title: L'Oréal

text: Other controversy arose when Jean Frydman, a shareholder and board member of Paravision, a film subsidiary of L'Oréal, was fired. He claims that he was let go because L'Oréal wanted to avoid an Arab boycott of businesses associated with Jews. In turn, Frydman decided to expose the past of L'Oréal executives. André Bettencourt who married Schueller's daughter, Liliane Bettencourt, and became deputy chairman for L'Oréal, wrote 60 articles for La Terre Française. La Terre Française was an antisemitic Nazi propaganda sheet. André has admitted ownership of the propaganda but claimed he was poisoned by the Vichy regime and said, "I have repeatedly expressed my regrets concerning them in public and will always beg the Jewish community to forgive me for them." André Bettencourt also sheltered Schueller and several collaborators from the French Resistance after Liberation. It was also revealed that Eugène Schueller hired Jacques Correze, who was the honorary head of L'Oréal's U.S. affiliate, Cosmair, and was involved with La Cagoule.


title: L'Oréal

text: Further controversy arose when it was revealed that L'Oréal had its German headquarters for over 30 years, before being sold in 1991, on land confiscated from a Jewish family during World War II. The Jewish family has been battling for restitution from the company for three generations, the latest of which is Edith Rosenfelder, a Holocaust survivor. Fritz Rosenfelder was forced to sell the house to a Nazi official, of which the family never received the proceeds of the sale. Instead, the family was deported. The Allies passed Jewish restitution legislation which states that transactions with Nazis, even if appearing to be with the owner's consent, can be considered invalid. As the land was sold to an offshoot of L'Oréal, which was later bought out in 1961 by L'Oréal, the company claims that it is not responsible for anything that happened before then. The basis for Rosenfelder's argument is that since the original sale was illegal, all subsequent sales are equally unlawful. There was restitution paid in 1951 to the Jewish Restitution Successor Organization, though this was done without the family's consent and none of the money ever reached the family. A book by Monica Waitzfelder, daughter of Edith Rosenfelder, published in French as "L'Oréal a pris ma maison" and in English as "L'Oréal stole my house!", details how L'Oréal took over the Waitzfelder home in the German city of Karlsruhe (after the Nazis had engineered the removal of the family) to make it its German headquarters. Monica Waitzfelder is quoted as saying, "All the other businesses which took Jewish property have since returned it, without any great debate. I don't understand why L'Oréal should be any different from the others." A case was brought before the Supreme Court in France, but the public prosecutor ruled that there could be no trial. As of 2007, she is bringing the case to the European Court of Human Rights.


title: L'Oréal

text: On 31 July 2014 during Operation Protective Edge launched by the Israel Defense Forces (IDF) in the Gaza Strip, the Israel advocacy organisation StandWithUs posted several Facebook photos of care packages, which they said were donated by Garnier Israel to female IDF soldiers. This sparked several calls to boycott Garnier and L'Oréal worldwide. As of no official statement was made by Garnier or L'Oréal regarding the donation.


title: L'Oréal

text: On March 4, 2022, L'Oréal announced €1 mln donation for relief support of Ukrainians who suffer from the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine.


title: L'Oréal

text: L'Oréal began "in vitro" tissue testing in 1979, and does not test any of its products or ingredients on animals anywhere in the world since 1989–14 years before it was required by regulation. Controversy came from the fact that L'Oréal sells products in China, whose regulators conduct animal testing on cosmetics to be sold within its territory. Even though a ban on animal testing in China came into effect in January 2020, Chinese authorities still perform this practice for imported "ordinary" cosmetics.


title: L'Oréal

text: Following L'Oréal's 2006 purchase of The Body Shop, which does not support animal testing, The Body Shop's founder Anita Roddick was forced to defend herself against allegations of "abandoning her principles" over L'Oréal's involvement on animal testing. Calls were made for shoppers to boycott The Body Shop. L'Oréal sold The Body Shop to Brazilian group Natura Cosméticos in 2017.


title: L'Oréal

text: On 11 August 2005, the Supreme Court of California ruled that former L'Oréal sales manager Elyse Yanowitz had adequately pleaded a cause of action for retaliatory termination under the California Fair Employment and Housing Act, and remanded the case for trial. The case arose out of a 1997 incident in which Jack Wiswall, then the general manager for designer fragrances, allegedly told Yanowitz to fire a dark-skinned sales associate despite the associate's good performance. When Yanowitz refused, Wiswall pointed to a "sexy" blonde-haired woman and said, "God damn it, get me one that looks like that." Wiswall retired as president of the luxury products division of L'Oréal USA at the end of 2006.


title: L'Oréal

text: The company has recently faced discrimination lawsuits in France related to the hiring of spokesmodels and institutional racism. In July 2007, the Garnier division and an external employment agency were fined €30,000 for recruitment practices that intentionally excluded non-white women from promoting its hair wash, "Fructis Style". L'Oréal is reported as saying the decision was "incomprehensible", and would challenge the measure in court.


title: L'Oréal

text: L'Oréal continues to sell skin whitening products, which have been criticized as "capitalising on women's insecurities due to colourism." They advertise these controversial products, which have been criticised for promoting a colonial attitude as well as having safety concerns, on their website by claiming; "Achieve clear, translucent and radiant skin. Our skin whitening products work to fade dark spots and brighten skin to give you the fair, flawless complexion you desire."


title: L'Oréal

text: In May 2007, L'Oréal was one of several cosmetic manufacturers (along with Clinique, Estee Lauder, Payot, Lancôme) ordered by the Therapeutic Goods Administration in Australia to withdraw advertising regarding the wrinkle removal capabilities of their products.


title: L'Oréal

text: In the UK, L'Oréal has faced criticism from OFCOM regarding the truth of their advertising and marketing campaigns concerning the product performance of one of their mascara brands. In July 2007, the British Advertising Standards Authority attacked L'Oréal for a television advert on its "Telescopic" mascara, featuring Penélope Cruz, stating, "it will make your eyelashes 60% longer." In fact, it only made the lashes look 60% bigger, by separating and thickening at the roots and by thickening the tips of the lashes. They also failed to state that the model was wearing false eyelashes.


title: L'Oréal

text: In July 2011, the British Advertising Standards Authority took action against L'Oréal, banning two airbrushed Lancôme advertisements in the UK featuring actress Julia Roberts and supermodel Christy Turlington. The agency issued the ban after British politician Jo Swinson argued that the two ads misrepresented reality and added to the self-image problem amongst females in the UK. L'Oréal acknowledged that the photos had been airbrushed but argued that the two cosmetic products could actually produce the results depicted in the ads and that the results of the products had been scientifically proven.


title: L'Oréal

text: In June 2014 the company reached an agreement with the U.S. Federal Trade Commission not to make claims about its anti-aging products unless it had credible scientific evidence supporting the claims. The settlement followed an investigation by the commission into claims being made in relation to two products, which the commission described as "false and unsubstantiated".


title: L'Oréal

text: L'Oréal has a team of 400 members of staff who post content to Facebook every day, according to Marc Menesguen, the company's chief marketing officer.


title: L'Oréal

text: In July 2017, the University of Massachusetts Medical filed a patent lawsuit against L'Oréal. In August 2017, Dennis Wyrzykowski and his company, Carmel Laboratories LLC, joined the lawsuit. The two parties claimed that L'Oréal's brands used UMass' patented technology for skin creams with the chemical adenosine. In 2021, a judge found the patents invalid. In 2022, the U.S. Appeals Court reversed the decision, stating that UMass could continue to purse its lawsuit.


title: L'Oréal

text: L'Oréal was fined by Autorité de la concurrence in France in 2016 for price-fixing on personal hygiene products.


title: L'Oréal

text: In August 2017, L'Oréal dismissed Munroe Bergdorf, a mixed-race transgender model, after she responded to the Unite the Right rally in Charlottesville, Virginia, by stating in a Facebook post: "Honestly I don't have the energy to talk about the racial violence of white people any more. Yes ALL white people"; the post was also quoted as saying that "[white people's] existence, privilege and success as a race is built on the backs, blood and death of people of colour", "racism isn't learned, it's inherited and ... passed down through privilege" and that "white people" ought to "begin to admit that their race is the most violent and oppressive force of nature on Earth". Shortly after terminating Bergdorf, L'Oréal released a statement claiming their commitment to "[support] diversity and tolerance towards all people irrespective of their race, background, gender and religion" and had terminated their partnership with Bergdorf because her comments were "at odds with those values".


title: L'Oréal

text: In 2018, L'Oréal Paris hired Amber Heard as a Global Ambassador, also giving a special tribute to her. In 2020, after a tape leaked of Heard admitting to having hit her ex-husband Johnny Depp, several petitions were filed requesting L'Oreal to fire her. As of June 2021, L'Oreal continued to include Heard among a team of "ambassadors" that also includes Kate Winslet, Jane Fonda, Elle Fanning, and French singer-songwriter Yseult. Heard was being sued in a defamation trial by her ex-husband, Johnny Depp in which he accused her of domestic abuse. She was found to have defamed her ex-husband with malice on June 2, 2022 by a jury; Heard is currently appealing her case.


title: L'Oréal

text: Brands are generally categorized by their targeted markets, such as the mass, professional, luxury, and active cosmetics markets. The Body Shop and Galderma are directly attached to the head office. L'Oréal also owns interests in various activities such as fine chemicals, health, finance, design, advertising, and insurance.


title: Margaux Hemingway

text: Margaux Louise Hemingway (born Margot Louise Hemingway; February 16, 1954 – July 1, 1996) was an American fashion model and actress. She gained success as a supermodel in the mid-1970s, appearing on the covers of magazines including "Cosmopolitan", "Elle", "Harper's Bazaar", "Vogue", and "Time".


title: Margaux Hemingway

text: She signed a million-dollar contract with Fabergé Inc. as the spokesmodel for Babe perfume. She was the granddaughter of writer Ernest Hemingway. Her later years were marred by highly publicized episodes of addiction and depression, before her suicide from a drug overdose on July 1, 1996, at the age of 42.


title: Margaux Hemingway

text: Margot Louise Hemingway was born February 16, 1954, in Portland, Oregon, the second of three daughters born to Byra Louise (née Whittlesey) and Jack Hemingway (eldest son of writer Ernest Hemingway). When she learned that she was named after the wine, Château Margaux, which her parents drank on the night she was conceived, she changed the spelling from "Margot" to "Margaux" to match. She had two sisters, actress Mariel Hemingway, and Joan (nicknamed Muffet).


