title: White Star Line

text: One point of interest about this new ship was in regard to her engines. A comparison was made between the machinery installed aboard "Cymric" and that placed in "Oceanic". Due to "Cymric" initially being designed as a livestock carrier, she was built with smaller engines capable of modest speeds which both consumed less coal and occupied less space within the hull. As a result, there was an astonishing difference which gave "Cymric" a considerable advantage over "Oceanic". Although "Cymric" was only about two-thirds of the size of "Oceanic" in terms of gross tonnage (12,552 to 17,274), her net tonnage, a unit of measurement used to account for space aboard a ship usable for passengers and cargo was actually greater than that of the larger vessel (8,123 net tons aboard "Cymric" compared to only 6,996 with the "Oceanic"). Builders and designers used this as a baseline for engine designs for "Celtic". She was to be equipped with quadruple expansion engines geared to twin screws capable of modest speeds of just over . As she was geared to lower service speeds, her coal consumption was far less at only 260 tons per day, which compared to the 400 tons per day needed to power "Oceanic", made her much more economical. At the same time, owing to her broad hull, she was designed with cargo holds capable of storing up to 18,500 tons of commercial cargo, a strategic placement in her design as that cargo was to serve as ballast, keeping her steady in even the roughest seas.


title: White Star Line

text: Additionally, "Celtic" was to be designed with far greater capacities for both passengers and cargo. Her plans called for accommodations for a staggering 2,859 passengers: 347 in First Class, 160 in Second Class, and a total of 2,352 in Third Class, the latter being the largest capacity seen on any liner on the North Atlantic at the time. Passenger accommodations were spread across six decks, titled from top to bottom: Boat Deck (A Deck), Upper Promenade (B Deck), Promenade (C Deck), Saloon (D Deck), Upper (E Deck) and Lower (F Deck). First Class accommodations were located amidships on the uppermost four decks and included a lounge and smoke room on the Boat Deck, as well as a grand and spacious dining room on the Saloon Deck. Second Class accommodations were allocated to the starboard sides of the Saloon and Upper Decks. As seen aboard "Teutonic", "Majestic", and "Oceanic", Second Class passengers were provided with their own smoke room and library, housed within a separate deckhouse situated just aft of the main superstructure, directly above their dining room on the Saloon deck.


title: White Star Line

text: What made "Celtic" rather exceptional was her Third Class accommodations, which in addition to ample open deck space on the Promenade Deck, were located on the Saloon, Upper and Lower Decks at both the forward and aft ends of the vessel, with a vast majority being located aft. The pattern followed that seen on all White Star vessels on the North Atlantic, with single men berthed forward and single women, married couples and families berthed aft. On the Saloon Deck, in addition to baths and lavatories both forward and aft, were two large dining rooms at the far after end of the deck, situated side by side, which when not in use functioned as smoke and general rooms. An additional, fairly larger dining room was located directly beneath these on the Upper Deck, while a fourth dining room was located forward where single men were to be berthed, for which this dining room was equipped with a service bar. Aside from this, the biggest change brought by "Celtic" for Third Class passengers was in sleeping quarters. Open berths were still fairly common on the North Atlantic, which White Star had from the start gradually shied away from. Aboard the "Oceanic"-class liners, "Britannic" and "Germanic", steerage passengers had been provided with large rooms which generally slept around 20 people, while aboard "Teutonic" and "Majestic" the usage of two and four berth cabins had been introduced, but only for married couples and families with children, a policy which also held with "Cymric" and "Oceanic". "Celtic" broke that mould. At the forward end of the vessel, located in two compartments on the Lower Deck were accommodations of the older style of sleeping arrangements, each compartment providing for 300 single men. The remaining 1,752 berths were located aft, all of which consisted of two, four and six berth cabins.


title: White Star Line

text: On 22 March 1899, just two months after "Oceanic" was launched, the first keel plates of "Celtic" were laid at Harland & Wolff. Construction progressed rapidly, and as White Star had planned, the new fleet of liners would be constructed in overlapping succession. In October 1900, while "Celtic"s hull was nearing completion, construction began on the second ship, . When "Celtic" was launched in April 1901, there was much fanfare, as she was the largest ship in the world in terms of tonnage, as well as being the first to exceed the tonnage of the infamous "Great Eastern". She took a mere four additional months for fitting out before sailing on her maiden voyage from Liverpool on 26 July of that year. Upon her entry into service, one of her most attractive features was her seaworthiness. It was noted that she was "as steady as the Rock of Gibraltar."


title: White Star Line

text: Meanwhile, construction on "Cedric" had proceeded as planned and she was launched on 21 August 1902. Although she was of exactly the same dimensions as "Celtic" in length and width, she outweighed her twin by a mere 155 tons, making her the largest ship in the world. Despite their similarities, the two had distinct differences. First Class accommodations aboard "Cedric" included more private bathrooms, as well as more suites consisting of interconnecting cabins provided with sitting rooms. She had accommodations for a total of 2,600 passengers, with a slightly increased number of First Class passengers at 350, her Second Class capacity was increased to 250 and Third Class was scaled back to approximately 2,000. "Cedric" entered service later that winter, departing Liverpool on her maiden voyage on 11 February 1903.


title: White Star Line

text: The keel of the third ship, , had been laid down at Harland & Wolff in June 1902, while construction on "Cedric" was still underway. One notable instance in her construction was once her keel was fitted in place, White Star gave orders for her length to be extended by . This change in plans required builders to cut her keel in two to install the added length. The reason for this addition was likely to provide more space for passenger accommodations, which added up to 2,850 passengers. Although "Baltic" was designed with the same layout for Third Class passengers as "Cedric", with a capacity of 2,000, her First and Second Class capacities were significantly greater. First Class was increased to a capacity of 425 passengers, while capacity for Second Class was extended to 450 passengers, almost twice that of "Cedric" and three times that of "Celtic". Simultaneously, the added length also increased her gross tonnage to 23,884, making her the largest ship in the world. "Baltic" was launched on 12 November 1903, subsequently fitted out and delivered to White Star on 23 June 1904, sailing on her maiden voyage on 29 June.


title: White Star Line

text: While the first three members of the highly regarded quartet of liners were built and put into service with little problem, the fourth and final ship, , experienced a considerable delay in her construction. Initially, her construction had commenced in November 1902 while "Baltic" was still being built, but a series of delays slowed her construction to a snail's pace compared to that of her sisters. "Baltic" was launched after roughly 17 months, but by the time "Adriatic" was finally launched in September 1906, she had been under construction for almost 46 months, more than twice the time needed to construct her sisters. Her passenger accommodations followed the same trend as seen with "Baltic", with added focus on the upper two classes while still maintaining the high standard for Third Class. Her overall passenger capacity was also identical to that of "Baltic" at 2,850, but with differences in capacities for each class, with First Class increased to 450, Second Class increased to 500 and Third Class scaled back to 1,900. Unlike her sisters however, she was unable to attain the title of world's largest ship at the time of her completion, as her 24,451 gross register tonnage was just barely outmatched by Hamburg Amerika's "Kaiserin Auguste Victoria", which measured 24,581 tons and entered service four months prior to the launch of "Adriatic". She would, however, rank briefly as the largest British-built ship until Cunard's entered service the following year. She sailed on her maiden voyage to New York on 8 May 1907, and not long afterwards gained a considerable reputation for her interiors, enough for the British tabloid "The Bystander" to dub her 'The Liner Luxurious'. One of her most notable innovations was that she was the first liner to have an onboard Turkish bath and swimming pool.


title: White Star Line

text: As White Star gradually brought the 'Big Four' into service, they also acquired several smaller 'intermediate' liners in preparation for a considerable expansion of their passenger services on the North Atlantic. In 1903 alone they came to obtain five new liners, beginning with . Originally laid down as "Minnewaska" for the Atlantic Transport Line, she was transferred to White Star prior to completion and was launched under her new name on 18 December 1902. Similar in size and appearance to "Cymric" with a single funnel and four masts, she measured in length with a beam of , assessed at 15,801 gross register tons with quadruple expansion engines geared to twin screws capable of a service speed of . She was fitted with fairly modest accommodations for 1,400 passengers: 200 in First Class, 200 in Second Class and 1,000 in Third Class. She sailed on her maiden voyage from Liverpool to New York on 26 June 1903.


title: White Star Line

text: In 1902, White Star Line was bought by the International Mercantile Marine Co. (IMM), owned by the American banker John Pierpont Morgan. He hoped to obtain a monopoly of the North Atlantic route by buying several shipping companies, and by entering into agreements with others such as the German HAPAG and the Norddeutscher Lloyd. The acquisition of the White Star Line was its main take. In order to close the deal, Morgan offered the shareholders of the company ten times the value of the profits generated in 1900, which was a very good year for the company. The Ismay family were initially reluctant to accept, knowing that Thomas Ismay would have radically opposed the idea if he were still alive. However, J. Bruce Ismay ultimately agreed with the shareholders. His brother, as well as two of the five other directors of Ismay, Imrie & Company left the company at this time, and Ismay and Harold Sanderson were quickly joined by William James Pirrie, the director of Harland & Wolff. Pirrie and Ismay were also among the thirteen directors of IMM


title: White Star Line

text: Despite the good fortunes of its main subsidiary, the IMM was experiencing great difficulties and was struggling in particular to repay its debts to shipyards. Much effort was needed to get IMM on its feet, efforts that its aging president, Clement Griscom, did not believe he could do. In 1904, it was proposed that Ismay replace him, which he reluctantly accepted on condition of having Morgan's full support.


title: White Star Line

text: Meanwhile, as a result of the IMM takeover, White Star obtained four newly completed liners in the last months of 1903, "Columbus", "Commonwealth", "New England" and "Mayflower". These four liners had been owned and operated by the Dominion Line for their services between Liverpool and Boston as well as their Mediterranean cruising and emigrant route, which also connected to Boston. However, the Dominion Line was also absorbed into IMM and the four ships were transferred to White Star. In addition to the acquisition of these ships, White Star also acquired control of the routes as well. Upon their acquisition by White Star, the four liners were respectively renamed , , "Romanic" and . These four ships were greatly similar in appearance to the "Cymric" and "Arabic", all with a single funnel with two or four masts, with engines geared to twin screws capable of service speeds between . They all also fell within the same range in terms of dimensions, with lengths between , beams between , and similar gross tonnage. There was, however, considerable variances in passenger capacities. "Republic", which in time would come to obtain the nickname 'The Millionaires' Ship', had the largest capacity with accommodations for 2,400 passengers (200 First Class, 200 Second Class, 2,000 Third Class). The three remaining ships had considerably smaller capacities, with the "Cretic" designed with accommodations for 1,510 passengers (260 First Class, 250 Second Class, 1,000 Third Class), "Romanic" with accommodations for 1,200 passengers (200 First Class, 200 Second Class, 800 Third Class) and "Canopic" with accommodations for 1,277 passengers (275 First Class, 232 Second Class, 770 Third Class).


