title: Meredith Baxter

text: Baxter, the actress best known for playing hippie mom Elyse Keaton on the 1980s sitcom "Family Ties", said that the abuser was her then-husband David Birney, who denied the allegations.


title: Meredith Baxter

text: In her memoir, Baxter alleges that Birney hit her more than once. "It was so sudden and unexpected, I couldn't tell you which hand hit me, or even how hard," she writes. "I do recall thinking, 'I'd better not get up because he's going to hit me again.'"


title: Meredith Baxter

text: She writes that she coped with the marital violence by drinking heavily, but has been sober since 1990 (the year after she and Birney divorced).


title: Meredith Baxter

text: Regarding the fact that Baxter's marriage to Birney lasted throughout the entire seven seasons that she worked on "Family Ties", ABC News reported,


title: Meredith Baxter

text: "You learn to compartmentalize," she said on NBC. "When I got to the [television] studio, my home life was not happening. Nobody knew anything. I didn't have a social life. I did my work, I went home."


title: Meredith Baxter

text: The day after Baxter discussed Birney on the "Today" "Show", she traveled to Chicago to appear on "The Oprah Winfrey Show" for further discussion of the topics covered in her memoir. Winfrey's staff had arranged for "Family Ties" co-star Michael Gross to surprise Baxter on-camera. Gross confirmed the assumption that Baxter had made throughout their seven years of working on the sitcom, that no one connected with the series had known or suspected that Baxter's husband was abusing her at the time. Gross was affectionate with Baxter on camera and expressed sorrow that she had endured such an ordeal for so long. Birney vehemently denied the claims that he had abused Baxter.


title: A History of Violence

text: A History of Violence is a 2005 action thriller film directed by David Cronenberg and written by Josh Olson. It is an adaptation of the 1997 graphic novel of the same title by John Wagner and Vince Locke. The film stars Viggo Mortensen, Maria Bello, William Hurt, and Ed Harris. In the film, when a pair of petty criminals attempt to rob his small-town diner, Tom Stall quickly and easily kills them both. In the flush of news coverage of Tom's seemingly heroic actions, a threatening stranger named Carl Fogarty comes to town, fingering the unassuming family man as long-missing Philadelphia mobster Joey Cusack. To the horror of his wife, Edie, and teenage son, Jack, Tom finds he must confront his violent past.


title: A History of Violence

text: "A History of Violence" was in the main competition for the 2005 Palme d'Or, and was put into a limited release in the United States on September 23, 2005, followed by a wide release on September 30, 2005. It is sometimes considered one of the greatest films of the 2000s. The film was specifically praised for its performances, screenplay, atmosphere, and plot. William Hurt was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor, while Olson was nominated for Best Adapted Screenplay. Mortensen himself praised it as "one of the best movies [he's] ever been in, if not the best", also declaring it was a "perfect film noir" or "close to perfect". It is also notable as being one of the last major Hollywood films to be released on VHS.


title: A History of Violence

text: Tom Stall is a diner owner who lives in small-town Indiana with his wife Edie and his children Jack and Sarah. One night, two spree killers enter Tom's restaurant, threaten those inside, and sexually assault one of his employees. Tom deftly kills them and is hailed a hero, while the incident makes national news.


title: A History of Violence

text: A few days later, Tom is visited by a man named Carl Fogarty, who alleges that Tom is actually Joey Cusack, a former gangster with the Irish mob in Philadelphia. Tom vehemently denies this, but Carl remains persistent and begins to stalk the Stalls. Under pressure, Tom's relationship with Edie, Jack, and Sarah faces continued strain.


title: A History of Violence

text: Following an argument with Tom over the use of violence at school, Jack runs away, only to be captured and held hostage by Carl. Carl confronts Tom and demands his return to Philadelphia in exchange for his son's release. After Jack is freed, Tom manages to kill Carl's henchmen until Carl shoots him. A wounded Tom drops his façade and manifests his former self, but Jack shoots and kills Carl with a shotgun before he can fight back.


title: A History of Violence

text: At the hospital, a furious Edie confronts Tom, who admits to being Joey Cusack, revealing that he started a new life to escape his criminal past. Tom becomes further isolated from the rest of his family and the community. One day, Tom receives a phone call from his estranged brother, Richie Cusack, who demands his return.


title: A History of Violence

text: Returning to Philadelphia, Tom learns that his past actions have delayed Richie's advancement with the Irish mob. Tom offers peace, but Richie orders his men to kill his brother. Tom manages to escape from being strangled to death; he kills the gangsters and confronts Richie before shooting him dead. After returning home to find his family eating dinner, Tom is offered food by Jack and Sarah, signaling his acceptance back into their lives.


title: A History of Violence

text: The film is loosely based on the original graphic novel. Screenwriter Josh Olson intended from the beginning to use the original story as a springboard to explore the themes that interested him.


title: A History of Violence

text: In a 2014 interview, Mortensen said he read Olson's original version of the script and "was quite disappointed. It was 120-odd pages of just mayhem; kind of senseless, really." He only agreed to do the movie after meeting with Cronenberg, who (according to Mortensen) reworked the script.


title: A History of Violence

text: Most of the film was shot in Millbrook, Ontario. The shopping centre scene was shot in Tottenham, Ontario, and the climactic scene was shot at the historic Eaton Hall Mansion, located in King City, Ontario. Harrison Ford turned down the role of Tom Stall.


title: A History of Violence

text: The U.S. and European versions differ on only two fight scenes - one where Tom breaks the nose of one of Fogarty's thugs and one where he stomps on the throat of one of Richie Cusack's thugs. Both scenes display more blood flowing or gushing out of the victims in the European version. In addition, a more pronounced bone-crushing sound effect is used when Tom stomps on the thug's throat.


title: A History of Violence

text: A deleted scene, known as "Scene 44", features a dream sequence in the diner, where Fogarty tells Tom he will kill his family and him, to which Tom responds by shooting him with his shotgun at close range. He then approaches Fogarty's mangled body, which raises a gun and shoots him. In the DVD extras' on-set footage, Mortensen suggests Harris should pull the gun from his chest cavity. Cronenberg, while amused by the idea, rejects it for being too self-referential; he cites a sequence in his film "Videodrome", in which a character pulls a handgun from a slit in his stomach.


title: A History of Violence

text: The film's title plays on multiple levels of meaning. Film critic Roger Ebert stated that Cronenberg refers to three possibilities:


title: A History of Violence

text: Cronenberg himself described the film as a meditation on the human body and its relationship to violence:


title: A History of Violence

text: For me the first fact of human existence is the human body. I'm not an atheist, but for me to turn away from any aspect of the human body to me is a philosophical betrayal. And there's a lot of art and religion whose whole purpose is to turn away from the human body. I feel in my art that my mandate is to not do that. So whether it's beautiful things—the sexuality part, or the violent part or the gooey part—it's just body fluids. It's when Elliott in "Dead Ringer" ("sic") says, "Why are there no beauty contests for the insides of bodies?" It's a thought that disturbs me. How can we be disgusted by our own bodies? That really doesn't make any human sense. It makes some animal sense but it doesn't make human sense so I'm always discussing that in my movies and in this movie in particular. I don't ever feel that I've been exploitive in a crude, vulgar way, or just doing it to get attention. It's always got a purpose which I can be very articulate about. In this movie, we've got an audience that's definitely going to applaud these acts of violence and they do because it's set up that these acts are justifiable and almost heroic at times. But I'm saying, "Okay, if you can applaud that, can you applaud this?" because this is the result of that gunshot in the head. It's not nice. And even if the violence is justifiable, the consequences of the violence are exactly the same. The body does not know what was the morality of that act. So I'm asking the audience to see if they can contain the whole experience of this violent act instead of just the heroic/dramatic one. I'm saying "Here's the really nasty effects on these nasty guys but still, the effects are very nasty." And that's the paradox and conundrum."


title: A History of Violence

text: "A History of Violence" premiered at the Cannes Film Festival in May 2005, and was released in the United States on September 30 following a successful limited release on September 23, 2005.


title: A History of Violence

text: The film was released on DVD and VHS formats on March 14, 2006, and was reported by the "Los Angeles Times" as being the last major Hollywood film to be released on VHS.


title: A History of Violence

text: The film started with a limited release in 14 theaters and grossed $515,992 at the box office, averaging $36,856 per theater. A week later, it went on a wide release in 1,340 theaters and grossed $8,103,077 in its opening weekend. During its entire theatrical run, the film grossed $31,504,633 in the United States and $60,334,064 worldwide.


title: A History of Violence

text: The film received widespread acclaim from critics. Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a score of 87% based on 215 critics' reviews, with an average rating of 7.90/10. The website's consensus reads, ""A History of Violence" raises compelling and thoughtful questions about the nature of violence, while representing a return to form for director David Cronenberg in one of his more uncharacteristic pieces." On Metacritic, the film has an average score of 81 out of 100, based on 37 reviews, indicating "universal acclaim". It was ranked the best film of 2005 in the Village Voice Film Poll. "Empire" named the film the 448th-greatest film of all time. The French film magazine "Cahiers du cinéma" ranked the film as 5th place in its list of best films of the decade 2000–2009. However, audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "C+" on an A+ to F scale.


title: A History of Violence

text: "Rolling Stone" critic Peter Travers gave the film four stars, highlighting its "explosive power and subversive wit", and lauded David Cronenberg as a "world-class director, at the top of his startlingly creative form". "Entertainment Weekly" reviewer Lisa Schwarzbaum gave the film an A, concluding that "David Cronenberg's brilliant movie" was "without a doubt one of the very best of the year". Manohla Dargis of "The New York Times" called the film a "mindblower", and noted Cronenberg's "refusal to let us indulge in movie violence without paying a price". Roger Ebert also gave the film a very positive review, observing, ""A History of Violence" seems deceptively straightforward, coming from a director with Cronenberg's quirky complexity, but think again. This is not a movie about plot, but about character." He gave it stars (out of 4).


title: A History of Violence

text: In December 2005, it was named to the Toronto International Film Festival's annual Canada's top-ten list of the year's best Canadian films.


title: A History of Violence

text: In his list of best films of the decade, Peter Travers named this number four, praising director David Cronenberg:


title: A History of Violence

text: Is Canadian director David Cronenberg the most unsung maverick artist in movies? Bet on it ... Cronenberg knows violence is wired into our DNA. His film showed how we secretly crave what we publicly condemn. This is potent poison for a thriller, and unadulterated, unforgettable Cronenberg.


title: A History of Violence

text: In 2016, the film was ranked among the 100 greatest films since 2000 in an international critics' poll by 177 critics around the world.