title: Margaux Hemingway

text: During her childhood, the family relocated from Oregon to Cuba, where her grandfather had lived, then to San Francisco, and later to Idaho, where they lived on her grandfather's farm in Ketchum, adjacent to The family took trips each summer back to Oregon with the daughters' godmother, who owned a farm in Salem. She attended the Catlin Gabel School in Portland for her junior year.


title: Margaux Hemingway

text: Margaux struggled with a variety of disorders beginning in her teenage years, including alcoholism, depression, bulimia, and epilepsy. With her permission, a video recording was made of her therapy session related to her bulimia, and it was broadcast on television. She also had dyslexia. In the 1990s, Margaux reported that she had been sexually abused by her father as a child. In 2013, her younger sister Mariel said in the documentary "Running from Crazy" that both Margaux and their older sister Muffet had been sexually abused by their father.


title: Margaux Hemingway

text: Hemingway was tall and had success as a model, including her million-dollar contract with Fabergé as the spokesmodel for Babe perfume in the 1970s. This was the first million-dollar contract ever awarded to a fashion model. She also appeared on the covers of "Cosmopolitan", "Elle", "Harper's Bazaar", and "Vogue", as well as on the June 16, 1975, cover of "TIME", which dubbed her one of the "new beauties". The September 1, 1975, cover issue of "Vogue" called Hemingway "New York's New Supermodel".


title: Margaux Hemingway

text: In a 1997 "E! True Hollywood Story" that profiled Hemingway's life, her mentor and close friend Zachary Selig discussed how he helped launch her early career with his initial marketing and public relations work as she became a global celebrity, and he introduced her to yoga and the Solar Kundalini "Codex Relaxatia" paradigm as tools for success and to overcome some of her debilitating mental disorders. Selig and Hemingway spent time with the Hemingway family at their property in Ketchum adjacent to Sun Valley, where they studied Solar Kundalini, yoga, and meditation together. Hemingway continued using these relaxation skills for the rest of her life.


title: Margaux Hemingway

text: During the height of her modeling career in the mid- to late 1970s, Hemingway was a regular attendee of New York City's exclusive discothèque Studio 54, often in the company of such celebrities as Halston, Bianca Jagger, Liza Minnelli, Grace Jones, and Andy Warhol. At such social mixers, she began to use alcohol and drugs.


title: Margaux Hemingway

text: Hemingway made her film debut in the Lamont Johnson-directed rape and revenge film "Lipstick" (1976), alongside her 14-year-old sister Mariel, and Anne Bancroft. In it, she plays a fashion model who is terrorized by a rapist. The film's violent depiction of rape led it to be labeled an exploitation film, though in later years it had success as a cult film.


title: Margaux Hemingway

text: She followed this with a supporting role in the Italian horror film "Killer Fish" (1979), opposite Lee Majors and Karen Black. Her following project was the comedy "They Call Me Bruce?" in 1982. In 1984, Hemingway had a supporting part in "Over the Brooklyn Bridge", opposite Elliott Gould and Shelley Winters. After a skiing accident in 1984, Hemingway gained , ending up at nearly , and became increasingly depressed. In 1987, she checked into the Betty Ford Center.


title: Margaux Hemingway

text: Attempting to make a comeback, she appeared on the cover of "Playboy" in May 1990, and asked the magazine to hire Selig as the creative director for her cover story. It was shot in Belize. Despite her attempts, Hemingway's budding film career began to falter, and she took roles in several B-movies, including "Killing Machine" (1984) and "Inner Sanctum" (1991).


title: Margaux Hemingway

text: Hemingway continued to support herself by appearing in a small number of direct-to-video films into the 1990s, autographing her nude photos from "Playboy", and endorsing a psychic telephone hotline owned by her cousin, Adiel Hemingway. Shortly before her death, she was set to host the outdoor adventure series "Wild Guide" on the Discovery Channel.


title: Margaux Hemingway

text: Hemingway's first marriage, to Errol Wetson (Wetanson), ended in divorce. They met when, at age 19, she accompanied her father to the Plaza Hotel in New York City on a business trip. Four months later she moved from Idaho to New York City to live with Wetson as a guest at Selig's apartment at 12 East 72nd Street, which was owned by heiress Gloria Vanderbilt.


title: Margaux Hemingway

text: It was there that Selig made Hemingway's business and social introductions to his friends, such as Marian McEvoy, fashion editor at "Women's Wear Daily"; photographer Francesco Scavullo; fashion designer Halston; "Vogue" fashion editor Francis Stein; and Jon Revson, Selig's cousin. Revson, a scion of the Revson family that created Revlon cosmetics, declined Selig's offer for Hemingway to endorse Revlon, whereas later Fabergé signed her on with the largest salary of its day. Revson did come to visit both Selig and Hemingway (with the Hemingway family) in Ketchum to congratulate her after Hemingway's "TIME" magazine cover appeared in June 1975.


title: Margaux Hemingway

text: Marian McEvoy quickly interviewed Margaux at a party given by Selig, which resulted in Hemingway's "Women's Wear Daily" front- and back-page story that launched Hemingway into the fashion limelight.


title: Margaux Hemingway

text: On New Year's Eve 1979, Hemingway married French filmmaker Bernard Faucher in and they lived in Paris for a year. She divorced him in 1985 after


title: Margaux Hemingway

text: Hemingway had strained relationships with members of her family. She had a tense relationship with her mother, though they reconciled prior to Byra's death from cancer in 1988. She also competed with her younger sister Mariel, who received greater accolades for her acting. In the 1990s, Hemingway alleged that her father, Jack, had molested her as a child. Her father and stepmother, Angela, resented the allegations and stopped speaking to her. Angela told "People" magazine, "Jack and I did not talk to her for two years. She constantly lies. The whole family won't have anything to do with her. She's nothing but an angry woman."


title: Margaux Hemingway

text: A 2013 television documentary film "Running from Crazy", in which Margaux's sister Mariel speaks of the Hemingway family history of alcoholism, drug addiction, molestation, and suicide, contains clips filmed by Margaux before her death.


title: Margaux Hemingway

text: On July 1, 1996, Hemingway was found dead in her studio apartment in Santa Monica. Though her body was found reportedly badly decomposed, the official autopsy and California death records list July 1 as her date of death. She had taken an overdose of phenobarbital, according to the Los Angeles County coroner's toxicology report one month later, although her family had difficulty accepting the fact of her suicide.


title: Margaux Hemingway

text: Mariel Hemingway's husband told "People" in 1996 that, "This [year] was the best I'd seen [Margaux] in years. She had gotten herself back together", but in a December 2005 episode of "Larry King Live", Mariel said she now accepted her sister's death as a suicide.


title: Marcelo Bielsa

text: Marcelo Alberto Bielsa Caldera (, nicknamed "El Loco Bielsa" , meaning "The Crazy Bielsa"; born 21 July 1955) is an Argentine professional football manager who was most recently the head coach of Premier League club Leeds United. He is a former player and played as a defender for Newell's Old Boys, Instituto and Argentino de Rosario.


title: Marcelo Bielsa

text: Bielsa played as a defender in Newell's Old Boys' First Division team, but retired when he was 25 to focus on coaching. Bielsa has managed several football clubs and also the national teams of Argentina and Chile. He developed his career as coach of Newell's Old Boys where he won several titles in the early 1990s, before moving to Mexico in 1992, briefly coaching Club Atlas and Club América. Bielsa returned to Argentina in 1997 to manage Vélez Sarsfield, leading them to the 1998 league title (Clausura).


title: Marcelo Bielsa

text: With Chile, he achieved cult status due to the improved results of the national team under his leadership. His personality and gestures during his stint in Chile captured the attention of media and unleashed a series of minor controversies both in sports and politics. He had a two year-spell in Spain at Athletic Bilbao between 2011 and 2013, leading them to domestic and continental cup finals in the first season, though they lost both. In August 2015, Bielsa resigned as coach of Marseille after just over a year at the French club.


title: Marcelo Bielsa

text: In June 2018, Bielsa was appointed manager of then Championship club Leeds United, leading the club to promotion back to the Premier League in 2020 after a 16-year absence as a result of winning the 2019–20 EFL Championship. Leeds United is the club at which he spent the most time as manager in his career; taking charge of 170 games before departing in February 2022.


title: Marcelo Bielsa

text: In 1980, after retiring from playing in football, Bielsa decided to start a career as a football manager. His first job was coaching the youth divisions of Newell's. In 1990, he was given the task of managing their first team, where he would go on to win the 1990 Torneo Apertura and the 1990–91 Torneo Integración, defeating Boca Juniors on penalties. Bielsa managed the squad that competed in the final of the 1992 Copa Libertadores, losing to São Paulo on penalties. Weeks after the Libertadores defeat, Bielsa and Newell's won the 1992 Torneo Clausura. After a period in Mexico, he returned to Argentina and won another league title – the 1998 Clausura – while coaching Vélez Sarsfield.


title: Marcelo Bielsa

text: In 1998, Bielsa was given the job of manager at Spanish La Liga side Espanyol, but he soon left after being offered the management of the Argentina national team later that year, taking over after a four-year period by Daniel Passarella as manager. At the 1999 Copa América, Argentina were beaten 3–0 by Colombia in a game where Argentina forward Martin Palermo missed three penalties and Bielsa was sent off. On Bielsa's post match reaction Tim Vickery of the BBC wrote,In the press conference he sat staring into space, refusing to make eye contact with anyone – his usual stance. He was asked what he had made of the referee's performance. If the question was predictable, the answer was anything but. "One doesn't usually have the habit of commenting on referees, but…" he said, leaving everyone to believe he would continue with a rant about a joker running amok with a whistle. Instead he proceeded with, "but in respect of my expulsion, the referee was absolutely correct because I protested in an ill mannered form."


title: Marcelo Bielsa

text: Argentina won the qualification group for the 2002 FIFA World Cup, but did not progress through the first knockout round at the tournament. Despite this, Bielsa stayed on his position as Argentine manager. The "Albicelestes" were runners-up in the 2004 Copa América and won the 2004 Olympic Games' gold medal. With the latter, his team became the first Latin American team to win the Olympic title in football since 1928 (when Uruguay beat Argentina in the final), the first Argentinian Olympic gold medal in 52 years. Bielsa, however, resigned at the end of 2004, being succeeded by José Pékerman.


