title: Thiruvananthapuram

text: The Kerala Water Authority supplies the city with water that is sourced from the Karamana River; most of it is drawn from the Aruvikkara and Peppara reservoirs, and it is treated and purified at the Aruvikkara pumping stations. The Wellington Water Works, commissioned in 1933, is one of the oldest city water supply schemes in India. The sewage water is treated at Muttathara sewage-treatment plant, which handles 32 million litres per day. The city area is divided into seven blocks for the execution of the sewage system. Electricity is supplied by the Kerala State Electricity Board. Fire services are handled by the Kerala Fire And Rescue Services.


title: Thiruvananthapuram

text: Thiruvananthapuram's economy comprises Information Technology, education, plantations, aerospace, commerce and tourism. Thiruvananthapuram district contributes 10.31%, of the state's GDP. With an economic growth rate of 13.83%, Thiruvananthapuram is the fastest-growing district in Kerala. Thiruvananthapuram was listed as one of the top ten cities in India on Vibrancy and Consumption Index by a study conducted by global financial services firm Morgan Stanley. State- and central-government employees make up a large percentage of the city's workforce.


title: Thiruvananthapuram

text: Thiruvananthapuram is a major aerospace research centre in India. The Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre, the most significant and leading centre of ISRO, and several space-related, state-owned ISRO centres such as Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching Station, Liquid Propulsion Systems Centre, and ISRO Inertial Systems Unit are based in Thiruvananthapuram. The BrahMos Aerospace Trivandrum Limited is one of the leading missile integration and defence production units in India. Other enterprises include Travancore Titanium Products, Kerala Automobiles Limited, MILMA, English Indian Clays, Keltron, Trivandrum Rubber Works and HLL Lifecare Limited.


title: Thiruvananthapuram

text: Thiruvananthapuram is a major IT and ITES hub in India. The city contributes around 55% of Kerala's total software exports. Thiruvananthapuram houses major multinational Technology companies like Oracle Corporation, Nissan, Allianz Technology, Envestnet, Tata Consultancy Services, Infosys, Toonz Animation India, UST Global, Ernst & Young, Flytxt, Navigant, Tata Elxsi, McKinsey & Company, RR Donnelly and Quest Global. Technopark is the largest information-technology park in India in terms of built-up area. It is the largest employment base campus in Kerala with 52,000 IT/ITES professionals and about 400 companies. Other IT, media and industrial campuses include Kinfra Film and Video Park, Kinfra Apparel Park, B-HUB and Chithranjali Film Complex. Several new IT, biotechnology and industrial campuses like Technocity and Bio 360 Life sciences park are under construction.


title: Thiruvananthapuram

text: Tourism is a significant economic sector. The presence of natural attractions like beaches, backwaters, hills, and plantations and attractions like heritage, history, Ayurveda, medical tourism and knowledge centres attract many tourists. The city experienced a surge of investment in the real estate, infrastructure and retail sectors in 2016–17.


title: Thiruvananthapuram

text: Port-related activity is low mainly due to the underdevelopment of ports. Vizhinjam International Seaport is a transhipment port under construction. Vizhinjam port's location is close to the international shipping routes and, it is just 10–12 nautical miles from the busy Persian Gulf-Malacca shipping lane. The port also has a natural depth of 18 to 20 metres which can accommodate huge container ships. The berths at Vizhinjam port are designed to cater to vessels of up to 24,000 TEU.


title: Thiruvananthapuram

text: Thiruvananthapuram is a major tourist hub in India. Kovalam and Varkala are popular beach towns near the city. Other important beaches include Poovar, Shankumugham Beach, Azhimala Beach, Vizhinjam Beach and Veli Beach. The Padmanabhaswamy Temple located at the heart of the city is known as the richest place of worship in the world. Other places of interest include Agasthyamala rain forests, Neyyar Wildlife Sanctuary, Kallar, Braemore, Ponmudi hills, Poovar, Anchuthengu backwaters, Varkala Cliffs and Kappil-Edava lakes.


title: Thiruvananthapuram

text: The city is also known for its unique style of architecture involving Kerala Architecture with British and Dravidian influences. Napier museum, Thiruvanathapuram Zoo, Padmanabha Swamy temple, Kuthira Malika palace, Kilimanoor palace and The Thiruvananthapuram Golf Club heritage building are examples of this.


title: Thiruvananthapuram

text: The main museums include Kerala Science and Technology Museum (with its attached Priyadarsini Planetarium), Napier Museum, Kerala Soil Museum and Koyikkal Palace Museum. Agasthyamala Biosphere Reserve is listed in UNESCO's World Network of Biosphere Reserves.


title: Thiruvananthapuram

text: Thiruvananthapuram is known as the "Evergreen City of India" because of its green landscapes and the presence of many public parks. Thiruvananthapuram has historically been a cultural hub in South India due to the development of arts, architecture and liberal customs by the rulers of erstwhile Thiruvananthapuram. As a testimony to this, renowned artists like Maharaja Swathi Thirunal and Raja Ravi Varma hail from the city. Prominent social reformers such as Sri Narayana Guru, Chattampi Swamikal, Ayyankali, Vakkom Moulavi and C. V. Raman Pillai also are from Thiruvananthapuram.


title: Thiruvananthapuram

text: Two of the three Malayalam triumvirate poets, Ulloor S. Parameswara Iyer and Kumaran Asan are from Thiruvananthapuram. Annual literature festivals like the Kovalam Literary Festival, are held in the city. Literary development is further aided by state institutions such as the State Central Library, one of the oldest public libraries in India, which was established in 1829, and other major libraries including the Thiruvananthapuram Corporation Central library, and the Kerala University Library. Thiruvananthapuram has been a hub of classical music since the days of Maharaja of Travancore, Swathi Thirunal. Thiruvananthapuram is known for many music festivals like the Navarathri Music Festival, one of the oldest festivals of its kind in South India, Swathi Sangeethotsavam, Soorya Music fest, Neelakanta Sivan Music Fest and many other music festivals are organised by various cultural groups. The 111-day-long Soorya Festival is the biggest art and cultural event in Kerala. The Soorya Festival features film festivals, theatre festivals, dance, music, painting and photography exhibitions.


title: Thiruvananthapuram

text: The Malayalam film Industry was started in Thiruvananthapuram. The first Malayalam feature film, Vigathakumaran directed by J. C. Daniel was released in Thiruvananthapuram. J. C. Daniel is considered the father of Malayalam film industry. He also established the first film studio in Kerala, the Travancore National Pictures at Thiruvananthapuram in 1926. The International Film Festival of Kerala (IFFK), which is held every year in December, is one of Asia's largest film festivals in terms of viewer participation. In addition to various film festivals, the presence of the Central Board of Film Certification's regional office, many movie studios and production facilities like the Uma Studio, Chitranjali Studio, Merryland Studio, Kinfra Film and Video Park and Vismayas Max contribute to the growth of Thiruvananthapuram as a centre of cinema.


title: Thiruvananthapuram

text: Apart from the famous Padmanabhaswamy Temple, the city's architecture is championed by the Napier Museum and Thiruvananthapuram Zoo, one of the oldest zoos in India. Other architectural landmarks include Kuthira Malika Palace, Kowdiar Palace, Attukal temple, Beemapally Mosque, Connemara Market, and the Mateer Memorial Church. Thiruvananthapuram was the main centre of Laurie Baker's architecture.


title: Thiruvananthapuram

text: Along with the major festivals of Onam, Vishu, Deepavali, and Navaratri, Christian and Islamic festivals like Christmas, Eid ul-Fitr, Bakrid and Milad-e-sheriff, the diverse ethnic populace of the city celebrates several local festivals like Attukal Pongala, Beemapally Uroos, Vettukaad Church Festival, Padmanabhaswamy Temple Aaraattu and Lakshadeepam festival. During the Onam festival, the state government conducts several cultural events for a week in the city. The Attukal Pongala festival attracts millions of women devotees from across India and abroad. It is the largest gathering of women in the world. Germany's Goethe Zentrum, France's Alliance Française and Russia's Gorky Bhavan centres host a wide range of events and programmes throughout the year.


title: Thiruvananthapuram

text: The general cuisine of the people is Keralite cuisine, which is generally characterised by an abundance of coconut and spices. Other South Indian cuisines, as well as Chinese and North Indian cuisines, are popular. Thiruvananthapuram has many restaurants offering Arabic, Italian, Thai and Mexican cuisines.


title: Thiruvananthapuram

text: The majority of bus services are conducted by government operators. There are also private operators. The city buses operated by Kerala State Road Transport Corporation (KSRTC) are an important and reliable means of public transport available in the city. The main bus stations in the city are the Central Bus Station in Thampanoor, where most of the long-distance buses ply from, and the city bus station in East Fort, where most city buses ply from. Three-wheeled, yellow and black auto-rickshaws and taxis, are other popular forms of public transport. Thiruvananthapuram Light Metro is a fully elevated metro rail – rapid transit system planned to ease the congestion in the city.


title: Thiruvananthapuram

text: Thiruvananthapuram has a well-developed road transport infrastructure. The roads in the city are maintained by the Thiruvananthapuram Roads Development Company Limited (TRDCL) and Kerala PWD. TRDCL manages the 42 km city roads which come under the Thiruvananthapuram City Roads Improvement Project (TRCIP), which is the first urban road project in India. TRCIP is a Public-private partnership project to improve and maintain the existing road network in the city to cater to the needs of rapid urbanisation. TRCIP has won the International Road Federation's Global Road Achievement Awards in 2015. TCRIP has also been selected by United Nations as a replicable Public Private Partnership model. It was one of the 12 Public-private partnership project case studies from across the world which fulfil the Sustainable Development Goals of the UN Agenda 2030.


title: Thiruvananthapuram

text: Thiruvananthapuram is served by National Highway 66 of India's National Highways system. The city is connected to the North-South Corridor of the National Highway system at Aralvaimozhi, which is 80 km south of the city. The State Highway 1, which commonly known as the Main Central Road is an arterial highway in the city. Other major highways in the city are State Highway 2 and State Highway 45. The Mahatma Gandhi Road is the main arterial road in the city. Another important road is the Kowdiar Road, which is also known as the Royal Road, as it leads to the Kowdiar Palace.


title: Thiruvananthapuram

text: Thiruvananthapuram is a divisional headquarters in the Southern Railway zone of the Indian Railways. Long-distance trains originate from Thiruvananthapuram Central and Kochuveli railway terminals. Kochuveli railway terminal is developed to ease congestion on the central station and it acts as a satellite station to Thiruvananthapuram Central. Thiruvananthapuram Central is the busiest railway station in Kerala. Other railway stations in the city are Thiruvananthapuram Pettah, Nemom railway station, Veli railway station and Kazhakoottam railway station. Being the southernmost municipal corporation in India, many long train services of Indian Railways originate from Thiruvananthapuram like Trivandrum Rajdhani Express, Thiruvananthapuram - Silchar Superfast Express and Kochuveli - Amritsar Weekly Express. There are plans to develop a railway terminal at Nemom railway station to reduce congestion at Thiruvananthapuram Central.