title: White Star Line

text: Following the conclusion of their service under Dominion in late 1903, the four liners were briefly withdrawn from service. Their names were changed, their funnels were repainted into White Star colors and they were made ready for their new services. "Romanic" was the first to enter service under White Star, sailing for Boston on 19 November, followed by "Cretic" on 26 November. In order to balance the schedule between the Liverpool and Mediterranean services to Boston, "Cymric" was transferred to the Liverpool-Boston route, departing Liverpool for her first trip to Boston on 10 December, while "Republic" entered service to Boston on 17 December. "Canopic" completed the service upon her departure from Liverpool on 14 January 1904. Upon their arrivals in Boston, "Romanic" and "Canopic" were both immediately transferred to the Mediterranean services formerly upheld by the Dominion Line. This route followed a line which first made port at Sao Miguel in the Azores before passing through the straits of Gibraltar and making port in Naples and Genoa. "Republic" was also put into service on the Mediterranean route following her first crossing to Boston, but only for the first half of the 1904 season, and was switched back to the Liverpool-Boston service until winter, a pattern she would follow for the remainder of her career. "Cretic" remained on the Liverpool-Boston service running opposite "Cymric" for a full year until November 1904, when alongside "Republic" she began sailing on the secondary service to the Mediterranean from New York.


title: White Star Line

text: In the early months of 1907, White Star began preparations for another extension of their services on the North Atlantic by establishing an 'Express' service to New York. The new service would depart Southampton every Wednesday, first heading south across the English Channel to the French port of Cherbourg that evening, then sailing back across the channel to Queenstown the following morning before proceeding to New York. On eastbound crossings, ships would forego calling at Queenstown and make port at Plymouth, before proceeding to Cherbourg and Southampton. Due to its proximity to London, Southampton had a clear advantage over Liverpool in reducing travelling time, while by creating a terminal at Cherbourg White Star had established a route which allowed passengers to embark or disembark at either a British or Continental port. Another subsidiary of IMM, the American Line, had moved their operations to Southampton in 1893 and established an express service via Cherbourg which had proved very successful, thus prompting White Star to make a similar move. "Celtic" embarked on two experimental crossings from Southampton to New York via Cherbourg and Queenstown, first on 20 April and then again on 18 May, which proved successful and set the way for the establishment of the route, which was to be maintained by "Teutonic", "Majestic", "Oceanic" and the newly completed "Adriatic". "Celtic" was returned to the Liverpool service after the second crossing, and her place taken on the new run by "Adriatic", which sailed from Southampton for the first time on 5 June, followed by "Teutonic" on 12 June, "Oceanic" on 19 June and "Majestic" on 26 June.


title: White Star Line

text: White Star moved their express service from Liverpool to Southampton in 1907, providing them with the advantage of a continental stopover in Cherbourg that allowed the vessel to take on more passengers. This service was initially provided by "Teutonic", "Majestic", "Oceanic" and "Adriatic", the latter being slower but able to carry many more passengers. A ferry, the , was also purchased to help board passengers and luggage during the French stopover. This solution was only temporary, however, and the company was already planning the arrival of much larger and faster vessels in order to establish a regular and more efficient service.


title: White Star Line

text: While Harland & Wolff started construction of the new , White Star continued to diversify its activities. Its establishment in Southampton led to a price war between companies, which drastically reduced its third-class fares. It was at this point that the North Atlantic Conference was created to regulate fares and crossings according to demand. In 1909, White Star took over part of the activities of the Dominion Line, another IMM company serving Canada. Two of this company's ships, then under construction, were transferred to White Star and became and , bringing the company into the Canadian route. These two ships also served as a testing ground for the propulsion method of the "Olympic"-class liners.


title: White Star Line

text: When she entered service in June 1911, was an immediate and highly satisfactory success, with White Star ordering a third ship, . The initial success was quickly disrupted. On 20 September 1911, "Olympic" was damaged following a collision with the cruiser , which led to her return to the shipyard for lengthy repairs and the postponement of the entry into service of "Titanic".


title: White Star Line

text: "Titanic" eventually entered service in April 1912, but her career would be short lived. She was lost after striking an iceberg on her maiden voyage, leading to the deaths of around 1,500 people. The impact on public opinion was considerable.


title: White Star Line

text: The sinking of "Titanic" caused a small loss of confidence in large liners, which had to be equipped with additional life-saving devices. "Olympic" suffered a mutiny shortly after the sinking, when some of her stokers expressed concern about the seaworthiness of her hastily installed collapsible lifeboats and refused to work. The vessel was withdrawn from service in October 1912 and was extensively refitted to improve her safety in light of "Titanic". She returned to service in March 1913. Construction of "Britannic" was postponed in order to allow the lessons learned from the sinking of her sister to be implemented into her design.


title: White Star Line

text: When World War I broke out, the White Star fleet became a major issue. At the time, it controlled 35 ships, and all served in the war effort, either by being directly commissioned by the Royal Navy, or within the framework of the Liner Requisition Act. In these conditions, the losses were numerous. The route from Southampton was stopped in order to avoid losses, and only "Baltic" and "Adriatic" remained on the route from Liverpool to New York, quickly joined by ships loaned by the Red Star Line: , , and .


title: White Star Line

text: "Oceanic", "Teutonic", "Celtic" and "Cedric" were quickly converted into auxiliary cruisers, and joined the 10th Squadron of the Royal Navy. "Majestic" escaped the fighting, its scrapping having begun a few weeks before the start of the conflict. The company's first wartime loss was "Oceanic", which ran aground and was lost on 8 September 1914.


title: White Star Line

text: The first White Star ship lost to enemy action was "Arabic", which was torpedoed off the Irish coast in August 1915 with the loss of 44 lives. November 1916 would see the loss of , the third and final "Olympic"-class vessel, which sank near the Greek island of Kea after striking a naval mine while in service as a hospital ship. "Britannic" was the largest loss for the company, and also the largest ship sunk during the conflict. 1916 also saw the loss of , which was torpedoed off the Irish coast in May, and also of the cargo ship , which was scuttled in December with its cargo of 1,200 horses still on board after being intercepted in the Atlantic by the German merchant raider .


title: White Star Line

text: 1917 saw the loss of in January, which struck a mine off the Irish coast and sank with the loss of 354 lives and 3,211 gold ingots. The following month the liner was sunk by a torpedo in the English Channel, as was in August. Another large loss came in 1918, when , a liner requisitioned from Holland America Line and operated by White Star, was torpedoed and sunk.


title: White Star Line

text: Many White Star vessels were requisitioned for various types of war service, most commonly for use as troop ships. The most notable of these was "Olympic", which transported over 200,000 troops during the conflict. Some ships, still under construction when the war broke out, were sent into military service unfinished and were not completed until after the war. This was the case with "Belgic" and . The company lost ten ships over the course of the conflict, but its fleet carried nearly 550,000 soldiers and four million tons of cargo, and nearly 325 officers, engineers, marshals and medics were decorated during the war. With the end of hostilities, their surviving ships were decommissioned to resume their commercial service.


title: White Star Line

text: After the war, the White Star Line found itself in a difficult situation. Of its three "Olympic"-class giants, only one remained to resume commercial service. The losses on other routes were also far from negligible. After the end of hostilities in November 1918, the Big Four resumed service from Liverpool with the help of "Lapland", "Belgic" and the briefly chartered "Mobile". In July 1919, "Cretic" and "Canopic" resumed their Mediterranean service. In September 1919, "Lapland" and "Adriatic" reopened the Southampton route. In 1920, "Olympic" returned to service and displaced "Lapland" after undergoing an overhaul that included a conversion to oil firing, which was more economical than coal.


title: White Star Line

text: After the ships that had survived the conflict returned to service, the company still had to compensate for its losses, which it decided to do by buying as many second-hand ships as possible, and sometimes by lending them to other shipping companies within the IMM. The company bought two cargo ships built as part of the war effort, "War Argus" and "War Priam", which became and . They acquired from the American Line in 1921, as well as "Poland" from the Red Star Line in 1922.


title: White Star Line

text: In 1922, the White Star Line obtained three former German liners which had been ceded to Britain as war reparations under the terms of the Treaty of Versailles, ostensibly as replacements for the war losses of "Britannic", "Oceanic", "Arabic", "Cymric" and "Laurentic". These were the former SS "Bismarck", which was renamed , the former SS "Berlin", renamed , and the former SS "Columbus", renamed . At 56,551 gross register tons, "Majestic" was then the world's largest liner and became the company's flagship. The two former German liners operated successfully alongside "Olympic" on the Southampton–New York route until the Great Depression reduced demand after 1930.


title: White Star Line

text: In the immediate post-war period there was a boom in the transatlantic emigrant trade, from which White Star was able to benefit for a time. However, this trade was badly affected by the Immigration Act of 1924, which introduced quotas for immigrants to the United States. This hit the profits of the shipping lines, for whom the emigrant trade had been a staple for nearly a century. However the growth in tourism was to some degree able to offset the decline of the emigrant trade, and White Star made efforts to appeal to this new breed of traveller by gradually overhauling liners still in service and re-configuring Third Class accommodations as Tourist Class.


title: White Star Line

text: In the post-war period, when the situation of the International Mercantile Marine Co. was precarious, its president, Philip Franklin, saw the exclusion of British companies as a lifeline. Indeed, the presence of these British companies and their ships deprived the trust of American subsidies. At that time, Lord Pirrie and Owen Philipps (known from 1923 as Lord Kylsant) offered £27,000,000 to recover all British property from the trust. U.S. President Woodrow Wilson, however, vetoed at the last minute. The IMM found itself in an all the more delicate position since, on the other hand, the White Star Line signed an agreement with the British Board of Trade stipulating that it should not be considered as a foreign ownership. Under this agreement, all directors of the company were to be approved by the Board of Trade, which created a particularly complex situation.


