title: Cerebral edema

text: Cerebral edema is present with many common cerebral pathologies and risk factors for development of cerebral edema will depend on the cause. The following were reliable predictors for development of early cerebral edema in ischemic strokes.


title: Cerebral edema

text: Cerebral edema has been traditional classified into two major sub-types: cytotoxic and vasogenic cerebral edema. This simple classification helps guide medical decision making and treatment of patients affected with cerebral edema. There are, however, several more differentiated types including but not limited to interstitial, osmotic, hydrostatic, and high altitude associated edema. Within one affected person, many individual sub-types can be present simultaneously.


title: Cerebral edema

text: In general, cytotoxic edema is linked to cell death in the brain through excessive cellular swelling. During cerebral ischemia for example, the blood–brain barrier remains intact but decreased blood flow and glucose supply leads to a disruption in cellular metabolism and creation of energy sources, such as adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Exhaustion of energy sources impairs functioning of the sodium and potassium pump in the cell membrane, leading to cellular retention of sodium ions. Accumulation of sodium in the cell causes a rapid uptake of water through osmosis, with subsequent swelling of the cells. The ultimate consequence of cytotoxic edema is the oncotic death of neurons. The swelling of the individual cells of the brain is the main distinguishing characteristic of cytotoxic edema, as opposed to vasogenic edema, wherein the influx of fluid is typically seen in the interstitial space rather than within the cells themselves. Researchers have proposed that "cellular edema" may be more preferable to the term "cytotoxic edema" given the distinct swelling and lack of consistent "toxic" substance involved.


title: Cerebral edema

text: Extracellular brain edema, or vasogenic edema, is caused by an increase in the permeability of the blood–brain barrier. The blood–brain barrier consists of astrocytes and pericytes joined together with adhesion proteins producing tight junctions. Return of blood flow to theses cells after an ischemic stroke can cause excitotoxicity and oxidative stress leading to dysfunction of the endothelial cells and disruption of the blood-brain barrier. The breakdown of the tight endothelial junctions that make up the blood–brain barrier causes extravasation of fluid, ions, and plasma proteins, such as albumin, into the brain parenchyma. Accumulation of extracellular fluid increases brain volume and then intracranial pressure causing the symptoms of cerebral edema.


title: Cerebral edema

text: In ionic edema, the solute concentration (osmolality) of the brain exceeds that of the plasma and the abnormal pressure gradient leads to accumulation of water intake into the brain parenchyma through the process of osmosis. The blood-brain barrier is intact and maintains the osmotic gradient.


title: Cerebral edema

text: Ionic brain edema can also occur around the sites of brain hemorrhages, infarcts, or contusions due to a local plasma osmolality pressure gradient when compared to the high osmolality in the affected tissue.


title: Cerebral edema

text: Interstitial edema can be best characterized by in noncomunnicating hydrocephalus where there is an obstruction to the outflow of cerebrospinal fluid within the ventricular system. The obstruction creates a rise in the intraventricular pressure and causes CSF to flow through the wall of the ventricles into the extracellular fluid within brain. The fluid has roughly the same composition of CSF.


title: Cerebral edema

text: Other causes of interstitial edema include but are not limited to communicating hydrocephalus, and normal pressure hydrocephalus.


title: Cerebral edema

text: Hydrostatic extracellular brain edema is typically caused by severe arterial hypertension. A difference in the hydrostatic pressure within the arterial system relative to the endothelial cells allows ultrafiltration of water, ions, and low molecular weight substances (such as glucose, small amino acids) into the brain parenchyma. The blood-brain barrier is intact usually and the extent of the edema depends on the arterial pressure. The regulatory processes of the brain circulation can function up to systolic arterial pressures of 150 mm Hg and will have impaired function at higher blood pressures.


title: Cerebral edema

text: Cytotoxic, osmotic, and vasogenic edema exist on a continuum. The mechanism of the cause of cerebral edema can often overlap between these types. In most instances, cytotoxic and vasogenic edema occur together. When the two edema types evolve simultaneously, the damage of one type reaches a limit and will bring about the other type of injury. For example, when cytotoxic edema occurs in the endothelial cells of the blood–brain barrier, oncotic cell death contributes to loss of integrity of the blood–brain barrier and promotes the progression to vasogenic edema. When brain edema types are combined, there is typically a primary form and the edema type and context of the cause must be determined in order to start appropriate medical or surgical therapy. The use of specific MRI techniques has allowed for some differentiation between the mechanisms.


title: Cerebral edema

text: If not properly acclimatized to high altitude, a person may be negatively affected by the lower oxygen concentration available. These hypoxia-related illnesses include acute mountain sickness (AMS), high-altitude pulmonary edema, and high-altitude cerebral edema (HACE). High-altitude cerebral edema is a severe and sometimes fatal form of altitude sickness that results from capillary fluid leakage due to the effects of hypoxia on the mitochondria-rich endothelial cells of the blood–brain barrier. The edema can be characterized by vasogenic cerebral edema with symptoms of impaired consciousness and truncal ataxia.


title: Cerebral edema

text: Altitude-related illnesses can be prevented most effectively with slow ascent to high altitudes, an average ascent of 300 to 500 meters per day is recommended. Pharmacological prophylaxis with acetazoloamide or corticosteroids can be used in non pre-acclimatized individuals. If symptoms of high-altitude cerebral edema do not resolve or worsen, immediate descent is necessary, and symptoms can be improved with administration of dexamethasone.


title: Cerebral edema

text: Amyloid-related imaging abnormalities (ARIA) are abnormal differences seen in neuroimaging of Alzheimer's disease patients given targeted amyloid-modifying therapies. Human monoclonal antibodies such as aducanumab, solanezumab, and bapineuzumab have been associated with these neuroimaging changes and additionally, cerebral edema. These therapies are associated with dysfunction of the tight endothelial junctions of the blood-brain barrier, leading to vasogenic edema as described above. In addition to edema, these therapies are associated with microhemorrhages in the brain known as ARIA-H. Familiarity with ARIA can aid radiologists and clinicians in determining optimal management for those affected.


title: Cerebral edema

text: Posterior reversible encephalopathy syndrome (PRES) is a rare clinical disease characterized by cerebral edema. The exact pathophysiology, or cause, of the syndrome is still debated but is hypothesized to be related to the disruption of the blood-brain barrier. The syndrome features acute neurological symptoms and reversible subcortical vasogenic edema predominantly involving the parieto-occipital areas on MR imaging. PRES in general has a benign course, but PRES-related intracranial hemorrhage has been associated with a poor prognosis.


title: Cerebral edema

text: Deep brain stimulation (DBS) is effective treatment for several neurological and psychiatric disorders, most notably Parkinson's disease. DBS is not without risks and although rare, idiopathic delayed-onset edema (IDE) surrounding the DBS leads have been reported. Symptoms can be mild and nonspecific, including reduction of the stimulation effect, and can be confused for other causes of edema. Thus, imaging is recommended to rule out other causes. The condition is generally self-limiting and the exact mechanism of the cause is unexplained. Early identification can help persons affected avoid unnecessary surgical procedures or antibiotic treatments.


title: Cerebral edema

text: Decompressive craniectomy is frequently performed in cases of resistant intracranial hypertension secondary to several neurological conditions and is commonly followed by cranioplasty. Complications, such as infection and hematomas after cranioplasty occur in roughly about a third of cases. Massive brain swelling after cranioplasty (MSBC) is a rare and potentially fatal complication of an uneventful cranioplasty that has recently been elucidated. Preoperative sinking skin flap (SSF) and intracranial hypotension were factors associated with the development of MSBC after cranioplasty. Data suggests that pathologic changes are triggered immediately following the procedure, especially an acute increase in intracranial pressure.


title: Cerebral edema

text: With the rise of sophisticated treatment modalities such as gamma knife, Cyberknife, and intensity-modulated radiotherapy, a large number of individuals with brain tumors are treated with radiosurgery and radiotherapy. Radiation-induced brain edema (RIBE) is a potentially life threatening complication of brain tissue radiation and is characterized radiation necrosis, endothelial cell dysfunction, increased capillary permeability, and breakdown of the blood–brain barrier. Symptoms include headache, seizure, psychomotor slowing, irritability, and focal neurological deficits. Options for management of RIBE are limited and include corticosteroids, antiplatelet drugs, anticoagulants, hyperbaric oxygen therapy, multivitamins, and bevacizumab.


title: Cerebral edema

text: This kind of cerebral edema is a significant cause of morbidity and mortality in patients with brain tumors and characterized by a disruption of the blood brain barrier and vasogenic edema. The exact mechanism is unclear but hypothesized that cancerous glial cells (glioma) of the brain can increase secretion of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), which weakens the tight junctions of the blood–brain barrier. Historically, corticosteroids such as dexamethasone were used to reduce brain tumor-associated vascular permeability through poorly understood mechanisms and was associated with systemic side effects. Agents that target the VEGF signaling pathways, such as cediranib, have been promising in prolonging survival in "rat" models but associated with local and systemic side effects as well.


title: Cerebral edema

text: Cerebral edema is commonly present in a variety of neurological injuries. Thus, determining a definitive contribution of cerebral edema to the neurological status of an affected person can be challenging. Close bedside monitoring of a person's level of consciousness and awareness of any new or worsening focal neurological deficits is imperative but demanding, frequently requiring admission into the intensive care unit (ICU).


title: Cerebral edema

text: Cerebral edema with sustained increased intracranial hypertension and brain herniation can signify impending catastrophic neurological events which require immediate recognition and treatment to prevent injury and even death. Therefore, diagnosis of cerebral edema earlier with rapid intervention can improve clinical outcomes and can mortality, or risk of death.


title: Cerebral edema

text: Serial neuroimaging (CT scans and magnetic resonance imaging) can be useful in diagnosing or excluding intracranial hemorrhage, large masses, acute hydrocephalus, or brain herniation as well as providing information on the type of edema present and the extent of affected area. CT scan is the imaging modality of choice as it is widely available, quick, and with minimal risks. However, CT scan can be limited in determining the exact cause of cerebral edema in which cases, CT angiography (CTA), MRI, or digital subtraction angiography (DSA) may be necessary. MRI is particularly useful as it can differentiate between cytotoxic and vasogenic edema, guiding future treatment decisions.


title: Cerebral edema

text: Intracranial pressure (ICP) and its management is a fundamental concept in traumatic brain injury (TBI). The Brain Trauma Foundation guidelines recommend ICP monitoring in individuals with TBI that have decreased Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) scores, abnormal CT scans, or additional risk factors such as older age and elevated blood pressure. However, no such guidelines exist for ICP monitoring in other brain injuries such as ischemic stroke, intracerebral hemorrhage, cerebral neoplasm.


title: Cerebral edema

text: Clinical researches have recommended ICP and cerebral perfusion pressure (CPP) monitoring in any persons with cerebral injury who are at risk of elevated intracranial pressure based on clinical and neuroimaging features. Early monitoring can be used to guide medical and surgical decision making and to detect potentially life-threatening brain herniation. There was however, conflicting evidence on the threshold values of ICP that indicated the need for intervention. Researches also recommend that medical decisions should be tailored to the specific diagnosis (e.g. subarachnoid hemorrhage, TBI, encephalitis) and that ICP elevation should be used in conjunction with clinical and neuroimaging and not as an isolated prognostic marker.


