title: Mariam-uz-Zamani

text: Mariam-uz-Zamani laid the foundation of highly astute international trading business in the Mughal Empire and was an impressive businesswoman herself. In the words of Findly, she had, in the larger arena, helped chart the role of Mughal women in the newly expanding business of foreign trade. She owned ships that carried pilgrims to and from the Islamic holy city Mecca, ran an extensive trade of silk and several spices to international borders, and oversaw the trade with Gulf countries and nations. Akbar took significant note of Mariam-uz-Zamani's activities of interest and invested time and money in her trading endeavours and had long discussions with the empress about her business endeavours. She was the only wife of Akbar authorized for international trade.


title: Mariam-uz-Zamani

text: Regarded as a woman who built the first large sea-faring ships of the Mughals at Lahore, she was the owner and patron of the largest ships named "Rahīmī" and afterward "Ganj-i-Sawai". She would often travel to various cities of her empire and seaports to manage her trade business. Nur Jahan and Jahanara Begum continued the overseas trading business established by her.


title: Mariam-uz-Zamani

text: In the words of Findly, no other noblewoman on record seems to have been as adventurous a trader as the Queen Mariam-uz-Zamani however no trader's ship seems to have gotten into as much trouble as hers. For example, as noted by the English ambassador in the Mughal court, William Hawkins, on February 1, 1609, he witnessed a great stirre touching the Mariam-uz-Zamani's ship as it prepared to carry goods to Mocha, an Arabian port south of Mecca at the Red Sea's entrance. The Portuguese threatened to abscond with the ship to Diu unless she paid an exorbitant fee for a cartaz or pass. It is recorded that the Portuguese demanded 1,00,000 mamudies for their cartaz and then 20,000; eventually, to forestall violence, the two sides were able to compromise on a much smaller payment of 1,000 rialls and some odd money.


title: Mariam-uz-Zamani

text: In 1613, her ship, the "Rahīmī", was seized by Portuguese pirates along with the 600–700 passengers on board and the cargo. The value of the treasure that this ship was loaded with was estimated to be around 100,000 pounds (95,33,839 INR) to the Europeans. Rahīmī was the largest Indian ship sailing in the Red Sea and was known to the Europeans as the "great pilgrimage ship". When the Portuguese officially refused to return the ship and the passengers, the outcry at the Mughal court was quite unusually severe. The outrage was compounded by the fact that the owner and the patron of the ship was the revered Dowager Empress, Mariam-uz-Zamani. The whole affair was meant to gain leverage at a time when the Portuguese were threatened by competition from other European companies. But as it happened, the move backfired. As one observer noted, The Empress in retaliation ordered her son, Jahangir to seize the Portuguese town, Daman, block all Portuguese trade in Surat, and “hath likewise taken order for the seizing of all Portingals (sic) and their goods within his kingdoms". Furthermore, she had her son “sealed up their church doors and hath given an order that they shall no more use the exercise of their religion in these parts".


title: Mariam-uz-Zamani

text: Rattled, the Portuguese made amends by offering Rs three lakh as compensation, but on the condition that the Mughals expel the English from Agra. Jahangir refused to blink, however, calling the Portuguese bluff, and welcoming soon afterward in 1615 Thomas Roe, the famous English ambassador. “The Portuguese folly in the capture of the Rahimi, then," writes Findly, “tipped the scales in favour of the English." This episode is considered to be an example of the struggle for wealth that would later ensue and lead to colonisation of the Indian sub-continent. But it was not as if the English newcomers were granted a red-carpet reception, on the contrary, the playing field was merely levelled somewhat. Mariam-uz-Zamani herself wasn't sympathetic to the English.


title: Mariam-uz-Zamani

text: Around the end of 1610, William Hawkins, commander of the English East India Company's first mission to India, instructed one of his fellow merchants, William Finch, to travel about 80 km southwest from Agra to Bayana, a town well known for its high-quality indigo production. At this time, one of Mariam-uz-Zamani's ships was being equipped for a voyage to Mocha. An agent had consequently been sent on her behalf to procure indigo, presumably an important part of the royal cargo. But just as the deal was being concluded, Finch swooped in with a higher bid, an infraction no Indian would have dared to commit knowing her social standing, and made away with the indigo the Queen Mother had reserved.


title: Mariam-uz-Zamani

text: An insult to the Queen Mother was an insult to the emperor himself, while Finch was long on his way out of Bayana by this time, his boss, Hawkins, already in trouble with Jahangir for other reasons, had to suffer consequences. She exerted enough pressure on her son to ensure that Roe's unofficial predecessor, William Hawkins, the “English Khan" who till then was friendly with Jahangir, had to pack his bags and leave for good. The repercussions were so severe for Europeans after Hawkins outbid Queen Mother that local merchants refused to trade their goods abroad until Europeans leave from India. In any case, if there was any doubt that the Emperor's mother was a force to reckon with, the affair around the Rahimi dispelled such thinking.


title: Mariam-uz-Zamani

text: After the loss of her ship Rahimi, the Dowager Empress then ordered the build of an even larger ship with 62 guns and the placement of over 400 musket men. It was named 'Ganj-I-Sawai' and in its day was the most fearsome ship in the sea with the objective of trade and taking pilgrims to Mecca and on the way back converting all the goods into gold, and silver, and bringing back the pilgrims.


title: Mariam-uz-Zamani

text: Mariam-uz-Zamani was one of the great female patrons of the architecture of her time. She commissioned and sponsored some of the great monuments which include Begum Shahi Mosque at Lahore, Pakistan and her famous baoli (step-well), known as Maryam Zamani's Baoli at Bayana.


title: Mariam-uz-Zamani

text: Begum Shahi Mosque is one of the earliest exquisite mosques of the Mughal Empire built in the years 1611-1614. This mosque was named after her in her honour and is known as the Begum Shahi Mosque. It is situated in the Walled City of Lahore, present-day Pakistan and is one of the biggest mosques in the city of Lahore. It served as the main mosque for congregational friday prayers for the members of the Mughal court. This mosque influenced the construction of Wazir Khan Mosque commissioned under the reign of Shah Jahan and Badshahi Mosque commissioned by Aurengzeb in later years. The colour combination and frescoes of this mosque, which are similar to the coloured frescoes on the ceiling of the palace of Mariam-uz-Zamani, known as Jodha bai Palace in Fatehpur Sikri, were unrivalled for the beauty in their prime having the finest of niches and fountains. This mosque has four Arabic-Persian verses, and one of them includes the prayer of Mariam-uz-Zamani for her son, Jahangir. This mosque stands as the best example of the fusion of Timurid and Safavid components. The prayer hall of Begum Shahi Mosque is a single-aisle five-bay structure with elaborate painted decoration. Its inner central dome reveals one of the first dated occurrences of a network developed from points arranged in concentric circles.


title: Mariam-uz-Zamani

text: Around 1612 AD, she commissioned a great step well and a large garden in Bayana near district Brahmabad. The step well was much appreciated by her son, Jahangir, who visited it around 1619 and noted that it was a grand building and was very well built at an expense of just 20,000 rupees. The baoli was considered by the English traveller, Peter Mundy to be “the best of this Kinde that I have yet seene... a very costly and curious piece of worke". Further he notes that it is a grand building with beautiful gates, cupolas, arches, chawtress, galleries, pillars and rooms above and below. The step-well consists of a gate, four flights of stairs leading down to the water level and a well-shaft at the farther end of the main axis, all constructed in red sandstone. Another European traveller, Thevenot who noticed this complex of garden and baoli notes it as a Royal house insinuating that this building was also meant to house the royal owner of this complex during her occasional visits to the locality.


title: Mariam-uz-Zamani

text: The main gateway of the baoli is represented by a double-storeyed structure facing east where the smaller rectangular portal is framed into a high arch. This gateway appears to be typically representative of the post-Fatehpur Sikri Mughal architecture of the early 17th century, it also carries an imprint of Rajput conceptions. Although there are only two stories, it is constructed to give the three-storeyed effect from the front. The baoli was built as a part of the garden built by the empress. Rajeev Bargoti notes that her interest in indigo trade might have been because her revenue free grants were located in the indigo producing tract around Bayana including pargana Jansath.


title: Mariam-uz-Zamani

text: The Masjid gate built in the Lahore fort is also commissioned by Mariam-uz-Zamani. It still stands in its original form.


title: Mariam-uz-Zamani

text: Mariam-uz-Zamani died in May 1623, immensely rich and powerful, and due honour was given by burying her in a mausoleum close to that of an equally redoubtable man she was married to, Akbar. Her desire of being close to her husband even in death is visible in the proximity of her tomb to that of her husband, Akbar. There is no concrete evidence stating the reason for her death though it is believed to have been because of sickness. Jahangir had made several references in his autobiography towards her declining health since 1616 and calls her decrepit.


title: Mariam-uz-Zamani

text: Her tomb, built between 1623–27, is on Tantpur road in Jyoti Nagar, next to the tomb of Akbar. Mariam's Tomb, commissioned by her son, Jahangir, who grieved her loss immensely, is only a kilometre from Tomb of Akbar the Great, in the direction of Mathura and she stands as the only wife buried close to Akbar. Her tomb resembles her husband's mausoleum in one important respect, namely, that the upper storey of both is open to the sun and rain, and its upper corners are embellished by beautiful pavilions surmounted by lovely domes. The grave itself is underground with a flight of steps leading to it.


title: Oort cloud

text: The Oort cloud (), sometimes called the Öpik–Oort cloud, first described in 1950 by the Dutch astronomer Jan Oort, is a theoretical concept of a cloud of predominantly icy planetesimals proposed to surround the Sun at distances ranging from 2,000 to 200,000 AU (0.03 to 3.2 light-years). It is divided into two regions: a disc-shaped inner Oort cloud (or Hills cloud) and a spherical outer Oort cloud. Both regions lie beyond the heliosphere and are in interstellar space. The Kuiper belt, the scattered disc and the detached objects, the other three reservoirs of trans-Neptunian objects, are less than one thousandth as far from the Sun as the Oort cloud.


title: Oort cloud

text: The outer limit of the Oort cloud defines the cosmographic boundary of the Solar System and the extent of the Sun's Hill sphere. The outer Oort cloud is only loosely bound to the Solar System, and thus is easily affected by the gravitational pull both of passing stars and of the Milky Way itself. These forces occasionally dislodge comets from their orbits within the cloud and send them toward the inner Solar System. Based on their orbits, most of the short-period comets may come from the scattered disc, but some short-period comets may have originated from the Oort cloud.


