title: Antinatalism

text: Water is a traditional representation of the Dao, as it flows without shape. Ice represents the arrest of the natural flow of the Dao in rigid human consciousness. Daoist sages return to the flow like ice melting to water. But it would have been better if human consciousness never appeared.


title: Antinatalism

text: Julio Cabrera considers the issue of being a creator in relation to theodicy and argues that just as it is impossible to defend the idea of a good God as creator, it is also impossible to defend the idea of a good man as a creator. In parenthood, the human parent imitates the divine parent, in the sense that education could be understood as a form of pursuit of "salvation", the "right path" for a child. However, a human being could decide that it is better not to suffer at all than to suffer and be offered the later possibility of salvation from suffering. In Cabrera's opinion, evil is associated not with the lack of being, but with the suffering and dying of those that are alive. So, on the contrary, evil is only and obviously associated with being.


title: Antinatalism

text: Karim Akerma, due to the moral problem of man as creator, introduces anthropodicy, a twin concept for theodicy. He is of the opinion that the less faith in the Almighty Creator-God there is, the more urgent the question of anthropodicy becomes. Akerma thinks that for those who want to lead ethical lives, the causation of suffering requires a justification. Man can no longer shed responsibility for the suffering that occurs by appealing to an imaginary entity that sets moral principles. For Akerma, antinatalism is a consequence of the collapse of theodicy endeavors and the failure of attempts to establish an anthropodicy. According to him, there is no metaphysics nor moral theory that can justify the production of new people, and therefore anthropodicy is indefensible as well as theodicy.


title: Antinatalism

text: Jason Marsh finds no good arguments for what he calls "evil asymmetry"; that the amount and kinds of suffering provide strong arguments that our world is not an act of creation made by a good God, but the same suffering does not affect the morality of the act of procreation.


title: Antinatalism

text: Peter Wessel Zapffe viewed humans as a biological paradox. According to him, consciousness has become over-evolved in humans, thereby making us incapable of functioning normally like other animals: cognition gives us more than we can carry. Our frailness and insignificance in the cosmos are visible to us. We want to live, and yet because of how we have evolved, we are the only species whose members are conscious that they are destined to die. We are able to analyze the past and the future, both our situation and that of others, as well as to imagine the suffering of billions of people (as well as of other living beings) and feel compassion for their suffering. We yearn for justice and meaning in a world that lacks both. This ensures that the lives of conscious individuals are tragic. We have desires: spiritual needs that reality is unable to satisfy, and our species still exists only because we limit our awareness of what that reality actually entails. Human existence amounts to a tangled network of defense mechanisms, which can be observed both individually and socially, in our everyday behavior patterns. According to Zapffe, humanity should cease this self-deception, and the natural consequence would be its extinction by abstaining from procreation.


title: Antinatalism

text: Julio Cabrera proposes a concept of "negative ethics" in opposition to "affirmative" ethics, meaning ethics that affirm being. He describes procreation as manipulation and harm, a unilateral and non-consensual sending of a human being into a painful, dangerous and morally impeding situation.


title: Antinatalism

text: Cabrera regards procreation as an ontological issue of total manipulation: one's very being is manufactured and used; in contrast to intra-worldly cases where someone is placed in a harmful situation. In the case of procreation, no chance of defense against that act is even available. According to Cabrera: manipulation in procreation is visible primarily in the unilateral and non-consensual nature of the act, which makes procreation per se inevitably asymmetrical; be it a product of forethought, or a product of neglect. It is always connected with the interests (or disinterests) of other humans, not the created human. In addition, Cabrera points out that in his view the manipulation of procreation is not limited to the act of creation itself, but it is continued in the process of raising the child, during which parents gain great power over the child's life, who is shaped according to their preferences and for their satisfaction. He emphasizes that although it is not possible to avoid manipulation in procreation, it is perfectly possible to avoid procreation itself and that then no moral rule is violated.


title: Antinatalism

text: Cabrera believes that the situation in which one is placed through procreation, human life, is structurally negative in that its constitutive features are inherently adverse. The most prominent of them are, according to Cabrera, the following:


title: Antinatalism

text: Cabrera calls the set of these characteristics A–C the "terminality of being". He is of the opinion that a huge number of humans around the world cannot withstand this steep struggle against the terminal structure of their being, which leads to destructive consequences for them and others: suicides, major or minor mental illnesses, or aggressive behavior. He accepts that life may be – thanks to human's own merits and efforts – bearable and even very pleasant (though not for all, due to the phenomenon of moral impediment), but also considers it problematic to bring someone into existence so that they may attempt to make their life pleasant by struggling against the difficult and oppressive situation we place them in by procreating. It seems more reasonable, according to Cabrera, simply not to put them in that situation, since the results of their struggle are always uncertain.


title: Antinatalism

text: Cabrera believes that in ethics, including affirmative ethics, there is one overarching concept which he calls the "Minimal Ethical Articulation", "MEA" (previously translated into English as "Fundamental Ethical Articulation" and "FEA"): the consideration of other people's interests, not manipulating them and not harming them. Procreation for him is an obvious violation of MEA – someone is manipulated and placed in a harmful situation as a result of that action. In his view, values included in the MEA are widely accepted by affirmative ethics, they are even their basics, and if approached radically, they should lead to the refusal of procreation.


title: Antinatalism

text: For Cabrera, the worst thing in human life and by extension in procreation is what he calls "moral impediment": the structural impossibility of acting in the world without harming or manipulating someone at some given moment. This impediment does not occur because of an intrinsic "evil" of human nature, but because of the structural situation in which the human being has always been. In this situation, we are cornered by various kinds of pain, space for action is limited, and different interests often conflict with each other. We do not have to have bad intentions to treat others with disregard; we are compelled to do so in order to survive, pursue our projects, and escape from suffering. Cabrera also draws attention to the fact that life is associated with the constant risk of one experiencing strong physical pain, which is common in human life, for example as a result of a serious illness, and maintains that the mere existence of such possibility impedes us morally, as well as that because of it, we can at any time lose, as a result of its occurrence, the possibility of a dignified, moral functioning even to a minimal extent.


title: Antinatalism

text: Julio Cabrera, David Benatar and Karim Akerma all argue that procreation is contrary to Immanuel Kant's practical imperative (according to Kant, a man should never be used as merely a means to an end, but always be treated as an end in himself). They argue that a person can be created for the sake of their parents or other people, but that it is impossible to create someone for their own good; and that therefore, following Kant's recommendation, we should not create new people. Heiko Puls argues that Kant's considerations regarding parental duties and human procreation, in general, imply arguments for an ethically justified antinatalism. Kant, however, according to Puls, rejects this position in his teleology for meta-ethical reasons.


title: Antinatalism

text: Seana Shiffrin, Gerald Harrison, Julia Tanner and Asheel Singh argue that procreation is morally problematic because of the impossibility of obtaining consent from the human who will be brought into existence.


title: Antinatalism

text: Shiffrin lists four factors that in her opinion make the justification for having hypothetical consent to procreation a problem:


title: Antinatalism

text: Gerald Harrison and Julia Tanner argue that when we want to significantly affect someone by our action and it is not possible to get their consent, then the default should be to not take such action. The exception is, according to them, actions by which we want to prevent greater harm of a person (for example, pushing someone out of the way of a falling piano). However, in their opinion, such actions certainly do not include procreation, because before taking this action a person does not exist.


title: Antinatalism

text: Asheel Singh emphasizes that one does not have to think that coming into existence is always an overall harm in order to recognize antinatalism as a correct view. In his opinion, it is enough to think that there is no moral right to inflict serious, preventable harms upon others without their consent.


title: Antinatalism

text: Chip Smith and Max Freiheit argue that procreation is contrary to non-aggression principle of right-wing libertarians, according to which nonconsensual actions should not be taken toward other people.


title: Antinatalism

text: Larock argues that if a person is deprived of an infinite number of new satisfied preferences, they suffer an infinite number of harms and that such deprivation is death to which procreation leads.


title: Antinatalism

text: Larock believes that it is not correct to neutralize his view by stating that death is also an infinitely great benefit for us, because it protects us from the infinite number of new frustrated preferences. He proposes a thought experiment in which we have two people, Mary and Tom. The first person, Mary, dies at the age of forty years as a result of complications caused by a degenerative disease. Mary would live for some more time, if not for the complications, but she would only experience bad things in her life, not good ones. The second person, Tom, dies at the same age from the same illness, but in his case, the disease is at such a stage of development that his body would no longer be able to function. According to Larock, it is bad when someone, like in the case of Tom, encounters the impossibility of continuing to derive good things from his life; everybody's life leads to such a point if someone lives long enough and our intuitions do not tell us that this is generally good or even neutral. Therefore, we should reject the view that death is also an infinitely great benefit: because we think that Tom has been unlucky. In the case of Mary, our intuitions tell us that her misfortune is not as great as Tom's misfortune. Her misfortune is reduced by the fact that death saved her from the real prospect of experiencing bad things. We do not have the same intuition in Tom's case. No evil or good future was physically possible for him. Larock thinks that while the impossibility of experiencing future good things seems to us to be a harm, the mere lack of a logical possibility of experiencing future bad things does not seem to be a compensatory benefit to us. If so, there would be nothing strange in recognizing that Tom had not suffered any misfortune. But he is a victim of misfortune, just like Mary. However, Mary's misfortune does not seem to be so great because her death prevents great suffering. Larock is of the opinion that most people will see both cases in this way. This conclusion is supposed to lead to the fact that we recognize that there is an asymmetry between the harms and benefits that death brings.


title: Antinatalism

text: Negative utilitarianism argues that minimizing suffering has greater moral importance than maximizing happiness.