title: Cerebral edema

text: The primary goal in cerebral edema is to optimize and regulate cerebral perfusion, oxygenation, and venous drainage, decrease cerebral metabolic demands, and to stabilize the osmolality pressure gradient between the brain and the surrounding vasculature. As cerebral edema is linked to increased intracranial pressure (ICP), many of the therapies will focus on ICP.


title: Cerebral edema

text: Finding the optimal head position in persons with cerebral edema is necessary to avoid compression of the jugular vein and obstruction of venous outflow from the skull, and for decreasing cerebrospinal fluid hydrostatic pressure. The current recommendation is to elevate the head of the bed to 30 degrees to optimize cerebral perfusion pressure and control the increase in intracranial pressure. It is also worth noting that measures should taken to reduce restrictive neck dressings or garments as these may lead to compression of the internal jugular veins and reduce venous outflow.


title: Cerebral edema

text: Decreased oxygen concentration in the blood, hypoxia, and increase in the carbon dioxide concentration in the blood, hypercapnia, are potent vasodilators in the cerebral vasculature, and should be avoided in those with cerebral edema. It is recommended that persons with decreased levels of consciousness be intubated for airway protection and maintenance of oxygen and carbon dioxide levels. However, the laryngeal instrumentation involved in the intubation process is associated with a acute, brief rise in intracranial pressure. Pretreatment with a sedative agent and neuromuscular blocking agent to induce unconsciousness and motor paralysis has been recommended as part of standard Rapid Sequence Intubation (RSI). Intravenous lidocaine prior to RSI has been suggested to reduce the rise in ICP but there is no supporting data at this time.


title: Cerebral edema

text: Additionally, ventilation with use of positive pressure (PEEP) can improve oxygenation with the negative effect of decreasing cerebral venous drainage and increasing intracranial pressure (ICP), and thus, must be used with caution.


title: Cerebral edema

text: Maintenance of cerebral perfusion pressure using appropriate fluid management is essential in patients with brain injury. Dehydration, or intravascular volume loss, and the use of hypotonic fluids, such as D5W or half normal saline, should be avoided. Blood serum ion concentration, or osmolality, should be maintained in the normo to hyperosmolar range. Judicial use of hypertonic saline can be used to increase serum osmolality and decrease cerebral edema, as discussed below.


title: Cerebral edema

text: Blood pressure should be sufficient so as to sustain cerebral perfusion pressures greater than 60 mm Hg for optimal blood blow to the brain. Vasopressors may be used to achieve adequate blood pressures with minimal risk of increasing intracranial pressures. However, sharp rises in blood pressure should be avoided. Maximum blood pressures tolerated are variable and controversial depending on the clinical situation.


title: Cerebral edema

text: Seizures, including subclinical seizure activity, can complicate clinical courses and increase progression of brain herniation in persons with cerebral edema and increased intracranial pressure. Anticonvulsants can be used to treat seizures caused by acute brain injuries from a variety of origins. However, there are no clear guidelines on the use of anticonvulsants for prophylactic use. Their use may be warranted on depending on the clinical scenario and studies have shown that anticonvulsants such as phenytoin can be given prophylactically without a significant increase in drug-related side effects.


title: Cerebral edema

text: Fever has been demonstrated to increase metabolism and oxygen demand in the brain. The increased metabolic demand results in an increase in cerebral blood flow and can increase the intracranial pressure within the skull. Therefore, maintaining a stable body temperature within the normal range is strongly recommended. This can be achieved through the use of antipyretics such as acetaminophen (paracetamol) and cooling the body, as described below.


title: Cerebral edema

text: Elevated blood glucose levels, known as hyperglycemia, can exacerbate brain injury and cerebral edema and has been associated with worse clinical outcomes in persons affected by traumatic brain injuries, subarachnoid hemorrhages, and ischemic strokes.


title: Cerebral edema

text: Pain and agitation can worsen cerebral edema, acutely increase intracranial pressure (ICP), and should be controlled. Careful use of pain medication such as morphine or fentanyl can be used for analgesia. For those persons with decreased levels of consciousness, sedation is necessary for endotracheal intubation and maintenance of a secure airway. Sedative medication used in the intubation process, specifically propofol, have been shown to control ICP, decrease cerebral metabolic demand, and have antiseizure properties. Due to a short half-life, propofol, is a quick-acting medication whose administration and removal is well tolerated, with hypotension being the limiting factor in its continued use. Additionally, the use of nondepolarizing neuromusclar blocking agents (NMBA), such as doxacurium or atracurium, have been indicated to facilitate ventilation and manage brain injuries but there are no controlled studies on the use of NMBAs in the management of increased intracranial pressure. Depolarizing neuromuscular blocking agents, most notably succinylcholine, can worsen increased ICP due to induction of muscle contraction within the body.


title: Cerebral edema

text: Nutritional support is necessary in all patients with acute brain injury. Enteral feeding, or through mouth via tube, is the preferred method, unless contraindicated. Additional attention must be placed on the solute concentration of the formulations to avoid free water intake, decreased serum osmolality, and worsening of the cerebral edema.


title: Cerebral edema

text: Elevated blood glucose, or hyperglycemia, is associated with increased edema in patients with cerebral ischemia and increases the risk of a hemorrhagic transformation of ischemic stroke. Maintaining a normal blood glucose level of less than 180 mg/dL is suggested. However, tight glycemic control of blood glucose under 126 mg/dL is associated with worsening of stroke size.


title: Cerebral edema

text: Although cerebral edema is closely related to increased intracranial pressure (ICP) and cerebral herniation and the general treatment strategies above are useful, the treatment should ultimately be tailored to the primary cause of the symptoms. The management of individual diseases are discussed separately.


title: Cerebral edema

text: The following interventions are more specific treatments for managing cerebral edema and increased ICP:


title: Cerebral edema

text: The goal of osmotic therapy is to create a higher concentration of ions within the vasculature at the blood–brain barrier. This will create an osmotic pressure gradient and will cause the flow of water out of the brain and into the vasculature for drainage elsewhere. An ideal osmotic agent produces a favorable osmotic pressure gradient, is nontoxic, and is not filtered out by the blood–brain barrier. Hypertonic saline and mannitol are the main osmotic agents in use, while loop diuretics can aid in the removal of the excess fluid pulled out of the brain.


title: Cerebral edema

text: Glucocorticoids, such as dexamethasone, have been shown to decrease tight-junction permeability and stabilize the blood-brain barrier. Their main use has been in the management of vasogenic cerebral edema associated with brain tumors, brain irradiation, and surgical manipulation. Glucocorticoids have not been shown to have any benefit in ischemic stroke and have been found to be harmful in traumatic brain injury. Due to the negative side effects (such as peptic ulcers, hyperglycemia, and impairment of wound healing), steroid use should be restricted to cases where they are absolutely indicated.


title: Cerebral edema

text: As mentioned previously, hypoxia and hypercapnia are potent vasodilators in the cerebral vasculature, leading to increased cerebral blood flow (CBF) and worsening of cerebral edema. Conversely, therapeutic hyperventilation can be used to lower the carbon dioxide content in the blood and reduce ICP through vasoconstriction. The effects of hyperventilation, although effective, are short-lived and once removed, can often lead to a rebound elevation of ICP. Furthermore, overaggressive hyperventilation and vasoconstriction and lead to severe reduction in CBF and cause cerebral ischemia, or strokes. As a result, standard practice is to slowly reverse hyperventilation while more definitive treatments aimed at the primary cause are instituted.


title: Cerebral edema

text: It is important to note that prolonged hyperventilation in those with traumatic brain injuries has been shown to worsen outcomes.


title: Cerebral edema

text: Induction of a coma via the use of barbiturates, most notably pentobarbital and thiopental, after brain injury is used for secondary treatment of refractory ICP. Yet their use is not without controversy and it is not clear whether barbiturates are favored over surgical decompression. In patients with traumatic brain injuries, barbiturates are effective in reducing ICP but have failed to show benefit to clinical outcomes. Evidence is limited for their use in cerebral disease that include tumor, intracranial hypertension, and ischemic stroke. There are several adverse effects of barbiturates that limit their use, such as lowering of systemic blood pressure and cerebral perfusion pressure, cardiodepression, immunosuppression, and systemic hypothermia.


title: Cerebral edema

text: As discussed previously in the treatment of fever, temperature control has been shown to decrease metabolic demand and reduce further ischemic injury. In traumatic brain injury, induced hypothermia may reduce the risks of mortality, poor neurologic outcome in adults. However, outcomes varied greatly depth and duration of hypothermia as well as rewarming procedures. In children with traumatic brain injury, there was no benefit to therapeutic hypothermia and increased the risk of mortality and arrhythmia. The adverse effects of hypothermia are serious and require clinical monitoring including increased chance of infection, coagulopathy, and electrolyte derangement. The current consensus is that adverse effects outweigh the benefits and its use restricted to clinical trials and refractory increased ICP to other therapies.


title: Cerebral edema

text: The Monroe-Kellie doctrine states that the skull is a fixed and inelastic space and the accumulation of edema will compress vital brain tissue and blood vessels. Surgical treatment of cerebral edema in the context of cerebellar or cerebral infarction is typically done by removing part of the skull to allow expansion of the dura. This will help to reduce the volume constraints inside of the skull. A decompressive hemicraniectomy is the most commonly used procedure. Multiple randomized clinical trials have shown reduced risk of death with hemicraniectomy compared with medical management. However, no individual study has shown an improvement in the percentage of survivors with good functional outcomes.


title: Cerebral edema

text: Timing of decompressive craniectomy remains controversial, but is generally suggested that the surgery is best performed before there are clinical signs of brainstem compression. Postoperative complications include wound dehiscence, hydrocephalus, infection, and a substantial proportion of patients may also require tracheostomy and gastrotomy in the early phase after surgery.


title: Cerebral edema

text: Cerebral edema is a severe complication of acute brain injuries, most notably ischemic stroke and traumatic brain injuries, and a significant cause of morbidity and mortality.


title: Cerebral edema

text: As cerebral edema is present with many common cerebral pathologies, the epidemiology of the disease is not easily defined. The incidence of this disorder should be considered in terms of its potential causes and is present in most cases of traumatic brain injury, central nervous system tumors, brain ischemia, and intracerebral hemorrhage.


title: Cerebral edema

text: The current understanding of the pathophysiology of cerebral edema after traumatic brain injury or intracerebral hemorrhage is incomplete. Current treatment therapies aimed at cerebral edema and increased intracranial pressure are effective at reducing intracranial hypertension but have unclear impacts on functional outcomes. Additionally, cerebral and ICP treatments have varied effects on individuals based on differing characteristics like age, gender, type of injury, and genetics. There are innumerable molecular pathways that contribute to cerebral edema, many of which have yet to be discovered. Researchers argue that the future treatment of cerebral edema will be based on advances in identifying the underlying pathophysiology and molecular characteristics of cerebral edema in a variety of cases. At the same time, improvement of radiographic markers, biomarkers, and analysis of clinical monitoring data is essential in treating cerebral edema.