title: Oort cloud

text: Astronomers conjecture that the matter composing the Oort cloud formed closer to the Sun and was scattered far into space by the gravitational effects of the giant planets early in the Solar System's evolution. Although no confirmed direct observations of the Oort cloud have been made, it may be the source that replenishes most long-period and Halley-type comets entering the inner Solar System, and many of the centaurs and Jupiter-family comets as well.


title: Oort cloud

text: There are two main classes of comet: short-period comets (also called ecliptic comets) and long-period comets (also called nearly isotropic comets). Ecliptic comets have relatively small orbits, below 10 au, and follow the ecliptic plane, the same plane in which the planets lie. All long-period comets have very large orbits, on the order of thousands of au, and appear from every direction in the sky.


title: Oort cloud

text: A. O. Leuschner in 1907 suggested that many comets believed to have parabolic orbits, and thus making single visits to the solar system, actually had elliptical orbits and would return after very long periods. In 1932 Estonian astronomer Ernst Öpik postulated that long-period comets originated in an orbiting cloud at the outermost edge of the Solar System. Dutch astronomer Jan Oort independently revived the idea in 1950 as a means to resolve a paradox:


title: Oort cloud

text: Thus, Oort reasoned, a comet could not have formed while in its current orbit and must have been held in an outer reservoir for almost all of its existence. He noted that there was a peak in numbers of long-period comets with aphelia (their farthest distance from the Sun) of roughly 20,000 au, which suggested a reservoir at that distance with a spherical, isotropic distribution. Those relatively rare comets with orbits of about 10,000 au have probably gone through one or more orbits through the Solar System and have had their orbits drawn inward by the gravity of the planets.


title: Oort cloud

text: The Oort cloud is thought to occupy a vast space from somewhere between to as far as from the Sun. Some estimates place the outer boundary at between . The region can be subdivided into a spherical outer Oort cloud of , and a torus-shaped inner Oort cloud of . The outer cloud is only weakly bound to the Sun and supplies the long-period (and possibly Halley-type) comets to inside the orbit of Neptune. The inner Oort cloud is also known as the Hills cloud, named after Jack G. Hills, who proposed its existence in 1981. Models predict that the inner cloud should have tens or hundreds of times as many cometary nuclei as the outer halo; it is seen as a possible source of new comets to resupply the tenuous outer cloud as the latter's numbers are gradually depleted. The Hills cloud explains the continued existence of the Oort cloud after billions of years.


title: Oort cloud

text: The outer Oort cloud may have trillions of objects larger than , and billions with absolute magnitudes brighter than 11 (corresponding to approximately diameter), with neighboring objects tens of millions of kilometres apart. Its total mass is not known, but, assuming that Halley's Comet is a suitable prototype for comets within the outer Oort cloud, roughly the combined mass is , or five times that of Earth.


title: Oort cloud

text: but improved knowledge of the size distribution of long-period comets led to lower estimates. No known estimates of the mass of the inner Oort cloud have been published.


title: Oort cloud

text: If analyses of comets are representative of the whole, the vast majority of Oort-cloud objects consist of ices such as water, methane, ethane, carbon monoxide and hydrogen cyanide.


title: Oort cloud

text: However, the discovery of the object , an object whose appearance was consistent with a D-type asteroid in an orbit typical of a long-period comet, prompted theoretical research that suggests that the Oort cloud population consists of roughly one to two percent asteroids. Analysis of the carbon and nitrogen isotope ratios in both the long-period and Jupiter-family comets shows little difference between the two, despite their presumably vastly separate regions of origin. This suggests that both originated from the original protosolar cloud, a conclusion also supported by studies of granular size in Oort-cloud comets and by the recent impact study of Jupiter-family comet Tempel 1.


title: Oort cloud

text: The Oort cloud is thought to have developed after the formation of planets from the primordial protoplanetary disc approximately 4.6 billion years ago. The most widely accepted hypothesis is that the Oort cloud's objects initially coalesced much closer to the Sun as part of the same process that formed the planets and minor planets. After formation, strong gravitational interactions with young gas giants, such as Jupiter, scattered the objects into extremely wide elliptical or parabolic orbits that were subsequently modified by perturbations from passing stars and giant molecular clouds into long-lived orbits detached from the gas giant region.


title: Oort cloud

text: Recent research has been cited by NASA hypothesizing that a large number of Oort cloud objects are the product of an exchange of materials between the Sun and its sibling stars as they formed and drifted apart and it is suggested that many—possibly the majority—of Oort cloud objects did not form in close proximity to the Sun. Simulations of the evolution of the Oort cloud from the beginnings of the Solar System to the present suggest that the cloud's mass peaked around 800 million years after formation, as the pace of accretion and collision slowed and depletion began to overtake supply.


title: Oort cloud

text: Models by Julio Ángel Fernández suggest that the scattered disc, which is the main source for periodic comets in the Solar System, might also be the primary source for Oort cloud objects. According to the models, about half of the objects scattered travel outward toward the Oort cloud, whereas a quarter are shifted inward to Jupiter's orbit, and a quarter are ejected on hyperbolic orbits. The scattered disc might still be supplying the Oort cloud with material. A third of the scattered disc's population is likely to end up in the Oort cloud after 2.5 billion years.


title: Oort cloud

text: Computer models suggest that collisions of cometary debris during the formation period play a far greater role than was previously thought. According to these models, the number of collisions early in the Solar System's history was so great that most comets were destroyed before they reached the Oort cloud. Therefore, the current cumulative mass of the Oort cloud is far less than was once suspected. The estimated mass of the cloud is only a small part of the 50–100 Earth masses of ejected material.


title: Oort cloud

text: Gravitational interaction with nearby stars and galactic tides modified cometary orbits to make them more circular. This explains the nearly spherical shape of the outer Oort cloud. On the other hand, the Hills cloud, which is bound more strongly to the Sun, has not acquired a spherical shape. Recent studies have shown that the formation of the Oort cloud is broadly compatible with the hypothesis that the Solar System formed as part of an embedded cluster of 200–400 stars. These early stars likely played a role in the cloud's formation, since the number of close stellar passages within the cluster was much higher than today, leading to far more frequent perturbations.


title: Oort cloud

text: In June 2010 Harold F. Levison and others suggested on the basis of enhanced computer simulations that the Sun "captured comets from other stars while it was in its birth cluster." Their results imply that "a substantial fraction of the Oort cloud comets, perhaps exceeding 90%, are from the protoplanetary discs of other stars." In July 2020 Amir Siraj and Avi Loeb found that a captured origin for the Oort Cloud in the Sun's birth cluster could address the theoretical tension in explaining the observed ratio of outer Oort cloud to scattered disc objects, and in addition could increase the chances of a captured Planet Nine.


title: Oort cloud

text: Comets are thought to have two separate points of origin in the Solar System. Short-period comets (those with orbits of up to 200 years) are generally accepted to have emerged from either the Kuiper belt or the scattered disc, which are two linked flat discs of icy debris beyond Neptune's orbit at 30 au and jointly extending out beyond 100 au from the Sun. Very long-period comets, such as C/1999 F1 (Catalina), whose orbits last for millions of years, are thought to originate directly from the outer Oort cloud. Other comets modeled to have come directly from the outer Oort cloud include C/2006 P1 (McNaught), C/2010 X1 (Elenin), Comet ISON, C/2013 A1 (Siding Spring), C/2017 K2, and C/2017 T2 (PANSTARRS). The orbits within the Kuiper belt are relatively stable, and so very few comets are thought to originate there. The scattered disc, however, is dynamically active, and is far more likely to be the place of origin for comets. Comets pass from the scattered disc into the realm of the outer planets, becoming what are known as centaurs. These centaurs are then sent farther inward to become the short-period comets.


title: Oort cloud

text: There are two main varieties of short-period comet: Jupiter-family comets (those with semi-major axes of less than 5 AU) and Halley-family comets. Halley-family comets, named for their prototype, Halley's Comet, are unusual in that although they are short-period comets, it is hypothesized that their ultimate origin lies in the Oort cloud, not in the scattered disc. Based on their orbits, it is suggested they were long-period comets that were captured by the gravity of the giant planets and sent into the inner Solar System. This process may have also created the present orbits of a significant fraction of the Jupiter-family comets, although the majority of such comets are thought to have originated in the scattered disc.


title: Oort cloud

text: Oort noted that the number of returning comets was far less than his model predicted, and this issue, known as "cometary fading", has yet to be resolved. No dynamical process are known to explain the smaller number of observed comets than Oort estimated. Hypotheses for this discrepancy include the destruction of comets due to tidal stresses, impact or heating; the loss of all volatiles, rendering some comets invisible, or the formation of a non-volatile crust on the surface. Dynamical studies of hypothetical Oort cloud comets have estimated that their occurrence in the outer-planet region would be several times higher than in the inner-planet region. This discrepancy may be due to the gravitational attraction of Jupiter, which acts as a kind of barrier, trapping incoming comets and causing them to collide with it, just as it did with Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9 in 1994. An example of a typical dynamically old comet with an origin in the Oort cloud could be C/2018 F4.


title: Oort cloud

text: Most of the comets seen close to the Sun seem to have reached their current positions through gravitational perturbation of the Oort cloud by the tidal force exerted by the Milky Way. Just as the Moon's tidal force deforms Earth's oceans, causing the tides to rise and fall, the galactic tide also distorts the orbits of bodies in the outer Solar System. In the charted regions of the Solar System, these effects are negligible compared to the gravity of the Sun, but in the outer reaches of the system, the Sun's gravity is weaker and the gradient of the Milky Way's gravitational field has substantial effects. Galactic tidal forces stretch the cloud along an axis directed toward the galactic center and compress it along the other two axes; these small perturbations can shift orbits in the Oort cloud to bring objects close to the Sun. The point at which the Sun's gravity concedes its influence to the galactic tide is called the tidal truncation radius. It lies at a radius of 100,000 to 200,000 au, and marks the outer boundary of the Oort cloud.