title: Antinatalism

text: Karim Akerma argues that utilitarianism requires the least metaphysical assumptions and is, therefore, the most convincing ethical theory. He believes that negative utilitarianism is the right one because the good things in life do not compensate for the bad things; first and foremost, the best things do not compensate for the worst things such as, for example, the experiences of terrible pain, the agonies of the wounded, sick or dying. In his opinion, we also rarely know what to do to make people happy, but we know what to do so that people do not suffer: it is enough that they are not created. What is important for Akerma in ethics is the striving for the fewest suffering people (ultimately no one), not striving for the happiest people, which, according to him, takes place at the expense of immeasurable suffering.


title: Antinatalism

text: He maintains that our concept of evil comes from our experience of suffering: there is no evil without the possibility of experiencing suffering. Consequently, the smaller the population, the less evil is happening in the world. In his opinion, from an ethical point of view, this is what we should strive for: to narrow the space in which evil - which is suffering - takes place and which space is widened by procreation.


title: Antinatalism

text: Bruno Contestabile and Sam Woolfe cite the story "The Ones Who Walk Away from Omelas" by Ursula K. Le Guin. In this story, the existence of the utopian city of Omelas and the good fortune of its inhabitants depend on the suffering of one child who is tortured in an isolated place and who cannot be helped. The majority accepts this state of affairs and stays in the city, but there are those who do not agree with it, who do not want to participate in it, and thus they "walk away from Omelas". Contestabile and Woolfe draw a parallel here: for Omelas to exist, the child must be tortured, and in the same way, the existence of our world is related to the fact that someone innocent is constantly harmed. According to Contestabile and Woolfe, antinatalists can be seen just as "the ones who walk away from Omelas", who do not accept such a world, and who do not approve of its perpetuation. Contestabile poses the question: is all happiness able to compensate for the extreme suffering of even one person? The question of whether universal harmony is worth the tears of one child tormented to death has already appeared before in Fyodor Dostoyevsky's "The Brothers Karamazov", and Irina Uriupina writes about it in the context of antinatalism.


title: Antinatalism

text: David Benatar argues that there is a crucial asymmetry between the good and the bad things, such as pleasure and pain:


title: Antinatalism

text: Regarding procreation, the argument follows that coming into existence generates both good and bad experiences, pain and pleasure, whereas not coming into existence entails neither pain nor pleasure. The absence of pain is good, the absence of pleasure is not bad. Therefore, the ethical choice is weighed in favor of non-procreation.


title: Antinatalism

text: According to Benatar, by creating a child, we are responsible not only for this child's suffering, but we may also be co-responsible for the suffering of further offspring of this child.


title: Antinatalism

text: In addition to the philanthropic arguments, which are based on a concern for the humans who will be brought into existence, Benatar also posits that another path to antinatalism is the misanthropic argument. Benatar states that:


title: Antinatalism

text: David Benatar, Gunter Bleibohm, Gerald Harrison, Julia Tanner, and Patricia MacCormack are attentive to the harm caused to other sentient beings by humans. They would say that billions of nonhuman animals are abused and slaughtered each year by our species for the production of animal products, for experimentation and after the experiments (when they are no longer needed), as a result of the destruction of habitats or other environmental damage and for sadistic pleasure. They tend to agree with animal rights thinkers that the harm we do to them is immoral. They consider the human species the most destructive on the planet, arguing that without new humans, there will be no harm caused to other sentient beings by new humans.


title: Antinatalism

text: Some antinatalists are also vegetarians or vegans for moral reasons, and postulate that such views should complement each other as having a common denominator: not causing harm to other sentient beings. This attitude was already present in Manichaeism and Catharism. The Cathars interpreted the commandment "thou shalt not kill" as relating also to other mammals and birds. It was recommended not to eat their meat, dairy and eggs.


title: Antinatalism

text: Volunteers of the Voluntary Human Extinction Movement, Stop Having Kids, and Patricia MacCormack argue that human activity is the primary cause of environmental degradation, and therefore refraining from procreation and allowing for eventual human extinction is the best alternative for the planet and its nonhuman inhabitants to flourish. According to the group Stop Having Kids: "The end of humans is the end of the human world, not the end of the world at large."


title: Antinatalism

text: Herman Vetter, Théophile de Giraud, Travis N. Rieder, Tina Rulli, Karim Akerma and Julio Cabrera argue that presently rather than engaging in the morally problematic act of procreation, one could do good by adopting already existing children. De Giraud emphasizes that, across the world, there are millions of existing children who need care. Stuart Rachels and David Benatar argue that presently, in a situation where a huge number of people live in poverty, we should cease procreation and divert these resources, that would have been used to raise our own children, to the poor. Patricia MacCormack points out that resignation from procreation and striving for human extinction can make it possible to care for humans and other animals: those who are already here.


title: Antinatalism

text: Some antinatalists believe that most people do not evaluate reality accurately, which affects the desire to have children.


title: Antinatalism

text: Peter Wessel Zapffe identifies four repressive mechanisms we use, consciously or not, to restrict our consciousness of life and the world:


title: Antinatalism

text: According to Zapffe, depressive disorders are often "messages from a deeper, more immediate sense of life, bitter fruits of a geniality of thought". Some studies seem to confirm this: it is said about the phenomenon of depressive realism, and both Colin Feltham and John Pollard write about antinatalism as one of its possible consequences.


title: Antinatalism

text: David Benatar citing numerous studies lists three phenomena described by psychologists, which, according to him, are responsible for making our self-assessments about the quality of our lives unreliable:


title: Antinatalism

text: Thomas Ligotti draws attention to the similarity between Zapffe's philosophy and terror management theory. Terror management theory argues that humans are equipped with unique cognitive abilities beyond what is necessary for survival, which includes symbolic thinking, extensive self-consciousness and perception of themselves as temporal beings aware of the finitude of their existence. The desire to live alongside our awareness of the inevitability of death triggers terror in us. Opposition to this fear is among our primary motivations. To escape it, we build defensive structures around ourselves to ensure our symbolic or literal immortality, to feel like valuable members of a meaningful universe, and to focus on protecting ourselves from immediate external threats.


title: Antinatalism

text: According to David Benatar, one comes into existence in the morally relevant sense when consciousness arises, when a fetus becomes sentient, and up until that time an abortion is moral, whereas continued pregnancy would be immoral. Benatar refers to EEG brain studies and studies on the pain perception of the fetus, which states that fetal consciousness arises no earlier than between twenty-eight and thirty weeks of pregnancy, before which it is incapable of feeling pain. A 2010 report from the Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists also showed that a fetus could not gain consciousness prior to week twenty-four of the pregnancy, and apparently never does at any point in utero, stating that "there appeared to be no clear benefit in considering the need for fetal analgesia prior to termination of pregnancy, even after 24 weeks". Some assumptions of this report regarding sentience of the fetus after the second trimester were criticized. In a similar way argues Karim Akerma. He distinguishes between organisms that do not have mental properties and living beings that have mental properties. According to his view, which he calls the mentalistic view, a living being begins to exist when an organism (or another entity) produces a simple form of consciousness for the first time.


title: Antinatalism

text: Julio Cabrera believes that the moral problem of abortion is totally different from the problem of abstention of procreation because in the case of abortion, there is no longer a non-being, but an already existing being – the most helpless and defenseless of the parties involved, that someday might have the autonomy to decide, and we cannot decide for them. From the point of view of Cabrera's negative ethics, abortion is immoral for similar reasons as procreation. For Cabrera, the exception in which abortion is morally justified is cases of irreversible illness of the fetus (or some serious "social illnesses" like American conquest or Nazism), according to him in such cases we are clearly thinking about the unborn, and not simply of our own interests. In addition, Cabrera believes that under certain circumstances, it is legitimate and comprehensible to commit unethical actions, for example, abortion is legitimate and comprehensible when the mother's life is at risk or when pregnancy is the result of rape – in such situations is necessary to be sensitive without assuming a rigid principialism.


title: Antinatalism

text: Some antinatalists recognize the procreation of animals as morally bad, and some view sterilization as morally good in their case. Karim Akerma defines antinatalism, that includes animals, as universal antinatalism and he assumes such a position himself:


title: Antinatalism

text: David Benatar emphasizes that his asymmetry applies to all sentient beings, and mentions that humans play a role in deciding how many animals there will be: humans breed other species of animals and are able to sterilize other species of animals.


title: Antinatalism

text: Magnus Vinding argues that the lives of wild animals in their natural environment are generally very bad. He draws attention to phenomena such as dying before adulthood, starvation, disease, parasitism, infanticide, predation and being eaten alive. He cites research on what animal life looks like in the wild. One of eight male lion cubs survives into adulthood. Others die as a result of starvation, disease and often fall victims to the teeth and claws of other lions. Attaining adulthood is much rarer for fish. Only one in a hundred male chinook salmon survives into adulthood. Vinding is of the opinion that if human lives and the survival of human children looked like this, current human values would disallow procreation; however, this is not possible when it comes to animals, who are guided by instinct. He takes the view that even if one does not agree that procreation is always morally bad, one should recognize procreation in wildlife as morally bad and something that ought to be prevented (at least in theory, not necessarily in practice). He maintains that non-intervention cannot be defended if we reject speciesism and that we should reject the unjustifiable dogma stating that what is happening in nature is what should be happening in nature.


title: Antinatalism

text: Thomas Metzinger, Sander Beckers, and Bartłomiej Chomański argue against trying to create artificial intelligence as this could significantly increase the amount of suffering in the universe.


title: Antinatalism

text: Criticism of antinatalism comes from those that see positive value in bringing humans into existence. David Wasserman has criticized David Benatar's asymmetry argument and the consent argument. Émile P. Torres argues that the consequence of all humanity adopting antinatalism would not necessarily be extinction: if safe and effective life-extension technologies become available, humans could stop procreating but still survive for as long as the universe remains habitable. Psychologist Geoffrey Miller has argued that "all the research on human well-being shows almost everyone across cultures is well above neutral on happiness. Benatar is just empirically wrong that life is dominated by suffering." Massimo Pigliucci, a hellenistic philosopher, argues that David Benatar's essential premise that pleasure is the only true inherent good and pain the only inherent evil is a flawed argument and refutable within the philosophy of Stoicism which regards pleasure and pain as merely indifferents and that moral virtues and vices should be the only guide of human action.


