title: Judith Butler

text: I was asked by a member of an academic audience a few years ago whether I thought Hamas and Hezbollah belonged to "the global left" and I replied with two points. My first point was merely descriptive: those political organizations define themselves as anti-imperialist, and anti-imperialism is one characteristic of the global left, so on that basis one could describe them as part of the global left. My second point was then critical: as with any group on the left, one has to decide whether one is for that group or against that group, and one needs to critically evaluate their stand.


title: Judith Butler

text: In a January 2015 interview with George Yancy of "The New York Times", Butler discussed the Black Lives Matter movement. They said:


title: Judith Butler

text: What is implied by this statement [Black Lives Matter], a statement that should be obviously true, but apparently is not? If black lives do not matter, then they are not really regarded as lives, since a life is supposed to matter. So what we see is that some lives matter more than others, that some lives matter so much that they need to be protected at all costs, and that other lives matter less, or not at all. And when that becomes the situation, then the lives that do not matter so much, or do not matter at all, can be killed or lost, can be exposed to conditions of destitution, and there is no concern, or even worse, that is regarded as the way it is supposed to be...When people engage in concerted actions across racial lines to build communities based on equality, to defend the rights of those who are disproportionately imperiled to have a chance to live without the fear of dying quite suddenly at the hands of the police. There are many ways to do this, in the street, the office, the home, and in the media. Only through such an ever-growing cross-racial struggle against racism can we begin to achieve a sense of all the lives that really do matter.


title: Judith Butler

text: The dialogue draws heavily on their 2004 book "Precarious Life: The Powers of Mourning and Violence."


title: Judith Butler

text: On May 11, 2018, Butler led a group of scholars in writing a letter to New York University following the sexual harassment suit filed by a former NYU graduate student against his advisor Avital Ronell. The signatories acknowledged not having had access to the confidential findings of the investigation that followed the Title IX complaint against Ronell. Nonetheless, they accused the complainant of waging a "malicious campaign" against Ronell. The signatories also wrote that the presumed "malicious intention has animated and sustained this legal nightmare" for a highly regarded scholar. "If she were to be terminated or relieved of her duties, the injustice would be widely recognized and opposed." Butler, the chief signatory, invoked their title as President Elect of the Modern Language Association. James J. Marino, a professor at Cleveland State University and a member of the MLA, started a petition to demand Butler's resignation or removal from their post. He argued that "Protesting against one instance of punishment is only a means to the larger end of preserving senior faculty's privilege of impunity. ... [Butler] was standing up for an old, corrupt, and long-standing way of doing business. The time for doing business that way is over. We should never look back." Some three months later, Butler apologized to the MLA for the letter. "I acknowledged that I should not have allowed the MLA affiliation to go forward with my name," Butler wrote to the "Chronicle of Higher Education". "I expressed regret to the MLA officers and staff, and my colleagues accepted my apology. I extend that same apology to MLA members."


title: Judith Butler

text: Butler said in 2020 that trans-exclusionary radical feminism is "a fringe movement that is seeking to speak in the name of the mainstream, and that our responsibility is to refuse to let that happen." In 2021 they described the anti-gender movements as fascist trends and cautioned self-declared feminists from allying with such movements in targeting trans, non-binary, and genderqueer people. Butler also explored the issue in a 2019 paper in which they argued that "the confusion of discourses is part of what constitutes the fascist structure and appeal of at least some of these [anti-gender] movements. One can oppose gender as a cultural import from the North at the same time that one can see that very opposition as a social movement against further colonization of the South. The result is not a turn to the Left, but an embrace of ethno-nationalism."


title: Judith Butler

text: On September 7, 2021, "The Guardian" published an interview of Butler by Jules Gleeson that included Butler's critique of trans-exclusionary feminists ("gender critical feminists" or "TERFs"). In response to a question about the Wi Spa controversy, Butler stated that "The anti-gender ideology is one of the dominant strains of fascism in our times." Within a few hours of publication, three paragraphs including this statement were removed, with a note explaining "This article was edited on 7 September 2021 to reflect developments which occurred after the interview took place."


title: Judith Butler

text: "The Guardian" was then accused of censoring Judith Butler for having compared TERFs to fascists. British writer Roz Kaveney called it "a truly shocking moment of bigoted dishonesty", while British transgender activist and writer Juno Dawson, among others, observed that "The Guardian" had inadvertently triggered the Streisand effect, in which an attempt to censor yields the unintended consequence of increasing awareness of a topic. The next day, "The Guardian" acknowledged "a failure in our editorial standards".


title: Judith Butler

text: Butler is a lesbian, legally non-binary, and as of 2020 said they use both they/them and she/her pronouns but prefer to use "they" pronouns. Butler indicated that they were "never at home" with being "assigned" female at birth.


title: Judith Butler

text: Butler's books have been translated into numerous languages; "Gender Trouble" has been translated into twenty-seven languages. They have co-authored and edited over a dozen volumes—most recently, "Dispossession: The Performative in the Political" (2013), coauthored with Athena Athanasiou. Over the years Butler has also published many influential essays, interviews, and public presentations. Butler is considered by many to be "one of the most influential voices in contemporary political theory," and the most widely read and influential gender theorist in the world.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: The ages of consent vary by jurisdiction across Europe. The ages of consent are between 14 and 18. The vast majority of countries set their ages in the range of 14 to 16; only four countries, Cyprus (17), Ireland (17), Turkey (18) and Vatican City (18), do not fit into this pattern. The laws can also stipulate which specific activities are permitted or specify the age at which one or other sex can legally participate. The highlighted age is that from which a young person can lawfully engage in a non-commercial sexual act with an older person, regardless of their age difference, provided the older one is not in a position of power, a relative, or is committing another form of exploitation (such as abuse of power or dependence). In some jurisdictions, including Italy and Hungary, there are exemptions if the age difference is within prescribed bounds. All jurisdictions in Europe have equal and gender-neutral age limits.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: Neither the European Union nor the Council of Europe have suggested any specific age of consent, and there has not been any effort so far to standardize the age across member states. However, most countries in Europe now have binding legal obligations in regard to the sexual abuse of children under 18. The Lanzarote Convention, which was ratified, as of 2021, by all member states of the Council of Europe, and which came into effect in 2011, obliges the countries that ratify it to criminalize certain acts concerning children under 18, such as the involvement of such children in prostitution and pornography. Other acts that must be criminalized include:


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: The age of consent is called "the legal age for sexual activities" and must be chosen by states at the age they see fit. (No specific age is recommended.) As of February 2021, the convention has been ratified by all states of the Council of Europe.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: In the European Union (EU 27), there is a directive regarding the sexual abuse of children under 18, known as "Directive 2011/92/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 13 December 2011 on combating the sexual abuse and sexual exploitation of children and child pornography".


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: Since 2001, the age of consent in Albania is 14, regardless of gender and sexual orientation. In the case of a girl, however, sex is illegal if she is over 14 but has not reached "sexual maturity", as provided by article 100 of the criminal code.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: The age of consent in Andorra is 14, as specified by Article 147 of the penal code, which reads: (1) ""Whoever carries out a sexual act with a person younger than fourteen years ... shall be punished with imprisonment for between three months and three years."" Paragraph 2 states that if the sexual act involves sexual penetration the punishment is three to ten years.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: As specified by Articles 148 and 149, it is illegal - regardless of age - for a person occupying a position of authority or superiority over a person to engage in sexual activity with them, or when it involves the abuse of trust or situation of need or dependence. The penalty is more severe when the subject is below the age of 18.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: "Sexual intercourse or other sexual acts with a person obviously under 16, by a person who reached 18 years of age, in the absence of elements of crime envisaged in Articles 138, 139 or 140 of this Code, is punished with correctional labor for the term of up to 2 years, or with imprisonment for the term of up to 2 years."


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: The general age of consent in Austria is 14, as specified by Section 206 of the penal code. (The term "unmündig" is specified in Section 74 of the penal code.) Paragraph 4 of Section 206 defines a close-in-age exception, lowering the age of consent to 13 if the other party is not more than 3 years older and some additional conditions are met. Paragraph 4 of Article 207 increases this exception to 4 years, with a minimum age of 12, for sexual acts not amounting to sexual intercourse or other acts “that can be equated with sexual intercourse” - essentially non-penetrative sexual contact. It is subject to the same additional conditions of article 206 (for example, that the act does not cause serious bodily harm).


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: "However", Section 207b of the penal code contains an exception to the general age of consent: if one of the partners is younger than 16 years of age and "not sufficiently mature to understand the significance of the act", then the act is punishable.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: The offence "initiating sexual contacts with minors under 14 through the use of computer system" is punishable by two years' imprisonment (Section 208a Penal Code).


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: The Austrian Criminal Code previously specified 18 as the age of consent for male homosexual sex in which the other partner was aged 14–18, while no equivalent provision existed for heterosexual sexual conduct or in regards to female homosexuality; this was Section 209 of the Criminal Code. In November 1996, an amendment was put before the Austrian Parliament to remove Section 209; but the vote ended in a draw, and the amendment failed to pass. In July 1998, a similar amendment was put forward; it was voted down by the conservative majority. Section 209 came into force when homosexuality between males became legal in 1971.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: On 24 June 2002, the Austrian Constitutional Court ruled that Section 209 was unconstitutional. The Section was later repealed on 14 August 2002. On 9 January 2003, the European Court of Human Rights held, in "L & V v Austria", that Section 209 violated Articles 8 and 14 of the European Convention on Human Rights.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: "Sexual intercourse with the person below the age of 16 years, as well as the same offences linked with satisfaction of sexual passion in perverted forms shall be punished by imprisonment up to 3 years".