title: Cerebral edema

text: Many studies of the mechanical properties of brain edema were conducted in the 2010s, most of them based on finite element analysis (FEA), a widely used numerical method in solid mechanics. For example, Gao and Ang used the finite element method to study changes in intracranial pressure during craniotomy operations. A second line of research on the condition looks at thermal conductivity, which is related to tissue water content.


title: Garry Marshall

text: Garry Kent Marshall (November 13, 1934 – July 19, 2016) was an American filmmaker and actor. He started his career in the 1960s writing for "The Lucy Show" and "The Dick Van Dyke Show" before he developed Neil Simon's 1965 play "The Odd Couple" for television in 1970. He gained fame for creating "Happy Days" (1974–1984), "Laverne and Shirley" (1976–1983), and "Mork and Mindy" (1978–1982). He is also known for directing "The Flamingo Kid" (1984), "Overboard" (1987), "Beaches" (1988), "Pretty Woman" (1990), "Runaway Bride" (1999), and the family films "The Princess Diaries" (2001) and "" (2004). He also directed the romantic comedy ensemble films "Valentine's Day" (2010), "New Year's Eve" (2011), and "Mother's Day" (2016).


title: Garry Marshall

text: Garry Kent Marshall was born in the Bronx, New York City, on November 13, 1934, the only son and the eldest child of Anthony "Tony" Masciarelli (later Anthony Wallace Marshall; 1906–1999), a director of industrial films and producer, and Marjorie Irene (née Ward; 1908–1983), the owner and teacher in a tap dance school. He was the brother of actress-director Penny Marshall and Ronny Marshall Hallin, a television producer. His father was of Italian descent, his family having come from San Martino sulla Marrucina, Chieti, Abruzzo, and his mother was of German, English, and Scottish ancestry. His father changed his last name from Masciarelli to Marshall before his son Garry was born. Garry Marshall was baptized Presbyterian and also raised Lutheran for a time.


title: Garry Marshall

text: He attended De Witt Clinton High School and Northwestern University, where he wrote a sports column for "The Daily Northwestern", and was a member of the Alpha Tau Omega fraternity. Beginning in 1956, Marshall served a stint in the U.S. Army as a writer for "Stars and Stripes" and "Seoul News", and was production chief for Armed Forces Radio Network; serving in Korea.


title: Garry Marshall

text: Marshall began his career as a joke writer for such comedians as Joey Bishop and Phil Foster and became a writer for "The Tonight Show" with Jack Paar. He originally partnered with writer Fred Freeman.


title: Garry Marshall

text: In 1961, he and Freeman moved to Hollywood, where they broke into writing sitcoms on "The Joey Bishop Show". Freeman, however, found that he did not enjoy sitcom work, and moved back to New York. Marshall teamed up with writing partner Jerry Belson, and the two worked together through the 1960s. The pair worked on "The Dick Van Dyke Show", "The Joey Bishop Show", "The Danny Thomas Show", and "The Lucy Show". Their first television series as creator-producers was "Hey, Landlord", which lasted one season (1966–67). Then they adapted Neil Simon's play "The Odd Couple" for television. Moving into the 1970s, Marshall worked on his own or with others, and created "Happy Days", "Laverne & Shirley" (starring his sister Penny, who had earlier had a recurring role on "The Odd Couple"), and "Mork & Mindy", which were produced by his associates Thomas L. Miller, Robert L. Boyett, and Edward K. Milkis. He was also a co-creator of "Makin' It", which the three men also produced.


title: Garry Marshall

text: In the early 1980s, he met Héctor Elizondo while playing basketball, and they became great friends. Elizondo appeared in every film that Marshall directed, beginning with his first feature film "Young Doctors in Love". Elizondo once noted that he is written into all of Marshall's contracts whether he wanted to do the film or not. In the opening credits of "Exit to Eden", their eighth film together, Elizondo is credited "As Usual ... Hector Elizondo". In 1984, Marshall had a film hit as the writer and director of "The Flamingo Kid". Of all Marshall's films, Elizondo had his biggest role in "The Flamingo Kid" as main character Matt Dillon's father.


title: Garry Marshall

text: Marshall had several responsibilities during this period of his career: most of his hit television series were created and executive produced by him. His first producing assignment came with "Hey, Landlord" in 1966. He stepped up the next year, producing "The Lucy Show". Then came successes in producing "The Odd Couple", "Laverne & Shirley", "Blansky's Beauties", "Mork & Mindy", "Angie", and "Happy Days".


title: Garry Marshall

text: One such project titled "Four Stars" was directed by Lynda Goodfriend (who portrayed Lori Beth in "Happy Days"), and was based on a play Goodfriend had read when she was studying at the Lee Strasberg Center, which had been written by John Schulte and Kevin Mahoney. It starred Julie Paris (the daughter of Jerry Paris) and Bert Kramer. Schulte later co-wrote with TV veteran writer and producer Fred Fox Jr., who penned and produced a number of Marshall's television series, including "Happy Days" and "Laverne & Shirley". Marshall went on to focus on directing feature films, with a series of hits, such as "Beaches", "Pretty Woman", "The Princess Diaries", "Valentine's Day", and "New Year's Eve".


title: Garry Marshall

text: Marshall was also an actor, appearing in "Murphy Brown" and in such films as "Soapdish", "On the Lot", his sister's "A League Of Their Own" and Albert Brooks' "Lost in America", and provided a guest-starring voice for "The Simpsons" episodes "Eight Misbehavin' and "Homer the Father" (one of his first roles as an undercover cop in the counter-culture drama Psych-Out starring Jack Nicholson). He appeared in two episodes of "Happy Days" as a drummer. He was a drummer in the second last scene of "The Princess Diaries 2: Royal Engagement" and he plays a drummer in his film "Overboard".


title: Garry Marshall

text: His theater credits included "Wrong Turn at Lungfish", which he wrote in collaboration with Lowell Ganz, "The Roast" with Jerry Belson, "Shelves" and "Happy Days: A New Musical" with Paul Williams, which had its premiere at the Falcon Theater in Burbank, California, February 24, 2006. He portrayed the role of "director" on Burbank's "Lights... camera... action!" float in the 2014 Rose Parade. In 2014, Marshall appeared in a guest star role in a February episode in season 11 of "Two and a Half Men".


title: Garry Marshall

text: Marshall married Barbara Sue Wells on March 9, 1963. They had three children, including Scott Marshall. His daughters are Lori Marshall (who he co-wrote a book with) and Kathleen Marshall (who appeared in all of his films).


title: Garry Marshall

text: On the morning of July 19, 2016, Marshall, aged 81, died at a hospital in Burbank, California, due to complications of pneumonia after suffering a stroke.


title: Garry Marshall

text: Henry Winkler paid tribute to Marshall on "Barry" in 2019 and SAG-AFTRA made a Memoriam Tribute to Marshall on the SAG Awards in 2019. Also, Julia Roberts paid tribute to Marshall in "", in 2018.


title: Garry Marshall

text: In 1996, Marshall was awarded the Women in Film Lucy Award in recognition of excellence and innovation in creative works that have enhanced the perception of women through the medium of television. He was inducted into the Television Hall of Fame for his contributions to the field of television in 1997.


title: Garry Marshall

text: Marshall received the Valentine Davies Award (1995) and Laurel Award for TV Writing Achievement (2014) from the Writers Guild of America.


title: Alejandro Jodorowsky

text: Best known for his 1970s films "El Topo" and "The Holy Mountain", Jodorowsky has been "venerated by cult cinema enthusiasts" for his work which "is filled with violently surreal images and a hybrid blend of mysticism and religious provocation".


title: Alejandro Jodorowsky

text: Born to Jewish-Ukrainian parents in Chile, Jodorowsky experienced an unhappy and alienated childhood, and so immersed himself in reading and writing poetry. Dropping out of college, he became involved in theater and in particular mime, working as a clown before founding his own theater troupe, the "Teatro Mimico", in 1947. Moving to Paris in the early 1950s, Jodorowsky studied traditional mime under Étienne Decroux, and put his miming skills to use in the silent film "Les têtes interverties" (1957), directed with Saul Gilbert and Ruth Michelly. From 1960 onwards he divided his time between Mexico City and Paris, where he co-founded Panic Movement, a surrealist performance art collective that staged violent and shocking theatrical events. In 1966 he created his first comic strip, "Anibal 5", and in 1967 he directed his first feature film, the surrealist "Fando y Lis", which caused a huge scandal in Mexico, eventually being banned.


title: Alejandro Jodorowsky

text: His next film, the acid western "El Topo" (1970), became a hit on the midnight movie circuit in the United States, considered as the first-ever midnight cult film, and garnered high praise from John Lennon, who convinced former Beatles manager Allen Klein to provide Jodorowsky with $1 million to finance his next film. The result was "The Holy Mountain" (1973), a surrealist exploration of western esotericism. Disagreements with Klein, however, led to both "The Holy Mountain" and "El Topo" failing to gain widespread distribution, although both became classics on the underground film circuit. After a cancelled attempt at filming Frank Herbert's 1965 science fiction novel "Dune", Jodorowsky produced five more films: the family film "Tusk" (1980); the surrealist horror "Santa Sangre" (1989); the failed blockbuster "The Rainbow Thief" (1990); and the first two films in a planned five-film autobiographical series "The Dance of Reality" (2013) and "Endless Poetry" (2016).


title: Alejandro Jodorowsky

text: Jodorowsky is also a comic book writer, most notably the science fiction series "The Incal" throughout the 1980s, which has been described as having a claim to be "the best comic book" ever written. Other comic books he has written include "The Technopriests" and "Metabarons". Jodorowsky has also extensively written and lectured about his own spiritual system, which he calls "psychomagic" and "psychoshamanism", which borrows from alchemy, the tarot, Zen Buddhism and shamanism. His son Cristóbal has followed his teachings on psychoshamanism; this work is captured in the feature documentary "Quantum Men", directed by Carlos Serrano Azcona.


title: Alejandro Jodorowsky

text: Jodorowsky was born in 1929 in the coastal town of Tocopilla, Chile, to parents who were Jewish immigrants from Yekaterinoslav (now Dnipro), Elisavetgrad (now Kropyvnytskyi) and other cities of the Russian Empire (now Ukraine). His father, Jaime Jodorowsky Groismann, was a merchant, who was largely abusive to his wife Sara Felicidad Prullansky Arcavi, and at one time accused her of flirting with a customer. Angered, he subsequently beat and raped her, getting her pregnant, which led to the birth of Alejandro. Because of this brutal conception, Sara both hated her husband and disliked her son, telling him that "I cannot love you" and rarely showing him tenderness. Alejandro also had an elder sister, Raquel Jodorowsky, but disliked her, for he believed that she was selfish, doing "everything to expel me from the family so that she could be the centre of attention." Alongside his dislike for his family, he also held contempt for many of the local people, who viewed him as an outsider because of his status as the son of immigrants, and also for the American mining industrialists who worked locally and treated the Chilean people badly. It was this treatment at the hands of Americans that led to his later condemnation of American imperialism and neo-colonialism in Latin America in several of his films. Nonetheless, he liked his local area, and was greatly unhappy when he was forced to leave it at the age of nine years old, something for which he blamed his father. His family subsequently moved to the city of Santiago, Chile.