title: Antinatalism

text: Brian Tomasik challenges the effectiveness of human antinatalism in reducing suffering by pointing out that humans appropriate the habitats of wild animals thereby sparing wild animals from being born into lives containing suffering.


title: Antinatalism

text: Religious scholars have said little about antinatalism. However, monotheistic religions oppose antinatalism, since they see existence as inherently good.


title: Tubi

text: Tubi is an American over-the-top content platform and ad-supported streaming service owned by Fox Corporation. The service was launched on April 1, 2014, and is based in Los Angeles, California. In January 2021, Tubi reached 33 million monthly active users. As of January 2022, Tubi has 51 million monthly active users.


title: Tubi

text: Tubi was founded by Farhad Massoudi and Thomas Ahn Hicks of AdRise in San Francisco, launching in 2014 as a free service. In May 2017, they raised US$20 million in a round of funding from Jump Capital, Danhua Capital, Cota Capital, and Foundation Capital. In June 2019, Tubi announced that it had over 20 million active monthly users, and later in September, the company reported that users had streamed 132 million hours of content. In September 2020, the company reported 33 million monthly users.


title: Tubi

text: In 2019, CEO Farhad Massoudi announced that Tubi would nearly double its 2018 spending on licensed content, close to US$100 million. In February 2019, Tubi signed a distribution deal with NBCUniversal, which includes 400 TV episodes and films.


title: Tubi

text: Tubi became available on Vizio SmartCast on September 25, 2019. On October 21, Tubi launched Tubi Kids, a dedicated hub for the streamer's children-centric content via Roku and supported devices.


title: Tubi

text: On March 17, 2020, Fox Corporation announced that it would acquire Tubi for $440 million, with the sale being completed on April 20; Farhad Massoudi would remain at the company, which would continue as a separate subsidiary.


title: Tubi

text: In December 2021, Fox acquired MarVista Entertainment, in a move to bolster Tubi's library and leverage its production capabilities for made-for-TV movies.


title: Tubi

text: Adrise, the company behind Tubi, has raised $4million in capital. Principal investors include Foundation Capital, Bobby Yazdani, Zod Nazem, SGH Capital, and Streamlined Ventures.


title: Tubi

text: Tubi became inaccessible throughout the European Union as a result of the GDPR entering into force on May 25, 2018. It was later announced that Tubi would relaunch in the United Kingdom by early 2019. As of July 15, 2021, Tubi has yet to relaunch in the United Kingdom. According to their website, they "hope to relaunch in the UK and EU in the future." and is "working on compliance [with GDPR] and is planning to relaunch in European countries soon".


title: Tubi

text: In July 2022, Tubi announced a partnership with Shaw Communications to make the service available to all of Shaw's customers, and further expanding Tubi's reach in Canada.


title: Tubi

text: As of July 2022, Tubi's programming includes over 40,000 films and television series from over 250 providers (American and foreign). These have included A&E Networks, Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, Gaumont Film Company, Paramount Pictures, Magnolia Pictures, Lionsgate, Skydance Media, STX Entertainment, Epic Pictures, Oscilloscope Laboratories, Sony Pictures, Constantin Film, Nordisk Film, Rat Pack Filmproduktion, The Walt Disney Company, Warner Bros., Studio 100, nWave Pictures, Chicken Soup for the Soul Entertainment, Your Family Entertainment, Shout! Factory, Nelvana, WildBrain, MarVista Entertainment, 9 Story Media Group, Boat Rocker Media, Bleecker Street, FilmRise, Bridgestone Multimedia, Wow Unlimited Media, Entertainment One, Regency Enterprises, Invincible Entertainment, Safier Entertainment, TriCoast Worldwide, Funimation, Crunchyroll, GKIDS, Xilam, NBCUniversal, Viz Media, and Bob Ross Inc.


title: Tubi

text: Since its acquisition by Fox Corporation, Tubi also carries programming from Fox Entertainment, Fox Soul, local news from Fox-owned stations and affiliates, and Fox Weather. The service began producing its own original content in 2021, including television films and series.


title: Tubi

text: Tubi uses a real-time bidding platform for advertisers that deliver video ads across various platforms.


title: Legal drinking age

text: The legal drinking age is the minimum age at which a person can legally consume alcoholic beverages. The minimum age alcohol can be legally consumed can be different from the age when it can be purchased in some countries. These laws vary between countries and many laws have exemptions or special circumstances. Most laws apply only to drinking alcohol in public places with alcohol consumption in the home being mostly unregulated (an exception being the UK, which has a minimum legal age of five for supervised consumption in private places). Some countries also have different age limits for different types of alcohol drinks.


title: Legal drinking age

text: The majority of countries have a minimum legal drinking age of 18. The most commonly known reason for the law behind the legal drinking age is the effect on the brain in adolescents. Since the brain is still maturing, alcohol can have a negative effect on the memory and long-term thinking. Alongside that, it can cause liver failure, and create a hormone imbalance in teens due to the constant changes and maturing of hormones during puberty. Some countries have an MLDA of 19 to prevent the flow of alcoholic beverages in high schools, while others like the United States have a MLDA of 21 in an effort to reduce the amount of drunk driving rates among teenagers and young adults.


title: Legal drinking age

text: The most common minimum age to purchase alcohol in Africa is 18. However, Angola (except Luanda Province), Central African Republic, Comoros, Equatorial Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Mali, and Togo have no laws on the books restricting the sale of alcohol to minors. In Libya, Somalia and Sudan the sale, production and consumption of alcohol is completely prohibited.


title: Legal drinking age

text: In Central America, the Caribbean, and South America the legal drinking age and legal purchase age varies from 0 to 20 years (see table below). In South America in particular, the legal purchase age is 18 years, with two exceptions:


title: Legal drinking age

text: In the late 20th century, much of North America changed its minimum legal drinking ages (MLDAs) as follows:


title: Legal drinking age

text: Most countries in Europe have set 18 as the minimum age to purchase alcohol. Although Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Germany, Gibraltar, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, Malta, Serbia and Switzerland (except Ticino) maintain a minimum purchase age below 18 years, minors are permitted either full or limited access to alcohol. In 2005, 2007 and 2015 harmonization at the European Union level toward a minimum purchase age of 18 was discussed, but not agreed.


title: Kale

text: Kale (), or leaf cabbage, belongs to a group of cabbage ("Brassica oleracea") cultivars grown for their edible leaves, although some are used as ornamentals. Kale plants have green or purple leaves, and the central leaves do not form a head (as with headed cabbage). Kales are considered to be closer to wild cabbage than most of the many domesticated forms of "Brassica oleracea".


title: Kale

text: "Kale" originates from Northern Middle English "cale" (compare Scots "kail" and German "Kohl") for various cabbages. The ultimate origin is Latin "caulis" 'cabbage'.


title: Kale

text: Kale originated in the eastern Mediterranean and Anatolia, where it was cultivated for food beginning by 2000 BCE at the latest. Curly-leaved varieties of cabbage already existed along with flat-leaved varieties in Greece in the 4th century BC. These forms, which were referred to by the Romans as Sabellian kale, are considered to be the ancestors of modern kales.


title: Kale

text: The earliest record of cabbages in western Europe is of hard-heading cabbage in the 13th century. Records in 14th-century England distinguish between hard-heading cabbage and loose-leaf kale.


title: Kale

text: Russian kale was introduced into Canada, and then into the United States, by Russian traders in the 19th century. USDA botanist David Fairchild is credited with introducing kale (and many other crops) to Americans, having brought it back from Croatia, although Fairchild himself disliked cabbages, including kale. At the time, kale was widely grown in Croatia mostly because it was easy to grow and inexpensive, and could desalinate soil. For most of the twentieth century, kale was primarily used in the United States for decorative purposes; it became more popular as an edible vegetable in the 1990s due to its nutritional value.


title: Kale

text: During World War II, the cultivation of kale (and other vegetables) in the U.K. was encouraged by the Dig for Victory campaign. The vegetable was easy to grow and provided important nutrients missing from a diet because of rationing.


title: Kale

text: Kale is usually an annual plant grown from seed with a wide range of germination temperatures. It is hardy and thrives in wintertime, and can survive in temperatures as low as –15.0° Celsius. Kale can become sweeter in taste after a heavy frost.


title: Kale

text: One may differentiate between kale varieties according to the low, intermediate, or high length of the stem, along with the variety of leaf types. The leaf colours range from light green to green, to dark green and violet-green, to violet-brown.


title: Kale

text: Because kale can grow well into winter, one variety of "rape kale" is called ""hungry gap"" after the period in winter in traditional agriculture when little else could be harvested. An extra-tall variety is known as "Jersey kale" or "cow cabbage". "Kai-lan" or "Chinese kale" is a cultivar often used in Chinese cuisine. In Portugal, the bumpy-leaved kale is mostly called "couve galega" (Galician kale or Portuguese Cabbage).


title: Kale

text: Many varieties of kale and cabbage are grown mainly for ornamental leaves that are brilliant white, red, pink, lavender, blue or violet in the interior of the rosette. The different types of ornamental kale are peacock kale, coral prince, kamone coral queen, color up kale and chidori kale. "Ornamental kale" is as edible as any other variety, but potentially not as palatable. Kale leaves are increasingly used as an ingredient for vegetable bouquets and wedding bouquets.


title: Kale

text: Raw kale is composed of 84% water, 9% carbohydrates, 4% protein, and 1% fat (table). In a serving, raw kale provides of food energy and a large amount of vitamin K at 3.7 times the Daily Value (DV) (table). It is a rich source (20% or more of the DV) of vitamin A, vitamin C, vitamin B6, folate, and manganese (see table "Kale, raw"). Kale is a good source (10–19% DV) of thiamin, riboflavin, pantothenic acid, vitamin E and several dietary minerals, including iron, calcium, magnesium, potassium, and phosphorus (see table "Kale, raw"). Boiling raw kale diminishes most of these nutrients, while values for vitamins A, C, and K, and manganese remain substantial (see table "Kale, cooked").