title: Thiruvananthapuram

text: Thiruvananthapuram is served by the Thiruvananthapuram International Airport, located at Chakai, only from the city centre. The airport started operations in 1935 and is the first airport in Kerala. Being one of the gateways to the state, it has direct connectivity to all the major cities in India as well as the Middle East, Malaysia, Singapore, the Maldives and Sri Lanka. As the city is headquarters of the Southern Air Command (SAC) of the Indian Air Force, Thiruvananthapuram International Airport caters to the Indian Air Force (IAF) and the Coast Guard for their strategic operations. IAF has an exclusive apron to handle all their operations. The airport also caters to the Rajiv Gandhi Academy for Aviation Technology which carries out pilot-training activities.


title: Thiruvananthapuram

text: Small cruise ships often dock at Vizhinjam Harbour. A cruise terminal is under construction at Vizhinjam Transshipment Terminal. Vizhinjam seaport has been designated by the government as an authorised immigration check-post for entry and exit from India for international ships and cruises.


title: Thiruvananthapuram

text: Schools in Thiruvananthapuram are classified as aided, unaided and Government schools. The government schools are run directly by the Kerala State Education Board and follow the syllabus prescribed by the state government. The aided schools also follow the state syllabus. Malayalam and English are the primary languages of instruction; Tamil and Hindi are also used. The schools are affiliated with The State Council of Educational Research and Training (SCERT), Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE), Indian Certificate of Secondary Education (ICSE), International General Certificate of Secondary Education (IGCSE) and National Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS). In the National Achievement Survey conducted by the National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT), Thiruvananthapuram is ranked as the best city in Kerala.


title: Thiruvananthapuram

text: The notable schools in the city include St. Mary's Higher Secondary School, which is considered one of the largest schools in Asia, with the total number of students exceeding 12,000, Government Model Boys Higher Secondary School, Government Higher Secondary School for Girls, Holy Angel's Convent Trivandrum, SMV School, Trivandrum International School, Chinmaya Vidyalayas, Kendriya Vidyalaya, Loyola School, Christ Nagar School, Thiruvananthapuram, Sarvodaya Vidyalaya, Nirmala Bhavan Higher Secondary School, Arya Central School, Jyothi Nilayam School, St. Joseph's Higher Secondary School, St. Thomas Residential School, The Oxford School and VSSC Central School.


title: Thiruvananthapuram

text: Thiruvananthapuram is a major educational and research hub with various institutions in the fields of space science, information technology, physical science, biotechnology, engineering and medicine. There are three universities in Thiruvananthapuram: two state universities and one deemed university. The state universities are the University of Kerala and APJ Abdul Kalam Technological University. Indian Institute of Space Science and Technology (IIST), is a government-aided institute and deemed university. IIST is the first of its kind in the country, to offer graduate courses and research in space sciences, space technology and space applications. The city also houses two Institutes of National Importance; Sree Chitra Tirunal Institute for Medical Sciences and Technology (SCTIMST) and Indian Institute of Science Education and Research (IISER). Thiruvananthapuram is one of the regional headquarters of Indira Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU).


title: Thiruvananthapuram

text: The Government Medical College, Thiruvananthapuram is the first and a premier medical school in Kerala, founded in 1951. Other notable medical schools apart from SCTIMST (which provides super-specialty courses in cardiac and neuroscience) and Regional Cancer Centre, Thiruvananthapuram (which provides PG courses in radiotherapy and pathology, and super-specialty courses) includes SUT Academy of Medical Sciences, Sree Gokulam Medical College and Government Ayurveda College.


title: Thiruvananthapuram

text: The city houses several prominent legal education institutions. The Government Law College, formed in 1875, is one of the oldest legal education institutions in India. The Kerala Law Academy is another major legal education institution. The major Business schools include Asian School of Business, CET School of Management and Institute of Management in Kerala (IMK). There are over 23 engineering education institutions in Thiruvananthapuram. Apart from IIST and IISER, the other major engineering education institutions include College of Engineering, Trivandrum (CET), which is the first engineering college in Kerala, Government Engineering College BartonHill (GEC), Sree Chitra Thirunal College of Engineering (SCT), ER & DCI Institute of Technology, University College of Engineering, Mohandas college of Engineering and Technology and Mar Baselios College of Engineering and Technology. The University College Thiruvananthapuram established in 1866 and H.H. The Maharaja's College for Women established in 1864 are two of the oldest institutions of higher education in India.


title: Thiruvananthapuram

text: Other prominent undergraduate and postgraduate colleges include the Government Arts College, Mahatma Gandhi College, Mar Ivanios College, Government Sanskrit College, Loyola College of Social Sciences, St. Xavier's College and All Saints College. Major fine arts colleges are Swathi Thirunal College of Music, which is the first music academy in Kerala and College of Fine Arts Trivandrum. The Lakshmibai National College of Physical Education is one of the two physical education academic institutes of the Sports Authority of India (SAI).


title: Thiruvananthapuram

text: The premier research institutes in Thiruvananthapuram include: Indian Institute of Information Technology and Management, Kerala (IIITMK), National Institute of Speech and Hearing (NISH), Rajiv Gandhi Centre for Biotechnology, Centre for Development of Imaging Technology (C-Dit), Centre for Development Studies (CDS), Jawaharlal Nehru Tropical Botanic Garden and Research Institute, National Centre for Earth Science Studies (NCESS), Centre for Development of Advanced Computing (C-DAC) and Oriental Research Institute & Manuscripts Library.


title: Thiruvananthapuram

text: Kerala University is ranked as the best university in Kerala according to the MHRD's National Institutional Ranking Framework (NIRF). Kerala University also ranked top in overall institution rankings in Kerala. In engineering, Indian Institute of Space Science and Technology (IIST) is ranked as the best in Kerala and College of Engineering, Trivandrum (CET) is ranked third in Kerala. College of Engineering, Trivandrum is also ranked fourth in India and first in Kerala in architecture institution rankings. The University College is listed as the best college in Kerala.


title: Thiruvananthapuram

text: Thiruvananthapuram has numerous newspaper publications, television and radio stations. Most of the media houses in Kerala are based in Thiruvananthapuram. The first Malayalam channel, Doordarshan Malayalam began broadcasting from the city in 1981. Asianet, the first private channel in Malayalam, also started its telecasting from the city in 1993. The other Malayalam channels based in the city include Asianet News, Amrita TV, Kappa TV, Kairali TV, Kairali We, Mathrubhumi News, Kaumudy TV, JaiHind TV, News18 Kerala and People TV. All major Malayalam channels, including Asianet, Janam TV, Jeevan TV, MediaOne TV and Manorama News have production facilities or offices in the city. TV channels are accessible via cable subscription, direct-broadcast satellite services, or internet-based television. Prominent Direct-to-Home (DTH) entertainment services in Thiruvananthapuram include Sun Direct DTH, DD Direct+, Videocon d2h, Dish TV, Reliance Digital TV, Airtel digital TV and Tata Play.


title: Thiruvananthapuram

text: Major Malayalam newspapers available are "Mathrubhumi", "Malayala Manorama", "Kerala Kaumudi", "Deshabhimani", Madhyamam, "Janmabhumi", "Chandrika", "Thejas", "Siraj Daily", "Deepika" and "Rashtra Deepika". The English language newspapers with editions from Thiruvananthapuram are "The New Indian Express", "The Hindu", "The Deccan Chronicle" and "The Times of India".


title: Thiruvananthapuram

text: All India Radio, the national state-owned radio broadcaster, airs Medium wave and Shortwave radio stations in the city. The Vividh Bharati of All India Radio also airs an FM radio station known as Ananthapuri FM. Other FM radio channels broadcast from Thiruvananthapuram are Big FM 92.7 MHz, Club FM 94.3 MHz, Radio Mirchi 98.3 MHz, Red FM 93.5 MHz and Radio DC 90.4 MHz.


title: Thiruvananthapuram

text: The most popular sports in Thiruvananthapuram are cricket and football. The city hosted the first international cricket match in Kerala at the University Stadium in 1984. The city also hosted the first Twenty20 International cricket match in Kerala. The Kerala Cricket Association is headquartered in Thiruvananthapuram. Prominent cricketers from Thiruvananthapuram include Sanju Samson, Raiphi Gomez, Ryan Ninan, Aneil Nambiar, K. N. Ananthapadmanabhan, Rohan Prem, Udiramala Subramaniam, P. M. K. Mohandas, Bhaskar Pillai and Padmanabhan Prasanth. The Sports Hub, University Stadium, St Xavier's College Ground, KCA Cricket Stadium Mangalapuram, Medical College ground and Vellyani Agricultural College Ground are the main cricket grounds in the city. The Sports Hub, Trivandrum, commonly known as Greenfield Stadium is one of the largest cricket and football stadiums in India. Thiruvananthapuram hosted the 2015 SAFF Championship at the Greenfield Stadium. SBI Kerala, Titanium FC, KSEB, Kovalam FC and Travancore Royals FC are the major football clubs based in Thiruvananthapuram. Football is usually played in the Greenfield International Stadium(The Sports Hub), Chandrasekharan Nair Stadium and University Stadium. Prominent football players from Thiruvananthapuram include Jobby Justin, Vinu Jose, Thomas Sebastian, M Rajeev Kumar and Ganeshan.


title: Thiruvananthapuram

text: The city has facilities to host most types of sports. Thiruvananthapuram was one of the main venues for the 2015 National Games of India. Athletic competitions are usually held at the University Stadium, Chandrasekharan Nair Stadium and Central Stadium. The Trivandrum Marathon is a marathon organised by the Trivandrum runners club every year. There will be two main races; a half marathon of 21 km and a full marathon of 42.19 km. A special 2 km fun run is also organised for public participation. Trivand Run is another marathon conducted every January in the city.


title: Thiruvananthapuram

text: Jimmy George Indoor Stadium is a major indoor stadium in the state. It is used for conducting basketball, volleyball, table tennis, gymnastics, aquatics and martial arts. The stadium has the first altitude-simulated training facility in South India, known as Astra. The major sports training and coaching institutions include the Lakshmibai National College of Physical Education (LNCPE), TOSS Academy and the Tenvic Sports Coaching Academy at the Sports Hub.


title: Thiruvananthapuram

text: Basketball tournaments are usually conducted by the schools in the city. Thiruvananthapuram hosted the 61st National Shooting Championship at the Vattiyoorkavu Shooting Range. Surfing is also a popular sport on the beaches. Many surfing and standup paddleboarding tournaments are held in the city. The surf competitions are usually held on Kovalam Beach and Varkala Beach. Paragliding is another adventure sport usually seen on Varkala Beach.