title: Alejandro Jodorowsky

text: He immersed himself in reading, and also began writing poetry, having his first poem published when he was sixteen years old, alongside associating with such Chilean poets as Nicanor Parra, Stella Díaz Varín and Enrique Lihn. Becoming interested in the political ideology of anarchism, he began attending college, studying psychology and philosophy, but stayed for only two years. After dropping out, and having an interest in theatre and particularly mime, he took up employment as a clown in a circus and began a career as a theatre director. Meanwhile, in 1947 he founded his own theatrical troupe, the Teatro Mimico, which by 1952 had fifty members, and the following year he wrote his first play, "El Minotaura" ("The Minotaur"). Nonetheless, Jodorowsky felt that there was little for him left in Chile, and so that year he moved to Paris.


title: Alejandro Jodorowsky

text: It was while in Paris that Jodorowsky began studying mime with Étienne Decroux and joined the troupe of one of Decroux's students, Marcel Marceau. It was with Marceau's troupe that he went on a world tour, and wrote several routines for the group, including "The Cage" and "The Mask Maker". After this, he returned to theatre directing, working on the music hall comeback of Maurice Chevalier in Paris. In 1957, Jodorowsky turned his hand to filmmaking, creating "Les têtes interverties" ("The Severed Heads"), a 20-minute adaptation of Thomas Mann's novella. It consisted almost entirely of mime, and told the surreal story of a head-swapping merchant who helps a young man find courtship success. Jodorowsky played the lead role. The director Jean Cocteau admired the film, and wrote an introduction for it. It was considered lost until a print of the film was discovered in 2006.


title: Alejandro Jodorowsky

text: In 1960, Jodorowsky moved to Mexico, where he settled down in Mexico City. Nonetheless, he continued to return occasionally to France, on one occasion visiting the Surrealist artist André Breton, but he was disillusioned in that he felt Breton had become somewhat conservative in his old age. Continuing his interest in surrealism, in 1962 he founded the Panic Movement along with Fernando Arrabal and Roland Topor. The movement aimed to go beyond the conventional surrealist ideas by embracing absurdism. Its members refused to take themselves seriously, while laughing at those critics who did. In 1966 he produced his first comic strip, "Anibal 5", which was related to the Panic Movement. The following year he created a new feature film, "Fando y Lis", loosely based on a play written by Fernando Arrabal, who was working with Jodorowsky on performance art at the time. "Fando y Lis" premiered at the 1968 Acapulco Film Festival, where it instigated a riot amongst those objecting to the film's content, and subsequently it was banned in Mexico.


title: Alejandro Jodorowsky

text: It was in Mexico City that he encountered Ejo Takata (1928–1997), a Zen Buddhist monk who had studied at the Horyuji and Shofukuji monasteries in Japan before traveling to Mexico via the United States in 1967 to spread Zen. Jodorowsky became a disciple of Takata and offered his own house to be turned into a zendo. Subsequently, Takata attracted other disciples around him, who spent their time in meditation and the study of koans. Eventually, Takata instructed Jodorowsky that he had to learn more about his feminine side, and so he went and befriended the English surrealist Leonora Carrington, who had recently moved to Mexico.


title: Alejandro Jodorowsky

text: In 1970, Jodorowsky released the film "El Topo", which sometimes is known in English as "The Mole", which he had both directed and starred in. An acid western, "El Topo" tells the story of a wandering Mexican bandit and gunslinger, El Topo (played by Jodorowsky), who is on a search for spiritual enlightenment, taking his young son along with him. Along the way, he violently confronts a number of other individuals, before finally being killed and being resurrected to live within a community of deformed people who are trapped inside a mountain cave. Describing the work, he stated that "I ask of film what most North Americans ask of psychedelic drugs. The difference being that when one creates a psychedelic film, he need not create a film that shows the visions of a person who has taken a pill; rather, he needs to manufacture the pill." Knowing how "Fando y Lis" had caused such a scandal in Mexico, Jodorowsky decided not to release "El Topo" there, instead focusing on its release in other countries across the world, including Mexico's northern neighbour, the United States. It was in New York City where the film would play as a "midnight movie" for several months at Ben Barenholtz's Elgin Theater. It attracted the attention of rock musician and countercultural figure John Lennon, who thought very highly of it, and convinced the president of The Beatles' company Apple Corps, Allen Klein, to distribute it in the United States.


title: Alejandro Jodorowsky

text: Klein agreed to give Jodorowsky $1 million to go toward creating his next film. The result was "The Holy Mountain", released in 1973. It has been suggested that "The Holy Mountain" may have been inspired by René Daumal's Surrealist novel "Mount Analogue". "The Holy Mountain" was another complex, multi-part story that featured a man credited as "The Thief" and equated with Jesus Christ, a mystical alchemist played by Jodorowsky, seven powerful business people representing seven of the planets (Venus and the six planets from Mars to Pluto), a religious training regimen of spiritual rebirth, and a quest to the top of a holy mountain for the secret of immortality. During the completion of "The Holy Mountain", Jodorowsky received spiritual training from Oscar Ichazo of the Arica School, who encouraged him to take LSD and guided him through the subsequent psychedelic experience. Around the same time (2 November 1973), Jodorowsky participated in an isolation tank experiment conducted by John Lilly.


title: Alejandro Jodorowsky

text: Shortly thereafter, Allen Klein demanded that Jodorowsky create a film adaptation of Pauline Réage's classic novel of female masochism, "Story of O". Klein had promised this adaptation to various investors. Jodorowsky, who had discovered feminism during the filming of "The Holy Mountain", refused to make the film, going so far as to leave the country to escape directing duties. In retaliation, Allen Klein made "El Topo" and "The Holy Mountain", to which he held the rights, completely unavailable to the public for more than 30 years. Jodorowsky frequently decried Klein's actions in interviews.


title: Alejandro Jodorowsky

text: Soon after the release of "The Holy Mountain", Jodorowsky gave a talk at the Teatro Julio Castillo, University of Mexico on the subject of koans (despite the fact that he initially had been booked on the condition that his talk would be about cinematography), at which Ejo Takata appeared. After the talk, Takata gave Jodorowsky his kyosaku, believing that his former student had mastered the art of understanding koans.


title: Alejandro Jodorowsky

text: In December 1974, a French consortium led by Jean-Paul Gibon purchased the film rights to Frank Herbert's epic 1965 science fiction novel "Dune" and asked Jodorowsky to direct a film version. Jodorowsky planned to cast the Surrealist artist Salvador Dalí, in what would have been his only speaking role as a film actor, in the role of Emperor Shaddam IV. Dalí agreed when Jodorowsky offered to pay him a fee of $100,000 per hour. He also planned to cast Orson Welles as Baron Vladimir Harkonnen; Welles only agreed when Jodorowsky offered to get his favourite gourmet chef to prepare his meals for him throughout the filming. The book's protagonist, Paul Atreides, was to be played by Jodorowsky's son, Brontis Jodorowsky, 12 years old at the start of pre-production. The music would be composed by Pink Floyd and Magma. Jodorowsky set up a pre-production unit in Paris consisting of Chris Foss, a British artist who designed covers for science fiction publications, Jean Giraud (Mœbius), a French illustrator who created and also wrote and drew for "Métal Hurlant" magazine, and H. R. Giger. Frank Herbert travelled to Europe in 1976 to find that $2 million of the $9.5 million budget had already been spent in pre-production, and that Jodorowsky's script would result in a 14-hour movie ("It was the size of a phonebook", Herbert later recalled). Jodorowsky took creative liberties with the source material, but Herbert said that he and Jodorowsky had an amicable relationship. The production for the film collapsed when no film studio could be found willing to fund the movie to Jodorowsky's terms. The aborted production was chronicled in the documentary "Jodorowsky's Dune". Subsequently, the rights for filming were sold to Dino De Laurentiis, who employed the American filmmaker David Lynch to direct, creating the film "Dune" in 1984. The documentary does not include any original film footage of what was to be "Jodorowsky's Dune" but does make extraordinary claims as to the influence this unmade film had on other actual science fiction films, such as "Star Wars", "Alien", "The Terminator", "Flash Gordon" and "Raiders of the Lost Ark".


title: Alejandro Jodorowsky

text: After the collapse of the "Dune" project, Jodorowsky completely changed course and, in 1980, premiered his children's fable "Tusk", shot in India. Taken from Reginald Campbell's novel "Poo Lorn of the Elephants", the film explores the soul-mate relationship between a young British woman living in India and a highly prized elephant. The film exhibited little of the director's outlandish visual style and was never given wide release.


title: Alejandro Jodorowsky

text: In 1989, Jodorowsky completed the Mexican-Italian production "Santa Sangre" ("Holy Blood"). The film received limited theatrical distribution, putting Jodorowsky back on the cultural map despite its mixed critical reviews. "Santa Sangre" was a surrealistic slasher film with a plot like a mix of Alfred Hitchcock's "Psycho" with Robert Wiene's "The Hands of Orlac". It featured a protagonist who, as a child, saw his mother lose both her arms, and as an adult let his own arms act as hers, and so was forced to commit murders at her whim. Several of Jodorowsky's sons were recruited as actors.


title: Alejandro Jodorowsky

text: He followed in 1990 with a very different film, "The Rainbow Thief". Though it gave Jodorowsky a chance to work with the "movie stars" Peter O'Toole and Omar Sharif, the executive producer, Alexander Salkind, effectively curtailed most of Jodorowsky's artistic inclinations, threatening to fire him on the spot if anything in the script was changed (Salkind's wife, Berta Domínguez D., wrote the screenplay).


title: Alejandro Jodorowsky

text: In 1995, Alejandro's son, Teo, died in an accident while his father was busy preparing for a trip to Mexico City to promote his new book. Upon arriving in Mexico City, he gave a lecture at the Julio Castillo Theatre where he once again met Ejo Takata, who at this time had moved into a poor suburb of the city where he had continued to teach meditation and Zen. Takata would die two years later, and Jodorowsky would never get to see his old friend again.


title: Alejandro Jodorowsky

text: In 2000, Jodorowsky won the Jack Smith Lifetime Achievement Award from the Chicago Underground Film Festival (CUFF). Jodorowsky attended the festival and his films were shown, including "El Topo" and "The Holy Mountain", which at the time had grey legal status. According to festival director Bryan Wendorf, it was an open question of whether CUFF would be allowed to show both films, or whether the police would show up and shut the festival down.