title: Marcelo Bielsa

text: Under Bielsa's guidance, the Chile national team underwent many positive and negative historic firsts. For the first time in its history, Chile was able to earn a point playing Uruguay away in Montevideo. Chile also suffered their worst defeat ever when playing at home during qualifiers losing 3–0 against Paraguay. This historic low was repeated with a Chile loss of 3–0 against Brazil, which also marked the first home loss against Brazil in a qualification game in nearly 50 years. On 15 October 2008, however, Bielsa masterminded a 1–0 win over his native Argentina, Chile's first win ever over Argentina in an official match; Argentina's loss prompted the resignation of its coach Alfio Basile.


title: Marcelo Bielsa

text: Chile soundly beat Peru 3–1 in Lima, a location where they last won in 1985. Bielsa then led Chile to a 2–0 win at the Defensores del Chaco Stadium against hosts Paraguay, obtaining an away triumph on this location for the first time in almost 30 years. The team continued the road to the 2010 World Cup with a victory over Bolivia, 4–0. After a 2–2 tie against Venezuela in Santiago, and travelling to Brazil to lose 2–4, Chile finally achieved qualification to the World Cup after defeating Colombia 4–2, a result that was also Chile's first ever away win against the Colombians.


title: Marcelo Bielsa

text: By helping Chile qualify for a World Cup after two tournament absences, Bielsa attained great popularity there. His appointment brought about visible changes in the Chilean set-up, with the fast-tracking of young talents and a more attacking mindset away from home. Due to the rumors that Bielsa would not continue to lead Chile after finishing their campaign at the World Cup, Chilean fans campaigned for him to remain as coach, with the movement titled "Bielsa is NOT leaving!" Chile reached the round of 16 of the World Cup, where they were eliminated by Brazil. On 2 August 2010, Harold Mayne-Nicholls, President of the Chilean Football Board, announced that Bielsa would remain with the Chile team until 2015. Bielsa, however, stated that he would leave his position if Jorge Segovia was elected as the new President of the Chilean Football Board. He followed through on this threat, despite Segovia's election being annulled, and resigned in February 2011.


title: Marcelo Bielsa

text: According to Hermógenes Pérez de Arce, President of Chile Sebastián Piñera had a personal long-term interest in removing Mayne-Nicholls from the Presidency of the Chilean Football Board and pushed for him to be replaced. Bielsa subsequently made headlines for his brief and cold greeting to Piñera in the farewell before the 2010 FIFA World Cup. Both Bielsa and Mayne-Nicholls had good relations with former president Michelle Bachelet, Piñera's political rival.


title: Marcelo Bielsa

text: On 8 July 2011, Josu Urrutia announced Athletic Bilbao would appoint Bielsa as manager after Urrutia promised the appointment of Bielsa in his campaign to become president of the club. On 18 August 2011, Bielsa took charge of his first game at San Mamés, drawing 0–0 against Turkish side Trabzonspor in the UEFA Europa League play-offs.


title: Marcelo Bielsa

text: On 3 October 2011, Bielsa, a devout Roman Catholic, visited the Poor Clares of Guernica, Spain, alongside his wife. He wanted them to pray for his team, which they continued to do. The players began to adjust to the changes as the season progressed, and following an away victory at local rivals Real Sociedad. Athletic Bilbao produced a good run of autumn form which included wins over Paris Saint-Germain, Osasuna and Sevilla, as well as credible draws with Valencia and Barcelona, then only to drop points at home to newly promoted Granada. The team also finished top of their UEFA Europa League group and defeated Lokomotiv Moscow in the last 32.


title: Marcelo Bielsa

text: Athletic then drew Manchester United and in impressive style won 3–2 in the first leg at Old Trafford, going on to knock them out of the tournament with a 2–1 victory at home. In the quarter-final, they went to Schalke 04 and won the first leg 4–2, despite being 2–1 down after a Raúl brace on 72 minutes. Athletic drew the second leg against Schalke 2–2, going through to the semi-finals with a favourable aggregate score of 6–4 to face Sporting Clube de Portugal.


title: Marcelo Bielsa

text: After Athletic lost the first leg of the semi-final 2–1 in Lisbon, they overturned this result in the return leg and ran out 4–3 winners on aggregate when Fernando Llorente scored the winner in the 88th minute. This set up a match with Atlético Madrid in an all-Spanish Europa League final. Athletic, however, would lose 3–0 in the final, played on 9 May at the Arena Națională, Bucharest. On 25 May 2012, Athletic also lost the Copa del Rey Final against Barcelona at the Vicente Calderón Stadium, falling 3–0.


title: Marcelo Bielsa

text: The 2012–13 season was a major disappointment for Athletic: the sale of key midfielder Javi Martínez to Bayern Munich, and striker Fernando Llorente being frozen out of the club over contract disagreements, led to the Lions' performances faltering. After finishing only in 12th place in La Liga, on 7 June 2013 Athletic's president revealed that Bielsa would not be offered a new contract. When it expired on 30 June 2013, he left the club.


title: Marcelo Bielsa

text: On 2 May 2014, Marseille president Vincent Labrune announced the hiring of Bielsa as his team's coach on a French radio station. Labrune had previously confirmed an agreement in principle had been reached after the club's 0–0 Ligue 1 draw with Lille on 20 April. Bielsa signed a two-year contract set to begin after the 2014 World Cup, thus becoming the club's first Argentine coach. He led them to the symbolic title of "autumn champions" after they beat Lille OSC on Matchday 19 (on 21 December 2014) of the 2014–15 Ligue 1 season before they faded to finish fourth in Ligue 1 at the end of the season. On 8 August 2015, after Marseille lost their opening 2015–16 Ligue 1 match against Caen, Bielsa announced his resignation due to conflicts with the club's management, stating that changes had been made to his contract.


title: Marcelo Bielsa

text: On 5 July 2016, Bielsa was appointed manager of Italian club Lazio of Serie A. However, just two days later, on 8 July, Bielsa quit as the club's manager, prompting Lazio to issue legal action against Bielsa for breach of contract, suing him for €50 million. Bielsa later explained that the club had been unable to recruit the players he had wanted by the deadline he had given to the club and did not feel that his needs would be supported during the transfer window.


title: Marcelo Bielsa

text: On 24 May 2017, Bielsa was unveiled as the new manager of Ligue 1 club Lille on a two-year contract. Upon joining, Bielsa wanted to bring a more youthful side to Lille's squad and before the season started he informed 11 experienced players including Vincent Enyeama, Marko Baša, Rio Mavuba and Eder that they could leave the club. Then-Lille player Éric Bauthéac revealed that Bielsa informed the players he wanted to leave in a conversation before pre-season had even began. Bielsa then signed younger 'promising' players such as Nicolas Pépé, Thiago Mendes, Thiago Maia, Kévin Malcuit, Fodé Ballo-Touré, Luiz Araújo and Edgar Ié.


title: Marcelo Bielsa

text: On 22 November 2017, Bielsa was suspended as coach after just 13 games in charge, with Lille announcing he had been "suspended momentarily as coach" pending further announcement. After Bielsa's initial suspension, Lille appointed a four-man 'technical coaching unit' of Fernando Da Cruz, Joao Sacramento, Benoit Delaval and . On 15 December 2017, Lille announced Bielsa's contract had now been terminated. Christophe Galtier was named as Bielsa's replacement as manager on 29 December 2017. Sporting adviser Luis Campos said after Bielsa left that he felt the decision to let some of the experienced players leave was the key to the departure.


title: Marcelo Bielsa

text: On 15 June 2018, Bielsa became Championship club Leeds United's new head coach to replace Paul Heckingbottom, signing a two-year contract with the option of a third year. In doing so he became the highest-paid manager in Leeds United history. Leeds won their opening game of the new 2018–19 Championship season, beating Stoke City 3–1 at Elland Road. In his second game as manager, Bielsa's side beat Derby County 4–1 at Pride Park Stadium. Bielsa also won his third game in charge, 2–1 against Bolton in the EFL Cup, making him the first Leeds manager to win his opening three games since Jimmy Armfield in October 1974. This run extended to four games following their 2–0 victory over Rotherham United, making him the first Leeds United manager ever to record four consecutive wins at the start of their tenure as head coach. Leeds' winning run was threatened after a 2–2 draw with Swansea City, but a 79th-minute equaliser from former Swansea player Pablo Hernández ensured Leeds continued their unbeaten run. After leading Leeds United through the first six Championship rounds unbeaten and to the top of the league, Bielsa was awarded Championship Manager of the Month for August 2018 by the EFL.


title: Marcelo Bielsa

text: Bielsa's unbeaten start to the season was ended on 22 September with a 2–1 home defeat, inflicted by Birmingham City. Che Adams’ first half brace was enough to beat Leeds, despite the home side having most of the possession and chances created. Bielsa's Leeds had to endure an extensive injury list with several of his squad picking up significant injuries within the first few months of the season. However, with Leeds still in the Championship automatic promotion positions at the start of December 2018 despite the injuries, Bielsa was praised for his integration of Leeds United academy players to seamlessly cover the gaps of his injured squad and over the course of the 2018–19 season he gave 10 players under 21 their senior debuts. On 23 December after a dramatic late 2–3 win against Aston Villa, at the exact half-way point of the season, Bielsa's Leeds side sat top of the Championship despite a continued extensive injury list. Bielsa was nominated for the Championship Manager of the Month award for December 2018, but lost out to Hull City manager Nigel Adkins.


title: Marcelo Bielsa

text: Before a 2–0 victory over Derby County on 11 January 2019 to further Leeds' lead at the top of the Championship table, in the pre match build up Bielsa admitted he had sent a spy to the Derby training ground, after reports emerged in the press that a man was spotted the previous day outside the Derby training ground. Derby manager Frank Lampard was critical of Bielsa's method. On 12 January, Leeds United released a statement in response to the incident. Tottenham Hotspur manager Mauricio Pochettino described the incident as "not a big deal" and commonplace in Argentina. Manchester City manager Pep Guardiola, when asked about Bielsa due to his scouting methods, described him as "the best" and said "everyone who works with him is a better player and the teams are better. That's why he's a special manager and special person". On 15 January, the EFL announced they would be investigating the incident.


title: Marcelo Bielsa

text: With intense media scrutiny on what was coined 'Spygate' in the media, dividing opinion worldwide, on 16 January 2019 Bielsa announced a press briefing, where he gave a detailed analysis of his research on a PowerPoint presentation to the gathered media and journalists, detailing his meticulousness, thoroughness and preparation over his opponents, with some journalists in attendance describing it as a 'coaching masterclass' and 'genius'. Bielsa's 'Spygate' saga was resolved on the 18 February, when Leeds were fined £200,000 by the EFL for breach of a portion of Rule 3.4 of EFL Regulations ("In all matters and transactions relating to The League each Club shall behave towards each other Club and The League with the utmost good faith.), with the EFL also announcing a new rule as a result, that teams could not watch opposition training up to 72 hours before a game. It was subsequently revealed, by Bielsa, that he paid the £200,000 fine in full out of his own pocket.