title: White Star Line

text: It was under these conditions that the White Star Line pursued its resumption of activities. In 1923, "Doric" entered service, one of only two ships delivered to the company by Harland & Wolff during the decade. The liner was assigned to a joint service between White Star and the Dominion Line. It was accompanied on this route by "Regina", a ship of the IMM: originally owned by the Leyland Line, it was operated by the Dominion Line before switching to White Star. The ship ended its career under the colors of the Red Star Line. Also in 1923, White Star and its rival Cunard Line reached an agreement to alternate their departures during the winter, in order to use fewer ships during this less profitable season, which was conducive to refitting ships.


title: White Star Line

text: Although the transatlantic services of the White Star Line held up well in the 1920s, this was not the case for all services. The Australian route was experiencing more and more difficulties. Relations with IMM became increasingly difficult and, in 1925, the trust again announced that it wanted to separate from its non-American subsidiaries. The sale was initially offered for the price, derisory compared to its original price, of seven million pounds, and an agreement seemed to have been reached in the spring with the British group Furness Withy, but the deal ultimately failed.


title: White Star Line

text: It was in this context that Lord Kylsant intervened. As the head of Harland & Wolff since the death of Lord Pirrie in 1924, he was particularly interested in the White Star Line, to which Harland & Wolff had a close business relationship. In November 1926, Kylsant announced that he had bought back all the shares in the White Star Line for £7,907,661. The sale took effect on 1 January 1927, making Kylsant the owner of the largest fleet in the world thanks to his Royal Mail Steam Packet Company (RMSPC). The IMM continued to manage the American White Star agencies.


title: White Star Line

text: Despite everything, Kylsant's empire was not to succeed: its vast and aging fleet had to be replaced at a time when the company was experiencing great financial difficulties. This mainly involved repaying Treasury loans that were approaching maturity. Kylsant nevertheless took advantage of his new acquisition to reorganize this fleet: he decided to give White Star the monopoly of the Southampton route within his group, and therefore reassigned two of the ships that the Royal Mail operated on this route, "Ohio" and "Orca", which became and respectively to the Canadian route alongside "Laurentic". As the new chairman of the company, Kylsant was also trying to strengthen the company in its services to Australia. To do this, he bought back the shares of Sir John Ellerman, a minority shareholder of Shaw, Savill & Albion Line, for £994,000 in 1928. This action followed the buyout, for nearly two million pounds, of the Commonwealth Line. These purchases, made by the company White Star Line Ltd created by Kylsant, pushed the company into bankruptcy, even as the group was demanding delays in repaying the Treasury. The decision also turned out to be erroneous: the route to Australia was already suffering from a surplus of tonnage, and the hopes of Kylsant, who said he believed "in the future of Australia," turned out to be in vain. It was also in this context that Kylsant was launching a new construction program at the Harland & Wolff shipyard.


title: White Star Line

text: In 1928, a new was ordered and her keel was laid down that year at Harland and Wolff. The thousand foot long liner was to have been a motor ship propelled by the new diesel-electric propulsion system. However, while the construction of the keel was in progress, work was stopped during 1929, initially to study the new propulsion device. The construction never resumed. Its keel was dismantled and the steel used to construct other ships. The Great Depression of 1929 put an end to the project. Since Lord Kylsant took control of the company, he had been siphoning the revenues of the company for the benefit of the rest of the RMSPC pending an improvement in the financial situation. Also, the dividends declared by the company were constantly decreasing, prompting Harold Sanderson to leave the management. In addition, repeated requests from the Treasury to obtain reimbursement weakened Kylsant, who was eventually arrested in connection with the Royal Mail Case in 1931.


title: White Star Line

text: To survive the economic crisis, White Star Line limited its spending. The oldest ships are sold, many crossings were canceled in order to counter the drop in the number of passengers. Passengers on the transatlantic route numbered 172,000 in 1928, and the number dropped to 157,930 the following year. The liners, including the bigger ones like the "Majestic" and the "Olympic", were used for cruises during this period in order to bring in more income. A new liner, the entered service in 1930. It adapted perfectly to the circumstances since it was slower and therefore more profitable than the transatlantic vessels of the Southampton route. It immediately became the ship making the most money for the company, and a sister ship, the joined it in 1932.


title: White Star Line

text: However, the situation was not favorable for the company, which in 1930, recorded the first deficit in its history, a deficit which continued in the following years. Kylsant's departure in 1931 left his business empire in a state of disrepair. Its liquidation was then envisaged, with the banks then having the role of keeping the various fleets alive as much as possible based on their values. The operation began in 1932, the most complex then being to untangle the web of links uniting the various companies. Another hard blow then struck White Star: the Australian government demanded reimbursement of a million pounds still owed following the purchases of Kylsant. The company was unable to repay its debt, and its ships serving on the Australian route were sold to a new company, the Aberdeen and Commonwealth Line Ltd, in 1933.


title: White Star Line

text: In the same year, when the company appeared to be bankrupt, discussions began to take place to consider a merger with the Cunard Line, which was also in financial difficulty. Joseph Bruce Ismay tried, twenty years after his ouster, to participate in the rescue of the company by proposing to create, with the agreement of the government a new company which would operate and would build other ships similar to the "Britannic" and the "Georgic" in order to become profitable. The idea did not come to fruition and Ismay died in 1937 without having been able to do more. Meanwhile, other aging ships were being scrapped without being replaced, notably the Big Four with the exception of the "Adriatic".


title: White Star Line

text: In 1933, White Star and Cunard were both in serious financial difficulties due to the Great Depression, plummeting passenger numbers and the advanced age of their fleets. Work was halted on Cunard's new giant, Hull 534, later , in 1931 to save money. In 1933, the British government agreed to provide assistance to the two competitors on the condition that they merge their North Atlantic operations. The agreement was completed on 30 December 1933. The merger took place on 10 May 1934, creating Cunard-White Star Limited. White Star contributed ten ships to the new company while Cunard contributed fifteen. Due to this arrangement, and since Hull 534 was Cunard's ship, 62% of the company was owned by Cunard's shareholders and 38% of the company was owned for the benefit of White Star's creditors. White Star's Australia and New Zealand services were not involved in the merger, but were separately disposed of to the Shaw, Savill & Albion Line later in 1934. A year later, "Olympic" was withdrawn from service and scrapped in 1937.


title: White Star Line

text: In 1947, Cunard acquired the remaining 38% of Cunard White Star. On 31 December 1949, they acquired Cunard-White Star's assets and operations, and reverted to using the name "Cunard" on 1 January 1950. From the time of the 1934 merger, the house flags of both lines had been flown on all their ships, with each ship flying the flag of its original owner above the other, but from 1950, even and , the last surviving White Star liners, flew the Cunard house flag above the White Star burgee until they were each withdrawn from service in 1956 and 1961 respectively. Just as the retiring of Cunard's in 1950 marked the end of the pre-World War I 'floating palaces', the retirement of "Britannic" a decade later marked the end of White Star Line. All Cunard vessels flew both the Cunard and White Star Line house flags on their masts until late 1968. This was most likely because "Nomadic" remained in service with Cunard until 4 November 1968, and was sent to the breakers' yard, only to be bought for use as a floating restaurant. After this, the White Star flag was no longer flown, the White Star name was removed from Cunard operations and all remnants of both White Star Line and Cunard-White Star Line were retired.


title: White Star Line

text: White Star had begun as a line serving traffic to and from Australia, especially during the gold rushes of the 1850s, but following the line's collapse and its purchase by Thomas Ismay in 1868, the company was rebuilt as a trans-Atlantic line. However, in the late 1890s White Star decided to reinstate a service to Australia, partly because of the discovery of further gold deposits in Western Australia leading to another series of gold rushes and an increase in emigrants to Australia, as well as an increasing trade in minerals, agricultural produce, wool and meat in the other direction. The latter had become a major source of revenue for shipping lines already on the route after the advent of effective mechanical refrigeration systems in the late 1880s, allowing large quantities of cattle carcasses to be preserved on the long voyage back to the British Isles.


title: White Star Line

text: Thomas Ismay decided to re-enter the Australian run in 1897 with a monthly service between Liverpool, Cape Town and Sydney. A stop at Tenerife was included in the schedule both outbound and inbound. Outbound ships would call at Adelaide and Melbourne and the return trip would call at Plymouth before ending at Liverpool. With the journey taking six weeks, five ships would be needed to maintain the service in both directions. The specification for the new ships was drawn up and the order placed with Harland & Wolff in the summer of 1897, coinciding with the Diamond Jubilee of Queen Victoria, thus they became known as the . In keeping with White Star's new philosophy on the Atlantic of size over speed, the Jubilee class were to be the largest ships ever put on the Australia run, at in length and nearly 12,000 gross register tons. They were single-funnel, twin-screw ships designed as mixed cargo/passenger vessels, essentially being enlarged versions of White Star's earlier "Naronic" class. With a service speed of , the Jubilee class were significantly slower than the smaller mailships run by the Orient Line and P&O and their size meant they could not transit the Suez Canal, so they would have to take the long route via South Africa and would not attract first-class passengers. Instead they were intended for the emigrant/seasonal worker traffic, carrying 320 passengers solely in what was described as third-class accommodation. However, following White Star's long tradition of improving standards for third-class passengers, these facilities were considerably ahead of the equivalent on other lines, being broadly in line with second-class facilities on other ships. Although all of the same class, prices for berths on the Jubilee class varied, allowing passengers the choice of two- or four-berth cabins for a premium or open dormitories. Passengers had use of facilities such as a large dining room, a library and a smoking room, as well as free run of nearly all the ship's deck space during the voyage. The ships could carry 15,000 tons of cargo in seven holds, including capacity for 100,000 meat carcasses.


title: White Star Line

text: The first Jubilee-class ship, , was launched in November 1898, but her maiden voyage in February 1899 was to New York as a shakedown cruise and to test the new ship on a shorter route – small improvements were made to "Afric" and her sister ships as a result of this trip. The Australian service was actually inaugurated by the second ship, , which left Liverpool in August 1899 and arrived in Sydney in October. The third ship, , began her maiden voyage in December 1899 but was delayed for several weeks in Cape Town after her rudder broke due to faulty metalwork. The final pair of ships for the Australia run were built to a modified design following the experiences with the original trio. The Australian run proved to be more popular with passengers than expected, so these two ships, and , had their bridges moved forward and their poop decks extended. As well as slightly increasing their gross register tonnage, this gave them capacity for a further 50 passengers, bringing the total to 400. "Suevic" made her maiden voyage in May 1901, bringing White Star's new Australian service to full strength. By now the return voyage also included a stop at London – most passengers from Australia disembarked at Plymouth to go to their final destination by rail, while much of the cargo was bound for London. The ship would then steam back through the English Channel to offload the last of her cargo and passengers at Liverpool before preparing for the next voyage.