title: Oort cloud

text: Some scholars theorize that the galactic tide may have contributed to the formation of the Oort cloud by increasing the perihelia (smallest distances to the Sun) of planetesimals with large aphelia (largest distances to the Sun). The effects of the galactic tide are quite complex, and depend heavily on the behaviour of individual objects within a planetary system. Cumulatively, however, the effect can be quite significant: up to 90% of all comets originating from the Oort cloud may be the result of the galactic tide. Statistical models of the observed orbits of long-period comets argue that the galactic tide is the principal means by which their orbits are perturbed toward the inner Solar System.


title: Oort cloud

text: Besides the galactic tide, the main trigger for sending comets into the inner Solar System is thought to be interaction between the Sun's Oort cloud and the gravitational fields of nearby stars or giant molecular clouds. The orbit of the Sun through the plane of the Milky Way sometimes brings it in relatively close proximity to other stellar systems. For example, it is hypothesized that 70 thousand years ago, perhaps Scholz's Star passed through the outer Oort cloud (although its low mass and high relative velocity limited its effect). During the next 10 million years the known star with the greatest possibility of perturbing the Oort cloud is Gliese 710. This process could also scatter Oort cloud objects out of the ecliptic plane, potentially also explaining its spherical distribution.


title: Oort cloud

text: In 1984, physicist Richard A. Muller postulated that the Sun has an as-yet undetected companion, either a brown dwarf or a red dwarf, in an elliptical orbit within the Oort cloud. This object, known as Nemesis, was hypothesized to pass through a portion of the Oort cloud approximately every 26 million years, bombarding the inner Solar System with comets. However, to date no evidence of Nemesis has been found, and many lines of evidence (such as crater counts), have thrown its existence into doubt. Recent scientific analysis no longer supports the idea that extinctions on Earth happen at regular, repeating intervals. Thus, the Nemesis hypothesis is no longer needed to explain current assumptions.


title: Oort cloud

text: A somewhat similar hypothesis was advanced by astronomer John J. Matese of the University of Louisiana at Lafayette in 2002. He contends that more comets are arriving in the inner Solar System from a particular region of the postulated Oort cloud than can be explained by the galactic tide or stellar perturbations alone, and that the most likely cause would be a Jupiter-mass object in a distant orbit. This hypothetical gas giant was nicknamed Tyche. The WISE mission, an all-sky survey using parallax measurements in order to clarify local star distances, was capable of proving or disproving the Tyche hypothesis. In 2014, NASA announced that the WISE survey had ruled out any object as they had defined it.


title: Oort cloud

text: Space probes have yet to reach the area of the Oort cloud. "Voyager 1", the fastest and farthest of the interplanetary space probes currently leaving the Solar System, will reach the Oort cloud in about 300 years and would take about 30,000 years to pass through it. However, around 2025, the radioisotope thermoelectric generators on "Voyager 1" will no longer supply enough power to operate any of its scientific instruments, preventing any further exploration by "Voyager 1." The currently escaping the Solar System either are already or are predicted to be non-functional when they reach the Oort cloud.


title: Oort cloud

text: In the 1980s, there was a concept for a probe that could reach 1,000 AU in 50 years, called "TAU"; among its missions would be to look for the Oort cloud.


title: Oort cloud

text: In the 2014 Announcement of Opportunity for the Discovery program, an observatory to detect the objects in the Oort cloud (and Kuiper belt) called the "Whipple Mission" was proposed. It would monitor distant stars with a photometer, looking for transits up to 10,000 AU away. The observatory was proposed for halo orbiting around L2 with a suggested 5-year mission. It was also suggested that the Kepler observatory could have been capable of detecting objects in the Oort cloud.


title: Primary color

text: A set of primary colors or primary colours (see spelling differences) consists of colorants or colored lights that can be mixed in varying amounts to produce a gamut of colors. This is the essential method used to create the perception of a broad range of colors in, e.g., electronic displays, color printing, and paintings. Perceptions associated with a given combination of primary colors can be predicted by an appropriate mixing model (e.g., additive, subtractive) that reflects the physics of how light interacts with physical media, and ultimately the retina.


title: Primary color

text: Primary colors can also be conceptual (not necessarily real), either as additive mathematical elements of a color space or as irreducible phenomenological categories in domains such as psychology and philosophy. Color space primaries are precisely defined and empirically rooted in psychophysical colorimetry experiments which are foundational for understanding color vision. Primaries of some color spaces are "complete" (that is, all visible colors are described in terms of their primaries weighted by nonnegative primary intensity coefficients) but necessarily "imaginary" (that is, there is no plausible way that those primary colors could be represented physically, or perceived). Phenomenological accounts of primary colors, such as the psychological primaries, have been used as the conceptual basis for practical color applications even though they are not a quantitative description in and of themselves.


title: Primary color

text: Sets of color space primaries are generally "arbitrary", in the sense that there is no one set of primaries that can be considered the canonical set. Primary pigments or light sources are selected for a given application on the basis of subjective preferences as well as practical factors such as cost, stability, availability etc.


title: Primary color

text: The concept of primary colors has a long, complex history. The choice of primary colors has changed over time in different domains that study color. Descriptions of primary colors come from areas including philosophy, art history, color order systems, and scientific work involving the physics of light and perception of color.


title: Primary color

text: Art education materials commonly use red, yellow, and blue as primary colors, sometimes suggesting that they can mix all colors. No set of real colorants or lights can mix all possible colors, however. In physics, the three primary colors are typically red, green and blue, after the different types of photoreceptor pigments in the cone cells.


title: Primary color

text: The perception elicited by multiple light sources co-stimulating the same area of the retina is additive, i.e., predicted via summing the spectral power distributions (the intensity of each wavelength) of the individual light sources assuming a color matching context. For example, a purple spotlight on a dark background could be matched with coincident blue and red spotlights that are both dimmer than the purple spotlight. If the intensity of the purple spotlight was doubled it could be matched by doubling the intensities of both the red and blue spotlights that matched the original purple. The principles of additive color mixing are embodied in Grassmann's laws. Additive mixing is sometimes described as "additive color matching" to emphasize the fact the predictions based on additivity only apply assuming the color matching context. Additivity relies on assumptions of the color matching context such as the match being in the foveal field of view, under appropriate luminance, etc.


title: Primary color

text: Additive mixing of coincident spot lights was applied in the experiments used to derive the CIE 1931 colorspace (see color space primaries section). The original "monochromatic" primaries of the wavelengths of 435.8 nm (violet), 546.1 nm (green), and 700 nm (red) were used in this application due to the convenience they afforded to the experimental work.


title: Primary color

text: Small red, green, and blue elements (with controllable brightness) in electronic displays mix additively from an appropriate viewing distance to synthesize compelling colored images. This specific type of additive mixing is described as "partitive mixing". Red, green, and blue light are popular primaries for partitive mixing since primary lights with those hues provide a large triangular chromaticity gamut.


title: Primary color

text: The exact colors chosen for additive primaries are a compromise between the available technology (including considerations such as cost and power usage) and the need for large chromaticity gamut. For example, in 1953 the NTSC specified primaries that were representative of the phosphors available in that era for color CRTs. Over decades, market pressures for brighter colors resulted in CRTs using primaries that deviated significantly from the original standard. Currently, ITU-R BT.709-5 primaries are typical for high-definition television.


title: Primary color

text: The subtractive color mixing model predicts the resultant spectral power distribution of light filtered through overlaid partially absorbing materials, usually in the context of an underlying reflective surface such as white paper. Each layer partially absorbs some wavelengths of light from the illumination while letting others pass through, resulting in a colored appearance. The resultant spectral power distribution is predicted by the wavelength-by-wavelength product of the spectral reflectance of the illumination and the product of the spectral reflectances of all of the layers. Overlapping layers of ink in printing mix subtractively over reflecting white paper, while the reflected light mixes in a partitive way to generate color images. Importantly, unlike additive mixture, the color of the mixture is not well predicted by the colors of the individual dyes or inks. The typical number of inks in such a printing process is 3 (CMY) or 4 (CMYK), but can commonly range to 6 (e.g., Pantone hexachrome). In general, using fewer inks as primaries results in more economical printing but using more may result in better color reproduction.


title: Primary color

text: Cyan (C), magenta (M), and yellow (Y) are good chromatic subtractive primaries in that filters with those colors can be overlaid to yield a surprisingly large chromaticity gamut. A black (K) ink (from the older "key plate") is also used in CMYK systems to augment C, M and Y inks or dyes due to both being more efficient in terms of time and expense and less likely to introduce visible defects. Before the color names "cyan" and "magenta" were in common use, these primaries were often known as blue and red, respectively, and their exact color has changed over time with access to new pigments and technologies. Organizations such as Fogra, European Color Initiative and SWOP publish colorimetric CMYK standards for the printing industry.


title: Primary color

text: Color theorists since the seventeenth century, and many artists and designers since that time, have taken red, yellow, and blue to be the primary colors (see history below). This RYB system, in "traditional color theory", is often used to order and compare colors, and sometimes proposed as a system of mixing pigments to get a wide range of, or "all", colors.


title: Primary color

text: Traditional color theory is based on experience with pigments, more than on the science of light. In 1920, Snow and Froehlich explained: "It does not matter to the makers of dyes if, as the physicist says, red light and green light in mixture make yellow light, when they find by experiment that red pigment and green pigment in mixture produce gray. No matter what the spectroscope may demonstrate regarding the combination of yellow rays of light and blue rays of light, the fact remains that yellow pigment mixed with the blue pigment produces green pigment."


title: Primary color

text: The widespread adoption of teaching of RYB as primary colors in post-secondary art schools in the twentieth century has been attributed to the influence of the Bauhaus, where Johannes Itten developed his ideas on color during his time there in the 1920s, and of his book on color published in 1961.


title: Primary color

text: In discussing color design for the web, Jason Beaird writes: "The reason many digital artists still keep a red, yellow, and blue color wheel handy is because the color schemes and concepts of traditional color theory are based on that model. ... Even though I design mostly for the Web—a medium that's displayed in RGB—I still use red, yellow, and blue as the basis for my color selection. I believe that color combinations created using the red, yellow, and blue color wheel are more aesthetically pleasing, and that good design is about aesthetics."


title: Primary color

text: Of course, the notion that "all" colors can be mixed from RYB primaries is not true, just as it is not true in any system of real primaries.


title: Primary color

text: For example, if the blue pigment is a deep Prussian blue, then a muddy desaturated green may be the best that can be had by mixing with yellow. To achieve a larger gamut of colors via mixing, the blue and red pigments used in illustrative materials such as the "Color Mixing Guide" in the image are often closer to peacock blue (a blue-green or cyan) and carmine (or crimson or magenta) respectively.