Harry Potter 20th Anniversary: Return to Hogwarts is a television special released on 1 January 2022 on HBO Max. It is a reunion special for the cast and crew of the "Harry Potter" film series, marking the twentieth anniversary of the series' first instalment, "Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone" (2001). It was produced by Warner Bros. Unscripted Television in association with Warner Horizon and executive produced by Casey Patterson.


title: Harry Potter 20th Anniversary: Return to Hogwarts

text: The films' protagonist trio Daniel Radcliffe, Rupert Grint, and Emma Watson appear in the special, with surviving principal cast members Helena Bonham Carter, Robbie Coltrane, Ralph Fiennes, Jason Isaacs, Gary Oldman, Tom Felton, James Phelps, Oliver Phelps, Mark Williams, Bonnie Wright, Alfred Enoch, Ian Hart, Toby Jones, Matthew Lewis, Evanna Lynch, producer David Heyman, and filmmakers Chris Columbus, Alfonso Cuarón, Mike Newell, and David Yates. The special also marked Coltrane's final on-screen appearance before his death in October that year.


text: The reunion features clips of and pays tribute to cast members who have since died, including Helen McCrory, Alan Rickman, John Hurt, Richard Griffiths and Richard Harris.


text: In November 2021, Warner Bros. announced "Harry Potter 20th Anniversary: Return to Hogwarts", a retrospective special featuring the cast and filmmakers of the "Harry Potter" film series to celebrate the 20th anniversary of the release of the series' first instalment, "Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone" (2001). The special is produced by Warner Bros. Unscripted Television in association with Warner Horizon and executive produced by Casey Patterson.


text: J. K. Rowling—the author of the original "Harry Potter" book series, who had a significant role in the production of the film adaptations—is largely absent from the special. She appears for under thirty seconds in archival footage from her interviews in 2019 and is mentioned by some of the special's interviewees, but no advertisements for the special featured images of her. Critics speculated that this was due to her views on transgender issues and, as "The Daily Telegraph"s Ed Power put it, consequent "public rebuke by the series' stars". However, "Entertainment Weekly" reported that Rowling had been invited to appear but she felt that the archival footage was sufficient, with "sources close to the situation" denying that the author's decision was related to the controversy surrounding her remarks on transgender issues.


text: The special was filmed at Warner Bros. Studio Tour London – The Making of "Harry Potter" in Leavesden, England.


text: In the initial release, a childhood image of Emma Roberts taken from Google Images was mistakenly presented as an image of a young Watson, and Oliver and James Phelps are mislabelled as each other. By 3 January, these errors had been corrected in a new version.


text: "Return to Hogwarts" was released on HBO Max on 1 January 2022. The special aired on 10 April 2022 on TBS, and on Cartoon Network ahead of the release of "". It was later released on both Blu-ray and DVD on 9 August 2022.


text: On the review-aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes, the special has approval rating with an average rating of , based on reviews. The site's critical consensus reads, "Affectionate and revealing, "Return to Hogwarts" offers an intimate glimpse into how the making of the "Harry Potter" franchise delivered its own special kind of magic for those involved." Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned a score of 65 out of 100 based on 11 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".


title: Karlie Kloss

text: Karlie Elizabeth Kloss (born August 3, 1992) is an American fashion model. "Vogue Paris" declared her one of the "top 30 models of the 2000s" when she was 17.


title: Karlie Kloss

text: Kloss was a Victoria's Secret Angel from 2013 until 2015; she resigned to study at New York University. Models.com has said that Kloss "represents the gold standard of modeling—a girl with the look, the poise, and the drive to take things to the next level," and she ranks on their "New Supers" and "Money Girl" lists. By 2019, she had appeared on 40 international "Vogue" covers.


title: Karlie Kloss

text: Outside of modeling, Kloss has an interest in technology and has founded the "Kode with Klossy" camp, which aims to get young girls interested in STEM fields. In 2019, Kloss became the host of the reality competition television series "Project Runway".


title: Karlie Kloss

text: Kloss was born on August 3, 1992, in Chicago, Illinois, to Tracy, a freelance director, and Kurt Kloss, an emergency physician. Her family has German, Danish, and Polish ancestry. She has three sisters. She moved to St. Louis with her family in 1994. In 2013, the family moved to Goshen, New York to support her modeling career. Kloss has called her classical ballet training "a beautiful thing" that taught her how to move in the modeling world and was a great training ground for her runway walk.


title: Karlie Kloss

text: In 2011, Kloss graduated from Webster Groves High School in Webster Groves, Missouri, where she was a cheerleader. In September 2015, Kloss enrolled in the Gallatin School of Individualized Study of New York University.


title: Karlie Kloss

text: Kloss was discovered at a local benefit runway show. In 2006, at the age of 14, Kloss posed for a cover and editorial shoot for the June issue of "Scene Magazine" in Chicago with photographer David Leslie Anthony, in an editorial spread titled "Almost Famous". Elite Model Management Chicago then forwarded these tear sheets to Elite Model Management's New York office, who signed her.


title: Karlie Kloss

text: Her first credited modeling shoot was photographed by Arthur Elgort for "Teen Vogue". One of her first modeling stints was for Abercrombie Kids when she posed for the brand's photography shot by Bruce Weber. In January 2008, she left Elite Model Management and signed with Next Management. She walked 31 runways in New York Fashion Week, notably walking as an exclusive for Calvin Klein, closing for Marc Jacobs, opening Carolina Herrera, and occupying both spots at Doo.Ri. After New York, she walked 20 shows in Milan, and 13 in Paris for the fall 2008 collections, with 64 shows in a single season.


title: Karlie Kloss

text: Kloss found herself in the middle of a legal dispute when her former agency, Elite Model Management, sued Next Management for allegedly stealing its star by offering her "improper compensation" to sign; Elite Model Management felt they were responsible for launching her career. The case was eventually settled out of court. After four years of being represented by Next Management, Kloss signed with IMG Models (also leaving Mother Model Management in St. Louis).


title: Karlie Kloss

text: She has been in advertisements for Rebecca Taylor, Jean Paul Gaultier, Donna Karan, Nina Ricci, Chloé, Lacoste, Sportmax, Alexander McQueen, Yves Saint Laurent, Elie Saab, Dolce & Gabbana, Gap, Bally Shoe, Bergdorf Goodman, Pringle of Scotland, Dior, Hermès, Oscar de la Renta, Sonia Rykiel, Aquascutum, Topshop, Eryn Brinie, Uniqlo, Omnia Jade, Lord & Taylor, Barneys New York, American Eagle, Victoria's Secret PINK, and Adidas. Kloss is the face of the Marc Jacobs fragrance "Lola". She has walked for numerous designers in New York, London, Milan, and Paris, including Shiatzy Chen, Calvin Klein, Karl Lagerfeld, Marc Jacobs, Zac Posen, Givenchy, Gucci, Valentino, Louis Vuitton, Versace, and Elie Saab.


title: Karlie Kloss

text: Kloss has appeared in editorials for American and Korean "W", American "Elle", "Allure", "i-D", French and Japanese "Numéro", "Vanity Fair", "Dazed & Confused"; and American, Australian, Italian, French, British, Korean, German, Japanese, Chinese, Turkish, Portuguese, Teen, and Latin American editions of "Vogue" magazine. She notably appeared on 12 international "Vogue" covers, including "Vogue Italia", in a five-year span. She appeared on the cover of "Teen Vogue", alongside Chanel Iman and Ali Michael in February 2008, and by herself in May 2010.


title: Karlie Kloss

text: She made her first venture into television when she appeared in the "Gossip Girl" episode "Belles de Jour" as herself. She became a muse for fashion designer John Galliano, and has appeared in Dior and John Galliano campaigns. She opened both shows, Christian Dior Haute Couture and Dior resort for spring/summer 2010. In the spring/summer 2011 season, she opened ten shows and closed eight.


title: Karlie Kloss

text: Her runway walk, one of the most unusual, is often described as powerful. Kloss's height, long legs, and precise placement of one foot perfectly in front of the other in fluid motion distinguish her catwalk stride, usually garnished with a serious, sultry expression. Kloss has described her runway walk a "moody gait".


title: Karlie Kloss

text: In 2011, Kloss renewed her contract with Christian Dior for the third season in a row. Photographer Gabrielle Revere was commissioned by "Life" magazine to photograph Karlie Kloss for the cover of a special print issue handed out during New York Fashion Week in September 2011. The photo story inside the issue was photographed during the summer of 2011, and shows her at the couture shows in Paris, in New York City, and in Saint Louis, her hometown. The same year, she made her debut in the Victoria's Secret Fashion Show.


title: Karlie Kloss

text: In 2012, Kloss was featured on the September covers of "British Vogue", "Japanese Vogue", "Harper's Bazaar Russia", and "Numéro". She appeared in the campaign ads of Juicy Couture, Stefanel, Elie Saab, and Jean Paul Gaultier. She co-hosted the revival of the MTV series "House of Style" with fellow model Joan Smalls. She also appeared in that year's Victoria's Secret Fashion Show, but one of her outfits was cut out of the broadcast after appearing in a Native American headdress that was deemed offensive. Just before the Victoria's Secret Fashion in 2012, Kloss cut her long hair into a bob which is famously called the "Karlie".


title: Karlie Kloss

text: In 2013, Kloss was the face of Donna Karan, Lacoste, and Lanvin campaigns. Kloss worked with Victoria's Secret on their 2013 summer swimwear video. She was also the red carpet host of the 2013 MTV Movie Awards pre-show. In April, Kloss starred alongside Daria Strokous, Monika Jagaciak, and Iris Strubegger in Louis Vuitton's Alma bag campaign. In 2013, Kloss was named as one of the new ambassadors for Coach, Inc. and starred in the accessory maker's fall 2013 campaign.


title: Karlie Kloss

text: In 2014, Kloss was the face of Jean Paul Gaultier, Nike, Donna Karan, Lancaster, and the Chanel Coco Noir fragrance campaigns. She also collaborated with Frame Denim to design the Forever Karlie jeans collection. In summer 2014, Kloss worked with Warby Parker to design the Karlie Kloss x Warby Parker eyewear line, proceeds of which benefited Edible Schoolyard NYC. In September 2014, after many speculations, L'Oreal Paris officially announced that they have signed Kloss to be the newest face. In the September 2014 issue of "American Vogue", she was featured on the cover with Joan Smalls, Cara Delevingne, Arizona Muse, Edie Campbell, Imaan Hammam, Fei Fei Sun, Vanessa Axente, and Andreea Diaconu as "The Instagirls!"


