. He had a mixed tour of Pakistan in March–April 2004. He disappointed in the ODI series with 141 runs from 5 matches, averaging just over 28, but found success in the Test series. In the first Test at Multan, he scored 59 - his maiden Test fifty - as India registered an innings win. He also picked his maiden Test wicket during Pakistan's second innings. In the second Test at Lahore, Yuvraj scored his maiden Test century during India's first innings while the rest of the batting line-up struggled against the bowling of Umar Gul. Yuvraj's score of 112 came from just 129 deliveries with 15 fours and two sixes. He made only 12 runs in the second Test as Pakistan levelled the series after winning the match by 9 wickets. He scored 47 in the final Test at Rawalpindi where India secured the series with another innings victory. However, he suffered a drop in form in the latter half of 2004 with batting averages of 31 in the 2004 Asia Cup, 12.33 in the Natwest Series in England and just 4.50 in the 2004 ICC Champions Trophy. In October 2004, after the first two Tests of the Border-Gavaskar Trophy, he was dropped from the Test squad as his dismal run with the bat yielded just 47 runs from the two matches.


title: Yuvraj Singh

text: Despite Yuvraj's loss in form, he continued to be a regular feature in the Indian ODI team. In the Platinum Jubilee Match against Pakistan in November 2004, he scored a 62-ball 78 in a losing cause. In December 2004, Yuvraj scored 94 runs at an average of 31.33 in the three-match ODI tour of Bangladesh including a quickfire knock of 69 from 32 balls in the final ODI at Dhaka. He had a disappointing ODI series at home against Pakistan in April 2005, scoring 98 runs in six matches at 19.60.


title: Yuvraj Singh

text: In July–August 2005, Yuvraj was the leading run-scorer for India in the 2005 Indian Oil Cup triangular series in Sri Lanka also involving the hosts Sri Lanka and West Indies. He scored 192 runs in four matches, averaging 48. He also recorded his third ODI century during the series - 110 runs from 114 balls - against the West Indies at Colombo for which he was adjudged the man of the match. Yuvraj then played in the Videocon Cup in August–September 2005, a triangular series involving India, New Zealand and the hosts Zimbabwe. He averaged 54 with the bat in the series, scoring 216 runs from 5 matches. He scored 120 in the final round-robin match against Zimbabwe at Harare, helping India recover from 36/4 to successfully chase down a target of 251. It was his fourth ODI hundred and he won the man of the match award for his efforts. In the two-match Test tour of Zimbabwe that followed the tri-series, Yuvraj scored 12 and 25 runs. In October–November 2005, Yuvraj had a quiet seven-match ODI series at home against Sri Lanka. He managed just 124 runs in six innings at an average of 31 with a top-score of 79*.


title: Yuvraj Singh

text: In November 2005, Yuvraj scored 103 in the first ODI against South Africa at Hyderabad to take India from 35/5 to a respectable total of 249/9, and won the man of the match award despite South Africa winning the game by five wickets. He picked 1/17 and remained not out in the second ODI at Bangalore, before the third match at Chennai was washed out due to rain. He scored 53 and 49 in the final two matches at Delhi and Ahmedabad respectively, and the series was drawn 2-2. Yuvraj and South African captain Graeme Smith were jointly awarded the man of the series award as both of them scored 209 runs at 69.66, finishing as the joint-highest run-scorers of the series. Yuvraj had a mixed home Test series against Sri Lanka in December 2005 as he registered two ducks and two half-centuries. He scored 0 & 77* in the second Test at Delhi, and 0 & 75 in the third Test at Ahmedabad as India won both the matches by comfortable margins.


title: Yuvraj Singh

text: Yuvraj was picked in both Test and ODI squads for the Pakistan tour in January–February 2006. The first two Tests were drawn and Yuvraj batted only once, in the second Test, scoring 4. In the third Test at Karachi, he top-scored for India in both innings. After scoring 45 in the first innings, he went to score his second Test hundred in the second innings (122 runs from 144 balls). India lost the match by 341 runs and the series 1–0. In the one-day series, he continued his good form. He scored a 28-ball 39 in the first ODI at Peshawar which Pakistan won by 7 runs by the Duckworth–Lewis method. He scored an unbeaten 82 in the second match at Rawalpindi taking India to an emphatic 7-wicket win, before scoring an unbeaten 79 in the third game at Lahore and helping India successfully chase the target of 289. In the low-scoring fourth match at Multan, he scored 37 as India took the series with a five-wicket victory. In the fifth and the final ODI at Karachi, Yuvraj, batting at three, hit his sixth ODI century. His innings of 107* which came off 93 balls with 13 boundaries helped India comfortably chase down a target of 287 while losing only two wickets. He won the man of the match award for this innings and was also adjudged player of the series.


