title: Concubinage

text: A samurai could take concubines but their backgrounds were checked by higher-ranked samurai. In many cases, taking a concubine was akin to a marriage. Kidnapping a concubine, although common in fiction, would have been shameful, if not criminal. If the concubine was a commoner, a messenger was sent with betrothal money or a note for exemption of tax to ask for her parents' acceptance. Even though the woman would not be a legal wife, a situation normally considered a demotion, many wealthy merchants believed that being the concubine of a samurai was superior to being the legal wife of a commoner. When a merchant's daughter married a samurai, her family's money erased the samurai's debts, and the samurai's social status improved the standing of the merchant family. If a samurai's commoner concubine gave birth to a son, the son could inherit his father's social status.


title: Concubinage

text: Concubines sometimes wielded significant influence. Nene, wife of Toyotomi Hideyoshi, was known to overrule her husband's decisions at times and Yodo-dono, his concubine, became the "de facto" master of Osaka castle and the Toyotomi clan after Hideyoshi's death.


title: Concubinage

text: Joseon monarchs had a harem which contained concubines of different ranks. Empress Myeongseong managed to have sons, preventing sons of concubines from getting power.


title: Concubinage

text: Children of concubines often had lower value in account of marriage. A daughter of concubine could not marry a wife-born son of the same class. For example, Jang Nok-su was a concubine-born daughter of a mayor, who was initially married to a slave-servant, and later became a high-ranking concubine of Yeonsangun.


title: Concubinage

text: The Joseon dynasty established in 1392 debated whether the children of a free parent and a slave parent should be considered free or slave. The child of a scholar-official father and a slave-concubine mother was always free, although the child could not occupy government positions.


title: Concubinage

text: In Hindu India, concubinage could be practiced with women with whom marriage was undesirable, such as a woman from a lower-caste or a non-Hindu woman. Children born of concubinage followed the caste categorization of the mother.


title: Concubinage

text: In medieval Rajasthan, the ruling Rajput family often had certain women called "paswan", "khawaas", "pardayat". These women were kept by ruler if their beauty had impressed him, but without formal marriage. Sometimes they were given rights to income collected from a particular village, as queens did. Their children were socially accepted but did not receive a share in the ruling family's property and married others of the same status as them.


title: Concubinage

text: Female slave-servants or slave-performers could be elevated to the rank of concubine (called "khavas", "pavas") if a ruler found them attractive. The entry into concubinage was marked by a ritual; however, this ritual differentiated from rituals marking marriage. Rajputs did not take concubines from the lower castes and refrained from taking Charans, Brahmins, and other Rajputs. There are instances of wife's eloping with their Rajput lovers and becoming their concubines.


title: Concubinage

text: Polygyny was common among Vikings, and rich and powerful Viking men tended to have many wives and concubines. Viking men would often buy or capture women and make them into their wives or concubines. Concubinage for Vikings was connected to slavery; the Vikings took both free women and slaves as concubines. Researchers have suggested that Vikings may have originally started sailing and raiding due to a need to seek out women from foreign lands. Polygynous relationships in Viking society may have led to a shortage of eligible women for the average male; polygyny increases male–male competition in society because it creates a pool of unmarried men willing to engage in risky status-elevating and sex-seeking behaviors. Thus, the average Viking man could have been forced to perform riskier actions to gain wealth and power to be able to find suitable women. The concept was expressed in the 11th century by historian Dudo of Saint-Quentin in his semi imaginary "History of The Normans". The Annals of Ulster depicts raptio and states that in 821 the Vikings plundered an Irish village and "carried off a great number of women into captivity".


title: Concubinage

text: The Christian morals developed by Patristic writers largely promoted marriage as the only form of union between men and women. Both Saint Augustine and Saint Jerome strongly condemned the institution of concubinage. In parallel though, the late imperial Roman law improved the rights of the classical Roman "concubinatus", reaching the point, with the Corpus Iuris Civilis by Justinian, of extending inheritance laws to these unions.


title: Concubinage

text: The two views, Christian condemnation and secular continuity with the Roman legal system, continued to be in conflict throughout the entire Middle Age, until in the 14th and 15th centuries the Church outlawed concubinage in the territories under its control.


title: Concubinage

text: In the Medieval Muslim Arab world, "concubine" ("surriyya") referred to the female slave ("jāriya"), whether Muslim or non-Muslim, with whom her master engages in sexual intercourse in addition to household or other services. Such relationships were common in pre-Islamic Arabia and other pre-existing cultures of the wider region. Islam introduced legal restrictions and discipline to the concubinage and encouraged manumission. Islam furthermore endorsed educating, freeing or marrying female slaves if they embrace Islam abandoning polytheism or infidelity. In it is allowed to have sexual intercourse with concubines only after harmonizing rapport and relation with them. Children of concubines are generally declared as legitimate with or without wedlock, and the mother of a free child was considered free upon the death of the male partner. There is evidence that concubines had a higher rank than female slaves. Abu Hanifa and others argued for modesty-like practices for the concubine, recommending that the concubine be established in the home and their chastity be protected and not to misuse them for sale or sharing with friends or kins. While scholars exhorted masters to treat their slaves equally, a master was allowed to show favoritism towards a concubine. Some scholars recommended holding a wedding banquet ("walima") to celebrate the concubinage relationship; however, this is not required in teachings of Islam and is rather the self-preferred opinions of certain non-liberal Islamic scholars. Even the Arabic term for concubine "surriyya" may have been derived from "sarat" meaning "eminence", indicating the concubine's higher status over other female slaves.


title: Concubinage

text: The Qur'an does not use the word ""surriyya"", but instead uses the expression "Ma malakat aymanukum" (that which your right hands own), which occurs 15 times in the book. Sayyid Abul Ala Maududi explains that "two categories of women have been excluded from the general command of guarding the private parts: (a) wives, (b) women who are legally in one's possession".


title: Concubinage

text: Some contend that concubinage was a pre-Islamic custom that was allowed to be practiced under Islam, with Jews and non-Muslim people to marry a concubine after teaching her, instructing her well and then giving her freedom. Others contend that concubines in Islam remained in use until the 19th century. In the traditions of the Abrahamic religions, Abraham had a concubine named Hagar, who was originally a slave of his wife Sarah. The story of Hagar would affect how concubinage was perceived in early Islamic history.


title: Concubinage

text: Sikainiga writes that one rationale for concubinage in Islam was that "it satisfied the sexual desire of the female slaves and thereby prevented the spread of immorality in the Muslim community." Most Islamic schools of thought restricted concubinage to a relationship where the female slave was required to be monogamous to her master, (though the master's monogamy to her is not required), but according to Sikainga, in reality this was not always practiced and female slaves were targeted by other men of the master's household. These opinions of Sikaingia are controversial and contested.


title: Concubinage

text: In ancient times, two sources for concubines were permitted under an Islamic regime. Primarily, women taken as prisoners of war become concubines after harmonizing rapport which happened after the Battle of the Trench, or in numerous later Caliphates.


title: Concubinage

text: It was encouraged to manumit slave women who rejected their initial faith and embraced Islam, or to bring them into formal marriage.


title: Concubinage

text: The expansion of various Muslim dynasties resulted in acquisitions of concubines, through purchase, gifts from other rulers, and captives of war. To have a large number of concubines became a symbol of status. Almost all Abbasid caliphs were born to concubines. Several Twelver Shia imams were also born to concubines. Similarly, the sultans of the Ottoman empire were often the son of a concubine. As a result, concubines came to exercise a degree of influence over Ottoman politics. Many concubines developed social networks, and accumulated personal wealth, both of which allowed them to rise on social status. The practice declined with the abolition of slavery, starting in the 19th century.


title: Concubinage

text: Ottoman sultans appeared to have preferred concubinage to marriage, and for a time all royal children were born of concubines. The consorts of Ottoman sultans were often neither Turkish, nor Muslim by birth. Leslie Peirce argues that this was because a concubine would not have the political leverage that would be possessed by a princess or a daughter of the local elite. Ottoman sultans also appeared to have only one son with each concubine; that is once a concubine gave birth to a son, the sultan would no longer have intercourse with her. This limited the power of each son.


title: Concubinage

text: When slavery became institutionalized in Colonial America, white men, whether or not they were married, sometimes took enslaved women as concubines; children of such unions remained slaves.


title: Concubinage

text: In the various European colonies in the Caribbean, white planters took black and mulatto concubines, owing to the shortage of white women. The children of such unions were sometimes freed from slavery and even inherited from their father, though this was not the case for the majority of children born of such unions. These relationships appeared to have been socially accepted in the colony of Jamaica and even attracted European emigrants to the island.


title: Concubinage

text: In colonial Brazil, men were expected to marry women who were equal to them in status and wealth. Alternatively, some men practiced concubinage, an extra-marital sexual relationship. This sort of relationship was condemned by the Catholic Church and the Council of Trent threatened those who engaged in it with excommunication. Concubines constituted both female slaves and former slaves. One reason for taking non-white women as concubines was that free white men outnumbered free white women, although marriage between races was not illegal.


title: Concubinage

text: Relationships with slaves in the United States and the Confederacy were sometimes euphemistically referred to as concubinary. From lifelong to single or serial sexual visitations, these relationships with un-freed slaves illustrate a radical power imbalance between a human owned as chattel and the legal owner of same; they are now defined, without regard for claims of sexual attraction or affection by either party, to be rape. This is because when personal ownership of slaves was enshrined in the law, an enslaved person had no legal power over their own legal personhood, the legal control to which was held by another entity; therefore, a slave could never give real and legal consent in any aspect of their life. The inability to give any kind of consent when enslaved is in part due to the ability of a slave master to legally coerce acts and declarations including those of affection, attraction, and consent through rewards and punishments, but legally the concept of chattel slavery in the United States and Confederate States defined and enforced in the law owning the legal personhood of a slave; meaning that the proxy for legal consent was found with the slave's master, who was the sole source of consent in the law to the bodily integrity and all efforts of that slave except as regulated or limited by law. With slavery being recognized as a crime against humanity in the United States law, as well as in international customary law, the legal basis of slavery is repudiated for all time and therefore repudiates any rights of owner-rapists had had to exercise any proxy sexual or other consent for their slaves.