title: Alejandro Jodorowsky

text: Until 2007, "Fando y Lis" and "Santa Sangre" were the only Jodorowsky works available on DVD. Neither "El Topo" nor "The Holy Mountain" were available on videocassette or DVD in the United States or the United Kingdom, due to ownership disputes with distributor Allen Klein. After settlement of the dispute in 2004, however, plans to re-release Jodorowsky's films were announced by ABKCO Films. On 19 January 2007, it was announced online that Anchor Bay would release a box set including "El Topo", "The Holy Mountain", and "Fando y Lis" on 1 May 2007. A limited edition of the set includes both the "El Topo" and "The Holy Mountain" soundtracks. And, in early February 2007, Tartan Video announced its 14 May 2007, release date for the UK "PAL DVD" editions of "El Topo", "The Holy Mountain", and the six-disc box set which, alongside the aforementioned feature films, includes the two soundtrack CDs, as well as separate DVD editions of Jodorowsky's 1968 debut feature "Fando y Lis" (with his 1957 short "La cravate" a.k.a. "Les têtes interverties", included as an extra) and the 1994 feature-length documentary "La constellation Jodorowsky". Notably, "Fando y Lis" and "La cravate" were digitally restored extensively and remastered in London during late 2006, thus providing a suitable complement to the quality restoration work undertaken on "El Topo" and "The Holy Mountain" in the States by ABKCO, and ensuring that the presentation of "Fando y Lis" is a significant improvement over the 2001 Fantoma DVD edition. Prior to the availability of these legitimate releases, only inferior quality, optically censored, bootleg copies of both "El Topo" and "The Holy Mountain" have been circulated on the Internet and on DVD.


title: Alejandro Jodorowsky

text: In the 1990s and early 2000s, Jodorowsky attempted to make a sequel to "El Topo", called at different times "The Sons of El Topo" and "Abel Cain", but did not find investors for the project.


title: Alejandro Jodorowsky

text: In an interview with "Premiere Magazine", Jodorowsky said he intended his next project to be a gangster film called "King Shot". In an interview with "The Guardian" newspaper in November 2009, however, Jodorowsky revealed that he was unable to find the funds to make "King Shot", and instead would be entering preparations on "Sons of El Topo", for which he claimed to have signed a contract with "some Russian producers".


title: Alejandro Jodorowsky

text: In 2010, the Museum of Arts and Design in New York City staged the first American cinema retrospective of Alejandro Jodorowsky entitled "Blood into Gold: The Cinematic Alchemy of Alejandro Jodorowsky". Jodorowsky would attend the retrospective and hold a master class on art as a way of transformation. This retrospective would inspire the museum MoMA PS1 to present the exhibition "Alejandro Jodorowsky: The Holy Mountain" in 2011.


title: Alejandro Jodorowsky

text: In August 2011, Alejandro arrived in a town in Chile where he grew up, also the setting of his autobiography "The Dance of Reality", to promote an autobiographical film based upon his book.


title: Alejandro Jodorowsky

text: On 31 October 2011, Halloween night, the Museum of Modern Art (New York City) honored Jodorowsky by showing "The Holy Mountain". He attended and spoke about his work and life. The next evening, he presented "El Topo" at the Walter Reade Theatre at Lincoln Center.


title: Alejandro Jodorowsky

text: Alejandro has stated that after finishing "The Dance of Reality" he was preparing to shoot his long-gestating "El Topo" sequel, "Abel Cain". By January 2013, Alejandro finished filming on "The Dance of Reality" and entered into post-production. Alejandro's son and co-star in the film, Brontis, claimed the film was to be finished by March 2013, and that the film was "very different than the other films he made". On 23 April, it was announced that the film would have its world premiere at the Film Festival in Cannes. coinciding with "The Dance of Reality" premiered alongside the documentary film "Jodorowsky's Dune", which premiered in May 2013 at the Cannes Film Festival, creating a "Jodorowsky double bill".


title: Alejandro Jodorowsky

text: In 2015, Jodorowsky began a new film entitled "Endless Poetry", the sequel to his last "auto-biopic", "The Dance of Reality". His Paris-based production company, Satori Films, launched two successful crowdfunding campaigns to finance the film. The Indiegogo campaign has been left open indefinitely, receiving donations from fans and movie-goers in support of the independent production. The film was shot between June and August 2015, in the streets of Matucana in Santiago, Chile, where Jodorowsky lived for a period in his life. The film portrays his young adulthood in Santiago, years during which he became a core member of the Chilean poetic avant-garde alongside artists such as Hugo Marín, Gustavo Becerra, Enrique Lihn, Stella Díaz Varín, Nicanor Parra and others. Jodorowsky's son, Adan Jodorowsky, plays him as an adult and Brontis Jodorowsky, plays as his father Jaime. Jeremias Herskovitz, from "The Dance of Reality", portrays Jodorowsky as a teenager. Pamela Flores plays as Sara (his mother) and Stella Díaz Varín (poetess and young Jodorowsky's girlfriend). Leandro Taub portrays Jodorowsky's best friend, the poet and novelist Enrique Lihn. The film premiered in the Directors' Fortnight section of the Cannes Film Festival on 14 May 2016. Variety's review was overwhelmingly positive, calling it "...the most accessible movie he has ever made, and it may also be the best."


title: Alejandro Jodorowsky

text: During an interview at the Cannes Film Festival in 2016, Jodorowsky announced his plans to finally make "The Son of El Topo" as soon as financial backing is obtained.


title: Alejandro Jodorowsky

text: Jodorowsky is a weekly contributor of "good news" to the nightly "author news report" of his friend, Fernando Sánchez Dragó in Telemadrid.


title: Alejandro Jodorowsky

text: He also released a 12" vinyl with the Original Soundtrack of Zarathustra (Discos Tizoc, Mexico, 1970).


title: Alejandro Jodorowsky

text: He has cited the filmmaker Federico Fellini as his primary cinematic influence; other artistic influences included George Gurdjieff, Antonin Artaud, and Luis Buñuel. He has been described as an influence on such figures as Marilyn Manson, David Lynch, Nicolas Winding Refn, Jan Kounen, Dennis Hopper, and Kanye West.


title: Alejandro Jodorowsky

text: Jodorowsky started his comic career in Mexico with the creation of "Anibal 5" series in mid-1966 with illustrations by Manuel Moro. He also drew his own comic strip in the weekly series "Fabulas pánicas" that appeared in the Mexican newspaper, "El Heraldo de México". He also wrote original stories for at least two or three other comic books in Mexico during those days: "Los insoportables Borbolla" was one of them. After his fourth film, "Tusk", he started "The Incal", with Jean Giraud (Mœbius). This graphic novel has its roots deep in the tarot and its symbols, e.g., the protagonist of "The Incal", John Difool, is linked to the Fool card. "The Incal" (which would branch off into a prequel and sequel) forms the first in a sequence of several science fiction comic book series, all set in the same space opera Jodoverse (or "Metabarons Universe") published by Humanoids Publishing.


title: Alejandro Jodorowsky

text: Comic books set in this milieu are Incal (trilogy: "Before the Incal / Incal / Final Incal"), Metabarons (trilogy: "Castaka / The Caste of the Metabarons / Weapons of the Metabaron"), and "The Technopriests" and also an RPG adaptation, "The Metabarons Roleplaying Game". Many ideas and concepts derived from Jodorowsky's planned adaptation of "Dune" (which he would have been loosely based upon Frank Herbert's original novel) are featured in this universe.


title: Alejandro Jodorowsky

text: Mœbius and Jodorowsky sued Luc Besson, director of "The Fifth Element", claiming that the 1997 film borrowed graphic and story elements from "The Incal", but they lost their case. The suit was plagued by ambiguity since Mœbius had willingly participated in the creation of the film, having been hired by Besson as a contributing artist, but had done so without gaining the approval of "Incal" co-creator Jodorowsky, whose services Besson did not call upon. For more than a decade, Jodorowsky pressured his publisher Les Humanoïdes Associés to sue Luc Besson for plagiarism, but the publisher refused, fearing the inevitability of the outcome. In a 2002 interview with the Danish comic book magazine "Strip!", Jodorowsky stated that he considered it an honour that somebody stole his ideas.


title: Alejandro Jodorowsky

text: Other comics by Jodorowsky include the Western "Bouncer" illustrated by Francois Boucq, "Juan Solo" ("Son of the Gun"), and "Le Lama blanc" ("The White Lama"), the latter were illustrated by Georges Bess.


title: Alejandro Jodorowsky

text: "Le Cœur couronné" ("The Crowned Heart", translated into English as "The Madwoman of the Sacred Heart"), a racy satire on religion set in contemporary times, won Jodorowsky and his collaborator, Jean Giraud, the 2001 Haxtur Award for Best Long Strip. He is currently working on a new graphic novel for the U.S. market.


title: Alejandro Jodorowsky

text: Jodorowsky's comic book work also appears in "Taboo" volume 4 (ed. Stephen R. Bissette), which features an interview with the director, designs for his version of Frank Herbert's Dune, comic storyboards for "El Topo", and a collaboration with Moebius with the illustrated "Eyes of the Cat".


title: Alejandro Jodorowsky

text: Jodorowsky collaborated with Milo Manara in "Borgia" (2006), a graphic novel about the history of the House of Borgia.


title: Alejandro Jodorowsky

text: Jodorowsky spent almost a decade reconstructing the original form of the Tarot de Marseille. From this work he moved into more therapeutic work in three areas: psychomagic, psychogenealogy and initiatic massage. Psychomagic aims to heal psychological wounds suffered in life. This therapy is based on the belief that the performance of certain acts can directly act upon the unconscious mind, releasing it from a series of traumas, some of which practitioners of the therapy believe are passed down from generation to generation. Psychogenealogy includes the studying of the patient's personality and family tree in order to best address their specific sources. It is similar, in its phenomenological approach to genealogy, to the Constellations pioneered by Bert Hellinger.


title: Alejandro Jodorowsky

text: Jodorowsky has several books on his therapeutic methods, including "Psicomagia: La trampa sagrada" ("Psychomagic: The Sacred Trap") and his autobiography, "La danza de la realidad" ("The Dance of Reality"), which he was filming as a feature-length film in March 2012. To date he has published more than 23 novels and philosophical treatises, along with dozens of articles and interviews. His books are widely read in Spanish and French, but are for the most part unknown to English-speaking audiences.


title: Alejandro Jodorowsky

text: For a quarter of a century, Jodorowsky held classes and lectures for free, in cafés and universities all over the city of Paris. Typically, such courses or talks would begin on Wednesday evenings as tarot divination lessons, and would culminate in an hour long conference, also free, where at times hundreds of attendees would be treated to live demonstrations of a psychological "arbre généalogique" ("tree of genealogy") involving volunteers from the audience. In these conferences, Jodorowsky would pave the way to building a strong base of students of his philosophy, which deals with understanding the unconscious as the "over-self", composed of many generations of family relatives, living or deceased, acting on the psyche, well into adult lives, and causing compulsions. Of all his work, Jodorowsky considers these activities to be the most important of his life. Though such activities only take place in the insular world of Parisian cafés, he has devoted thousands of hours of his life to teaching and helping people "become more conscious," as he puts it.