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: The age of consent in Belarus is 16, as specified by Articles 168 and 169, which read: ""Sexual relations, sodomy, lesbian acts or other actions of sexual character of an adult, reached eighteen years of age, with a person who obviously has not reached sixteen years of age, at absence of attributes of the crimes stipulated by articles 166 and 167 present codes, are punished by restriction of freedom of two years to four years or by imprisonment of two years to five years."" and ""Dissolute actions accomplished by a person, reached eighteen years of age, concerning a person who obviously has not reached sixteen years of age, at absence of attributes of the crimes stipulated by articles 166, 167 and 168 present codes, are punished by arrest of about six months or imprisonment of one year to three years.""


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: The age of consent in Belgium is 16, as specified by Article 417/6 of the Criminal Code (Code pénal/Strafwetboek). There is a close-in-age exemption of three years age difference for sexual acts where at least one of the partners is 14 or 15.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: The Belgian Criminal Code previously specified an age of consent of 18 for homosexual sex. This provision - Article 372bis - was added in 1965 and repealed in 1985.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: Sexual activity with children younger than 14 is illegal under Article 207, which prohibits sexual acts with a "child", and a "child" is defined in Article 2(8) as a person under 14. However, Article 209 mentions a "juvenile" who is defined in Article 2(9) as a person under 18, although it is not clear if this article refers only to sexual acts performed in view of a minor under 18 or if it can be used also to punish sexual acts performed with the minor:


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: The age of consent in Bulgaria is 14, as specified by Articles 149 and 151 (1). However, Article 151 (2) has a provision for those who are over 14 and do "not understand the characteristics or the importance of the act":


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: The age of consent for all sexual conduct in Croatia under the new Criminal Code in force since 1 January 2013 is 15, regardless of gender and/or sexual orientation, and is regulated by Article 158.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: (1) Whoever performs sexual intercourse with a child under fifteen years of age or induces a child to commit sexual intercourse with a third person, shall be liable to a term of imprisonment of one to ten years.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: (2) Whoever commits a lewd act with a child under fifteen years of age or induces a child to commit a lewd act on itself or with a third person, shall be punished by imprisonment for a term between six months and five years.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: Before the year 2013, the legal age of consent in Croatia was 14. Homosexual acts were illegal until 1977, when Croatia, then as a Yugoslav Federal Republic, changed its Penal Code. The age of consent was equalised in 1998.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: The age of consent for all sexual conduct in Cyprus under the 2002 "Criminal Code" is 17, regardless of sexual orientation or gender.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: Until 1998, homosexual acts between men were entirely forbidden under Section 171 (1929). In 1989, Alecos Modinos, president of the Cypriot Gay Liberation Movement, brought a case to the European Court of Human Rights. In 1993, the Court held that the prohibition of homosexual acts was a violation of Article 8. In January 1995, the Cypriot Government introduced a Bill in the Cypriot Parliament that would have abolished the ban. Strong opposition from the Eastern Orthodox Church meant the Bill stalled when referred to the Parliament's Legal Affairs Committee. The European Commission repeated its warning that Cyprus must follow the Court's ruling. In May 1997, again a government measure to repeal the ban failed because of the strength of the opposition. In April 1998, the Council of Europe set a deadline for compliance of 29 May 1998 and on 21 May 1998, the House of Representatives voted 36 to 8 in favour legalising homosexual acts. However it was set at 18 while heterosexual acts remained at 16.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: In 2002, under pressure from the EU the parliament finally ended the disparate provisions and changed the age of consent to 17 for both heterosexual and homosexual acts, under the revised "Criminal Code".


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: For both of these Sovereign Base Areas (British military enclaves) on the island of Cyprus, the age of consent is 16.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: Northern Cyprus (Areas of the Republic of Cyprus that are currently occupied by Turkey - see the Turkish invasion of Cyprus) has an age of consent of 16 as designated in the Penal Code ("Ceza Yasası", Art. 153 & 154).


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: Prior to 2014, sodomy was illegal, the age of consent only applied to females and sexual contact with a female between the ages of 13 and 16 was a misdemeanor. As of 2014, the age of consent is set at 16 for both males and females, sexual contact with any child under 16 regardless of gender is a felony and the ban on sodomy is lifted, thereby legalizing homosexual sex.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: Additionally, the section of the Czech penal code 40/2009 Sb. covering "crimes against family and children" contains § 202 which criminalizes a "seduction to sexual intercourse" of any persons under 18 years by any promise or provision of payment, benefit, privilege or profit, for sexual intercourse, masturbation, exposure or similar behavior. This regulation was added to the old Czechoslovak penal code (140/1961 Sb.) adopted by the Czech Republic as § 217a by the amendment Czech act No. 218/2003 Sb. effective from 2004 January 1. This also covers cases when there is any kind of trust or dependence, for example, teacher-student, employer-employee.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: The age limit in the Austrian Empire was 14 years under § 128 of the Empire's Penal Code of 1852. Homosexual sexual intercourse and sexual intercourse with animals were generally grouped in as "crime against nature" by § 131.historic The Austrian Penal Code was replaced in Czechoslovakia in 1950. The Czechoslovak Penal Code 86/1950 Sb. in § 239 raised the limit to 15 years. Almost identical regulation was contained in the Czechoslovak penal under code 140/1961 Sb., which in § 242 reads: "A person who has coitus with a person under fifteen (15) years of age or who sexually abuses such a person in any other way shall be sentenced to imprisonment for at least one and at most eight years." The new Czech Penal Code (40/2009 Sb., effective from 2010 January 1) contains a similar regulaton: § 187. Around 2008 and 2009, the lowering of the limits of criminal responsibility as well as sex acts age limits from 15 to 14 years was passed in Parliament in the new Penal Code 40/2009 Sb. effective from 1 January 2010. Both changes were criticized. Before coming into effect, the amendment act 306/2009 Sb. changed both limits back to 15 years.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: Until 1962, homosexual sexual intercourse was illegal in Czechoslovakia. The Czechoslovak 140/1961 Sb. Penal Code, introduced in that year, still contained as a crime "Sexual intercourse with a person of the same sex" (§ 244) but covered only persons older than 18 years of age who had intercourse with a person younger than 18. Between adults, payment receipt or provision and public nuisance were criminalised. In 1990, article § 244 was repealed in its entirety by the Czechoslovak Act 175/2009 Sb, from 2009-07-01.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: § 222. Whoever has sexual intercourse with a child under the age of 15, shall be punished by imprisonment for up to 8 years, unless the situation is covered by § 216 paragraph 2. In determining the penalty, it shall be an aggravating circumstance if the perpetrator has gained intercourse by exploiting his physical or mental superiority.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: Section 223, part 1, reads: "Any person who has sexual intercourse with any child under 18, who is said person's adopted child, stepchild or foster child, or who is entrusted to said person for education or upbringing, will be liable to imprisonment for any term not exceeding four years", this includes teachers. Further, part 2 of § 223 establishes that the same punishment is applicable to any person found to have grossly exploited their age and experience based superiority over a person under the age of 18 to seduce said minor into intercourse.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: The laws in the Faroe Islands and Greenland are equivalent although regulated in separate penal codes for these autonomous countries.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: Male homosexual acts were legalised in Denmark (lesbianism was never illegal) with an age of consent set at 18, after a major reform of the Penal Code in 1930; At the same time, the age of consent for heterosexual acts was raised from 12 to 15. In 1976, the age of consent was harmonized at 15 for all acts . Sex with a child under the age of 12 results in double punishment, and sex with a minor under 18 is illegal for a person in charge of the child.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: Until 1866, "acts against nature" [anal intercourse] were punishable with the stake. However, until the late 18th century the rule was never used, and, when it came into effect, the convicts were always sentenced to 7 years in jail. This became the punishment introduced in the Penal Code 1866, but now only for homosexual acts.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: In 1969, Denmark became the first country to legalise pictorial pornography, but this did not affect laws related to the age of people participating in its production. Consequently, the legal age of consent (15) equaled the limit for pornography produced within the country, but material produced in other countries (where the Danish consent law does not apply) was not covered and therefore legal. In 1980 it became illegal to sell, spread or possess pornography involving children under the age of 15, regardless of its country of origin (Danish Penal Code §235). The limit was later changed to 18 years, which is the standing law today, although it remains legal for a person over the age of 15 to take their own nude photos, as long as they are only shared with friends (for example with a boyfriend or girlfriend), the receiver explicitly has received the right to possess them, and they are not shared or spread any further. In the period between the legalisation of pornography and the 1980 amendment to the Danish Penal Code, some companies (infamously Color Climax) exploited the lack of age restrictions on material produced in other countries.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: The age of consent in Estonia is 16, as specified by Section 145 of the Criminal Code of Republic of Estonia (sexual intercourse or other act of sexual nature with a child), which reads: "An adult person who engages in sexual intercourse with a person of less than 16 years of age shall be punished by up to 5 years' imprisonment." The age of consent was raised from 14 to 16 in June 2022 (with a close in age exemption of 5 years for 14 and 15 years olds), and the marriageable age will be raised from 15 to 18; the law is expected to come into effect on 1. November 2022


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: Section 141 defines rape as "Sexual intercourse with a person against his or her will by using force or taking advantage of a situation in which the person is not capable of initiating resistance or comprehending the situation"; and Section 147 reads:


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: Until 1992, male homosexual sex was illegal, the Estonian SSR Penal Code, Article 118, forbidding "anal intercourse between men". When regaining independence from USSR in 1991, the age of consent for male homosexual intercourse was set at 16, whereas the age for heterosexual intercourse with female was 14. There was no age of consent for heterosexual intercourse with male. The age of consent was harmonized in 2001 when Estonia adopted its first Penal Code after restoring its independence, specifying an age of 14 for sexual intercourse.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: The age of consent in Finland is 16, as specified by Section 6(1) (Sexual abuse of a child), which reads: "A person who has sexual intercourse with a child younger than sixteen years of age ... shall be sentenced for sexual abuse of a child to imprisonment for at most four years."