title: White Star Line

text: The Australian run was successful and profitable for White Star, and largely uneventful for the ships. In the earliest days of the route the initial three ships were heavily used to transport men, soldiers and supplies to South Africa during the Boer War, while "Suevic" ran aground off Lizard Point, Cornwall in 1907. There were no casualties and, despite the ship being broken in two as part of an ambitious salvage operation, she was repaired and re-entered service in January 1908. The success of the new Australian service in terms of freight led to White Star transferring an older cargo-only ship of a similar size to the Jubilee class, , from the New York service to the Australia Run. In 1910 "Cevic" was used to experiment with routing ships to Australia via the Suez Canal but she ran aground several times in the canal and the ships continued to operate via the Cape. "Cevic" was used on the Australia run on a seasonal basis, mainly carrying cattle and wool at the end of the Australian autumn (February–April) and then being switched to the New York run during the Atlantic summer.


title: White Star Line

text: Continued demand for extra passenger capacity led to White Star building a one-off ship for the route. Launched in 1913, was a larger, more sophisticated development of the Jubilee class, at in length and 18,495 gross register tons. Like and the , "Ceramic" was a triple-screw ship with the central propeller driven by a low-pressure turbine using exhaust from the two reciprocating steam engines. This enabled her to be slightly faster – – than the Jubilee-class vessels despite her extra size for a minimal increase in coal consumption. The new ship had a significantly larger superstructure and nearly double the passenger capacity of the Jubilee-class ships – a total of 600 passengers, still carried only in what was advertised as third-class accommodation. She could also carry 19,000 tons of cargo in eight holds, including of refrigerated space. The dimensions of "Ceramic" were restricted by the length of the quay at London's Port of Tilbury and the clearance for the masts under the then-proposed Sydney Harbour Bridge. When she arrived in Sydney in September 1914, she took the place of the Jubilee-class ships as the largest vessel on the Australia run from Britain. After the long-delayed construction of the Harbour Bridge in 1932, "Ceramic" would be the tallest ship then in service to pass under it.


title: White Star Line

text: All seven ships were requisitioned as troop transports during World War I, forcing White Star to suspend the regular Australia service. "Afric" was torpedoed by a U-boat in the English Channel in 1917 and "Cevic" remained in the ownership of the Royal Fleet Auxiliary after the war, but the remaining five ships were returned to White Star and the service was resumed in 1919. The remaining Jubilee-class liners were withdrawn from service in the late 1920s. "Persic" was scrapped in 1926 while "Medic" and "Suevic" were sold in 1928 and "Runic" in 1929. All were converted into whaling factory ships on account of their size and cargo capacity. The Australia run was no longer as lucrative or as heavily trafficked as it had been before the war and the route was no longer a priority for White Star, especially once it came under the ownership of the Royal Mail Steam Packet Company in 1927. A new ship, intended to be the first of a new class to replace the Jubilee class, had been launched in 1917 – . This was the first White Star ship to be powered solely by turbines and had the same emigrant/cargo-carrying role as her predecessors, although at and 9,332 gross register tons, she was smaller than the older ships. "Vedic" went straight from the builders to service as a troopship and was initially used on White Star's Canadian service until she was put on the Australia run in 1925. "Ceramic" and "Vedic" maintained a less-intensive Australian service until White Star merged with the Cunard Line in 1934. The new management immediately decided to end White Star's routes to the southern hemisphere – "Ceramic" was sold to the Shaw, Savill & Albion Line, which continued to operate her on the same route, while "Vedic" was scrapped.


title: White Star Line

text: In 1883 an agreement was made between White Star and the Shaw, Savill & Albion Line (newly formed by merger the previous year) to operate a joint service between London and Wellington. Thomas Ismay had already been considering setting up a New Zealand route for White Star, but with Shaw, Savill & Albion (SS&A) already formed due to the difficulties of competing against the New Zealand Shipping Company (NZSC), sharing the venture with a firm that was already established on the route but looking to expand was an attractive proposition. Two ships were already in-build by the time the agreement was signed – the and the . In fact both these ships were chartered to the would-be rival NZSC immediately after their launch, as well as the older to make up for the very shortfall in ships on the run that White Star was hoping to exploit.


title: White Star Line

text: The White Star/Shaw Savill New Zealand service did not begin in earnest until the next year. The three ships were timetabled in addition to the existing Shaw Savill service and were managed and administered by Shaw Savill's agents, but White Star provided the crews and the ships retained their White Star names, livery and house flag. The route was an eastward circumnavigation, calling at Tenerife, Cape Town and Dar es Salaam on the way to Wellington, then rounding Cape Horn and calling at Montevideo and Rio de Janeiro on the return.


title: White Star Line

text: Traffic on the New Zealand route did not develop as quickly as anticipated, and in 1893 a new dedicated combined cargo/passenger liner, , with nearly twice the gross tonnage of one of the older ships, was introduced. "Coptic" and "Doric" were chartered to White Star's long-time partner in the Pacific, the Occidental and Oriental Steamship Company.


title: White Star Line

text: By the next decade, traffic on the New Zealand service had picked up and was becoming both profitable and over-subscribed. When White Star became part of the International Mercantile Marine Company in 1902, an agreement was made with Shaw, Savill & Albion that White Star would construct and provide three ships for the joint New Zealand service which, as before, would be managed and administered by SS&A. A trio of new liners, the were ordered from Harland & Wolff. Although slightly smaller in length and tonnage, they closely resembled the two modified Jubilee-class liners built for the Australia Run, with bridges mounted far forward to allow for a generous passenger-carrying space. Unlike the Jubilees, the "Athenic" class carried passengers in all three classes. and entered service in 1902 and (re-using the name of one of the ships that began the service 20 years before) in 1903.


title: White Star Line

text: All three ships became troop carriers under the auspices of the Minister of Shipping during the First World War, carrying the New Zealand Expeditionary Force to Europe and the Middle East. After the war they returned to the joint service with White Star/Shaw Savill, but the route was no longer in such demand or so profitable, and White Star was becoming more focused on its core Atlantic service between Southampton and New York and increasingly looking to wind down the Australia Run, the Atlantic services to Boston and Canada and the New Zealand service. In 1928 "Athenic" was sold to a Norwegian firm and converted into a whaling factory ship. In 1929 "Corinthic" was re-fitted to have single third/tourist class accommodation only, and she was sold for scrap in 1931. Only "Ionic" was still in service when White Star and Cunard merged in 1934, at which point "Ionic" on the New Zealand run was sold on to Shaw, Savill & Albion along with "Ceramic" on the Australian service. The elderly liner was scrapped in 1936.


title: White Star Line

text: The White Star Line's main offices still exist in Liverpool, standing in James Street within sight of the more grandiose headquarters of their rivals, the Cunard Building. The building has a plaque commemorating the fact that it was once the head office of the White Star Line. It was the first open plan office building in Liverpool. J. Bruce Ismay had his office in the building.


title: White Star Line

text: The White Star Line's London office building, Oceanic House, still exists today, and has been converted into apartments. They are on Cockspur Street, off Trafalgar Square, and the company name can still be seen on the building over the entrances. The Southampton offices in Canute Road still exist, now known as Canute Chambers.


title: White Star Line

text: The French passenger tender "Nomadic", the last surviving vessel of the White Star Line, was purchased by the Northern Ireland Department for Social Development in January 2006. She has since been returned to Belfast, where she has been fully restored to her original and elegant 1912 appearance under the auspices of the Nomadic Preservation Society with the assistance of her original builders, Harland and Wolff. She is currently serving as an outside exhibit of the Titanic Belfast museum, a museum dedicated to the history of Atlantic steam, the White Star Line, and its most famous ship, "Titanic". The historic "Nomadic" was opened ceremoniously to the public on 31 May 2013.


title: White Star Line

text: In 1995, Cunard Line introduced "White Star Service" to as a reference to the high standards of customer service expected of the company. The term is still used today onboard , and . The company has also created the White Star Academy, an in-house programme for preparing new crew members for the service standards expected on Cunard ships.


title: White Star Line

text: The White Star flag is raised on all Cunard ships and "Nomadic" every 15 April in memory of the "Titanic" disaster.


title: Janelle James

text: Janelle James is an American comedian, writer, and actress. Her writing credits include "Black Monday", and she acted on the programs "Crashing", "Corporate", and "Central Park". Her debut comedy album "Black and Mild" was released in 2017. She was named one of "Variety"'s 10 Comics to Watch (2020). James currently portrays principal Ava Coleman on the ABC series "Abbott Elementary," for which she won a Black Reel Award and a Hollywood Critics Association TV Award. She also received nominations for a TCA Award, a Dorian Award and a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series.


title: Janelle James

text: James began her career in 2009 at an open mic she attended while living in Champaign, Illinois. She described her style of comedy as "just talking shit" and her stand-up includes a range of topics such as Trump, motherhood, being a woman over 35, and dating. James named Bill Burr, Hadiyah Robinson, John Early, Wanda Sykes, Richard Pryor, and Kareem Green as favorite comedians.


title: Janelle James

text: In 2016, James' work was recognized by Just for Laughs and "Brooklyn". She gained wider prominence as the opening act for Chris Rock's 2017 Total Blackout tour. That year, she released her debut comedy album "Black and Mild". The show was recorded at Acme Comedy Company in Minneapolis.


title: Janelle James

text: She performed on Netflix's 2018 comedy series "The Comedy Lineup". She was also slated to perform at the network's inaugural Netflix Is a Joke comedy festival based in Los Angeles in 2020.


title: Janelle James

text: James was a staff writer for "The Rundown with Robin Thede" (2017) and the Showtime comedy "Black Monday", and also acted in a recurring role on the show. She has also appeared on the shows "Crashing", "Corporate", and is both a writer and voice actor for "Central Park". She was a featured comic on Netflix's "The Standups" in 2021.


title: Janelle James

text: She gained wide prominence in her role as a main cast member on the ABC comedy "Abbott Elementary". Her performance as the self-involved principal Ava Coleman has been hailed by critics. James garnered award nominations including a Primetime Emmy Award for Best Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series, a TCA Award for Individual Achievement in Comedy, a Golden Globe Award, and a Critics' Choice Award.


title: Janelle James

text: In 2019 she hosted "Strong Black Laughs", an interview podcast featuring a variety of established Black comedians, including Luenell and Sherri Shepherd. She hosted "You In Danger, Gurl", a comedy podcast about relationship red flags and bizarre dating experiences, in 2020.