title: Kale

text: Kale is a source of the carotenoids, lutein and zeaxanthin (tables). As with broccoli and other cruciferous vegetables, kale contains glucosinolate compounds, such as glucoraphanin, which contributes to the formation of sulforaphane, a compound under preliminary research for its potential to affect human health beneficially.


title: Kale

text: Boiling kale decreases the level of glucosinate compounds, whereas steaming, microwaving or stir frying does not cause significant loss. Kale is high in oxalic acid, the levels of which can be reduced by cooking.


title: Kale

text: Kale contains high levels of polyphenols, such as ferulic acid, with levels varying due to environmental and genetic factors.


title: Kale

text: In the Netherlands, a traditional winter dish called "boerenkoolstamppot" is a mix of curly kale and mashed potatoes, sometimes with fried bacon, and served with rookworst ("smoked sausage").


title: Kale

text: In Northern Germany, there is a winter tradition known as "Kohlfahrt" ("kale trip"), where a group of people will go on a hike through the woods during the day before gathering at an inn or private residence where kale is served, usually with bacon and Kohlwurst ("kale sausage"). Kale is considered a Northern German staple and comfort food.


title: Kale

text: A traditional Portuguese soup, "caldo verde", combines pureed potatoes, very finely sliced kale, olive oil and salt. Additional ingredients can include broth and sliced, cooked spicy sausage.


title: Kale

text: In Scotland, kale provided such a base for a traditional diet that the word in some is synonymous with food. To be "off one's kail" is to feel too ill to eat.


title: Kale

text: In Ireland, kale is mixed with mashed potatoes to make the traditional dish "colcannon". It is popular on Halloween, when it may be served with sausages.


title: Kale

text: In Sri Lanka, it is known as "kola gova" or ela gova. It is cultivated for edible use. A dish called 'kale mallung' is served almost everywhere in the island along with rice.


title: Kale

text: The "Kailyard" school of Scottish writers, which included J. M. Barrie (creator of Peter Pan), consisted of authors who wrote about traditional rural Scottish life ("kailyard" = 'kale field'). In Cuthbertson's book "Autumn in Kyle and the charm of Cunninghame", he states that Kilmaurs in East Ayrshire was famous for its kale, which was an important foodstuff. A story is told in which a neighbouring village offered to pay a generous price for some kale seeds, an offer too good to turn down. The locals agreed, but a gentle roasting on a shovel over a coal fire ensured that the seeds never germinated.


title: Fordham University

text: Fordham University () is a private Jesuit research university in New York City. Established in 1841 and named after the Fordham neighborhood of the Bronx in which its original campus is located, Fordham is the oldest Catholic and Jesuit university in the northeastern United States and the third-oldest university in New York State.


title: Fordham University

text: Founded as St. John's College by John Hughes, then a coadjutor bishop of New York, the college was placed in the care of the Society of Jesus shortly thereafter, and has since become a Jesuit-affiliated independent school under a lay board of trustees. The college's first president, John McCloskey, was later the first Catholic cardinal in the United States. While governed independently of the church since 1969, every president of Fordham University between 1846 and 2022 was a Jesuit priest, and the curriculum remains influenced by Jesuit educational principles. Fordham is the only Jesuit tertiary institution in New York City.


title: Fordham University

text: Fordham enrolls approximately 15,300 students from more than 65 countries, and is composed of ten constituent colleges, four of which are undergraduate and six of which are postgraduate, across three campuses in southern New York State: the Rose Hill campus in the Bronx, the Lincoln Center campus in Manhattan's Upper West Side, and the Westchester campus in West Harrison, New York. In addition to these locations, the university maintains a study abroad center in London and field offices in Spain and South Africa. The university offers degrees in over 60 disciplines.


title: Fordham University

text: The university's athletic teams, the Rams, include a football team that boasted a win in the Sugar Bowl, two Pro Football Hall of Famers, two All-Americans, two Canadian Football League All-Stars, and numerous NFL players; the Rams also participated in history's first televised college football game in 1939 and history's first televised college basketball game in 1940. Fordham's baseball team played the first collegiate baseball game under modern rules in 1859, has fielded 56 major league players, and holds the record for most NCAA Division I baseball victories in history.


title: Fordham University

text: Fordham's alumni and faculty include a President of the United States, U.S. Senators and representatives, four cardinals of the Catholic Church, several U.S. governors and ambassadors, a number of billionaires, two directors of the CIA, Academy Award and Emmy-winning actors, royalty, a foreign head of state, a White House Counsel, a vice chief of staff of the U.S. Army, a U.S. Postmaster General, a U.S. Attorney General, and the first female vice presidential candidate of a major political party in the United States.


title: Fordham University

text: Fordham was founded as St. John's College in 1841 by the Irish-born coadjutor bishop (later archbishop) of the Diocese of New York, John Hughes. This makes it the third-oldest university in the state of New York, and the first Catholic institution of higher education in the northeastern United States. In 1839, Hughes, then 42 years old, had purchased the 106-acre Rose Hill Manor farm in the village of Fordham, New York for $29,750. His intent was to establish St. Joseph's Seminary following the model of Mount Saint Mary's University, of which he was an alumnus. "Rose Hill" was the name originally given to the site in 1787 by its owner, Robert Watts, a wealthy New York merchant, in honor of his family's ancestral home in Scotland.


title: Fordham University

text: In 1840, St. Joseph's Seminary opened at Rose Hill. The seminary was paired with St. John's College, which opened at Rose Hill with a student body of six on June 24, 1841, the feast day of Saint John the Baptist. The Reverend John McCloskey (later archbishop of New York and eventually the first American cardinal) was the school's first president, and the faculty were secular priests and lay instructors. The college presidency went through a succession of four diocesan priests in five years, including the Rev. James Roosevelt Bayley, a distant cousin of Theodore and Franklin D. Roosevelt and a nephew of St. Elizabeth Ann Seton. In 1845, the seminary church, Our Lady of Mercy, was built. The same year, Bishop Hughes convinced several Jesuit priests from the St. Mary's College in Kentucky to staff St. John's.


title: Fordham University

text: The college received its charter from the New York State Legislature in 1846, and the first Jesuits began to arrive about three months later. In the same year Bishop Hughes sold St. John's College to the Jesuits for $40,000. Hughes deeded the college over but retained title to the seminary property, which totaled about nine acres. In 1847, Fordham's first school in Manhattan opened. The school became the independently chartered College of St. Francis Xavier in 1861. It was also in 1847 that the American poet Edgar Allan Poe arrived in the village of Fordham and began a friendship with the college Jesuits that would last throughout his life. In 1849, he published his famed work "The Bells". Some traditions credit the college's church bells as the inspiration for this poem. Poe also spent considerable time in the college's library, and even occasionally stayed overnight.


title: Fordham University

text: St. John's curriculum consisted of a junior division (i.e. the preparatory school), requiring four years of study in Latin, Greek, grammar, literature, history, geography, mathematics, and religion; and a senior division (i.e. the college), requiring three years study in "poetry" (humanities), rhetoric, and philosophy. Colonel Robert Gould Shaw, famed commander of the all-black 54th Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry American Civil War regiment, attended the junior division. An "Artium Baccalaureus" degree was earned for completion of both curricula, and an additional year of philosophy would earn a "Magister Artium" degree. There was also a "commercial" track similar to a modern business school, offered as an alternative to the Classical curriculum and resulting in a certificate instead of a degree. In 1855, the first student stage production, "Henry IV", was presented by the St. John's Dramatic Society. The seminary was closed in 1859.


title: Fordham University

text: The Civil War was a significant time for the college; among its alumni were four generals, six colonels (including Shaw), and five captains serving in the Union Army; twelve men from Fordham also served in the Confederate Army. Three Jesuits from St. John's served as army chaplains. Lincoln's assassination deeply affected the student body, and even southern students attending the college mourned his loss. As Richard S. Treacy of the class of 1869 later recalled, "The morning we received the news of the death of President Lincoln gloom settled over the entire college, even the southern boys, who before had censored him, now felt that they had lost a valuable friend whose great qualities would be missed in the coming reconstruction."


title: Fordham University

text: Fordham's baseball team, which played its first game on September 13, 1859, made several contributions to the history of baseball in the nineteenth century, and played a key role in introducing the game to Cuba and Latin America. On November 3, 1859, Fordham played the first college baseball game with modern nine-man teams against the now-defunct St. Francis Xavier College in Manhattan. Fordham won the game 33–11. Steve Bellán, the first Cuban and Latin American to play major league baseball, learned to play the game while a student at Fordham from 1863 to 1868. After playing for several American major league teams, he returned home and played in the first organized baseball game in Cuba on December 27, 1874. Charles, Henry, and Frederick Zaldo, brothers from Havana who founded the Almendares Baseball Club, one of the three original Cuban baseball teams, also learned the game while attending Fordham from 1875 to 1878.


title: Fordham University

text: An Act of Congress created instruction in military science and tactics at the college level. As a result of the act, St. John's brought a cadet corps to campus. From 1885 to 1890, Lt. Herbert C. Squires—a veteran of the 7th U.S. Cavalry—built a cadet battalion to a strength of 200, which would provide the foundation for the modern ROTC unit at Fordham. The college built a science building in 1886, lending more legitimacy to science in the curriculum. In addition, a three-year Bachelor of Science degree was created. In 1897, academic regalia for students at commencement was first adopted.


title: Fordham University

text: On June 21, 1904, the Regents of the University of the State of New York consented to allow the board of trustees to authorize the opening of a law school and a medical school. St. John's College officially became Fordham University on March 7, 1907. The name "Fordham" refers to the village of Fordham, in which the original Rose Hill campus is located. The village, in turn, drew its name from its location near a shallow crossing of the Bronx River ("ford by the hamlet"). When Fordham and several other Westchester County towns were consolidated into Bronx County at the turn of the twentieth century, the village became the borough's Fordham neighborhood. Still in existence today, it is just to the west of the Rose Hill campus.