title: Karlie Kloss

text: In 2015, Kloss covered the March issue of American "Vogue" with her close friend Taylor Swift. Kloss portrayed the role of "Knockout" in the music video for Swift's song "Bad Blood" which premiered at the 2015 "Billboard" Music Awards. Kloss appeared in several video segments during Taylor Swift's 1989 World Tour and appeared live on stage with Swift at the performance of June 27, 2015 at London's Hyde Park, as well as on July 11, 2015, at the MetLife Stadium in East Rutherford, New Jersey. Kloss also starred in the music video for Chic's "I'll Be There", which was directed by Inez van Lamsweerde and Vinoodh Matadin. On July 21, 2015, Kloss started her own YouTube channel, "Klossy", which features weekly vlogs and Q&A videos. Kloss is a close friend of filmmaker Casey Neistat, who assisted her in starting up on YouTube.


title: Karlie Kloss

text: In May 2016, Kloss was named the new face of Swarovski, replacing fellow Victoria's Secret alumna Miranda Kerr, for a two-year contract.


title: Karlie Kloss

text: In April 2017, she appeared as a correspondent on the Netflix series "Bill Nye Saves the World". Kloss was featured in "Vogue"'s March 2017 issue. The spread was criticized by some as a form of cultural appropriation as she appeared styled as a geisha. She later posted a public apology. In Fall 2017, Kloss announced her TV show, "Movie Night with Karlie Kloss", airing on Freeform in winter 2017. On May 24, 2017 Kloss won the Diane von Furstenberg Inspiration Award.


title: Karlie Kloss

text: In April 2018, Kloss was announced as Estée Lauder's newest Global spokesmodel and Brand Ambassador. The company is committed to supporting her initiative "Kode with Klossy" through scholarships and events. In October 2018, Kloss confirmed that she would be stepping in Heidi Klum's shoes on the seventeenth season of "Project Runway" as the host and executive producer: "I could not be more excited to host and produce a series that provides a platform to aspiring American designers as they pursue their creative and entrepreneurial dreams."


title: Karlie Kloss

text: In October 2019, Kloss narrated the season 2 episode "Coding" on the Netflix and Vox Media television show "Explained".


title: Karlie Kloss

text: Kloss is a computer programmer. In April 2015, Kloss began partnering with Flatiron School and Code.org to offer an annual scholarship called "Kode with Klossy" for young girls interested in computer science and software engineering. In 2015, she also launched the "Kode with Klossy" two-week summer coding camp for girls from ages 13–18. As of 2018, the camp had expanded to include "50 coding camps in 25 US cities, teaching 1,000 girls to code." The camp teaches the basics of numerous programming languages, including: Ruby, JavaScript and Swift. By the end of the program, those partaking in the camp had built fully functional mobile apps or websites.


title: Karlie Kloss

text: In collaboration with Momofuku Milk Bar, Kloss created a special recipe called Karlie's Kookies sold in DKNY Soho during Fashion's Night Out in New York City, with proceeds benefiting hungry children around the world (through FEED Projects). Kloss called it a "Perfect 10 Kookie" because for every tin of cookies sold, 10 meals were donated to starving children all over the world.


title: Karlie Kloss

text: Kloss is also an investor, with the "Daily Front Row" reporting in 2020 that Kloss was one of a group of high profile investors who purchased the fashion magazine "W". She's also an investor in probiotic company Seed.


title: Karlie Kloss

text: Kloss began dating businessman and investor Joshua Kushner in 2012. On July 24, 2018, Kloss announced her engagement to Kushner, one month after she converted to Judaism (Kushner's religion). The couple married on October 18, 2018, in upstate New York. In June 2019, Kloss and Kushner had a second wedding celebration in Wyoming.


title: Karlie Kloss

text: Through her marriage, she is related to Kushner's brother Jared and his wife Ivanka Trump, who are members of the family of Donald Trump. She has stated that she finds it "frustrating [...] that the spotlight is always shifted away from [her] career toward [her] relationship". In October 2020, it was reported that Kloss and Kushner are expecting their first child. In December 2020, the couple purchased a home in Miami, Florida for US$23.5 million. Their first child was born in March 2021. She supported Hillary Clinton in the 2016 United States presidential election.


title: Karlie Kloss

text: In March 2018, both Kloss and her husband attended the March for Our Lives event in Washington, D.C. in protest of gun violence in the United States. She is a feminist, and has stated that her decision to leave Victoria's Secret was partly motivated by her beliefs. Kloss supported Joe Biden in the 2020 United States presidential election.


title: Testicle

text: A testicle or testis (plural testes) is the male reproductive gland or gonad in all bilaterians, including humans. It is homologous to the female ovary. The functions of the testes are to produce both sperm and androgens, primarily testosterone. Testosterone release is controlled by the anterior pituitary luteinizing hormone, whereas sperm production is controlled both by the anterior pituitary follicle-stimulating hormone and gonadal testosterone.


title: Testicle

text: Males have two testicles of similar size contained within the scrotum, which is an extension of the abdominal wall. Scrotal asymmetry, in which one testicle extends farther down into the scrotum than the other, is common. This is because of the differences in the vasculature's anatomy. For 85% of men, the right testis hangs lower than the left one.


title: Testicle

text: The volume of the testicle can be estimated by palpating it and comparing it to ellipsoids of known sizes. Another method is to use calipers (an orchidometer) or a ruler either on the person or on an ultrasound image to obtain the three measurements of the x, y, and z axes (length, depth and width). These measurements can then be used to calculate the volume, using the formula for the volume of an ellipsoid:


title: Testicle

text: An average adult testicle measures up to . The Tanner scale, which is used to assess the maturity of the male genitalia, assigns a maturity stage to the calculated volume ranging from stage I, a volume of less than 1.5 cm; to stage V, a volume greater than 20 cm. Normal volume is 15 to 25 cm; the average is 18 cm per testis (range 12–30 cm).


title: Testicle

text: The number of spermatozoa an adult human male produces is directly proportional to testicular volume, as larger testicles contain more seminiferous tubules and Sertoli cells as a result. As such, men with larger testicles produce on average more sperm cells in each ejaculate, as testicular volume is positively correlated with semen profiles.


title: Testicle

text: The testes are covered by a tough fibrous shell called the tunica albuginea. Under the tunica albuginea, the testes contain very fine-coiled tubes called seminiferous tubules. The tubules are lined with a layer of cells (germ cells) that develop from puberty through old age into sperm cells (also known as spermatozoa or male gametes). The developing sperm travel through the seminiferous tubules to the rete testis located in the mediastinum testis, to the efferent ducts, and then to the epididymis where newly created sperm cells mature (spermatogenesis). The sperm move into the vas deferens, and are eventually expelled through the urethra and out of the urethral orifice through muscular contractions.


title: Testicle

text: Within the seminiferous tubules, the germ cells develop into spermatogonia, spermatocytes, spermatids and spermatozoa through the process of spermatogenesis. The gametes contain DNA for fertilization of an ovum Sertoli cellsthe true epithelium of the seminiferous epithelium, critical for the support of germ cell development into spermatozoa. Sertoli cells secrete inhibin. Peritubular myoid cells surround the seminiferous tubules.


title: Testicle

text: Between tubules (interstitial cells) exist Leydig cellscells localized between seminiferous tubules that produce and secrete testosterone and other androgens important for puberty (including secondary sexual characteristics like facial hair), sexual behavior, and libido. Sertoli cells support spermatogenesis. Testosterone controls testicular volume.


title: Testicle

text: The testis has three sources of arterial blood supply: the testicular artery, the cremasteric artery, and the artery to the ductus deferens. Blood supply and lymphatic drainage of the testes and scrotum are distinct:


title: Testicle

text: Many anatomical features of the adult testis reflect its developmental origin in the abdomen. The layers of tissue enclosing each testicle are derived from the layers of the anterior abdominal wall. The cremasteric muscle arises from the internal oblique muscle.


title: Testicle

text: Large molecules cannot pass from the blood into the lumen of a seminiferous tubule due to the presence of tight junctions between adjacent Sertoli cells. The spermatogonia occupy the basal compartment (deep to the level of the tight junctions) and the more mature forms, such as primary and secondary spermatocytes and spermatids, occupy the adluminal compartment.


title: Testicle

text: The function of the blood–testis barrier may be to prevent an auto-immune reaction. Mature sperm (and their antigens) emerge significantly after immune tolerance is set in infancy. Since sperm are antigenically different from self-tissue, a male animal can react immunologically to his own sperm. The male can make antibodies against them.


title: Testicle

text: Injection of sperm antigens causes inflammation of the testis (auto-immune orchitis) and reduced fertility. The blood–testis barrier may reduce the likelihood that sperm proteins will induce an immune response, reducing fertility and so progeny.


title: Testicle

text: Spermatogenesis is enhanced at temperatures slightly less than core body temperature. The spermatogenesis is less efficient at lower and higher temperatures than 33 °C. Because the testes are located outside the body, the smooth tissue of the scrotum can move them closer or further away from the body. The temperature of the testes is maintained at 34.4 °C, a little below body temperature, as temperatures above 36.7 °C impede spermatogenesis. There are a number of mechanisms to maintain the testes at the optimum temperature.


title: Testicle

text: The cremasteric muscle covers the testicles and the spermatic cord. When this muscle contracts, the cord shortens and the testicles move closer up toward the body, which provides slightly more warmth to maintain optimal testicular temperature. When cooling is required, the cremasteric muscle relaxes and the testicles lower away from the warm body and are able to cool. Contraction also occurs in response to physical stress, such as blunt trauma; the testicles withdraw and the scrotum shrinks very close to the body in an effort to protect them.


title: Testicle

text: The cremasteric reflex will reflexively raise the testicles. The testicles can also be lifted voluntarily using the pubococcygeus muscle, which partially activates related muscles.


title: Testicle

text: The human genome includes approximately 20,000 protein coding genes: 80% of these genes are expressed in adult testes. The testes have the highest fraction of tissue type-specific genes compared to other organs and tissues. About 1000 of them are highly specific for the testes, and about 2,200 show an elevated pattern of expression. A majority of these genes encode for proteins that are expressed in the seminiferous tubules and have functions related to spermatogenesis. Sperm cells express proteins that result in the development of flagella; these same proteins are expressed in the female in cells lining the Fallopian tube and cause the development of cilia. Sperm cell flagella and Fallopian tube cilia are homologous structures. The testis-specific proteins that show the highest level of expression are protamines.


title: Testicle

text: There are two phases in which the testes grow substantially. These are the embryonic and pubertal phases.