title: Primary color

text: Printers traditionally used inks of such colors, known as "process blue" and "process red", before modern color science and the printing industry converged on the process colors (and names) cyan and magenta


title: Primary color

text: (this is not to say that RYB is the same as CMY, or that it is exactly subtractive, but that there is a range of ways to conceptualize traditional RYB as a subtractive system in the framework of modern color science).


title: Primary color

text: The first known use of red, yellow, and blue as "simple" or "primary" colors, by Chalcidius, ca. AD 300, was possibly based on the art of paint mixing.


title: Primary color

text: Mixing pigments for the purpose of creating realistic paintings with diverse color gamuts is known to have been practiced at least since Ancient Greece (see history section). The identity of a/the set of minimal pigments to mix diverse gamuts has long been the subject of speculation by theorists whose claims have changed over time, for example, Pliny's white, black, one or another red, and "sil", which might have been yellow or blue; Robert Boyle's white, black, red, yellow, and blue; and variations with more or fewer "primary" color or pigments. Some writers and artists have found these schemes difficult to reconcile with the actual practice of painting. Nonetheless, it has long been known that limited palettes consisting of a small set of pigments are sufficient to mix a diverse gamut of colors.


title: Primary color

text: The set of pigments available to mix diverse gamuts of color (in various media such as oil, watercolor, acrylic, gouache, and pastel) is large and has changed throughout history. There is no consensus on a specific set of pigments that are considered primary colors the choice of pigments depends entirely on the artist's subjective preference of subject and style of art, as well as material considerations like lightfastness and mixing behavior. A variety of limited palettes have been employed by artists for their work.


title: Primary color

text: The color of light (i.e., the spectral power distribution) reflected from illuminated surfaces coated in paint mixes is not well approximated by a subtractive or additive mixing model. Color predictions that incorporate light scattering effects of pigment particles and paint layer thickness require approaches based on the Kubelka–Munk equations, but even such approaches are not expected to predict the color of paint mixtures precisely due to inherent limitations. Artists typically rely on mixing experience and "recipes" to mix desired colors from a small initial set of primaries and do not use mathematical modeling.


title: Primary color

text: MacEvoy explains why artists often chose a palette closer to RYB than to CMY: "Because the 'optimal' pigments in practice produce unsatisfactory mixtures; because the alternative selections are less granulating, more transparent, and mix darker values; and because visual preferences have demanded relatively saturated yellow to red mixtures, obtained at the expense of relatively dull green and purple mixtures. Artists jettisoned 'theory' to obtain the best color mixtures in practice."


title: Primary color

text: Color space primaries are derived from canonical colorimetric experiments that represent a standardized model of an observer (i.e., a set of "color matching functions") adopted by Commission Internationale de l'Eclairage (CIE) standards. The abbreviated account of color space primaries in this section is based on descriptions in "Colorimetry - Understanding The CIE System".


title: Primary color

text: The CIE 1931 standard observer is derived experiments in which participants observing a foveal 2° bipartite field with a dark surround. Half of the field is illuminated with a monochromatic "test stimulus" (ranging from 380 nm to 780 nm) and the other half is the "matching stimulus" illuminated with three coincident monochromatic primary lights: 700 nm for red (R), 546.1 nm for green (G), and 435.8 nm for blue (B). These primaries correspond to CIE RGB color space. The intensities of the primary lights could be adjusted by the participant observer until the matching stimulus matched the test stimulus, as predicted by Grassman's laws of additive mixing. Different standard observers from other color matching experiments have been derived since 1931. The variations in experiments include choices of primary lights, field of view, number of participants etc. but the presentation below is representative of those results.


title: Primary color

text: Matching was performed across many participants in incremental steps along the range of test stimulus wavelengths (380 nm to 780 nm) to ultimately yield the color matching functions: formula_1, formula_2 and formula_3 that represent the relative intensities of red, green, and blue light to match each wavelength (formula_4). These functions imply that formula_5 units of the test stimulus with "any" spectral power distribution, formula_6, can be matched by , , and units of each primary where:


title: Primary color

text: Each integral term in the above equation is known as a "tristimulus value" and measures amounts in the adopted units. No set of real primary lights can match another monochromatic light under additive mixing so at least one of the color matching functions is negative for each wavelength. A negative tristimulus value corresponds to that primary being added to the test stimulus instead of the matching stimulus to achieve a match.


title: Primary color

text: The negative tristimulus values made certain types of calculations difficult, so the CIE put forth new color matching functions formula_7, formula_8, and formula_9 defined by the following linear transformation:


title: Primary color

text: These new color matching functions correspond to imaginary primary lights X, Y, and Z (CIE XYZ color space). All colors can be matched by finding the amounts , , and analogously to , , and as defined in . The functions formula_7, formula_8, and formula_9 based on the specifications that they should be nonnegative for all wavelengths, formula_8 be equal to photometric luminance, and that formula_14 for an equienergy (i.e., a uniform spectral power distribution) test stimulus.


title: Primary color

text: Derivations use the color matching functions, along with data from other experiments, to ultimately yield the "cone fundamentals": formula_15, formula_16 and formula_17. These functions correspond to the response curves for the three types of color photoreceptors found in the human retina: long-wavelength (L), medium-wavelength (M), and short-wavelength (S) cones. The three cone fundamentals are related to the original color matching functions by the following linear transformation (specific to a 10° field):


title: Primary color

text: The L, M, and S primaries correspond to imaginary lights that stimulate only the L, M, and S cones respectively. These primaries are the basis for LMS color space, which has significant physiological relevance as these three photoreceptors mediate trichromatic color vision in humans.


title: Primary color

text: The R, G, and, B primaries as described here are real in that they represent physical lights but incomplete since some colors cannot be matched with primary intensity coefficients that are all nonnegative. The X, Y, Z and the L, M, S primaries are imaginary, since none can be represented by real lights or colorants, and complete since all colors can be defined in terms of primary intensity coefficients that are all nonnegative. Other color spaces such as sRGB and scRGB are partially defined in terms of linear transformations from CIE XYZ which have their own specific primaries. The choice of which color space to use is essentially arbitrary and depends on the utility to a specific application.


title: Primary color

text: The color-matching context is always three-dimensional (as seen in all the previously described color spaces) but more general "color appearance" models like CIECAM02 describe color in more dimensions and can be used to predict how colors appear under different viewing conditions.


title: Primary color

text: Humans are normally trichromats and use three (or more) primaries for color reproduction applications requiring a diverse gamuts. Some humans are monochromats or dichromats, corresponding to specific forms of color blindness in which color vision is mediated by only one or two of the types of color receptors. Participants with color blindness in color matching experiments were essential in the determination of cone fundamentals.


title: Primary color

text: There is one scholarly report of a functional human tetrachromat. Most other mammals are dichromats while birds and many fish are tetrachromats.


title: Primary color

text: The opponent process was proposed by Ewald Hering in which he described the four "simple" or "primary" colors ("einfache" or "grundfarben") as red, green, yellow and blue. To Hering, colors appeared either as these pure colors or as "psychological mixes" of two of them. Furthermore, these colors were organized in "opponent" pairs, red vs. green and yellow vs. blue so that mixing could occur across pairs (e.g., a yellowish green or a yellowish red) but not within a pair (i.e., greenish red cannot be imagined). An achromatic opponent process along black and white is also part of Hering's explanation of color perception. Hering asserted that we did not know why these color relationships were true but knew that they were. Red, green, yellow, and blue (sometimes with white and black) are known as the psychological primaries. Although there is a great deal of evidence for the opponent process in the form of neural mechanisms, there is currently no clear mapping of the psychological primaries to neural substrates.


title: Primary color

text: The psychological primaries were applied by Richard S. Hunter as the primaries for Hunter L,a,b colorspace that led to the creation of CIELAB. The Natural Color System is also directly inspired by the psychological primaries.


title: Primary color

text: Philosophical writing from ancient Greece has described notions of primary colors but they can be difficult to interpret in terms of modern color science. Theophrastus (ca. 371–287 BCE) described Democritus’ position that the primary colors were white, black, red, and green. In Classical Greece, Empedocles identified white, black, red, and, (depending on the interpretation) either yellow or green as primary colors. Aristotle described a notion in which white and black could be mixed in different ratios to yield chromatic colors; this idea had considerable influence in Western thinking about color. François d'Aguilon's notion of the five primary colors (white, yellow, red, blue, black) was influenced by Aristotle's idea of the chromatic colors being made of black and white.The 20th century philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein explored color-related ideas using red, green, blue, and yellow as primary colors.


title: Primary color

text: Isaac Newton used the term "primary color" to describe the colored spectral components of sunlight. A number of color theorists did not agree with Newton's work, David Brewster advocated that red, yellow, and blue light could be combined into any spectral hue late into the 1840s. Thomas Young proposed red, green, and violet as the three primary colors, while James Clerk Maxwell favored changing violet to blue. Hermann von Helmholtz proposed "a slightly purplish red, a vegetation-green, slightly yellowish, and an ultramarine-blue" as a trio. Newton, Young, Maxwell, and Helmholtz were all prominent contributors to "modern color science" that ultimately described the perception of color in terms of the three types of retinal photoreceptors.


title: Primary color

text: John Gage's "The Fortunes Of Apelles" provides a summary of the history of primary colors as pigments in painting and describes the evolution of the idea as complex. Gage begins by describing Pliny The Elder's account of notable Greek painters who used four primaries. Pliny distinguished the pigments (i.e., substances) from their apparent colors: white from Milos (ex albis), red from Sinope (ex rubris), Attic yellow (sil) and atramentum (ex nigris). Sil was historically confused as a blue pigment between the 16th and 17th centuries leading to claims about white, black, red, and blue being the fewest colors required for painting. Thomas Bardwell, an 18th century Norwich portrait painter, was skeptical of practical relevance of Pliny's account.


title: Primary color

text: Robert Boyle, the Irish chemist, introduced the term "primary color" in English in 1664 and claimed that there were five primary colors (white, black, red, yellow, and blue). The German painter Joachim von Sandrart eventually proposed removing white and black from the primaries and that one only needed red, yellow, blue, and green to paint "the whole creation".