title: Fordham University

text: In 1908, Fordham University Press was established. In 1912, the university opened the College of Pharmacy, which offered a three-year program in pharmacy, not requiring its students to obtain bachelor's degrees until the late 1930s. The college had a mainly Jewish student body, and in recognition of that, the students were exempted from Catholic theology instruction. In September 1912, the Swiss psychiatrist and psychoanalyst Carl Jung delivered a series of lectures at Fordham; these lectures marked his historic break with the theories of his colleague, Sigmund Freud.


title: Fordham University

text: The College of St. Francis Xavier was closed in 1913, and various Fordham colleges were opened at the Woolworth Building in Manhattan to fill the void. Some divisions of the university including the law school were later moved to the City Hall Campus at "the Vincent Astor Building" at 302 Broadway. This commenced an unbroken string of instruction in Manhattan that became what is now Fordham College at Lincoln Center, where all of Fordham's academic operations in Manhattan are centered today.


title: Fordham University

text: The university closed its medical school in 1919, citing a lack of endowment and reduced university funds overall due to the First World War. The Gabelli School of Business began in 1920 in Manhattan as the School of Accounting. According to a university catalogue from 1920, the annual cost for tuition, room and board at the college was $600 (). In 1944, the School of Professional and Continuing Studies was established, largely bolstered by returning veterans taking advantage of the GI Bill.


title: Fordham University

text: The 1940s bore witness to two official presidential visits at Fordham, the first by president Franklin D. Roosevelt on October 28, 1940, during his campaign for a third term. The president was cheered by crowds lining the Grand Concourse as he rode to campus, but received a "more measured welcome" from university president Robert Gannon, who was known for his "anti-Roosevelt views." However, in his welcoming remarks, Gannon respectfully referred to Roosevelt as "a man whose imprint is forever fixed on our national history."


title: Fordham University

text: The second visit was by president Harry S. Truman on May 11, 1946, on the occasion of the centennial of the granting of Fordham's charter. The president received an honorary degree and delivered a nationally broadcast address on the subject of veterans' education, the dangers of atomic warfare, and the importance of education to civilization. His address concluded with the words, "I am confident that this splendid institution, with its educational system rounded upon Christian principles, will play a full and noble part in the great adventure ahead of us. We can and we must make the atomic age an age of peace for the glory of God and the welfare of mankind." During his visit, Truman also performed the first ringing of the Fordham "victory bell," originally the ship's bell of the Japanese aircraft carrier "Junyo," which was presented to the university by Fleet Admiral Chester W. Nimitz. The bell currently stands outside the Rose Hill Gymnasium and peals after all Ram athletic victories and at the start of Commencement each year.


title: Fordham University

text: The football program was first established in 1882 and gained national renown in the early 20th century. Fordham football played on some of the largest stages in sports, including games in front of sellout crowds at the Polo Grounds and Yankee Stadium, a Cotton Bowl appearance and a Sugar Bowl victory. The program produced the famed Seven Blocks of Granite, one of whom was the great Vince Lombardi. On September 30, 1939, Fordham participated in the world's first televised football game, defeating Waynesburg College, 34–7. The university discontinued the program during World War II, reinstating it in 1946. However, it proved much less successful and too expensive to maintain, and was again discontinued in 1954, though would revive yet again as an NCAA Division III team in 1970 and Division I team in 1989.


title: Fordham University

text: In the late 1950s, the Civil Rights Movement was gathering momentum in the U.S. when Fordham students and school officials expressed ambivalence about racial justice. In the late 1960s, Fordham became a center of political activism and countercultural activity. At the Rose Hill Campus, the Fordham branch of Students for a Democratic Society organized opposition to the existence of the ROTC and military recruiters. During this period, students routinely organized protests and class boycotts and used psychoactive drugs on campus open spaces.


title: Fordham University

text: On February 15, 1958, then senator John F. Kennedy received an honorary Doctor of Law degree from university president Laurence J. McGinley and delivered an address at the annual Fordham Law Alumni Association luncheon. After humorously stating that he denied any "presidential aspirations—with respect to the Fordham Alumni Association," Kennedy said that, "It is to the eternal credit of Fordham that the teaching of law has here been accompanied by an inculcation of moral values. The graduate of this law school has acquired something more than the tools of his profession—he has learned, both by example and precept, the high obligations of trust which are his as an attorney."


title: Fordham University

text: In 1961, the Lincoln Center campus opened as part of the Lincoln Square Renewal Project. This second campus which placed an institution of higher learning in the realm of a multi-disciplinary performing arts complex came to pass through the collaboration of New York City's infamous urban planner Robert Moses and Fordham's twenty sixth President Fr. Laurence J. McGinley. The School of Law was the first to occupy the new campus, but the academic programs at 302 Broadway were moved to the new location in 1969. In addition, on November 18, 1961, then attorney general Robert F. Kennedy received an honorary degree and delivered an address at the dedication of the new Fordham Law School building in Lincoln Center, paying tribute to "Fordham ideals, traditions and teachers." Kennedy said that he was privileged, as attorney general, to be "the largest single employer of Fordham law graduates in North America," and also remarked that, "While the world we know is preoccupied by what may lie before it, when threats could pervade our every thought and fears our every action, it is reassuring to see buildings and programs like these rise each day to greet the future. It is a mark of courage and resolution." On November 2, 1964, during his campaign for the U.S. Senate, Robert F. Kennedy made another visit to Fordham and gave an address at the Rose Hill gymnasium that attracted a crowd of 2,800.


title: Fordham University

text: The first women to attend Fordham came earlier in the century: the Law School began accepting female students in 1918. Women also had been earning Fordham degrees at the Graduate School of Social Service and the Undergraduate School of Education, at the City Hall Campus. Women in the School of Education had also been commuting to the Rose Hill campus to take their science lab courses alongside male students, where women had also been part of the School of Pharmacy's student body. However, in September 1964, the all-female Thomas More College at the Rose Hill campus began instruction.


title: Fordham University

text: In response to internal demands for a more "liberalized" curriculum, the university created Bensalem College in 1967. An experimental college with no set requirements and no grades, it was studied by a wide array of educators and covered by journalists at such large-circulation publications of the day as "Look", "Esquire" and the "Saturday Review". The school closed in 1974.


title: Fordham University

text: "The Liberal Arts College" for undergraduates opened in 1968, later changing its name to "The College at Lincoln Center" and then in 1996 to "Fordham College at Lincoln Center." In 1993, a twenty-story residence hall for 850 students was added to the Lincoln Center campus.


title: Fordham University

text: In 1969, students organized a sit-in on the main road leading to Rose Hill in response to an announcement that President Richard Nixon would be speaking on campus. As a result of the sit-in, Nixon was forced to cancel his plans to speak. A year later, students stormed the main administration building, occupying it for several weeks, and set fire to the Rose Hill faculty lounge. It was during this period of activism that the university's African and African American Studies Department, one of the first black studies departments in the nation, as well as "the paper", the leftist student newspaper on campus, were founded.


title: Fordham University

text: The board of trustees was reorganized in 1969 to include a majority of nonclerical members, which officially made the university an independent institution. While the Jesuit order thereby lost full control of Fordham, the board of trustees continues to maintain the institution as a "Jesuit, Catholic university." The College of Pharmacy closed in 1972 due to declining enrollment. Fordham College at Rose Hill became coeducational in 1974 when it merged with Thomas More College.


title: Fordham University

text: Fordham Preparatory School is a four-year, all-male college preparatory school that was once integrated with the university, sharing its 1841 founding. "Fordham Prep" became legally independent in 1972 when it moved to its own facilities on the northwest corner of the Rose Hill campus. The school continues to retain many connections with the university.


title: Fordham University

text: Marymount College was an independent women's college that was founded in 1907 by the Religious of the Sacred Heart of Mary. The school was consolidated into Fordham in July 2002. Marymount had been steeped in financial hardship since the 1970s. Located north of Manhattan in Tarrytown, New York, the college remained open as a single-sex institution, and its campus received a branch of the School of Professional and Continuing Studies as well as extensions of the graduate schools for education, social service, and business administration.


title: Fordham University

text: In 2005, Fordham announced that its Marymount College campus would be phased out; Marymount awarded degrees to its final undergraduate class in May 2007. University administrators indicated the campus would remain open for Fordham graduate programs in several disciplines.


title: Fordham University

text: In the autumn of 2007, the university announced its intention to seek buyers for the Marymount campus. Administrators stated the expenses required to support the programs at the campus far exceeded the demand. University officials estimated the revenue gained from the proposed sale would not be greater than the expenses incurred maintaining and improving the campus since the merger with Marymount. President McShane stated the university's decision was nonetheless a "painful" one. Fordham then indicated its intention to move the remaining programs from the Marymount campus to a new location in Harrison, New York, by the autumn of 2008. On February 17, 2008, the university announced the sale of the campus for $27 million to EF Schools, a chain of private language-instruction schools.


title: Fordham University

text: In 2014, the university successfully completed a five-year, $500 million campaign; the project surpassed expectations by raising more than $540 million. The university went on to renovate and expand its Lincoln Center campus, opening in 2014 its renovated Law School, as well as an additional undergraduate dormitory, McKeon Hall. The former law school building was converted to expand Quinn Library and house the Gabelli School of Business. Long-term plans include a new library building and buildings for the graduate schools of Social Service and of Education.


title: Fordham University

text: Fordham University is composed of four undergraduate and six graduate schools, and its academic ethos is heavily drawn from its Jesuit origins. The university promotes the Jesuit principles of "cura personalis", which fosters a faculty and administrative respect for the individual student and all of his or her gifts and abilities; "magis", which encourages students to challenge themselves and strive for excellence in their lives; and "homines pro aliis", which intends to inspire service, a universal charity, among members of the Fordham community.