title: Marcelo Bielsa

text: With Bielsa's Leeds in second place with just four games to go and thus in the automatic promotion position ahead of rivals Sheffield United, on 19 April, Leeds lost in a shock 1–2 defeat against relegation threatened Wigan Athletic, with Leeds playing 70 minutes against 10 men after Wigan had Cédric Kipré sent off. The result proved costly, as Sheffield United overtook them on goal difference.


title: Marcelo Bielsa

text: On 28 April 2019, Bielsa made one of the most contentious managerial calls of the Championship season in Leeds' penultimate league game against Aston Villa at Elland Road. In the 72nd minute of a tight game between two teams who were essentially jostling for position in the playoffs, albeit Leeds 'mathematically' still able to gain automatic promotion, when Villa's Jonathan Kodjia was injured and remained on the ground, Tyler Roberts passed the ball up the line to Mateusz Klich who took it up the left wing and put the ball into the far corner past Jed Steer. The goal – the first of the game – sparked pandemonium, with Villa's Conor Hourihane, Ahmed Elmohamady, Neil Taylor and Leeds' Patrick Bamford caught up in a fracas with Klich at its centre, which involved several additional players from both sides and was eventually broken up by referee Stuart Attwell, Elland Road stewards and other players. In the immediate aftermath, Attwell sent off the peripherally involved Anwar El Ghazi with a straight red card (subsequently rescinded by The FA) and Bielsa's response to his players was, in the interests of fairness and after consulting with Villa boss Dean Smith, that his team should allow an unchallenged equaliser to be scored (the manager can be seen shouting "Give the goal! Give the goal!" from the touchline). From the restart, Albert Adomah essentially walked the ball into net unchallenged by 10 Leeds players, with only a frustrated and disbelieving Pontus Jansson giving chase and nearly dispossessing the forward. The game remained 1–1 and put the second automatic promotion spot mathematically out of reach for Leeds and see them enter the play-offs. Bielsa and the team were subsequently awarded the 2019 FIFA Fair Play Award on 23 September 2019, for their actions during this game, with the FIFA citation noting that "The game finished 1–1, ultimately allowing their promotion rivals Sheffield United to guarantee their automatic spot in the Premier League, at Leeds’ expense. What was at stake makes Bielsa's act of sportmanship all the more remarkable".


title: Marcelo Bielsa

text: At the end of the 2018–19 season, with Leeds missing out on automatic promotion, Bielsa said that he refused to blame the club for missing out on signing winger Daniel James whose deal fell through dramatically on deadline day in the 2019 January transfer window, but said "I'm not underlying the importance of the absence of (Dan) James". Leeds finished the regular season in third place and qualified for the playoffs, after an injury hit season, Leeds also had several key players out injured for their playoff campaign. In the semi-final playoffs versus sixth-placed Derby County, they were beaten on 3–4 aggregate over the two legs. Despite taking a 1–0 win at Pride Park into the home leg at Elland Road, Bielsa's Leeds lost 4–2 in an encounter that saw both teams reduced to 10 men and Derby progress to the final against Aston Villa. With Bielsa denying the narrative of 'Bielsa Burnout' (journalists' theory that his sides tire in the second half of a season), Bielsa said one of the big reasons Leeds failed to gain promotion was their profligacy in front of goal over the course of the season, saying that statistically Leeds needed several more chances to score compared to their league rivals.


title: Marcelo Bielsa

text: On 28 May 2019, Bielsa and Leeds jointly exercised the option on Bielsa's contract to continue as Leeds head coach for the following 2019–20 season. After Bielsa had signed his new contract, Leeds announced the signings of Hélder Costa, Ben White (loan), Jack Harrison (loan), Jack Clarke (loan), Illan Meslier (loan) and Eddie Nketiah (loan) in their bid to get back to the Premier League in the 2019–20 EFL Championship season. Defender Pontus Jansson was told by Bielsa to return to training later than the rest of the first team squad in order to give him time to find a new club, with him no longer in Bielsa's plans for the upcoming season. Jansson was subsequently sold to Brentford.


title: Marcelo Bielsa

text: After beating Yorkshire rivals Barnsley on 15 September 2019, Bielsa's Leeds side remained top of the Championship after seven games during the 2019–20 EFL Championship. Leeds continued to impress throughout November and Bielsa won the EFL Championship Manager of the Month for November.


title: Marcelo Bielsa

text: Bielsa side returned to top of the league on 29 December 2019 thus ending the decade at the top of the Championship after a 4–5 victory in a dramatic win against Birmingham City. On 1 January 2020, Leeds drew with then-second-placed West Bromwich Albion in a 1–1 draw. The result kept Leeds on top of the table on goal difference. However, after the game it was revealed that Arsenal had recalled Eddie Nketiah. Bielsa had also lost loanee Jack Clarke who had been recalled by Tottenham Hotspur, with Bielsa stating that he would be looking to replace both players. The club secured replacements for both players during the January transfer window, signing Jean-Kévin Augustin on loan from RB Leipzig and Ian Poveda on a four-and-a-half year contract from Manchester City.


title: Marcelo Bielsa

text: After the English professional football season was paused in March 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the season was resumed during June, under Bielsa, Leeds United secured promotion to the Premier League on 17 July 2020 with two matches remaining of the 2019–20 season and also became the EFL Championship Champions for the 2019–20 season, finishing 10 points ahead of second placed West Bromwich Albion.


title: Marcelo Bielsa

text: On 18 July, after Bielsa had delivered promotion, a street in Leeds city centre was renamed 'Marcelo Bielsa Way'. After the achievement of being crowned Champions of the Championship and guiding Leeds to the Premier League after a 16-year absence, on 27 July 2020, Bielsa was named the LMA Championship Manager of the Year 2020. On 31 July, Bielsa won the Championship Manager of the Month award for July. On 11 September 2020, Bielsa signed a new contract to stay at Leeds for the 2020–21 Premier League season.


title: Marcelo Bielsa

text: On 12 September 2020 Bielsa's first game as head coach in the Premier League ended in a 4–3 defeat at Anfield against reigning champions Liverpool.


title: Marcelo Bielsa

text: Conversely the first Premier League game at Elland Road for 16 years saw Leeds come out 4–3 victors against fellow promoted club Fulham.


title: Marcelo Bielsa

text: These two games set the tone for a free scoring, free conceding first half to the season, earning Bielsa and his team many plaudits for their style of play and culminating in Bielsa placing 3rd in The Best FIFA Football Coach award on 17 December. As if for emphasis the two week period following the awards witnessed a 5–2 home win against Newcastle United on 16 December be followed by a 6–2 defeat against Manchester United at Old Trafford; only for the year to end in a 5–0 away victory at West Brom nine days later.


title: Marcelo Bielsa

text: Despite the New Year starting poorly with a 3–0 away loss to Tottenham, and an ignominious 3–0 FA Cup defeat to Crawley Town, Bielsa's Leeds ended the campaign strongly. They lost just one of their last 11 games while securing impressive results against the league's top sides. This included draws at home against Manchester United, Chelsea and defending champions Liverpool, as well as victories against Tottenham at home and champions-elect Manchester City at the Etihad Stadium (despite playing most of the match with just ten men). Leeds United eventually finished ninth; securing more points and scoring more goals than any other promoted side for 20 years.


title: Marcelo Bielsa

text: On 27 February 2022, Leeds and Bielsa parted ways after a streak of four consecutive losses across which Leeds conceded 17 goals, leaving them 16th in the table, two points above Burnley who had two games in hand. The fans were still singing Bielsa’s name even after poor performances.


title: Marcelo Bielsa

text: Hailed as one of the most influential managers of all time, introducing a third wave ideology in Argentine coaching, previously influenced by César Luis Menotti and Carlos Bilardo. Pep Guardiola has described Bielsa as the best in the world. He has been a heavy influence on his former players, many of whom later became coaches (Mauricio Pochettino, Diego Simeone, Marcelo Gallardo)


title: Marcelo Bielsa

text: Bielsa's signature formation in his squads is the 3–3–3–1 formation, which he made famous and brought to the front of the world's mainstream football scene during his coaching tenures in with the Argentina and Chile national teams and Marseille.


title: Marcelo Bielsa

text: Although the 3–3–3–1 and its variations the 3–3–1–3 and the 3–4–3 "diamond" were occasionally used by other managers at UEFA Champions League and FIFA World Cup level before Bielsa - notably by Johan Cruyff at Barcelona, by Louis van Gaal at Ajax, by Guus Hiddink with the Australia and PSV Eindhoven, by Vicente del Bosque at Real Madrid, by Ottmar Hitzfeld at Bayern Munich, by Co Adriaanse at Porto, by Frank Pagelsdorf at Hamburger SV, by Mircea Lucescu at Galatasaray, by Ivica Osim at Sturm Graz, by Angelos Anastasiadis at Panathinaikos, by Dušan Bajević at AEK Athens and by Yuri Semin at FC Lokomotiv Moscow and Russia; it was Bielsa who first made it his standard formation and popularized it worldwide during his tenures with Argentina, Chile at Olympique de Marseille. and occasionally at Athletic de Bilbao


title: Marcelo Bielsa

text: For this formation, the players are: three defenders, three midfielders (one central midfielder with two wide players / wing backs), three attacking midfielders (one No.10 and two wingers) and one centre-forward. The 3–3–3–1 allows quick transitions from defending to attacking, as many of the players used in the formation can perform both defensive and attacking tasks. Moreover, it establishes superiority in numbers in every part of the field, since with this formation his teams could defend with seven players, attack with six or seven players, or protect a scoreline by overwhelming the midfield with six players. To use 3–3–3–1, all players have to quickly set to attacking positions when the ball is in the team's possession, and all players have to aggressively press and recover the ball when it is not in possession, so it requires great teamwork and understanding between teammates.


title: Marcelo Bielsa

text: He adapted to an attacking 4–3–3 at Athletic Bilbao (as seen in the 2012 UEFA Europa League Final), with full-backs pushing forward and a converted midfielder in the back line also involved in build-up play, with the pressing and coordination elements still in evidence.


title: Marcelo Bielsa

text: In the 2018–19 season at Leeds United, Bielsa introduced a 4–1–4–1 formation, with Kalvin Phillips converted from a box-to-box or attacking midfielder into the deep-lying midfielder. When facing a team who played with two central strikers, Bielsa would switch to the 3–3–3–1, with Phillips dropping further back into the defensive line as a centre-back or "sweeper", or Luke Ayling shifting from right back.