title: Testicle

text: During mammalian development, the gonads are at first capable of becoming either ovaries or testes. In humans, starting at about week 4, the gonadal rudiments are present within the intermediate mesoderm adjacent to the developing kidneys. At about week 6, sex cords develop within the forming testes. These are made up of early Sertoli cells that surround and nurture the germ cells that migrate into the gonads shortly before sex determination begins. In males, the sex-specific gene SRY that is found on the Y chromosome initiates sex determination by downstream regulation of sex-determining factors (such as GATA4, SOX9 and AMH), which lead to development of the male phenotype, including directing development of the early bipotential gonad toward the male path of development.


title: Testicle

text: Testes follow the path of descent, from high in the posterior fetal abdomen to the inguinal ring and beyond to the inguinal canal and into the scrotum. In most cases (97% full-term, 70% preterm), both testes have descended by birth. In most other cases, only one testis fails to descend. This is called cryptorchidism. In most cases of cryptorchidism, the issue will mostly resolve itself within the first half year of life. However, if the testes do not descend far enough into the scrotum, surgical anchoring in the scrotum is required due to risks of infertility and testicular cancer.


title: Testicle

text: The testes grow in response to the start of spermatogenesis. Size depends on lytic function, sperm production (amount of spermatogenesis present in testis), interstitial fluid, and Sertoli cell fluid production. The testicles are fully descended before the male reaches puberty.


title: Testicle

text: Testicular prostheses are available to mimic the appearance and feel of one or both testicles, when absent as from injury or as treatment in association to gender dysphoria. There have also been some instances of their implantation in dogs.


title: Testicle

text: To some extent, it is possible to change testicular size. Short of direct injury or subjecting them to adverse conditions, e.g., higher temperature than they are normally accustomed to, they can be shrunk by competing against their intrinsic hormonal function through the use of externally administered steroidal hormones. Steroids taken for muscle enhancement (especially anabolic steroids) often have the undesired side effect of testicular shrinkage.


title: Testicle

text: Stimulation of testicular functions via gonadotropic-like hormones may enlarge their size. Testes may shrink or atrophy during hormone replacement therapy or through chemical castration.


title: Testicle

text: The testicles of calves, lambs, roosters, turkeys, and other animals are eaten in many parts of the world, often under euphemistic culinary names. Testicles are a by-product of the castration of young animals raised for meat, so they might have been a late-spring seasonal specialty. In modern times, they are generally frozen and available year-round.


title: Testicle

text: In the Middle Ages, men who wanted a boy sometimes had their left testicle removed. This was because people believed that the right testicle made "boy" sperm and the left made "girl" sperm. As early as 330 BC, Aristotle prescribed the ligation (tying off) of the left testicle in men wishing to have boys.


title: Testicle

text: One theory about the etymology of the word "testis" is based on Roman law. The original Latin word , "witness", was used in the firmly established legal principle "" (one witness [equals] no witness), meaning that testimony by any one person in court was to be disregarded unless corroborated by the testimony of at least another. This led to the common practice of producing two witnesses, bribed to testify the same way in cases of lawsuits with ulterior motives. Since such witnesses always came in pairs, the meaning was accordingly extended, often in the diminutive ("testiculus, testiculi").


title: Testicle

text: Another theory says that "testis" is influenced by a loan translation, from Greek "defender (in law), supporter" that is "two glands side by side".


title: Testicle

text: There are multiple slang terms for the testes. They may be referred to as "balls". Frequently, "nuts" (sometimes intentionally misspelled as "nutz") are also a slang term for the testes due to the geometric resemblance. One variant of the term includes "Deez Nuts", which was used for a satirical political candidate in 2016.


title: Testicle

text: In seasonal breeders, the weight of the testes often increases during the breeding season. The testicles of a dromedary camel are long, deep and in width. The right testicle is often smaller than the left.


title: Testicle

text: In sharks, the testicle on the right side is usually larger. In many bird and mammal species, the left may be larger. The primitive jawless fish have only a single testis, located in the midline of the body, although this forms from the fusion of paired structures in the embryo.


title: Testicle

text: The basal condition for mammals is to have internal testes. The testes of monotremes, xenarthrans, and elephants remain within the abdomen. There are also some marsupials with external testes and Boreoeutherian mammals with internal testes, such as the rhinoceros. Cetaceans such as whales and dolphins also have internal testes. As external testes would increase drag in the water they have internal testes which are kept cool by special circulatory systems that cool the arterial blood going to the testes by placing the arteries near veins bringing cooled venous blood from the skin. In odobenids and phocids, the location of the testes is para-abdominal, though otariids have scrotal testes.


title: Testicle

text: Boreoeutherian land mammals, the large group of mammals that includes humans, have externalized testes. Their testes function best at temperatures lower than their core body temperature. Their testes are located outside of the body and are suspended by the spermatic cord within the scrotum.


title: Testicle

text: There are several hypotheses as to why most boreotherian mammals have external testes that operate best at a temperature that is slightly less than the core body temperature. One view is that it is stuck with enzymes evolved in a colder temperature due to external testes evolving for different reasons. Another view is that the lower temperature of the testes simply is more efficient for sperm production.


title: Testicle

text: The classic hypothesis is that cooler temperature of the testes allows for more efficient fertile spermatogenesis. There are no possible enzymes operating at normal core body temperature that are as efficient as the ones evolved.


title: Testicle

text: Early mammals had lower body temperatures and thus their testes worked efficiently within their body. However, boreotherian mammals may have higher body temperatures than the other mammals and had to develop external testes to keep them cool. One argument is that mammals with internal testes, such as the monotremes, armadillos, sloths, elephants, and rhinoceroses, have a lower core body temperatures than those mammals with external testes.


title: Testicle

text: Researchers have wondered why birds, despite having very high core body temperatures, have internal testes and did not evolve external testes. It was once theorized that birds used their air sacs to cool the testes internally, but later studies revealed that birds' testes are able to function at core body temperature.


title: Testicle

text: Some mammals with seasonal breeding cycles keep their testes internal until the breeding season. After that, their testes descend and increase in size and become external.


title: Testicle

text: The ancestor of the boreoeutherian mammals may have been a small mammal that required very large testes for sperm competition and thus had to place its testes outside the body. This might have led to enzymes involved in spermatogenesis, spermatogenic DNA polymerase beta and recombinase activities evolving a unique temperature optimum that is slightly less than core body temperature. When the boreoeutherian mammals diversified into forms that were larger or did not require intense sperm competition, they still produced enzymes that operated best at cooler temperatures and had to keep their testes outside the body. This position is made less parsimonious because the kangaroo, a non-boreoeutherian mammal, has external testicles. Separately from boreotherian mammals, the ancestors of kangaroos might have also been subject to heavy sperm competition and thus developed external testes; however, kangaroo external testes are suggestive of a possible adaptive function for external testes in large animals.


title: Testicle

text: One argument for the evolution of external testes is that it protects the testes from abdominal cavity pressure changes caused by jumping and galloping.


title: Testicle

text: Mild, transient scrotal heat stress causes DNA damage, reduced fertility and abnormal embryonic development in mice. DNA strand breaks were found in spermatocytes recovered from testicles subjected to 40 °C or 42 °C for 30 minutes. These findings suggest that the external location of the testicles provides the adaptive benefit of protecting spermatogenic cells from heat-induced DNA damage that could otherwise lead to infertility and germline mutation.


title: Testicle

text: The relative size of the testes is often influenced by mating systems. Testicular size as a proportion of body weight varies widely. In the mammalian kingdom, there is a tendency for testicular size to correspond with multiple mates (e.g., harems, polygamy). Production of testicular output sperm and spermatic fluid is also larger in polygamous animals, possibly a spermatogenic competition for survival. The testes of the right whale are likely to be the largest of any animal, each weighing around 500 kg (1,100 lb).


title: Testicle

text: Among the Hominidae, gorillas have little female promiscuity and sperm competition and the testes are small compared to body weight (0.03%). Chimpanzees have high promiscuity and large testes compared to body weight (0.3%). Human testicular size falls between these extremes (0.08%).


title: Testicle

text: Amphibians and most fish do not possess seminiferous tubules. Instead, the sperm are produced in spherical structures called "sperm ampullae". These are seasonal structures, releasing their contents during the breeding season, and then being reabsorbed by the body. Before the next breeding season, new sperm ampullae begin to form and ripen. The ampullae are otherwise essentially identical to the seminiferous tubules in higher vertebrates, including the same range of cell types.


title: Gold Coast, Queensland

text: The Gold Coast is a coastal city in the state of Queensland, Australia, approximately south-southeast of the centre of the state capital Brisbane. With a population over 600,000, the Gold Coast is the sixth-largest city in Australia, the nation's largest regional city, and Queensland's second-largest city after Brisbane. The city's Central Business District is located roughly in the centre of the Gold Coast in the suburb of Southport, with the suburb holding more corporate office space than anywhere else in the city. The urban area of the Gold Coast is concentrated along the coast sprawling almost 60 kilometers, joining up with the Greater Brisbane Metropolitan Area to the north and to the state border with New South Wales to the south.


title: Gold Coast, Queensland

text: Prior to European settlement the area was occupied by the Yugambeh people. The demonym for the Gold Coast is Gold Coaster.


title: Gold Coast, Queensland

text: The Gold Coast is a major tourist destination with a sunny, subtropical climate and has become widely known for its world-class surfing beaches, high-rise dominated skyline, theme parks, nightlife, and rainforest hinterland. The city is part of the nation's entertainment industry with television productions and a major film industry.


title: Gold Coast, Queensland

text: The Gold Coast is the ancestral home of a number of Indigenous clans of the Yugambeh people, including the Kombumerri, Mununjali, and Wangerriburra clans. Europeans arrived in 1823 when explorer John Oxley landed at Mermaid Beach. The hinterland's red cedar supply attracted people to the area in the mid-19th century.


title: Gold Coast, Queensland

text: A number of small townships developed along the coast and in the hinterland. The western suburb of Nerang was surveyed and established as a base for the industry and by 1870 a town reserve had been set aside. By 1873, the town reserve of Burleigh Heads had also been surveyed and successful land sales had taken place. In 1875, the small settlement opposite the boat passage at the head of the Nerang River, known as Nerang Heads or Nerang Creek Heads, was surveyed and renamed Southport, with the first land sales scheduled to take place in Beenleigh. Southport quickly grew a reputation as a secluded holiday destination for wealthy Brisbane residents. After the establishment of the Surfers Paradise Hotel in the late 1920s, the Gold Coast region grew significantly.