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: The sexual act may not be punishable if "there is no great difference in the ages or the mental and physical maturity of the persons involved".


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: The age is 18 when in connection with a person who has some formal power over the young person, like a school teacher.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: Until 1971, homosexual acts were prohibited. After decriminalisation, the age of consent was set to 18 for homosexual acts and 16 for heterosexual acts.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: According to the Åland Treaty, Finnish national law is applied as the minimum standard. The age of consent is therefore 16.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: The age of consent in France is 15, as specified by Article 227-25 of the Penal Code, which reads; "Except in the cases of rape or sexual assault provided for in Section 3 of Chapter II of this Title, the act of sexual assault on a minor under the age of fifteen for an adult is punishable by seven years' imprisonment and a fine of €100,000."


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: Article 222-22 defines sexual assault as “any sexual assault committed with violence, coercion, threat or surprise”. Article 222-22-1 then specifies that coercion can be either physical or moral. The moral coercion or surprise may result from the authority of law or fact that an adult has over a minor, and this de facto authority “may be characterized by a significant age difference between the minor victim and the adult perpetrator”.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: Article 227-22 prohibits “promoting or attempting to promote the corruption of a minor”, as well as "organizing meetings involving indecent exposure or sexual relations knowing that minors are present or participating". (Minors refers to under 15s; the text of the article can be subject to interpretation).


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: Article 227-22-1 prohibits the "soliciting of a minor under the age of fifteen, or a person pretending to be such minor, for sexual purposes through the use of a computer system".


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: Article 227-27 prohibits sexual relations with minors over age 15 (aged 15, 16 or 17) "1° where they are committed by an ascendant or by any other person having a legal or factual authority over the victim; 2° where they are committed by a person abusing the authority conferred by his functions."


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: In 2021 the French law was amended so that any sexual activity with a person below 15 is automatically classified as rape or sexual assault, unless the other party is within five years of age as per a Romeo and Juliet clause. However, this five year exception was not extended to Article 227–25, which carries a potential 7-year sentence of imprisonment. Additionally, the law categorizes as rape any sex with a relative below 15 years of age.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: Male homosexual acts were illegal until 1791, when the ancient sodomy laws were dropped from the Criminal Code of that year. This continued to be the case under the Napoleonic Code of 1810.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: The age of consent was set at 11 in 1832 and at 12 in 1863. In 1942, the age of consent for homosexual acts was set at 21, while for heterosexual acts it was still 12. The latter was increased to 13 in 1945. In 1974, the age for homosexual acts was lowered to 18. In 1982, it was further lowered to 13, in line with that for heterosexual acts.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: The age of consent in Germany is 14, as long as a person over the age of 21 does not exploit a 14- to 15-year-old person's lack of capacity for sexual self-determination, in which case a conviction of an individual over the age of 21 requires a complaint from the younger individual; being over 21 and engaging in sexual relations with a minor of that age does not constitute an offense by itself. Otherwise the age of consent is 16, although provisions protecting minors against abuse apply until the age of 18 (under Section 182(1): it is illegal to engage in sexual activity with a person under 18 "by taking advantage of an exploitative situation").


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: This is specified by Sections 176 (Sexual abuse of children), 180 (Promotion of sex of minors) and 182 (Sexual abuse of youths) of the Penal Code, which read:


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: § 176: "(1) Punished by imprisonment at least one year (and not more than fifteen years pursuant to § 38) shall whoever


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: § 180: "(1) Whoever abets the commission of sexual acts of a person under sixteen years of age on or in front of a third person or sexual acts of a third person on a person under sixteen years of age":


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: § 182: "(3) A person over twenty-one years of age who abuses a person under sixteen years of age, in that he:


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: and thereby exploits the victim's lack of capacity for sexual self-determination, shall be punished with imprisonment for not more than three years or a fine. [...] The act shall only be prosecuted upon complaint, unless the prosecuting authority considers "ex officio" that it is required to enter the case because of the special public interest therein. [...] The court may dispense with punishment pursuant to these provisions if, in consideration of the conduct of the person against whom the act was directed, the wrongfulness of the act is slight."


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: The current rules for age of consent in Germany were set following a post-reunification penal law reform in 1994. The ages of 14 and 16 had been relevant since the Criminal Code for the German Empire came into force in 1872: Under § 176, sexual acts with children under 14 were illegal and have been always since. Under § 182, seduction of an "unblemished girl under the age of 16" was prosecuted upon complaint of parents or legal guardian only. In West Germany the latter rule was kept, with minor changes in 1973: Unblemishedness was no longer required, and the court could refrain from punishment if the offender was under 21 years of age. The German Democratic Republic, by contrast, created a new socialist criminal code in 1968. Under § 149, sexual acts with persons of the opposite sex between the ages of 14 and 16 were punishable if the victim's "moral immaturity" was exploited by using "gifts, the promise of benefits or similar" methods of persuasion "to initiate intercourse or actions similar to intercourse".


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: Male homosexuality had been illegal under § 175 regardless of age since 1872. Female homosexuality was not prosecuted. In West Germany, male homosexuality was legalized in 1969. The age of consent was set to 21 years and reduced to 18 years in 1973. Only men of 18 or older could be offenders and courts could refrain from punishment if the offender was not yet 21. In East Germany, the criminal code was supplemented in 1957 by a provision that allowed the waiving of prosecution if no harm had been done to socialist society by the unlawful act. Concerning § 175, this meant that male homosexual acts were prosecuted only if they involved minors, which meant persons under 18. The new criminal code of 1968 officially legalized homosexuality and in § 151, which now was gender-neutral, criminalized only homosexual acts of adults with minors. In 1987 the GDR supreme court ruled homosexuality was a variant of sexual behaviour just as heterosexuality. In 1989 § 151 was repealed and § 149 amended to include any sexual orientation.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: After German reunification, according to the Unification Treaty of 1990, the § 149 code section stayed in force for the territory of the former GDR, and in West Germany, § 175 and § 182 were no longer enacted. West German lawmakers also saw the need for gender- and sexual-orientation-neutrality, and for rebalancing sexual self-determination with the protection of minors. In the ensuing 1994 reform, the minimum age of 14 for all of Germany was kept, and in building on legal traditions of both states, sexual acts committed by a person above 21 with a minor under 16 involving exploitation of the minor's individual lack of capacity for sexual self-determination were made punishable in new § 182. § 175 was abolished. In general, the need for a complaint from the former West German law was kept, but in the case of special public interest, the offence was made prosecutable ex officio, as had been the case in East German law.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: The general provision for age of consent in Greece is 15 as specified by Article 339, as well as Articles 337, 348B of the Greek Penal Code. In 2015, along with the legalization of same-sex civil unions, Article 347 which provided a further prohibition of seducing a male under 17 if the actor is a male adult was repealed, therefore equalising age of consent for homosexual acts.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: There are also several other prohibitions regarding positions of authority and sexual acts, as specified by Articles 342 and 343. Furthermore, there is a close-in-age exemption of 3 years age difference for sexual acts between persons younger than 15.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: The age of consent in Hungary is 14. A close-in-age exemption allows sexual acts from age 12 if the older party is under 18.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: "The person who has completed their eighteenth year who has sexual intercourse with a person who has not yet completed their fourteenth year, commits a felony and shall be punishable with imprisonment from one year to five years".


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: "The person who has sexual intercourse with a person who has not yet completed their twelfth year, commits a felony and shall be punishable with imprisonment from five years to ten years".