title: Janelle James

text: James was raised on St. Thomas and moved to the United States mainland when she was 16. She resides in Brooklyn, New York and has two teenage sons.


title: Jack Johnson (musician)

text: Jack Hody Johnson (born May 18, 1975) is an American singer-songwriter, filmmaker, and former professional surfer. Johnson is known primarily for his work in the soft rock and acoustic pop genres. In 2001, he achieved commercial success after the release of his debut album, "Brushfire Fairytales". Johnson has reached number one on the "Billboard" 200 chart with his albums "Sing-A-Longs and Lullabies for the Film Curious George" in 2006, "Sleep Through the Static" in 2008, "To the Sea" in 2010 and "From Here to Now to You" in 2013. His album "In Between Dreams" peaked at number two on the chart in 2005 and again in 2013.


title: Jack Johnson (musician)

text: Johnson is active in environmentalism and sustainability, often with a focus on the world's oceans. Johnson and his wife Kim created the Johnson Ohana Charitable Foundation and the Kōkua Hawaii Foundation. In 2008, Johnson adopted the concept of greening (reduce and reuse), and donated 100% of the proceeds of the "Sleep Through the Static" tour to the Johnson Ohana Charitable Foundation. Similarly, the proceeds from the 2010 "To the Sea" album tour went to All at Once, a Johnson-backed collaboration of greening charities promoting fan involvement.


title: Jack Johnson (musician)

text: The son of well-known surfer Jeff Johnson, Jack was born and raised on the North Shore of Oahu, Hawaii. He began to learn how to surf at the age of 5. At 17, he became the youngest invitee to make the finals of the Pipeline Masters, one of surfing's most prestigious events, on Oahu's North Shore. One week later, however, his stint as a professional surfer ended when he suffered a surfing accident at the Pipeline that put more than 100 stitches in his forehead and removed a few of his teeth; this later became the inspiration for the song "Drink the Water". He appeared as a surfer in "The Endless Summer II" in 1994.


title: Jack Johnson (musician)

text: Jack Johnson graduated from Kahuku High School in Oahu. He would later attend the University of California, Santa Barbara, and graduated in 1997 with a B.A. in film studies. While Johnson learned the guitar at the age of 8 and started songwriting at the age of 12, his passion for music grew when he played rhythm guitar for the band Soil (not to be confused with the heavy metal band of the same name) in college. In 1994, Zach Gill's band, Django Reinhardt, released a CD that quickly made Django a favorite band of the Isla Vista party scene at UCSB. Django was the rival of Jack Johnson's band Soil, but Gill and Johnson developed a strong friendship, eventually becoming bandmates in later years. While with Soil at UCSB, Johnson opened for acts such as Sublime and Dave Matthews who were then relatively unknown bands.


title: Jack Johnson (musician)

text: Johnson credits his songwriting influences as Bob Dylan, Jimi Hendrix, Radiohead, Otis Redding, G. Love and Special Sauce, Ben Harper, Sublime, The Beatles, Bob Marley, Neil Young, and A Tribe Called Quest. Johnson names Jimi Hendrix as his all-time favorite guitarist.


title: Jack Johnson (musician)

text: Jack Johnson's big break was writing and contributing vocals for the song "Rodeo Clowns" which was featured on G. Love's 1999 album "Philadelphonic". The song would later become the most famous single on the album. Johnson was introduced to G. Love by a mutual friend of Johnson who was shooting surf films with him at the time. After hearing "Rodeo Clowns", G. Love saw Johnson's potential and effortless style and invited him to record with him. That led to the now-famous "Rodeo Clowns" recording, launching Johnson's career.


title: Jack Johnson (musician)

text: In addition to his later success as a musician, Johnson is also an accomplished filmmaker. Johnson directed the surf films "Thicker Than Water" (2000) and "The September Sessions" (2002), in which he also starred. Both movie soundtracks were also products of Johnson. Johnson also starred in the 2004 surf film "A Brokedown Melody".


title: Jack Johnson (musician)

text: Suela released a four track demo that caught the attention of Ben Harper's producer, J. P. Plunier, who worked with Johnson to produce his debut album "Brushfire Fairytales" during December 2000 with Harper and his Weissenborn lap steel guitar making a guest appearance. "Brushfire Fairytales" was released on February 1, 2001, and led to Johnson becoming the opening act in late February 2001 for the last twenty-three cities of Ben Harper's "Innocent Criminals" tour of the United States.


title: Jack Johnson (musician)

text: Johnson went back into the studio with Adam Topol (drums, percussion) and Merlo Podlewski (bass), who played on "Brushfire Fairytales", and Mario Caldato Jr on production duties, to record his second full-length album "On and On". It was the first album to be recorded at Johnson's Mango Tree Studio in Johnson's home town of North Shore, Oahu, and the first to be released through The Moonshine Conspiracy Records. "On and On" was released on May 6, 2003.


title: Jack Johnson (musician)

text: The Moonshine Conspiracy Records was later changed to Brushfire Records; Johnson turned the offices and studios of his Los-Angeles based record company into a model of eco-friendliness, with solar power, recyclable CD packaging, and power-saving air conditioners.


title: Jack Johnson (musician)

text: On April 3, 2004, Johnson and Ben Harper performed with Toots and the Maytals on Saturday Night Live (season 29, episode 16).


title: Jack Johnson (musician)

text: In October 2004, Johnson returned to the Mango Tree Studio with Topol and Podlewski along with Zach Gill (of Animal Liberation Orchestra) playing accordion, melodica and piano, to record his follow-up to 2003's "On and On". "In Between Dreams" was released on March 1, 2005.


title: Jack Johnson (musician)

text: "Sing-A-Longs and Lullabies for the Film Curious George" is a soundtrack album by Johnson, released on February 7, 2006. The album also features Ben Harper, G. Love, Merlo Podlewski and Zach Gill. It was the first soundtrack to make it to number 1 since the "Bad Boys II soundtrack" in August 2003, and was the first soundtrack for an animated film to top the "Billboard" 200 since the "Pocahontas soundtrack" in July 1995.


title: Jack Johnson (musician)

text: Johnson enlisted J.P. Plunier to produce his fourth full-length studio album, "Sleep Through the Static". It was recorded using 100% solar energy at the Solar-Powered Plastic Plant studio in Los Angeles. The album featured Gill (keys), Podlewski (bass) and Topol (drums, percussion). "Sleep Through the Static" was released on February 1, 2008, and was followed by a world tour.


title: Jack Johnson (musician)

text: A live album and DVD of Johnson's 2008 world tour, entitled "En Concert", was released on October 27, 2009. The DVD was directed by Emmett Malloy.


title: Jack Johnson (musician)

text: Johnson spearheaded the Kōkua Festivals (2004–2008 and 2010). Often occurring around Earth Day, these six years of festivals provided support for the Kōkua Hawai'i Foundation, which is a charitable organization that supports environmental education in the schools and communities of Hawaii. "Kōkua Festival 2004/2005" was a DVD released by Jack Johnson Music that showcased the early Kōkua Festivals. He also participated, with Willie Nelson, Jackson Browne, Dave Matthews, Eddie Vedder and others, in the documentary "Kōkua 2008: 5 Years of Change" (2009), produced by Brushfire and Three Foot Giant Productions and shown on Sundance Channel. On April 17, 2012, preceding his 2012 Hawaiian Islands tour, he released the live Kōkua Festival compilation "Best of Kōkua Festival".


title: Jack Johnson (musician)

text: Johnson produced Animal Liberation Orchestra's fifth studio album, "Man of the World", which was released February 9, 2010. The album also features vocals from Johnson.


title: Jack Johnson (musician)

text: On February 1, 2010, Johnson's official website announced that his fifth studio album, "To the Sea", was in the recording process at the Mango Tree Studio, with a planned worldwide release during the first week of June 2010. The website also announced an accompanying European, Australian and New Zealand tour to coincide with the album's release on midnight May 31.


title: Jack Johnson (musician)

text: While speaking with New Zealand radio station ZM, Johnson said he is constantly aiming to build relationships with local pro-environment, non-profit groups. "We try to raise money for a lot of these groups who are doing positive things in the community. We try to focus mostly on environmental education, just trying to get kids out into nature, supporting local farms and things like that."


title: Jack Johnson (musician)

text: Johnson embarked on a world tour in 2010 with Paula Fuga, a Hawaiian vocalist and ukulele player, performing at a range of venues across the world including Europe, New Zealand, Australia, Canada, U.S., and Japan.


title: Jack Johnson (musician)

text: On November 1, 2011, Johnson released a stand-alone single called "In The Morning" featuring Paula Fuga and John Cruz.


title: Jack Johnson (musician)

text: On February 22, 2012, Jack with John Cruz and Paula Fuga announced a 7-show acoustic tour of the Hawaiian Islands during April.


title: Jack Johnson (musician)

text: At the Stan Sheriff Center on April 14, 2012, during the "Pillars of Peace Hawai'i: Building Peace on a Foundation of Aloha", Johnson performed introductory music before Nobel Peace Laureate Tenzin Gyatso, the 14th Dalai Lama of Tibet, gave the speech "Educating the Heart". "Better Together" was one of several songs Jack performed.


title: Jack Johnson (musician)

text: Johnson released "From Here to Now to You" with his band on September 17, 2013. On June 15, 2013, Jack and the Band performed as headliners at the 2013 Bonnaroo in Tennessee. He also played two acoustic concerts, one at London's Tabernacle in Notting Hill and the other at New York City's Allen Room at Lincoln Center overlooking Central Park, featuring songs from his upcoming album. The From Here to Now to You Tour ran from March through September 2014.


title: Jack Johnson (musician)

text: In February 2017, Johnson announced a U.S. tour beginning in Chicago at the Huntington Bank Pavilion on Northerly Island on June 1 and ending with two Kōkua Hawai'i Foundation benefit concerts at the Waikiki Shell on August 4 & 5. Also, he revealed plans to release an album in the summer 2017. Later, he added a September 10 concert for the 2017 Ohana Fest at Doheny State Beach, Dana Point, California. On September 8, 2017, Jack released his seventh studio album "All the Light Above It Too", and peaked at number 13 on the Billboard chart's ""Artist 100"." In July 2018, Johnson released his greatest hits album """" in Japan only.