title: Fordham University

text: Through its International and Study Abroad Programs (ISAP) Office, Fordham provides its students with over 130 diffrent study abroad opportunities. The programs range in duration from six weeks to a full academic year and vary in focus from cultural and language immersion to internship and service learning. Some of the programs are organized by Fordham itself, such as those in London, United Kingdom; Granada, Spain; and Pretoria, South Africa; while others are operated by partner institutions like Georgetown University, the University of Oxford, and the Council on International Educational Exchange (CIEE). In addition to the ISAP programs, the university's constituent schools offer a range of study abroad programs that cater to their specific areas of study. Fordham has produced 168 Fulbright scholars since 2003.


title: Fordham University

text: According to "U.S. News & World Report", Fordham is considered a "more selective" university, while a 2013 "Barron's" survey published in the "New York Times" classed the university as "highly competitive". In its 2018 edition, admissions selectivity to Fordham's undergraduate schools received a reclassification by "Barron's" Profiles of American Colleges to "Most Competitive" after being "Highly Competitive+" in its 2017 edition, and reported 74% of enrolled freshmen as ranking in the top 20% of their high school class.


title: Fordham University

text: In 2016, the university accepted approximately 43% of all applicants across both its undergraduate and graduate programs. For the undergraduate class of 2019, Fordham accepted 20,366 of the 42,811 applicants (47.6%) and enrolled 2,211. The middle 50% range of SAT scores for enrolled freshmen was 580–670 for critical reading, 590–680 for math, and 590–680 for writing, while the ACT Composite middle 50% range was 28–33. The average high school GPA of incoming freshmen was 3.64.


title: Fordham University

text: All undergraduates pursuing bachelor's degrees at Fordham are required to complete the Core curriculum, a distribution of 17 courses in nine disciplines: English, mathematical/computational reasoning, social science, philosophy and ethics, history, fine arts, religious studies, natural science, and modern or Classical languages. Based on the curriculum established by the Society of Jesus in the sixteenth century, the Core is shared by Jesuit schools all over the world and emphasizes the liberal arts as a basis of education.


title: Fordham University

text: Undergraduate students are expected to have finished most of the core requirements as a sophomore; a wide variety of courses can be applied to satisfy the requirements. Upon the completion of the Core Curriculum, students choose from approximately 50 major courses of study, in which they will receive their degree. One option is the "personalized interdisciplinary major", which allows students to create their own course of study across various disciplines.


title: Fordham University

text: In addition to the bachelor's degrees offered to undergraduates, the university also offers specialized academic programs, including pre-medical and health professions; pre-professional programs in architecture, law, and criminal justice; a 3-2 engineering program, in conjunction with Columbia and Case Western Reserve Universities; a five-year teacher certification program; an Applied Public Accountancy (CPA certification) program; a BFA program in dance, in conjunction with the Alvin Ailey American Dance Theater; as well as cross-registration opportunities with the Juilliard School for advanced music students.


title: Fordham University

text: Master's and doctoral degrees are offered through the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences, the School of Law, the Graduate School of Education, the Graduate School of Social Service, the Gabelli School of Business, and the Graduate School of Religion and Religious Education. Fordham's graduate programs in business, education, English, history, law, psychology, and social work were all ranked among the top 100 in the nation by the 2016 "U.S. News & World Report". Fordham participates in the Inter-University Doctoral Consortium, which allows its doctoral students to take classes at a number of schools in the New York metropolitan area.


title: Fordham University

text: Fordham's medical school officially closed in 1919, and its College of Pharmacy followed suit in 1972. Nevertheless, the university continues its tradition of medical education through a collaboration with the Albert Einstein College of Medicine at Yeshiva University. The partnership allows Fordham undergraduate and graduate science students to take classes, conduct research, and pursue early admission to select programs of Einstein. In addition, it involves a physician mentoring program, which permits students to shadow an attending physician at Einstein's Montefiore Medical Center.


title: Fordham University

text: The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching classifies Fordham as a doctoral university with high research activity R2:(RU/H). The Fordham University Library System contains over 2.5 million volumes and 3.1 million microforms, subscribes to 16,000 periodicals including electronic access, and has 19,300 audiovisual materials. It is a depository for 363,227 United States Government documents. In addition, the university's Interlibrary Loan office provides students and faculty with virtually unlimited access to the over 20 million volumes of the New York Public Library System as well as to media from the libraries of Columbia University, New York University, the City University of New York, and other libraries around the world. Fordham's libraries include the William D. Walsh Family Library, ranked in 2004 as the fifth best collegiate library in the country, and the Science Library at the Rose Hill campus; the Gerald M. Quinn Library and the Leo T. Kissam Memorial Law Library at the Lincoln Center campus; and the Media Center at the Westchester campus. In addition to the university's formal libraries, several academic departments, research institutes, and student organizations maintain their own literary collections. The Rose Hill campus's Duane Library, despite its name, is no longer a library but offers reading and study space for students.


title: Fordham University

text: Fordham maintains several special collections housed in museums and galleries on campus. The Fordham Museum of Greek, Etruscan, and Roman Art is at the Rose Hill campus and contains more than 200 artifacts from Classical antiquity, including: sculptures, mosaics, ceramics and pottery, coins, and inscriptions, among other items. A gift from alumnus William D. Walsh, it is the largest collection of its kind in the New York metropolitan area. In addition, the university maintains an extensive art collection, which is housed in exhibition spaces at the Rose Hill and Lincoln Center campuses and in galleries around New York City. Finally, the university possesses a sizable collection of rare books, manuscripts, and other print media, which is housed in the O'Hare Special Collections Room at the Walsh Library.


title: Fordham University

text: Other research facilities include the Louis Calder Center, a 114-acre biological field station and the middle site along an urban-forest transect known as the Urban-Rural Gradient Experiment; the William Spain Seismic Observatory, a data collection unit for the US Geological Survey; and other facilities. It is a member of the Bronx Scientific Research Consortium, which also includes the New York Botanical Garden, the Bronx Zoo, the Albert Einstein College of Medicine at Yeshiva University, and Montefiore Medical Center. Furthermore, Fordham faculty have conducted research with such institutions as the Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, Los Alamos National Laboratory, and organizations worldwide.


title: Fordham University

text: Fordham University Press, the university's publishing house and an affiliate of Oxford University Press, primarily publishes humanities and social sciences research. The university also hosts an Undergraduate Research Symposium every year during the spring semester and publishes the "Undergraduate Research Journal" in conjunction with the symposium. In addition, it facilitates research opportunities for undergraduates with such organizations as the National Science Foundation, The Cloisters, and the American Museum of Natural History.


title: Fordham University

text: Fordham's undergraduate schools all offer honors programs for their students. The programs' curricula are modified versions of the Core Curriculum. For example, the Fordham College Honors Program, a community of scholars for justice, offers a Great Books curriculum with seminar-style classes and a senior research thesis in each student's major. Most honors students are inducted into the programs upon admission to the university, though some are invited at the end of their first year. Each program has a designated study space for its members, including Alpha House for the Fordham College Honors Program and the honors wing of Hughes Hall for the Global Business Honors Program. Upon graduating from the university, honors students receive the designation of "in cursu honorum" on their diploma and transcripts.


title: Fordham University

text: In addition to its honors programs, Fordham has chapters of several honor societies on campus, including but not limited to the following:


title: Fordham University

text: The Office of Prestigious Fellowships is the university's office for academic fellowships and scholarships. Its function is to raise awareness of fellowship opportunities among students, counsel interested students about their eligibility for various programs, and advise fellowship candidates during the application process. With the aid of this office, Fordham was one of the top producers of U.S. Fulbright students of 2012.


title: Fordham University

text: The Matteo Ricci Society is an honor society for Fordham students who are likely candidates for academic fellowships. Students are invited to join based on academic success and other factors. The society assists its members in preparing applications for fellowships, coordinating internships, and obtaining funding for research endeavors. The Rev. William E. Boyle, S.J., Society is a parallel organization for business students.


title: Fordham University

text: The Fordham Military Science program is available to all undergraduate and graduate students, regardless of their chosen course of study. It is also available to students at more than fifty other colleges and universities in the New York metropolitan area. The program consists of membership and training in the Ram Battalion of the Army Reserve Officer Training Corps (ROTC) and a sequence of military science classes taught on campus. Participants in the program are also eligible to enroll in the Air Force ROTC program at Manhattan College and the Navy ROTC program at SUNY Maritime College. In 2011, Fordham Military Science began offering a combat nursing program in conjunction with Regis University and the University of Colorado at Denver.


title: Fordham University

text: The Military Science program has several notable alumni, including former Secretary of State Colin Powell, four-star General John M. Keane, and at least four recipients of the Medal of Honor. Furthermore, it has been distinguished as being in the top fifteen percent of military science programs in the country.


title: Fordham University

text: In addition to its ROTC program, the university contributes to military education through its Veterans Initiative, which provides full-tuition scholarships and other benefits to post-9/11 veterans of the U.S. military. Because of the initiative, Fordham was named one of the 25 best colleges in the country for veterans in 2013 by "Military History Monthly" Magazine.


title: Fordham University

text: Fordham University is ranked by several national organizations. In 2021, the university was ranked No. 66 by "U.S. News & World Report" in "Best National Universities," tied at No. 38 in "Best Colleges for Veterans", tied at 44th for "Best Undergraduate Teaching", 82nd in "Top Value Schools", and tied for 203d in "Top Performers on Social Mobility". In 2019, "Forbes" ranked the university 141st among "Top Colleges", while "Kiplinger" ranked it 62nd of "100 Best Values in Private Universities" in 2018.


title: Fordham University

text: For 2021, UniRanking listed Fordham fifth among the top Catholic Universities in the world and fourth among US schools.