title: Primary color

text: Red, yellow, and blue as primaries became a popular notion in the 18th and 19th centuries. Jacob Christoph Le Blon, an engraver, was the first to use separate plates for each color in mezzotint printmaking: yellow, red, and blue, plus black to add shades and contrast. Le Blon used "primitive" in 1725 to describe red, yellow, and blue in a very similar sense as Boyle used "primary". Moses Harris, an entomologist and engraver, also describes red, yellow, and blue as "primitive" colors in 1766. Léonor Mérimée described red, yellow, and blue in his book on painting (originally published in French in 1830) as the three simple/primitive colors that can make a "great variety" of tones and colors found in nature. George Field, a chemist, used the word "primary" to describe red, yellow, and blue in 1835. Michel Eugène Chevreul, also a chemist, discussed red, yellow, and blue as "primary" colors in 1839.


title: Primary color

text: Historical perspectives on color order systems ("catalogs" of color) that were proposed in the 18th and 19th centuries describe them as using red, yellow and blue pigments as chromatic primaries. Tobias Mayer (a German mathematician, physicist, and astronomer) described a triangular bipyramid with red, yellow and blue at the 3 vertices in the same plane, white at the top vertex and black and the bottom vertex in a public lecture in 1758. There are 11 planes of colors between the white and black vertices inside the triangular bipyramid. Mayer did not seem to distinguish between colored light and colorant though he used vermilion, orpiment (King’s yellow), and Bergblau (azurite) in partially complete colorings of planes in his solid. Johann Heinrich Lambert (a Swiss mathematician, physicist, and astronomer) proposed a triangular pyramid with gamboge, carmine, and Prussian blue as primaries and only white at the top vertex (since Lambert could produce a mixture that was sufficiently black with those pigments). Lambert's work on this system was published in 1772. Philipp Otto Runge (the Romantic German painter) firmly believed in the theory of red, yellow and blue as the primary colors (again without distinguishing light color and colorant). His color sphere was ultimately described in an essay titled "Farben-Kugel" (color ball) published by Goethe in 1810. His spherical model of colors equally spaced red, yellow and blue longitudinally with orange, green and violet in between them and white and black at opposite poles.


title: Primary color

text: Numerous authors have taught that red, yellow, and blue (RYB) are the primary colors in art education materials since at least the 19th century, following the ideas tabulated above from earlier centuries.


title: Primary color

text: A wide variety of contemporary educational sources also describe the RYB primaries. These sources range from children's books and art material manufacturers to painting and color guides. Art education materials often suggest that RYB primaries can be mixed to create "all" other colors.


title: Primary color

text: Albert Munsell, an American painter (and creator of the Munsell color system), referred to the notion of RYB primaries as "mischief", "a widely accepted error", and underspecified in his book "A Color Notation", first published in 1905.


title: Primary color

text: Itten's ideas about RYB primaries have been criticized as ignoring modern color science with demonstrations that some of Itten's claims about mixing RYB primaries are impossible.


title: Uri: The Surgical Strike

text: Uri: The Surgical Strike is a 2019 Indian Hindi-language military action film written and directed by debutant Aditya Dhar and produced by Ronnie Screwvala under the RSVP Movies banner. A fictionally dramatised account of the true events of the retaliation to the 2016 Uri attack, the film stars Vicky Kaushal along with Yami Gautam, Mohit Raina, Kirti Kulhari and Paresh Rawal in pivotal roles, and tells the story of Col Kapil Yadav (Kaushal) of the Para (Special Forces), who played a leading role in the events.


title: Uri: The Surgical Strike

text: Screwvala announced the film in September 2017, a year after the 2016 Indian Line of Control strike. The principal photography began from June 2018 in Serbia where it was majorly shot before being wrapped up in September in Mumbai. It was released on 11 January 2019 to critical acclaim from critics and audiences alike, praising the performances of the cast, screenplay, action sequences, sound design, direction and technical aspects and was also a recipient of various accolades including four National Film Awards.


title: Uri: The Surgical Strike

text: Made on a budget of 25 crore, "Uri: The Surgical Strike" grossed ( million) worldwide and went on to become the 29th highest-grossing Indian film ever made. It was declared a 'blockbuster' by Box Office India.


title: Uri: The Surgical Strike

text: The first chapter opens up with an ambush in June 2015 on the convoy of the Indian Army troops in Chandel, Manipur by NSCN(K) militants. In retaliation, Major Vihaan Singh Shergill, a Para SF officer and his unit, including his brother-in-law, Major Karan Kashyap, infiltrate and attack the Northeastern militants and also kill the key leader responsible for the ambush. After a successful strike, the Prime Minister of India congratulates him and the whole unit at a formal dinner. Vihaan requests an early retirement as he wants to be close with his mother, who is suffering from Stage VI Alzheimer's, on which the Prime Minister offers him a desk job at New Delhi near his mother instead of retirement, to which he agrees.


title: Uri: The Surgical Strike

text: The second chapter shows Vihaan taking a desk job at the Integrated Defence Staff HQ in New Delhi and him spending time with his family. This segment also briefly describes the Pathankot attack. A nurse named Jasmine D'Almeida is assigned to take care of Vihaan's mother. Vihaan meets an Indian Air Force pilot named Flight Lieutenant Seerat Kaur, who is trying to prove her patriotism to her martyred husband, who was an army officer who died in an ambush. One fine day, his mother goes missing. He searches for her, and he blames Jasmine for ignorance and tells Jasmine that there is no need for her security. Vihaan's mother is found under a bridge, and Jasmine reveals herself as an intelligence agent. The film reveals why the families of the special forces soldiers were given security due to the threat from the North-eastern terrorists.


title: Uri: The Surgical Strike

text: On 18 September 2016, four heavily armed militants attack the brigade headquarters at Uri, Jammu and Kashmir at dawn, killing 19 soldiers in their sleep. The terrorists are killed, but Karan dies in a grenade explosion due to accidentally pulling the pin attached to the terrorist's rifle, which he picked up to examine. The whole family becomes devastated, including Vihaan. The Ministry decides to take strict action against the perpetrators of the attack. National Security Advisor Govind Bharadwaj suggests the idea of a surgical strike. The Prime Minister gives it a go and gives ten days for the strike. Vihaan leaves his desk job and leaves for Northern Command base in Udhampur. He requests Chief of the Army Staff General Arjun Singh Rajawat to count him in the operation to which he agrees. Vihaan chooses the elite Ghatak Force commandos from the Bihar Regiment, and the Dogra Regiment along with the special forces as most of the soldiers killed in the attack were from these regiments. Vihaan informs them that they can no longer use their phones and disguises the mission as regular training exercises. The commandos begin their training.


title: Uri: The Surgical Strike

text: During the planning, Govind ropes in ISRO (for providing satellite images), DRDO (for drone surveillance), and RAW (for intelligence). When he goes to meet the DRDO Chief Brian D'Souza, he chances to meet an intern named Ishaan who has developed a drone called Garuda which looks and is shaped like an Eagle. With the help of the drones and satellite images they can get the exact location of the hideouts and training camps of the terrorists. Jasmine reveals her true name as Pallavi Sharma to Vihaan, and during an interrogation, the two extract information about who planned the attack. He chooses Seerat to be his pilot, who agrees wholeheartedly. Govind also suggests intensifying the artillery shelling at the border for distraction and painting their assault helicopters with Pakistani Air Force markings. The commandos also start training under Vihaan. The Pakistani officials suspect the Indian activities but dismiss them due to underestimation.


title: Uri: The Surgical Strike

text: On the night of 28 September, the commandos leave for the strike in Pakistan occupied Kashmir in Mi-17 helicopters. During the mission, Vihaan's helicopter is forced not to cross the Line of Control due to the latest intelligence from spies in Pakistan that the Pakistani Army has deployed an "AWAC" early warning radar-based surface to air missile system in Muzafarabad sector to bring their helicopter down. He and his team improvise by going on foot through a cave (which was very risky due to darkness and the unknown presence of other terrorists). His team successfully infiltrate and kill all the terrorists on the two launchpads. Similarly, other commando teams also manage to kill all of the terrorists. Vihaan kills Idris and Jabbar, who are the perpetrators of the Uri attack. The local police are alerted, and the commandos who are low on ammunition and time escape. On their way back, they are heavily rained down upon by gunfire from both a nearby machine gun bunker and a Pakistani Air Force Mi-17 Helicopter, which was scrambled to intercept Vihaan's team. Flight Lieutenant Seerat comes to their rescue by firing back at the Pakistani gunship, thus driving it away and eliminating the machine gun bunker. His team successfully crosses the LoC on the Indian side with no casualties. The rest of the assigned teams are also successful and are back with no casualties. Vihaan lands at Hindon Air Force Station at Ghaziabad, Uttar Pradesh. The film ends with him, Pallavi, Govind, and the commandos happily having a formal dinner with the Prime Minister.


title: Uri: The Surgical Strike

text: In a post-credits scene, Zameer, a Pakistani minister, wakes up and shouts in frustration while seeing the news of India's successful surgical strike. The scene cuts to a title card reading "Jai Hind".


title: Uri: The Surgical Strike

text: "Uri" was announced by producer Ronnie Screwvala one year after the surgical strike in September 2017. The film was to be directed by debutant Aditya Dhar. He said that the film is "the story of what was imagined to have happened in those eleven days." The principal photography began in June 2018 and was finished in September. Kaushal went through extensive military training for five months and gained weight. He trained for five hours a day and three to four hours of military training to enhance stamina. He also received gun training at the naval base in Cuffe Parade in Mumbai. He called it "physically the most challenging film for me". He injured his arm while filming an action sequence in it.


title: Uri: The Surgical Strike

text: Kaushal and the supporting cast trained at Mumbai's Navy Nagar with Captains and Majors teaching them slithering, using arms and ammunitions and other drills used by the armed forces. "Uri" was largely shot in Serbia and was wrapped up in Mumbai. The Indo-Pak border, the LOC and other areas resembling military posts and terrorist camps were recreated in Serbia. Yami Gautam underwent mixed martial arts training. She called the process of shooting as "exhausting yet enjoyable." The film also stars Paresh Rawal, Mohit Raina, Ivan Rodrigues and Kirti Kulhari. Screwvala said that the film has elements of "war, action, and strategy based on a true story" that the "Indian audience is yet to watch such experience in cinema."