title: Alejandro Jodorowsky

text: Since 2011 these talks have dwindled to once a month and take place at the Librairie Les Cent Ciels in Paris.


title: Alejandro Jodorowsky

text: His film "Psychomagic, a Healing Art" premiered in Lyon on 3 September 2019. It was then released on streaming services on 1 August 2020.


title: Alejandro Jodorowsky

text: He has cited the filmmaker Federico Fellini as his primary cinematic influence; other artistic influences included Jean-Luc Godard, Sergio Leone, Erich von Stroheim, Buster Keaton, George Gurdjieff, Antonin Artaud, and Luis Buñuel. He has been described as an influence on such figures as Marilyn Manson, David Lynch, Darren Aronofsky, Taika Waititi, Guillermo del Toro, Nicolas Winding Refn, Jan Kounen, Dennis Hopper, Eric Andre, and Kanye West.


title: Alejandro Jodorowsky

text: Jodorowsky's first wife was the actress Valérie Trumblay. He is currently married to the artist and costume designer Pascale Montandon.


title: Alejandro Jodorowsky

text: He has five children: Brontis Jodorowsky, an actor who worked with his father in "El Topo", "The Dance of Reality" and "Endless Poetry"; Teo, who played in "Santa Sangre"; Cristóbal, a psychoshaman and an actor (interpreter in "Santa Sangre" and the main character in the shamanic documentary "Quantum Men"); Eugenia Jodorowsky; and the youngest, Adan Jodorowsky, a musician known by his stage name of Adanowsky. The fashion model Alma Jodorowsky is the granddaughter of Alejandro.


title: Alejandro Jodorowsky

text: Two of his children are deceased: Teo in 1995 (due to overdose, aged 24) and Cristóbal in 2022, aged 57.


title: Alejandro Jodorowsky

text: He does not drink or smoke, and has stated that he does not eat red meat or poultry because he "does not like corpses", basing his diet on vegetables, fruits, grains and occasionally marine products.


title: Alejandro Jodorowsky

text: Fans included musicians Peter Gabriel, Cedric Bixler-Zavala and Omar Rodríguez-López of The Mars Volta, Brann Dailor of Mastodon, Luke Steele and Nick Littlemore (of the pop-duo Empire of the Sun). Wes Borland, guitarist of Limp Bizkit, said that the film "Holy Mountain" was a big influence on him, especially as a visual artist, and that the concept album "Lotus Island" of his band Black Light Burns was a tribute to it.


title: Alejandro Jodorowsky

text: Jodorowsky was interviewed by Daniel Pinchbeck for the Franco-German television show "Durch die Nacht mit …" on the TV station Arte, in a very personal discussion, spending a night together in France, continuing the interview in different locations such as a park and a hotel.


title: Alejandro Jodorowsky

text: Danish director Nicolas Winding Refn thanks Alejandro Jodorowsky in the ending titles of his 2011 film "Drive," and dedicated his 2013 Thai crime thriller, "Only God Forgives", to Jodorowsky. Jodorowsky also appeared in the documentary "My Life Directed by Nicolas Winding Refn", directed by Refn's wife Liv, giving the couple a tarot reading.


title: Alejandro Jodorowsky

text: Argentinean actor Leandro Taub thanks Alejandro Jodorowsky in his book "La Mente Oculta", for which Jodorowsky wrote the prologue.


title: Alejandro Jodorowsky

text: When Jodorowsky's first feature film, "Fando y Lis", premiered at the 1968 Acapulco Film Festival, the screening was controversial and erupted into a riot, due to its graphic content. Jodorowsky had to leave the theatre by sneaking outside to a waiting limousine, and when the crowd outside the theatre recognized him, the car was pelted with rocks. The following week, the film opened to sell-out crowds in Mexico City, but more fights broke out, and the film was banned by the Mexican government. Jodorowsky himself was nearly deported and the controversy provided a great deal of fodder for the Mexican newspapers.


title: Alejandro Jodorowsky

text: As a result of these alleged statements, Jodorowsky has been criticised. Matt Brown of Screen Anarchy wrote that "it's easier to wall off a certain type of criminality behind the buffer of time—sure, Alejandro Jodorowsky is on the record in his book on the making of the film as having raped Mara Lorenzo while making El Topo—though he later denied it—but nowadays he's just that hilarious old kook from Jodorowsky's Dune!" Emmet Asher-Perrin of Tor.com called Jodorowsky "an artist who condones rape as a means to an end for the purpose of creating art. A man who seems to believe that rape is something that women 'need' if they can't accept male sexual power on their own". Sady Doyle of "Elle" wrote that Jodorowsky "has been teasing the idea of an unsimulated rape scene in his cult classic film "El Topo" for decades ... though he's elsewhere described the unsimulated sex in that scene as consensual", and went on to state that the quote "has not endangered his status as an avant-garde icon".


title: Alejandro Jodorowsky

text: On 26 June 2017, Jodorowsky released a statement on his Facebook account in response to the question: "Did you rape an actress during the filming of "El Topo"?" The following excerpts are from said statement:


title: Alejandro Jodorowsky

text: Beginning with "The Incal" in 1981, Jodorowsky has co-written and produced a series of linked comics series and graphic novels () for the French-language market known colloquially as the Jodoverse. The series was initially developed with Jean Giraud using concepts and designs created for Jodorowky's unfinished "Dune" project.


title: 6

text: 6 (six) is the natural number following 5 and preceding 7. It is a composite number and the smallest perfect number.


title: 6

text: Six is the smallest positive integer which is neither a square number nor a prime number; it is the second smallest composite number, behind 4; its proper divisors are , and .


title: 6

text: Since 6 equals the sum of its proper divisors, it is a perfect number; 6 is the smallest of the perfect numbers. It is also the smallest Granville number, or formula_1-perfect number.


title: 6

text: Unrelated to 6's being a perfect number, a Golomb ruler of length 6 is a "perfect ruler". Six is a congruent number.


title: 6

text: Six is the first discrete biprime (2 × 3) and the first member of the (2 × "q") discrete biprime family.


title: 6

text: Six is a unitary perfect number, a primary pseudoperfect number, a harmonic divisor number and a superior highly composite number, the last to also be a primorial.


title: 6

text: There are no Graeco-Latin squares with order 6. If "n" is a natural number that is not 2 or 6, then there is a Graeco-Latin square with order "n".


title: 6

text: There is not a prime formula_2 such that the multiplicative order of 2 modulo formula_2 is 6, that is, formula_4


title: 6

text: By Zsigmondy's theorem, if formula_5 is a natural number that is not 1 or 6, then there is a prime formula_2 such that formula_7. See for such formula_2.


title: 6

text: The ring of integer of the sixth cyclotomic field , which is called Eisenstein integer, has 6 units: ±1, ±ω, ±ω, where formula_9.


title: 6

text: "S", with 720 = 6! elements, is the only finite symmetric group which has an outer automorphism. This automorphism allows us to construct a number of exceptional mathematical objects such as the S(5,6,12) Steiner system, the projective plane of order 4 and the Hoffman-Singleton graph. A closely related result is the following theorem: 6 is the only natural number "n" for which there is a construction of "n" isomorphic objects on an "n"-set "A", invariant under all permutations of "A", but not naturally in one-to-one correspondence with the elements of "A". This can also be expressed category theoretically: consider the category whose objects are the "n" element sets and whose arrows are the bijections between the sets. This category has a non-trivial functor to itself only for .


title: 6

text: Six similar coins can be arranged around a central coin of the same radius so that each coin makes contact with the central one (and touches both its neighbors without a gap), but seven cannot be so arranged. This makes 6 the answer to the two-dimensional kissing number problem. The densest sphere packing of the plane is obtained by extending this pattern to the hexagonal lattice in which each circle touches just six others.


title: 6

text: A six-sided polygon is a hexagon, one of the three regular polygons capable of tiling the plane. Figurate numbers representing hexagons (including six) are called hexagonal numbers. Because 6 is the product of a power of 2 (namely 2) with nothing but distinct Fermat primes (specifically 3), a regular hexagon is a constructible polygon.


title: 6

text: The six exponentials theorem guarantees (given the right conditions on the exponents) the transcendence of at least one of a set of exponentials.


title: 6

text: There are six different ways in which 100 can be expressed as the sum of two prime numbers -- 3 + 97, 11 + 89, 17 + 83, 29 + 71, 41 + 59 and 47 + 53.


title: 6

text: The evolution of our modern digit 6 appears rather simple when compared with the other digits. The modern 6 can be traced back to the Brahmi numerals of India, which are first known from the Edicts of Ashoka circa 250 BCE. It was written in one stroke like a cursive lowercase e rotated 90 degrees clockwise. Gradually, the upper part of the stroke (above the central squiggle) became more curved, while the lower part of the stroke (below the central squiggle) became straighter. The Arabs dropped the part of the stroke below the squiggle. From there, the European evolution to our modern 6 was very straightforward, aside from a flirtation with a glyph that looked more like an uppercase G.


title: 6

text: On the seven-segment displays of calculators and watches, 6 is usually written with six segments. Some historical calculator models use just five segments for the 6, by omitting the top horizontal bar. This glyph variant has not caught on; for calculators that can display results in hexadecimal, a 6 that looks like a "b" is not practical.


title: 6

text: Just as in most modern typefaces, in typefaces with text figures the character for the digit 6 usually has an ascender, as, for example, in .


title: 6

text: This digit resembles an inverted "9". To disambiguate the two on objects and documents that can be inverted, the 6 has often been underlined, both in handwriting and on printed labels.


title: Natalya Neidhart

text: Natalie Katherine Neidhart-Wilson (born May 27, 1982) is a Canadian-American professional wrestler and columnist. She is currently signed to WWE, where she performs on the SmackDown brand under the ring name Natalya. She is a two-time women's world champion, having won the Divas Championship and SmackDown Women's Championship once each. She was also a one-time WWE Women's Tag Team Champion with Tamina. She is a third generation professional wrestler, and is also the daughter of Hart Foundation member and Hall of Famer Jim Neidhart.


title: Natalya Neidhart

text: Neidhart is a member of the Hart wrestling family through her mother. She trained in the Hart family Dungeon under the tutelage of her uncles Ross and Bruce Hart. From 2000–2001, she worked for the Matrats promotion, before debuting for Stampede Wrestling in 2003. In 2004 and 2005, she wrestled abroad in England and Japan. She became the inaugural Stampede Women's Pacific Champion in 2005, and won the SuperGirls Championship the following year.


title: Natalya Neidhart

text: In 2007, Neidhart signed with WWE and spent time in Deep South Wrestling, Ohio Valley Wrestling, and Florida Championship Wrestling (FCW) developmental territories. While in FCW, she managed her cousin, Harry Smith, and her husband, T.J. Wilson. She debuted on the main roster in 2008, allying herself with Victoria. The following year she and Wilson were joined by Smith to form The Hart Dynasty.