title: Marcelo Bielsa

text: This signature style of Bielsa's has had so much influence in the football scene that many present coaches – former players under Bielsa's command – are heavily influenced by the style, such as Gerardo Martino, Mauricio Pochettino, Diego Simeone, Matías Almeyda, Eduardo Berizzo, Mauricio Pellegrino, Santiago Solari and Marcelo Gallardo. Current Manchester City manager Pep Guardiola credited Bielsa as his tactical inspiration and called him the "best manager in the world" in 2012. Jorge Sampaoli, former manager of Argentina, Sevilla FC and Chile, has been described as a "disciple" of Bielsa.


title: Marcelo Bielsa

text: Former Argentina national team captain Roberto Ayala, a defender under Bielsa, stated: "Sometimes we wouldn't see any of the strikers, because he'd have them training at a different time, and it was the same with the midfielders".


title: Marcelo Bielsa

text: Bielsa is known for watching and collecting numerous football videos to the point of obsession. He edits and analyses each video for each individual player. He also uses statistical software and other technological tools to prepare for games. John Carlin, an English journalist, has stated that Bielsa has "the most learned football library on the planet".


title: Marcelo Bielsa

text: Bielsa likes to systematise the game. He says that there are 29 distinct formations in football and believes that every young player should be given the opportunity to experience each of them.


title: Marcelo Bielsa

text: Discovered by Bielsa, prolific former Argentina national team striker Gabriel Batistuta proclaimed Bielsa to be "the one who taught me how to train on rainy days, he taught me everything". Fernando Llorente, who played under Bielsa at Athletic Bilbao, said of his former coach, "At first he seems tough and he may even annoy you with his persistence and don't-take-no-for-an-answer resilience, but in the end he is a genius." Chile international Alexis Sánchez said of Bielsa: "I learned a lot from him and it is because of him that I am who I am." Bayern Munich player Javi Martínez who worked with Bielsa at Bilbao, said that 'Bielsa taught me a lot, how to play as a centre-back and to learn a different style of football, everyone should work with him at least once in their life.'


title: Marcelo Bielsa

text: Bielsa is credited with the rise of the Leeds United and England international player Kalvin Phillips, with former Leeds United Manager Howard Wilkinson stating: "Bielsa can take huge credit for the player that Phillips has developed into".


title: Marcelo Bielsa

text: Manchester City and France player Benjamin Mendy noted for his improvement under Bielsa at Marseille, said Bielsa had "given back to him the strength and aggressiveness lost last year." His club and international teammate Aymeric Laporte who was given his debut by Bielsa at Athletic Bilbao, described him as a 'mentor' figure, while fellow France international Dimitri Payet who worked with Bielsa at Marseille said: "The season with Marcelo Bielsa made me grow, as a man and especially on the field, in the game, he gave me important bases that I still use today." Former Lille player Nicolas Pépé (now at Arsenal) who was signed by Bielsa for Lille described Bielsa as 'special' and a 'great coach'.


title: Marcelo Bielsa

text: Bielsa's unique style continued at Leeds, where to receive a work permit from the UK government, he had to prove "exceptional talent": he did so by compiling a dossier of every formation used in every Championship match during the 2017–18 season, with notes on frequency and variations. Once at the Yorkshire club, he instituted all-day training sessions, gave the first team their own private space at Thorp Arch, and had sleeping quarters installed in his office so he could devote more time to match analysis. As a motivational tactic, Bielsa once made players pick up litter around the training ground for three hours, as he had been told that was how long an average Leeds fan worked to afford a ticket.


title: Marcelo Bielsa

text: Some critics have argued that the taxing demands of Bielsa's management style have led to his teams starting a season brightly before a dip in performances as players begin to tire.


title: Marcelo Bielsa

text: In August 2019, Bielsa was one of the main stars of Leeds United documentary "Take Us Home" documenting the 2018–19 season on Amazon Prime, featuring in several episodes in voiceover, before doing an interview for the final episode "The End". The documentary was narrated by actor and Leeds United fan Russell Crowe. After Leeds' 4–0 defeat of then-chasing rivals West Bromwich Albion at home on 1 March 2019 in "Take Us Home", Bielsa (through a translator) mused on the nature of victory:


title: Koine Greek

text: Koine Greek (; Koine ; ), also known as Hellenistic Greek, common Attic, the Alexandrian dialect, Biblical Greek or New Testament Greek, was the common supra-regional form of Greek spoken and written during the Hellenistic period, the Roman Empire and the early Byzantine Empire. It evolved from the spread of Greek following the conquests of Alexander the Great in the fourth century BC, and served as the lingua franca of much of the Mediterranean region and the Middle East during the following centuries. It was based mainly on Attic and related Ionic speech forms, with various admixtures brought about through dialect levelling with other varieties.


title: Koine Greek

text: Koine Greek included styles ranging from conservative literary forms to the spoken vernaculars of the time. As the dominant language of the Byzantine Empire, it developed further into Medieval Greek, which then turned into Modern Greek.


title: Koine Greek

text: Literary Koine was the medium of much post-classical Greek literary and scholarly writing, such as the works of Plutarch and Polybius. Koine is also the language of the Septuagint (the 3rd century BC Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible), the Christian New Testament, and of most early Christian theological writing by the Church Fathers. In this context, Koine Greek is also known as "Biblical", "New Testament", "ecclesiastical", or "patristic" Greek. The Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius also wrote his private thoughts in Koine Greek in a work that is now known as "The Meditations". Koine Greek continues to be used as the liturgical language of services in the Greek Orthodox Church and in some Greek Catholic churches.


title: Koine Greek

text: The English-language name "Koine" derives from the Koine Greek term ('), meaning "the common dialect". The Greek word (') itself means "common". The word is pronounced , , or in US English and in UK English. The pronunciation of the word "koine" itself gradually changed from (close to the Classical Attic pronunciation ) to (close to the Modern Greek ). In Modern Greek, the language is referred to as , "Hellenistic Koiné", in the sense of "Hellenistic supraregional language").


title: Koine Greek

text: Ancient scholars used the term "koine" in several different senses. Scholars such as Apollonius Dyscolus (second century AD) and Aelius Herodianus (second century AD) maintained the term "koine" to refer to the Proto-Greek language, while others used it to refer to any vernacular form of Greek speech which differed somewhat from the literary language.


title: Koine Greek

text: When Koine Greek became a language of literature by the first century BC, some people distinguished two forms: written as the literary post-classical form (which should not be confused with Atticism), and vernacular as the day-to-day vernacular. Others chose to refer to Koine as "the dialect of Alexandria" or "Alexandrian dialect" (), or even the universal dialect of its time. Modern classicists have often used the former sense.


title: Koine Greek

text: Koine Greek arose as a common dialect within the armies of Alexander the Great. Under the leadership of Macedon, their newly formed common variety was spoken from the Ptolemaic Kingdom of Egypt to the Seleucid Empire of Mesopotamia. It replaced existing ancient Greek dialects with an everyday form that people anywhere could understand. Though elements of Koine Greek took shape in Classical Greece, the post-Classical period of Greek is defined as beginning with the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC, when cultures under Greek sway in turn began to influence the language.


title: Koine Greek

text: The passage into the next period, known as Medieval Greek, is sometimes dated from the foundation of Constantinople by Constantine the Great in 330 AD, but often only from the end of late antiquity. The post-Classical period of Greek thus refers to the creation and evolution of Koine Greek throughout the entire Hellenistic and Roman eras of history until the start of the Middle Ages.


title: Koine Greek

text: The linguistic roots of the Common Greek dialect had been unclear since ancient times. During the Hellenistic period, most scholars thought of Koine as the result of the mixture of the four main Ancient Greek dialects, "" (the composition of the Four). This view was supported in the early twentieth century by Paul Kretschmer in his book "Die Entstehung der Koine" (1901), while Ulrich von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff and Antoine Meillet, based on the intense Ionic elements of the Koine – instead of and instead of (; ) – considered Koine to be a simplified form of Ionic.


title: Koine Greek

text: The view accepted by most scholars today was given by the Greek linguist Georgios Hatzidakis, who showed that despite the "composition of the Four", the "stable nucleus" of Koine Greek is Attic. In other words, Koine Greek can be regarded as Attic with the admixture of elements especially from Ionic, but also from other dialects. The degree of importance of the non-Attic linguistic elements on Koine can vary depending on the region of the Hellenistic world.


title: Koine Greek

text: In that respect, the varieties of Koine spoken in the Ionian colonies of Anatolia (e.g. Pontus, cf. Pontic Greek) would have more intense Ionic characteristics than others and those of Laconia and Cyprus would preserve some Doric and Arcadocypriot characteristics, respectively. The literary Koine of the Hellenistic age resembles Attic in such a degree that it is often mentioned as "Common Attic".


title: Koine Greek

text: The first scholars who studied Koine, both in Alexandrian and Early Modern times, were classicists whose prototype had been the literary Attic Greek of the Classical period and frowned upon any other variety of Ancient Greek. Koine Greek was therefore considered a decayed form of Greek which was not worthy of attention.


title: Koine Greek

text: The reconsideration on the historical and linguistic importance of Koine Greek began only in the early 19th century, where renowned scholars conducted a series of studies on the evolution of Koine throughout the entire Hellenistic period and Roman Empire. The sources used on the studies of Koine have been numerous and of unequal reliability. The most significant ones are the inscriptions of the post-Classical periods and the papyri, for being two kinds of texts which have authentic content and can be studied directly.


title: Koine Greek

text: Other significant sources are the Septuagint, the Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible, and the Greek New Testament. The teaching of these texts was aimed at the most common people, and for that reason, they use the most popular language of the era.


title: Koine Greek

text: Other sources can be based on random findings such as inscriptions on vases written by popular painters, mistakes made by Atticists due to their imperfect knowledge of Attic Greek or even some surviving Greco-Latin glossaries of the Roman period, e.g.:


title: Koine Greek

text: Finally, a very important source of information on the ancient Koine is the modern Greek language with all its dialects and its own "Koine" form, which have preserved some of the ancient language's oral linguistic details which the written tradition has lost. For example, Pontic and Cappadocian Greek preserved the ancient pronunciation of as ε ( for standard Modern Greek etc.), while the Tsakonian language preserved the long α instead of η ( etc.) and the other local characteristics of Doric Greek.