title: Uri: The Surgical Strike

text: The film was released on 11 January 2019. The film was digitally premiered on ZEE5 Platform on 19 March 2019. To curtail piracy, the makers of "Uri: The Surgical Strike" deployed a 3.8 gigabyte fake version of the film over networks like torrent. However, the film was leaked by the bootleg website Tamil Rockers within a week of release. The Telugu dubbed version of the film was released with the same name on 14 June 2019.


title: Uri: The Surgical Strike

text: The film score and songs were composed and produced by Shashwat Sachdev. Kumaar, Raj Shekhar and Abhiruchi Chand are the lyricists.


title: Uri: The Surgical Strike

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of based on reviews. Namrata Joshi, writing for "The Hindu", stated: "Whichever side of the political divide one may stand, one can't dismiss Dhar's canniness and craft and Vicky Kaushal as the Army officer was brilliant."


title: Uri: The Surgical Strike

text: Amman Khurana of "Times Now News", giving 4 stars out of 5, comments: "Uri: The Surgical Strike is a rather mature film. It somehow knows that it is catering to the viewer that is tired of watching the men in uniform who thump their chests to show their love and passion for the country." He further has to say: "The stunning cinematography and the VFX work ensure that Uri: The Surgical Strike does not pass off as a comic-book account of the operation." He concludes: "Uri: The Surgical Strike is a good one-time watch. If not for anything else, watch it for Vicky Kaushal, who brings the right amount of intensity to his role and drives the film from start to finish." Taran Adarsh rated the film 4 stars out of 5, says "Uri is one film that *should* be watched… Absorbing screenplay, superbly executed combat scenes, efficient direction Aditya Dhar… Uri is thrilling, gripping, instils patriotism, without getting jingoistic." Rajeev Masand of News 18 gave the film 4 out of 5 stars and said, "Vicky Kaushal is in especially good form as the protagonist, looking every bit the army man. He brings both the bulked-up physicality and the sort of steely determination that the part requires."


title: Uri: The Surgical Strike

text: Anupama Chopra of Film Companion said, "The film alternates between fact and fiction, between gritty re-creations of combat and Top Gun-style, slow-motion shots of soldiers getting out of helicopters. For the first half, Aditya manages this tight-rope walk efficiently, aided by the strong work of DOP Mitesh Mirchandani. The story-telling has the scale and the narrative beats are predictable but satisfying", but found the plot simplistic in places. Raja Sen of "Hindustan Times" gave the film 3.5 out of 5 stars and said, "Uri is a very good looking film — though the cinematographer appears to have been told to highlight the lens-flare in every single shot of nighttime combat — and while the action is totally brilliant."


title: Uri: The Surgical Strike

text: "Uri: The Surgical Strike" in opening weekend earned 35.73 crore from domestic circuit. In the first week, the film collected 70.94 crore from India. It grossed 300 crore from India and from overseas, taking the worldwide gross collection to ( million).


title: Uri: The Surgical Strike

text: The film crossed the ( million) mark in gross collection on 8th day of its release. It took 15 days to gross ( million) and in its fourth week of release, it grossed ( million). It took seven weeks to gross ( million) worldwide.


title: Uri: The Surgical Strike

text: "Uri: The Surgical Strike" is the 5th highest-grossing Bollywood film of 2019. Based on box office collection, the film became the tenth highest-grossing film by 5 March 2019 produced in Bollywood until that date.


title: Uri: The Surgical Strike

text: The protagonist (played by Kaushal) in the film asks his squad "How's the Josh?" (Hinglish for "How's the spirit?") The squad replies "High, Sir!". This question is asked to the cadets in military academies in India to test their enthusiasm. The dialogue went viral over Indian social media and eventually became a cultural phenomenon.


title: Uri: The Surgical Strike

text: The dialogue was quoted by several individuals and institutions. The Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi, while inaugurating the National Museum of Indian Cinema of Films Division of India in Mumbai, asked this question at the beginning of his address to the film fraternity attending the ceremony. The Indian Cricket Team, after winning ODI series in New Zealand, raised the morale of the team by asking "How’s the Josh?" for the coming Twenty20 series; and Mumbai Police used the slogan to raise awareness about cybersecurity.


title: Penny Dreadful (TV series)

text: Penny Dreadful is a horror drama television series created for Showtime and Sky by John Logan, who also acts as executive producer alongside Sam Mendes. The show was originally pitched to several US and UK channels, and eventually landed with Showtime, with Sky Atlantic as co-producer. It premiered at the South by Southwest film festival on March 9 and began airing on television on April 28, 2014, on Showtime on Demand. The series premiered on Showtime in the United States on May 11, 2014, and on Sky Atlantic in the United Kingdom on May 20, 2014. After the third-season finale on June 19, 2016, series creator John Logan announced that "Penny Dreadful" had ended as the main story had reached its conclusion.


title: Penny Dreadful (TV series)

text: The title refers to the penny dreadfuls, a type of 19th-century British fiction publication with lurid and sensational subject matter. The series draws upon many public domain characters from 19th-century Victorian Gothic fiction, including Dorian Gray from Oscar Wilde's "The Picture of Dorian Gray"; Mina Harker, Abraham Van Helsing, John Seward, Renfield, and Count Dracula from Bram Stoker's "Dracula"; Victor Frankenstein and his monster from Mary Shelley's "Frankenstein"; and Henry Jekyll from Robert Louis Stevenson's "Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde", showing their origin stories as an explorer searches for his daughter. Justine from "Justine, or The Misfortunes of Virtue" by the Marquis de Sade also appears.


title: Penny Dreadful (TV series)

text: The first season begins in London, 1891. Ethan Chandler, an American gunman and roadshow artist, is hired by the adventurer Malcolm Murray and the mysterious Vanessa Ives to help rescue Murray's daughter from a mysterious creature. They receive help from a young doctor named Victor Frankenstein, who is hunted by an undead man of Frankenstein's creation. Ives becomes romantically involved with the handsome, artistic Dorian Gray but also finds herself haunted by Lucifer, who wishes to make her his bride and queen.


title: Penny Dreadful (TV series)

text: In the second season, Ives is hunted by a coven of witches led by the charismatic Evelyn Poole, wanting to bring Ives to Lucifer, who is their master. Frankenstein is forced to make his creature a bride, and an inspector hunts Chandler after the Chandler commits a grisly murder in a London inn.


title: Penny Dreadful (TV series)

text: In the third season, the main characters find themselves scattered across the world. When Count Dracula appears in London, the final battle for Vanessa Ives' soul begins.


title: Penny Dreadful (TV series)

text: Notable non-recurring cast include Mary Stockley as Victor Frankenstein's mother Caroline, Anna Chancellor as Vanessa's mother Claire, and Frank McCusker as Christopher Banning, a doctor overseeing Vanessa's treatment while institutionalized, all appearing in flashbacks during the first season, as well as Oliver Cotton as Father Matthew, having been requested to perform an exorcism on Vanessa in the first season's penultimate episode.


title: Penny Dreadful (TV series)

text: In January 2013, it was announced that Showtime had made a series commitment for the project. Logan and Mendes previously wrote and directed "Skyfall", respectively. Production began in London in the second half of 2013. Showtime president David Nevins stated that the tone of the ensemble series will be "very realistic and very grounded, not Bela Lugosi. All exist in human form in turn-of-century London." This was also reflected during production of the sound for the show, where Logan often pulled things back towards more realism. Logan, a lifelong fan of literary monsters, wrote the project on spec and scripts the majority of episodes of the series. It was intended that Mendes would direct episodes, but scheduling prevented this.


title: Penny Dreadful (TV series)

text: Juan Antonio Bayona was announced as director for the first two episodes. The remaining episodes of the first season were directed by Dearbhla Walsh, Coky Giedroyc, and James Hawes.


title: Penny Dreadful (TV series)

text: In March 2013, it was announced that the series would be filmed in the United Kingdom; eyeing the new UK tax credit for high-end TV productions that offers a 25% rebate. However, it was reported in August that production would instead take place in Bray's Ardmore Studios and other locations around Dublin, Ireland, because of the country's section 481 tax incentives. Filming began on October 7 and lasted 5 months. Reports indicate that the change was made as no stage space of a sufficient caliber was available due to the filming of major motion pictures in London.


title: Penny Dreadful (TV series)

text: In December 2013, Showtime announced its first production blog for a series with the launch of "The Penny Dreadful Production Blog". The venue gives viewers an online, behind-the-scenes look at the series' production from its early stages of filming in Ireland through the end of the first season, featuring interviews with cast and crew. In February 2014, Showtime released a full-length trailer for the series.


title: Penny Dreadful (TV series)

text: Logan revealed at the 2014 San Diego Comic-Con International panel that one of the texts he thought about while planning the series that he would like to use in a future season is "The Island of Doctor Moreau". In an interview with "Entertainment Weekly" prior to the premiere of the third season, Logan stated that the addition of Dr. Henry Jekyll was implemented because the rights to "Doctor Moreau" were not available.


title: Penny Dreadful (TV series)

text: Showtime announced shortly before the end of the first and second seasons that another season (of 10 and 9 episodes, respectively) would debut the following May. However, Logan had decided during the middle of the second season that the third season should be the last, and he pitched the third season to Showtime president David Nevins accordingly. They did not release this information until after the final season had completed, as Nevins stated, "given what I knew the ending of "Penny Dreadful" was going to be felt like a massive spoiler and it felt disrespectful to the experience that people were having with the show." Logan said regarding not releasing the information: "That's what the ending of this series is, it is meant to be a strong, bold, theatrical ending because I think that's what our fans like and to water that down with an announcement or having them know I think would be an act of bad faith."


title: Penny Dreadful (TV series)

text: The first season of "Penny Dreadful" received positive reviews from critics, with a Metacritic rating of 70 out of 100 based on 37 reviews. It holds an 80 percent rating on Rotten Tomatoes, with an average score of 7.36 out of 10, based on 61 reviews, with the site's consensuses stating, "Skillfully shot and superbly acted, "Penny Dreadful" is perplexing in a good way – even if it's a bit silly at times." The first season was described "as riotous as it is ridiculous, taking the macabre to new heights (or depths)" by "The Guardian" reviewer Ben Hewitt.


title: Penny Dreadful (TV series)

text: The second season also received positive reviews from critics. On Metacritic, it has a score of 77 out of 100 based on 14 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews". On Rotten Tomatoes, it holds a 100 percent rating with an average score of 7.65 out of 10 based on 20 reviews, with the site's consensus stating, ""Penny Dreadful"s second season maintains the show's intense, bloody drama, utilizing a vast array of fascinating characters and locales to tell a unique story."