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: Until 1961, homosexual acts were illegal. After decriminalisation, the age of consent for homosexual acts was 20 and remained so until 1978. From then, until 1999, the age of consent for such acts was 18, as specified by Section 199. In 2002, the Hungarian Constitutional Court repealed Section 199, and the age of consent for homosexual acts was lowered to 14 in line with heterosexual acts.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: The age of consent in Iceland is 15, as specified by Section 202 of the Icelandic Penal Code, which reads: "Anyone who has carnal intercourse or other sexual intimacy with a child younger than 15 years shall be subject to imprisonment for at least 1 year and up to 15 years." The age of consent was raised from 14 to 15 in 2007.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: The age of consent in the Republic of Ireland is 17, in relation to vaginal or anal sex, and vaginal or anal penetration. This is the joint highest, with (Southern) Cyprus, age of consent in the European Union.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: Relevant offences are found in the "Criminal Law (Sexual Offences) Act 2017", which amended the Criminal Law (Sexual Offences) Act 2006. Sentences are longer for offences on children under 15, for repeat offences and where the offender is an authority-figure such as a close relative or teacher. In the case of offenses with children aged 15 and 16, the relevant statute, "Sexual act with child under 17 years of age", provides that "8) Where, in proceedings for an offence under this section against a child who at the time of the alleged commission of the offence had attained the age of 15 years but was under the age of 17 years, it shall be a defence that the child consented to the sexual act of which the offence consisted where the defendant—(a) is younger or less than 2 years older than the child,(b) was not, at the time of the alleged commission of the offence, a person in authority in respect of the child, and (c) was not, at the time of the alleged commission of the offence, in a relationship with the child that was intimidatory or exploitative of the child."


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: Prior to the 1922 independence of the Irish Free State, the law in Ireland was that of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland (see the UK history section). Anal sex was illegal under the Offences against the Person Act 1861, while the Criminal Law Amendment Act 1885 criminalised "Defilement of girl between thirteen and sixteen years of age", with more severe penalties for "Defilement of girl under thirteen years of age". The 1930 Carrigan Report into child sex abuse and underage prostitution recommended raising the age of consent to 18 years. The Criminal Law Amendment Act 1935 raised the age to 17, with more severe penalties under age 15, and disallowed a defence of mistake. The law on child sex abuse, including the age of consent, was the subject of a 1989 consultation paper and 1990 report by the Law Reform Commission (LRC). The Criminal Law (Sexual Offences) Act 1993 decriminalised male homosexual acts and created offences of "Buggery of persons under 17 years of age" and "Gross indecency with males under 17 years of age". In 2006, the 1935 law was struck out when the Supreme Court found that its prohibition of the mistake defence violated a defendant's Constitutional rights. The Criminal Law (Sexual Offences) Act 2006, quickly passed within the scope of the Supreme Court's judgment, replaced the 1935 and 1993 offences with the current ones. The exemption for girls under 17 was recommended by the LRC and the Director of Public Prosecutions who felt "it would be wrong to stigmatise mothers and pregnant girls of 15 or 16 years of age as if they were either the victims of violent rape or they had committed a crime". While this was controversial, the Minister pointed out that the previous law had not criminalised any sex act by a girl under 17. The 2006 report of the Oireachtas Joint Committee on Child Protection recommended changing the age of consent to 16, and 18 with a person in authority. It advised that close-in-age cases should remain criminalised, but with more lenient guidelines for sentencing. It also recommended wider publicity of the age limits. Most of the changes were implemented in 2017, although the age of consent remained 17.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: The age of consent in Italy is 14 years, with a close-in-age exception that allows those aged 13 to engage in sexual activity with partners who are under the age of 18, provided that the age gap between them is less than 4 years. The age of consent rises to 16 if one of the participants has some kind of influence on the other (e.g. parent - being a natural or an adoptive one, teacher, tutor, etc.). Not knowing that the victim is underage is not a legal defense, except when it was unavoidable ignorance. If the minor involved is under the age of 11, the crime can be punished even without a complaint and the punishment is aggravated. It is also illegal to perform sexual acts in the presence of a minor aged less than 14 with the intent of allowing the minor to witness the acts, even if they do not take an active part.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: See also related articles from the Italian Criminal Code (in Italian). See also more related articles from Interpol.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: "Article 122. Sexual Intercourse and Other Actions of a Sexual Character with a Person Under Sixteen Years of Age"


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: Sexual intercourse, sodomy, or lesbianism or other acts of sexual nature, with a person who did not reach sixteen years of age, the guilty party being aware of that fact, shall be punished by restriction of freedom for a period up to three years, or by detention under arrest for a period up to six months, or deprivation of freedom for a period up to five years.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: The age of consent in Kosovo is 16. Article 228 of the Penal Penalty Code states that "Term 'Consent' means the voluntary agreement of a person who has reached the age of sixteen years to engage in the sexual act in question", and Article 230 states that, 1. Whoever subjects another person to a sexual act without such person's consent shall be punished by imprisonment of two (2) to ten (10) years".


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: The main legislation is specified by the Latvian Criminal Law, Section 161 (Acts of a sexual nature with a Person who has not Attained the Age of Sixteen Years), which translated reads: "Committing a sexual, anal or oral act or another unnatural sexual act of gratification, or other acts of a sexual nature committed in physical contact with the victim's body, if it was done with a person who has not attained the age of sixteen years and if such offence has been committed by a person who has attained the age of majority, is punished by deprivation of liberty for a term of up to five years, or short-term imprisonment, or community service, or a fine and probationary supervision for a period of up to five years."


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: Until 1992, male homosexual acts were illegal under Section 124.1 of the Latvian Criminal Code. This provision was repealed by the Latvian Parliament in 1992 and the age of consent for male homosexual acts was set at 18. In 1998, the Latvian Parliament adopted a new Criminal Code that contained a complex system of sexual offences: the age of consent for all sexual acts other than vaginal intercourse was 14; for vaginal intercourse it was 16 (with a close-in-age exemption that allowed 14- and 15-year-olds to have sex with a person under 18). In 2001, the law was amended to clarify the situation and confirm that the age of consent was 16 for all acts (only a person aged 18 or older can be punished for having sex with a 14–15-year-old).


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: The age of consent in Liechtenstein is 14. Sexual activity with 14- to 15-year-olds is generally legal, but it can still be punished if sexual access to these children has been obtained by exploiting their lack of sexual self-determination.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: The age of consent in Lithuania is 16, as specified by the Lithuanian Criminal Code 151.1, introduced by the bill of 2 July 2010.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: Previously the age of consent was set to 14 according to the Lithuanian Criminal Code §153 prohibiting any sexual molestation or sexual relationships with a minor under 14 years. The age of consent (14) was not set directly in this article of the Lithuanian criminal code, though. It has been established by the Lithuanian case law. This meant that both heterosexual and homosexual acts were allowed once a child had reached the age of 14. There was (and remains) an exception to this rule: §151.1(3) of the Lithuanian Criminal Code prohibits parents, guardians, or other people who are ex officio directly responsible for the upbringing and supervision of a child to have any relationships of sexual kind with the child, if he or she has not yet reached the age of 18.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: Until 1993, male homosexual acts were prohibited under the Lithuanian Criminal Code, Article 1221, which was repealed in that year. The new law set an age of consent of 17 for male oral and anal intercourse, 16 for other male homosexual acts, and 14 for lesbian and heterosexual acts. In 2004, the law was amended to equalise the age of consent at 14 for all sexual acts; the age of consent was raised to 16 in 2010, regardless of gender and sexual orientation.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: The age of consent in Luxembourg is 16, as specified by the Luxembourgish Penal Code, Article 372, which reads: "All indecent assaults on modesty committed without violence or threat, by a person or by aiding the person, of a child of either sex, aged less than sixteen, will be punished by imprisonment of one to five years.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: The age of consent in Malta is 16. Sexual activity - typically by people over 16 - with people between 12 and 16 can be considered defilement of minors by lewd acts or corruption of a minor, which, at the discretion of prosecutors and the courts, depending on the circumstances, may result in a conviction.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: Art 201 of Chapter 9 of the Laws of Malta ("Presumption of violence in cases of carnal knowledge and indecent assault") states:


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: The punishment is imprisonment from three to nine years, with or without solitary confinement, as described in Art. 198 ("Rape or carnal knowledge with violence"). The punishment can be increased in certain cases described in Art. 202, such as when the person has not attained the age of nine years.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: A number of aggravating circumstances exist to this blanket provision including: Abuse of parental authority or tutorship, where the victim is under the age of 12 and if the offence is committed by means of threats or deceit. There is no definition of how old the offender must be: Even another minor can be guilty of this crime, although there is no evidence that any such case has ever been prosecuted.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: The interpretation of the law is situational and at the discretion of the prosecution and the courts, based on relevant factors that may be taken into account to decide whether the minor was actually "defiled". For example, in 2008 two brothers, aged 19 and 20, were found not guilty of defiling a girl, then aged 16 (until 2018 the age of consent was 18). Their sexual encounters were consensual, and it was clear that the girl had had several previous sexual adventures with several youths. In 2007 a man of 30 was found guilty of defiling a boy, then aged 14. He had set up a situation in which the boy came to his apartment; as a result of both childish curiosity and what the court deemed to be the guile of the adult man, the boy remained in the apartment even while man first showered and then committed the lewd acts. There are also other cases, where offenders have been found guilty even though the circumstances were not clear, such as the case of a hotel manager aged 35 with a 14-year-old girl on holiday, three men aged 18, 19 and 20 with three 14-year-old girls or another hotel manager of 46 and a boy of 14, who had encounters over a longer time.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: In the wording of the law there is no discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation. However, discrimination can result from selective enforcement with regard to individual cases. "This may therefore lead to a higher incidence of cases in which the minor and the perpetrator are of the same sex, given that there may be parents who would not resort to legal proceedings should their 17-year-old child have sexual relations with another person of the opposite sex but would do so if the person is of the same sex."