title: Gold Coast, Queensland

text: The Gold Coast was originally known as the South Coast (because it was south of Brisbane). However, over-inflated prices for real estate and other goods and services led to the nickname of "Gold Coast" from 1950. South Coast locals initially considered the name "Gold Coast" derogatory. However, soon the "Gold Coast" simply became a convenient way to refer to the holiday strip from Southport to Coolangatta. The Town of South Coast was formed through the amalgamation of Town of Coolangatta and Town of Southport along with the coastal areas (such as Burleigh Heads) from the Shire of Nerang on 17 June 1949 with the effect of having the present-day Gold Coast coastal strip as a single local government area. As the tourism industry grew into the 1950s, local businesses began to adopt the term "Gold Coast" in their names, and on 23 October 1958 the Town of South Coast was renamed Town of Gold Coast. The area was proclaimed a city, despite the lack of a cathedral, less than one year later on 16 May 1959.


title: Gold Coast, Queensland

text: The area boomed in the 1980s as a leading tourist destination. In 1994, the City of Gold Coast local government area was expanded to include the Shire of Albert, becoming the second most populous local government area in Australia after the City of Brisbane.


title: Gold Coast, Queensland

text: In 2007, the Gold Coast overtook the population of Newcastle, New South Wales, to become the sixth largest city in Australia and the largest non-capital city.


title: Gold Coast, Queensland

text: In the , the urban area of the Gold Coast had a population of 540,559 people. According to the , the population of the Gold Coast including rural areas was 569,997. The median age was 39 years old, 1 year older than the nationwide median. The male-to-female ratio was 48.6-to-51.4. The most commonly nominated ancestries were English (29.3%), Australian (22.5%), Irish (8.2%), Scottish (7.5%), and German (3.6%). 64% of people were born in Australia, while the other most common countries of birth were New Zealand (7.9%), England (5.2%), China and South Africa (1.2% each), and Japan (0.7%). Indigenous Australians accounted for 1.7% of the population. The most commonly spoken languages other than English were Mandarin (1.6%), Japanese (1.0%), Korean and Spanish (0.6% each), and Cantonese (0.5%). The most common religious affiliations reported were none (31.8%), Catholic (20.7%), Anglican (16.2%), and Uniting Church (3.9%).


title: Gold Coast, Queensland

text: The Gold Coast is approximately half covered by forests of various types. This includes small patches of near-pristine ancient rainforest, mangrove-covered islands, and patches of coastal heathlands and farmland with areas of uncleared eucalyptus forest. Of the plantation pine forests that were planted in the 1950s and 1960s, when commercial forest planting for tax minimisation was encouraged by the Commonwealth government, tiny remnants remain.


title: Gold Coast, Queensland

text: Gold Coast City lies in the southeast corner of Queensland, to the south of Brisbane, the state capital. The Albert River separates the Gold Coast from Logan City, a local government area south of the City of Brisbane.


title: Gold Coast, Queensland

text: Gold Coast City stretches from the Albert River, Logan River, and Southern Moreton Bay to the border with New South Wales (NSW) approximately south, and extends from the coast west to the foothills of the Great Dividing Range in World Heritage listed Lamington National Park.


title: Gold Coast, Queensland

text: The southernmost town of Gold Coast City, Coolangatta, includes Point Danger and its lighthouse. Coolangatta is a twin city with Tweed Heads located directly across the NSW border. At , this is the most easterly point on the Queensland mainland (Point Lookout on the offshore island of North Stradbroke is slightly further east). From Coolangatta, approximately forty kilometres of holiday resorts and surfing beaches stretch north to the suburb of Main Beach, and then further on Stradbroke Island. The suburbs of Southport and Surfers Paradise form the Gold Coast's commercial centre. The major river in the area is the Nerang River. Much of the land between the coastal strip and the hinterland were once wetlands drained by this river, but the swamps have been converted into man-made waterways (over in length or over 9 times the length of the canals of Venice, Italy) and artificial islands covered in upmarket homes. The heavily developed coastal strip sits on a narrow barrier sandbar between these waterways and the sea.


title: Gold Coast, Queensland

text: To the west, the city borders a part of the Great Dividing Range commonly referred to as the Gold Coast hinterland. A section of the mountain range is protected by Lamington National Park and has been listed as a World Heritage area in recognition of its "outstanding geological features displayed around shield volcanic craters and the high number of rare and threatened rainforest species". The area attracts bushwalkers and day-trippers. Important rainforest pollinating and seed-dispersing Black flying foxes (Pteropus alecto) are found in the area and may be heard foraging at night.


title: Gold Coast, Queensland

text: The declaration of Southport as a Priority Development Area (PDA) and new investment into the CBD is driving transformative change and creating new business and investment opportunities.


title: Gold Coast, Queensland

text: Waterfront canal living is a feature of the Gold Coast. Most canal frontage homes have pontoons. The Gold Coast Seaway, between The Spit and South Stradbroke Island, allows vessels direct access to the Pacific Ocean from The Broad and many of the city's canal estates. Breakwaters on either side of the Seaway prevent longshore drift and the bar from silting up. A sand pumping operation on the Spit pipes sand under the Seaway to continue this natural process.


title: Gold Coast, Queensland

text: Residential canals were first built in the Gold Coast in the 1950s and construction continues. Most canals are extensions to the Nerang River, but there are more to the south along Tallebudgera Creek and Currumbin Creek and to the north along the Gold Coast Broadwater, South Stradbroke Island, Coomera River and southern Moreton Bay. Early canals included Florida Gardens and Isle of Capri which were under construction at the time of a 1954 flood. Recently constructed canals include Harbour Quays and Riverlinks completed in 2007. There are over of constructed residential waterfront land within the city that is home to over 80,000 residents.


title: Gold Coast, Queensland

text: The city consists of of coastline, with some of the most popular surf breaks in Australia and the world, including South Stradbroke Island, The Spit, Main Beach, Surfers Paradise, Broadbeach, Mermaid Beach, Nobby's Beach, Miami, North Burleigh Beach, Burleigh Beach, Burleigh Heads, Tallebudgera Beach, Palm Beach, South Palm Beach, Currumbin Beach, Tugun, Bilinga, North Kirra Beach Kirra, Coolangatta, Greenmount, Rainbow Bay, Snapper Rocks and Froggies Beach. Duranbah Beach is one of the world's best known surfing beaches and is often thought of as being part of Gold Coast City, but is actually just across the New South Wales state border in the Tweed Shire.


title: Gold Coast, Queensland

text: There are also beaches along many of the Gold Coast's of navigable tidal waterways. Popular inland beaches include Southport, Budds Beach, Marine Stadium, Currumbin Alley, Tallebudgera Estuary, Jacobs Well, Jabiru Island, Paradise Point, Harley Park Labrador, Santa Barbara, Boykambil and Evandale Lake.


title: Gold Coast, Queensland

text: The Gold Coast has Australia's largest professional surf lifesaving service to protect people on the beaches and to promote surf safety throughout the community. The Queensland Department of Primary Industries carries out the Queensland Shark Control Program (SCP) to protect swimmers from sharks. Sharks are caught by using nets and baited drumlines off the major swimming beaches. Even with the SCP, sharks do range within sight of the patrolled beaches. Lifeguards will clear swimmers from the water if it is considered that there is a safety risk.


title: Gold Coast, Queensland

text: Gold Coast beaches have experienced periods of severe beach erosion. In 1967, a series of 11 cyclones removed most of the sand from Gold Coast beaches. The Government of Queensland engaged engineers from Delft University in the Netherlands to advise what to do about the beach erosion. The Delft Report was published in 1971 and outlined a series of works for Gold Coast Beaches including Gold Coast Seaway, works at Narrow Neck that resulted in the Northern Gold Coast Beach Protection Strategy and works at the Tweed River that became the Tweed River Entrance Sand Bypassing Project.


title: Gold Coast, Queensland

text: By 2005 most of the recommendations of the 1971 Delft Report had been implemented. City of Gold Coast commenced implementation of the Palm Beach Protection Strategy but ran into considerable opposition from the community participating in a NO REEF protest campaign. The City of Gold Coast Council then committed to completing a review of beach management practices to update the Delft Report. The Gold Coast Shoreline Management Plan will be delivered by organisations including the Environmental Protection Agency, City of Gold Coast and the Griffith Centre for Coastal Management. Gold Coast City is also investing into the quality and capacity of the Gold Coast Oceanway that provides sustainable transport along Gold Coast beaches.


title: Gold Coast, Queensland

text: The Gold Coast experiences a humid subtropical climate (Köppen climate classification "Cfa"), with mild to warm winters and hot, humid summers. The city experiences substantial summer precipitation mostly concentrated in thunderstorms and heavy showers with rain events occasionally lasting up to a few weeks at a time giving residents "the summer blues", while winter is pleasantly mild to warm with little rain. In fact, it is for this pleasant winter weather that both the city and the Sunshine Coast—the coastal region north of Brisbane—are internationally renowned. Extreme temperatures recorded at Gold Coast Seaway have ranged from on 19 July 2007 to on 22 February 2005, although the city rarely experiences temperatures above in summer or below in winter. The average temperature of the sea at Surfers Paradise ranges from in July and August to in February.


title: Gold Coast, Queensland

text: Administratively, the Gold Coast is a local government area called the City of Gold Coast. The City of Gold Coast Council has 14 elected councillors, each representing a division of the City. Businessman Tom Tate is the current Mayor of the Gold Coast, first elected in 2012. Former mayors include Ron Clake, Gary Baildon, Lex Bell, Ray Stevens, Ern Harley and Sir Bruce Small, who was responsible for the development of many of the canal estates that are now home to thousands of Gold Coast residents.


title: Gold Coast, Queensland

text: At the state level, the Gold Coast area is represented by eleven members in the Legislative Assembly of Queensland. The seats they hold are: Bonney, Broadwater, Burleigh, Coomera, Currumbin, Gaven, Mermaid Beach, Mudgeeraba, Southport, Surfers Paradise and Theodore. Federally, the Gold Coast area is split between five divisions in the House of Representatives: Fadden (northern), Moncrieff (central) and McPherson (southern) are located entirely within the Gold Coast, while Forde (north-west) and Wright (south-west) encompass parts of the Gold Coast and other areas of Southeast Queensland.


title: Gold Coast, Queensland

text: Politically, the Gold Coast has often tilted conservative. It was a Country Party bastion for most of the first three decades after World War II, but increasing urbanisation has made it a Liberal stronghold. Labor has historically only done well around Labrador and Coolangatta. Only one Labor MP has ever represented a significant portion of the Gold Coast at the federal level since 1949; the three Gold Coast divisions have only returned Liberals since 1984. At the state level, Labor was fairly competitive in the Gold Coast for most of the early part of the 21st century. However, as part of its massive landslide in the 2012 state election, the Liberal National Party won every seat there. The LNP repeated its sweep of the Gold Coast seats at the 2015 election, and retained all but one Gold Coast seat at the 2017 state election.