title: Concubinage

text: Free men in the United States sometimes took female slaves in relationships which they referred to as concubinage, although marriage between the races was prohibited by law in the colonies and the later United States. Many colonies and states also had laws against miscegenation or any interracial relations. From 1662 the Colony of Virginia, followed by others, incorporated into law the principle that children took their mother's status, i.e., the principle of "partus sequitur ventrem". This led to generations of multiracial slaves, some of whom were otherwise considered legally white (one-eighth or less African, equivalent to a great-grandparent) before the American Civil War.


title: Concubinage

text: In some cases, men had long-term relationships with enslaved women, giving them and their mixed-race children freedom and providing their children with apprenticeships, education and transfer of capital. A relationship between Thomas Jefferson and Sally Hemings is an example of this. Such arrangements were more prevalent in the American South during the antebellum period.


title: Concubinage

text: In Louisiana and former French territories, a formalized system of concubinage called "plaçage" developed. European men took enslaved or free women of color as mistresses after making arrangements to give them a dowry, house or other transfer of property, and sometimes, if they were enslaved, offering freedom and education for their children. A third class of free people of color developed, especially in New Orleans. Many became educated, artisans and property owners. French-speaking and practicing Catholicism, these women combined French and African-American culture and created an elite between those of European descent and the slaves. Today, descendants of the free people of color are generally called Louisiana Creole people.


title: Concubinage

text: In Judaism, a concubine is a marital companion of inferior status to a wife. Among the Israelites, men commonly acknowledged their concubines, and such women enjoyed the same rights in the house as legitimate wives.


title: Concubinage

text: The term concubine did not necessarily refer to women after the first wife. A man could have many wives and concubines. Legally, any children born to a concubine were considered to be the children of the wife she was under. Sarah had to get Ishmael (son of Hagar) out of her house because, legally, Ishmael would always be the first-born son even though Isaac was her natural child.


title: Concubinage

text: The concubine may not have commanded the exact amount of respect as the wife. In the Levitical rules on sexual relations, the Hebrew word that is commonly translated as "wife" is distinct from the Hebrew word that means "concubine". However, on at least one other occasion the term is used to refer to a woman who is not a wife specifically, the handmaiden of Jacob's wife. In the Levitical code, sexual intercourse between a man and a wife of a different man was forbidden and punishable by death for both persons involved. Since it was regarded as the highest blessing to have many children, wives often gave their maids to their husbands if they were barren, as in the cases of Sarah and Hagar, and Rachel and Bilhah. The children of the concubine often had equal rights with those of the wife; for example, King Abimelech was the son of Gideon and his concubine. Later biblical figures, such as Gideon and Solomon, had concubines in addition to many childbearing wives. For example, the Books of Kings say that Solomon had 700 wives and 300 concubines.


title: Concubinage

text: The account of the unnamed Levite in Judges 19–20 shows that the taking of concubines was not the exclusive preserve of kings or patriarchs in Israel during the time of the Judges, and that the rape of a concubine was completely unacceptable to the Israelite nation and led to a civil war. In the story, the Levite appears to be an ordinary member of the tribe, whose concubine was a woman from Bethlehem in Judah. This woman was unfaithful, and eventually abandoned him to return to her paternal household. However, after four months, the Levite, referred to as her husband, decided to travel to her father's house to persuade his concubine to return. She is amenable to returning with him, and the father-in-law is very welcoming. The father-in-law convinces the Levite to remain several additional days, until the party leaves behind schedule in the late evening. The group pass up a nearby non-Israelite town to arrive very late in the city of Gibeah, which is in the land of the Benjaminites. The group sit around the town square, waiting for a local to invite them in for the evening, as was the custom for travelers. A local old man invites them to stay in his home, offering them guest right by washing their feet and offering them food. A band of wicked townsmen attack the house and demand the host send out the Levite man so they can rape him. The host offers to send out his virgin daughter as well as the Levite's concubine for them to rape, to avoid breaking guest right towards the Levite. Eventually, to ensure his own safety and that of his host, the Levite gives the men his concubine, who is raped and abused through the night, until she is left collapsed against the front door at dawn. In the morning, the Levite finds her when he tries to leave. When she fails to respond to her husband's order to get up (possibly because she is dead, although the language is unclear) the Levite places her on his donkey and continues home. Once home, he dismembers her body and distributes the 12 parts throughout the nation of Israel. The Israelites gather to learn why they were sent such grisly gifts, and are told by the Levite of the sadistic rape of his concubine. The crime is considered outrageous by the Israelite tribesmen, who then wreak total retribution on the men of Gibeah, as well as the surrounding tribe of Benjamin when they support the Gibeans, killing them without mercy and burning all their towns. The inhabitants of (the town of) Jabesh Gilead are then slaughtered as a punishment for not joining the 11 tribes in their war against the Benjaminites, and their 400 unmarried daughters given in forced marriage to the 600 Benjamite survivors. Finally, the 200 Benjaminite survivors who still have no wives are granted a mass marriage by abduction by the other tribes.


title: Concubinage

text: In Judaism, concubines are referred to by the Hebrew term pilegesh (). The term is a loanword from Ancient Greek , meaning "a mistress staying in house".


title: Concubinage

text: According to the Babylonian Talmud, the difference between a concubine and a legitimate wife was that the latter received a ketubah and her marriage ("nissu'in") was preceded by an erusin ("formal betrothal"), which was not the case for a concubine. One opinion in the Jerusalem Talmud argues that the concubine should also receive a "marriage contract", but without a clause specifying a divorce settlement. According to Rashi, "wives with kiddushin and ketubbah, concubines with kiddushin but without ketubbah"; this reading is from the Jerusalem Talmud,


title: Concubinage

text: Certain Jewish thinkers, such as Maimonides, believed that concubines were strictly reserved for royal leadership and thus that a commoner may not have a concubine. Indeed, such thinkers argued that commoners may not engage in any type of sexual relations outside of a marriage. Maimonides was not the first Jewish thinker to criticise concubinage. For example, Leviticus Rabbah severely condemns the custom. Other Jewish thinkers, such as Nahmanides, Samuel ben Uri Shraga Phoebus, and Jacob Emden, strongly objected to the idea that concubines should be forbidden. Despite these prohibitions, concubinage remained widespread among Jewish households of the Ottoman empire and resembled the practice among the Muslim households.


title: Concubinage

text: In the Hebrew of the contemporary State of Israel, "pilegesh" is often used as the equivalent of the English word "mistress"—i.e., the female partner in extramarital relations—regardless of legal recognition. Attempts have been initiated to popularise "pilegesh" as a form of premarital, non-marital or extramarital relationship (which, according to the perspective of the enacting person(s), is permitted by Jewish law).


title: Concubinage

text: In some context, the institution of concubinage diverged from a free quasi-marital cohabitation to the extent that it was forbidden to a free woman to be involved in a concubinage and the institution was reserved only to slaves. This type of concubinage was practiced in patriarchal cultures throughout history. Many societies automatically freed the concubine after she had a child. According to one study, this was the case in about one-third of slave-holding societies, the most prominent being case of the Muslim world. Among societies that did not legally require the manumission of concubines, it was usually done anyway. In slave-owning societies, most concubines were slaves, but not all. The feature about concubinage that made it attractive to certain men was that the concubine was dependent on the man - she could be sold or punished at the master's will. According to Orlando Peterson, slaves taken as concubines would have had a higher level of material comfort than the slaves used in agriculture or in mining.


title: Sugar glider

text: The sugar glider (Petaurus breviceps) is a small, omnivorous, arboreal, and nocturnal gliding possum belonging to the marsupial infraclass. The common name refers to its predilection for sugary foods such as sap and nectar and its ability to glide through the air, much like a flying squirrel. They have very similar habits and appearance to the flying squirrel, despite not being closely related—an example of convergent evolution. The scientific name, "Petaurus breviceps", translates from Latin as "short-headed rope-dancer", a reference to their canopy acrobatics.


title: Sugar glider

text: The sugar glider is characterised by its pair of gliding membranes, known as patagia, which extend from its forelegs to its hindlegs. Gliding serves as an efficient means of reaching food and evading predators. The animal is covered in soft, pale grey to light brown fur which is countershaded, being lighter in colour on its underside.


title: Sugar glider

text: The sugar glider is native to a small portion of southeastern Australia, in the regions of southern Queensland and most of New South Wales east of the Great Dividing Range. Members of "Petaurus" are popular exotic pets and are frequently also referred to as "sugar gliders", but these are now thought to likely represent another species from West Papua, tentatively classified in Krefft's glider ("P. notatus").


title: Sugar glider

text: The genus "Petaurus" is believed to have originated during the early to mid Miocene period (18 to 24 million years ago), then dispersed from New Guinea to Australia where Australian "Petaurus" species diverged. The earliest "Petaurus" species occurred in Australia 4.46 million years ago.


title: Sugar glider

text: The taxonomy of the species has changed over time. It was formerly thought to have had a wide range across Australia and New Guinea, the only glider to have this distribution, and to be divided into seven subspecies; three occurring in Australia, four in New Guinea, although debate regarding current species delineation continues. These seven subspecies were designated by small morphological differences such as colour and body size. However, genetic analysis using mitochondrial DNA indicated that the morphological subspecies may not represent genetically unique populations.


title: Sugar glider

text: Further studies found significant variation within populations classified in "P. breviceps", sufficient enough to split into multiple species. The subspecies "P. b. biacensis", from Biak Island off New Guinea, was reclassified as a separate species, Biak glider ("Petaurus biacensis").In 2020, a landmark study found that "P. breviceps" actually comprised three cryptic species: the Krefft's glider ("Petaurus notatus"), found throughout most of eastern Australia and introduced to Tasmania, the savanna glider ("Petaurus ariel") native to northern Australia, and the true "P. breviceps", restricted to a small section of coastal forest in southern Queensland and most of New South Wales. In addition, other sugar glider populations throughout this range (such as those on New Guinea and the Cape York Peninsula) may represent undescribed species or be conspecific with previously-described species. This indicates that contrary to previous findings of a large range (which in fact applied to "P. notatus" and to a lesser extent, "P. ariel"), "P. breviceps" is a range-restricted species that is sensitive to damaging events such as the 2019-20 Australian bushfires, which significantly affected large portions of its habitat.