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: Marriage is allowed as early as the age of 16, which until May 2018 theoretically would have allowed a case to arise in which a spouse press charges under this article. In practice, this problem has never arisen.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: The concept of age-banding employed in for example Canada is not present in the Maltese legal system and sexual activity between one partner who is 15 years old and another who is 16 years old can constitute defilement of minors, depending on the circumstances, with no exception being allowed purely on the basis of the proximity of their ages.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: In early 2018 Parliament voted in favour of the "Gender-Based Violence and Domestic Violence Act, 2018" which came into effect on 14 May 2018. The primary objective of the Act is to transpose the Council of Europe Convention on prevention and combating of violence against women and domestic violence, and it also includes amendments that lowered the age of consent to 16.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: The age of consent in Moldova is 16, per Article 174- "Sexual intercourse with a person under 16", and Article 175- "Perverted Actions".


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: (1) Sexual intercourse other than rape as well as any other acts of vaginal or anal penetration committed with a person certainly known to be under the age of 16 shall be punished by imprisonment for up to 5 years.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: (2) The person who committed the act set forth in par. (1) shall not be subject to criminal liability if he/she is similar to the victim in terms of age and physical and mental


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: Articles 171 and 172 provide harsher penalties for Rape and Violent Sexual Actions (including physical or mental coercion) against juveniles.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: The age of consent in Montenegro is 14, as set out in Article 206 of the Criminal Code. Article 207 makes it illegal for a teacher, instructor, guardian, adoptive parent, stepfather, stepmother or other person with a similar position to abuse one's position or authority in order to perform sexual intercourse or an equal act with a minor (under 18) entrusted for teaching, education, custody and care. Article 209 (2) makes it illegal for a person to "provide for performing debauchery, an act equal to it or some other sexual act to a minor". Article 216 prohibits "Extramarital community with a minor"


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: Article 216 reads: (1) An adult person who lives in an extramarital community with a minor, shall be punished by an imprisonment sentence of three months to three years.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: (2) A parent, adoptive parent or a guardian who enables a minor to live in an extramarital community with another person or incites him/her into it shall be punished by a penalty referred to in Paragraph 1 of this Article.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: The age of consent in the Netherlands is 16, as specified by the Dutch Criminal Code: Close-in-age exceptions (for consensual acts between adolescents close in age, within "social-ethical norms") are at the discretion of the prosecution. Acts such as a ménage-a-trois, or an unequal relationship, e.g. the perpetrator (17) was not in love, while the victim (15) was, can also be considered outside "social-ethical norms".


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: In the 1990s, the Netherlands gained international attention due to its policies regarding the age of consent. Between 1990 and 2002 the Netherlands operated what was in effect an age of consent of 12, subject to qualifications. The relevant law, passed in November 1990, permitted sexual intercourse for young people between 12 and 16 in most circumstances, but allowed a challenge by parents or by the Child Protection Agency if there was evidence of exploitation. Although the age of consent was often reported internationally to be 12, this was partly misleading, because sexual acts up to 16 remained open to prosecution. The Netherlands has gained an international reputation of being extremely liberal on sexual issues, with some of this due to exaggerated reports in foreign media and claims by foreign politicians, rather than based on reality. For instance, during the 1980s, some conservative campaigners in the US claimed that children were sold into sexual slavery at "auctions" held in Amsterdam, but did not produce any evidence to support their claims.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: Article 188(1) of the Criminal Code of North Macedonia (amended 2018) prohibits sexual conduct with a child under 14:


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: However, Article 197 prohibits an adult living in an extra-marital community with a Juvenile under 18:


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: Article 189(2) prohibits sexual acts with a Juvenile under 18 when there is an abuse of trust or authority:


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: Previously Article 71 defined "Child" as a person under 14, while article 72 defined "Juvenile" as a person under 18. These articles were deleted in the amended code.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: Northern Cyprus has an age of consent of 16 as designated in the Penal Code ("Ceza Yasası", Art. 153 & 154).


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: Prior to 2014, sodomy was illegal, the age of consent only applied to females and sexual contact with a female between the ages of 13 and 16 was a misdemeanor. As of 2014, the age of consent is set at 16 for both males and females, sexual contact with any child under 16 regardless of gender is a felony and the ban on sodomy is lifted, thereby legalizing homosexual sex.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: The age of consent in Norway is 16, as specified by the 2005 Penal Code §304: which reads: "Any person who performs a sexual act with a child under 16 years of age shall be subject to imprisonment for a term not exceeding three years, unless the conduct falls within the scope of section 299." Aggravating circumstances as recidivism, multiple perpetrators, and unusual degree of degradation and pain, or physical harm (including, specifically, sexually transmitted diseases) may raise the maximum penalty.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: If the child is under 14 years, §299 of the same penal code, reads: "A penalty of imprisonment for a term not exceeding 10 years shall be applied to any person who:


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: b) makes a child under 14 years of age perform acts corresponding to sexual activity on himself/herself, or


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: c) performs an aggravated sexual act with a child under 14 years of age." §300 and §301 of the same penal code, sets minimum penalty, of any person who engages in sexual acts with children under 14 years, to 3-year of imprisonment, and up to 21 years.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: "Any person who engages in sexual activity with a child between 14 and 16 years of age shall be subject to imprisonment for a term not exceeding six years, unless the conduct also falls within the scope of other provisions. The same penalty shall be applied to any person who makes a child between 14 and 16 years of age perform acts corresponding to sexual activity on himself/herself."


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: According to Chapter 1, § 5, of the penal code, §299-306 applies also if the act was committed outside Norway and by a non-Norwegian citizen or resident.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: Even though one may be found guilty of violating the age of consent code, if those involved are "about equal as regards age and development", the court can exercise its own discretion to suspend passing a sentence.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: Sexual relations between two women was never explicitly criminalized, but have been prosecuted under the general indecency law of the Civil Penal Code of 1842.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: In 1951 a Norwegian ministry of justice white paper recommended de-criminalization of homosexual acts in the 1903 Civil Penal Code §213, but this was rejected by the Norwegian Parliament (Stortinget). The ban on sex between men, which also outlawed cohabitation as well as sex with animals, was repealed in 1972 (bestiality having been recriminalized in 2008).


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: The Penal Code of 2005, replaced the 1902 General Civil Penal Code, and was entered into force on 1 October 2005.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: According to the Svalbard Treaty, Norwegian law is applied as the minimum standard. The age of consent is therefore 16.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: The age of consent in Poland is 15, as specified by the Polish Penal Code (Kodeks karny), Article 200, which reads:


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: Article 200 § 1. Whoever subjects a minor under 15 years of age to sexual intercourse or makes them submit to another sexual act or to perform such an act shall be subject to the penalty of the deprivation of liberty for a term of between 2 and 12 years.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: In 1932, the new Polish Penal Code after regaining independence was introduced, setting the age of consent at 15 years for all sexual acts, regardless of gender.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: Art 171 of the Portuguese Penal Code establishes the age of consent as 14, regardless of gender or sexual orientation, but Art 173 forbids sexual relations between adults and adolescents aged 14 to 16 if it can be said the adult took advantage of the adolescent's inexperience, and Art 172 limits it further, forbidding sexual relations with youth aged 16 to 18 by adults entrusted with their education or assistance.Section II - Crimes against sexual self-determination


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: 1. Anyone who engages in a major sexual act with or under 14 years of age, or causes him to do it with another person, is punished with imprisonment from one to eight years.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: 2. If the sexual act of relief consists of copulation, anal intercourse, oral intercourse or vaginal or anal introduction of body parts or objects, the agent is punished with imprisonment of three to ten years.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: b) Act on a child under the age of 14, by means of a conversation, writing, spectacle or pornographic object;


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: 4. Whoever commits the acts described in the preceding paragraph for profit is punished with imprisonment from six months to five years.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: 1. Those who practice or lead to practice the act described in paragraphs 1 or 2 of the previous article, relative to a minor between 14 and 18 years of age entrusted to him or her for education or assistance, shall be punished with imprisonment from one to eight years. .


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: 2. Whoever commits an act described in paragraph 3 of the previous article, in relation to the minor understood in the previous paragraph of this article and under the conditions described therein, shall be punished with imprisonment of up to one year.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: 3. Whoever commits the acts described in the preceding paragraph for profit is punished with imprisonment for up to 5 years.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: 1. Who, being of legal age , engages in a major sexual act between the ages of 14 and 16, or causes it to be practiced by him with others, abusing his inexperience, is punished with imprisonment for up to 2 years.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: 2. If the sexual act of relief consists of copulation, oral intercourse, anal intercourse or vaginal or anal introduction of body parts or objects, the agent is punished with imprisonment for up to 3 years.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: Since September 2007, the age of consent was formally equalised as part of the Penal Code of September 2007. Although the age of consent is stipulated at 14 in Portugal, the legality of sexual acts with a minor between 14 and 16 is open to legal interpretation since the law states that it is illegal to perform a sexual act with an adolescent between 14 and 16 years old "by taking advantage of their inexperience". Homosexual acts were legalised for the first time in Portugal in 1852, with an equal age of consent at that time - although homosexuality was again re-criminalised in 1886. They were decriminalised a second time in 1983 and an age of consent was set at 16, in line with heterosexual activities. In 1995, a new Penal Code was introduced with "different circumstances" for different sexual behaviours. Since September 2007, the age of consent, regardless of sexual behaviour, gender or sexual orientation, is 14 .