title: Koine Greek

text: Dialects from the southern part of the Greek-speaking regions (Dodecanese, Cyprus, etc.), preserve the pronunciation of the double similar consonants (), while others pronounce in many words υ as ου or preserve ancient double forms ( etc.). Linguistic phenomena like the above imply that those characteristics survived within Koine, which in turn had countless variations in the Greek-speaking world.


title: Koine Greek

text: "Biblical Koine" refers to the varieties of Koine Greek used in Bible translations into Greek and related texts. Its main sources are:


title: Koine Greek

text: There has been some debate to what degree Biblical Greek represents the mainstream of contemporary spoken Koine and to what extent it contains specifically Semitic substratum features. These could have been induced either through the practice of translating closely from Biblical Hebrew or Aramaic originals, or through the influence of the regional non-standard Greek spoken by originally Aramaic-speaking Hellenized Jews.


title: Koine Greek

text: Some of the features discussed in this context are the Septuagint's normative absence of the particles and , and the use of to denote "it came to pass". Some features of Biblical Greek which are thought to have originally been non-standard elements eventually found their way into the main of the Greek language.


title: Koine Greek

text: S. J. Thackeray, in "A Grammar of the Old Testament in Greek According to the Septuagint" (1909), wrote that only the five books of the Pentateuch, parts of the Book of Joshua and the Book of Isaiah may be considered "good Koine". One issue debated by scholars is whether and how much the translation of the Pentateuch influenced the rest of the Septuagint, including the translation of Isaiah.


title: Koine Greek

text: Another point that scholars have debated is the use of as a translation for the Hebrew . Old Testament scholar James Barr has been critical of etymological arguments that refers to "the community called by God to constitute his People". Kyriakoula Papademetriou explains:


title: Koine Greek

text: The authors of the New Testament follow the Septuagint translations for over half their quotations from the Old Testament.


title: Koine Greek

text: The "historical present" tense is a term used for present tense verbs that are used in some narrative sections of the New Testament to describe events that are in the past with respect to the speaker. This is seen more in works attributed to Mark and John than Luke. It is used 151 times in the "Gospel of Mark" in passages where a reader might expect a past tense verb. Scholars have presented various explanations for this; in the early 20th century some scholars argued that the use of the historical present tense in "Mark" was due to the influence of Aramaic, but this theory fell out of favor in the 1960s. Another group of scholars believed the historical present tense was used to heighten the dramatic effect, and this interpretation was favored in the "New American Bible" translation. In Volume II of the 1929 edition of "A Grammar of the New Testament", W.F. Howard argues that the heavy use of the historical present in Herodotus and Thucydides, compared with the relatively infrequent usage by Polybius and Xenophon was evidence that heavy use of this verb tense is a feature of vernacular Koine, but other scholars have argued that the historical present can be a literary form to "denote semantic shifts to more prominent material."


title: Koine Greek

text: The term "patristic Greek" is sometimes used for the Greek written by the Greek Church Fathers, the Early Christian theologians in late antiquity. Christian writers in the earliest time tended to use a simple register of Koiné, relatively close to the spoken language of their time, following the model of the Bible. After the 4th century, when Christianity became the state church of the Roman Empire, more learned registers of Koiné also came to be used.


title: Koine Greek

text: Koine differs from Ancient Greek in many ways: grammar, word formation, vocabulary and phonology (sound system).


title: Koine Greek

text: During the period generally designated as Koine Greek, a great deal of phonological change occurred. At the start of the period, the pronunciation was virtually identical to Ancient Greek phonology, whereas in the end, it had much more in common with Modern Greek phonology.


title: Koine Greek

text: The three most significant changes were the loss of vowel length distinction, the replacement of the pitch accent system by a stress accent system, and the monophthongization of several diphthongs:


title: Koine Greek

text: The Koine Greek in the table represents a reconstruction of New Testament Koine Greek, deriving to some degree from the dialect spoken in Judea and Galilee during the first century and similar to the dialect spoken in Alexandria, Egypt. The realizations of certain phonemes differ from the more standard Attic dialect of Koine.


title: Koine Greek

text: The following texts show differences from Attic Greek in all aspects – grammar, morphology, vocabulary and can be inferred to show differences in phonology.


title: Koine Greek

text: The following comments illustrate the phonological development within the period of Koine. The phonetic transcriptions are tentative and are intended to illustrate two different stages in the reconstructed development, an early conservative variety still relatively close to Classical Attic, and a somewhat later, more progressive variety approaching Modern Greek in some respects.


title: Koine Greek

text: The following excerpt, from a decree of the Roman Senate to the town of Thisbae in Boeotia in 170 BC, is rendered in a reconstructed pronunciation representing a hypothetical conservative variety of mainland Greek Koiné in the early Roman period. The transcription shows raising of to , partial (pre-consonantal/word-final) raising of and to , retention of pitch accent, and retention of word-initial (the rough breathing).


title: Koine Greek

text: The following excerpt, the beginning of the Gospel of John, is rendered in a reconstructed pronunciation representing a progressive popular variety of Koiné in the early Christian era. Modernizing features include the loss of vowel length distinction, monophthongization, transition to stress accent, and raising of to . Also seen here are the bilabial fricative pronunciation of diphthongs and , loss of initial , fricative values for and , and partial post-nasal voicing of voiceless stops.


title: White Star Line

text: The White Star Line was a British shipping company. Founded out of the remains of a defunct packet company, it gradually rose up to become one of the most prominent shipping lines in the world, providing passenger and cargo services between the British Empire and the United States. While many other shipping lines focused primarily on speed, White Star branded their services by focusing more on providing comfortable passages for both upper class travellers and immigrants.


title: White Star Line

text: Today, it is remembered for the innovative vessel and for the losses of some of their best passenger liners, including the wrecking of in 1873, the sinking of in 1909, the infamous loss of in 1912 and the wartime sinking of in 1916. Despite its casualties, the company retained a prominent hold on shipping markets around the globe before falling into decline during the Great Depression, which ultimately led to a merger with its chief rival, Cunard Line, which operated as Cunard-White Star Line until 1950, when Cunard purchased White Star's share in the joint company. Cunard Line then operated as a separate entity until 2005 and is now part of Carnival Corporation & plc. As a lasting reminder of the White Star Line, modern Cunard ships use the term "White Star Service" to describe the level of customer care expected of the company.


title: White Star Line

text: The first company bearing the name "White Star Line" was founded in Liverpool, England, by John Pilkington and Henry Wilson in 1845. It focused on the UK–Australia trade, which increased following the discovery of gold in Australia in 1851. Because of this, many wished to emigrate to Australia, and the population of Australia increased from 430,000 to 1.7 million inhabitants in three years. From this time on, Pilkington and Wilson emphasized the safety of their ships when addressing the press. In order to make the crossings more pleasant aboard these austere wooden sailboats, musician groups were hired to allow the passengers to dance to popular tunes. In this trade, speed and size become important assets. The fleet initially consisted of the chartered sailing ships , , "White Star", , "Ellen", "Ben Nevis", "Emma", "Mermaid" and "Iowa". "Tayleur", the largest ship of its day, was the one on which high hope was placed. These hopes were quickly dashed. Departing on its maiden voyage on 19 January 1854, "Tayleur" proved difficult to handle, and its crew inexperienced. When it struck rocks in very rough seas at Lambay Island, near Ireland, the ship sank, with only 290 of the 650 people on board surviving. Subsequent inquiry placed the blame on its owners, Charles Moore & Co., who did not take the necessary safety precautions when the ship was put into service. This alleviated the White Star Line and the ship's captain of any blame.


title: White Star Line

text: In order to compensate for the loss of "Tayleur", the company ordered several clippers of its own, the first of which was "Red Jacket". The ship proved to be sufficiently efficient on the Australian route to ensure a certain success for the company, which could thus own new, faster ships such as "Shalimar", "Sultana", "Emma" and "White Star". In addition, the company also ran voyages from Liverpool to Victoria, British Columbia, which it promoted in Welsh newspapers as being the gateway to the Klondike Gold Rush. One of the ships on this route was "Silistria". Travelling around Cape Horn and stopping in Valparaiso and San Francisco, she reached Victoria after a voyage lasting four months.


title: White Star Line

text: In 1856, however, the company lost postal contracts, while Wilson persisted in wanting ever larger ships to keep the public's attention. Pilkington, dubious, then left the company. Wilson replaced him with his brother-in-law, James Chambers, and the company continued its activities, betting everything on sailing ships while its most direct rivals, the Black Ball Line and the Eagle Line merged in 1858 after the difficulties engendered by the establishment of their service using steamships. During these years, Wilson paid attention to migration flows, directing his services to Canada or New Zealand according to trends. In 1863, the company acquired its first steamship, "Royal Standard".


title: White Star Line

text: The original White Star Line merged with two other small lines in 1864, the Black Ball Line and the Eagle Line, to form a conglomerate, the Liverpool, Melbourne and Oriental Steam Navigation Company Limited. Meanwhile, under Wilson's leadership, the company continued to borrow large amounts of money to finance new construction, including its second steamer, "Sirius". Worried, Chambers left the company and was replaced by John Cunningham, but business did not improve. "Sirius" had to be sold before it could enter service. The merger did not prosper and White Star broke away to concentrate on Liverpool to New York City services. Heavy investment in new ships was financed by borrowing, but the company's bank, the Royal Bank of Liverpool, failed in October 1867. White Star was left with an incredible debt of £527,000 (approximately ), and was forced into bankruptcy.


title: White Star Line

text: On 18 January 1868, Thomas Ismay, a director of the National Line, purchased the house flag, trade name and goodwill of the bankrupt company for £1,000 (approximately ), with the intention of operating large steamships on the North Atlantic service between Liverpool and New York. Ismay established the company's headquarters at Albion House, Liverpool. Ismay was approached by Gustav Christian Schwabe, a prominent Liverpool merchant, and his nephew, the shipbuilder Gustav Wilhelm Wolff, during a game of billiards. Schwabe offered to finance the new line if Ismay had his ships built by Wolff's company, Harland and Wolff. Ismay agreed, and a partnership with Harland and Wolff was established. The shipbuilders received their first orders on 30 July 1869. The agreement was that Harland and Wolff would build the ships at cost plus a fixed percentage and would not build any vessels for White Star's rivals. In 1870, William Imrie joined the managing company.


title: White Star Line

text: As the first ship was being commissioned, Ismay formed the White Star Line, with a capital of £400,000, divided into shares of £1,000.