title: Jack Johnson (musician)

text: In late 2019, Johnson released a single "New Axe", which was featured on the "This Warm December Vol. 3" album. He then did a "Together at Home" Instagram Live stream concert on March 28, 2020. His concert was the third most watched on the Global Citizen YouTube. He then also performed at the ""One World: Together at Home"" special, and a live version of "Better Together" was featured on the "One World: Together at Home" album. On May 1, 2020, he was featured on Milky Chance's new single "Don't Let Me Down". On September 26, 2020, Johnson performed the opening set at "Farm Aid: On the Road".


title: Jack Johnson (musician)

text: On December 4, 2020, Johnson released a new single titled "The Captain Is Drunk". On April 16, 2021, Johnson released a song titled "If Ever" with Paula Fuga and Ben Harper. The song appeared on Fuga's new album "Rain on Sunday", which will be featured on Johnson's record label.


title: Jack Johnson (musician)

text: On June 24th, 2022, Johnson released his eighth studio album, "Meet the Moonlight," his first full-length record in five years. It was produced by Blake Mills, engineered by Joseph Lorge, and recorded both in Los Angeles (at Sound City Studios and EastWest Studios) and at The Mango Tree (Johnson's home studio) in Hawaii. The album's lead single is titled "One Step Ahead".


title: Jack Johnson (musician)

text: To coincide with his new album release, Johnson embarked on the "Meet the Moonlight Tour" with 35 stops at major venues across the United States (including Hawaii) and Canada. He was accompanied by various artists including Grammy-award winner (and personal friend) Ziggy Marley. In November, Johnson will tour the album in Australia and New Zealand, his first overseas concerts since 2019.


title: Jack Johnson (musician)

text: On July 22, 2000, Johnson married his college girlfriend, Kim Baker. They have three children: two boys and a girl. Johnson lives on the North Shore of the island of Oahu in Hawaii. In an interview with Johnson, Ann Donahue from "Billboard" described Johnson's family life by saying "There is often trouble in balancing the life of an artist, environmentalist, and family man, but Johnson seems to have the niche for such a challenge. This time around, he's found a pace that agrees with him...bringing his family along so he can spend mornings with them sightseeing." Both Johnson and his wife decline to talk about or release any intimate information concerning their children.


title: Jack Johnson (musician)

text: In 2008, Johnson and his wife Kim created the Johnson Ohana Charitable Foundation, a non-profit public charity supporting environmental, art, and music education worldwide. Jack and Kim Johnson also founded the Kokua Hawaii Foundation in 2003. Johnson and his family work hard every year at festivals and concerts alike, to raise money for causes they feel are most important. Johnson recorded a cover of John Lennon's "Imagine" for the 2007 benefit album "", which was also included on the 2009 benefit album "Rhythms del Mundo Classics". In talking about Johnson and his career choices, "Rolling Stone" wrote: "It is a typically generous move from Johnson, who has used his multi-platinum success to support causes he cares about." Although the Johnson Ohana Charitable Foundation is a non-profit organization that "focuses on environmental, arts and music education", it has raised more than $750,000 from 2009 to 2010 to give away. Johnson was in Osaka, Japan on his To the Sea 2010 World Tour at the time of the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami in northern Japan. He was in a hotel with his family when it struck. After having to postpone the rest of his tour, he donated $50,000 to GlobalGiving's Japan Earthquake and Tsunami Relief Fund.


title: Jack Johnson (musician)

text: Johnson's Ohana Charitable Foundation has also supported Little Kids Rock, a national nonprofit that works to restore and revitalize music education in disadvantaged U.S. public schools. He also decorated a guitar for Little Kids Rock to auction to raise funds for its program.


title: Jack Johnson (musician)

text: On September 22, 2012, he donated his time to play a few songs at Farm Aid 2012 in Hershey, PA. Later in 2012, Jack donated $50,000 for Hurricane Sandy relief and added links on his website for others to donate:


title: Lesley Ann Warren

text: She made her Broadway debut in 1963, aged 17, in "110 in the Shade". In 1965 she received wide recognition for playing the title role in the television musical production of "Cinderella". She later had starring roles in the Disney musical films "The Happiest Millionaire" (1967) and "The One and Only, Genuine, Original Family Band" (1968), both co-starred opposite John Davidson.


title: Lesley Ann Warren

text: In the 1970s, Warren worked mostly on television, receiving a Golden Globe nomination for playing Dana Lambert in the CBS drama series "" (1970–71). In 1978, she won a Golden Globe for Best Actress in a Drama Series for the NBC miniseries "Harold Robbins' 79 Park Avenue". In 1983, Warren was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress for playing Norma Cassidy in "Victor/Victoria". She received two additional Golden Globe nominations for performances in "Songwriter" (1984) and "Family of Spies" (1990).


title: Lesley Ann Warren

text: Her other film appearances include "Race for the Yankee Zephyr" (1981), "A Night in Heaven" (1983), "Choose Me" (1984), "Clue" (1985), "Burglar" (1987), "Cop" (1988), "Life Stinks" (1991), "Pure Country" (1992), "Color of Night" (1994), "The Limey" (1999), and "Secretary" (2002).


title: Lesley Ann Warren

text: Warren was born in New York City, the daughter of Margot (née Verblow), a British-born singer, and William Warren, a real estate agent. She has a brother, Richard Lewis Warren.


title: Lesley Ann Warren

text: She attended the Professional Children's School at the age of six and The High School of Music & Art at the age of 13.


title: Lesley Ann Warren

text: In 1961, Warren began training as a ballet dancer at the School of American Ballet at the age of 14. Her career began in 1962 at age 15 when she made a tape of herself singing the Queen of the Night aria from "The Magic Flute" (the first and only time she sang opera). She entered the Actors Studio at the age of 17 — reputedly the youngest applicant ever to be accepted. Her Broadway debut came in 1963 in the musical "110 in the Shade". She won the Theatre World Award for her performance in the 1965 flop musical "Drat! The Cat!" In 1973, she portrayed Scarlett O'Hara in the Los Angeles production of the musical "Scarlett"; however, the play was poorly reviewed and did not continue to Broadway as planned.


title: Lesley Ann Warren

text: Warren achieved her first major television success in the title role of Rodgers and Hammerstein's "Cinderella" in 1965. She appeared in such TV shows as "Dr. Kildare", "Gunsmoke", "The Mod Squad", "Love, American Style", "Columbo", and "The Carol Burnett Show".


title: Lesley Ann Warren

text: Her film debut was in the 1967 musical comedy "The Happiest Millionaire", the last movie Walt Disney worked on before his death. The following year, she went to star opposite Walter Brennan in the musical film "The One and Only, Genuine, Original Family Band". This year, she placed at No. 15 on the Laurel Awards list for Female New Face.


title: Lesley Ann Warren

text: During the 1970s, Warren appeared in only two feature films: "Pickup on 101" (1972) and "Harry and Walter Go to New York" (1976). Meanwhile, Warren worked regularly on television. She played the role of , the leading woman on the CBS action drama "", during the 1970–71 season. According to "The Complete Mission: Impossible Dossier" by Patrick White, she was inexperienced for the part and left after only one year. For her performance, she received a Golden Globe Award nomination for Best Supporting Actress.


title: Lesley Ann Warren

text: Throughout the 1970s, Warren was a leading lady of TV movies and miniseries. Her notable credits include "The Daughters of Joshua Cabe" (1972), "The Letters" (1973), "The Legend of Valentino" (1975), "Betrayal" (1978), and "Pearl" (1978). She appeared as a guest star in the third season of "The Muppet Show". In 1975, Warren played a fatefully and fatally gullible psychiatric patient opposite Peter Falk and George Hamilton in the "Columbo" episode "A Deadly State of Mind". Warren also played Lois Lane in the 1975 TV special "It's a Bird...It's a Plane...It's Superman", adapted from the Broadway musical of the same name. Warren went on to screen test for the role of Lois Lane in the 1978 "Superman" film, a role given to Margot Kidder (footage of Warren's screen test is included as a supplementary feature on VHS and DVD releases of the film). In 1978, she won the Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Television Series Drama for the NBC miniseries "Harold Robbins' 79 Park Avenue".


title: Lesley Ann Warren

text: In 1981, Warren returned to the big screen starring alongside Ken Wahl, George Peppard, and Donald Pleasence in "Race for the Yankee Zephyr", a New Zealand suspense-action-thriller film directed by David Hemmings. The following year, she played a gangster's ditzy moll Norma Cassidy in Blake Edwards' musical comedy "Victor/Victoria". Warren was nominated for a Golden Globe and Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress. She went to star in the 1983 romantic drama "A Night in Heaven" with Christopher Atkins; critics widely panned the film. Warren received another Golden Globe Award nomination for Best Supporting Actress for starring opposite Willie Nelson and Kris Kristofferson in the 1984 musical comedy film "Songwriter". That same year, she had a leading role in the love triangle drama "Choose Me" with Keith Carradine and Genevieve Bujold. She turned down a chance to audition for the Kathleen Turner role in "Romancing the Stone". In 1985, she starred as one of the prime murder suspects, Miss Scarlet, in the comedy film version of the popular board game "Clue".


title: Lesley Ann Warren

text: Warren played supporting roles in a number of movies, including "Burglar" (1987) with Whoopi Goldberg, "Cop" (1988) with James Woods, "Worth Winning" (1989) with Mark Harmon, "Life Stinks" (1991) with Mel Brooks and "Pure Country" (1992) with George Strait. In "Color of Night" (1994) Warren played a nymphomaniac; the film was poorly received, and she was nominated for a Golden Raspberry Award for Worst Supporting Actress. However, it was successful on the home video market. On television, she went to star in "Beulah Land" (1980), "Portrait of a Showgirl" (1982), "Evergreen" (1985) and "Baja Oklahoma" (1988). She received Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Limited Series or Movie and Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Miniseries or Television Film nominations for "Family of Spies" in 1990. Warren also played Princess Jeanetta in the 1987 "Faerie Tale Theatre" episode "The Dancing Princesses", an adaptation of the fairy tale "The Twelve Dancing Princesses". In 1986, Lesley was prominently featured in Bob Seger's popular music video for his hit song "American Storm." In 1989, she appeared in the Aerosmith video "Janie's Got a Gun", wherein she played Janie's mother. She was also featured in a video for the Eagles' "Life in the Fast Lane". In 1995, she co-starred opposite Ben Kingsley in the television film "Joseph". She had a major role in Steven Soderbergh's "The Limey" (1999), starring Terence Stamp.