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: The Romanian Criminal Code currently sets the age of consent to 16, according to legal changes in 2020.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: According to Article 220 of the Penal Code: "Sexual intercourse, oral or anal intercourse, as well as any other acts of vaginal or anal penetration committed with a minor aged between 14 and 16 shall be punished by imprisonment from one to 5 years." ("Raportul sexual, actul sexual oral sau anal, precum și orice alte acte de penetrare vaginală sau anală comise cu un minor cu vârsta între 14 și 16 ani se pedepsesc cu închisoarea de la unu la 5 ani".) If aggravated circumstances exist, the punishment increases to up to 10 years. If the age difference between partners is not more than three years, the acts are not punished (paragraph 6, art 220).


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: However, sexual acts that do not include penetration may be performed from age 14. The law sets several other restrictions in regard to children under 14: it is illegal for an adult to perform sexual acts in view of such a child; to show pornographic materials to such a child or to induce the child to view sex shows; or to solicit such a child to meet for sexual acts (such as on-line solicitation). (articles 221 and 222 of the Penal Code).


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: In addition, it is illegal for an adult to engage in sexual acts with an adolescent under 18, if the adult abuses the authority or influence they have over the minor in order to gain the sexual access.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: The relevant articles of the Criminal Code are Art. 220, Art. 221 and Art. 222. All these laws are gender neutral and apply regardless of the sexual orientation of those involved.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: For a very long time, the age of consent in Romania was 14. The Penal Code of 1864, which followed shortly after the union of the Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia, and was in force between 1865 and 1936, set an age of consent of 14. Under this code, Article 263 read: "Any assault against decency, whether completed or attempted, without violence, upon the person of a child, either male or female, aged less than 14 years, shall be punished with imprisonment between two and three years." Article 264 defined "assault against decency with violence", the equivalent of the modern-day crime of rape (although the term "rape" was not used in that code), and stipulated that the maximum penalty should be given if the victim was under 15 years of age. In 1936, a new criminal code came into force. Article 421 read: "The man who has sexual intercourse with a girl under 14 years of age commits the offense of assault against decency without violence, and is punishable by imprisonment between one and three years." However, if aggravated factors existed (such as pregnancy, a sexually transmitted disease, or committed by a person with a specific relation to the victim, or by several persons) the punishment was increased. With regard to rape (article 419) the victim being under 14 constituted an aggravating factor. After the installation of the communist regime, the code was modified several time, and, in 1969, a new penal code came into effect. Nevertheless, the age of consent of 14 was maintained. Article 198 of the 1969 code read: "Sexual intercourse with a female person who has not attained the age of 14 is punishable by imprisonment of one to five years." In a case of rape, similarly with the previous code, the victim being under 14 constituted an aggravating factor (Article 197).


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: The late 1990s and the early 21st century saw major modifications to the criminal code, in an effort to modify what was seen as outdated provisions, especially as Romania prepared to enter the EU. As such, homosexuality was decriminalized, the text of several criminal offences was modified by making it gender-neutral, the age of consent was lifted to 15 (applicable to both girls and boys), punishments for several sexual crimes were increased, and the stipulation that a rapist could avoid punishment after rape if he married his victim was abolished. Changes were made through Law no. 140/1996, Law No. 197/2000, Emergency Ordinance no. 89/2001, and Emergency Ordinance no. 143/2002. Nevertheless, the rapid adoption of numerous laws led to poorly drafted and contradictory texts, which have caused difficulty among the jurisprudence and doctrine, and several cases ended to the High Court of Cassation and Justice in order to clarify the interpretation of the law. Finally, a new criminal code entered into force on 1 February 2014, which set the age of consent at 15.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: The age of consent in Russia is 16. The age of consent changed several times in Russian history: the "Criminal Code of RSFSR" (Russian Soviet Federal Socialist Republic) stated "sexual maturity" as the age of consent; when the "Criminal Code of Russia" was adopted in 1996, the age of consent was proclaimed to be the same regardless of sexual orientation and was set to 16 years old; in 1998 it was lowered to 14 years; and in 2003 it was returned again to 16 years (which is the current age of consent in Russia). Law of early 2012 tightened the consent laws in Articles 134 and 135 considerably. However, only a person over 18 can be charged. Charges are relatively low (up to 4 years of prison) - regardless of gender - and "obscene actions" have even less charges. If the victim is not understanding the nature and consequences of the act (due to their age being under 12 or mental abilities), it will be considered rape and charged much more severely (up to 15 years of prison, or up to 20 if the victim is under 14).


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: Article 134 is entitled "Sexual Intercourse and Other Actions of Sexual Character with a Person Who Has Not Reached the Age of Sixteen Years".


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: 1. Sexual intercourse committed by a person who has reached the age of eighteen years with a person who has not reached the age of sixteen years - shall be punishable by obligatory labour for a term of up to 480 hours, or by restriction of liberty for a term of up to four years, or by compulsory labour for a term of up to four years with or without deprivation of the right to hold certain posts or to be engaged in a certain activity for a period of up to three years, or by deprivation of liberty for a term of up to four years with or without deprivation of the right to hold certain posts or to be engaged in a certain activity for a period of up to ten years.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: 2. Pederasty or lesbianism in respect of a person who has not reached sixteen years of age effected by a person who has reached eighteen years of age - shall be punishable by compulsory labour for a term of up to five years with or without deprivation of the right to hold certain posts or to be engaged in a certain activity for a period of up to three years, or by deprivation of liberty for a term of up to six years with or without deprivation of the right to hold certain posts or to be engaged in a certain activity for a period of up to ten years.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: 3. The deeds stipulated by Parts One and Two of this Article committed to a person who has reached twelve years of age but has not reached fourteen years of age - shall be punishable with deprivation of freedom for a term of three to ten years with or without deprivation of the right to hold certain posts or to be engaged in a certain activity for a period of up to fifteen years and with restriction of liberty for a term of up to two years or without such.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: 4. The deeds stipulated by Parts One, Two or Three of this Article committed in respect of two or more persons - shall be punishable by deprivation of freedom for a term of eight to fifteen years with or without deprivation of the right to hold certain posts or to be engaged in a certain activity for a period of up to twenty years.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: 5. The deeds provided for by Parts One, Two, Three or Four of this article made by a group of persons, by a group of persons by previous concert or by an organised group - shall be punishable by deprivation of freedom for a term of twelve to twenty years with or without deprivation of the right to hold certain posts or to be engaged in a certain activity for a period of up to twenty years and with restriction of liberty for a term of up to two years or without such.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: 6. The deeds provided for by Part Three of this article made by a person with a previous conviction for having committed an offence against sexual integrity of a minor - shall be punishable by deprivation of freedom for a term of fifteen to twenty years with or without deprivation of the right to hold certain posts or to be engaged in a certain activity for a period of up to twenty years or by life imprisonment.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: 1. A person who for the first time has committed the crime stipulated by Part One of this Article, shall be relieved of punishment by court if it is established that such person and the action committed by him/her are no longer socially dangerous in connection with his/her entry into marriage with the victim.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: 2. Where the age difference between the victim and the accused person is less than four years, the latter shall not be punishable by deprivation of liberty for the committed deed provided for by Part One of this article or by Part One of Article 135 of this Code.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: 1. The commission of lecherous actions without using violence by a person who has reached eighteen years of age in respect of a person who has not reached sixteen years of age -


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: shall be punishable by obligatory labour for a term of up to 440 hours, or by restriction of liberty for a term of up to three years, or by compulsory labour for a term of up to five years with or without deprivation of the right to hold certain posts or to be engaged in a certain activity for a period of up to three years, or by deprivation of liberty for a term of up to three years with or without deprivation of the right to hold certain posts or to be engaged in a certain activity for a period of up to ten years.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: 2. The same deed committed in respect of the person who has reached twelve years of age but has not reached fourteen years of age -


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: shall be punishable with deprivation of freedom for a term of three to eight years with or without deprivation of the right to hold certain posts or to be engaged in a certain activity for a period of up to fifteen years and with restriction of liberty for a term of up to two years or without such.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: 3. The deeds provided for by Parts One or Two of this article made in respect of two or more persons -


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: shall be punishable by deprivation of liberty for a term of five to twelve years with or without deprivation of the right to hold certain posts or to be engaged in a certain activity for a period of up to twenty years.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: 4. The acts stipulated by Parts One, Two or Three of this Article committed by a group of persons in preliminary collusion or by an organised group -


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: shall be punishable by deprivation of freedom for a term of seven to fifteen years with or without deprivation of the right to hold certain posts or to be engaged in a certain activity for a period of up to twenty years and with restriction of liberty for a term of up to two years or without such.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: 5. The deed provided for by Part Two of this article which is made by the person who has a previous conviction for having committed an offence against sexual integrity of a minor -


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: shall be punishable by deprivation of liberty for a term of ten to fifteen years with deprivation of the right to hold definite offices or to engage in definite activities for a term of up to twenty years.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: Article 134. Illicit Sexual Relations or Other Sexual Actions with a Person Who Has Not Reached 16 Years of Age