title: Sugar glider

text: The divergence between "P. breviceps" and "P. notatus" may have arisen due to long term geographical isolation following drying of the Australian continent after the Pliocene and the uplift of the Great Dividing Range, by a process known as allopatric speciation. One population, now known to be "P. breviceps sensu stricto", is found in coastal New South Wales and southern Queensland; and the other, now known to be "P. notatus", is found in northern Queensland, inland and southern New South Wales, Victoria and South Australia.


title: Sugar glider

text: Sugar gliders are distributed in the coastal forests of southeastern Queensland and most of New South Wales. Their distribution extends to altitudes of 2000 m in the eastern ranges. In parts of its range, it may overlap with Krefft's glider ("P. notatus").


title: Sugar glider

text: The sugar glider occurs in sympatry with the squirrel glider and yellow-bellied glider; and their coexistence is permitted through niche partitioning where each species has different patterns of resource use.


title: Sugar glider

text: Like all arboreal, nocturnal marsupials, sugar gliders are active at night, and they shelter during the day in tree hollows lined with leafy twigs.


title: Sugar glider

text: The average home range of sugar gliders is , and is largely related to the abundance of food sources; density ranges from two to six individuals per hectare (0.8–2.4 per acre).


title: Sugar glider

text: Native owls ("Ninox" sp.) are their primary predators; others in their range include kookaburras, goannas, snakes, and quolls. Feral cats ("Felis catus") also represent a significant threat.


title: Sugar glider

text: The sugar glider has a squirrel-like body with a long, partially (weakly) prehensile tail. The length from the nose to the tip of the tail is about , and males and females weigh respectively. Heart rate range is 200–300 beats per minute, and respiratory rate is 16–40 breaths per minute. The sugar glider is a sexually dimorphic species, with males typically larger than females. Sexual dimorphism has likely evolved due to increased mate competition arising through social group structure; and is more pronounced in regions of higher latitude, where mate competition is greater due to increased food availability.


title: Sugar glider

text: The fur coat on the sugar glider is thick, soft, and is usually blue-grey; although some have been known to be yellow, tan or (rarely) albino. A black stripe is seen from its nose to midway on its back. Its belly, throat, and chest are cream in colour. Males have four scent glands, located on the forehead, chest, and two paracloacal (associated with, but not part of the cloaca, which is the common opening for the intestinal, urinal and genital tracts) that are used for marking of group members and territory. Scent glands on the head and chest of males appear as bald spots. Females also have a paracloacal scent gland and a scent gland in the pouch, but do not have scent glands on the chest or forehead.


title: Sugar glider

text: The sugar glider is nocturnal; its large eyes help it to see at night and its ears swivel to help locate prey in the dark. The eyes are set far apart, allowing more precise triangulation from launching to landing locations while gliding.


title: Sugar glider

text: Each foot on the sugar glider has five digits, with an opposable toe on each hind foot. These opposable toes are clawless, and bend such that they can touch all the other digits, like a human thumb, allowing it to firmly grasp branches. The second and third digits of the hind foot are partially syndactylous (fused together), forming a grooming comb. The fourth digit of the forefoot is sharp and elongated, aiding in extraction of insects under the bark of trees.


title: Sugar glider

text: The gliding membrane extends from the outside of the fifth digit of each forefoot to the first digit of each hind foot. When the legs are stretched out, this membrane allows the sugar glider to glide a considerable distance. The membrane is supported by well developed tibiocarpalis, humerodorsalis and tibioabdominalis muscles, and its movement is controlled by these supporting muscles in conjunction with trunk, limb and tail movement.


title: Sugar glider

text: Lifespan in the wild is up to 9 years; is typically up to 12 years in captivity, and the maximum reported lifespan is 17.8 years.


title: Sugar glider

text: The sugar glider is one of a number of volplane (gliding) possums in Australia. It glides with the fore- and hind-limbs extended at right angles to the body, with feet flexed upwards. The animal launches itself from a tree, spreading its limbs to expose the gliding membranes. This creates an aerofoil enabling it to glide or more. For every travelled horizontally when gliding, it falls . Steering is controlled by moving limbs and adjusting the tension of the gliding membrane; for example, to turn left, the left forearm is lowered below the right.


title: Sugar glider

text: This form of arboreal locomotion is typically used to travel from tree to tree; the species rarely descends to the ground. Gliding provides three dimensional avoidance of arboreal predators, and minimal contact with ground dwelling predators; as well as possible benefits in decreasing time and energy consumption spent foraging for nutrient poor foods that are irregularly distributed. Young carried in the pouch of females are protected from landing forces by the septum that separates them within the pouch.


title: Sugar glider

text: Sugar gliders can tolerate ambient air temperatures of up to through behavioural strategies such as licking their coat and exposing the wet area, as well as drinking small quantities of water.


title: Sugar glider

text: In cold weather, sugar gliders will huddle together to avoid heat loss, and will enter torpor to conserve energy. Huddling as an energy conserving mechanism is not as efficient as torpor. Before entering torpor, a sugar glider will reduce activity and body temperature normally in order to lower energy expenditure and avoid torpor. With energetic constraints, the sugar glider will enter into daily torpor for 2–23 hours while in rest phase.


title: Sugar glider

text: Torpor differs from hibernation in that torpor is usually a short-term daily cycle. Entering torpor saves energy for the animal by allowing its body temperature to fall to a minimum of to . When food is scarce, as in winter, heat production is lowered in order to reduce energy expenditure. With low energy and heat production, it is important for the sugar glider to peak its body mass by fat content in the autumn (May/June) in order to survive the following cold season. In the wild, sugar gliders enter into daily torpor more often than sugar gliders in captivity. The use of torpor is most frequent during winter, likely in response to low ambient temperature, rainfall, and seasonal fluctuation in food sources.


title: Sugar glider

text: Sugar gliders are seasonally adaptive omnivores with a wide variety of foods in their diet, and mainly forage in the lower layers of the forest canopy. Sugar gliders may obtain up to half their daily water intake through drinking rainwater, with the remainder obtained through water held in its food. In summer they are primarily insectivorous, and in the winter when insects (and other arthropods) are scarce, they are mostly exudativorous (feeding on acacia gum, eucalyptus sap, manna, honeydew or lerp). Sugar gliders have an enlarged caecum to assist in digestion of complex carbohydrates obtained from gum and sap.


title: Sugar glider

text: To obtain sap or gum from plants, sugar gliders will strip the bark off trees or open bore holes with their teeth to access stored liquid. Little time is spent foraging for insects, as it is an energetically expensive process, and sugar gliders will wait until insects fly into their habitat, or stop to feed on flowers.


title: Sugar glider

text: Gliders consume approximately 11 g of dry food matter per day. This equates to roughly 8% and 9.5% of body weight for males and females, respectively.


title: Sugar glider

text: They are opportunistic feeders and can be carnivorous, preying mostly on lizards and small birds. They eat many other foods when available, such as nectar, acacia seeds, bird eggs, pollen, fungi and native fruits. Pollen can make up a large portion of their diet, therefore sugar gliders are likely to be important pollinators of "Banksia" species.


title: Sugar glider

text: Like most marsupials, female sugar gliders have two ovaries and two uteri; they are polyestrous, meaning they can go into heat several times a year. The female has a marsupium (pouch) in the middle of her abdomen to carry offspring. The pouch opens anteriorly, and two lateral pockets extend posteriorly when young are present. Four nipples are usually present in the pouch, although reports of individuals with two nipples have been recorded. Male sugar gliders have a bifurcated penis to correspond with the two uteri of females.


title: Sugar glider

text: The age of sexual maturity in sugar gliders varies slightly between the males and females. Males reach maturity at 4 to 12 months of age, while females require from 8 to 12 months. In the wild, sugar gliders breed once or twice a year depending on the climate and habitat conditions, while they can breed multiple times a year in captivity as a result of consistent living conditions and proper diet.


title: Sugar glider

text: A sugar glider female gives birth to one (19%) or two (81%) babies (joeys) per litter. The gestation period is 15 to 17 days, after which the tiny joey will crawl into a mother's pouch for further development. They are born largely undeveloped and furless, with only the sense of smell being developed. The mother has a scent gland in the external marsupium to attract the sightless joeys from the uterus. Joeys have a continuous arch of cartilage in their shoulder girdle which disappears soon after birth; this supports the forelimbs, assisting the climb into the pouch. Young are completely contained in the pouch for 60 days after birth, wherein mammae provide nourishment during the remainder of development. Eyes first open around 80 days after birth, and young will leave the nest around 110 days after birth. By the time young are weaned, the thermoregulatory system is developed, and in conjunction with a large body size and thicker fur, they are able to regulate their own body temperature.


title: Sugar glider

text: Breeding is seasonal in southeast Australia, with young only born in winter and spring (June to November). Unlike animals that move along the ground, the sugar glider and other gliding species produce fewer, but heavier, offspring per litter. This allows female sugar gliders to retain the ability to glide when pregnant.


title: Sugar glider

text: Sugar gliders are highly social animals. They live in family groups or colonies consisting of up to seven adults, plus the current season's young. Up to four age classes may exist within each group, although some sugar gliders are solitary, not belonging to a group. They engage in social grooming, which in addition to improving hygiene and health, helps bond the colony and establish group identity.


title: Sugar glider

text: Within social communities, there are two codominant males who suppress subordinate males, but show no aggression towards each other. These co-dominant pairs are more related to each other than to subordinates within the group; and share food, nests, mates, and responsibility for scent marking of community members and territories.


title: Sugar glider

text: Territory and members of the group are marked with saliva and a scent produced by separate glands on the forehead and chest of male gliders. Intruders who lack the appropriate scent marking are expelled violently. Rank is established through scent marking; and fighting does not occur within groups, but does occur when communities come into contact with each other. Within the colony, no fighting typically takes place beyond threatening behaviour. Each colony defends a territory of about where eucalyptus trees provide a staple food source.