title: White Star Line

text: White Star began its North Atlantic run between Liverpool and New York with six nearly identical ships, known as the "Oceanic" class: , , and , followed by the slightly larger and . It had long been customary for many shipping lines to have a common theme for the names of their ships, and White Star gave their ships names ending in "-ic". The line also adopted a buff-coloured funnel with a black top as a distinguishing feature for their ships, as well as a distinctive house flag, a red broad pennant with two tails bearing a white five-pointed star. In the initial designs for this first fleet of liners, each ship was to measure in length, in width and approximately , equipped with compound expansion engines powering a single screw, and capable of speeds of up to . They were also identical in passenger accommodations based on a two-class system, providing accommodations for 166 first class passengers amidships, which at the time was commonly referred to as 'Saloon Class' and 1,000 steerage passengers.


title: White Star Line

text: It was within the circles of the massive tides of immigrants flowing from Europe to North America that the White Star Line aimed to be revered by, as throughout the company's full history they regularly strived to provide passage for steerage passengers which greatly exceeded that seen with other shipping lines. With the "Oceanic" class, one of the most notable developments in steerage accommodations was the division of steerage at opposite ends of the vessels, with single men being berthed forward, and single women and families berthed aft, with later developments allowing married couples berths aft as well.


title: White Star Line

text: White Star's entry into the trans-Atlantic passenger market in the spring of 1871 got off to a rocky start. When "Oceanic" sailed on her maiden voyage on 2 March, she departed Liverpool with only 64 passengers aboard, from whence she was expected to make port at Queenstown the following day to pick up more passengers before proceeding to New York. However, before she had cleared the Welsh coast her bearings overheated off Holyhead and she was forced to return for repairs. She resumed her crossing on 17 March and ended up not completing the crossing to New York until 28 March. However, upon her arrival in New York, she drew considerable attention, as by the time she departed on her return crossing to Liverpool on 15 April, some 50,000 spectators had looked her over. White Star's troubles with their first ship were short lived and "Oceanic"s second crossing to New York was more successful. She departed Liverpool on 11 May and arrived in New York on 23 May with 407 passengers aboard.


title: White Star Line

text: In the eighteen months to follow, the five remaining ships were completed, and one by one, joined her on the North Atlantic run. "Atlantic" sailed on her maiden voyage from Liverpool on 8 June without incident. However, later that summer another problem surfaced which posed a threat to public opinion of the line. Of the six ships, the names originally selected for the third and sixth ships of the class had initially been "Pacific" and "Arctic", which when mentioned in the press appeared alongside references to two ships of the same names which had belonged to the now defunct Collins Line, both of which were lost at sea with large losses of life. In the cases of those ships, both of which had been wooden-hulled paddle steamers, had foundered off the coast of Newfoundland in September 1854 after colliding with another ship, resulting in the loss of over 300 lives, while vanished with 186 people on board in January 1856. As a result, White Star made arrangements to change the names of these two ships. The third ship, which had been launched as "Pacific" on 8 March 1871 was renamed "Baltic" prior to its completion and the keel of the sixth vessel, which had just been laid down at Harland & Wolff and dubbed "Arctic", was renamed "Celtic" prior to her launch.


title: White Star Line

text: The fourth vessel of the "Oceanic" class, "Republic", sailed on her maiden voyage on 1 February 1872, around which time modifications were being made to the last two ships still under construction. Alterations in their designs called for their hulls to be extended in length by , which also increased their tonnage. "Adriatic" entered service on 11 April 1872, followed by "Celtic" six months later on 24 October. These ships began their careers with notable success. "Adriatic", after barely a month in service, became the first White Star ship to capture the Blue Riband, having completed a record westbound crossing in 7 days, 23 hours and 17 minutes at an average speed of . In January 1873, "Baltic" became the first of the line to capture the Blue Riband for an eastbound crossing, having completed a return trip to Liverpool in 7 days, 20 hours and 9 minutes at an average speed of .


title: White Star Line

text: The company did not focus only on the North Atlantic. In 1871, it bought two ships under construction, which became and . They were initially placed on the route to India via the Suez Canal, but this route proved to be unprofitable. Once the six "Oceanic"-class ships were in service, and five sufficient for a weekly service, Ismay decided to move "Republic", accompanied by "Asiatic", "Tropic" and two recently purchased liners, and , onto the route to South America, in order to compete with the Pacific Steam Navigation Company. Although "Republic" was successful in its only crossing on this route, it was quickly withdrawn, and its fellow liners gradually suffered the same fate. The route remained however, serviced by the company's sailboats, whose management returned to William Imrie, and was quickly dedicated to a separate company, the North Western Shipping Company.


title: White Star Line

text: The first substantial loss for the company came only four years after its founding, with the sinking of the and the loss of 535 lives near Halifax, Nova Scotia on 31 March 1873. While en route to New York from Liverpool amidst a vicious storm, "Atlantic" attempted to make port at Halifax when a concern arose that the ship would run out of coal before reaching New York. However, when attempting to enter Halifax, she ran aground on the rocks and sank in shallow waters. Despite being so close to shore, a majority of those onboard drowned, with 585 of the 952 onboard perishing. White Star found itself being accused of not having supplied enough coal to the ship, while the captain was sanctioned for having acted in an irresponsible manner. The crew were blamed for serious navigational errors by the Canadian Inquiry, although a British Board of Trade investigation cleared the company of all extreme wrongdoing. Although "Atlantic" was quickly erased from the advertisements of the White Star Line, it was not forgotten. With a personal contribution from Ismay, the company financed the maintenance of the graves of the victims and, in 1915, it contributed to the construction of a monument dedicated to the victims. In order to preserve the financial health of the company, "Asiatic" and "Tropic" were immediately sold.


title: White Star Line

text: In the wake of the "Atlantic" disaster, the White Star Line continued to expand across the North Atlantic. "Gaelic" and "Belgic" joined the five "Oceanic"-class liners, and the company's success continued to grow. However, rival companies quickly caught up: Cunard placed "Botnia" and "Scythia" into service, while the Inman Line ordered and "Montana" and "Dakota" entered service with the Guion Line. All were built in response to White Star's ground breaking liners and were thus larger.


title: White Star Line

text: In response, White Star ordered two new steamers from Harland & Wolff, both of which were designed as considerably larger, two-funnelled versions of the "Oceanic"-class steamers. These two ships measured in length and in width, with a gross tonnage of roughly 5,000 tons and with engines of similar design as seen in the earlier ships, with the exception of greater horsepower, capable of driving their single screws at speeds of up to . Passenger capacity was also increased, with the two vessels able to carry 200 Saloon passengers and 1,500 Steerage passengers. The first of the pair, which had initially been named "Hellenic", was launched as on 3 February 1874 and departed on her maiden voyage to New York on 25 June. Her sister, was launched on 15 July 1874, but due to complications in her construction, she did not enter service until 20 May 1875. With the introduction of these new vessels, "Oceanic" was declared surplus and in the spring of 1875 was chartered to one of White Star's subsidiaries, the Occidental & Oriental Shipping company, under which she operated their trans-Pacific route between San Francisco, Yokohama and Hong Kong until her retirement in 1895. The two new steamers proved immensely popular on the North Atlantic run, and both would end up capturing the Blue Riband on two eastbound and three westbound crossings within a two-year period. "Germanic" captured the westbound record in August 1875, then captured the eastbound record in February 1876, while "Britannic" captured both records within less than two months of each other, beating the westbound record in November and the eastbound record in December. "Germanic" captured the westbound record for the last time in April 1877. During that same year, the company began sharing a postal agreement with the Cunard Line, allowing its ships' names to be prefixed with 'RMS' ('Royal Mail Ship').


title: White Star Line

text: The arrival of the two new liners created a surplus of ships on the North Atlantic route for the White Star Line. At the same time, George Bradbury, president of the Occidental and Oriental Steamship Company, a company formed in 1874 to compete with the Pacific Mail Steamship Company, enlisted the help of Thomas Ismay in setting up his new service. The White Star Line responded by lending the new company "Oceanic", which had become surplus to requirements, as well as the more modest "Gaelic" and "Belgic". This charter initiative proved profitable, with "Oceanic" remaining on the San Francisco – Hong Kong route for twenty years. New ships were gradually assigned to this contract in the 1880s, such as in 1881, and the new and in 1885. The partnership continued until 1906, when White Star withdrew from the Pacific route. The Occidental and Oriental Steamship Company disappeared two years later in the face of competition from the new ships of the Pacific Mail Company.


title: White Star Line

text: In 1882, the Shaw, Savill & Albion Line was founded, and it decided to open a route to New Zealand, but lacked experience. The White Star Line therefore proposed to provide a joint service, which started in 1884 with "Coptic", and supplied by White Star, with Shaw, Savill & Albion providing "Arawa" and "Tainui". The ships called at Australia on the outward journey, and through the Panama Canal on the return trip. From 1902, this joint service saw its ships renewed, with the arrival of , and the second , which were operated until the 1930s. The link between the two companies persisted even after the disappearance of the White Star Line, with the Shaw Savill & Albion Line continuing to use White Star's nomenclature and giving its ships names ending in "-ic".


title: White Star Line

text: The diversification of the company's activities also required an evolution of its equipment. While the sailing ships gradually disappeared, the company acquired a new type of cargo ship, intended for the transport of live cattle. The first of these was , which entered service in 1888, followed a year later by "Runic". Others followed in the 1890s, notably the sister ships and . The latter became famous when, less than a year after its maiden voyage, it mysteriously disappeared with everyone aboard. Two other cattle carriers, and , were built in 1894 and 1895 respectively, before the company abandoned this type of business.


title: White Star Line

text: Over the next 12 years, White Star focused their attention on other matters of business, expanding their services with the introduction of several cargo and livestock carriers on the North Atlantic as well as establishing a small but lucrative passenger and cargo service to New Zealand. By 1887 however, "Britannic" and "Germanic" and the four remaining "Oceanic"-class liners had aged significantly and were now being outpaced in speed and comfort by newer ships brought into service by White Star's competitors, in particular and . In an effort to outdo their competitors, White Star began making plans to put two new liners into service which would prove to be exceptionally innovative in design for the time, "Teutonic" and "Majestic". In order to build these new ships, Thomas Ismay made arrangements with the British Government under which in exchange for financial support from the British government, the two new ships would be designed not only as passenger liners, but also as armed merchant cruisers which could be requisitioned by the Royal Navy in times of war. Measuring in length and in width and with a gross tonnage of just under 10,000 tons, the new liners would be nearly twice the size of "Britannic" and "Germanic". Additionally, owing to the arrangement with the British Government, and were the first White Star liners to be built with twin screws, powered by triple expansion engines capable of driving the ships at speeds of up to .