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: Illicit sexual relations, pederasty, or lesbianism, committed by a person who has reached 18 years of age with a person who obviously has not reached 16 years of age, shall be punishable by restraint of liberty for a term of up to three years or by deprivation of liberty for a term of up to four years.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: Article 135. Depraved Actions Commission of depraved actions without the use of violence by the person who has reached the age of 18 years in relations to a person who obviously has not reached 16


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: years of age, shall be punishable by a fine in the amount up to 300 thousand roubles, or in the amount of the wage or salary, or any other income of the convicted person for a period up to two years, or by restraint of liberty for a term of up to two years, or by deprivation of liberty for a term of up to three years.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: Article 134. Illicit Sexual Relations or Other Sexual Actions with a Person Who Has Not Attained 14 Years of Age


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: Illicit sexual relations, pederasty, or lesbianism, committed by a person who has attained 18 years of age with a person who obviously has not attained 14 years of age,


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: shall be punishable by restraint of liberty for a term of up to three years or by deprivation of liberty for a term of up to four years.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: Article 135. Depraved Actions Commission of depraved actions without the use of violence, in relations to a person who obviously has not attained 14 years of age,


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: shall be punishable by a fine in the amount of 300 to 500 minimum wages, or in the amount of the wage or salary, or any other income of the convicted person for a period of three to five months, or by restraint of liberty for a term of up to two years, or by deprivation of liberty for a term of up to three years.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: The penalty for having sex with a minor is not always applied. For example, in 2005, Valentina Isaeva gave birth to a girl in Moscow, Russia at the age of 11 years, 10 months. The father was 19-year-old Habibula Patahonov from Tajikistan, who rented a room in a flat where Valentina was living with her grandmother. The child's father was sentenced conditionally for child abuse but was not jailed because he was willing to support Valentina and their daughter.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: The age of consent in San Marino is 14, per "Article 173". It is also illegal, under "Article 177", to "incite a minor under 18 years to sexual corruption".


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: The age of consent in Serbia is 14, regardless of sexual orientation or gender. This is regulated by Chapter 18 (Sexual Offences) of the Penal Code of the Republic of Serbia and especially Article 180 (prohibiting sexual intercourse with a child). Article 112 defines a child as a person under 14 years of age.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: Article 181 prohibits sexual intercourse with a juvenile (defined in Article 112 as a person under 18) if the juvenile is entrusted for learning, tutoring, guardianship or care. Article 190 furthermore forbids cohabitation with a minor (person under 18) unless a marriage is conducted.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: From 1977 to 1994, sexual acts between men of any age was a criminal offence in Serbia, although the law has never been applied. Then in 1994, the age of consent was 18 just for anal sex between males; any male performing anal sexual conduct with another male, is punishable by up to 1 year in prison, 16 for all other sexual conduct. Since 2006, an equal age of consent came into force, regardless of sexual orientation or gender - This is regulated by the section 110 of the Penal Code of the Republic of Serbia stating that "lewd acts" between a male adult and a male under the age of 16 is punishable by imprisonment from 1 to 8 years. There is no specific reference to "lewd acts" between two females of the same offence.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: The province of Vojvodina, a northern province of Serbia, had decriminalized homosexuality in 1978, thus effectively making an equal age of consent for any sexual practice regardless of sex or gender. This lasted until Vojvodina lost its law-making power in 1990.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: The age limit of sexual acts in Slovakia is 15, as specified by the Slovak Criminal Code, Section 201.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: "1. Any person, who has sexual intercourse with a person less than fifteen years of age or who subjects such person to other sexual abuse, shall be liable to a term of imprisonment of three to ten years."


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: The history before 1993 within Czechoslovakia is commons with the Czech Republic. Until 1961, homosexual acts were prohibited, however the Criminal Code of that year decriminalised such behaviour partially. However, under Paragraph 244, the age limit of restriction for homosexual acts was set at 18, besides the general limit 15 years. In 1990, the whole Paragraph 244 was repealed and the age limit became 15 for all.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: The age of consent in Slovenia is 15, as specified by the Slovenian Penal Code, Article 173, Section 1, which reads: "(1) Whoever has sexual intercourse or performs any lewd act with a person of the same or opposite sex under the age of fifteen (15) years where there is a marked discrepancy between the maturity of the perpetrator and that of the victim shall be sentenced to imprisonment for not less than six (6) months and not more than five (5) years."


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: Until 1959, male homosexual acts were prohibited, as was the case in all of former Yugoslavia. A new Penal Code was introduced in 1977, which decriminalised homosexual acts and all discriminatory provisions were removed. In 1995, the age of consent was set at 14 for all acts. In 1999, the code was amended to raise the age of consent to 15 years and added the condition for "a marked discrepancy between the maturity of the perpetrator and that of the victim'".


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: The age of consent rises to 18 if there is deception or abuse of a recognized position of trust, authority or influence over the minor.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: (1). El que, interviniendo engaño o abusando de una posición reconocida de confianza, autoridad o influencia sobre la víctima, realice actos de carácter sexual con persona mayor de dieciséis años y menor de dieciocho, será castigado con la pena de prisión de uno a tres años.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: Historically, the age of consent was usually twelve in the Christian kingdoms of Iberia. A new Penal Code was introduced in Spain in 1995 which specified an age of consent of 12 for all sexual acts, but this was raised to 13 in 1999 and to 16 in 2015.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: Same-sex sexual acts were lawful in Spain from 1822 to 1954, with the exception of the offence of "unusual or outrageous indecent acts with same-sex persons" between the years 1928 and 1932. However, some homosexuals were arrested in the days of the Second Spanish Republic under the "Ley de Vagos y Maleantes" (Vagrants and Common Delinquents Law). Homosexual acts were made unlawful during Francisco Franco's time in power, first by an amendment to the "Ley de Vagos y Maleantes" in 1954, and later by the "Ley de Peligrosidad y Rehabilitación Social " (Law on Danger and Social Rehabilitation) in 1970. In 1979 Adolfo Suarez's government reversed the prohibition of homosexual acts in that law.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: The age of consent in Sweden is 15, as specified by the Swedish Penal Code, Chapter 6 (On Sexual Crimes). The age of fifteen is referred to several times, for example in Section 4, which reads: "A person who has sexual intercourse with a child under fifteen years of age or who with such a child carries out another sexual act that, having regard to the nature of the violation and the circumstances in general, is comparable to sexual intercourse, shall be sentenced for rape of a child to imprisonment for at least two and at most six years."


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: There is a position of trust rule in which the age of consent is raised to 18. The section mentioned above continues: "The same applies to the person who carries out an act referred to in the first paragraph to a child more than fifteen years of age but less than eighteen years of age and who is offspring to the perpetrator or in the perpetrator's care or in a similar relationship to the perpetrator, or for whose care or guardianship the perpetrator is responsible due to the decision of a government agency."


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: It is not legal to have sexual intercourse with related adults either, but the sentences for that (up to two years) are considerably milder than those for rape of a child (two to six years, four to ten years if aggravated).


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: There is also a close in age exception (Chapter 6, Section 14) "...not sentenced if it is obvious that the act is no violation of the child considered the small difference in age between the person who carries out the act and the child and other circumstances." In a verdict of 30 March 2007, the Supreme Court found that a 17-year-old boy had not committed a criminal act by having sexual intercourse with a girl 14 years and 7 months old. (Case B 415–07)


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: The Swedish age of consent also applies if the act takes place outside Sweden but the elder person later goes to Sweden. The elder person doesn't have to be a Swedish citizen or resident, but could be a tourist on a temporary visit. This is regardless of the age of consent in the country where the act took place.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: Homosexual acts, both between men and between women, were prohibited in Sweden since 1864, then in 1944 homosexual acts became legal - but with a higher age of consent of 18 (21 if the younger part was in a situation of dependency) than for heterosexual acts, which was always set at 15. The age of consent was finally equalized to 15 regardless of sexual orientation in 1978.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: Pornography laws were softened in the 1960s. In 1965 there was a review of previous laws governing pornography depicting children as part of the "child's rights to sexuality". From 1971 to 1980 it was legal to buy, sell, and possess child pornography that featured children as young as 10 or 11.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: The age of consent in Switzerland is 16, as specified by the Swiss Federal Criminal Code, Article 187(1). However, there exists a close-in-age exception if the difference between the ages of the participants is three years or less (Article 187(2)).


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: The age of consent in Turkey is the age of majority (set at 18 as per Article 11 of the Turkish Civil Code).