title: Sugar glider

text: Sugar gliders are one of the few species of mammals that exhibit male parental care. The oldest codominant male in a social community shows a high level of parental care, as he is the probable father of any offspring due to his social status.


title: Sugar glider

text: This paternal care evolved in sugar gliders as young are more likely to survive when parental investment is provided by both parents. In the sugar glider, biparental care allows one adult to huddle with the young and prevent hypothermia while the other parent is out foraging, as young sugar gliders aren't able to thermoregulate until they are 100 days old (3.5 months).


title: Sugar glider

text: Communication in sugar gliders is achieved through vocalisations, visual signals and complex chemical odours. Chemical odours account for a large part of communication in sugar gliders, similar to many other nocturnal animals. Odours may be used to mark territory, convey health status of an individual, and mark rank of community members. Gliders produce a number of vocalisations including barking and hissing.


title: Sugar glider

text: Under the prior taxonomy, the sugar glider was not considered endangered, and its conservation rank was "Least Concern (LC)" on the IUCN Red List. However, with newer taxonomic studies indicating that it has a small and restricted range, it is now thought to be far more sensitive to potential threats. For example, the species' native range was hit hard by the 2019-20 Australian bushfires, which occurred just a few months prior to the publishing of the study indicating the true extent of its range. Sugar gliders use tree hollows, making them especially sensitive to intense fires. However, despite the loss of natural habitat in Australia over the last 200 years, it is adaptable and capable of living in small patches of remnant bush, particularly if it does not have to cross large expanses of cleared land to reach them. Sugar gliders may persist in areas that have undergone mild-moderate selective logging, as long as three to five hollow bearing trees are retained per hectare. Although not currently threatened by habitat loss, the ability of sugar gliders to forage and avoid predators successfully may be decreased in areas of high light pollution.


title: Sugar glider

text: Conservation in Australia is enacted at the federal, state and local levels, where sugar gliders are protected as a native species. The central conservation law in Australia is the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (EPBC Act). The National Parks and Wildlife Act 1974 is an example of conservation law in the state of South Australia, where it is legal to keep (only) one sugar glider without a permit, provided it was acquired legally from a source with a permit. A permit is required to obtain or possess more than one glider, or if one wants to sell or give away any glider in their possession. It is illegal to capture or sell wild sugar gliders without a permit.


title: Sugar glider

text: In captivity, the sugar glider can suffer from calcium deficiencies if not fed an adequate diet. A lack of calcium in the diet causes the body to leach calcium from the bones, with the hind legs first to show noticeable dysfunction. Calcium to phosphorus ratios should be 2:1 to prevent hypocalcemia, sometimes known as hind leg paralysis (HLP). Their diet should be 50% insects (gut-loaded) or other sources of protein, 25% fruit and 25% vegetables. Some of the more recognised diets are Bourbon's Modified Leadbeaters (BML), High Protein Wombaroo (HPW) and various calcium rich diets with Leadbeaters Mixture (LBM). Iron storage disease (hemochromatosis) is another dietary problem that has been reported in captive gliders and can lead to fatal complications if not diagnosed and treated early.


title: Sugar glider

text: A large amount of attention and environmental enrichment may be required for the highly social species, especially for those kept as individuals. Inadequate social interaction can lead to depression and behavioural disorders such as loss of appetite, irritability and self-mutilation.


title: Sugar glider

text: In several countries, the sugar glider (or what was formerly considered to be the sugar glider) is popular as an exotic pet, and is sometimes referred to as a pocket pet. In Australia, there is opposition to keeping native animals as pets from Australia's largest wildlife rehabilitation organisation (WIRES), and concerns from Australian wildlife conservation organisations regarding animal welfare risks including neglect, cruelty and abandonment.


title: Sugar glider

text: In Australia, sugar gliders can be kept in Victoria, South Australia, and the Northern Territory. However, they are not allowed to be kept as pets in Western Australia, New South Wales, the Australian Capital Territory, Queensland or Tasmania.


title: Sugar glider

text: DNA analysis indicates that "the USA (sugar) glider population originates from West Papua, Indonesia with no illegal harvesting from other native areas such as Papua New Guinea or Australia". Given that the West Papuan gliders have been tentatively classified as Krefft's gliders (albeit to be changed in the future), this indicates that at least the captive gliders kept in the United States are Krefft's gliders, not sugar gliders.


title: Two's complement

text: Two's complement is a mathematical operation to reversibly convert a positive binary number into a negative binary number with equivalent (but negative) value, using the binary digit with the greatest place value (the leftmost bit in big-endian numbers, rightmost bit in little-endian numbers) to indicate whether the binary number is positive or negative (the sign). It is used in computer science as the most common method of representing signed (positive, negative, and zero) integers on computers, and more generally, fixed point binary values. When the most significant bit is a one, the number is signed as negative. .


title: Two's complement

text: Two's complement is executed by 1) inverting (i.e. flipping) all bits, then 2) adding a place value of 1 to the inverted number. For example, say the number −6 is of interest. +6 in binary is 0110 (the leftmost most significant bit is needed for the sign; positive 6 is not 110 because it would be interpreted as -2). Step one is to flip all bits, yielding 1001. Step two is to add the place value one to the flipped number, which yields 1010. To verify that 1010 indeed has a value of −6, remember that two's complement makes the most significant bit represent a negative place value, then add the place values: 1010 = -1×(2)+0×(2)+1×(2)+0×(2) = -1(8) + 0 + 1(2) + 0 = −6.


title: Two's complement

text: The 'two' in the name refers to the term which, expanded fully in an -bit system, is actually "two to the power of N" - (the only case where exactly 'two' would be produced in this term is , so for a 1-bit system, but these don't have capacity for both a sign and a zero), and it is only this full term in respect to which the complement is calculated. As such, the precise definition of the "Two's complement" of an -bit number is the complement of that number with respect to .


title: Two's complement

text: The defining property of being a "complement to a number with respect to " is simply that the summation of this number with the original produce . For example, using binary with numbers up to three-bits (so and , where '' indicates a binary representation), a two's complement for the number 3 () is 5 (), because summed to the original it gives . Where this correspondence is employed for representing negative numbers, it effectively means, using an analogy with decimal digits and a number-space only allowing eight non-negative numbers 0 through 7, dividing the number-space in two sets: the first four of the numbers 0 1 2 3 remain the same, while the remaining four encode negative numbers, maintaining their growing order, so making 4 encode -4, 5 encode -3, 6 encode -2 and 7 encode -1. A binary representation has an additional utility however, because the most significant bit also indicates the group (and the sign): it is 0 for the first group of non-negatives, and 1 for the second group of negatives. The tables at right illustrate this property.


title: Two's complement

text: Calculation of the binary two's complement of a positive number essentially means subtracting the number from the . But as can be seen for the three-bit example and the four-bit (), the number will not itself be representable in a system limited to bits, as it is just outside the bits space (the number is nevertheless the reference point of the "Two's complement" in an -bit system). Because of this, systems with maximally -bits must break the subtraction into two operations: first subtract from the maximum number in the -bit system, that is (this term in binary is actually a simple number consisting of 'all 1s', and a subtraction from it can be done simply by inverting all bits in the number also known as the bitwise NOT operation) and then adding the one. Coincidentally, that intermediate number before adding the one is also used in computer science as another method of signed number representation and is called a Ones' complement (named that because summing such a number with the original gives the 'all 1s').


title: Two's complement

text: Compared to other systems for representing signed numbers ("e.g.," ones' complement), the two's complement has the advantage that the fundamental arithmetic operations of addition, subtraction, and multiplication are identical to those for unsigned binary numbers (as long as the inputs are represented in the same number of bits as the output, and any overflow beyond those bits is discarded from the result). This property makes the system simpler to implement, especially for higher-precision arithmetic. Additionally, unlike ones' complement systems, two's complement has no representation for negative zero, and thus does not suffer from its associated difficulties. Otherwise, both schemes have the desired property that the sign of integers can be reversed by taking the complement of its binary representation, but Two's component has an exception - the lowest negative, as can be seen in the tables.


title: Two's complement

text: The method of complements had long been used to perform subtraction in decimal adding machines and mechanical calculators. John von Neumann suggested use of two's complement binary representation in his 1945 "First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC" proposal for an electronic stored-program digital computer. The 1949 EDSAC, which was inspired by the "First Draft", used two's complement representation of negative binary integers.


title: Two's complement

text: Many early computers, including the CDC 6600, the LINC, the PDP-1, and the UNIVAC 1107, use ones' complement notation; the descendants of the UNIVAC 1107, the UNIVAC 1100/2200 series, continued to do so. The IBM 700/7000 series scientific machines use sign/magnitude notation, except for the index registers which are two's complement. Early commercial computers storing negative values in two's complement form include the English Electric DEUCE (1955), Digital Equipment Corporation PDP-5 and the 1963 PDP-6. The System/360, introduced in 1964 by IBM, then the dominant player in the computer industry, made two's complement the most widely used binary representation in the computer industry. The first minicomputer, the PDP-8 introduced in 1965, uses two's complement arithmetic as do the 1969 Data General Nova, the 1970 PDP-11, and almost all subsequent minicomputers and microcomputers.


title: Two's complement

text: A two's-complement number system encodes positive and negative numbers in a binary number representation. The weight of each bit is a power of two, except for the most significant bit, whose weight is the negative of the corresponding power of two.


title: Two's complement

text: The most significant bit determines the sign of the number and is sometimes called the sign bit. Unlike in sign-and-magnitude representation, the sign bit also has the weight shown above. Using bits, all integers from to can be represented.


title: Two's complement

text: In two's complement notation, a "non-negative" number is represented by its ordinary binary representation; in this case, the most significant bit is 0. Though, the range of numbers represented is not the same as with unsigned binary numbers. For example, an 8-bit unsigned number can represent the values 0 to 255 (11111111). However a two's complement 8-bit number can only represent positive integers from 0 to 127 (01111111), because the rest of the bit combinations with the most significant bit as '1' represent the negative integers −1 to −128.