title: Penny Dreadful (TV series)

text: The third season received critical acclaim. On Metacritic, it has a score of 83 out of 100 based on 9 reviews, indicating "universal acclaim". On Rotten Tomatoes, it holds a 93 percent rating with an average score of 8.1 out of 10 based on 15 reviews, with the site's consensuses stating, ""Penny Dreadful" is back for a beautifully bloody third season of ever-expanding mysteries and Gothic horrors." Ben Travers of Indiewire gave it a "B+" grade and wrote, "Season 3's American-set storyline breaks things up nicely with some classic western elements mixed in with the show's established creature horrors, and the aesthetics of the production have never looked better."


title: Penny Dreadful (TV series)

text: The series debuted to 872,000 viewers (1.44million including re-runs). This number does not include the 900,000 viewers who previewed the series on Showtime on Demand and the Showtime app.


title: Penny Dreadful (TV series)

text: In 2015, Titan Books announced a comic book series based on "Penny Dreadful", written by co-executive producer Chris King and writers Krysty Wilson-Cairns and Andrew Hinderaker. The first issue was released on May 11, 2016. In October 2016, Showtime announced that a new series would be released in 2017, set six months after the finale of the TV series. The project will be written by King, illustrated by Jesús Hervás, and published by Titan Books.


title: Penny Dreadful (TV series)

text: In November 2018, a spin-off series, "Penny Dreadful: City of Angels" was announced by Showtime. It is set in 1938 and centers on Mexican-American folklore and social tension of the era in Los Angeles, California. The series started production in August 2019 and stars Daniel Zovatto, Nathan Lane, Natalie Dormer, Kerry Bishé, Rory Kinnear, Adriana Barraza, Michael Gladis, Jessica Garza and Johnathan Nieves. It premiered on April 26, 2020. On August 21, 2020, the series was cancelled after one season.


title: Priyamani

text: Priya Vasudev Mani Iyer (born 4 June 1984), known by her professional name Priyamani, is an Indian actress and former model, who works in the South Indian film industry. She is a recipient of Several Awards.


title: Priyamani

text: Priyamani made her acting debut through the 2003, Telugu film "Evare Atagaadu". She gained widespread recognition for her role as a village girl Muththazhagu in the Tamil romantic drama "Paruthiveeran" in 2007, receiving a National Film Award for Best Actress and a Filmfare Award for Best Actress in Tamil for her performance. Her notable works include "Raam" (2009), "Raavan" (2010), "Raavanan" (2010), "Pranchiyettan & the Saint" (2010), "Chaarulatha" (2012) and "Idolle Ramayana" (2016). Apart from appearing in films she has also judged several dance reality shows across South Indian languages.


title: Priyamani

text: Priyamani Iyer was born and raised in Bangalore, Karnataka. She is from a Tamil Palakkad Iyer family. Her father, Vasudeva Mani Iyer, owns a plantation business and her mother, former national level badminton player, Lathamani Iyer, was a bank manager at Union Bank of India. She modelled for Kanchipuram Silk, Erode Bharani Silks and Lakshmi silks during her school years. When she was in the 12th Standard, Tamil director Bharathiraja introduced her to the film industry. While at school, she actively participated in extracurricular activities and in sports. She is the granddaughter of Carnatic vocalist, Kamala Kailas. She is the cousin of film actress, Vidya Balan and the niece of playback singer, Malgudi Shubha.


title: Priyamani

text: After completing her schooling, Priyamani modeled for print advertisements. Priyamani pursued a degree in Bachelor of Arts in psychology through correspondence.


title: Priyamani

text: Priyamani made her debut with Telugu film, "Evare Atagaadu". Although she began her acting career with Bharathiraja's Tamil film, "Kangalal Kaidhu Sei," it was "Evare Atagaadu" which was released first.


title: Priyamani

text: Priyamani then made her debut in Malayalam cinema with "Sathyam". Then she was signed by Tamil film director and cinematographer Balu Mahendra to act in the 2005 drama "Adhu Oru Kana Kaalam". Before release, Babith said "Priyamani has come up with an excellent performance in the movie. "Adhu Oru Kana Kaalam" was critically acclaimed but failed at the box office. However, she won acclaim for her performance in the film. In 2006, Priyamani starred in the Telugu film "Pellaina Kothalo". The film was a hit and got her three Telugu films.


title: Priyamani

text: Priyamani managed to prove her acting credentials and commercial appeal with 2007's "Paruthiveeran", directed by Ameer, in which she was co-starred with debutant Karthi. A rural subject which told the story of a notorious young villager in Madurai, the film won critical acclaim and became a surprise box-office blockbuster. She went on to win the National Film Award, followed by South Filmfare Award, Tamil Nadu State Film Award and an award at the Osian's Cinefan Festival of Asian and Arab Cinema.


title: Priyamani

text: She had another commercially successful film in Telugu, in the 2007 film "Yamadonga" and in the Tamil film "Malaikottai". She again received critical acclaim in 2008 for her role in the Malayalam film "Thirakkatha", in which she played a role based on the turbulent real-life story of late film actress Srividya. She won another Filmfare Award for her performance. In Tamil, she had a single release in 2008: "Thotta".


title: Priyamani

text: In 2009 she had two Tamil releases, the masala film "Arumugam" and the remake of the Malayalam blockbuster "Classmates", titled "Ninaithale Inikkum". The former was a commercial failure: Her Kannada debut film Raam was also a commercial success. All three of her Telugu releases that year, however, ("Drona", "Mitrudu", "Pravarakhyudu") did not do well at the box office. In 2010 she acted in the satirical film "Pranchiyettan & the Saint" which became the longest-running Malayalam film since 2005. She won a Filmfare nomination for her role as a Mumbai-based interior decorator in the film.


title: Priyamani

text: She was subsequently signed by director Mani Ratnam for his bilingual film, titled "Raavanan" and "Raavan" in Tamil and Hindi respectively. Soon after, she was hired by Bollywood director-producer Ram Gopal Varma for his bilingual film "Rakht Charitra". Varma decided to cast her after seeing her National Award-winning performance in "Paruthiveeran". Her Kannada film "Vishnuvardhana" became a blockbuster hit and later she starred in "Anna Bond". Although the film was poorly received by critics and featured on Rediff's "Most Disappointing Kannada Films of 2012" list, it went on to become a successful venture at the box office. She appeared in an item number in the Bollywood film "Chennai Express". She has completed shooting for a Malayalam film, "The True Story" and the Telugu film, "Chandee", in which she plays Ganga the granddaughter of a freedom fighter, who seeks revenge for the problems her family had to face. She was cast opposite Darshan in the Kannada film "Ambareesha" in (2014).


title: Priyamani

text: In 2014, she posed for a PETA ad campaign, asking the public to boycott zoos that feature caged tigers.


title: Priyamani

text: Besides The Family Man 2, Priyamani will also be seen in ZEE5's His Storyy, Narappa co-starring Venkatesh, and Virata Parvam alongside Rana Daggubati and Sai Pallavi.


title: Diane Downs

text: Diane Elizabeth Downs ( Frederickson; born August 7, 1955) is an American criminal who murdered her daughter and attempted to murder her other two children near Springfield, Oregon, in May 1983. Following the crimes, she made claims to police that a man had attempted to carjack her and had shot the children. She was convicted in 1984 and sentenced to life in prison plus fifty years. She briefly escaped in 1987, but was quickly recaptured.


title: Diane Downs

text: Diane Elizabeth Downs was born on August 7, 1955 in Phoenix, Arizona, to parents Wesley Linden (1930–2017) and Willadene (Engle) Frederickson. She has testified that her father sexually abused her when she was 12 years old. Diane came from a family with strict conservative values. Growing up, Diane followed those values, however, after the age of 14, she became more rebellious and eventually dropped "Elizabeth" from her name and went by Diane. Diane graduated from Moon Valley High School in Phoenix, where she met Steve Downs. Despite her parents' disapproval of their relationship, Downs continued the relationship. After high school, she enrolled at Pacific Coast Baptist Bible College in Orange, California, but was expelled after one year for promiscuous behavior and returned to her parents' home in Arizona.


title: Diane Downs

text: On November 13, 1973, Diane married Steve Downs after running away from home. Their first child, Christie Ann, was born in 1974. Cheryl Lynn followed in 1976, with Stephen Daniel being born in 1979. The couple divorced in 1980 because Steve thought Stephen Daniel, known as Danny, was the result of an extramarital affair by Diane. On May 8, 1982, Diane gave birth to a baby girl, whom she named Jennifer, while acting as a surrogate. When Downs went to trial in May 1984, she was again pregnant. Prior to her sentencing, Downs gave birth to a baby girl whom she named Amy Elizabeth. The baby was taken by the state and delivered to adoptive parents. That girl was later renamed Rebecca "Becky" Babcock.


title: Diane Downs

text: Downs was employed by the United States Postal Service, assigned to the mail routes in the city of Cottage Grove, Oregon.


title: Diane Downs

text: Shortly before her death, Cheryl Lynn reportedly told a neighbor of her grandparents that she was afraid of her mother.


title: Diane Downs

text: On May 19, 1983, Downs shot her three children, and drove them in a blood-spattered car to McKenzie-Willamette Hospital in Springfield, Oregon. Upon arrival, Cheryl (aged 7) was already dead, Danny (aged 3) was paralyzed from the waist down, and Christie (aged 8) had suffered a disabling stroke. Downs herself had been shot in the left forearm. She claimed that she was carjacked on a rural road near Springfield by a strange man who shot her and the children. However, investigators and hospital workers became suspicious, because they decided that Downs' manner was too calm for a person who had just experienced such a traumatic event. She also made a number of statements that both police and hospital workers considered highly inappropriate.


title: Diane Downs

text: Downs claimed that on a drive home from a friends house, she decided to take the scenic route home. All the kids were asleep as it was past 9 o'clock pm and her children were fairly young. Downs claimed that during this drive home, around 10 pm she saw a strange man standing in the road flagging her down. She said she pulled over and got out to talk to the man. She described him as a "bushy haired stranger". When she got out to talk to this man, he immediately demands she give him her car keys, Downs claimed she refused and they got into a physical altercation that results in him shooting her in the left arm. He then opened the drivers side door and shot all 3 of her children. Downs then said she pretended to throw her car keys in a bush and the man went to go look for them. While he was looking for the keys, she jumped back in the car and sped off to the nearest hospital.