title: Lesley Ann Warren

text: In 2000s, Warren appeared in a number of independent films, most notably the 2002 comedy-drama "Secretary", playing the mother of the title character. She had recurring roles on the NBC sitcom "Will & Grace" from 2001 to 2006 as Will Truman's father's mistress and in 2005 in the ABC comedy-drama "Desperate Housewives" as Susan Mayer's mother. Other television credits included "Touched by an Angel", "The Practice", "Crossing Jordan" and "Less than Perfect". From 2008 to 2012, Warren played the role of Jinx Shannon, the lead character's alcoholic mother in the USA Network drama series "In Plain Sight". While working on that show, Warren was offered Mary Steenburgen's role in "Step Brothers" (2008) but had to turn it down because of scheduling conflicts.


title: Lesley Ann Warren

text: Warren appeared in the films "Peep World" (2010), "Jobs" (2013), and "I Am Michael" (2015). In 2013, she reunited with "Clue" castmates Christopher Lloyd and Martin Mull when they guest-starred in an episode of "Psych", and again with Martin Mull in 2015 guest-starring on "Community." In 2016, she had a recurring role in the Starz comedy "Blunt Talk" and in 2018 appeared in the Netflix superhero series "Daredevil" as Esther Falb. In 2019, she co-starred in the short-lived Lifetime comedy-drama series "American Princess", and appeared opposite Sarah Drew in the Lifetime Christmas movie "Twinkle All the Way".


title: Lesley Ann Warren

text: Warren married producer Jon Peters in 1967 and divorced him in 1975 after a two-year separation. They have one son, Christopher Peters.


title: Covfefe

text: Covfefe ( ) is a misspelling, widely presumed to be a typo, that Donald Trump used in a viral tweet when he was U.S. President. It instantly became an Internet meme.


title: Covfefe

text: Six minutes after midnight (EDT) on May 31, 2017, Trump tweeted, "Despite the constant negative press covfefe". He deleted the tweet six hours later but implied that its wording was intentional. Most media outlets presumed that he had meant to type "coverage". White House Press Secretary Sean Spicer stated, "I think the President and a small group of people know exactly what he meant."


title: Covfefe

text: The tweet attracted intense attention in the news and on social media, quickly becoming a viral phenomenon. Both the word and tweet produced a variety of cultural, economic, and social influences. For example, the Volfefe index (for "volatility" and "covfefe"), created by JPMorgan Chase in 2019, measured the impact of President Trump's tweets on the U.S. bond yields. "Covfefe" was one of Trump's most famous tweets.


title: Covfefe

text: "Covfefe" quickly went viral and generated both jokes and speculations in social media and on the news about its meaning. It was retweeted more than 105,000 times, garnered more than 148,000 likes, and created a viral Internet meme on the morning of May 31. The hashtag #covfefe had been used on the Internet 1.4 million times within 24 hours of Trump's tweet.


title: Covfefe

text: Trump never acknowledged that the tweet contained a mistyping. He instead tweeted again at 06:09 after deleting the original tweet: "Who can figure out the true meaning of 'covfefe' ??? Enjoy!" White House press secretary Sean Spicer implied later that day that the tweet was not a typo but rather intentional: "I think the president and a small group of people know exactly what he meant."


title: Covfefe

text: The Google Search term "covfefe" surpassed the search term "Paris climate" (in reference to the 2015 Paris Climate agreement) on May 31, the same day Trump indicated that the U.S. may withdraw from the Paris Agreement.


title: Covfefe

text: Trump referenced the word in May 2018 by pronouncing it in a White House video about the auditory illusion Yanny or Laurel. He joked near the end of the video: "I hear 'covfefe'."


title: Covfefe

text: An analyst for "The Washington Post", Philip Bump, wrote in July 2019 that the covfefe tweet represented President Trump's refusal to admit even minor misstatements. Other Trump critics in the media expressed similar opinions.


title: Covfefe

text: Writing for "The Atlantic" in January 2019, journalist Adrienne LaFrance summarized the significance of the covfefe tweet: "Covfefe remains the tweet that best illustrates Trump's most preternatural gift: He knows how to captivate people, how to command, and divert the attention of the masses."


title: Covfefe

text: The covfefe meme produced a variety of follow-up effects in culture, language, and business. While marking the first anniversary of the covfefe tweet in May 2018, a "USA Today" article noted: "But did the president know what he had wrought on U.S. culture? The memes. The songs. The jokes."


title: Covfefe

text: Dictionary.com announced that "covfefe" topped its list of 'unmatched queries' in October 2017 and continued to have the most user searches for a word without an entry. "Brewer's Dictionary of Phrase and Fable" added an entry for "covfefe" to its 20th edition in October 2018.


title: Covfefe

text: Lake Superior State University included "covfefe" in its '43rd annual List of Words Banished from the Queen's English for Misuse, Overuse and General Uselessness' in December 2017. The university's spokesperson noted that the word "became shorthand for a social media mistake".


title: Covfefe

text: Subsequent misspellings and mis-speakings by Trump have been compared in the media to the covfefe tweet. "Covfefe" is also often invoked when discussing gaffes made by other public figures, businesses, and organizations in public discourse.


title: Covfefe

text: Other uses of "covfefe" involve word play on similarity with the word "coffee". Examples include a coffee shop called "Covfefe Café", a beer called "'No Collusion' Russian Imperial Coffee 'Covfefe' Stout", various covfefe coffee drinks, an alcoholic coffee cocktail "Covfefe", a coffee and tea ad by Amul, a pro-Trump coffee brand "Covfefe Coffee", etc.


title: Covfefe

text: Anti-Trump protesters at various events in 2019 also used signs featuring variations on the covfefe theme.


title: Covfefe

text: U.S. Representative Mike Quigley (D-IL 5) introduced H.R.2884, "The Communications Over Various Feeds Electronically for Engagement Act (COVFEFE Act)" on June 12, 2017. It would require the National Archives to preserve and store social media posts by the President of the United States. The bill was referred to the House Committee on Oversight and Government Reform on the same day but saw no further congressional action. Regardless, Trump's tweets have been archived in accordance with the Presidential and Federal Records Act Amendments of 2014.


title: Covfefe

text: The covfefe tweet quickly spawned a variety of merchandise items (e.g., T-shirts, coffee mugs, hats, and bags) bearing covfefe-related inscriptions.


title: Covfefe

text: Covfefe inspired several board games, a caffeine tracker app, puzzles, gifts, toilet paper, and other products.


title: Covfefe

text: Both supporters and opponents of Trump in 21 U.S. states obtained customized "Covfefe" license plates by February 2018. The state of Georgia prohibits the use of this word on vanity license plates.


title: Covfefe

text: A 2018 Google Chrome extension called Covfefe allows Twitter users to correct misspellings in their earlier tweets.


title: Covfefe

text: Amazon pulled "Covfefe Coffee", a pro-Trump coffee brand promoted by a number of conservative commentators, due to its ads' usage of the U.S. flag in January 2019.


title: Covfefe

text: Upholding the denial of one of such applications, a January 2019 decision by Trademark Trial and Appeal Board of the USPTO concluded that the word "covfefe" was too commonly used in a variety of contexts and therefore cannot trademark for any specific product. At least 40 trademark applications filed with the United States Patent and Trademark Office for various kinds of covfefe-themed merchandise; none of those applications have been granted as of March 2019.


title: Covfefe

text: Using inspiration from the covfefe tweet, JPMorgan Chase created a "Volfefe index" in September 2019 to measure the impact of Trump's tweets on the U.S. bond yields. The name "volfefe" is a portmanteau of the words "volatility" and "covfefe".


title: Covfefe

text: A bay filly born in 2016, named Covfefe, won several graded stakes races in 2018 and 2019, including the 2019 Breeders' Cup Filly & Mare Sprint. She earned more than one million USD.


title: Covfefe

text: Trump critic Najah Mahir published a book "The Ransom that Lies Demand: We the People and "Covfefe"" in 2018 that he described as "a nonfiction book that boldly serves as part of a movement to attain knowledge and freedom while rejecting racism and harmful ideologies".


title: Covfefe

text: A game created by Paradox Interactive in May 2016, "Stellaris", listed the "Covfefe" star system name as an in-game Easter egg.


title: Covfefe

text: A public art project started in January 2018 by an American artist Diana Weymar features covfefe-themed art, documenting Trump's Twitter mishaps.


title: Covfefe

text: In January 2018, Strauss Group released a television advertisement for their brand of coffee, "Kafe Elite", inspired by the tweet, starring comedian Guri Alfi in the role of the supreme leader of the fictional country of "CoffeeFi", an "empire of coffee". The country is implied to be modeled after militaristic South American military dictatorships, with Guri appearing in military garb and acting haughtily and buffoonishly, perhaps as a jab at Trump’s image as well.


title: Covfefe

text: A December 2018 art rug design "Caught in the Covfefe" by a textile artist Polly Webber is immigration themed and "portrays a border patrol officer taking a young girl from her undocumented mother, who pleads in Spanish, 'Don't take my daughter!


title: Covfefe

text: A project of "The Daily Show", the Donald J. Trump Presidential Twitter Library features a piece dedicated to covfefe.


title: Covfefe

text: Ed Martin released an adult coloring book "Covfefe Christmas Coloring Book Comic with Song" in December 2018.


title: Covfefe

text: Alec Baldwin portrayed Trump on "Saturday Night Live"'s "At Home" edition on April 11, 2020, to discuss the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic, referring to it as "Covfefe-19" while drinking Clorox bleach that he called "COVID juice".


title: Covfefe

text: Following the creation of Trump's own social network Truth Social, he has stated that he will remain on Truth Social as his primary social media platform. On April 29, 2022, Trump used the Covfefe meme in his second post to Truth Social, posting the message "I'M BACK! #COVFEFE".


title: Edmund Burke

text: Edmund Burke (; 12 January <nowiki>[</nowiki>NS<nowiki>]</nowiki> 1729 – 9 July 1797) was an Anglo-Irish statesman, economist, and philosopher. Born in Dublin, Burke served as a member of Parliament (MP) between 1766 and 1794 in the House of Commons of Great Britain with the Whig Party.


title: Edmund Burke

text: Burke was a proponent of underpinning virtues with manners in society and of the importance of religious institutions for the moral stability and good of the state. These views were expressed in his "A Vindication of Natural Society". He criticised the actions of the British government towards the American colonies, including its taxation policies. Burke also supported the rights of the colonists to resist metropolitan authority, although he opposed the attempt to achieve independence. He is remembered for his support for Catholic emancipation, the impeachment of Warren Hastings from the East India Company, and his staunch opposition to the French Revolution.