title: Two's complement

text: The two's complement operation is the additive inverse operation, so negative numbers are represented by the two's complement of the absolute value.


title: Two's complement

text: To get the two's complement of a negative binary number, all bits are inverted, or "flipped", by using the bitwise NOT operation; the value of 1 is then added to the resulting value, ignoring the overflow which occurs when taking the two's complement of 0.


title: Two's complement

text: The most significant bit (the leftmost bit in this case) is 0, so the pattern represents a non-negative value. To convert to −5 in two's-complement notation, first, all bits are inverted, that is: 0 becomes 1 and 1 becomes 0:


title: Two's complement

text: At this point, the representation is the ones' complement of the decimal value −5. To obtain the two's complement, 1 is added to the result, giving:


title: Two's complement

text: The result is a signed binary number representing the decimal value −5 in two's-complement form. The most significant bit is 1, so the value represented is negative.


title: Two's complement

text: The two's complement of a negative number is the corresponding positive value, except in the special case of the most negative number. For example, inverting the bits of −5 (above) gives:


title: Two's complement

text: Likewise, the two's complement of zero is zero: inverting gives all ones, and adding one changes the ones back to zeros (since the overflow is ignored).


title: Two's complement

text: The two's complement of the most negative number representable (e.g. a one as the most-significant bit and all other bits zero) is itself. Hence, there is an 'extra' negative number for which two's complement does not give the negation, see below.


title: Two's complement

text: The sum of a number and its ones' complement is an -bit word with all 1 bits, which is (reading as an unsigned binary number) . Then adding a number to its two's complement results in the lowest bits set to 0 and the carry bit 1, where the latter has the weight (reading it as an unsigned binary number) of . Hence, in the unsigned binary arithmetic the value of two's-complement negative number of a positive satisfies the equality .


title: Two's complement

text: For example, to find the four-bit representation of −5 (subscripts denote the base of the representation):


title: Two's complement

text: A shortcut to manually convert a binary number into its two's complement is to start at the least significant bit (LSB), and copy all the zeros, working from LSB toward the most significant bit (MSB) until the first 1 is reached; then copy that 1, and flip all the remaining bits (Leave the MSB as a 1 if the initial number was in sign-and-magnitude representation). This shortcut allows a person to convert a number to its two's complement without first forming its ones' complement. For example: in two's complement representation, the negation of "0011 1100" is "1100 0100", where the underlined digits were unchanged by the copying operation (while the rest of the digits were flipped).


title: Two's complement

text: In computer circuitry, this method is no faster than the "complement and add one" method; both methods require working sequentially from right to left, propagating logic changes. The method of complementing and adding one can be sped up by a standard carry look-ahead adder circuit; the LSB towards MSB method can be sped up by a similar logic transformation.


title: Two's complement

text: When turning a two's-complement number with a certain number of bits into one with more bits (e.g., when copying from a one-byte variable to a two-byte variable), the most-significant bit must be repeated in all the extra bits. Some processors do this in a single instruction; on other processors, a conditional must be used followed by code to set the relevant bits or bytes.


title: Two's complement

text: Similarly, when a number is shifted to the right, the most-significant bit, which contains the sign information, must be maintained. However, when shifted to the left, a bit is shifted out. These rules preserve the common semantics that left shifts multiply the number by two and right shifts divide the number by two. However, if the most-significant bit changes from 0 to 1 (and vice versa), overflow is said to occur in the case that the value represents a signed integer.


title: Two's complement

text: Both shifting and doubling the precision are important for some multiplication algorithms. Note that unlike addition and subtraction, width extension and right shifting are done differently for signed and unsigned numbers.


title: Two's complement

text: With only one exception, starting with any number in two's-complement representation, if all the bits are flipped and 1 added, the two's-complement representation of the negative of that number is obtained. Positive 12 becomes negative 12, positive 5 becomes negative 5, zero becomes zero(+overflow), etc.


title: Two's complement

text: Taking the two's complement of the minimum number in the range will not have the desired effect of negating the number. For example, the two's complement of −128 in an eight-bit system is −128. Although the expected result from negating −128 is +128, there is no representation of +128 with an eight-bit two's complement system and thus it is in fact impossible to represent the negation. Note that the two's complement being the same number is detected as an overflow condition since there was a carry into but not out of the most-significant bit.


title: Two's complement

text: The presence of the most negative number can lead to unexpected programming bugs where the result has an unexpected sign, or leads to an unexpected overflow exception, or leads to completely strange behaviors. For example,


title: Two's complement

text: In the C and C++ programming languages, the above behaviours are undefined and not only may they return strange results, but the compiler is free to assume that the programmer has ensured that undefined computations never happen, and make inferences from that assumption. This enables a number of optimizations, but also leads to a number of strange bugs in such undefined programs.


title: Two's complement

text: The most negative number in two's complement is sometimes called "the weird number", because it is the only exception. Although the number is an exception, it is a valid number in regular two's complement systems. All arithmetic operations work with it both as an operand and (unless there was an overflow) a result.


title: Two's complement

text: Given a set of all possible -bit values, we can assign the lower (by the binary value) half to be the integers from 0 to inclusive and the upper half to be to −1 inclusive. The upper half (again, by the binary value) can be used to represent negative integers from to −1 because, under addition modulo they behave the same way as those negative integers. That is to say that because any value in the set can be used in place of .


title: Two's complement

text: For example, with eight bits, the unsigned bytes are 0 to 255. Subtracting 256 from the top half (128 to 255) yields the signed bytes −128 to −1.


title: Two's complement

text: For example, an 8 bit number can only represent every integer from −128. to 127., inclusive, since . is equivalent to 161. since


title: Two's complement

text: Fundamentally, the system represents negative integers by counting backward and wrapping around. The boundary between positive and negative numbers is arbitrary, but by convention all negative numbers have a left-most bit (most significant bit) of one. Therefore, the most positive four-bit number is 0111 (7.) and the most negative is 1000 (−8.). Because of the use of the left-most bit as the sign bit, the absolute value of the most negative number (|−8.| = 8.) is too large to represent. Negating a two's complement number is simple: Invert all the bits and add one to the result. For example, negating 1111, we get . Therefore, 1111 in binary must represent −1 in decimal.


title: Two's complement

text: The system is useful in simplifying the implementation of arithmetic on computer hardware. Adding 0011 (3.) to 1111 (−1.) at first seems to give the incorrect answer of 10010. However, the hardware can simply ignore the left-most bit to give the correct answer of 0010 (2.). Overflow checks still must exist to catch operations such as summing 0100 and 0100.


title: Two's complement

text: The system therefore allows addition of negative operands without a subtraction circuit or a circuit that detects the sign of a number. Moreover, that addition circuit can also perform subtraction by taking the two's complement of a number (see below), which only requires an additional cycle or its own adder circuit. To perform this, the circuit merely operates as if there were an extra left-most bit of 1.


title: Two's complement

text: Adding twos-complement numbers requires no special processing even if the operands have opposite signs: the sign of the result is determined automatically. For example, adding 15 and −5:


title: Two's complement

text: This process depends upon restricting to 8 bits of precision; a carry to the (nonexistent) 9th most significant bit is ignored, resulting in the arithmetically correct result of 10.


title: Two's complement

text: The last two bits of the carry row (reading right-to-left) contain vital information: whether the calculation resulted in an arithmetic overflow, a number too large for the binary system to represent (in this case greater than 8 bits). An overflow condition exists when these last two bits are different from one another. As mentioned above, the sign of the number is encoded in the MSB of the result.


title: Two's complement

text: In other terms, if the left two carry bits (the ones on the far left of the top row in these examples) are both 1s or both 0s, the result is valid; if the left two carry bits are "1 0" or "0 1", a sign overflow has occurred. Conveniently, an XOR operation on these two bits can quickly determine if an overflow condition exists. As an example, consider the signed 4-bit addition of 7 and 3:


title: Two's complement

text: In this case, the far left two (MSB) carry bits are "01", which means there was a two's-complement addition overflow. That is, 1010 = 10 is outside the permitted range of −8 to 7. The result would be correct if treated as unsigned integer.


title: Two's complement

text: In general, any two -bit numbers may be added "without" overflow, by first sign-extending both of them to bits, and then adding as above. The bits result is large enough to represent any possible sum ( two's complement can represent values in the range −16 to 15) so overflow will never occur. It is then possible, if desired, to 'truncate' the result back to bits while preserving the value if and only if the discarded bit is a proper sign extension of the retained result bits. This provides another method of detecting overflow—which is equivalent to the method of comparing the carry bits—but which may be easier to implement in some situations, because it does not require access to the internals of the addition.


title: Two's complement

text: Computers usually use the method of complements to implement subtraction. Using complements for subtraction is closely related to using complements for representing negative numbers, since the combination allows all signs of operands and results; direct subtraction works with two's-complement numbers as well. Like addition, the advantage of using two's complement is the elimination of examining the signs of the operands to determine whether addition or subtraction is needed. For example, subtracting −5 from 15 is really adding 5 to 15, but this is hidden by the two's-complement representation:


title: Two's complement

text: Overflow is detected the same way as for addition, by examining the two leftmost (most significant) bits of the borrows; overflow has occurred if they are different.


title: Two's complement

text: As for addition, overflow in subtraction may be avoided (or detected after the operation) by first sign-extending both inputs by an extra bit.