title: Fordham University

text: In 2014, "Business Insider" ranked Fordham 131st on a list of "The 600 Smartest Colleges in America," based on the student body's average SAT scores. Fordham has also been named one of the country's Hidden Ivies, which are classed as "renowned academic institutions" that "rival the Ivy League."


title: Fordham University

text: The AACSB accredited Gabelli School of Business was ranked tied for tenth in "Undergraduate International Business Rankings" by "U.S. News & World Report" for 2021, and in 2016, "Bloomberg Businessweek" ranked it the 27th best undergraduate business school in the nation. For 2022, Poets and Quants ranked Gabelli #1 for Corporate, Social and Environmental Responsibility and #10 for Best EMBA programs. Also for 2022, The Economist posted their list of the top 100 MBA programs in the world where only 50 were US programs. Gabelli was listed 94th.


title: Fordham University

text: Gabelli Business School's MBA program tied for 80th among "America's Best Business Schools" by "U.S. News & World Report". In the years prior, the business program was ranked No. 72 among "Best Full-Time MBA Programs" by "Bloomberg Businessweek" (2015), No. 79 among "Best Executive MBA Programs in the World" by the "Financial Times" (2015), and No. 39 among "Best Executive MBA Programs" by "Bloomberg Businessweek" (2013).


title: Fordham University

text: The Fordham Law School in 2020 was ranked 27th in "U.S. News & World Report"s ranking of "America’s Best Law schools".


title: Fordham University

text: Globally, Fordham was ranked 90th among the "World's top 100 universities for producing millionaires", as compiled by THE in 2013. According to data from "The New York Times", Fordham ranked at No. 8 out of 71 "highly selective private colleges" yielding the greatest overall social mobility; this data reflects the share of all students who came from lower-income families and ended up in higher-income families after completing their education. École des Mines de Paris's listing – which reviews over 3,000 educational institutions around the world, selects some 700 schools and ranks them according to their ability to place their graduates in Fortune 500 CEO and leading positions – ranks Fordham University 16th on their list, making it the highest ranked Catholic institution.


title: Fordham University

text: Fordham has three main campuses, which are in and around New York City: Rose Hill in the Fordham neighborhood, the Bronx, adjacent to Bronx Park on Fordham Road; Lincoln Center in Manhattan, one block from Central Park; and Westchester in West Harrison, New York. In addition, it maintains and utilizes various academic, extracurricular, and residential facilities throughout New York City and New York State and around the world. In addition to its three main campuses, the university also operates the Louis Calder Center, a biological field station north of New York City in Armonk, New York. It consists of forested with a lake and 13 buildings. The structures house laboratories and classrooms, offices for faculty and administrators, a library, and residences.


title: Fordham University

text: Outside the United States, the university maintains a small campus in London, known as the London Centre. In addition, Fordham operates field offices in Granada, Spain, and Pretoria, South Africa; these house undergraduate study abroad programs. Finally, the university provides faculty for the Beijing International MBA at Peking University at Peking University in China. The program, established in 1998, has been ranked No. 1 in China by "Fortune" and "Forbes" Magazines.


title: Fordham University

text: The Rose Hill campus, established in 1841 by Bishop John Hughes, is home to Fordham College at Rose Hill, the Gabelli School of Business, and a division of the School of Professional and Continuing Studies, as well as the Graduate Schools of Arts and Sciences and Religion and Religious Education. Situated on in the central Bronx, it is among the largest privately owned green spaces in New York City. At one time spanning over 100 acres, much of the land for adjacent Bronx Park was acquired from the university with funds authorized by the 1884 New Parks Act intended to preserve lands that would soon become part of New York City, on the condition that it be used as a zoo and botanical garden. Fordham students and staff have free admission to the garden grounds. Rose Hill is on Fordham Road, just north of the Belmont neighborhood, described as the "real Little Italy of New York", and immediately west of the Bronx Zoo and the New York Botanical Garden. The campus's Collegiate Gothic architecture, expansive lawns, ivy-covered buildings, and cobblestone streets were featured by NBC News.


title: Fordham University

text: Rose Hill is largely made up of nineteenth-century architecture, with some contemporary buildings. The campus is home to several structures on the National Register of Historic Places, such as the University Church built in 1845 as a seminary chapel and parish church for the surrounding community. It contains the altar from Old St. Patrick's Cathedral, as well as stained glass windows given to the university by King Louis Philippe I of France. The windows are particularly notable for their connection to a workshop in Sevres, France, locus of the earliest stages of the Gothic Revival. Adjacent to the church is a 138-plot cemetery where the university's nineteenth-century Jesuits, diocesan seminarians, students, and workers are interred, relocated in 1890 from its original location at today's New York Botanical Garden.


title: Fordham University

text: There are eleven residence halls on campus, including Queen's Court residential college, whose main mission is to "assist in the integration of first-year students into University life," and nine Integrated Learning Communities that each cater to a particular year (freshman, sophomore, etc.) or area of study (science, leadership, etc.). In addition, the campus contains two residences for Jesuits, a retirement home, and the Murray-Weigel infirmary.


title: Fordham University

text: Rose Hill is served by the Fordham station of the Metro-North Railroad, which extends to Grand Central Terminal. Public transit buses stop adjacent to campus exits, and three New York City Subway stations are within walking distance. The university also provides a shuttle service between its three main campuses (the "Ram Van"), which is headquartered at Rose Hill. 6,981 undergraduate and graduate students are enrolled at the Rose Hill, of which 2,482 live on campus.


title: Fordham University

text: In 1954, New York City's Robert Moses wrote to Fordham administrators proposing Fordham might "be interested in an alternative [to renting space in the New York Coliseum] involving a new building in a part of the area to the north of Columbus Circle to be redeveloped under Title One of the Federal Housing Law. ... If this idea appeals to you I will ask Mr. Lebwohl to see you and explain it in greater detail." In March 1958, Mayor Robert Wagner signed the deeds transferring the Lincoln Center campus to Fordham University.


title: Fordham University

text: The Lincoln Center campus is home to Fordham College at Lincoln Center and to a division of the School of Professional and Continuing Studies, as well as the School of Law, the Graduate Schools of Education and Social Service, and the Gabelli School of Business. The campus occupies the area from West 60th Street to West 62nd Street between Columbus and Amsterdam Avenues, placing it in the cultural heart of Manhattan.


title: Fordham University

text: Lincoln Center has two grassy plazas, built one level up from the street. The larger expanse was once a barren cement landscape known as "Robert Moses Plaza;" the smaller is known as "St. Peter's Garden" and contains a memorial to the Fordham students and alumni who perished in the September 11, 2001, attacks. The campus is served by public transit buses; the A, B, C, D, and 1 Subway trains, which are accessed at the 59th Street/Columbus Circle station; and the university's Ram Van shuttle. 9,078 undergraduate and postgraduate students are enrolled at Lincoln Center, of which 1,337 reside in University housing. The campus consists of the Leon Lowenstein Building, McMahon Hall, the Gerald M. Quinn Library, and the Doyle Building. In the fall of 2014, the new freshman residence dormitory McKeon Hall opened, along with the new Fordham Law School building.


title: Fordham University

text: The "Toward 2016 Strategic Plan" prescribed a complete reconfiguration of the Lincoln Center campus, to be completed by 2032. The first phase of the project, including renovations of the Lowenstein Building as well as a new Law School building and residence hall designed by Pei Cobb Freed & Partners, were completed in 2014. In 2014, Fordham University purchased a building at 45 Columbus Avenue and incorporated it in its Lincoln Center campus as Joseph A. Martino Hall. The nine-story building is directly across the avenue from the former Law School building.


title: Fordham University

text: The Westchester campus is home to divisions of the School of Professional and Continuing Studies, the Martino Graduate School of Business Administration, and the Education and Social Service graduate schools. It consists of a three-story, building on landscaped with a stream and pond. Fordham signed a 20-year lease for the facility, which includes 26 "smart" classrooms, faculty and administrative offices, a media center, a food service facility, and indoor and outdoor meeting areas. In 2008, the university spent over $8 million renovating the building in order to increase its sustainability.


title: Fordham University

text: The campus is served by the White Plains station of the Metro-North Railroad away and connected by the Westchester County Bus System ("The Bee Line").


title: Fordham University

text: In October 2018, Fordham expanded its study abroad program in London to its own space, the London Centre. The campus is situated in the Clerkenwell area of London, within the London borough of Camden. Fordham's London Centre offers programs in business, theater, and the liberal arts to students from Fordham and other colleges and universities.


title: Fordham University

text: Relations between Fordham and its surrounding neighborhoods vary according to campus. At Rose Hill, the university actively recruits Bronx students from disadvantaged backgrounds through the New York State Higher Education Opportunity Program. In addition, about 80% of students participate in local community service.


title: Fordham University

text: The relationship between the Lincoln Center campus and some of the Upper West Side community residents have been strained, over campus development. In 2010 the New York State Supreme Court dismissed a lawsuit against Fordham brought by The Alfred Condominium. The suit was filed in response to the university's expansion plans at Lincoln Center and their expected visual and auditory impact on the surrounding community. The Lincoln Center campus does, however, have a lively connection to the artistic scene in Manhattan through its dance and theater productions and visual art exhibitions.


title: Fordham University

text: The university supports 21 men's and women's varsity athletic teams, as well as various club and intramural sports. The Fordham colors are maroon and white and its mascot is the ram. In most varsity sports, the Rams compete in Division I of the National Collegiate Athletic Association and are a member of the Atlantic 10 Conference. The football team, however, plays in NCAA Division I FCS and is an associate member of the Patriot League, reported to be the most academically selective NCAA conference after the Ivy League.