title: Edmund Burke

text: In his "Reflections on the Revolution in France", Burke asserted that the revolution was destroying the fabric of good society and traditional institutions of state and society and condemned the persecution of the Catholic Church that resulted from it. This led to his becoming the leading figure within the conservative faction of the Whig Party which he dubbed the Old Whigs as opposed to the pro–French Revolution New Whigs led by Charles James Fox.


title: Edmund Burke

text: In the 19th century, Burke was praised by both conservatives and liberals. Subsequently, in the 20th century, he became widely regarded, especially in the United States, as the philosophical founder of conservatism.


title: Edmund Burke

text: Burke was born in Dublin, Ireland. His mother Mary, "née" Nagle (c. 1702–1770), was a Roman Catholic who hailed from a County Cork family and a cousin of the Catholic educator Nano Nagle whereas his father Richard (died 1761), a successful solicitor, was a member of the Church of Ireland. It remains unclear whether this is the same Richard Burke who converted from Catholicism. The Burgh (Burke) dynasty descends from the Anglo-Norman knight, William de Burgh (d.1205/6), who arrived in Ireland in 1185 following Henry II of England's 1171 invasion of Ireland and is among the "chief Gall or Old English families that assimilated into Gaelic society" (the surname de Burgh (Latinised as "de Burgo") was gaelicised in Irish as "de Búrca" or "Búrc" which over the centuries became Burke).


title: Edmund Burke

text: Burke adhered to his father's faith and remained a practising Anglican throughout his life, unlike his sister Juliana who was brought up as and remained a Roman Catholic. Later, his political enemies repeatedly accused him of having been educated at the Jesuit College of St. Omer, near Calais, France; and of harbouring secret Catholic sympathies at a time when membership of the Catholic Church would disqualify him from public office per Penal Laws in Ireland. As Burke told Frances Crewe:


title: Edmund Burke

text: Mr. Burke's Enemies often endeavoured to convince the World that he had been bred up in the Catholic Faith, & that his Family were of it, & that he himself had been educated at St. Omer—but this was false, as his father was a regular practitioner of the Law at Dublin, which he could not be unless of the Established Church: & it so happened that though Mr. B—was twice at Paris, he never happened to go through the Town of St. Omer.


title: Edmund Burke

text: After being elected to the House of Commons, Burke took the required oath of allegiance and abjuration, the oath of supremacy and declare against transubstantiation.


title: Edmund Burke

text: As a child, Burke sometimes spent time away from the unhealthy air of Dublin with his mother's family near Killavullen in the Blackwater Valley in County Cork. He received his early education at a Quaker school in Ballitore, County Kildare, some from Dublin; and possibly like his cousin Nano Nagle at a Hedge school near Killavullen. He remained in correspondence with his schoolmate from there, Mary Leadbeater, the daughter of the school's owner, throughout his life.


title: Edmund Burke

text: In 1744, Burke started at Trinity College Dublin, a Protestant establishment which up until 1793 did not permit Catholics to take degrees. In 1747, he set up a debating society Edmund Burke's Club which in 1770 merged with TCD's Historical Club to form the College Historical Society, the oldest undergraduate society in the world. The minutes of the meetings of Burke's Club remain in the collection of the Historical Society. Burke graduated from Trinity in 1748. Burke's father wanted him to read Law and with this in mind he went to London in 1750, where he entered the Middle Temple, before soon giving up legal study to travel in Continental Europe. After eschewing the Law, he pursued a livelihood through writing.


title: Edmund Burke

text: The late Lord Bolingbroke's "Letters on the Study and Use of History" was published in 1752 and his collected works appeared in 1754. This provoked Burke into writing his first published work, "A Vindication of Natural Society: A View of the Miseries and Evils Arising to Mankind", appearing in Spring 1756. Burke imitated Bolingbroke's style and ideas in a "reductio ad absurdum" of his arguments for deistic rationalism in order to demonstrate their absurdity.


title: Edmund Burke

text: Burke claimed that Bolingbroke's arguments against revealed religion could apply to all social and civil institutions as well. Lord Chesterfield and Bishop Warburton as well as others initially thought that the work was genuinely by Bolingbroke rather than a satire. All the reviews of the work were positive, with critics especially appreciative of Burke's quality of writing. Some reviewers failed to notice the ironic nature of the book which led to Burke stating in the preface to the second edition (1757) that it was a satire.


title: Edmund Burke

text: Richard Hurd believed that Burke's imitation was near-perfect and that this defeated his purpose, arguing that an ironist "should take care by a constant exaggeration to make the "ridicule" shine through the Imitation. Whereas this "Vindication" is everywhere enforc'd, not only in the language, and on the principles of L. Bol., but with so apparent, or rather so real an earnestness, that half his purpose is sacrificed to the other". A minority of scholars have taken the position that in fact Burke did write the "Vindication" in earnest, later disowning it only for political reasons.


title: Edmund Burke

text: In 1757, Burke published a treatise on aesthetics titled "A Philosophical Enquiry into the Origin of Our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful" that attracted the attention of prominent Continental thinkers such as Denis Diderot and Immanuel Kant. It was his only purely philosophical work and when asked by Sir Joshua Reynolds and French Laurence to expand it thirty years later, Burke replied that he was no longer fit for abstract speculation (Burke had written it before he was nineteen years of age).


title: Edmund Burke

text: On 25 February 1757, Burke signed a contract with Robert Dodsley to write a "history of England from the time of Julius Caesar to the end of the reign of Queen Anne", its length being eighty quarto sheets (640 pages), nearly 400,000 words. It was to be submitted for publication by Christmas 1758. Burke completed the work to the year 1216 and stopped; it was not published until after Burke's death, in an 1812 collection of his works, "An Essay Towards an Abridgement of the English History". G. M. Young did not value Burke's history and claimed that it was "demonstrably a translation from the French". On commenting on the story that Burke stopped his history because David Hume published his, Lord Acton said "it is ever to be regretted that the reverse did not occur".


title: Edmund Burke

text: During the year following that contract, Burke founded with Dodsley the influential "Annual Register", a publication in which various authors evaluated the international political events of the previous year. The extent to which Burke contributed to the "Annual Register" is unclear. In his biography of Burke, Robert Murray quotes the "Register" as evidence of Burke's opinions, yet Philip Magnus in his biography does not cite it directly as a reference. Burke remained the chief editor of the publication until at least 1789 and there is no evidence that any other writer contributed to it before 1766.


title: Edmund Burke

text: On 12 March 1757, Burke married Jane Mary Nugent (1734–1812), daughter of Dr. Christopher Nugent, a Catholic physician who had provided him with medical treatment at Bath. Their son Richard was born on 9 February 1758 while an elder son, Christopher, died in infancy. Burke also helped raise a ward, Edmund Nagle (later Admiral Sir Edmund Nagle), the son of a maternal cousin orphaned in 1763.


title: Edmund Burke

text: At about this same time, Burke was introduced to William Gerard Hamilton (known as "Single-speech Hamilton"). When Hamilton was appointed Chief Secretary for Ireland, Burke accompanied him to Dublin as his private secretary, a position he held for three years. In 1765, Burke became private secretary to the liberal Whig politician Charles, Marquess of Rockingham, then Prime Minister of Great Britain, who remained Burke's close friend and associate until his untimely death in 1782.


title: Edmund Burke

text: In December 1765, Burke entered the House of Commons of the British Parliament as Member for Wendover in Buckinghamshire, a pocket borough in the gift of Lord Fermanagh, later 2nd Earl Verney and a close political ally of Rockingham. After Burke delivered his maiden speech, William Pitt the Elder said he had "spoken in such a manner as to stop the mouths of all Europe" and that the Commons should congratulate itself on acquiring such a Member.


title: Edmund Burke

text: The first great subject Burke addressed was the controversy with the American colonies which soon developed into war and ultimate separation. In reply to the 1769 Grenvillite pamphlet "The Present State of the Nation", he published his own pamphlet titled "Observations on a Late State of the Nation". Surveying the finances of France, Burke predicts "some extraordinary convulsion in that whole system".


title: Edmund Burke

text: During the same year, with mostly borrowed money, Burke purchased "Gregories", a estate near Beaconsfield. Although the estate included saleable assets such as art works by Titian, "Gregories" proved a heavy financial burden in the following decades and Burke was never able to repay its purchase price in full. His speeches and writings, having made him famous, led to the suggestion that he was the author of the "Letters of Junius".


title: Edmund Burke

text: At about this time, Burke joined the circle of leading intellectuals and artists in London of whom Samuel Johnson was the central luminary. This circle also included David Garrick, Oliver Goldsmith and Joshua Reynolds. Edward Gibbon described Burke as "the most eloquent and rational madman that I ever knew". Although Johnson admired Burke's brilliance, he found him a dishonest politician.


title: Edmund Burke

text: Burke took a leading role in the debate regarding the constitutional limits to the executive authority of the King. He argued strongly against unrestrained royal power and for the role of political parties in maintaining a principled opposition capable of preventing abuses, either by the monarch, or by specific factions within the government. His most important publication in this regard was his "Thoughts on the Cause of the Present Discontents" of 23 April 1770. Burke identified the "discontents" as stemming from the "secret influence" of a neo-Tory group he labelled as the "king's friends", whose system "comprehending the exterior and interior administrations, is commonly called, in the technical language of the Court, "Double Cabinet"". Britain needed a party with "an unshaken adherence to principle, and attachment to connexion, against every allurement of interest". Party divisions, "whether operating for good or evil, are things inseparable from free government".


title: Edmund Burke

text: During 1771, Burke wrote a bill that would have given juries the right to determine what was libel, if passed. Burke spoke in favour of the bill, but it was opposed by some, including Charles James Fox, not becoming law. When introducing his own bill in 1791 in opposition, Fox repeated almost verbatim the text of Burke's bill without acknowledgement. Burke was prominent in securing the right to publish debates held in Parliament.


title: Edmund Burke

text: Speaking in a Parliamentary debate on the prohibition on the export of grain on 16 November 1770, Burke argued in favour of a free market in corn: "There are no such things as a high, & a low price that is encouraging, & discouraging; there is nothing but a natural price, which grain brings at an universal market". In 1772, Burke was instrumental in the passing of the Repeal of Certain Laws Act 1772 which repealed various old laws against dealers and forestallers in corn.


title: Edmund Burke

text: In the "Annual Register" for 1772 (published in July 1773), Burke condemned the partition of Poland. He saw it as "the first very great breach in the modern political system of Europe" and as upsetting the balance of power in Europe.