title: Two's complement

text: If the precision of the two operands using two's complement is doubled before the multiplication, direct multiplication (discarding any excess bits beyond that precision) will provide the correct result. For example, take . First, the precision is extended from four bits to eight. Then the numbers are multiplied, discarding the bits beyond the eighth bit (as shown by ""):


title: Two's complement

text: This is very inefficient; by doubling the precision ahead of time, all additions must be double-precision and at least twice as many partial products are needed than for the more efficient algorithms actually implemented in computers. Some multiplication algorithms are designed for two's complement, notably Booth's multiplication algorithm. Methods for multiplying sign-magnitude numbers don't work with two's-complement numbers without adaptation. There isn't usually a problem when the multiplicand (the one being repeatedly added to form the product) is negative; the issue is setting the initial bits of the product correctly when the multiplier is negative. Two methods for adapting algorithms to handle two's-complement numbers are common:


title: Two's complement

text: As an example of the second method, take the common add-and-shift algorithm for multiplication. Instead of shifting partial products to the left as is done with pencil and paper, the accumulated product is shifted right, into a second register that will eventually hold the least significant half of the product. Since the least significant bits are not changed once they are calculated, the additions can be single precision, accumulating in the register that will eventually hold the most significant half of the product. In the following example, again multiplying 6 by −5, the two registers and the extended sign bit are separated by "|":


title: Two's complement

text: Comparison is often implemented with a dummy subtraction, where the flags in the computer's status register are checked, but the main result is ignored. The zero flag indicates if two values compared equal. If the exclusive-or of the sign and overflow flags is 1, the subtraction result was less than zero, otherwise the result was zero or greater. These checks are often implemented in computers in conditional branch instructions.


title: Two's complement

text: Unsigned binary numbers can be ordered by a simple lexicographic ordering, where the bit value 0 is defined as less than the bit value 1. For two's complement values, the meaning of the most significant bit is reversed (i.e. 1 is less than 0).


title: Two's complement

text: The following algorithm (for an -bit two's complement architecture) sets the result register R to −1 if A < B, to +1 if A > B, and to 0 if A and B are equal:


title: Two's complement

text: In a classic "HAKMEM" published by the MIT AI Lab in 1972, Bill Gosper noted that whether or not a machine's internal representation was two's-complement could be determined by summing the successive powers of two. In a flight of fancy, he noted that the result of doing this algebraically indicated that "algebra is run on a machine (the universe) which is two's-complement."


title: Two's complement

text: Gosper's end conclusion is not necessarily meant to be taken seriously, and it is akin to a mathematical joke. The critical step is "...110 = ...111 − 1", i.e., "2"X" = "X" − 1", and thus "X" = ...111 = −1. This presupposes a method by which an infinite string of 1s is considered a number, which requires an extension of the finite place-value concepts in elementary arithmetic. It is meaningful either as part of a two's-complement notation for all integers, as a typical 2-adic number, or even as one of the generalized sums defined for the divergent series of real numbers 1 + 2 + 4 + 8 + ···. Digital arithmetic circuits, idealized to operate with infinite (extending to positive powers of 2) bit strings, produce 2-adic addition and multiplication compatible with two's complement representation. Continuity of binary arithmetical and bitwise operations in 2-adic metric also has some use in cryptography.


title: Two's complement

text: To convert a number with a fractional part, such as .0101, one must convert starting from right to left the 1s to decimal as in a normal conversion. In this example 0101 is equal to 5 in decimal. Each digit after the floating point represents a fraction where the denominator is a multiplier of 2. So, the first is 1/2, the second is 1/4 and so on. Having already calculated the decimal value as mentioned above, only the denominator of the LSB (LSB = starting from right) is used. The final result of this conversion is 5/16.


title: Two's complement

text: For instance, having the floating value of .0110 for this method to work, one should not consider the last 0 from the right. Hence, instead of calculating the decimal value for 0110, we calculate the value 011, which is 3 in decimal (by leaving the 0 in the end, the result would have been 6, together with the denominator 2 = 16, which reduces to 3/8). The denominator is 8, giving a final result if 3/8.


title: Vamshi Paidipally

text: Paidipally Vamshidhar Rao (born 27 July 1979), better known as Vamshi Paidipally, is an Indian film director and screenwriter who works primarily in Telugu cinema. He is best known for directing mainstream film works such as "Munna" (2007), "Brindavanam" (2010), "Yevadu" (2014), "Oopiri" (2016), and "Maharshi" (2019). Paidipally has won a National Film Award for "Maharshi" and a Filmfare Award for "Oopiri".


title: Vamshi Paidipally

text: Vamshi Paidipally was born on 27 July 1979 in Khanapur of Adilabad district, Telangana. His parents, who hail from Bhimaram near Jagtial town, own a cinema hall in Khanapur. He did his schooling in Hyderabad Public School, and his intermediate from Little Flower Junior College. He then, completed his bachelor's degree in commerce and Master's in Computer Applications from Osmania University, and had worked as a software engineer in Hyderabad.


title: Vamshi Paidipally

text: Paidipally began his film career by working as an assistant film director in film "Eeswar" (2002). While working for the movie "Bhadra" (2005), producer Dil Raju offered to produce him a film under his production house. He subsequently made his directorial debut with Prabhas-starrer "Munna" (2009). It was an average venture at the box office. He later directed "Brindavanam," starring NTR Jr which was a commercial success. It is followed by "Yevadu" (2014), featuring Ram Charan and Allu Arjun.


title: Vamshi Paidipally

text: His 2016 Telugu-Tamil bilingual film" Oopiri/Thozha", an adaptation of the French film "The Intouchables" (2011) starring Nagarjuna and Karthi was a critical and commercial success. The film won him his Filmfare Award for Best Director – Telugu. In 2019, he collaborated with actor Mahesh Babu for "Maharshi". The film won National Film Award for Best Popular Film Providing Wholesome Entertainment.


title: Vamshi Paidipally

text: In September 2021, he was signed to direct Vijay's 66th film produced by Dil Raju titled "Varisu" in Tamil and "Varasudu" in Telugu and "Vaaris" in Hindi in which Allu Arjun will have special cameo song appearance.


title: Kumquat

text: Kumquats (; ), or cumquats in Australian English, are a group of small fruit-bearing trees in the flowering plant family Rutaceae. Their taxonomy is disputed. They were previously classified as forming the now-historical genus "Fortunella" or placed within "Citrus", . Different classifications have alternatively assigned them to anywhere from a single species, C. japonica, to numerous species representing each cultivar. Recent genomic analysis would define three pure species, Citrus hindsii, C. margarita and C. crassifolia, with C. x japonica being a hybrid of the last two.


title: Kumquat

text: The edible fruit closely resembles the orange ("Citrus sinensis") in color and shape but is much smaller, being approximately the size of a large olive. The kumquat is a fairly cold-hardy citrus.


title: Kumquat

text: The kumquat plant is native to Southern China. The historical reference to kumquats appears in Imperial literature from at least the 12th century. They have long been cultivated in other parts of East Asia (Japan and Taiwan), South Asia (India), and Southeast Asia (especially the Philippines). They were introduced to Europe in 1846 by Robert Fortune, collector for the London Horticultural Society, and shortly thereafter were taken to North America.


title: Kumquat

text: They are slow-growing evergreen shrubs or short trees that stand tall, with dense branches, sometimes bearing small thorns. The leaves are dark glossy green, and the flowers are white, similar to other citrus flowers, and can be borne singly or clustered within the leaves' axils. Depending on size, the kumquat tree can produce hundreds or even thousands of fruits each year.


title: Kumquat

text: Citrus taxonomy is complicated and controversial. Different systems place various types of kumquat in different species or unite them into as few as two species. Historically they were viewed as falling within the genus "Citrus", but the Swingle system of citrus taxonomy elevated them to their own genus, "Fortunella". Recent phylogenetic analysis suggests they do fall within "Citrus". Swingle divided the kumquats into two subgenera, the "Protocitrus", containing the primitive Hong Kong kumquat, and "Eufortunella", comprising the round, oval kumquat, Meiwa kumquats, to which Tanaka added two others, the Malayan kumquat and the Jiangsu kumquat. Chromosomal analysis suggested that Swingle's "Eufortunella" represent a single 'true' species, while Tanaka's additional species were revealed to be likely hybrids of "Fortunella" with other "Citrus", so-called x"Citrofortunella".


title: Kumquat

text: One recent genomic analysis concluded there was only one true species of kumquat, but the analysis did not include the Hong Kong variety seen as a distinct species in all earlier analyses. A 2020 review concluded that genomic data were insufficient to reach a definitive conclusion on which kumquat cultivars represented distinct species. In 2022, a genome-level analysis of cultivated and wild varieties drew several conclusions. The authors found support for the division of kumquats into subgenera: "Protocitrus", for the wild Hong Kong variety, and "Eufortunella" for the cultivated varieties, with a divergence predating the end of the Quaternary glaciation, perhaps between two ancestral populations isolated south and north, respectively, of the Nanling mountain range. Within the latter group, the oval, round and Meiwa kumquat each showed a level of divergence greater than between other recognized citrus species, such as between pomelo and citron, and hence each merits species-level classification. Though Swingle had speculated that the Meiwa kumquat was a hybrid of oval and round kumquats, the genomic analysis suggested instead that the round kumquat was an oval/Meiwa hybrid.


title: Kumquat

text: The Hong Kong kumquat ("Citrus hindsii" or "Fortunella hindsii") produces only pea-sized bitter and acidic fruit with very little pulp and large seeds. It is primarily grown as an ornamental plant, though it is also found in southern China growing in the wild. Not only is it the most primitive of the kumquats, but with the kumquats being the most primitive citrus, Swingle described it as the closest to the ancestral species from which all citrus evolved. While the wild Hong Kong kumquat is tetraploid, there is a commercial diploid variety, the Golden Bean kumquat with slightly larger fruit.


title: Kumquat

text: The Meiwa kumquat ("Citrus crassifolia" or "Fortunella crassifolia") was brought to Japan from China at the end of the 19th century, it has seedy oval fruits and thick leaves, and was characterized as a different species by Swingle. Its fruit is typically eaten skin and all.


title: Kumquat

text: The oval kumquat or Nagami kumquat ("Citrus margarita" or "Fortunella margarita" if dividing "Eufortunella" kumquats into separate species) is ovoid in shape and typically eaten whole, skin and all. The inside is still quite sour, but the skin has a very sweet flavour, so when eaten together an unusual tart-sweet, refreshing flavour is produced. The fruit ripens mid- to late winter and always crops very heavily, creating a spectacular display against the dark green foliage. The tree tends to be much smaller and dwarf in nature, making it ideal for pots and occasionally bonsai cultivation.