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: According to Article 104 of the Turkish Penal Code ("Türk Ceza Kanunu"), sexual intercourse with minors aged 15, 16 and 17 can only be prosecuted upon a complaint. However, if the offender is a person who is forbidden to marry the child by law or is a person who is obliged to take care of the child due to adoption or foster care, then the prosecution doesn't require a complaint and the punishment is aggravated.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: Article 103 regulates any kind of sexual activity with minors under 15 (or minors under 18 who lack the ability to understand the legal meanings and consequences of such actions) as child sexual abuse.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: The age of consent in Turkey was set at 15 for both heterosexual and homosexual sex in the 1926 penal code, but this was modified in 1953. The age of consent was still 15, only for some instances, it was 18. The new penal code of 2004 sets the age of consent for both heterosexual and homosexual sex at 18, and non-penetrative sexual contact at 15, with some differences, such as the act of having sexual intercourse with a minor over 15 being punishable upon a complaint.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: The age of consent in Ukraine is set at 16 since 2018, regardless of gender and/or sexual orientation.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: Article 155 states that sexual intercourse with a person under the age of 16 committed by a person over the age of 18 shall be punishable. Additionally, according to Article 152 (since January 2019) sexual intercourse with a person under the age of 14 (regardless of his/her voluntary consent) is a rape. The law no longer makes reference to the concept of "sexual maturity", which existed in the former legislative framework.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: The United Kingdom consists of the jurisdictions of England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland. UK national age of consent legislation does not apply to its dependencies, but they all have it set as 16.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: The age of consent in England and Wales is 16 regardless of sexual orientation or gender, as specified by the Sexual Offences Act 2003.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: The vast majority of law relating to sexual offences in England and Wales is laid out in legislation under the Sexual Offences Act 2003, which contains upwards of 140 sections, of which around 70 relate directly to sexual offences. The main sections that relate to sexual offences regarding children are sections 5–15. Sections 5–8 largely reiterate the adult offences of sections 1–4 – rape, assault by penetration, sexual assault, and causing a person to engage in sexual activity without consent – replacing the element of non-consent with the victim being under 13 – with higher maximum sentences in the latter two cases. Sections 9–12 define offences against a child under 13, "or" a child under 16 whom the defendant does not reasonably believe is 16 or over. These offences are sexual activity with a child, meaning sexual touching (the same "actus reus" as sexual assault); causing or inciting a child to engage in sexual activity; engaging in sexual activity in the presence of a child for sexual gratification; and causing a child to watch a sexual act, meaning a third person or an image, for sexual gratification. Under section 13, these offences carry a lower penalty of 5 years' imprisonment when committed by a person under 18.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: Any person who engages in sexual intercourse with a person under age 16 could be prosecuted (unless they are under 10, the age of criminal responsibility). This therefore means that even sexual intercourse between willing people of a similar age (e.g., a 16-year-old and a 15-year-old) could result in the older person being liable for prosecution for committing a sexual offence. Because of this, guidelines were put in place on how to appropriately prosecute a person who had sexual intercourse with a person under the age of 16, depending on exactly how young a person under the age of 16 was at time the sexual intercourse took place. The Crown Prosecution Service generally has discretion to decide not to prosecute if the facts of the individual case do not warrant it, and the judge (or magistrates, as the case may be) has discretion to impose more lenient or more severe sentences, up to the legal limits, as the facts warrant. It is rare that prosecution would be brought against persons aged 13 or over engaging in sexual intercourse/activity willingly, as long as all persons involved were of similar age, and it did not involve other matters such as violence, abuse or blackmail.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: Because it can be difficult to tell whether a teenager is over 16 or not, for the child sex offences in sections 9–13, it is a defence to show that the defendant "reasonably" believed the other person was 16 or over (for example, they look mature enough that they could plausibly be 16 and tell the defendant that they are). This defence is not available if the child was, in fact, under 13. There is thus a two-tier system by age, where sex with a person between 13 and 16 may be legal, but sex with a person under 13 never is.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: The age of consent is 18 for a few purposes. Section 16 prohibits sexual activity with a child under 18 by an adult in a position of trust (such as a carer or teacher), even if the child in question is 16 or 17. However, this contains an exception for relationships beginning before the position of trust arose. Under section 47 it is an offence to pay for or promise payment for sexual services of a person under 18 where the client does not reasonably believe that person is over 18, or in any event for a person under 13.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: The age of consent for heterosexual acts in England was set at 12 in 1275 during the reign of Edward I. The wording had the meaning – "It shall be deemed illegal to ravage a maiden who is not of age" – at the time "of age" being 12. Therefore, there was technically no age of consent for the male participant. The English law became applicable in Wales following the Laws in Wales Acts (1536 and 1543). In medieval Welsh law there was no actual equivalent of the concept of the age of consent as such, but a girl was marriageable at 12–14 (the onset of puberty) and a fine was payable for the taking of a girl's maidenhood by force; the rules varied according to status and may not have been applied rigidly to commoners.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: A concern that young girls were being sold into brothels led Parliament to raise the age of consent to 13 in 1875 under the Offences against the Person Act 1875. After W. T. Stead's "Maiden Tribute" articles, the Criminal Law Amendment Act 1885 raised the age of consent to 16.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: Anal intercourse, both male-male and male-female, had been illegal and punishable by death since the Buggery Act 1533. In 1861, parliament passed the Offences against the Person Act 1861, which abolished the death penalty for anal intercourse. The Criminal Law Amendment Act 1885 extended buggery laws to outlaw any kind of sexual activity between males. It is common folklore that an amendment that would have criminalised lesbian acts was rejected by Queen Victoria because she refused to believe that some women did such things; but it is likelier that those presenting the amendment excluded it (as did the House of Lords 40 years later) on the assumption that it would give women ideas.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: Male homosexual acts were decriminalised under the Sexual Offences Act 1967, Section 1, although the age of consent for such acts was set at 21, whereas the age of consent for heterosexual acts was 16. However, this particular legislation applied only in England and Wales.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: In 1994, on the second reading of the Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994, the Conservative Member of Parliament Edwina Currie introduced an amendment to lower the age of consent for homosexual acts to 16, in line with that for heterosexual acts; the amendment was defeated by 308 votes to 280. A compromise amendment that lowered the age of consent to 18 was accepted by 427 votes to 162. Also during the readings were motions to equalise the age of consent to 17 for all, to maintain the age of consent for homosexual acts to 21, and a further attempt to lower the age of consent to 16, all of which were rejected.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: In 1997, the European Court of Human Rights case of "Sutherland v United Kingdom" held that a higher age of consent for homosexuals than for heterosexuals was a breach of Article 14 in conjunction with Article 8 of the convention. In response, the Government introduced the Crime and Disorder Bill that contained a provision lowering the age of consent for homosexual acts to 16. Though accepted by the House of Commons, the provision was rejected by the House of Lords. The Sexual Offences (Amendment) Bill, introduced in 1998, contained a similar provision, but once again it was rejected by the House of Lords. The Bill was reintroduced in 2000 and, despite opposition from the House of Lords, was passed under the Parliament Act 1911 (which allows the House of Commons to overrule the House of Lords under certain circumstances). As the Scottish Parliament had been established prior to the reintroduction of the Bill, and the relevant legislation was a devolved issue, the consent of that Parliament under the Sewel Convention was required – had that consent not been granted, the Scottish provisions would have had to be removed and it would not have been possible to use the Parliament Act.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: The Sexual Offences (Amendment) Act 2000 became law in January 2001 throughout the UK, and thus equalized, regardless of gender, the age of consent at 16 for both heterosexual and homosexual acts (including, for the first time, lesbian acts), except those taking place between a 15–16-year-old and someone "in a position of trust" (e.g. a teacher), where the age of consent was raised to 18.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: The Sexual Offences Act 2003 officially ended the concept of buggery in British law, as technically, heterosexual anal intercourse had still been illegal until the passing of this law. The passing of this law meant that there was no legal difference made between vaginal and anal intercourse, as well as sexual touching and newly added oral penetration and penetration by other body parts than the penis or anything else. The Act also raised the legal age for pornography and prostitution from 16 to 18.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: There have been various suggestions to lower the age of consent to 14 – in 1998 the New Labour government proposed this, but despite some left-wing and youth support this had been dropped by early 2003 as lacking support, a decade later in early 2013 the suggestion by civil servants to lower the age of consent to 14 was rejected by the Conservative led coalition as 'offensive' (at least under some circumstances) and attention was drawn to the impact of recent scandals on the reception to any proposals.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: Since 1 December 2010, the age of consent in Scotland is 16, regardless of sexual orientation or gender. Before that date, it was 15 for girls (under a statutory offence) and 14 for boys (the common law age of puberty). However, consensual sex with a girl aged between 13 and 15 is not rape, but a lesser offence; on 1 December 2010 this was given the specific name of "having intercourse with an older child". Aged between 13 and 15 excludes 15. Recently, this has caused a debate with family advocates and the Scottish government.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: Male homosexual acts were illegal in Scotland until 1980 when they were decriminalised by the Criminal Justice (Scotland) Act 1980, Section 80, which specified an age of consent of 21. The Criminal Law (Consolidation) (Scotland) Act 1995 lowered the age of consent to 18 and this was further lowered to 15 by the Sexual Offences (Amendment) Act 2000 described above. Male rape was recognised along with a complete overhaul of sexual offences legislation under the Sexual Offences (Scotland) Act 2009 (in force from 1 December 2010, except for sections 52 and 53).


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: The age of consent in Northern Ireland is 16, regardless of sexual orientation or gender, as specified by the Sexual Offences (Northern Ireland) Order 2008. The reason the age of consent was lowered from 17 to 16 in 2008 with the Order was to bring it in line with the rest of the UK; Criminal Justice Minister Paul Goggins said there was no compelling reason for the age to be different in Northern Ireland than elsewhere.


title: Ages of consent in Europe

text: Prior to 2008, the age of consent in Northern Ireland was always 17 for heterosexuals and lesbian sexual conduct.