title: White Star Line

text: "Teutonic" and "Majestic" were designed with accommodations for 1,490 passengers in three classes across four decks, titled 'Promenade', 'Upper', 'Saloon' and 'Main'; with 300 in First Class, 190 in Second Class and 1,000 in Third Class. Accommodations for passengers were based on the level of comfort on these sections of a ship. Those closer to the center axis of motion on a vessel felt little to no discomfort in rough seas. However those located near the bow and stern would experience every swell, wave and motion in addition to the noise of the engines in steerage. First Class accommodations were located amidships on all four decks, with Second Class located abaft of first on the three uppermost decks on "Teutonic" and all four decks on "Majestic", with Third Class located at the far forward and aft ends of the vessel on the Saloon and Main decks.


title: White Star Line

text: One notable development associated with the introduction of these two new ships was that they were the first White Star liners to incorporate the three-class passenger system. Prior to this, White Star had made smaller attempts to enter the market for Second Class passengers on the North Atlantic by adding limited spaces for Second Class passengers on their older liners. Spaces for Second Class were added to "Adriatic" in 1884, "Celtic" in 1887 and "Republic" in 1888, often occupying one or two compartments formerly occupied by Steerage berths.


title: White Star Line

text: In March 1887, the first keel plates of "Teutonic" were laid at Harland & Wolff, while construction on "Majestic" commenced the following September. Construction on the two liners progressed in roughly six-month intervals, with "Teutonic" being launched in January 1889 and sailing on her maiden voyage to New York the following August; while "Majestic" was launched in June 1889 and entered service in April 1890. Prior to her entry into service, "Teutonic" made a rather noteworthy appearance at the 1889 Naval Review at Spithead. Although she could not take part in the actual review due to scheduling commitments, she briefly anchored amidst a line of merchant ships awaiting review, complete with four guns mounted, during which time she was toured by the Prince of Wales and Kaiser Wilhelm II. The Kaiser, impressed by what he saw, is rumored to have mentioned to others in his party that "We must have one of these!". They would be White Star's last speed record breakers, as both ships would capture the Blue Riband in the summer of 1891 within two weeks of each other. "Majestic" beat the westbound record on 5 August 1891, arriving in New York in 5 days, 18 hours and 8 minutes after keeping an average speed of . This record was beaten by "Teutonic", which arrived in New York on 19 August and beat the previous record by 1 hour and 37 minutes, maintaining an average speed of .


title: White Star Line

text: With the introduction of "Teutonic" and "Majestic", White Star disposed of some of their aging fleet to make room for the new ships. Prior to the completion of the two new ships, "Baltic" and "Republic" were both sold to the Holland America Line and respectively renamed "Veendam" and "Maasdam", after which they were put into service on the company's main trans-Atlantic route between Rotterdam and New York. "Veendam" was lost at sea without loss of life after striking a submerged object in 1898, while "Maasdam" was again sold in 1902 to La Veloce Navigazione Italiana and renamed "Citta di Napoli", after which she was used as an emigrant ship for an additional eight years before being sold for scrap at Genoa in 1910. In 1893, by which time "Teutonic" and "Majestic" had established themselves on the North Atlantic run, White Star sold "Celtic" to the Danish Thingvalla Line, who renamed her "Amerika" and attempted to use her for their own emigrant service from Copenhagen to New York. This, however, failed to prove profitable for the line and she was sold for scrap at Brest in 1898.


title: White Star Line

text: Beginning in the late 1890s, White Star experienced an explosion of rapid growth and expansion of its services, highlighted by a dramatic shift in focus from building the fastest ships on the North Atlantic to building the most comfortable and luxurious. Their first step in this direction came in 1897 during the construction of a new ship, . Initially designed as an enlarged version of the livestock carrier , which had entered service in 1895, "Cymric" had been planned as a combination passenger and livestock carrier, and thus was not designed with engines necessary to qualify her for the express service maintained by "Britannic", "Germanic", "Teutonic" and "Majestic". However, while she was under construction at Harland & Wolff, a decision was made to convert spaces aboard her designated for cattle into Third Class accommodations after it was deemed that carrying passengers and livestock aboard the same vessel would likely not prove a popular venture. Therefore, in addition to the accommodations planned for 258 First Class passengers, her designs were altered to include berthing for 1,160 Third Class passengers.


title: White Star Line

text: Overall, her modest layout and design placed her between the elderly but well reputable "Britannic" and "Germanic" and the more modern "Teutonic" and "Majestic". Measuring just over 13,000 tons and with a length of and a beam of , she was to be the largest liner in the White Star fleet. Additionally, her more utilitarian appearance with a single funnel and four masts contrasted against her four running mates considerably. Due to this design, she was considered the first of White Star's 'intermediate' liners. However, as a result of this partial transition from livestock carrier to passenger liner, "Cymric" came to attain several noteworthy advantages which White Star would employ on several other liners. While her passenger accommodations had been modified, the specifications of her machinery and engines were left in place. Like "Teutonic" and "Majestic", "Cymric" was fitted with twin screws, but was instead powered by quadruple expansion engines capable of achieving a modest speed of commonly seen in cargo and livestock carriers of that time. The major difference was that because these engines were designed for more modest speeds, they were considerably smaller and required only seven boilers, leaving more space within the hull for passenger and crew accommodations. At the same time, this also meant she consumed much less coal than steamers designed with larger engines, making her more economical. "Cymric" was launched at Harland & Wolff in October 1897 and entered service in February 1898, and in time proved a popular and profitable addition to the fleet.


title: White Star Line

text: In the early months of 1897, while "Cymric" was still under construction at Harland & Wolff, it became clear to Thomas Ismay and other company officials that a new addition to the North Atlantic fleet was needed, as White Star's fleet was starting to lag behind those of their competitors, such as Cunard and North German Lloyd. By this point, the only remaining ship of the original "Oceanic" class of liners was "Adriatic", which had been in service for 25 years and was starting to show her age. "Britannic" and "Germanic" were equally outdated, and with advancements in shipbuilding during the 1890s, "Teutonic" and "Majestic" had been eclipsed by several newer vessels, most recently by North German Lloyd's . In response, Ismay and his partners at Harland & Wolff set out to design two new liners for the North Atlantic run which would, in a fashion similar to how "Teutonic" and "Majestic" had done, go down in shipbuilding history.


title: White Star Line

text: The new steamers, which were intended to be named and "Olympic", were designed to be both the largest and most luxurious the world had ever seen. In March 1897, the first keel plates for "Oceanic" were laid at Harland & Wolff, but almost immediately problems arose. Due to the fact that a vessel of this size had never been built, work on the ship was delayed until an overhead gantry crane could be built. Her launch on 14 January 1899 drew an immense crowd of spectators numbering more than 50,000, as "Oceanic" would be the last British transatlantic liner to be launched in the 19th century, as well as the first to exceed the "Great Eastern" in length. She measured in length, with a beam of and had a gross register tonnage of 17,254, making her a full 42% larger than North German Lloyd's "Kaiser Wilhelm Der Grosse". Like "Teutonic" and "Majestic", "Oceanic" was designed with capabilities to be converted to an armed merchant cruiser in time of war if needed, specifications for which included her to be built with a double-plated hull and turrets on her upper decks which could be quickly mounted with guns. She was also built with triple expansion engines geared to twin screws capable of achieving a respectable, if not record breaking, service speed of . Additionally, she had a considerably larger passenger capacity of just over 1,700, providing for 410 First Class, 300 Second Class and 1,000 Third Class passengers.


title: White Star Line

text: "Oceanic" sailed on her maiden voyage from Liverpool on 6 September 1899, arriving in New York to much fanfare on the morning of 13 September with 1,456 passengers aboard, many of whom were satisfied with how the crossing had gone. Among those travelling aboard in First Class were Harland & Wolff's managing director, Lord Pirrie, and Thomas Andrews, who had designed "Oceanic" under Thomas Ismay's direction. At the same time "Oceanic" had departed from Liverpool, a fireman's strike had been ensuing at the docks, which in turn meant she sailed with a boiler room crew consisting of fewer men than her specifications called for. Thus, during her maiden voyage, she maintained an average speed of just under .


title: White Star Line

text: Thomas Ismay was unable to enjoy the fruits of his labour. Just a few weeks after "Oceanic" was launched, he began complaining of pains in his chest, from whence his health steadily began to decline. In fact, his health began to deteriorate so rapidly that managers of both White Star and Harland & Wolff decided to cancel plans to construct "Olympic". The name was shelved, only to be reused 12 years later. His health improved for a brief time, allowing him to visit "Oceanic" upon her completion in Belfast that July. During his visit, Belfast officials awarded him with a key to the city, citing his contributions to the local economy and to British merchant shipping. Unfortunately, in late August he took a turn for the worse and he underwent two operations to alleviate his ailment, both of which proved unsuccessful, and he suffered a heart attack on 14 September. He lingered in worsening agony for another ten weeks until his death on 23 November 1899 at the age of 62. In the immediate aftermath, control of the company was passed to Thomas' son Bruce, who was named chairman of the line.


title: White Star Line

text: With the death of Thomas Ismay, his eldest son, Bruce, took over. He was joined at the helm of Ismay, Imrie & Co. by his friend Harold Sanderson in addition to the members already present, notably the now elderly William Imrie and his brother, James Ismay. The company was very quickly involved in the Second Boer War, with several of its ships being requisitioned, starting with the cargo ship in October 1899. Several ships quickly followed, notably "Britannic", which had become surplus to requirements on the North Atlantic route. A total of ten ships were assisting in the war effort, six of them as part of their regular service. 17,000 men and 4,000 animals were transported to the conflict by White Star vessels in just over two years.


title: White Star Line

text: Even before "Oceanic" had been completed, White Star had already started making plans for a considerably larger addition to their fleet. In September 1898, before his health began failing, Thomas Ismay negotiated the terms for the orders for the last passenger liner he would ever order for the line he had built. This time, plans were essentially the same as they had been with "Oceanic", only taking considerably more steps in innovation. While staying with the trend in focusing more on comfort than speed as had been set with "Cymric" and "Oceanic", Ismay's plans called for a new passenger liner of dimensions the world had never seen, and her chosen name was to be , a name taken and reused from the original "Oceanic" class. The initial designs for "Celtic" had her at in length, slightly shorter than "Oceanic", but with a greater breadth of . Additionally, while "Oceanic" had set the record for length, "Celtic" would triumph in tonnage, measuring just over 20,000 tons.