title: Kumquat

text: The 'Centennial Variegated' kumquat cultivar arose spontaneously from the oval kumquat. It produces a greater proportion of fruit to peel than the oval kumquat, and the fruit are rounder and sometimes necked. Fruit are distinguishable by their variegation in color, exhibiting bright green and yellow stripes, and by its lack of thorns.


title: Kumquat

text: The round kumquat, Marumi kumquat, or Morgani kumquat (retaining the name "Citrus japonica" or "Fortunella japonica" when kumquats are divided into multiple species) is an evergreen tree that produces edible golden-yellow fruit. The fruit is small and usually spherical but can be oval shaped. The peel has a sweet flavor, but the fruit has a distinctly sour center. The fruit can be eaten cooked but is mainly used to make marmalades, jellies, and other spreads. The tree can be used in bonsai cultivation. The plant symbolizes good luck in China and other Asian countries, where it is often kept as a houseplant and given as a gift during the Lunar New Year. Round kumquats are more commonly cultivated than other species due to their high cold tolerance.


title: Kumquat

text: The Jiangsu kumquat or Fukushu kumquat ("Citrus obovata" or "Fortunella obovata") bears edible fruit that can be eaten raw, as well as made into jelly and marmalade. The fruit can be round or bell-shaped and is bright orange when fully ripe. The plant can be distinguished from other kumquats by its distinctly round leaves. It is typically grown for its edible fruit and as an ornamental plant; it cannot withstand frost, however, unlike the round kumquat which has a high cold tolerance. These kumquats are often seen near the Yuvraj section of the Nayak Province. Chromosomal analysis showed this variety to be a likely hybrid.


title: Kumquat

text: The Malayan kumquat ("Fortunella polyandra" or Tanaka's "Fortunella swinglei" - in "Citrus" it would be "C. x swinglei"), from the Malay Peninsula where it is known as the "hedge lime" ("limau pagar"), is another hybrid, perhaps a limequat. It has a thin peel on larger fruit compared to other kumquats.


title: Kumquat

text: Kumquats are much hardier than citrus plants such as oranges. The Nagami kumquat requires a hot summer, ranging from 25 °C to 38 °C (77 °F to 100 °F), but can withstand frost down to about without injury.


title: Kumquat

text: In cultivation in the UK, "Citrus japonica" has gained the Royal Horticultural Society’s Award of Garden Merit (confirmed 2017).


title: Kumquat

text: Kumquats do not grow well from seeds and so are vegetatively propagated by using rootstock of another citrus fruit, air layering, or cuttings.


title: Kumquat

text: The essential oil of the kumquat peel contains much of the aroma of the fruit, and is composed principally of limonene, which makes up around 93% of the total. Besides limonene and alpha-pinene (0.34%), both of which are considered monoterpenes, the oil is unusually rich (0.38% total) in sesquiterpenes such as α-bergamotene (0.021%), caryophyllene (0.18%), α-humulene (0.07%) and α-muurolene (0.06%), and these contribute to the spicy and woody flavor of the fruit. Carbonyl compounds make up much of the remainder, and these are responsible for much of the distinctive flavor. These compounds include esters such as isopropyl propanoate (1.8%) and terpinyl acetate (1.26%); ketones such as carvone (0.175%); and a range of aldehydes such as citronellal (0.6%) and 2-methylundecanal. Other oxygenated compounds include nerol (0.22%) and Trans-lialool oxide (0.15%).


title: Sword Art Online Progressive: Aria of a Starless Night

text: A sequel film titled "", which mainly focuses on events on the fifth floor, premiered in Japan on October 22, 2022.


text: In 2022, Akihiko Kayaba creates a virtual reality massively multiplayer online role-playing game (VRMMORPG) named "Sword Art Online" ("SAO"). As depicted in the first volume of the "Sword Art Online: Progressive" light novel series, the NerveGear is a 2nd generation FullDive device developed by a company named Argus, with Kayaba as its creator. It has a single interface that covers the player's entire head. It controls the player's consciousness by redirecting the brain's signals to the NerveGear, such that they can experience and control their in-game characters with their minds without any physical movement. It has its own battery source, as well as a high-frequency electromagnetic microwave transmitter.


text: On November 6, 2022, 10,000 players log into "SAO" for the first time, only to discover that they are unable to log out of the game. Kayaba reveals himself to tell the players that they must beat all 100 floors of Aincrad, the enormous steel castle that is the setting of "SAO" if they want to escape the game. Only then would they be able to log out. Dying inside of the game or having their NerveGear forcibly removed from their head will cause them to have their brains destroyed by the NerveGear, thus killing them in real life as well.


text: Asuna, who had logged into the game to play with her school friend Misumi Tozawa, or Mito within the game, initially struggles to cope with her new reality of being trapped inside the game. Having been an original beta tester, Mito uses her previous experience to help Asuna level up quickly by killing monsters far outside the start town where the non-beta players would be unaware of, and the two form a party. A few weeks later, Asuna and Mito head off to kill nepenthes, a plant-based monster located in a mountainous terrain of the floor. Mito warns Asuna that killing the nepenthes with a ball over its head will cause it to spew out smoke and trigger a massive assault of nearby plants, and to avoid it at all cost. During battle, Mito leaves to capture a rare sly shrewman and during that time Asuna unknowingly kills the nepenthes with the overhead ball, triggering an onslaught of them. Mito attempts to save Asuna but is forced over a cliff by the plants and is unable to reach her as the nepenthes begin travelling down the mountain to attack her. Watching Asuna's health bar fall down to dangerous levels, Mito panics and leaves their formed party. Asuna receives the disbanded party notice just in time to get attacked by an even more dangerous monster after killing all the nepenthes. Before she is killed, Kirito arrives and eliminates the monster. He offers her healing potions and a map back to the nearest town before abruptly leaving.


text: On the morning of November 27, 2022, Asuna wakes up alone in her lodge room and declares that if she is to die in this new world, she will go out in her own way. She purchases a cloak and spends the next three days killing monsters inside a cave. Kirito enters the cave and insists that she go to the nearest town and recuperate her health before she is killed, to which she refuses and suddenly collapses from exhaustion. She awakens outside of it, having been dragged out by Kirito, who requests that she join him in town for a group meeting on preparation for defeating the first floor boss.


text: The two arrive in town and attend the meeting organized by the player Diabel, who announces to the attendants that they will all form multiple sets of parties and strategize in order to defeat the floor boss, Illfang the Kobold Lord, tomorrow morning. Asuna notices that Mito is one of the players in attendance but fails to interact with her as she feels betrayed because she left her to die. Later that night, Kirito gives Asuna a new sword and the two practice their fighting strategy. During this, Asuna asks Kirito if beta testers are bad people as she explains to him that she was deserted by one as she was just about to die. Kirito goes on to explain that he had a previous similar experience and feels that she was simply scared to lose her own life and chose to save herself in the moment, which gives Asuna some relief on the matter.


text: The next day, Kirito, Asuna, Mito, Diabel and the remaining group of party members arrive at the boss room and battle Illfang and his minion sentinels. When Illfang's health becomes low, Diabel goes for the finishing attack, but before he can see Illfang's true weapon, he is mortally wounded by its onslaught. With his dying breath, Diabel tells Kirito to defeat the boss and save the players at all costs. With the assistance of Asuna and Mito, Kirito successfully defeats Illfang, but after the victory, the other players immediately accuse Kirito of letting Diabel die by having previous knowledge about Illfang he did not share with the players and they proceed to label him a "beater", a combination of the words "beta-tester" and "cheater". Kirito accepts this title and claims the prize for defeating Illfang: a black leather trench coat. He then becomes the first player to clear the first floor by stepping through the gate.


text: After discovering the cloaked girl with Kirito was actually Asuna, Mito apologizes to her for what happened back in the mountains and offers to form a party with her again. Asuna declines the offer, believing that she has found her own path forward within this world and that it involves Kirito. The two depart as Asuna joins Kirito on the second floor and the two formally exchange their names with each other. As the two head off to activate the second floor teleporter, a mysterious girl can be seen hiding behind the floor gate, apparently eager that the two current strongest players have joined forces.


text: After the finale of "", an anime film adaptation of "Sword Art Online: Progressive" was announced on September 19, 2020. A first teaser trailer and key visual of the anime film was also released on the same day. An official teaser trailer of the anime film was released on AnimeUS, which showcases Asuna in civilian clothing staring at an advertisement of the "Sword Art Online," a virtual reality (VR) game, developed by the company named Argus and scheduled for release on November 6, 2022. The key visual showcases Asuna drawing her sword, as the massive city of Aincrad floats above her head.


text: The trailer of the film was released on AnimeUS and Aniplex USA on November 8 and November 19, 2020, respectively. The first trailer of the film was released of the official Twitter account of the anime. The official English website of the anime film was launched on November 19, 2020. It was later revealed to be a new film titled "Sword Art Online the Movie -Progressive- Aria of a Starless Night", as per the official English website. The film is set to premiere in fall 2021.


text: Ayako Kōno is directing the film, with Yasuyuki Kai as the action director, and A-1 Pictures returning for production. The voice cast from the anime series returned to reprise their roles in the film, including voice actor Yoshitsugu Matsuoka as Kirito and Haruka Tomatsu as Asuna.


text: On March 27, 2021, it was announced that the film would be released theatrically in Japan in Autumn 2021. Along with the new trailer, a second key visual was released, with Inori Minase joining the cast as the new character Mito. On July 3, 2021, at Aniplex Online Fest 2021, a new poster revealed that the film's release date would be October 30, 2021.


text: The film is an adaptation of the first volume of the "Sword Art Online: Progressive" light novel series. This light novel series is a remake of the "Sword Art Online" tale that starts at the beginning of Kirito and Asuna's adventure — on the very first level of the world of Aincrad. The title, ""Aria of a Starless Night"" is taken from the first chapter of the first volume of the light novel series which covers events that took place on first floor of Aincrad.


text: Mito is an anime original character created exclusively for the film series and did not previously exist in the original "Progressive" light novel series.