title: Yuvraj Singh

text: Against England, Yuvraj averaged 21.33 in two Tests in March but proved to be successful with both bat and ball in the ODI series in which he again won the player of the series award. During the series, he won the back-to-back man of the match awards in the third and fourth ODIs. In the third match, he made 103 from 76 balls, and in the fourth match, he picked 2/34 and scored 48. He scored a total of 237 runs in the series at an average of 47.40 and took 6 wickets with his part-time bowling.


title: Yuvraj Singh

text: On India's tour of the West Indies, Yuvraj hit two fifties in the ODI series. In the second ODI at Kingston, with India needing two runs to win with one wicket in hand and three balls to spare, Yuvraj was bowled by Dwayne Bravo for 93. India went on to lose the series 4–1. His poor run of form in Tests continued, with him scoring 104 runs from four matches at an average of 17.33 and a top-score of 39. In September 2006, Yuvraj was dropped from the playing eleven during the 2006-07 DLF Cup in Kuala Lumpur after he registered two consecutive ducks against Australia and West Indies. He played in two group matches of the 2006 ICC Champions Trophy held in India in October. and scored 27* against England and 27 against West Indies. During a training session before India's final group fixture against Australia, Yuvraj suffered a ligament injury in his left knee. Dinesh Mongia replaced him for the match which India lost to crash out of the tournament. In November, Indian team physio Andrew Leipus suggested that Yuvraj was unlikely to recover from the injury before the start of the World Cup in March 2007.


title: Yuvraj Singh

text: Yuvraj was not named in any of the Indian squads that toured South Africa in late 2006. In January 2007, less than two months before the World Cup, he made a comeback from injury for the last two matches of the four-match ODI series against West Indies, but did not make much of an impact in either game. Despite concerns over his fitness, Yuvraj was selected in the 15-man Indian squad for the 2007 Cricket World Cup, with chief selector Dilip Vengsarkar confirming that Yuvraj was fit. He featured in the last two matches of the four-ODI series against Sri Lanka in February 2007, and struck an unbeaten 83-ball 95 in the deciding final game at Visakhapatnam. India won the match by seven wickets and the series 2–1.


title: Yuvraj Singh

text: Yuvraj made 47 in India's first match of the World Cup, a shock defeat to Bangladesh. In India's next group match at Port-of-Spain against World Cup debutants Bermuda, he hit 83 off 46 balls to help India post a total of 413/5, the highest total in World Cup history at the time. After their emphatic against Bermuda, India were left with a must-win final group fixture against Sri Lanka. Chasing 255 to win the match, Yuvraj was run out for 6, as India were bowled out for 185 and made an early exit from the World Cup.


title: Yuvraj Singh

text: In the three-match ODI series against South Africa in Ireland, Yuvraj took 3 for 36 and scored an unbeaten 49 in the second ODI before winning man of the match for his unbeaten 61 in the series-deciding final game. On India's tour of England, Yuvraj remained on the bench throughout the Test series before finishing third on the run-scorers list in the ODI series with 283 runs from 7 matches at an average of 40.42.


title: Yuvraj Singh

text: Yuvraj was the vice-captain of the Indian squad at the inaugural ICC World Twenty20 in South Africa. In India's Super 8 match against England at Durban, he hit six sixes in an over off Stuart Broad. In the process, he reached the fastest fifty ever in a Twenty20 game, off just 12 balls, which was also the fastest in any form of international cricket. This was the fourth time that six sixes had been hit in one over in senior cricket, the first time in Twenty20 cricket, and the first time in any form of international cricket against a bowler from a Test playing nation. He finished his innings with 58 runs off 16 balls and won the man of the match.


title: Yuvraj Singh

text: Yuvraj missed the next game against South Africa due to a minor but recovered before the semifinal against Australia. In the semifinal, he top-scored with 70 off 30 balls and also hit the longest six of the tournament () off the bowling of Brett Lee). The knock later was named the Best Twenty20 Batting Performance


title: Yuvraj Singh

text: of 2007 by ESPN Cricinfo. India won the match as Yuvraj was awarded another man of the match award. He was dismissed for 14 in the final against Pakistan but India went on to win by five runs and win the tournament. All players of the victorious Indian team were given a cash reward of 80 lakh by the BCCI while Yuvraj was rewarded with an additional 1 crore as well as a Porsche 911 by the BCCI vice-president Lalit Modi. He was named in the 'Team of the Tournament' by Cricinfo for the 2007 T20I World Cup.


title: Yuvraj Singh

text: In September 2007, Mahendra Singh Dhoni and Yuvraj were named ODI captain and vice-captain respectively, following the resignation of Rahul Dravid. Yuvraj scored 121 at Hyderabad in a losing cause in the third of the seven ODIs against Australia, but accumulated only 71 in the other six matches of the series. He enjoyed a return to form in India's home ODI series against Pakistan in November 2007. He scored four half-centuries in five matches, averaging 68, and was named player of the series as India won the series 3–2. He was also fined for showing dissent in the final match in Jaipur. Although Yuvraj was included in Indian squad for the subsequent Test series against Pakistan, Test captain Anil Kumble said that Yuvraj "will have to wait a little bit more to become a regular member in the Test squad." He did not feature in the playing eleven in the first two matches, but was picked in the third Test at Bangalore to replace an injured Sachin Tendulkar. Batting first, India was 61/4 before Yuvraj and Sourav Ganguly shared a 300-run fifth-wicket partnership, and Yuvraj recorded his highest Test score of 169 off 203 balls, while Ganguly went on to score 239 which was also his highest score in tests.