title: Gold Coast, Queensland

text: Southport Courthouse is the city's major courthouse and has jurisdiction to hear petty criminal offences and civil matters up to A$250,000. Indictable offences, criminal sentencing and civil matters above A$250,000 are heard in the higher Supreme Court of Queensland which is located in Brisbane. There is also a subsidiary Magistrates Court, located at the southern suburb of Coolangatta.


title: Gold Coast, Queensland

text: In 2013 a brawl between members of Outlaw motorcycle gangs also called "bikies" who fought each other outside a Broadbeach restaurant caused mass fear to restaurant patrons and police. This led to the toughest anti-bikie laws introduced in Australia known as Vicious Lawless Association Disestablishment Act 2013.


title: Gold Coast, Queensland

text: In fifty years, Gold Coast City has grown from a small beachside holiday destination to Australia's sixth largest city (and the country's most populous non-capital city). Situated within South East Queensland's growth corridor, the Gold Coast is one of Australia's fastest growing large cities, with a 5-year annual average population growth rate to 2015 of 1.8%, compared to 1.5% nationally. Gross Regional Product has risen from A$9.7 billion in 2001, to A$15.6 billion in 2008, a rise of 61 percent. Tourism remains fundamental to Gold Coast City's economy, with almost 10 million visitors a year to the area. In the past the economy was driven by the population derived industries of construction, tourism and retail. Some diversification has taken place, with the city now having an industrial base formed of marine, education, information communication and technology, food, tourism, creative, environment and sports industries. These nine industries have been identified as the key industries by the City of Gold Coast Council to deliver the city's economic prosperity. Gold Coast City's unemployment rate (5.6 per cent) is below the national level (5.9 per cent). The declaration of Southport as the Gold Coast central business district (CBD) and a Priority Development Area (PDA), as well as new investment into the CBD, is driving transformative change and creating new business and investment opportunities.


title: Gold Coast, Queensland

text: The Gold Coast Economic Development Strategy 2013–2023 outlines the framework for the city's long-term growth and prosperity. The strategy outlines actions in the following areas, Innovation, Culture, Infrastructure, Competitive business, Workforce, International.


title: Gold Coast, Queensland

text: Around 10 million tourists visit the Gold Coast area every year consisting of 849,114 international visitors, 3,468,000 domestic overnight visitors and 5,366,000 daytrip visitors. Tourism is the region's biggest industry, directly contributing more than $4.4 billion into the city economy every year and directly accounting for one in four jobs in the city There are approximately 65,000 beds, of beach, of canal, 100,000 hectares of nature reserve, 500 restaurants, 40 golf courses and five major theme parks in the city.


title: Gold Coast, Queensland

text: Gold Coast Airport provides connection across Australia and internationally with airlines including Flyscoot, Jetstar, Qantas, Air New Zealand, Virgin Australia and Airasia X. Brisbane Airport is less than one hour from the centre of Gold Coast, and direct trains operate.


title: Gold Coast, Queensland

text: Tourism is Gold Coast City's main industry, generating a total of $2.5 billion in revenue per annum. The Gold Coast is the most popular tourist destination in Queensland. It is Australia's 5th most visited destination by international tourists.


title: Gold Coast, Queensland

text: The city has over 13,000 available guest rooms contributing over $335 million to the local economy each year. Accommodation options available range from hostels to five star resorts and hotels. The most common style of accommodation is three and four star self-contained apartments. Tourist attractions include surf beaches, and theme parks including Dreamworld, Sea World, Wet'n'Wild Water World, Warner Bros. Movie World, WhiteWater World, Topgolf, Currumbin Wildlife Sanctuary, David Fleay Wildlife Park, Australian Outback Spectacular, and Paradise Country.


title: Gold Coast, Queensland

text: Since the opening of what was then the world's highest residential tower in 2005 (it is now the fifth highest), the Q1 building has been a destination for tourists and locals alike. It is the second highest public vantage point in the southern hemisphere after the Eureka Tower in Melbourne. The observation deck at level 77 is the highest of its kind in Queensland and offers views in all directions, from Brisbane to Byron Bay. It towers over the Surfers Paradise skyline, with the observation deck 230 metres (755 feet) high, and the spire extending nearly another hundred metres up. In total, the Q1 is 322.5 metres (1058 feet) high, making it the tallest building in Australia. Another famous tourist attraction are the Surfers Paradise Meter Maids, instituted in 1965 to put a positive spin on new parking regulations. To avoid tickets being issued for expired parking, the Meter Maids dispense coins into the meter and leave a calling card under the windscreen wiper of the vehicle. The Maids are still a part of the Surfers Paradise culture but the scheme is now run by private enterprise.


title: Gold Coast, Queensland

text: Chinatown, Gold Coast, is an integral part of the revitalisation of Southport as an international CBD.


title: Gold Coast, Queensland

text: The Gold Coast is the major film production hub in Queensland and has accounted for 75% of all film production in Queensland since the 1990s, with an expenditure of around $150 million per year. The Gold Coast is the third largest film production centre in Australia, behind Sydney and Melbourne.


title: Gold Coast, Queensland

text: It is the filming site for major motion pictures including "Muriel's Wedding" (1994), "Ghost Ship" (2002), "Scooby-Doo" (2002), "House of Wax" (2005), "Superman Returns" (2006), "Unbroken" (2014), "The Inbetweeners 2" (2014), "San Andreas" (2015), "" (2017), "" (2017), "" (2017), "" (2018), "Aquaman" (2018), "Dora the Explorer" (2019) and "Godzilla vs. Kong" (2020).


title: Gold Coast, Queensland

text: In 2019, American YouTuber James Charles recorded his 'Tati' apology video in Surfers Paradise, Gold Coast, in reference to his drama with American Beauty YouTuber Tati Westbrook.


title: Gold Coast, Queensland

text: Village Roadshow Studios are adjacent to the Warner Bros Movie World Theme Park at Oxenford. The Studios consists of eight sound stages, production offices, editing rooms, wardrobe, construction workshops, water tanks and commissary. These sound stages vary in size and have an overall floor area of 10,844 sq metres, making Warner Roadshow Studio one of the largest studio lots in the Southern Hemisphere. The Queensland Government actively supports the film and television production industry in Queensland and provides both non-financial and financial assistance through the Pacific Film and Television Commission.


title: Gold Coast, Queensland

text: The Gold Coast's culture has been impacted by rapid development and traditional marketing programs orbiting around 'sun, sand, surf and sex.'


title: Gold Coast, Queensland

text: Despite rapid socio-economic changes and a tourist-centred image, there is evidence of local resident-driven culture (such as surf gangs) in geographical pockets and a broader 'Gold Coaster' identity drawn from globalised resort and real estate marketing material. The Gold Coast hosts cultural activities that attract tourists and residents alike.


title: Gold Coast, Queensland

text: Music groups in this region include the Northern Rivers Symphony Orchestra and Operator Please. Musicians Cody Simpson and Ricki-Lee Coulter are from the Gold Coast. Music events include Big Day Out, Good Vibrations Festival, Summafieldayze, the Blues on Broadbeach Festival and V Festival (2007–2009).


title: Gold Coast, Queensland

text: Home of the Arts (HOTA) is the Gold Coast's premier cultural facility for visual and performing arts with a performance theatre, two cinemas and an underground venue. The theatre has hosted performance by the Imperial Russian Ballet, The Australian Ballet and the Queensland Ballet. Musicals, plays and a variety of performances are regularly scheduled. The city is also home to the Gold Coast City Art Gallery. Film festivals and the Comedy Club host international artists. A redeveloped Gold Coast cultural precinct opened before the city hosted the 2018 Commonwealth Games.


title: Gold Coast, Queensland

text: Bleach* The Gold Coast Festival takes place annually across the City in August. The program is one of Australia's leading and most exciting site-specific contemporary arts programs. Quintessentially Gold Coast, Bleach* celebrates the city's most dynamic and adventurous artists, welcomes renowned Australian and international collaborators and engages a broad audience through a range of events. Bleach* has attracted more than 470,000 people since its inaugural year in 2012. The program features work across all genres including dance, theatre, contemporary music, opera, installations, circus and major public events.


title: Gold Coast, Queensland

text: Burleigh Bears rugby league football club play in the Queensland Cup and have won four premierships (in 1999, 2004, 2016 and 2019).


title: Gold Coast, Queensland

text: Recreational activities on the Gold Coast include surfing, fishing, cycling, boating and golf. The Gold Coast area has numerous golf links, including Hope Island, Sanctuary Cove and The Glades.


title: Gold Coast, Queensland

text: Sporting facilities include the Carrara Stadium, Carrara Indoor Sport Centre, Nerang Velodrome and the Sports Super Centre. Some of these facilities are being superseded by newer and larger capacity facilities. Two examples of these are the Gold Coast Convention & Exhibition Centre to play host to a Gold Coast Basketball team and Robina Stadium to host NRL games.


title: Gold Coast, Queensland

text: Former World Wrestling Entertainment performer Nathan Jones comes from the Gold Coast, as do Olympic gold medal winning swimmer Grant Hackett, 2011 US Open tennis champion Samantha Stosur and Sally Pearson (who received the keys to the city).


title: Gold Coast, Queensland

text: Gold Coast will be one of the three zones for the 2032 Summer Olympics and 2032 Summer Paralympics in Brisbane to use the venues as the 2018 Commonwealth Games. The Gold Coast Zone will have seven venues, and will host nine Olympic and six Paralympic sports. The Gold Coast Convention & Exhibition Centre will be used for the preliminary Volleyball along with Powerlifting and Sitting Volleyball during the Paralympics. Broadbeach Park Stadium will host Beach Volleyball for Olympics as well in the Football 5-a-side in the Paralympics. The Gold Coast Sports and Leisure Centre will be used for Judo and Wrestling in the Olympics and Boccia in the Paralympics. Southport Broadwater Parklands to be used for Triathlon and Marathon Swimming in the Olympics and will be used for Paratriathlon in the Paralympics. Coomera Indoor Sports Centre will host the Volleyball for the Olympics and will be used for Wheelchair Rugby in the Paralympics. The Robina Stadium will host the preliminary football matches. The Carrara Stadium could potentially host the Cricket matches if the IOC approves cricket in the 2028 Olympic Games in Los Angeles.