text: The film premiered on October 30, 2021, in Japan. The advance ticket booking was announced on December 25, 2020, on the film's official website. The theatrical version of the first limited edition advance ticket using a teaser visual with Asuna standing in front of Aincrad was released on December 28, 2020, and ended on January 11, 2021 (Monday) on the Aniplex+ website. Aniplex announced that the film's first limited edition advance ticket has recorded the world's fastest advance ticket sale. These limited edition advance tickets were expected to be delivered by the end of February 2021.


text: A stage exhibition for the film was announced on February 18, 2021, to be held at the "Connect Green Stage" of AnimeJapan 2021 from March 27 to March 28, 2021, with the event being held online due to the COVID-19 pandemic.


text: The second limited-edition ticket sales began on March 27, 2021, and end on April 11, 2021. The theatrical version of the first limited edition advance ticket depicting Asuna and Kirito standing against the night sky. These limited edition advance tickets were scheduled to be delivered sequentially from the beginning of June 2021. Another special edition ticket sale was announced namely Mubichike card. The sale of these tickets begins on April 10, 2021. The second edition of this card has been planned. A list of theatres participating in Autumn 2021 release was announced by the official website.


text: On June 23, 2021, the "Public Commemorative Special Program" will be broadcast on ABEMA TV on July 7, 2021. The introduction of the series and the latest information on the film will be released. On July 4, 2021, more information about the film was released at Aniplex Online Fest 2021. Among the information released were the new "Aincrad" edition poster drawn by Reki Kawahara was released, revealing the theatrical release date for Japan. The second edition of Mubichike card was announced. The sale of these tickets begins on July 10, 2021. This card can be used at theaters nationwide. A new service named "Mubichike Digital Card" was announced to be implemented, setting record to be the first digital movie ticket in history of Cinema of Japan.


text: Aniplex of America licensed the film for release in North American theaters in 2021. Funimation partnered with Aniplex and theatrically distributed the film in both Japanese with English subtitles and an English dub in the United States and Canada on December 3, the United Kingdom, Ireland, Australia and New Zealand on December 9.


text: A virtual exhibition for the film took place during Aniplex Online Fest 2021 on July 3, 2021. ODEX Anime via their official YouTube channel announced that the film is coming soon in Singapore, Malaysia, Indonesia, Philippines, Vietnam, Brunei, Myanmar, Cambodia, Laos, and Mongolia. The film will also be released in GCC and MENA regions.


text: The film was also released in the IMAX format, with native IMAX 12-track sound mix. It also remarks the first film in native Dolby Atmos sound mix and Dolby Vision HDR treatment in the series.


text: In the United States and Canada, the film made $1.05 million in its opening weekend, finishing tenth at the box office.


text: A sequel film titled "" premiered on October 22, 2022. It was initially scheduled for September 10, 2022, but was later delayed due to production issues caused by the COVID-19 pandemic. It adapts the fourth volume of the light novel series, due to one of the overarching storylines not being completed in the original light novel series.


title: Aishwarya Rajesh

text: Aishwarya Rajesh (born 10 January 1990) is an Indian actress who works primarily in Tamil films, alongside Telugu and Malayalam films. She is a recipient of four SIIMA Awards, one Filmfare Award South and one Tamil Nadu State Film Award.


title: Aishwarya Rajesh

text: Aishwarya started her career as television presenter in a comedy show called "Asatha Povathu Yaaru?" on Sun TV. After winning the reality show "Maanada Mayilada," she was cast in the film "Avargalum Ivargalum" (2011) and came into prominence after starring in "Attakathi" (2012) portraying the role of Amudha. She has received Tamil Nadu State Film Award for Best Actress for the 2014 film "Kaaka Muttai" at Tamil Nadu State Film Awards. She acted in her two career breakthrough roles as "Padma" in Vetrimaran's "Vada Chennai" (2018) co-starring with Dhanush and as "Kousalya Murugesan", a female cricketer in her solo film "Kanaa" (2018).


title: Aishwarya Rajesh

text: Her first Malayalam film was "Jomonte Suvisheshangal" (2017) opposite Dulquer Salmaan. She made her Hindi film debut in 2017 with "Daddy" opposite to Arjun Rampal. She made her Telugu film debut with "Kousalya Krishnamurthy" (2019), which was a remake of her 2018 movie, "Kanaa".


title: Aishwarya Rajesh

text: Aishwarya Rajesh was born on 10 January 1990 in a Telugu family in Chennai (then Madras). Her father Rajesh was a Telugu film actor. He died when Aishwarya was 8 years old. Her mother Nagamani was a dancer. Her grandfather Amarnath was also an actor, while her aunt Sri Lakshmi, is a Telugu comedian with over 500 films to her credit. She is the youngest of four siblings, of whom two elder brothers died during her teenage years.


title: Aishwarya Rajesh

text: Aishwarya was brought up in Chennai, and she described her background as "lower middle class." She did her schooling in Shrine Vailankanni, Chennai, Sree Vidyanikethan International School, Tirupati, and Holy Angels Anglo Indian Higher Secondary School, Chennai. In 1996, she performed as a child in the Telugu film "Rambantu".


title: Aishwarya Rajesh

text: She studied at Ethiraj College for Women, Chennai and graduated with a B.Com degree. She started to learn dance since she needed to choreograph a stage show for a student cultural fest and later entered the reality show "Maanada Mayilada" on Kalaignar TV. She won the show's third season and got offered roles in films thereafter.


title: Aishwarya Rajesh

text: In the early stages of her career, Aishwarya also worked as an anchor on the sets of the TV show "Asathapovathu Yaaru". In 2010, she was cast in her first film "Avargalum Ivargalum" (2011) although "Neethana Avan" (2010) released first. In 2014, she was seen alongside Vijay Sethupathi in two films, "Rummy", and "Pannaiyarum Padminiyum", released within two weeks. While the first film was a village drama set in the 1980s, the latter was based on a short film of the same name, and revolved around an old man and his vintage car Premier Padmini. Critics praised her performances, especially in "Rummy". "Hindustan Times" wrote that she was "extremely promising" while film critic Baradwaj Rangan noted that she was "expressive", calling her "a tonic for nerves frayed by the alabaster automatons we usually get as heroines". Later that year, she appeared in a song sequence in R. Parthiepan's "Kathai Thiraikathai Vasanam Iyakkam" and as the female lead in "Thirudan Police". In April 2014, she began filming for Seenu Ramasamy's "Idam Porul Yaeval", but the film remains unreleased as of May 2020.


title: Aishwarya Rajesh

text: Her first release in 2015 was "Kaaka Muttai". Initially, she was very hesitant to play a mother role at such an early stage in her career, but, after seeking advice from her "Pannaiyarum Padminiyum" co-star Vijay Sethupathi and after gaining interest in the script herself, she decided to be part of the film. Her portrayal of a slum dweller and mother of two children was lauded unanimously by critics and is regarded as one of "100 Greatest Performances of the Decade" by Film Companion. Critic Baradwaj Rangan wrote, "it features stunning performances from everyone...especially Aishwarya Rajesh, who plays the kids' mother with a world-weariness that belies her years". Other reviewers stated that she was "excellent", played her role "with extraordinary ease" and that she "leaves you awe-struck". That year, she also made her stage debut, playing Cinderella from the same-titled fairytale that was adapted as a "musical dance drama".


title: Aishwarya Rajesh

text: Aishwarya had the most releases for a Tamil actress in 2016 with 8 films out of which "Aarathu Sinam", "Hello Naan Pei Pesuren", "Manithan" and "Dharma Durai" were commercially successful. She was critically appreciated for her performance in the films "Dharma Durai" and "Kuttrame Thandanai", where she collaborated with "Kaaka Muttai" director Manikandan. She became the number one choice for acting in performance oriented roles in the industry. In 2017, Aishwarya made her entry in Malayalam films acting in two commercially and critically successful films "Jomonte Suvisheshangal" and "Sakhhavu". Based on her performance in "Kaaka Muttai", Arjun Rampal selected Aishwarya in the role of Zubeida for the film "Daddy". With this, Aishwarya made her debut in Hindi and was recognized for her performance in her first Hindi film. In 2018, she completed shooting for "Idhu Vedhalam Sollum Kathai". The film remained unreleased as of April 2020.


title: Aishwarya Rajesh

text: She starred in her solo film as a cricketer in "Kanaa" under Sivakarthikeyan's production. She reprised her role in the Telugu remake "Kousalya Krishnamurthy", which marked her lead Telugu debut. She starred in sister roles in "Namma Veettu Pillai" and "Vaanam Kottatum". She played a village belle in "World Famous Lover". She played a woman who lost her husband in Dubai in "Ka Pae Ranasingam". Regarding her performance, a critic noted that "Aishwarya Rajesh is a revelation. She displays hopelessness, powerlessness, vulnerability, grit and determination with ease and impressive conviction".


title: Aishwarya Rajesh

text: As of 2020, she is a part of Gautham Vasudev Menon's delayed project "Dhruva Natchathiram". She was cast in the "Mundhanai Mudichu" remake. , she is filming for "Driver Jamuna".


title: Lexus LS

text: The is a full-size luxury sedan (F-segment in Europe) serving as the flagship model of Lexus, the luxury division of Toyota. For the first four generations, all LS models featured V8 engines and were predominantly rear-wheel-drive. In the fourth generation, Lexus offered all-wheel-drive, hybrid, and long-wheelbase variants. The fifth generation changed to using a V6 engine with no V8 option, and only one length was offered.


title: Lexus LS

text: As the first model developed by Lexus, the LS 400 debuted in January 1989 with the second generation debuting in November 1994. The LS 430 debuted in January 2000 and the LS 460/LS 460 L series in 2006. A domestic-market version of the LS 400 and LS 430, badged as , was sold in Japan until the Lexus marque was introduced there in 2006. In 2006 (for the 2007 model year), the fourth generation LS 460 debuted the first production eight-speed automatic transmission and an automatic parking system. In 2007, V8 hybrid powertrains were introduced on the LS 600h/LS 600h L sedans.