title: Yuvraj Singh

text: For his performances in 2007, he was named in the World ODI XI by Cricinfo. He was also named in the World T20I XI by Cricinfo.


title: Yuvraj Singh

text: Yuvraj had a poor Test series against Australia in Indian tour to that country in 2007/08. After his poor showing in the first two Tests, he was dropped for the remainder of the series.


title: Yuvraj Singh

text: In November 2008, he hit 138 not out from 78 balls against England at Rajkot, taking 64 balls to reach his century which at the time was the second fastest by an Indian in ODIs after Mohammad Azharuddin's century in 1988 against New Zealand came off 62 balls.


title: Yuvraj Singh

text: After reaching 50 from 42 balls, he added an additional 88 runs in the next 36 balls. He did so despite straining his back, which necessitated the use of Gautam Gambhir as a runner.


title: Yuvraj Singh

text: This was followed by a score of 118 off 122 balls and bowling figures of 4/28, with all of his wickets being specialist batsmen, in the next match in Indore, earning him two consecutive man of the match awards.


title: Yuvraj Singh

text: Yuvraj scored 85 not out and put on an unbroken partnership of 163 with Sachin Tendulkar to defeat England in the First Test at Chennai in December 2008. It was the fourth highest successful run chase in history and the highest in India.


title: Yuvraj Singh

text: Yuvraj scored a quick, unbeaten 54 in the second innings of the Napier Test against New Zealand to help India save the game after following on. India preserved their series lead and went on to win the series 1–0.


title: Yuvraj Singh

text: Yuvraj was dropped from the Asia Cup following the team's return from the World Twenty20 in West Indies. A drop in form, disciplinary issues and fitness were talked of as the reasons for his exclusion, but he made a return for the series against Sri Lanka.


title: Yuvraj Singh

text: With Suresh Raina scoring a century on Test debut and Cheteshwar Pujara making a compelling case for higher honours with consistent first-class performances, Yuvraj was dropped from the Test squad for the two-match series against Australia.


title: Yuvraj Singh

text: Yuvraj had a dream run at the 2011 ICC Cricket World Cup, where he scored 362 runs including one century and four fifties, took 15 wickets, won four Man of the Match awards, the joint-most along with Sri Lanka's Aravinda de Silva in 1996, South Africa's Lance Klusener in 1999 and compatriot Rohit Sharma in 2019, and was also adjudged the Player of the Tournament. In the process, he became the first allrounder to score 300-plus runs and take 15 wickets in a single World Cup.


title: Yuvraj Singh

text: In India's match against Ireland, he became the first player to take 5 wickets and score 50 runs in a World Cup match. He also took his 100th ODI wicket with the dismissal of Wesley Barresi in the World Cup match against the Netherlands. He later took 2/44 and scored 57 runs against defending champions Australia in the quarter finals, earning him the Man of the Match award.


title: Yuvraj Singh

text: Yuvraj had respiratory difficulties through 2011 and in May he withdrew from the ODI series in the West Indies due to an illness. His issues began with breathing difficulties, nausea and bouts of vomiting blood.


title: Yuvraj Singh

text: He toured England but had to return home after breaking his finger in the Nottingham Test and later played two home Tests against West Indies. However, he then pulled out of the ODI series against West Indies in November citing an abnormal tumor in his lung.


title: Yuvraj Singh

text: After the World Cup he was diagnosed with a cancerous tumor stage-1 in his left lung and underwent chemotherapy treatment at the Cancer Research Institute in Boston, United States as well as the Indiana University Melvin & Bren Simon Cancer Center in Indianapolis, Indiana where he was cared for by famed oncologist Dr. Lawrence Einhorn.


title: Yuvraj Singh

text: For his performances in 2011, he was named in the World ODI XI by the ICC and Cricinfo. He was named in the 'Team of the Tournament' for the 2011 World Cup by the ICC and Cricinfo.


title: Yuvraj Singh

text: Yuvraj's cancer was detected by a Russian doctor in 2011. In March 2012, Yuvraj was discharged from hospital after completing the third and final cycle of chemotherapy and returned to India in April. After his chemotherapy sessions treating seminoma in Indianapolis, Yuvraj's cancer showing full signs of remission, and he aimed at resuming cricket at the World Twenty20. The selectors picked Yuvraj to be a part of the 15-member Indian squad for the 2012 ICC World Twenty20 in Sri Lanka in September 2012.