title: Thiruvananthapuram

text: The SAI Trivandrum golf club, established in 1850, is one of the oldest golf courses in India. It is leased to the Sports Authority of India.


title: Cabbage

text: Cabbage, comprising several cultivars of "Brassica oleracea", is a leafy green, red (purple), or white (pale green) biennial plant grown as an annual vegetable crop for its dense-leaved heads. It is descended from the wild cabbage ("B. oleracea" var. "oleracea"), and belongs to the "cole crops" or brassicas, meaning it is closely related to broccoli and cauliflower (var. "botrytis"); Brussels sprouts (var. "gemmifera"); and Savoy cabbage (var. "sabauda").


title: Cabbage

text: A cabbage generally weighs between . Smooth-leafed, firm-headed green cabbages are the most common, with smooth-leafed purple cabbages and crinkle-leafed savoy cabbages of both colours being rarer. Under conditions of long sunny days, such as those found at high northern latitudes in summer, cabbages can grow quite large. , the heaviest cabbage was . Cabbage heads are generally picked during the first year of the plant's life cycle, but plants intended for seed are allowed to grow a second year and must be kept separate from other cole crops to prevent cross-pollination. Cabbage is prone to several nutrient deficiencies, as well as to multiple pests, and bacterial and fungal diseases.


title: Cabbage

text: Cabbage was most likely domesticated somewhere in Europe in Ancient history before 1000 BC. Cabbage in the cuisine has been documented since Antiquity. It was described as a table luxury in the Roman Empire. By the Middle Ages, cabbage had become a prominent part of European cuisine, as indicated by manuscript illuminations. New variates were introduced from the Renaissance on, mostly by Germanic-speaking peoples. Savoy cabbage was developed in the 16th century. By the 17th and 18th centuries, cabbage was popularised as staple food in central, northern, and eastern Europe. It was also employed by European sailors to prevent scurvy during long ship voyages at sea. Starting in the Early Modern Era, cabbage was exported to the Americas, Asia, and around the world.


title: Cabbage

text: They can be prepared many different ways for eating; they can be pickled, fermented (for dishes such as sauerkraut), steamed, stewed, roasted, sautéed, braised, or eaten raw. Raw cabbage is a rich source of vitamin K, vitamin C, and dietary fiber. World production of cabbage and other brassicas in 2020 was 71 million tonnes, led by China with 48% of the total.


title: Cabbage

text: Cabbage ("Brassica oleracea" or "B. oleracea" var. "capitata", var. "tuba", var. "sabauda" or var. "acephala") is a member of the genus "Brassica" and the mustard family, Brassicaceae. Several other cruciferous vegetables (sometimes known as "cole crops") are cultivars of "B. oleracea", including broccoli, collard greens, brussels sprouts, kohlrabi and sprouting broccoli. All of these developed from the wild cabbage "B. oleracea" var. "oleracea", also called colewort or field cabbage. This original species evolved over thousands of years into those seen today, as selection resulted in cultivars having different characteristics, such as large heads for cabbage, large leaves for kale and thick stems with flower buds for broccoli.


title: Cabbage

text: "Cabbage" was originally used to refer to multiple forms of "B. oleracea", including those with loose or non-existent heads. A related species, "Brassica rapa", is commonly named Chinese, napa or celery cabbage, and has many of the same uses. It is also a part of common names for several unrelated species. These include cabbage bark or cabbage tree (a member of the genus "Andira") and cabbage palms, which include several genera of palms such as "Mauritia", "Roystonea oleracea", "Acrocomia" and "Euterpe oenocarpus".


title: Cabbage

text: The original family name of brassicas was "Cruciferae", which derived from the flower petal pattern thought by medieval Europeans to resemble a crucifix. The word "brassica" derives from "bresic", a Celtic word for cabbage. Many European and Asiatic names for cabbage are derived from the Celto-Slavic root "cap" or "kap", meaning "head". The late Middle English word "cabbage" derives from the word "caboche" ("head"), from the Picard dialect of Old French. This in turn is a variant of the Old French "caboce". Through the centuries, "cabbage" and its derivatives have been used as slang for numerous items, occupations and activities. Cash and tobacco have both been described by the slang "cabbage", while "cabbage-head" means a fool or stupid person and "cabbaged" means to be exhausted or, vulgarly, in a vegetative state.


title: Cabbage

text: Cabbage seedlings have a thin taproot and cordate (heart-shaped) cotyledons. The first leaves produced are ovate (egg-shaped) with a lobed petiole. Plants are tall in their first year at the mature vegetative stage, and tall when flowering in the second year. Heads average between , with fast-growing, earlier-maturing varieties producing smaller heads. Most cabbages have thick, alternating leaves, with margins that range from wavy or lobed to highly dissected; some varieties have a waxy bloom on the leaves. Plants have root systems that are fibrous and shallow. About 90 percent of the root mass is in the upper of soil; some lateral roots can penetrate up to deep.


title: Cabbage

text: The inflorescence is an unbranched and indeterminate terminal raceme measuring tall, with flowers that are yellow or white. Each flower has four petals set in a perpendicular pattern, as well as four sepals, six stamens, and a superior ovary that is two-celled and contains a single stigma and style. Two of the six stamens have shorter filaments. The fruit is a silique that opens at maturity through dehiscence to reveal brown or black seeds that are small and round in shape. Self-pollination is impossible, and plants are cross-pollinated by insects. The initial leaves form a rosette shape comprising 7 to 15 leaves, each measuring by ; after this, leaves with shorter petioles develop and heads form through the leaves cupping inward.


title: Cabbage

text: Many shapes, colors and leaf textures are found in various cultivated varieties of cabbage. Leaf types are generally divided between crinkled-leaf, loose-head savoys and smooth-leaf firm-head cabbages, while the color spectrum includes white and a range of greens and purples. Oblate, round and pointed shapes are found.


title: Cabbage

text: Cabbage has been selectively bred for head weight and morphological characteristics, frost hardiness, fast growth and storage ability. The appearance of the cabbage head has been given importance in selective breeding, with varieties being chosen for shape, color, firmness and other physical characteristics. Breeding objectives are now focused on increasing resistance to various insects and diseases and improving the nutritional content of cabbage. Scientific research into the genetic modification of "B. oleracea" crops, including cabbage, has included European Union and United States explorations of greater insect and herbicide resistance.


title: Cabbage

text: There are several "Guinness Book of World Records" entries related to cabbage. These include the heaviest cabbage, at , heaviest red cabbage, at , longest cabbage roll, at , and the largest cabbage dish, at .


title: Cabbage

text: Although cabbage has an extensive history, it is difficult to trace its exact origins owing to the many varieties of leafy greens classified as "brassicas". A possible wild ancestor of cabbage, "Brassica oleracea", originally found in Britain and continental Europe, is tolerant of salt but not encroachment by other plants and consequently inhabits rocky cliffs in cool damp coastal habitats, retaining water and nutrients in its slightly thickened, turgid leaves. However, genetic analysis is consistent with feral origin of this population, deriving from plants escaped from field and gardens. According to the triangle of U theory of the evolution and relationships between "Brassica" species, "B. oleracea" and other closely related kale vegetables (cabbages, kale, broccoli, Brussels sprouts, and cauliflower) represent one of three ancestral lines from which all other brassicas originated.


title: Cabbage

text: Cabbage was probably domesticated later in history than Near Eastern crops such as lentils and summer wheat. Because of the wide range of crops developed from the wild "B. oleracea", multiple broadly contemporaneous domestications of cabbage may have occurred throughout Europe. Nonheading cabbages and kale were probably the first to be domesticated, before 1000 BC, perhaps by the Celts of central and western Europe, although recent linguistic and genetic evidence enforces a Mediterranean origin of cultivated brassicas.


title: Cabbage

text: While unidentified brassicas were part of the highly conservative unchanging Mesopotamian garden repertory, it is believed that the ancient Egyptians did not cultivate cabbage, which is not native to the Nile valley, though the word "shaw't" in Papyrus Harris of the time of Ramesses III has been interpreted as "cabbage". The ancient Greeks had some varieties of cabbage, as mentioned by Theophrastus, although whether they were more closely related to today's cabbage or to one of the other "Brassica" crops is unknown. The headed cabbage variety was known to the Greeks as "krambe" and to the Romans as "brassica" or "olus"; the open, leafy variety (kale) was known in Greek as "raphanos" and in Latin as "caulis". Ptolemaic Egyptians knew the cole crops as "gramb", under the influence of Greek "krambe", which had been a familiar plant to the Macedonian antecedents of the Ptolemies. By early Roman times, Egyptian artisans and children were eating cabbage and turnips among a wide variety of other vegetables and pulses.


title: Cabbage

text: Chrysippus of Cnidos wrote a treatise on cabbage, which Pliny knew, but it has not survived. The Greeks were convinced that cabbages and grapevines were inimical, and that cabbage planted too near the vine would impart its unwelcome odor to the grapes; this Mediterranean sense of antipathy survives today.


title: Cabbage

text: "Brassica" was considered by some Romans a table luxury, although Lucullus considered it unfit for the senatorial table. The more traditionalist Cato the Elder, espousing a simple Republican life, ate his cabbage cooked or raw and dressed with vinegar; he said it surpassed all other vegetables, and approvingly distinguished three varieties; he also gave directions for its medicinal use, which extended to the cabbage-eater's urine, in which infants might be rinsed. Pliny the Elder listed seven varieties, including Pompeii cabbage, Cumae cabbage and Sabellian cabbage.


title: Cabbage

text: According to Pliny, the Pompeii cabbage, which could not stand cold, is "taller, and has a thick stock near the root, but grows thicker between the leaves, these being scantier and narrower, but their tenderness is a valuable quality". The Pompeii cabbage was also mentioned by Columella in "De Re Rustica". Apicius gives several recipes for "cauliculi", tender cabbage shoots. The Greeks and Romans claimed medicinal usages for their cabbage varieties that included relief from gout, headaches and the symptoms of poisonous mushroom ingestion.


title: Cabbage

text: The antipathy towards the vine made it seem that eating cabbage would enable one to avoid drunkenness. Cabbage continued to figure in the "materia medica" of antiquity as well as at table: in the first century AD Dioscorides mentions two kinds of coleworts with medical uses, the cultivated and the wild, and his opinions continued to be paraphrased in herbals right through the 17th century.


title: Cabbage

text: At the end of Antiquity cabbage is mentioned in "De observatione ciborum" ("On the Observance of Foods") by Anthimus, a Greek doctor at the court of Theodoric the Great. Cabbage appears among vegetables directed to be cultivated in the "Capitulare de villis", composed in 771–800 AD, that guided the governance of the royal estates of Charlemagne.


title: Cabbage

text: In Britain, the Anglo-Saxons cultivated "cawel". When round-headed cabbages appeared in 14th-century England they were called "cabaches" and "caboches", words drawn from Old French and applied at first to refer to the ball of unopened leaves, the contemporaneous recipe that commences "Take cabbages and quarter them, and seethe them in good broth", also suggests the tightly headed cabbage.