title: Gold Coast, Queensland

text: The 2018 Commonwealth Games was held on the Gold Coast between 4 and 15 April 2018 which was an international multi-sport event for members of the Commonwealth. It was the fifth time Australia had hosted the Commonwealth Games and the first time a major multi-sport event achieved gender equality by having an equal number of events for male and female athletes. More than 4,400 athletes including 300 para-athletes from 71 Commonwealth Games Associations took part in the event.


title: Gold Coast, Queensland

text: The venues such as Carrara Stadium, Carrara Sports and Leisure Centre, Carrara Indoor Sports Stadium, Gold Coast Convention & Exhibition Centre. Broadbeach Bowls Club Nerang Mountain Bike Trails, Coomera Indoor Sports Centre, Oxenford Studios, The Gold Coast Hockey Centre, Southport Broadwater Parklands, Gold Coast Aquatic Centre, Robina Stadium, The Currumbin Beachfront, and Coolangatta Beachfront were used for the Games.


title: Gold Coast, Queensland

text: The Gold Coast 600 (formerly known as the Gold Coast Indy 300) is a car racing event held annually, usually in October. The Surfers Paradise Street Circuit through the streets of Surfers Paradise and Main Beach. The GC 600 comprises many other events such as the Indy Undie Ball and the Miss Indy Competition. Formerly an IndyCar event, V8 Supercars are now the headline attraction, using a similar track route, as the circuit was cut in half by a hairpin.


title: Gold Coast, Queensland

text: The Magic Millions horse racing auction at the Gold Coast Turf Club was the brainchild of entrepreneurs Gerry Harvey and John Singleton. There are plans to relocate and build a state-of-the-art new racetrack at Palm Meadows which will incorporate the Magic Million sale with facilities for up to 4,000 horses.


title: Gold Coast, Queensland

text: Each June, Coolangatta hosts the Wintersun Festival renamed as Cooly Rocks On for 2011, a two-week 1950s and 1960s nostalgia festival with free entertainment and attractions, including hot rods, restored cars and revival bands playing music of the era. Every July, more than 25,000 congregate on the Gold Coast from around the world to participate in the Gold Coast Marathon. It is also the largest annual community sporting event held on the Gold Coast. In 2015, it will be held on 4–5 July and the 37th Gold Coast Airport Marathon is set to motivate and challenge more than 25,000 people of all ages and abilities. The Gold Coast Airport Marathon will feature an event for all ages and abilities, including the full Gold Coast Airport Marathon, ASICS Half Marathon, Southern Cross University Run, Suncorp Bank Challenge, and Junior Dash over and .


title: Gold Coast, Queensland

text: In August Currumbin hosts the annual half distance Challenge Gold Coast triathlon, with the 1.9 km swim taking place in the Currumbin River, the 90 km bike going through the Currumbin and Tallebudgera Valleys in the Hinterland, and the 21.1 km run going along the beach to Elephant Rock and Tugun.


title: Gold Coast, Queensland

text: Late November to early December sees thousands of school leavers across the country descend on the Gold Coast for Schoolies week, a two-week period of celebration and parties throughout Surfers Paradise, hosted by the City of Gold Coast. The event is often criticised nationally and locally for its portrayal of drinking and acts of violence, however every effort by the Queensland Police Service and State Government to ensure all school leavers have a good time are put into place, including locals volunteering by walking the streets and keeping an eye out for those in need of assistance. Early each year the Gold Coast hosts one leg of the ASP World Tour of surfing, where some of the worlds best surfers compete in the Quiksilver Pro at Coolangatta.


title: Gold Coast, Queensland

text: The Arts Centre Gold Coast located in Evandale, features a fine art gallery featuring local and international works from painting to sculpture and new media. In addition, there is a theatre for live productions including musicals as well two arts cinemas showing foreign and independent films from Australia and abroad.


title: Gold Coast, Queensland

text: Chinatown, Gold Coast, located in Southport, hosts the annual citywide Lunar New Year festival as well as regular monthly events.


title: Gold Coast, Queensland

text: The daily local newspaper is the "Gold Coast Bulletin" which is published by News Corporation. National surfing magazine "Australia's Surfing Life" is published in the Gold Coast suburb of Burleigh Heads by Morrison Media.


title: Gold Coast, Queensland

text: Major daily newspapers such as The Courier-Mail and its sibling The Sunday Mail from Brisbane, The Daily Telegraph, The Sunday Telegraph (Sydney), The Sydney Morning Herald and The Sun-Herald from Sydney and The Age, The Sunday Age, The Herald Sun and the Sunday Herald-Sun from Melbourne as well as national publications The Australian and The Australian Financial Review are all available for purchase on the Gold Coast. Other major interstate newspapers and newspapers from neighbouring regions owned by News Corporation or Australian Community Media are also available for purchase via retail outlets on the Gold Coast.


title: Gold Coast, Queensland

text: The Gold Coast straddles the boundary between the television licence areas of both Brisbane (metropolitan) and Northern NSW (regional): the Brisbane primary channels are Seven's BTQ, Nine's QTQ and 10's TVQ, while the regional affiliates are Seven's NEN, Nine’s NBN and WIN Television’s NRN.


title: Gold Coast, Queensland

text: Both sets of commercial stations are available throughout the Gold Coast, as well as the ABC and SBS television services. Other channels include 10 Bold, 10 Peach, 10 Shake, Sky News Regional (regional only), ABC TV Plus/ABC Kids, ABC Me, ABC News, SBS World Movies, SBS Viceland, SBS Food, SBS WorldWatch, NITV, SBS WorldWatch, 7two, 7mate, 7flix, 9Gem, 9Go!, 9Rush & 9Life. Subscription television service Foxtel is also available.


title: Gold Coast, Queensland

text: The Gold Coast's FM commercial and community stations include 92.5 Triple M, Hit Network's 90.9 Sea FM, Hot Tomato, 94.1FM, Juice107.3, Radio Metro and 4CRB.


title: Gold Coast, Queensland

text: 91.7 ABC Gold Coast is the local ABC station on the Gold Coast, which is complemented by the ABC's national radio services including


title: Gold Coast, Queensland

text: A number of narrowcast services are also available on the Gold Coast including Raw FM and Vision Radio.


title: Gold Coast, Queensland

text: The Gold Coast is home to two major university campuses: Bond University at Robina and Griffith University at Southport. Southern Cross University also operates a smaller campus in Bilinga near the Gold Coast Airport. The Gold Coast Institute of Technical and Further Education (TAFE) has five campuses at Southport, Ridgeway (Ashmore), Benowa, Coomera and Coolangatta.


title: Gold Coast, Queensland

text: There are over 100 primary and secondary schools, both public and private and of a variety of denominations, including the selective state high school Queensland Academy for Health Sciences and single-sex private schools The Southport School and St Hilda's School. The longest established public school on the Gold Coast is Southport State High School, having originally opened in 1916. There are a number of libraries located on the Gold Coast. For a full list see Gold Coast libraries.


title: Gold Coast, Queensland

text: Electricity for the Gold Coast is sourced from Powerlink Queensland at bulk supply substations which is provided via the National Electricity Market from an interconnected multi-State power system. The Government-owned electricity corporation Energex distributes and retails electricity, natural gas, liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) and value-added products and services to residential, industrial and commercial customers in South-East Queensland.


title: Gold Coast, Queensland

text: The Hinze Dam southwest of Nerang is the population's main water supply. The Little Nerang Dam which feeds into Hinze Dam can supplement part of the city area's water needs, and both are managed by the city council directorate Gold Coast Water. Reforms of the way in which the water industry is structured have been announced by the State Government, with transfer of ownership and management of water services from local government to the state occurring in 2008–09. City of Gold Coast also sources water from Wivenhoe Dam, west of Brisbane for northern suburbs when the Hinze Dam, at one-tenth of Wivenhoe's capacity, becomes low.


title: Gold Coast, Queensland

text: Water shortage and water restrictions have been current local issues, and a few new Gold Coast residential areas have recently included dual reticulation in their planning and development to supply water from a new water recycling plant being built concurrently. This will make available highly treated recycled water for use around the home in addition to potable water. The Gold Coast has received world recognition for this scheme in its Pimpama-Coomera suburbs.


title: Gold Coast, Queensland

text: Gold Coast Water has also been recognised for its world leading HACCP water quality management system by the World Health Organization which published Gold Coast Water's system as a good model for managing water quality and safety from catchment to tap. The Gold Coast desalination plant, which opened in February 2009, has the capacity to supply up to 133 megalitres of desalinated water per day.


title: Gold Coast, Queensland

text: The car is the dominant mode of transport in the Gold Coast, with over 70% of people using it as their sole mode of travelling to work. The Gold Coast has an extensive network of arterial roads that link coastal suburbs with inland suburbs. In recent years, local and state governments have invested money in transport infrastructure on the Gold Coast to combat the increasing congestion on many of the city's roads. The Gold Coast has an extensive public transport network that includes buses, heavy rail & the new light rail for commuting to work, visiting attractions, and travelling to other destinations.


title: Gold Coast, Queensland

text: A number of major roads connect the Gold Coast with Brisbane, New South Wales, and the surrounding areas. The Pacific Motorway (M1) is the main motorway in the area. Beginning at the Logan Motorway (M6) in Brisbane, it travels through the inland Gold Coast region and links with the Pacific Highway at the New South Wales/Queensland border near Tweed Heads. Before the Tugun Bypass was completed in 2008, the motorway ended at Tugun. The Gold Coast Highway services the coastal suburbs of the Gold Coast, including Surfers Paradise, Southport, and Burleigh Heads. Starting at the Pacific Motorway at Tweed Heads, it runs parallel to the coast until it reaches Labrador, where it turns inland to meet the Pacific Motorway again at Helensvale. Other arterial roads include the Smith Street Motorway which connects Southport, Gold Coast’s CBD with the M1 in Parkwood. Other major roads include Reedy Creek Road, Nerang–Broadbeach Road, Robina Parkway and Southport–Burleigh Road.


title: Gold Coast, Queensland

text: The Gold Coast's light rail service is called , a line between Helensvale and Broadbeach that also connects the key activity centres of Southport and Surfers Paradise. The G:link was opened in 2014 between Broadbeach and Southport, with an extension to Helensvale completed in 2017 in preparation for the 2018 Commonwealth Games.


title: Gold Coast, Queensland

text: Queensland Rail operates a intra-city rail service from Brisbane to the Gold Coast along the Gold Coast railway line. The line follows the same route as Brisbane's Beenleigh railway line, continuing on after reaching Beenleigh. It then follows a route similar to that of the Pacific Motorway, passing stations at Ormeau, Coomera, Helensvale, Nerang and Robina before terminating at Varsity Lakes. An extension of the Gold Coast line to the Gold Coast Airport is proposed.