title: Natalya Neidhart

text: In 2010, Neidhart won the Divas Championship. In 2017, she became the SmackDown Women's Champion after defeating Naomi at SummerSlam. She is the first woman in WWE history to hold both the Divas Championship and the SmackDown Women's Championship. Since July 2013, Neidhart has been a main cast member of the reality television series "Total Divas". She has set three records as recognized by the Guinness Book of World Records for female WWE wrestlers – most pay-per-view appearances, most matches, and most wins.


title: Natalya Neidhart

text: Neidhart is the daughter of wrestler Jim "The Anvil" Neidhart and Elizabeth “Ellie” Hart, a daughter of Stu Hart, making Neidhart a third generation wrestler. She has two sisters; her older sister, Jennifer, is a gourmet chef and caterer, and Kristen (nicknamed "Muffy") is her younger sister. She is of Greek descent through a maternal great-grandmother. Neidhart cites her grandfather, Stu, and her uncle, Bret, as her inspirations, both in and out of the ring. As a member of the Hart wrestling family, she is a cousin to Harry Smith, Teddy, Matt, and Mike Hart, who are all also professional wrestlers. She is close friends with Smith, and the two lived together for a short time as children while their fathers were wrestling as a team.


title: Natalya Neidhart

text: Neidhart attended Vincent Massey junior high school and Bishop Carroll High School, from which she graduated in 2000. Neidhart is trained in Jiu-Jitsu and amateur wrestling, and also participated in dance and gymnastics. She briefly worked as a saleswoman for Kirby vacuum when she was eighteen.


title: Natalya Neidhart

text: Neidhart received formal professional wrestling training in the Hart family "Dungeon" from her uncles Ross and Bruce Hart, becoming the first woman to do so. In addition to her professional wrestling career, Neidhart has received training in amateur wrestling and mixed martial arts.


title: Natalya Neidhart

text: In late 2000 through 2001, she served as the host and ring announcer of the Eric Bischoff led youth-promotion MatRats.


title: Natalya Neidhart

text: In 2003, she began working for the Hart Family's own promotion, Stampede Wrestling, beginning a long time feud with Belle Lovitz. The pair wrestled each other repeatedly, including a match for the Prairie Wrestling Alliance, where Neidhart teamed with her father, Jim "The Anvil" Neidhart, against Lovitz and Apocalypse. In 2004, however, Neidhart and Lovitz formed a tag team, wrestling several intergender matches against The Meyers Brothers as well as against Anna and Ma Myers.


title: Natalya Neidhart

text: In mid-2004, she began accepting bookings for a tour in England, and in March 2005, started on a two-month tour of Japan where she used the name Nadia Hart. When she returned to Canada she promptly turned into a villainous character, labeling herself "Nasty Nattie". On June 17, 2005, she defeated Anna Marie, Lovitz, and Ma Myers in a four-way match to become the first Stampede Women's Pacific Champion, though she later vacated the championship. In November 2005, Neidhart damaged her cruciate ligament while wrestling in Japan, and underwent surgery in early 2006. She was sidelined for six months while she recovered.


title: Natalya Neidhart

text: On October 8, 2006, Neidhart won the SuperGirls Championship from Lisa Moretti at a Big Time Wrestling show held by in Newark, California. She held the championship for 19 days, before losing it to Nikki Matthews on October 27 in Surrey, British Columbia. Also in October 2006, she debuted in the all-female promotion, Shimmer Women Athletes. She lost to Sara Del Rey at the tapings of Volume 7, but defeated "The Portuguese Princess" Ariel at the Volume 8 tapings.


title: Natalya Neidhart

text: The following month she competed in the tournament to determine Great Canadian Wrestling's inaugural W.I.L.D. Champion, and defeated Danyah and Aurora en route to the final, where she lost to Sirelda. She had her last match for Stampede Wrestling on January 26, 2007, after she had signed with World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE), defeating Veronika Vice. During the show, she also delivered a speech thanking the fans for their support.


title: Natalya Neidhart

text: On January 5, 2007, Neidhart signed a contract with WWE. Upon signing she was assigned to their developmental territory Deep South Wrestling for the first half of the year, competing against wrestlers including Krissy Vaine and Angel Williams. She was briefly transferred to Florida Championship Wrestling when it opened in June, and then moved to Ohio Valley Wrestling (OVW), debuting in a dark match at the television tapings on July 18, 2007, where she won a battle royal. She debuted the next week as a member of the Next Generation Hart Foundation, accompanying her cousins Teddy Hart and Harry Smith for tag team matches. In September, she and the rest of the Hart Foundation were moved back to FCW. Initially, Neidhart formed an alliance with Victoria Crawford to take on The Bella Twins (Nikki and Brie Bella), but in 2008, the pair began competing against one another, either in singles matches or in tag team matches with various partners. She continued to make appearances in FCW in late 2008, after debuting on "SmackDown", and managed TJ Wilson and DH Smith (Harry Smith) to the FCW Florida Tag Team Championship on October 30.


title: Natalya Neidhart

text: On the April 4 episode of "SmackDown" she made her main roster debut, as a villainous character, when she came out of the crowd to aid Victoria in an attack against McCool and Cherry, forming an alliance with her in the process. On the April 11, 2008, episode of "SmackDown!", she introduced herself as the daughter of Jim Neidhart under the name Natalya Neidhart, accompanying Victoria to her match against Michelle McCool. Two weeks later on "SmackDown" she made her televised in-ring debut, under the shortened ring name Natalya, defeating Cherry with her uncle's submission move the "sharpshooter". At the Backlash pay–per–view on April 27 Natalya teamed up with Victoria, Beth Phoenix, Jillian Hall, Layla and Melina to defeat Mickie James, Maria Kanellis, Ashley, Michelle McCool, Cherry and Kelly Kelly in a 12-Diva tag team match. On the May 2 episode of "SmackDown", Victoria and Natalya defeated McCool and Cherry.<ref name="SmackDown 02/10/08 results"></ref> On the June 6 episode of "SmackDown", SmackDown General Manager Vickie Guerrero introduced the Divas Championship, and that same night the Divas competed in a Golden Dreams match to qualify for the championship match at The Great American Bash. Natalya won and advanced to the Bash, but lost the Championship match to Michelle McCool.


title: Natalya Neidhart

text: Natalya and Victoria started a feud with the debuting Brie Bella, after Victoria lost to her on the August 29 episode of "SmackDown". On the September 26 episode of "SmackDown", Victoria and Natalya lost to Maria and Brie.<ref name="SmackDown 09/26/08 results"></ref> On the October 31 episode of "SmackDown", Natalya teamed up with Victoria and Maryse during a Divas Halloween costume tag team match in a losing effort to Michelle McCool, Maria and Brie.<ref name="SmackDown 10/31/08 results"></ref> On the November 7 episode of "SmackDown", Natalya accompanied Victoria to her match against Brie, where she was once again defeated. Post-match, Brie ran under the ring to escape from Natalya and Victoria, but they both reached under the ring for her, pulling her and Nicole out. The twins then attacked them and celebrated afterward.<ref name="SmackDown 11/7/08 results"></ref> On the November 21 episode of "SmackDown", Victoria teamed up with Natalya in a losing effort to The Bella Twins.<ref name="SmackDown 11/21/08 results"></ref> At Survivor Series (2008), Natalya competed in a 5-on-5 Survivor Series elimination match a part of Team Smackdown where her team lost to Team Raw. On the November 28 episode of "SmackDown", Victoria teamed up with Natalya and Maryse to defeat the Bella Twins and Michelle McCool, before the feud ended.<ref name="SmackDown 11/28/08 results"></ref> Followed this, her association with Victoria also ended after she retired from the company on the January 16, 2009, episode of "SmackDown".<ref name="SmackDown 01/16/09 results"></ref> at Armageddon (2008), Natalya, Jillian Hall, Victoria and Maryse lost to Maria, Kelly Kelly, Mickie James, and Michelle McCool in an Eight-Diva Santa's Little Helper tag team match.


title: Natalya Neidhart

text: While still a member of the SmackDown brand, she made her debut for the ECW brand, via the talent exchange agreement, on February 10, 2009, managing her real life boyfriend Tyson Kidd (TJ Wilson). In her ECW in-ring debut, on the March 3 episode, Natalya defeated Alicia Fox. On April 5, Neidhart competed in a Divas battle royal at WrestleMania XXV, but the match was won by Santina Marella. On April 15 Natalya was made an official member of the ECW brand, when she was drafted there as part of the 2009 Supplemental Draft. On the May 13 episode of "ECW", Kidd and Natalya were joined by her real-life cousin David Hart Smith, forming The Hart Dynasty, although it was originally called The Hart Trilogy.


title: Natalya Neidhart

text: On June 29, 2009, Natalya was traded back to SmackDown along with the other members of The Hart Dynasty. Natalya's first match back for the brand was in a six-person mixed tag team match on the July 17 episode, when The Hart Dynasty defeated Cryme Tyme (JTG and Shad Gaspard) and Eve Torres. Natalya, Kidd, and Smith went on to feud with Torres and Cryme Tyme, with Natalya also facing Torres in singles matches and tag team matches involving other Divas. Natalya was on the winning team when the SmackDown Divas defeated the Raw Divas at the Bragging Rights pay-per-view in October. On December 4, Natalya lost in a triple threat match to determine to number one contender for the WWE Women's Championship after she was pinned by Mickie James. The match also involved Beth Phoenix.


title: Natalya Neidhart

text: Natalya, along with the other Hart Dynasty members, appeared at WrestleMania XXVI, helping her uncle Bret Hart during his match against Vince McMahon, turning them into faces as a result. On April 26, The Hart Dynasty won the Unified WWE Tag Team Championship from The Miz and The Big Show. The following day, as part of the 2010 WWE Supplemental Draft, Natalya was drafted to the Raw brand, along with Kidd and Smith. On the May 24, 2010, episode of "Raw", all three members of The Hart Dynasty were attacked by The Usos (Jimmy and Jey Uso) and Tamina, who were making their debuts. This provoked a feud between the trios, with The Hart Dynasty attacking The Usos and Tamina the following week in retaliation. At the Fatal 4-Way pay-per-view in June, Natalya and The Hart Dynasty defeated Tamina and The Uso brothers in a six-person mixed tag team match, when Natalya pinned Tamina following a discus clothesline. At the next pay-per-view, Money in the Bank, Natalya helped The Hart Dynasty to retain the championship against The Usos by stopping Tamina from interfering in the match, ending the feud. In September, at Night of Champions, The Hart Dynasty lost the Tag Team Championship in a Tag Team Turmoil match. After a failed attempt to regain the championship, in which Kidd was pushed off balance during their double-team Hart Attack move, Kidd and Smith began to have a falling out with one another.