title: Cabbage

text: Manuscript illuminations show the prominence of cabbage in the cuisine of the High Middle Ages, and cabbage seeds feature among the seed list of purchases for the use of King John II of France when captive in England in 1360, but cabbages were also a familiar staple of the poor: in the lean year of 1420 the "Bourgeois of Paris" noted that "poor people ate no bread, nothing but cabbages and turnips and such dishes, without any bread or salt". French naturalist Jean Ruel made what is considered the first explicit mention of head cabbage in his 1536 botanical treatise "De Natura Stirpium", referring to it as "capucos coles" ("head-coles").


title: Cabbage

text: In Istanbul, Sultan Selim III penned a tongue-in-cheek ode to cabbage: without cabbage, the halva feast was not complete. In India, cabbage was one of several vegetable crops introduced by colonizing traders from Portugal, who established trade routes from the 14th to 17th centuries. Carl Peter Thunberg reported that cabbage was not yet known in Japan in 1775.


title: Cabbage

text: Many cabbage varieties—including some still commonly grown—were introduced in Germany, France, and the Low Countries. During the 16th century, German gardeners developed the savoy cabbage. During the 17th and 18th centuries, cabbage was a food staple in such countries as Germany, England, Ireland and Russia, and pickled cabbage was frequently eaten. Sauerkraut was used by Dutch, Scandinavian and German sailors to prevent scurvy during long ship voyages.


title: Cabbage

text: Jacques Cartier first brought cabbage to the Americas in 1541–42, and it was probably planted by the early English colonists, despite the lack of written evidence of its existence there until the mid-17th century. By the 18th century, it was commonly planted by both colonists and native American Indians. Cabbage seeds traveled to Australia in 1788 with the First Fleet, and were planted the same year on Norfolk Island. It became a favorite vegetable of Australians by the 1830s and was frequently seen at the Sydney Markets.


title: Cabbage

text: A traditional and very old, street, open air market: Zelný trh (Cabbage market) in Brno, Moravia, Czech republic is named only by cabbage since 1325 (700 year) years.


title: Cabbage

text: Cabbage is generally grown for its densely leaved heads, produced during the first year of its biennial cycle. Plants perform best when grown in well-drained soil in a location that receives full sun. Different varieties prefer different soil types, ranging from lighter sand to heavier clay, but all prefer fertile ground with a pH between 6.0 and 6.8. For optimal growth, there must be adequate levels of nitrogen in the soil, especially during the early head formation stage, and sufficient phosphorus and potassium during the early stages of expansion of the outer leaves.


title: Cabbage

text: Temperatures between prompt the best growth, and extended periods of higher or lower temperatures may result in premature bolting (flowering). Flowering induced by periods of low temperatures (a process called vernalization) only occurs if the plant is past the juvenile period. The transition from a juvenile to adult state happens when the stem diameter is about . Vernalization allows the plant to grow to an adequate size before flowering. In certain climates, cabbage can be planted at the beginning of the cold period and survive until a later warm period without being induced to flower, a practice that was common in the eastern US.


title: Cabbage

text: Plants are generally started in protected locations early in the growing season before being transplanted outside, although some are seeded directly into the ground from which they will be harvested. Seedlings typically emerge in about 4–6 days from seeds planted deep at a soil temperature between . Growers normally place plants apart. Closer spacing reduces the resources available to each plant (especially the amount of light) and increases the time taken to reach maturity.


title: Cabbage

text: Some varieties of cabbage have been developed for ornamental use; these are generally called "flowering cabbage". They do not produce heads and feature purple or green outer leaves surrounding an inner grouping of smaller leaves in white, red, or pink. Early varieties of cabbage take about 70 days from planting to reach maturity, while late varieties take about 120 days.


title: Cabbage

text: Cabbages are mature when they are firm and solid to the touch. They are harvested by cutting the stalk just below the bottom leaves with a blade. The outer leaves are trimmed, and any diseased, damaged, or necrotic leaves are removed. Delays in harvest can result in the head splitting as a result of expansion of the inner leaves and continued stem growth.


title: Cabbage

text: When being grown for seed, cabbages must be isolated from other "B. oleracea" subspecies, including the wild varieties, by to prevent cross-pollination. Other "Brassica" species, such as "B. rapa", "B. juncea", "B. nigra", "B. napus" and "Raphanus sativus", do not readily cross-pollinate.


title: Cabbage

text: Some sources only delineate three cultivars: savoy, red and white, with spring greens and green cabbage being subsumed under the last.


title: Cabbage

text: Due to its high level of nutrient requirements, cabbage is prone to nutrient deficiencies, including boron, calcium, phosphorus and potassium. There are several physiological disorders that can affect the postharvest appearance of cabbage. Internal tip burn occurs when the margins of inside leaves turn brown, but the outer leaves look normal. Necrotic spot is where there are oval sunken spots a few millimeters across that are often grouped around the midrib. In pepper spot, tiny black spots occur on the areas between the veins, which can increase during storage.


title: Cabbage

text: Fungal diseases include wirestem, which causes weak or dying transplants; "Fusarium" yellows, which result in stunted and twisted plants with yellow leaves; and blackleg (see "Leptosphaeria maculans"), which leads to sunken areas on stems and gray-brown spotted leaves. The fungi "Alternaria brassicae" and "A. brassicicola" cause dark leaf spots in affected plants. They are both seedborne and airborne, and typically propagate from spores in infected plant debris left on the soil surface for up to twelve weeks after harvest. "Rhizoctonia solani" causes the post-emergence disease wirestem, resulting in killed seedlings ("damping-off"), root rot or stunted growth and smaller heads.


title: Cabbage

text: One of the most common bacterial diseases to affect cabbage is black rot, caused by "Xanthomonas campestris", which causes chlorotic and necrotic lesions that start at the leaf margins, and wilting of plants. Clubroot, caused by the soilborne slime mold-like organism "Plasmodiophora brassicae", results in swollen, club-like roots. Downy mildew, a parasitic disease caused by the oomycete "Peronospora parasitica", produces pale leaves with white, brownish or olive mildew on the lower leaf surfaces; this is often confused with the fungal disease powdery mildew.


title: Cabbage

text: Pests include root-knot nematodes and cabbage maggots, which produce stunted and wilted plants with yellow leaves; aphids, which induce stunted plants with curled and yellow leaves; harlequin cabbage bugs, which cause white and yellow leaves; thrips, which lead to leaves with white-bronze spots; striped flea beetles, which riddle leaves with small holes; and caterpillars, which leave behind large, ragged holes in leaves. The caterpillar stage of the "small cabbage white butterfly" ("Pieris rapae"), commonly known in the United States as the "imported cabbage worm", is a major cabbage pest in most countries.


title: Cabbage

text: The large white butterfly ("Pieris brassicae") is prevalent in eastern European countries. The diamondback moth ("Plutella xylostella") and the cabbage moth ("Mamestra brassicae") thrive in the higher summer temperatures of continental Europe, where they cause considerable damage to cabbage crops. The cabbage looper ("Trichoplusia ni") is infamous in North America for its voracious appetite and for producing frass that contaminates plants. In India, the diamondback moth has caused losses up to 90 percent in crops that were not treated with insecticide. Destructive soil insects include the cabbage root fly ("Delia radicum") and the cabbage maggot ("Hylemya brassicae"), whose larvae can burrow into the part of plant consumed by humans.


title: Cabbage

text: Planting near other members of the cabbage family, or where these plants have been placed in previous years, can prompt the spread of pests and disease. Excessive water and excessive heat can also cause cultivation problems.


title: Cabbage

text: Factors that contribute to reduced head weight include: growth in the compacted soils that result from no-till farming practices, drought, waterlogging, insect and disease incidence, and shading and nutrient stress caused by weeds.


title: Cabbage

text: In 2020, world production of cabbages (combined with other brassicas) was 71 million tonnes, led by China with 48% of the world total (table). Other substantial producers were India, Russia, and South Korea.


title: Cabbage

text: Cabbages sold for market are generally smaller, and different varieties are used for those sold immediately upon harvest and those stored before sale. Those used for processing, especially sauerkraut, are larger and have a lower percentage of water. Both hand and mechanical harvesting are used, and hand-harvesting is generally used for cabbages destined for market sales. In commercial-scale operations, hand-harvested cabbages are trimmed, sorted, and packed directly in the field to increase efficiency.


title: Cabbage

text: Vacuum cooling rapidly refrigerates the vegetable, allowing for earlier shipping and a fresher product. Cabbage can be stored the longest at with a humidity of 90–100 percent; these conditions will result in up to six months of longevity. When stored under less ideal conditions, cabbage can still last up to four months.


title: Cabbage

text: Cabbage consumption varies widely around the world: Russia has the highest annual per capita consumption at , followed by Belgium at and the Netherlands at . Americans consume annually per capita.


title: Cabbage

text: Cabbage is prepared and consumed in many ways. The simplest options include eating the vegetable raw or steaming it, though many cuisines pickle, stew, sautée or braise cabbage. Pickling is a common way of preserving cabbage, creating dishes such as sauerkraut and kimchi, although kimchi is more often made from Chinese cabbage ("B. rapa subsp. pekinensis"). Savoy cabbages are usually used in salads, while smooth-leaf types are utilized for both market sales and processing. Bean curd and cabbage is a staple of Chinese cooking, while the British dish bubble and squeak is made primarily with leftover potato and boiled cabbage and eaten with cold meat.


title: Cabbage

text: In Poland, cabbage is one of the main food crops, and it features prominently in Polish cuisine. It is frequently eaten, either cooked or as sauerkraut, as a side dish or as an ingredient in such dishes as bigos (cabbage, sauerkraut, meat, and wild mushrooms, among other ingredients) gołąbki (stuffed cabbage) and pierogi (filled dumplings). Other eastern European countries, such as Hungary and Romania, also have traditional dishes that feature cabbage as a main ingredient. In India and Ethiopia, cabbage is often included in spicy salads and braises. In the United States, cabbage is used primarily for the production of coleslaw, followed by market use and sauerkraut production.


title: Cabbage

text: The characteristic flavor of cabbage is caused by glucosinolates, a class of sulfur-containing glucosides. Although found throughout the plant, these compounds are concentrated in the highest quantities in the seeds; lesser quantities are found in young vegetative tissue, and they decrease as the tissue ages. Cooked cabbage is often criticized for its pungent, unpleasant odor and taste. These develop when cabbage is overcooked and hydrogen sulfide gas is produced.


title: Cabbage

text: Raw cabbage is 92% water, 6% carbohydrates, 1% protein, and contains negligible fat (table). In a 100 gram reference amount, raw cabbage is a rich source of vitamin C and vitamin K, containing 44% and 72%, respectively, of the Daily Value (DV). Cabbage is also a moderate source (10–19% DV) of vitamin B6 and folate, with no other nutrients having significant content per 100-gram serving (table).


title: Cabbage

text: Basic research on cabbage phytochemicals is ongoing to discern if certain cabbage compounds may affect health or have potential for anti-disease effects, such as sulforaphane and other glucosinolates. Studies on cruciferous vegetables, including cabbage, include whether they may lower the risk against colon cancer. Cabbage is a source of indole-3-carbinol, a chemical under basic research for its possible properties.


title: Cabbage

text: In addition to its usual purpose as an edible vegetable, cabbage has been used historically in herbalism. The Ancient Greeks recommended consuming the vegetable as a laxative, and used cabbage juice as an antidote for mushroom poisoning, for eye salves, and for liniments for bruises. The ancient Roman, Pliny the Elder, described both culinary and medicinal properties of the vegetable. Ancient Egyptians ate cooked cabbage at the beginning of meals to reduce the intoxicating effects of wine. This traditional usage persisted in European literature until the mid-20th century.


title: Cabbage

text: The cooling properties of the leaves were used in Britain as a treatment for trench foot in World War I, and as compresses for ulcers and breast abscesses. Other medicinal uses recorded in European folk medicine include treatments for rheumatism, sore throat, hoarseness, colic, and melancholy. Both mashed cabbage and cabbage juice have been used in poultices to remove boils and treat warts, pneumonia, appendicitis, and ulcers.


title: Cabbage

text: Excessive consumption of cabbage may lead to increased intestinal gas which causes bloating and flatulence due to the trisaccharide raffinose, which the human small intestine cannot digest, but is digested by bacteria in the large intestine.


title: Cabbage

text: Cabbage has been linked to outbreaks of some food-borne illnesses, including "Listeria monocytogenes" and "Clostridium botulinum". The latter toxin has been traced to pre-made, packaged coleslaw mixes, while the spores were found on whole cabbages that were otherwise acceptable in appearance. "Shigella" species are able to survive in shredded cabbage. Two outbreaks of "E. coli" in the United States have been linked to cabbage consumption. Biological risk assessments have concluded that there is the potential for further outbreaks linked to uncooked cabbage, due to contamination at many stages of the growing, harvesting and packaging processes. Contaminants from water, humans, animals and soil have the potential to be transferred to cabbage, and from there to the end consumer.


title: Cabbage

text: Whilst not a toxic vegetable, an increase in intestinal gas can lead to the death of many small animals like rabbits due to Gastrointestinal Stasis.


title: Cabbage

text: Cabbage and other cruciferous vegetables contain small amounts of thiocyanate, a compound associated with goiter formation when iodine intake is deficient.


title: Viruman

text: Muniyandi is a narcissistic man who cares about his reputation and money, and who would go to any extent to get what he wants. His sister and Balu are in love with each other, which Muniyandi disapproves. Muniyandi's sister poisons herself and tells him that she will get married if he takes her to the hospital, but Muniyandi leaves her to die and also treats his wife Muthulakshmi poorly. Muthulakshmi finds out that her husband is having a affair, and Muniyandi tells her to put up with it. Because of the way Muniyandi treats her and her family, Muthulakshmi burns herself to death, which her young son Viruman witnesses. Enraged, Viruman chases his father with an aruva. When the court advises him not to kill Muniyandi, Viruman tells that he does not want to live with him and wants to be raised by his uncles Niraipandian and Balu.


title: Viruman

text: Years later, tension and rivalry always grows between Viruman and Muniyandi, which bothers other people, specifically Viruman's brothers - Selvam, Muthukutty and Ilango. Out of respect, Viruman takes any criticism and disrespect from his brothers because he respects them. Meanwhile, Thaenmozhi "Theanu", who is Selvam's sister-in-law, praises Muniyandi due to the fact he is her sister's father-in-law and hates Viruman. However, Viruman is in love with her. When the family has a fight, she publicly defends Muniyandi. Meanwhile, Selvam needs a job and wants his father's help, which he rejects. Viruman helps him get a job with the help of MLA Pathinettaampadiyan, who forts a condition to sell his mother's land, which Viruman has always refused to sign for years but finally does so for the sake of his brothers. Thaenu realizes this and starts to reciprocate his feelings.


title: Viruman

text: Their relationship is caught by Muniyandi, who starts to disrespect her and asks her to pay for the remaining dowry from her sister's marriage. While the whole village is getting involved with Selvam and Muniyandi, Viruman tells him to stop co-depending on his father as he has his own family to focus on. Selvam agrees and decides to live independently from his father. This enrages Muniyandi, who wants to fight Viruman, but Thaenu kisses Viruman, which shocks everyone. Muthukutty wants his father to sign for the auction for the restaurant, which his father rejects. His wife suggests to ask Viruman, which he is hesitant at first but later accepts. When Muniyandi finds out, he asks the village rogue Soonapaana, who slapped Muniyandi, to make Muthukutty lose the auction. When the auction happens, Viruman realizes that his father has hired Soonapaana and decides to trap him. He makes his gang chase him, and Viruman locks them up.


title: Viruman

text: Muthukutty ends up getting the auction for the restaurant. Soonapaana and his gang arrive and disrespect the staff. When Soonapaana raises his hand and Muthukutty, it is stopped by Viruman and a fight ensues. Viruman beats up Soonapaana and his gang, which leads to them being at the hospital. Muniyandi is mad at them and brings sarees to imply that they are women. Angered, Soonapaana vows to get the son and father killed. While Viruman and Thaenu are on their date, they encounter Ilango with his girlfriend. She turns out to be Pathinettaampadiyan's daughter, and they have been dating for four years. Viruman asks him whether he told their father and he says no. Viruman comes up with a plan that Ilango should slap Viruman, which would make his father happy and proud of Ilango and then bring up his relationship. The plan is done.


title: Viruman

text: Muniyandi accepts and says that he will ask Pathinettaampadiyan; however, Pathinettaampadiyan rejects the idea. When Viruman arrives, Pathinettaampadiyan reveals that he actually wanted Viruman's approval rather than Muniyandi's, which enrages Muniyandi. He says to cancel Ilango's marriage proposal, but Ilango reveals that he is done with his father and leaves. Meanwhile, Muniyandi's brother and his son decide to kill Viruman. His cousin lies to him saying they need his help to fix a marquee for a funeral. When he visits, a fight ensues. His father witnesses this, and Viruman knows it was not his father's idea because he would have arrived earlier. It turns out that his uncle wanted to kill Muniyandi and put the blame on Viruman because he wants his brother's money. Muniyandi arrives home and is mad at everyone for leaving him and faints, where he is sent to the hospital.


title: Viruman

text: It turns out Muniyandi has kidney failure due to his alcoholism and needs a kidney donor. Viruman's paternal grandmother tells him that his father is in the hospital. Muniyandi's kidney transplant is successful, and it turns out that Balu has donated his kidney to him. While everyone is asleep, he leaves to visit his wife's old home. While he is there, Soonapaana and his gang arrive and try to burn his house. Viruman arrives and starts to attack his gang, when he also realizes his father is there and saves him. Muniyandi tells Viruman to leave him there because he feels guilty for Muthulakshmi and his sister's death, and apologizes for his actions. Viruman forgives him, and they reconcile.


title: Viruman

text: The film was announced on 6 September 2021 via a promotional poster, with official confirmation that film producer Suriya. Initially, Aparna Balamurali was announced to be playing the female lead, however she was replaced by Aditi Shankar, daughter of director S. Shankar, which marks her acting debut.


title: Viruman

text: Motion capture for "Viruman" begun on 17 September 2021. Muhurat shot and formal launch was done on 6 September 2021 in Theni, India. Principal photography began that day, as informed by the makers. On 22 December 2021, entire shooting of the film has been wrapped up.


title: Viruman

text: The music rights of the film are owned by Sony Music India. The first single titled "Kanja Poovu Kannala" was released on 25 May 2022.


title: Viruman

text: "Viruman" was initially set to release on 31 August 2022, during Vinayagar Chaturthi. However it was later preponed and released theatrically on 12 August 2022, coinciding with Raksha Bandhan and Independence Day.


title: Viruman

text: The digital rights of the film have been acquired by Amazon Prime Video while the satellite rights of the film have been sold to Star Vijay. The film was digitally streamed on Amazon Prime Video on 11 September 2022.


title: Viruman

text: Janani K of "India Today" rated the film 2.5 out of 5 stars and wrote ""Viruman" could have been yet another template film with clichéd elements. However, it crumbles with its underwhelming screenplay". Lakshmi Subramanian of "The Week" rated the film 2 out of 5 stars and wrote "Viruman too talks only about the deep sense of casteism and family disputes still prevailing in the hinterland of south Tamil Nadu". Gautaman Bhaskaran of "News 18" rated the film 1 out of 5 stars and wrote "Karthi was interesting in his 2007 debut, "Paruthiveeran", but has somehow never managed to wean himself away from the same kind of portrayals, infused with rage and rancour, in his later outings". Kirubhakar Purushothaman of "The Indian Express" rated the film 2.5 out of 5 stars and wrote ""Viruman" doesn't make you feel much while watching it, nor leaves you with a lot of thoughts about parenting. It is largely a passable movie". Sowmya Rajendran of "The News Minute" rated the film 2.5 out of 5 stars and stated "Most films on family feuds set in rural areas are ultimately about kudumba paasam. "Viruman" would have been interesting if it had broken out of the formula". M. Suganth of "The Times of India" gave the film’s rating 2 out of 5 stars and wrote "On the technical side, there is basic proficiency, but even these feel generic - Selvakumar SK's visuals have the oft-seen colour palette found in contemporary rural films while Yuvan Shankar Raja contributes with a couple of catchy songs and a score that just about works." Haricharan Pudipeddi of "Hindustan Times" after reviewing the film stated that "Viruman is the kind of film you don’t mind overseeing because it creates a festival-like experience that’s best enjoyed on the big screen." Srivatsan S of "The Hindu" after reviewing the film stated that "If at all there is a takeaway from Viruman, it is that we have finally found a formidable pair in Karthi and Raj for the Tamil remake of "Ayyappanum Koshiyum"." Sudhir Srinivasan of "Cinema Express" rated the film 2 out of 5 stars, stating that "Soon as you see an expansive setting (like an open field, an empty warehouse…), you know that a fight scene is incoming, and bad guys are going to bounce more times off the ground than a rubber ball." "Behindwoods" gave the film’s rating 2.5 out of 5, stating that "The performances led by Karthi, Yuvan's music, and the rooted nature make Viruman a watchable family drama." "Ananda Vikatan" rated the film 39 out of 100. "Dinamalar" rated the film 3 out of 5.


title: Viruman

text: On the first day of its release, the film grossed over 8.2 crores at the box office. After the first three days of its release, the film collected over 30 crores worldwide and grossed 25 crores in Tamil Nadu. On the third day of its release, the film grossed over 26 crores. On the first weekend of its release the film grossed over 30 crores, becoming one of the highest grossing Tamil films of the year. In Malaysia, it is also the first Tamil film to gross over 2.8 crores at the Malaysian-box office after six days of its release.


title: Georginio Wijnaldum

text: Georginio Gregion Emile Wijnaldum (formerly Boateng; born 11 November 1990) is a Dutch professional footballer who plays as a midfielder for Serie A club Roma, on loan from Ligue 1 club Paris Saint-Germain, and the Netherlands national team.


title: Georginio Wijnaldum

text: A youth product of Eredivisie side Feyenoord, Wijnaldum became the youngest player ever to represent the club when he made his debut in 2007, and went on to play 134 matches over the course of a five-year spell, winning the KNVB Cup in 2008. Following his departure from Feyenoord, Wijnaldum spent four seasons at PSV Eindhoven, where he won the KNVB Cup in his first season and the Eredivisie in his last, a season where he also earned the Dutch Footballer of the Year award.


title: Georginio Wijnaldum

text: In 2015, Wijnaldum joined Premier League side Newcastle United for £14.5 million, before departing following the club's relegation a year later to join Liverpool in a £23 million deal. At Liverpool, Wijnaldum took on a role deeper in the midfield than in his previous clubs. In the 2018–19 season, Wijnaldum scored twice against Barcelona in the Champions League semi-final second leg comeback as Liverpool went through 4–3 on aggregate, and he started as the club were victorious in the 2019 UEFA Champions League Final. In the following season, he played an integral role as Liverpool won the UEFA Super Cup, FIFA Club World Cup and Premier League, the club's first league title in 30 years. Wijnaldum signed for French club Paris Saint-Germain in 2021 on a free transfer.


title: Georginio Wijnaldum

text: Wijnaldum is also a full Dutch international, having earned over seventy caps since making his debut in 2011, and was a member of the squad which finished third at the 2014 FIFA World Cup and runners-up in the 2018–19 UEFA Nations League.


title: Georginio Wijnaldum

text: Having appeared 237 times in a Liverpool shirt, Wijnaldum is regarded as a club “legend” (in the words of former manager Jürgen Klopp) who played a major part in Liverpool’s successes over his years at the club.


title: Georginio Wijnaldum

text: Wijnaldum was born and raised in Rotterdam, South Holland. When he was six years old, his parents, who are from Suriname, went through a divorce resulting in his mother moving to Amsterdam. However, Wijnaldum stayed in Rotterdam and moved in with his grandmother, where he lived for the remainder of his childhood.


title: Georginio Wijnaldum

text: In Wijnaldum's younger years, he never showed interest in football. He never played with a ball or watched football on TV. His ambition was to become a gymnast or acrobat. This changed when Wijnaldum's cousin asked him to come to Sparta Rotterdam's opening day with him; then he was invited to the Sparta Rotterdam youth academy and his love for football started to grow slowly.


title: Georginio Wijnaldum

text: Wijnaldum has two younger brothers, one of whom, Giliano Wijnaldum, most recently played for Sparta Rotterdam, as well as a half-brother, Rajiv van La Parra, who most recently played for Apollon Smyrnis. Wijnaldum was formerly known as Georginio Boateng, but following his mother's divorce, he took her maiden name (Wijnaldum).


title: Georginio Wijnaldum

text: At age six, Wijnaldum developed himself rapidly at Sparta Rotterdam, winning two championship titles in his first two seasons. Soon Ajax, PSV and Feyenoord showed interest in the youngster, but Wijnaldum declined all offers: "I didn't watch football on TV and I didn't know any of the first team players of Sparta or any of the top clubs. I only knew the real famous players of "Oranje", so the offers didn't impress me much. I had a good time at Sparta, I wanted to stay." After playing for Sparta Rotterdam for seven seasons and representing the Netherlands at various youth levels, Wijnaldum decided to accept a new Feyenoord offer. He was convinced playing for Feyenoord was better for his development as a football player and believed in Feyenoord's vision.


title: Georginio Wijnaldum

text: At Feyenoord, Wijnaldum joined a successful generation with the likes of Leroy Fer and Luís Pedro. Wijnaldum stood out as an exceptional talent. In January 2007, a few weeks after turning 16, Wijnaldum was invited to the first team's training camp in Belek, Turkey, by Feyenoord manager Erwin Koeman.


title: Georginio Wijnaldum

text: On 8 April 2007, Wijnaldum made his official debut in Feyenoord's starting line-up in the 4–0 Eredivisie home defeat to Groningen. At the age of 16 and 148 days, Wijnaldum became the youngest player ever to play in Feyenoord's first team and was chosen Feyenoord's man of the match. On 2 December 2007, Wijnaldum scored his first Eredivisie goal for Feyenoord, against Heracles Almelo in a 6–0 home win.


title: Georginio Wijnaldum

text: In the 2008–09 season, Wijnaldum made his official European debut. On 18 September 2008, he was named in the starting line-up in the 1–0 UEFA Cup home loss to Kalmar FF. On 2 October 2008, he scored his first European goal for Feyenoord in the return match over Kalmar FF, which resulted in a 1–2 win and a place in the competition's group stage.


title: Georginio Wijnaldum

text: On 6 March 2009, Wijnaldum signed a new contract at Feyenoord which would have kept him at De Kuip until summer 2012. On 27 February 2011, he helped his struggling Feyenoord to a 5–1 demolition of Groningen, scoring four goals. He scored two goals from open play in the first half and two more from the penalty spot to add his total for the season to eight goals.


title: Georginio Wijnaldum

text: On 29 June 2011, the technical director of Feyenoord announced the club had reached a transfer deal for Wijnaldum reported to be worth €5 million with PSV. On the opening day of the 2011–12 Eredivisie season, Wijnaldum made his debut for PSV in a 3–1 loss against AZ. On 21 August 2011, Wijnaldum scored his first goal for PSV in a 3–0 victory against ADO Den Haag. Since joining the club, Wijnaldum established himself in the starting 11 as he scored goals and developed assists from his attacking role in midfield in Eredivisie, the KNVB Cup and the UEFA Europa League. After the retirement of Mark van Bommel and the departure of Kevin Strootman in the summer of 2013, Wijnaldum was named PSV's captain for the 2013–14 Eredivisie season. However, he played just 11 matches that year, scoring four goals, due to a back injury. For the 2014–15 Eredivisie season, Wijnaldum returned to full fitness and captained PSV to their first Eredivisie title since 2008.


title: Georginio Wijnaldum

text: On 11 July 2015, Wijnaldum joined English Premier League club Newcastle United on a five-year contract, for a reported transfer fee of £14.5 million, making him the most expensive signing of Mike Ashley's ownership. Wijnaldum made his debut on 9 August as Newcastle began the season with a 2–2 home draw against Southampton, heading in a goal from Gabriel Obertan's cross. He would score his second Newcastle goal in a 2–2 draw with Chelsea on 26 September. On 18 October, Wijnaldum scored four goals in a 6–2 home win over Norwich City, becoming only the second Newcastle player to score more than three goals in a Premier League match. Wijnaldum was considered the player of the match in a game against Liverpool when he forced Martin Škrtel into an own goal as well as scoring himself in a 2–0 win. He scored against Manchester United in a 3–3 draw on 12 January 2016, and again four days later in a 2–1 win against West Ham United, and later scored twice against Tottenham Hotspur in a 5–1 win on the final day of the season, finishing the season as Newcastle's top goalscorer. However, after the season, Newcastle were relegated to the Championship.


title: Georginio Wijnaldum

text: On 22 July 2016, Wijnaldum returned to the Premier League, signing for Liverpool on a five-year contract, for an initial £23 million with a further £2 million in conditional add-ons. He was given the number 5 shirt.


title: Georginio Wijnaldum

text: Wijnaldum made his Premier League debut for Liverpool against Arsenal on 14 August 2016, where he played 80 minutes and provided an assist for Adam Lallana before being replaced by Kevin Stewart. He scored his first goal for the club in a 6–1 thrashing of Watford on 6 November. On 31 December, he scored the match's only goal with a powerful header in Liverpool's 1–0 win over Manchester City to take Liverpool four points clear in second. He was highly praised for his goal. Wijnaldum sealed Liverpool's 3–1 win over Arsenal on 4 March 2017 with a close-range finish in stoppage time. In the final match of the 2016–17 Premier League season, with Liverpool needing a win over Middlesbrough to secure a top-four finish and a 2017–18 UEFA Champions League berth, Wijnaldum opened the scoring with a first-half stoppage time goal as Liverpool won 3–0.


title: Georginio Wijnaldum

text: On 28 October 2017, Wijnaldum scored his first goal of the 2017–18 season, scoring the third goal in Liverpool's 3–0 win over newly-promoted Huddersfield Town. On 2 May 2018, Wijnaldum scored his first away goal since May 2015, and his first for an English club, when he netted in a 7–6 aggregate victory over Roma to help Liverpool progress to the final of the 2017–18 Champions League. His goal also saw Liverpool break the competition's record for the most goals scored in a single campaign, with the club's tally of 46 surpassing the record of 45 previously held by Barcelona. Wijnaldum played for Liverpool in the 2018 UEFA Champions League Final against Real Madrid, playing the full 90 minutes as Liverpool lost 1–3.


title: Georginio Wijnaldum

text: On 15 September 2018, Wijnaldum scored his first ever Premier League away goal, scoring the opening goal in a 2–1 win over Tottenham Hotspur. He made his 100th appearance for the club on 29 September in a 1–1 Premier League draw with Chelsea. On 14 April 2019, and against the same opposition, he made his 100th Premier League appearance for Liverpool. Notably coming on as a substitute in the second leg of the Champions League semi-final against Barcelona, Wijnaldum scored twice in two minutes to draw Barcelona 3–3 on aggregate before Divock Origi's second goal of the night sent Liverpool to the final. In the final, Liverpool went on to beat Tottenham Hotspur 2–0.


title: Georginio Wijnaldum

text: At the start of the 2019–20 season, Wijnaldum was first choice in Liverpool's competitive midfield selection. Following Manchester City's FA Cup and League double the previous season, Liverpool were invited to the 2019 FA Community Shield as the league runners-up. Wijnaldum was named in the starting lineup, playing the full match and was one of Liverpool's penalty takers in the subsequent penalty shoot-out but missed what turned out to be the crucial penalty as Man City won 5–4 on spot-kicks. After starting against Norwich City in the Red's opening Premier League game, he was on the bench for the 2019 UEFA Super Cup which Liverpool had qualified for via last seasons Champions League win. Wijnaldum was brought on for James Milner in the 64th minute. He played the remainder of the game but was not included among the penalty takers for the resulting shoot-out. Liverpool ended up winning 6–5 on penalties as Wijnaldum won his second trophy in three months. On 4 December 2019, just two days after being voted 26th in the polls for the 2019 Ballon d'Or award, Wijnaldum scored for Liverpool in the club's 5–2 Merseyside derby win over Everton as Liverpool extended their unbeaten run in league football to a club-record 32 matches. He was one of Liverpool's key players as they won their first league title in 30 years, playing in all but one of the club's 38 Premier League matches, scoring four goals.


title: Georginio Wijnaldum

text: During the 2020–21 season, Wijnaldum scored 3 goals in 51 appearances in all competitions for Liverpool. He helped the club make the quarter-finals of the Champions League and secure a spot for the following season in the competition. On 23 May 2021, Wijnaldum played his final match for Liverpool, a 2–0 win over Crystal Palace. Manager Jürgen Klopp officially confirmed his departure from the club at the end of his contract.


title: Georginio Wijnaldum

text: On 7 June 2021, Wijnaldum signed a three-year contract with Ligue 1 club Paris Saint-Germain (PSG), as reported by Fabrizio Romano and "The Guardian". PSG reportedly "hijacked" a move for the midfielder by La Liga club Barcelona, offering him "twice the wage" Barcelona had offered. The move was officially announced on 10 June, and Wijnaldum’s presentation at PSG was on 22 July. He chose the number 18 jersey.


title: Georginio Wijnaldum

text: Wijnaldum scored his first two goals for PSG in a 2–2 Champions League draw against RB Leipzig on 3 November 2021. His first Ligue 1 goal came in a 1–1 away draw with Lens on 4 December, when he rescued a point with an injury-time header. By the end of the season, Wijnaldum had won the league title with Paris Saint-Germain.


title: Georginio Wijnaldum

text: On 4 August 2022, Roma announced the signing of Wijnaldum on loan from Paris Saint-Germain. As part of the agreement, there is an option for the loan deal to be made permanent at the end of the 2022–23 season. On 14 August, he made his debut for the club, as a substitute, in a 1-0 away win against Salernitana in the Serie A. On 21 August it was announced that Wijnaldum had suffered a Tibia fracture in training and was expected to miss the majority of the 2022-23 season as well as the 2022 World Cup.


title: Georginio Wijnaldum

text: Wijnaldum was one of the key players of the Netherlands under-17 squad on the 2007 UEFA European Under-17 Championship in Belgium. However, the team finished third in their group behind England and Belgium, failing to qualify for the knockout stage. Quickly after the tournament, Wijnaldum was selected for the Netherlands under-19 squad. Despite excellent individual performances, the team underachieved and failed to qualify for the 2008 UEFA European Under-19 Championship in the Czech Republic and 2009 UEFA European Under-19 Championship in Ukraine.


title: Georginio Wijnaldum

text: On 12 November 2008, the young midfielder got invited to the Netherlands B by manager Johan Neeskens. Wijnaldum had to deny the invitation due to an injury.


title: Georginio Wijnaldum

text: Wijnaldum had to deny his first Netherlands under-21 invitation on 9 August 2009. He received an invitation for the friendly match against England by manager Cor Pot. Wijnaldum made his official Netherlands under-21 debut on 4 September 2009 in the 2011 UEFA European Under-21 Championship qualification match against Finland, which ended in a 2–0 victory.


title: Georginio Wijnaldum

text: On 30 May 2011, Wijnaldum was named in the Netherlands senior squad for friendlies against Brazil and Uruguay, but did not play in either match. He made his international debut in the match against San Marino on 2 September 2011, appearing as a substitute in the 86th minute and promptly scoring the final goal in an 11–0 win.


title: Georginio Wijnaldum

text: Wijnaldum was a member of the Netherlands squad for the 2014 FIFA World Cup, and scored his second goal for the nation in a 3–0 win against Brazil in the third-place play-off.


title: Georginio Wijnaldum

text: On 9 September 2018, he made his 50th appearance for the Netherlands in a 2–1 UEFA Nations League loss to France.


title: Georginio Wijnaldum

text: In November 2019, following racist abuse aimed at Ahmad Mendes Moreira in the Eredivisie, Wijnaldum celebrated an international goal by gesturing at his skin colour in support of Mendes Moreira.


title: Georginio Wijnaldum

text: In November 2020, following an anterior cruciate ligament injury to captain and club teammate Virgil van Dijk, Wijnaldum was named captain of the Netherlands team in his absence.


title: Georginio Wijnaldum

text: On 23 June 2021, during the Euro 2020, Wijnaldum announced that he would wear a rainbow armband under the slogan OneLove during the Netherlands' game of the Round of 16 in a show of solidarity to both the LGBT community and German captain Manuel Neuer who had a case opened against him at UEFA for wearing the rainbow armband. The case was later dismissed.


title: Acronym

text: An acronym is a word or name formed from the initial components of a longer name or phrase. Acronyms are usually formed from the initial letters of words, as in "NATO" ("North Atlantic Treaty Organization"), but sometimes use syllables, as in "Benelux" (short for "Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg"). They can also be a mixture, as in "radar" ("Radio Detection And Ranging").


title: Acronym

text: Acronyms can be pronounced as words, like "NASA" and "UNESCO"; as individual letters, like "FBI", "TNT", and "ATM"; or as both letters and words, like "JPEG" (pronounced "") and "IUPAC". Some are not universally pronounced one way or the other and it depends on the speaker's preference or the context in which it is being used, such as "SQL" (either "sequel" or "ess-cue-el").


title: Acronym

text: The broader sense of "acronym"—the meaning of which includes terms pronounced as letters—is sometimes criticized, but it is the term's original meaning and is in common use. Dictionary and style-guide editors are not in universal agreement on the naming for such abbreviations, and it is a matter of some dispute whether the term "acronym" can be legitimately applied to abbreviations which are not pronounced "as words", nor do these language authorities agree on the correct use of spacing, casing, and punctuation.


title: Acronym

text: Abbreviations formed from a string of initials and usually pronounced as individual letters are sometimes more specifically called initialisms or alphabetisms; examples are "FBI" from "Federal Bureau of Investigation", and "e.g." from Latin .


title: Acronym

text: The word "acronym" is formed from the Greek roots "acr-", meaning "height, summit, or tip" and "-onym", meaning "name". This neoclassical compound appears to have originated in German, with attestations for the German form "" appearing as early as 1921. Citations in English date to a 1940 translation of a novel by the German writer Lion Feuchtwanger.


title: Acronym

text: Whereas an abbreviation may be any type of shortened form, such as words with the middle omitted (for example, "Rd" for "Road" or "Dr" for "Doctor") or the end truncated (as in "Prof." for "Professor"), an acronym is—in the broad sense—formed from the first letter or first few letters of each important word in a phrase (such as "AIDS", from "acquired immuno-deficiency syndrome", and "scuba" from "self-contained underwater breathing apparatus"). However, this is only a loose rule of thumb, as some acronyms are built in part from the first letters of morphemes (word components; as in the "i" and "d" in "immuno-deficiency") or using a letter from the middle or end of a word, or from only a few key words in a long phrase or name. Less significant words such as "in", "of", and "the" are usually dropped ("NYT" for "The New York Times", "DMV" for "Department of Motor Vehicles"), but not always ("TICA" for "The International Cat Association", "DOJ" for "Department of Justice").


title: Acronym

text: Abbreviations formed from a string of initials and usually pronounced as individual letters (as in "FBI" from "Federal Bureau of Investigation", and "e.g." from Latin ) are sometimes more specifically called initialisms or alphabetisms. Occasionally, some letter other than the first is chosen, most often when the pronunciation of the name of the letter coincides with the pronunciation of the beginning of the word (example: "BX" from "base exchange"). Acronyms that are usually pronounced as words, such as "AIDS" and "scuba", are sometimes called word acronyms, to disambiguate them more clearly from initialisms, especially since some users of the term "initialism" use "acronym" in a narrow sense meaning only the type sounded out as letters. Another sub-type of acronym (or a related form, depending upon one's definitions) is the syllabic abbreviation, which is composed specifically of multi-letter syllabic (even multi-syllabic) fragments of the abbreviated words; some examples are "FOREX" from "foreign exchange", and "Interpol" from "international" + "police", though its full proper name in English is the International Criminal Police Organization. Usually the first syllable (or two) is used from each major component word, but there are exceptions, such as the US Navy term "DESRON" or "DesRon" from "destroyer squadron".


title: Acronym

text: There is no special term for abbreviations whose pronunciation involves the combination of letter names with words, or with word-like pronunciations of strings of letters, such as "JPEG" () and "MS-DOS" (). Similarly, there is no unique name for those that are a mixture of syllabic abbreviations and initialisms; these are usually pronounced as words (e.g., "radar" from "radio detection and ranging", consisting of one syllabic abbreviation and three single letters, and "sonar" from "sound navigation ranging", consisting of two syllabic abbreviations followed by a single acronymic letter for "ranging"); these would generally qualify as word acronyms among those who use that term. There is also some disagreement as to what to call an abbreviation that some speakers pronounce as letters but others pronounce as a word. For example, the terms "URL" and "IRA" (for "individual retirement account") can be pronounced as individual letters: and , respectively; or as a single word: and , respectively. The same character string may be pronounced differently when the meaning is different; "IRA" is always sounded out as "I-R-A" when standing for "Irish Republican Army".


title: Acronym

text: The spelled-out form of an acronym, initialism, or syllabic abbreviation (that is, what that abbreviation stands for) is called its "expansion".


title: Acronym

text: It is an unsettled question in English lexicography and style guides whether it is legitimate to use the word "acronym" to describe forms that use initials but are not pronounced as a word. While there is plenty of evidence that "acronym" is used widely in this way, some sources do not acknowledge this usage, reserving the term "acronym" only for forms pronounced as a word, and using "initialism" or "abbreviation" for those that are not. Some sources acknowledge the usage, but vary in whether they criticize or forbid it, allow it without comment, or explicitly advocate for it.


title: Acronym

text: Some mainstream English dictionaries from across the English-speaking world affirm a sense of "acronym" which does not require being pronounced as a word. American English dictionaries such as "Merriam-Webster", Dictionary.com's "Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary" and the "American Heritage Dictionary" as well as the British "Oxford English Dictionary" and the Australian "Macquarie Dictionary" all include a sense in their entries for "acronym" equating it with "initialism", although "The American Heritage Dictionary" criticizes it with the label "usage problem". However, many English language dictionaries, such as the


title: Acronym

text: "Collins COBUILD Advanced Dictionary", "Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary", "Macmillan Dictionary", "Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English", "New Oxford American Dictionary", "Webster's New World Dictionary", and "Lexico" from Oxford University Press do not acknowledge such a sense.


title: Acronym

text: Most of the dictionary entries and style guide recommendations regarding the term "acronym" through the twentieth century did not explicitly acknowledge or support the expansive sense. The Merriam–Webster's Dictionary of English Usage from 1994 is one of the earliest publications to advocate for the expansive sense, and all the major dictionary editions that include a sense of "acronym" equating it with "initialism" were first published in the twenty-first century. The trend among dictionary editors appears to be towards including a sense defining "acronym" as "initialism": The "Merriam-Webster Collegiate Dictionary" added such a sense in its eleventh edition in 2003, and both the "Oxford English Dictionary" and the "American Heritage Dictionary" added such senses in their 2011 editions. The 1989 edition of the "Oxford English Dictionary" only included the exclusive sense for "acronym" and its earliest citation was from 1943. In early December 2010, Duke University researcher Stephen Goranson published a citation for "acronym" to the American Dialect Society e-mail discussion list which refers to "PGN" being pronounced "pee-gee-enn," antedating English language usage of the word to 1940. Linguist Ben Zimmer then mentioned this citation in his December 16, 2010 "On Language" column about acronyms in The New York Times Magazine. By 2011, the publication of the third edition of the "Oxford English Dictionary" added the expansive sense to its entry for "acronym" and included the 1940 citation. As the "Oxford English Dictionary" structures the senses in order of chronological development, it now gives the "initialism" sense first.


title: Acronym

text: English language usage and style guides which have entries for "acronym" generally criticize the usage that refers to forms that are not pronounceable words. "Fowler's Dictionary of Modern English Usage" says that "acronym" "denotes abbreviations formed from initial letters of other words and pronounced as a single word, such as "NATO" (as distinct from "B-B-C")" but adds later "In everyday use, "acronym" is often applied to abbreviations that are technically initialisms, since they are pronounced as separate letters." The Chicago Manual of Style acknowledges the complexity ("Furthermore, an acronym and initialism are occasionally combined (JPEG), and the line between initialism and acronym is not always clear") but still defines the terms as mutually exclusive. Other guides outright deny any legitimacy to the usage: "Bryson's Dictionary of Troublesome Words" says "Abbreviations that are not pronounced as words (IBM, ABC, NFL) are not acronyms; they are just abbreviations." "Garner's Modern American Usage" says "An acronym is made from the first letters or parts of a compound term. It's read or spoken as a single word, not letter by letter." "The New York Times Manual of Style and Usage" says "Unless pronounced as a word, an abbreviation is not an acronym."


title: Acronym

text: In contrast, some style guides do support it, whether explicitly or implicitly. The 1994 edition of "Merriam-Webster's Dictionary of English Usage" defends the usage on the basis of a claim that dictionaries do not make a distinction. The BuzzFeed style guide describes CBS and PBS as "acronyms ending in S".


title: Acronym

text: Acronymy, like retronymy, is a linguistic process that has existed throughout history but for which there was little to no naming, conscious attention, or systematic analysis until relatively recent times. Like retronymy, it became much more common in the 20th century than it had formerly been.


title: Acronym

text: During the mid- to late 19th century, acronyms became a trend among American and European businessmen: abbreviating corporation names, such as on the sides of railroad cars (e.g., "Richmond, Fredericksburg and Potomac Railroad" → "RF&P"); on the sides of barrels and crates; and on ticker tape and newspaper stock listings (e.g. American Telephone and Telegraph Company → AT&T). Some well-known commercial examples dating from the 1890s through 1920s include "Nabisco" ("National Biscuit Company"), "Esso" (from "S.O.", from "Standard Oil"), and "Sunoco" ("Sun Oil Company").


title: Acronym

text: Another field for the adoption of acronyms was modern warfare, with its many highly technical terms. While there is no recorded use of military acronyms dating from the American Civil War (acronyms such as "ANV" for "Army of Northern Virginia" postdate the war itself), they became somewhat common in World War I, and by World War II they were widespread even in the slang of soldiers, who referred to themselves as G.I.s.


title: Acronym

text: The widespread, frequent use of acronyms across the whole range of linguistic registers is relatively new in most languages, becoming increasingly evident since the mid-20th century. As literacy spread and technology produced a constant stream of new and complex terms, abbreviations became increasingly convenient. The "Oxford English Dictionary" ("OED") records the first printed use of the word "initialism" as occurring in 1899, but it did not come into general use until 1965, well after "acronym" had become common.


title: Acronym

text: In English, acronyms may be a 20th-century phenomenon. Linguist David Wilton in "Word Myths: Debunking Linguistic Urban Legends" claims that "forming words from acronyms is a distinctly twentieth- (and now twenty-first-) century phenomenon. There is only one known pre-twentieth-century [English] word with an acronymic origin and it was in vogue for only a short time in 1886. The word is "colinderies" or "colinda", an acronym for the Colonial and Indian Exposition held in London in that year." However, although acronymic words seem not to have been before the 20th century (as Wilton points out), the is treated as effortlessly understood (and evidently not novel) in an Edgar Allan Poe story of the 1830s, "How to Write a Blackwood Article", which includes the contrived acronym "P.R.E.T.T.Y.B.L.U.E.B.A.T.C.H."


title: Acronym

text: The use of Latin and Neo-Latin terms in vernaculars has been pan-European and predates modern English. Some examples of acronyms in this class are:


title: Acronym

text: The earliest example of a word derived from an acronym listed by the "OED" is "abjud" (now "abjad"), formed from the original first four letters of the Arabic alphabet in the late 18th century. Some acrostics predate this, however, such as the Restoration witticism arranging the names of some members of Charles II's Committee for Foreign Affairs to produce the "CABAL" ministry.


title: Acronym

text: "O.K.", a term of disputed origin, dates back at least to the early 19th century and is now used around the world.


title: Acronym

text: Acronyms are used most often to abbreviate names of organizations and long or frequently referenced terms. The armed forces and government agencies frequently employ acronyms; some well-known examples from the United States are among the "alphabet agencies" (jokingly referred to as "alphabet soup") created under the New Deal by Franklin D. Roosevelt (himself known as "FDR"). Business and industry also coin acronyms prolificly. The rapid advance of science and technology also drives the usage, as new inventions and concepts with multiword names create a demand for shorter, more pronounceable names. One representative example, from the U.S. Navy, is "COMCRUDESPAC", which stands for "commander, cruisers destroyers Pacific"; it is also seen as "ComCruDesPac". Inventors are encouraged to anticipate the formation of acronyms by making new terms "YABA-compatible" ("yet another bloody acronym"), meaning the term's acronym can be pronounced and is not an offensive word: "When choosing a new name, be sure it is 'YABA-compatible'."


title: Acronym

text: Acronym use has been further popularized by text messaging on mobile phones with short message service (SMS), and instant messenger (IM). To fit messages into the 160-character SMS limit, and to save time, acronyms such as "GF" ("girlfriend"), "LOL" ("laughing out loud"), and "DL" ("download" or "down low") have become popular. Some prescriptivists disdain texting acronyms and abbreviations as decreasing clarity, or as failure to use "pure" or "proper" English. Others point out that languages have always continually changed, and argue that acronyms should be embraced as inevitable, or as innovation that adapts the language to changing circumstances. In this view, the modern practice is just the "proper" English of the current generation of speakers, much like the earlier abbreviation of corporation names on ticker tape or newspapers.


title: Acronym

text: Exact pronunciation of "word acronyms" (those pronounced as words rather than sounded out as individual letters) often vary by speaker population. These may be regional, occupational, or generational differences, or simply personal preference. For instance, there have been decades of online debate about how to pronounce GIF ( or ) and BIOS (, , or ). Similarly, some letter-by-letter initialisms may become word acronyms over time, especially in combining forms: "IP" for "Internet Protocol" is generally said as two letters, but "IPsec" for "Internet Protocol Security" is usually pronounced as or , along with variant capitalization like "IPSEC" and "Ipsec". Pronunciation may even vary within a single speaker's vocabulary, depending on narrow contexts. As an example, the database programming language SQL is usually said as three letters, but in reference to Microsoft's implementation is traditionally pronounced like the word "sequel".


title: Acronym

text: In writing for a broad audience, the words of an acronym are typically written out in full at its first occurrence within a given text. EAFU (Expansion At First Use) benefits readers unfamiliar with the acronym.


title: Acronym

text: Another text aid is an abbreviation key which lists and expands all acronyms used, a reference for readers who skipped past the first use. (This is especially important for paper media, where no search utility is available to find the first use.) It also gives students a convenient review list to memorize the important acronyms introduced in a textbook chapter.


title: Acronym

text: Expansion at first use and abbreviation keys originated in the print era, but they are equally useful for electronic text.


title: Acronym

text: While acronyms provide convenience and succinctness for specialists, they often degenerate into confusing jargon. This may be intentional, to exclude readers without domain-specific knowledge. New acronyms may also confuse when they coincide with an already existing acronym having a different meaning.


title: Acronym

text: Medical literature has been struggling to control the proliferation of acronyms, including efforts by the American Academy of Dermatology.


title: Acronym

text: Acronyms are often taught as mnemonic devices: for example the colors of the rainbow are ROY G. BIV (red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet). They are also used as mental checklists: in aviation GUMPS stands for gas-undercarriage-mixture-propeller-seatbelts. Other mnemonic acronyms include CAN SLIM in finance, PAVPANIC in English grammar, and PEMDAS in mathematics.


title: Acronym

text: It is not uncommon for acronyms to be cited in a kind of false etymology, called a folk etymology, for a word. Such etymologies persist in popular culture but have no factual basis in historical linguistics, and are examples of language-related urban legends. For example, "cop" is commonly cited as being derived, it is presumed, from "constable on patrol", and "posh" from "port outward, starboard home". With some of these specious expansions, the "belief" that the etymology is acronymic has clearly been tongue-in-cheek among many citers, as with "gentlemen only, ladies forbidden" for "golf", although many other (more credulous) people have uncritically taken it for fact. Taboo words in particular commonly have such false etymologies: "shit" from "ship/store high in transit" or "special high-intensity training" and "fuck" from "for unlawful carnal knowledge", or "fornication under consent/command of the king".


title: Acronym

text: In English, abbreviations have traditionally been written with a full stop/period/point in place of the deleted part to show the ellipsis of letters – although the colon and apostrophe have also had this role – and with a space after full stops (e.g. "A. D."). In the case of most acronyms, each letter is an abbreviation of a separate word and, in theory, should get its own termination mark. Such punctuation is diminishing with the belief that the presence of all-capital letters is sufficient to indicate that the word is an abbreviation.


title: Acronym

text: Some influential style guides, such as that of the BBC, no longer require punctuation to show ellipsis; some even proscribe it. Larry Trask, American author of "The Penguin Guide to Punctuation", states categorically that, in British English, "this tiresome and unnecessary practice is now obsolete."


title: Acronym

text: Nevertheless, some influential style guides, many of them American, still require periods in certain instances. For example, "The New York Times Manual of Style and Usage" recommends following each segment with a period when the letters are pronounced individually, as in "K.G.B.", but not when pronounced as a word, as in "NATO". The logic of this style is that the pronunciation is reflected graphically by the punctuation scheme.