title: Fordham University

text: The Ram's football team ended the 1929 season as title holders according to college football's fictitious national championship, boasts two bowl game appearances (1941 and 1942), two Patriot League championships (2002 and 2007) and corresponding NCAA Division I Football Championship appearances. It is best known, however, for the "Seven Blocks of Granite," a name given to the team's 1928 and 1936 offensive lines. The 1936 team was coached by "Sleepy" Jim Crowley, one of the University of Notre Dame's famed "Four Horsemen," and included Vince Lombardi, the legendary Green Bay Packers coach. The team provoked the term "Ivy League" after "New York Herald Tribune" sportswriter Caswell Adams called then powerhouses Princeton and Yale "only Ivy League" compared to this Fordham team. Moreover, the Los Angeles Rams NFL franchise was named in honor of Fordham's football heritage.


title: Fordham University

text: The Fordham men's basketball program has made four NCAA Tournament appearances and 16 National Invitational Tournament appearances. During the 1971 season, the program enjoyed its best campaign ever, compiling a 26–3 record and earning a No. 9 national ranking. That team was coached by Digger Phelps, who accepted an offer to coach Notre Dame after the 1971 season ended. Peter "PJ" Carlesimo was a reserve on Fordham's 1971 team; he later became the head coach of the Brooklyn Nets NBA franchise and was involved in a famous choking incident with Latrell Sprewell. Fordham basketball plays in the Rose Hill Gymnasium (also known as "The Prairie"), the oldest on-campus venue in use by an NCAA Division I basketball team.


title: Fordham University

text: The Rams baseball program is among the oldest in the nation and was the first college baseball team to play the game according to modern rules. The program has launched the careers of 57 Major League Baseball players, including National Baseball Hall of Fame inductee Frankie Frisch (also known as the "Fordham Flash"). In April 2010, a Fordham baserunner made national headlines when he somersaulted over an opposing team's catcher to score a run during a game. The incident was dubbed the "Fordham Flip." The Rams baseball team holds the record for most NCAA Division I baseball victories in history.


title: Fordham University

text: There are eight women's teams on campus. The women's basketball team won the Atlantic 10 championship in 2014, advancing to the first round of the NCAA Women's Division I Basketball Championship. This feat came just 6 years after the team set an NCAA record for the worst season, finishing the season 0–29 in 2008.


title: Fordham University

text: The university's programs include track and field, which claims world record holder and Olympic gold medalist Tom Courtney as an alumnus; sailing, which is headquartered at the Morris Yacht and Beach Club in City Island, Bronx; crew, which rows out of the Peter Jay Sharp Boathouse on the Harlem River and frequents the Henley Royal Regatta in the United Kingdom; and golf, which is affiliated with the Winged Foot Golf Club in Mamaroneck, New York.


title: Fordham University

text: Clubs and organizations for undergraduate and graduate students number over 130 at the Rose Hill campus and 50 at Lincoln Center.


title: Fordham University

text: Fordham College at Rose Hill has a long history of college theater, and the entire university maintains a number of theater groups at both Lincoln Center and Rose Hill (e.g. the Mimes and Mummers, Fordham Experimental Theater, the Theatrical Outreach Group, Splinter Group). There are also choirs (University Choir, Schola Cantorum, Gloria Dei Choir) and a cappella groups spanning both campuses (Fordham Ramblers, Satin Dolls, b-Sides, Hot Notes, F-sharps). The Mimes and Mummers, the oldest entirely student-run club at Fordham University and among the oldest college theater groups in the United States, was founded in 1855 as the Saint John's Dramatic Society. The Mimes put on two musicals, a drama, and a comedy each year – all non-student-written shows – as well as workshops designed to help students at Fordham learn about theater. The club receives from the school a budget which allows the hiring of professional directors, music directors, and choreographers but the shows are student produced, with all elements of technical design run by the club's executive board.


title: Fordham University

text: In 1905, with the construction of Collins Hall, Fordham University became the first place on the East Coast of the United States to have a theater in the round. The Penthouse Theatre, on the fourth floor of Collins Hall, served both for debuts of professional shows and home for theater groups like the Mimes and Mummers. The Penthouse Theatre was turned into office space in 1966.


title: Fordham University

text: In 1990, Alumni House, believed to be constructed in 1842 by William Rodrigue as a personal residence, an architect involved in the building of much of the early campus, was turned into a student-run space. Despite this account being questioned by the NYC Landmarks Preservation Commission in the report of its listing, it came to be known as Rodrigue's Coffee House. Rodrigue's, more commonly referred to as "Rod's" is an entirely student run coffee house and event space. Notable artists such as Frankie Cosmos, Matt and Kim, Japanese Breakfast, and Dreamcrusher have performed at Rod's.


title: Fordham University

text: The university has a number of student publications, including "The Fordham Ram", the university's official journal of record; "The Observer", the newspaper for the Lincoln Center campus; the "Fordham Political Review", the university's "undergraduate publication dedicated to politics, economics, social sciences, international affairs, and culture"; "The Rival", an online-only student-run publication; and "the paper", a student-run free-speech alternative journal.


title: Fordham University

text: WFUV is Fordham's 50,000-watt radio station, broadcasting on 90.7 FM. Founded in 1947, the station serves approximately 350,000 listeners weekly in the New York City metropolitan area. It is a National Public Radio affiliate and has an adult alternative format on weekdays and a variety format on weekends. In 2017 "The Princeton Review" ranked WFUV the second best college radio station in the United States.


title: Fordham University

text: The purpose of Campus Ministry at Fordham is to provide "opportunities and resources for spiritual growth to members of [the university] community." It offers programming for more than 15 faith traditions in such areas as worship, music ministry, and social ministry. One of its most popular initiatives is its retreats, which are held at the university's McGrath House of Prayer in Goshen, New York, and other retreat houses in the New York City metropolitan area. In addition to its Jesuit traditions, the university also has organizations devoted to Judaism, Islam, and other religions.


title: Fordham University

text: The university has a church and numerous chapels across its campuses. At Rose Hill are the University Church which houses Our Lady's Chapel in the basement; the Blue Chapel on the third floor of Keating Hall; the Sacred Heart Chapel in Dealy Hall; the St. Robert Bellarmine Chapel at Spellman Hall; along with chapels at several student residence halls. At the Lincoln Center campus is the Bl. Rupert Meyer Chapel in the Leon Lowenstein Building.


title: Fordham University

text: In conjunction with the Office of Mission and Ministry, Global Outreach (GO!) operates as a cultural immersion and service program where students learn about various issues of social, economic, political, and environmental injustice while living a simple lifestyle that fosters communal and spiritual growth. Teams consist of approximately 10 students, one student leader, and one chaperone to live, work, and learn with partnering organizations. Building on the Jesuit tenets of Men and Women for Others, Magis, and Contemplatives in Action, GO! has grown over the years to include more than 30 projects throughout the United States and countries in Asia, Africa, Europe, and Latin America. GO!'s roots stretch back to the 1950s, when Fordham students were participating in various service and immersion projects. In the 1970s and '80s it became known as the Mexico project, with students coining the term Global Outreach in 1988.


title: Fordham University

text: The Dorothy Day Center for Service and Justice is responsible for overseeing Fordham's various community service and humanitarian initiatives. Grounded in the Jesuit principle of training "men and women for others", the center organizes projects in such areas as poverty, hunger, education, and disaster relief. As a result of the Dorothy Day Center's efforts, the university performed approximately one million hours of service in 2011, ranking it sixth among universities country-wide in terms of community outreach. A popular volunteer location among students is the Jesuit Health Care Center at the Rose Hill campus where students interested in nursing gain practical experience. The Dorothy Day Center also offers a pre-orientation "Urban Plunge" program, introducing incoming freshmen to social justice issues in New York City.


title: Fordham University

text: In order to increase its sustainability, the university has committed to reducing its greenhouse gas emissions by 30% in 2017. In addition, it has pledged to employ low-flow faucets and shower heads, use sustainable materials like reprocessed flooring, recycle up to 90% of its debris, and seek LEED Silver certification in its construction of new facilities on campus. Also, the Department of Grounds Maintenance at Fordham has committed to making half of its vehicle fleet electric by 2016. The university has also proposed numerous environmental initiatives, including using certified green cleaning products, a uniform recycling program, and composting in cooperation with the New York Botanical Garden.


title: Fordham University

text: Fordham's Rose Hill campus is home to one of the largest collections of mature American elms in the country, the oldest estimated to be 270 years old.


title: Fordham University

text: Since its founding in 1841, the university has developed many traditions. Some of them are described below:


title: Fordham University

text: In addition to its traditions, Fordham is associated with a number of symbols, some of which are discussed below:


title: Fordham University

text: Fordham has over 183,500 alumni spread throughout the world, with 40 regional alumni chapters in the US and abroad.


title: Fordham University

text: Geraldine Ferraro, the first female vice presidential candidate of a major political party in the United States, attended Fordham, as did numerous United States Congresspersons. New York State Governor Andrew Cuomo is an alumnus as was Martin H. Glynn, the 40th Governor of New York (1913–1914) and first Catholic to hold the office. Among those serving at high levels of the U.S. Executive Branch were Postmaster General John E. Potter; Central Intelligence Director William J. Casey from 1981 to 1987 and John O. Brennan from 2013 to 2017; John N. Mitchell, Attorney General from 1969 to 1972; and Bernard M. Shanley, Deputy Chief of Staff and White House Counsel to President Dwight D. Eisenhower. President Donald Trump attended for two years and studied economics but left in 1966, transferring to the University of Pennsylvania.


title: Fordham University

text: Fordham claims a number of distinguished military honorees, including three Medal of Honor recipients and notable generals including General John "Jack" Keane, four-star general and Army Vice Chief of Staff, and Major General Martin Thomas McMahon, decorated American Civil War officer. Fordham has produced college and university presidents for at least 10 institutions around the United States, including two for Georgetown University and one each for Columbia University and New York University, and produced Robert Kibbee, the Chancellor of the City University of New York. Cardinal Francis Spellman oversaw the Archdiocese of New York. James B. Donovan defended Rudolph Abel in his spy trial and negotiated the release of Francis Gary Powers. Archduchess Charlotte of Austria, daughter of the last Austrian Emperor, Charles I, studied at the School of Social Sciences.