title: Natalya Neidhart

text: This culminated on the November 15 episode of "Raw", when Kidd refused to tag in and attacked Smith during a match for the WWE Tag Team Championship against The Nexus (Justin Gabriel and Heath Slater), resulting in Kidd became a heel once again. Smith defeated Kidd in a singles match on the November 25 episode of "WWE Superstars". Afterward, Smith offered to shake Kidd's hand, but Kidd refused and instead slapped him across the face. On the following episode of "Raw", Kidd defeated Smith in a rematch, with this officially ending the alliance as a team.


title: Natalya Neidhart

text: Natalya started her singles competition run, on the September 27 episode of "Raw", when she won a battle royal to become the number one contender to the WWE Unified Divas Championship, and began feuding with self-professed co-Divas Champions Lay-Cool (Michelle McCool and Layla). At the Hell in a Cell pay-per-view on October 3, she defeated Michelle McCool via disqualification in a match for the championship, which meant that McCool retained the championship. She received another championship match three weeks later at the Bragging Rights pay-per-view, where she lost to Layla after McCool interfered. On November 1, she once again became number one contender to the Unified Divas Championship after defeating McCool in a non-title match.


title: Natalya Neidhart

text: At the Survivor Series pay-per-view on November 21, Natalya defeated McCool and Layla in a two-on-one handicap match to win the WWE Divas Championship for the first time. After the match she was attacked by Lay-Cool until Beth Phoenix came to her aid, with the pair forming an alliance. At the pay-per-view in December, Natalya and Phoenix defeated Lay-Cool in the first Diva's Tag Team Tables match in WWE history. Natalya was scheduled to defend her championship against Lay-Cool in a two-on-one handicap match at the Royal Rumble, but the match was changed to a fatal four-way, also involving Eve. Eve went on to pin Layla and become the new Divas Champion ending Natalya's reign at 70 days.


title: Natalya Neidhart

text: On April 26, Natalya was drafted back to the SmackDown brand as part of the 2011 supplemental draft. In her return match for the brand, she unsuccessfully challenged Brie Bella for the Divas Championship. In May, Natalya began acting as the on-screen mentor to The Chickbusters of AJ and Kaitlyn, giving them advice and managing them during their matches. Natalya, AJ, and Kaitlyn feuded with Alicia Fox, Tamina, and Rosa Mendes throughout 2011.


title: Natalya Neidhart

text: On the August 1, 2011, episode of "Raw", she competed in a battle royal to determinate the number one contender to Kelly Kelly's Divas Championship at SummerSlam, which was won by Beth Phoenix. Post-match, she turned villainous by attacking Kelly, and stating "[her] days as the perky, cute, blonde little bimbo were officially over", four days later on "SmackDown", Natalya defeated AJ before turning on her protégé, attacking her and declaring war on the "perky little princesses" that comprised the rest of the Divas division. As part of the storyline, she aligned herself with Phoenix, and the pair dubbed themselves "The Divas of Doom", defeating The Chickbusters the following week. Throughout September, The Divas of Doom feuded with The Chickbusters on "SmackDown", while feuding with Kelly Kelly and Eve Torres on "Raw".


title: Natalya Neidhart

text: Natalya accompanied Phoenix to her Divas Championship match at the SummerSlam pay-per-view against Kelly Kelly, who was accompanied by Eve Torres, but she failed to win the match. On the September 19 episode of "Raw", the Divas of Doom lost a tag team match to Kelly and Torres after Eve pinned Natalya for the win. On the September 26 episode of "Raw", Phoenix pinned Kelly Kelly in a tag team match and granted her a new match for Kelly's WWE Divas Championship. Four days later on "SmackDown", Natalya lost a match to Kelly. Post-match, Phoenix jumped into the ring and delivered a 'Glam Slam' on Kelly, then Natalya applied and debuted their new submission manoeuvre the 'Pin-Up Strong'. Phoenix received her title match against Kelly on October 2 at Hell in a Cell, which she won, with Natalya's help, to become a one–time WWE Divas Champion. Phoenix successfully defended her title against Eve Torres, on two different occasions, at Vengeance, on October 23, in which Natalya was banned from ringside after she and Phoenix had attacked Torres and Kelly at backstage, and at Survivor Series, on November 20, during a Divas lumberjack match.


title: Natalya Neidhart

text: Through November, the Divas of Doom started a winning streak over ""The Chickbusters"" (AJ and Kaitlyn), after defeating them in both tag team and singles matches, with Kaitlyn beginning to display villainous traits, due to her being upset at AJ over the defeats. On the December 6 "SmackDown" tapings, the Divas of Doom defeated The Chickbusters once again. Post match, Kaitlyn solidified her heel turn after joining the Divas of Doom, however the segment was cut from the broadcast and not recognized by WWE.


title: Natalya Neidhart

text: In early 2012, Natalya was characterized as being notable for smelly flatulence; this character development was heavily panned by critics.


title: Natalya Neidhart

text: On January 29, at Royal Rumble, the Divas of Doom competed in an eight-woman tag team match alongside the Bella Twins, and defeated the team of Eve Torres, Kelly Kelly, Alicia Fox, and Tamina. The next night on "Raw", Phoenix successfully defended her Divas Championship against Eve. At the Elimination Chamber pay-per-view, Phoenix successfully defended her championship against Tamina, in a point where her association with Phoenix started splitting up, and on the March 22 episode of "Superstars", Phoenix teamed with Eve Torres against Natalya and Tamina, in a losing effort, with this effectively ensuring the ending for the team.


title: Natalya Neidhart

text: Beginning in April, while on "NXT Redemption", Natalya became allied with former Hart Dynasty partner Tyson Kidd again, and started feuding with former protégé Kaitlyn when she felt Kaitlyn was paying Kidd too much attention. The pair faced off in both singles and tag team competition throughout mid-2012, including being on opposite sides of a six-Diva tag team match at Money in the Bank, which Natalya's team lost. Their feud ended on August 31, when Natalya lost to Kaitlyn in a singles match on "SmackDown". In November, Natalya began an on-screen relationship with The Great Khali. The following month, Natalya saved Hornswoggle from an attack by Rosa Mendes, thus turning face in the process. This led to a feud with Natalya, Khali, and Hornswoggle facing off against Mendes and her allies, Primo and Epico in mixed tag team matches in early 2013. On the March 27 episode of "NXT", Natalya lost a Divas Championship match to champion Kaitlyn.


title: Natalya Neidhart

text: Upon the debut of the "Total Divas" reality television program in July 2013, Natalya began feuding with fellow co–stars on the show, The Bella Twins. Natalya and Brie Bella went on to trade victories in singles matches on "Raw" and at SummerSlam. The cast of "Total Divas" then transitioned into a feud with AJ Lee, the WWE Divas Champion, who ridiculed the cast and the show. This resulted in a four-way match at Night of Champions in September, where AJ successfully retained the title against Natalya, Brie, and Naomi. Simultaneously, Natalya continued appearing alongside long–time ally The Great Khali, and the two began a feud with Fandango and the debúting Summer Rae, which led to a mixed tag team match at the Hell in a Cell pay–per–view, which Natalya and Khali lost. After forcing AJ to submit on the November 1 episode of "SmackDown" during a tag team match, Natalya unsuccessfully challenged AJ for the Divas Championship on "WWE Main Event" two weeks later. At Survivor Series, the cast of "Total Divas" faced off with a team led by AJ and Natalya and Nikki Bella were the sole survivors in the match. In December, Natalya unsuccessfully challenged Paige for the NXT Women's Championship. After pinning AJ again in a tag team match on "Raw", Natalya was named number one contender to the WWE Divas Championship, but failed to capture the title at .


title: Natalya Neidhart

text: On April 6, 2014, Natalya competed at WrestleMania XXX in the 14–Diva "Vickie Guerrero Invitational match" for the WWE Divas Championship, which was won by the defending champion AJ Lee. In May, Natalya was entered into a tournament to determine the new NXT Women's Champion. She defeated Layla and Sasha Banks en route to the final at NXT TakeOver, in which she lost to Charlotte. Throughout September, Natalya started acting as the on-screen mentor for Rosa Mendes, starting a feud against ""The Slayers"" (Summer Rae and Layla). They faced off against them during the "Main Event"<ref name="MainEvent9/2/14"></ref> and "Smackdown" shows, losing both tag matches due to miscommunication as a team. Additionally they also faced off against AJ Lee and Paige on the September 8, episode of "Raw", once again in a losing effort.<ref name="WWE Raw 8/09/14"></ref> On the September 29, episode of "Raw", Natalya and Tyson Kidd accompanied Mendes to her match against Layla, in which she was defeated, followed this her association with Mendes quietly disbanded. On November 23, Natalya took part of Alicia Fox's team at Survivor Series, which was victorious in a clean sweep.


title: Natalya Neidhart

text: In mid–2014, Natalya entered a storyline with her real–life husband Tyson Kidd, in which their relationship was openly acknowledged on-screen. She regularly accompanied Kidd to the ring, where he often used her as a distraction to win his matches. The storyline would continue followed "Total Divas" footage, in which Kidd transitioned into a disrespectful angle against Natalya, this part of the storyline was done in order to use the marriage problems they both had.<ref name="WWE Smackdown 2/5/15"></ref>


title: Natalya Neidhart

text: On the January 5, 2015, episode of "Raw", after Natalya defeated WWE Divas Champion Nikki Bella in a non–title match, Brie and Nikki would attack Natalya, with Paige making the save. This led to a tag team match at Royal Rumble between the two teams, with The Bella Twins picking up the win. Through February, Natalya and Kidd started a brief feud against Naomi and Jimmy Uso, facing off during an intergender tag team match on the February 16, episode of "Raw", which Natalya and Kidd lost.<ref name="WWE Smackdown 2/16/15"></ref> When Kidd allied himself with Cesaro, Natalya began managing the team and was by their side in February, when they won the WWE Tag Team Championship's at Fastlane. The following night on "Raw", Natalya helped the duo retain the titles against The Usos, turning heel in the process. On the February 26 episode of "Smackdown", the villainous Natalya defeated Naomi in a singles match, before the feud ended.<ref name="WWE Smackdown 2/26/15"></ref> On March 28, Natalya inducted Alundra Blayze into the WWE Hall of Fame. On March 29, she accompanied Kidd and Cesaro during the WrestleMania 31 kick-off show, in which they successfully retained the Tag Team Championships.


title: Natalya Neidhart

text: Natalya lasted the rest of the year competing in various matches,<ref name="Raw 3/23/15 results"></ref><ref name="Raw 3/30/15 results"></ref><ref name="Smackdown 3/19/15 results"></ref> including a number one contender's battle royal for Nikki Bella's Divas Championship, on the April 13 episode of "Raw", which was won by Paige. On the April 9 episode of "Smackdown", Natalya defeated Alicia Fox. Post-match, she and Fox were attacked by the special guest referee for the match Cameron, which would lead to a triple–threat match the following week, with Cameron coming out victorious. During a dark match on the June 1 episode of "Raw", Kidd had suffered a severe neck/spinal injury after receiving Samoa Joe's 'Muscle buster' finishing maneuver. Several weeks later, Kidd stated that he would be out of action for over a year, with Natalya taken off television for the very first time in order to care for Kidd.