title: Diane Downs

text: Suspicions heightened when Downs, upon arrival at the hospital to visit her children, phoned Robert Knickerbocker, a married man and former coworker in Arizona with whom she had been having an affair. The forensic evidence did not match her story; there was no blood spatter on the driver's side of the car, nor was there any gunpowder residue on the driver's door or on the interior door panel. Knickerbocker also reported to police that Downs had stalked him, and seemed willing to kill his wife if it meant that she could have him to herself; he stated that he was relieved that she had left for Oregon, and that he was able to reconcile with his wife.


title: Diane Downs

text: Diane did not disclose to police that she owned a .22 caliber handgun, but both Steve and Knickerbocker informed authorities that she did. Investigators later discovered that she had bought the handgun in Arizona. While they were unable to find the weapon, they found unfired casings in her home with extractor markings from the murder weapon. Most damaging, witnesses saw her car being driven very slowly toward the hospital, at an estimated speed of —contradicting her claim that she drove to the hospital at a “high speed” after the shooting. Based on this and additional evidence, Downs was arrested on February 28, 1984, nine months after the shooting, and charged with one count of murder, and two counts each of attempted murder and criminal assault.


title: Diane Downs

text: Prosecutors argued that Downs shot her children to be free of them, so that she could continue her affair with Knickerbocker, as she claimed that he let it be known that he did not want children in his life. Much of the case against her rested on the testimony of her surviving daughter, Christie, who, once she recovered her ability to speak, described how her mother shot all three children while parked at the side of the road, and then shot herself in the arm.


title: Diane Downs

text: Downs was convicted on all charges on June 17, 1984, and sentenced to life in prison plus fifty years. She was required to serve twenty-five years before being considered for parole. Most of Downs' sentence is to be served consecutively. The judge made it clear that he did not intend for Downs to ever be free again.


title: Diane Downs

text: Psychiatrists diagnosed her with narcissistic, histrionic, and antisocial personality disorders, labeling her as a “deviant sociopath.”


title: Diane Downs

text: Downs' two surviving children eventually went to live with the lead prosecutor on the case, Fred Hugi. He and his wife, Joanne, adopted them in 1986.


title: Diane Downs

text: Prior to her arrest, Downs became pregnant with a fifth child, and gave birth to a girl, whom she named Amy Elizabeth, a month after her 1984 trial. Ten days before Downs' sentencing, Amy was seized by the State of Oregon, and adopted by Chris and Jackie Babcock, who subsequently renamed her Rebecca. As an adult, Rebecca appeared on "The Oprah Winfrey Show" and ABC's "20/20," where she discussed how she felt about her biological mother. Rebecca wrote to Downs in her younger years, and has stated that she regrets it, regarding her mother as “a monster.”


title: Diane Downs

text: On July 11, 1987, she escaped from her cell by scaling an eighteen-foot razor wire fence. For ten days, Downs managed to evade law enforcement—despite a fourteen-state manhunt—before she was recaptured. She received an additional five-year sentence for the escape. After her recapture, Downs was transferred to the New Jersey Department of Corrections Clinton Correctional Facility for Women after heavy lobbying from Hugi. The Salem prison was located 66 miles from Hugi's home in Springfield; during her ten days of freedom, Hugi had feared that Downs would attempt to travel there in hopes of contacting her children, Christie and Danny. Despite significant security upgrades at the women's facility after the escape, state officials accepted Hugi's argument that the risk of harm to Christie and Danny, in the event of another escape, was too great for Downs to remain incarcerated in Oregon.


title: Diane Downs

text: In 1994, after serving ten years, Downs was transferred to the California Department of Corrections and Rehabilitation. While in prison, she earned an associate degree in General Studies. In 2010, she was relocated to the Valley State Prison for Women in Chowchilla, California, but was transferred out when the facility was converted to an all-male institution in 2013.


title: Diane Downs

text: Author Ann Rule wrote the book "Small Sacrifices" (1987), which detailed Downs' life and murder trial. The book documented accounts by friends, acquaintances, neighbors, and her surviving daughter, Christie, who questioned the quality of her parenting. A made-for-TV movie, also titled "Small Sacrifices," starred Farrah Fawcett as Downs, and was aired on ABC in 1989.


title: Diane Downs

text: Downs' sentence meant she could not be considered for parole until 2009. Under Oregon law at the time, as a dangerous offender, Downs would have been eligible for a parole hearing every two years until she is released or dies in prison.


title: Diane Downs

text: In her first application for parole in 2008, Downs reaffirmed her innocence. Downs insisted that, “Over the years, I have told you and the rest of the world that a man shot me and my children. I have never changed my story.” Her first parole hearing was on December 9, 2008. Lane County District Attorney Douglas Harcleroad wrote to the parole board: “Downs continues to fail to demonstrate any honest insight into her criminal behavior... even after her convictions, she continues to fabricate new versions of events under which the crimes occurred.” He also wrote that “she alternately refers to her assailants as a bushy-haired stranger, two men wearing ski masks, or drug dealers and corrupt law enforcement officials.” Downs participated in the hearing from the Valley State Prison for Women. She was not permitted a statement, but answered questions from the parole board. After three hours of interviews and thirty minutes of deliberation, she was denied parole.


title: Diane Downs

text: Downs faced her second parole hearing on December 10, 2010, and was denied. Her next parole hearing was scheduled in 2010 and set for 2020, however it was denied.


title: Diane Downs

text: Christie Downs, Diane Downs' first child who testified at her trial, suffers from a speech disability. She has a son (born 2005) and a daughter, whom she named Cheryl in memory of her late sister.


title: Diane Downs

text: Diane's surrogate child, Becky Babcock, originally named "Amy" by Diane, was born while Diane awaited trial for murder. She was born in June 1984 and was adopted into the Babcock family and given the name "Rebecca" or Becky. When Becky was a teenager she found out who her biological mother really was. After this discovery, Becky went down a bad path, dropping out of high school and getting into drugs, and ended up having her son, Christian at only 17 years old. 3 years later, Becky was homeless, living in women's shelters and eventually fell pregnant again. She decided that she couldn't raise a child in the condition and environment she was in and ultimately decided to put her second child up for adoption. The immense pain and numbness she felt after giving up her child up for adoption left her wondering if her biological mother, Diane Downs, felt that way when she gave Becky up for adoption. Downs and Babcock began writing letters back and forth but it resulted in Babcock cutting off communication with Downs after the tone of Diane's letters started to change, revealing her true colors. After a long identity battle, Babcock began to realize that she was not the same person as her biological mother was and finally was able to receive closure and start to rebuild her life again.


title: Submarine sandwich

text: A submarine sandwich, commonly known as a sub, hoagie (Philadelphia metropolitan area and Western Pennsylvania English), hero (New York City English), Italian (Maine English), grinder (New England English), wedge (Westchester, NY), or a spuckie (Boston English), is a type of American cold or hot sandwich made from a cylindrical bread roll split lengthwise and filled with meats, cheeses, vegetables, and condiments. It has many different names.


title: Submarine sandwich

text: The terms "submarine" and "sub" are widespread in the US and not assignable to any certain part, though many of the localized terms are clustered in the northeastern United States.


title: Submarine sandwich

text: The Italian sandwich originated in several different Italian American communities in the Northeastern United States from the late 19th to mid-20th centuries. The popularity of this Italian-American cuisine has grown from its origins in Connecticut, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, New York, New Jersey, Massachusetts, and Rhode Island to most parts of the United States and Canada, and with the advent of chain restaurants, is now available in many parts of the world. Edwin Eames and Howard Robboy identified thirteen different terms for the submarine sandwich in the United States.


title: Submarine sandwich

text: The use of the term "submarine" or "sub" (after the resemblance of the roll to the shape of a submarine) is widespread in the United States and Canada. While some accounts source the name as originating in New London, Connecticut (site of the United States Navy's primary submarine base) during World War II, written advertisements from 1940 in Wilmington, Delaware, indicate the term originated prior to the United States's entry into World War II.


title: Submarine sandwich

text: One theory says the submarine was brought to the U.S. by Dominic Conti (1874–1954), an Italian immigrant who came to New York in the late 19th century. He is said to have named it after seeing the recovered 1901 submarine called "Fenian Ram" in the Paterson Museum of New Jersey in 1928. His granddaughter has stated the following:


title: Submarine sandwich

text: Party sub is the name for a particularly long submarine sandwich, usually cut into pieces and served to guests at parties. The longest on record measured 735 meters (2,411 feet, 5 in).


title: Submarine sandwich

text: The term "hoagie" originated in the Philadelphia area. In 1953, the "Philadelphia Bulletin" reported that Italians working at the World War I-era shipyard known as Hog Island, where emergency shipping was produced for the war effort, introduced the sandwich by putting various meats, cheeses, and lettuce between two slices of bread. This became known as the "Hog Island" sandwich; shortened to "Hoggies", then the "hoagie".


title: Submarine sandwich

text: Dictionary.com offers the following origin of the term "hoagie -" n. American English (originally Philadelphia) word for "hero, large sandwich made from a long, split roll"; originally "hoggie" (c. 1936), traditionally said to be named for Big Band songwriter Hoagland Howard ""Hoagy"" Carmichael (1899–1981), but the use of the word predates his celebrity and the original spelling seems to suggest another source (perhaps "hog"). Modern spelling is c. 1945, and may have been altered by influence of Carmichael's nickname.


title: Submarine sandwich

text: The "Philadelphia Almanac and Citizen's Manual" offers a different explanation, that the sandwich was created by early-twentieth-century street vendors called "hokey-pokey men", who sold antipasto salad, meats, cookies and buns with a cut in them. When Gilbert and Sullivan's operetta "H.M.S. Pinafore" opened in Philadelphia in 1879, bakeries produced a long loaf called the pinafore. Entrepreneurial "hokey-pokey men" sliced the loaf in half, stuffed it with antipasto salad, and sold the world's first "hoagie".


title: Submarine sandwich

text: Another explanation is that the word "hoagie" arose in the late 19th to early 20th centuries, among the Italian community in South Philadelphia, when "on the hoke" meant that someone was destitute. Deli owners would give away scraps of cheeses and meats in an Italian bread-roll known as a "hokie", but the Italian immigrants pronounced it "hoagie".