title: Gold Coast, Queensland

text: Kinetic Group (formely Surfiside Buslines prior to a re-branding in 2022) operates all public passenger services in the city under contract by TransLink which coordinates the public transport network in South East Queensland. Services are frequent during the day, with intervals being as little as 5 minutes. Kinetic Group operates over a fleet of over 400 buses operating on over 70 lines covering the entire city


title: Gold Coast, Queensland

text: Gold Coast Airport is located at Coolangatta, approximately south of Surfers Paradise. Services are provided to interstate capitals and major cities as well as to major New Zealand cities, Malaysia, Japan and Singapore. It is the sixth busiest airport in Australia.


title: Enclave and exclave

text: An enclave is a territory (or a small territory apart of a larger one) that is entirely surrounded by the territory of one other state or entity. Enclaves may also exist within territorial waters. "Enclave" is sometimes used improperly to denote a territory that is only partly surrounded by another state. The Vatican City and San Marino, both enclaved by Italy, and Lesotho, enclaved by South Africa, are completely enclaved sovereign states.


title: Enclave and exclave

text: An exclave is a portion of a state or district geographically separated from the main part by surrounding alien territory (of one or more states or districts etc). Many exclaves are also enclaves, but not all: an exclave can be surrounded by the territory of more than one state. The Azerbaijani exclave of Nakhchivan is an example of an exclave that is not an enclave, as it borders Armenia, Turkey and Iran.


title: Enclave and exclave

text: Semi-enclaves and semi-exclaves are areas that, except for possessing an unsurrounded sea border (a coastline contiguous with international waters), would otherwise be enclaves or exclaves. Enclaves and semi-enclaves can exist as independent states (Monaco, The Gambia and Brunei are semi-enclaves), while exclaves and semi-exclaves proper always constitute just a part of a sovereign state (like the Kaliningrad Oblast).


title: Enclave and exclave

text: A pene-exclave is a part of the territory of one country that can be conveniently approached—in particular, by wheeled traffic—only through the territory of another country. Pene-exclaves are also called functional exclaves or practical exclaves. Many pene-exclaves partially border their own territorial waters (i.e., they are not surrounded by other nations' territorial waters), such as Point Roberts, Washington and Minnesota's Northwest Angle. A pene-exclave can also exist entirely on land, such as when intervening mountains render a territory inaccessible from other parts of a country except through alien territory. A commonly cited example is the Kleinwalsertal, a valley part of Vorarlberg, Austria, that is accessible only from Germany to the north.


title: Enclave and exclave

text: The word "enclave" is French and first appeared in the mid-15th century as a derivative of the verb (1283), from the colloquial Latin (to close with a key). Originally, it was a term of property law that denoted the situation of a land or parcel of land surrounded by land owned by a different owner, and that could not be reached for its exploitation in a practical and sufficient manner without crossing the surrounding land. In law, this created a "servitude" of passage for the benefit of the owner of the surrounded land. The first diplomatic document to contain the word "enclave" was the Treaty of Madrid, signed in 1526.


title: Enclave and exclave

text: Later, the term enclave began to be used also to refer to parcels of countries, counties, fiefs, communes, towns, parishes, etc. that were surrounded by alien territory. This French word eventually entered English and other languages to denote the same concept, although local terms have continued to be used. In India, the word "pocket" is often used as a synonym for enclave (such as "the pockets of Puducherry district"). In British administrative history, subnational enclaves were usually called detachments or detached parts, and national enclaves as detached districts or detached dominions. In English ecclesiastic history, subnational enclaves were known as peculiars (see also royal peculiar).


title: Enclave and exclave

text: Enclaves exist for a variety of historical, political and geographical reasons. For example, in the feudal system in Europe, the ownership of feudal domains was often transferred or partitioned, either through purchase and sale or through inheritance, and often such domains were or came to be surrounded by other domains. In particular, this state of affairs persisted into the 19th century in the Holy Roman Empire, and these domains (principalities, etc.) exhibited many of the characteristics of sovereign states. Prior to 1866 Prussia alone consisted of more than 270 discontiguous pieces of territory.


title: Enclave and exclave

text: Residing in an enclave within another country has often involved difficulties in such areas as passage rights, importing goods, currency, provision of utilities and health services, and host nation cooperation. Thus, over time, enclaves have tended to be eliminated. For example, two-thirds of the then-existing national-level enclaves were extinguished on 1 August 2015, when the governments of India and Bangladesh implemented a Land Boundary Agreement that exchanged 162 first-order enclaves (111 Indian and 51 Bangladeshi). This exchange thus effectively de-enclaved another two dozen second-order enclaves and one third-order enclave, eliminating 197 of the India–Bangladesh enclaves in all. The residents in these enclaves had complained of being effectively stateless. Only Bangladesh's Dahagram–Angarpota enclave remained.


title: Enclave and exclave

text: Netherlands and Belgium decided to keep the enclave and exclave system in Baarle. As both Netherlands and Belgium are members of the European Union and Schengen Area, people, goods and services flow freely with little or no restrictions.


title: Enclave and exclave

text: For illustration, in the figure (above), A1 is a semi-enclave (attached to C and also bounded by water that only touches C's territorial water). Although A2 is an exclave of A, it cannot be classed as an enclave because it shares borders with B and C. The territory A3 is both an exclave of A and an enclave from the viewpoint of B. The singular territory D, although an enclave, is not an exclave.


title: Enclave and exclave

text: An enclave is a part of the territory of a state that is enclosed within the territory of another state. To distinguish the parts of a state entirely enclosed in a single other state, they are called true enclaves. A true enclave cannot be reached without passing through the territory of a single other state that surrounds it. In 2007, Evgeny Vinokurov called this the restrictive definition of "enclave" given by international law, which thus "comprises only so-called 'true enclaves'". Two examples are Büsingen am Hochrhein, a true enclave of Germany, and Campione d'Italia, a true enclave of Italy, both of which are surrounded by Switzerland.


title: Enclave and exclave

text: The definition of a territory comprises both land territory and territorial waters. In the case of enclaves in territorial waters, they are called maritime (those surrounded by territorial sea) or lacustrine (if in a lake) enclaves. Most of the true national-level enclaves now existing are in Asia and Europe. While subnational enclaves are numerous the world over, there are only a few national-level true enclaves in Africa, Australia and the Americas (each such enclave being surrounded by the territorial waters of another country).


title: Enclave and exclave

text: A historical example is West Berlin before the reunification of Germany. Since 1945, all of Berlin was ruled "de jure" by the four Allied powers. However, the East German government and the Soviet Union treated East Berlin as an integral part of East Germany, so West Berlin was a "de facto" enclave within East Germany. Also, 12 small West Berlin enclaves, such as Steinstücken, were separated from the city, some by only a few meters.


title: Enclave and exclave

text: The Republic of Artsakh, a disputed territory not recognised by any UN member states, controls part of Nagorno-Karabakh, which is an enclave within Azerbaijan.


title: Enclave and exclave

text: Historically, four Bantustans (or "Black homelands") of South Africa were granted nominal independence, unrecognized internationally, by the Apartheid government from 1976 until their reabsorption in 1994. Others remained under government rule from 1948 to 1994. Being heavily partitioned, various parts of these Bantustans were true enclaves.


title: Enclave and exclave

text: The United States' constitutional principle of tribal sovereignty treats federally recognized Indian reservations as quasi-independent enclaves.


title: Enclave and exclave

text: "True exclave" is an extension of the concept of "true enclave". In order to access a true exclave from the mainland, a traveller must go through the territory of at least one other state. Examples include:


title: Enclave and exclave

text: Semi-enclaves and semi-exclaves are areas that, except for possessing an unsurrounded sea border, would otherwise be enclaves or exclaves. Semi-enclaves can exist as independent states that border only one other state, such as Monaco, the Gambia and Brunei. "Vinokurov (2007)" declares, "Technically, Portugal, Denmark, and Canada also border only one foreign state, but they are not enclosed in the geographical, political, or economic sense. They have vast access to international waters. At the same time, there are states that, although in possession of sea access, are still enclosed by the territories of a foreign state." Therefore, a quantitative principle applies: "the land boundary must be longer than the coastline." Thus a state is classified as a "sovereign semi-enclave" if it borders on just one state, and its land boundary is longer than its sea coastline.


title: Enclave and exclave

text: Vinokurov affirms that "no similar quantitative criterion is needed to define the scope of non-sovereign semi-enclaves/exclaves." Examples include:


title: Enclave and exclave

text: Sometimes, administrative divisions of a country, for historical or practical reasons, caused some areas to belong to one division while being attached to another. Examples include:


title: Enclave and exclave

text: The term -exclave was defined in "Robinson (1959)" as "parts of the territory of one country that can be approached conveniently – in particular by wheeled traffic – only through the territory of another country." Thus, a "pene-exclave", although having land borders, is not completely surrounded by the other's land or territorial waters. Catudal (1974) and Vinokurov (2007) further elaborate upon examples, including Point Roberts. "Although physical connections by water with Point Roberts are entirely within the sovereignty of the United States, land access is only possible through Canada."


title: Enclave and exclave

text: Pene-enclaves are also called functional enclaves or practical enclaves. They can exhibit continuity of state territory across territorial waters but, nevertheless, a discontinuity on land, such as in the case of Point Roberts. Along rivers that change course, pene-enclaves can be observed as complexes comprising many small pene-enclaves. A pene-enclave can also exist entirely on land, such as when intervening mountains render a territory, although geographically attached, inaccessible from other parts of a country except through alien territory. A commonly cited example is the Kleinwalsertal, a valley part of Vorarlberg, Austria, that is only accessible from Germany to the north, being separated from the rest of Austria by high mountains traversed by no roads. Another example is the Spanish village of Os de Civís, accessible from Andorra.


title: Enclave and exclave

text: Hence, such areas are enclaves or exclaves "for practical purposes", without meeting the strict definition. Many pene-exclaves partially border the sea or another body of water, which comprises their own territorial waters (i.e., they are not surrounded by other nations' territorial waters). They border their own territorial waters in addition to a land border with another country, and hence they are not true exclaves. Still, one cannot travel to them on land without going through another country. Attribution of a pene-enclave status to a territory can sometimes be disputed, depending on whether the territory is considered to be practically inaccessible from the mainland or not.


title: Enclave and exclave

text: It is possible for an enclave of one country to be completely surrounded by a part of another country that is itself an enclave of the first country. These enclaves are sometimes called "counter-enclaves". Two such complexes containing them exist currently: