title: Internal Revenue Service

text: Since its establishment, the IRS has been responsible for collecting most of the revenue needed to fund the federal government, albeit while facing periodic controversy and opposition over its methods, constitutionality, and the principle of taxation generally. In recent years the agency has struggled with budget cuts and reduced morale. As of 2018, it saw a 15 percent reduction in its workforce, including a decline of more than 25 percent of its enforcement staff. Nevertheless, during the 2017 fiscal year, the agency processed more than 245 million tax returns.


title: Internal Revenue Service

text: In July 1862, during the American Civil War, President Abraham Lincoln and Congress passed the Revenue Act of 1862, creating the office of Commissioner of Internal Revenue and enacting a temporary income tax to pay war expenses.


title: Internal Revenue Service

text: The Revenue Act of 1862 was passed as an emergency and temporary war-time tax. It copied a relatively new British system of income taxation, instead of trade and property taxation. The first income tax was passed in 1862:


title: Internal Revenue Service

text: By the end of the war, 10% of Union households had paid some form of income tax, and the Union raised 21% of its war revenue through income taxes.


title: Internal Revenue Service

text: After the Civil War, Reconstruction, railroads, and transforming the North and South war machines towards peacetime required public funding. However, in 1872, seven years after the war, lawmakers allowed the temporary Civil War income tax to expire.


title: Internal Revenue Service

text: Income taxes evolved, but in 1894 the Supreme Court declared the Income Tax of 1894 unconstitutional in "Pollock v. Farmers' Loan & Trust Co.", a decision that contradicted "Hylton v. United States". The federal government scrambled to raise money.


title: Internal Revenue Service

text: In 1906, with the election of President Theodore Roosevelt, and later his successor William Howard Taft, the United States saw a populist movement for tax reform. This movement culminated during then-candidate Woodrow Wilson's election of 1912 and in February 1913, the ratification of the Sixteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution:


title: Internal Revenue Service

text: This granted Congress the specific power to impose an income tax without regard to apportionment among the states by population. By February 1913, 36 states had ratified the change to the Constitution. It was further ratified by six more states by March. Of the 48 states at the time, 42 ratified it. Connecticut, Rhode Island, and Utah rejected the amendment; Pennsylvania, Virginia, and Florida did not take up the issue.


title: Internal Revenue Service

text: Though the constitutional amendment to allow the federal government to collect income taxes was proposed by President Taft in 1909, the 16th Amendment was not ratified until 1913, just before the start of the First World War. In 1913 the first edition of the 1040 form was introduced. A copy of the very first IRS 1040 form, can be found at the IRS website showing that only those with annual incomes of at least $3,000 () were instructed to file the income tax return.


title: Internal Revenue Service

text: In the first year after the ratification of the 16th Amendment, no taxes were collected. Instead, taxpayers simply completed the form and the IRS checked the form for accuracy. The IRS's workload jumped by ten-fold, triggering a massive restructuring. Professional tax collectors began to replace a system of "patronage" appointments. The IRS doubled its staff but was still processing 1917 returns in 1919.


title: Internal Revenue Service

text: Income tax raised much of the money required to finance the war effort; in 1918 a new Revenue Act established a top tax rate of 77%.


title: Internal Revenue Service

text: In 1919 the IRS was tasked with enforcement of laws relating to prohibition of alcohol sales and manufacture; this was transferred to the jurisdiction of the Department of Justice in 1930. After repeal in 1933, the IRS resumed collection of taxes on beverage alcohol. The alcohol, tobacco and firearms activities of the bureau were segregated into the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives in 1972.


title: Internal Revenue Service

text: A new tax act was passed in 1942 as the United States entered the Second World War. This act included a special wartime surcharge. The number of American citizens who paid income tax increased from about four million in 1939 to more than forty-two million by 1945.


title: Internal Revenue Service

text: In 1952, after a series of politically damaging incidents of tax evasion and bribery among its own employees, the Bureau of Internal Revenue was reorganized under a plan put forward by President Truman, with the approval of Congress. The reorganization decentralized many functions to new district offices which replaced the collector's offices. Civil service directors were appointed to replace the politically appointed collectors of the Bureau of Internal Revenue. Not long after, the bureau was renamed the Internal Revenue Service.


title: Internal Revenue Service

text: The Internal Revenue Service Restructuring and Reform Act of 1998 ("RRA 98") changed the organization from geographically oriented to an organization based on four operating divisions. It added "10 deadly sins" that require immediate termination of IRS employees found to have committed certain misconduct.


title: Internal Revenue Service

text: Enforcement activities declined. The IRS Oversight Board noted that the decline in enforcement activities has "rais[ed] questions about tax compliance and fairness to the vast majority of citizens who pay all their taxes". In June 2012, the IRS Oversight Board recommended to Treasury a fiscal year 2014 budget of $13.074billion for the Internal Revenue Service.


title: Internal Revenue Service

text: On December 20, 2017, Congress passed the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act of 2017. It was signed into law by President Trump on December 22, 2017.


title: Internal Revenue Service

text: In the 2017 fiscal year, the IRS had 76,832 employees conducting its work, a decrease of 14.9 percent from 2012.


title: Internal Revenue Service

text: From the 1950s through the 1970s, the IRS began using technology such as microfilm to keep and organize records. Access to this information proved controversial, when President Richard Nixon's tax returns were leaked to the public. His tax advisor, Edward L. Morgan, became the fourth law-enforcement official to be charged with a crime during Watergate.


title: Internal Revenue Service

text: John Requard, Jr., accused of leaking the Nixon tax returns, collected delinquent taxes in the slums of Washington. In his words: "We went after people for nickels and dimes, many of them poor and in many cases illiterate people who didn't know how to deal with a government agency." Requard admitted that he saw the returns, but denied that he leaked them.


title: Internal Revenue Service

text: Reporter Jack White of "The Providence Journal" won the Pulitzer Prize for reporting about Nixon's tax returns. Nixon, with a salary of $200,000, paid $792.81 in federal income tax in 1970 and $878.03 in 1971, with deductions of $571,000 for donating "vice-presidential papers". This was one of the reasons for his famous statement: "Well, I'm not a crook. I've earned everything I've got."


title: Internal Revenue Service

text: So controversial was this leak, that most later US presidents released their tax returns (though sometimes only partially). These returns can be found online at the Tax History Project.


title: Internal Revenue Service

text: By the end of the Second World War, the IRS was handling sixty million tax returns each year, using a combination of mechanical desk calculators, accounting machines, and pencil and paper forms. In 1948 punch card equipment was used. The first trial of a computer system for income tax processing was in 1955, when an IBM 650 installed at Kansas City processed 1.1 million returns. The IRS was authorized to proceed with computerization in 1959, and purchased IBM 1401 and IBM 7070 systems for local and regional data processing centers. The Social Security number was used for taxpayer identification starting in 1965. By 1967, all returns were processed by computer and punched card data entry was phased out.


title: Internal Revenue Service

text: Information processing in the IRS systems of the late 1960s was in batch mode; microfilm records were updated weekly and distributed to regional centers for handling tax inquiries. A project to implement an interactive, realtime system, the "Tax Administration System", was launched, that would provide thousands of local interactive terminals at IRS offices. However, the General Accounting Office prepared a report critical of the lack of protection of privacy in TAS, and the project was abandoned in 1978.


title: Internal Revenue Service

text: In 1995, the IRS began to use the public Internet for electronic filing. Since the introduction of e-filing, self-paced online tax services have flourished, augmenting the work of tax accountants, who were sometimes replaced.


title: Internal Revenue Service

text: By 2002, more than a third of all tax returns were filed electronically. This led to a decline in the number of paper returns being processed each year. As a result, the IRS implemented a consolidation plan for its paper tax return processing centers, closing five of its ten processing centers between 2003 and 2011. The agency closed two more centers - one in 2019 and another in 2021 - as e-file use continued to expand. E-filed tax returns accounted for 90% of all returns submitted during the 2021 filing season.


title: Internal Revenue Service

text: In 2003, the IRS struck a deal with tax software vendors: The IRS would not develop online filing software and, in return, software vendors would provide free e-filing to most Americans. In 2009, 70% of filers qualified for free electronic filing of federal returns.


title: Internal Revenue Service

text: According to an inspector general's report, released in November 2013, identity theft in the United States is blamed for $4billion worth of fraudulent 2012 tax refunds by the IRS. Fraudulent claims were made with the use of stolen taxpayer identification and Social Security numbers, with returns sent to addresses both in the US and internationally. Following the release of the findings, the IRS stated that it resolved most of the identity theft cases of 2013 within 120 days, while the average time to resolve cases from the 2011/2012 tax period was 312 days.


title: Internal Revenue Service

text: In September 2014, IRS Commissioner John Koskinen expressed concern over the organization's ability to handle Obamacare and administer premium tax credits that help people pay for health plans from the health law's insurance exchanges. It will also enforce the law's individual mandate, which requires most Americans to hold health insurance. In January 2015, Fox News obtained an email which predicted a messy tax season on several fronts. The email was sent by IRS Commissioner Koskinen to workers. Koskinen predicted the IRS would shut down operations for two days later this year which would result in unpaid furloughs for employees and service cuts for taxpayers. Koskinen also said delays to IT investments of more than $200million may delay new taxpayer protections against identity theft. Also in January 2015, the editorial board of "The New York Times" called the IRS budget cuts penny-wise-and-pound-foolish, where for every dollar of cuts in the budget, six were lost in tax revenue.


title: Internal Revenue Service

text: A 2020 Treasury Department audit found the IRS had improved its identity verification system offerings for taxpayers, but was still behind in fully meeting digital identity requirements. The following year, the IRS announced a new login and ID verification process for several of its online tools, including general account access, Identity Protection (IP) PIN setup, and payment plan applications. As part of the agency's Identity, Credential, and Access Management (ICAM) initiative, the process included the use of third-party facial recognition technologies to confirm taxpayer identities. The facial recognition requirement was dropped in 2022, however, following privacy concerns from government officials and the public. Alternative ID verification options have since been introduced with the goal of making IRS online tools accessible to more people.


title: Internal Revenue Service

text: As early as the year 1918, the Bureau of Internal Revenue began using the name "Internal Revenue Service" on at least one tax form. In 1953, the name change to the "Internal Revenue Service" was formalized in Treasury Decision 6038.


title: Internal Revenue Service

text: The 1980s saw a reorganization of the IRS. A bipartisan commission was created with several mandates, among them to increase customer service and improve collections. Congress later enacted the Internal Revenue Service Restructuring and Reform Act of 1998, which mandated that the agency replace its geographic regional divisions with units that serve particular categories of taxpayers.


title: Internal Revenue Service

text: The Large Business & International (LB&I) division was known as the Large and Mid-Size Business division prior to a name change on October 1, 2010.


title: Internal Revenue Service

text: The IRS is headquartered in Washington, D.C., and does most of its computer programming in Maryland. It processes paper tax returns sent by mail and e-filed tax returns at three IRS center locations: Austin, Texas; Kansas City, Missouri; and Ogden, Utah.


title: Internal Revenue Service

text: The IRS also operates computer centers in three locations: Detroit, Michigan; Martinsburg, West Virginia; and Memphis, Tennessee.


title: Internal Revenue Service

text: The IRS is currently led by Douglas O’Donnell, who became Acting Commissioner of Internal Revenue after Charles P. Rettig's term as Commissioner ended on November 12, 2022. There have been 49 previous commissioners of Internal Revenue and 28 acting commissioners since the agency's creation in 1862.


title: Internal Revenue Service

text: From May 22, 2013, to December 23, 2013, senior official at the Office of Management and Budget Daniel Werfel was acting Commissioner of Internal Revenue. Werfel, who attended law school at the University of North Carolina and attained a master's degree from Duke University, prepared the government for a potential shutdown in 2011 by determining which services that would remain in existence.


title: Internal Revenue Service

text: No IRS commissioner has served more than five years and one month since Guy Helvering, who served 10 years until 1943. The most recent commissioner to serve the longest term was Doug Shulman, who was appointed by President George W. Bush and served for five years.


title: Internal Revenue Service

text: The Deputy Commissioner for Operations Support reports directly to the Commissioner and oversees the IRS's integrated support functions, facilitating economy of scale efficiencies and better business practices. The Deputy Commissioner for Operations Support provides executive leadership for customer service, processing, tax law enforcement and financial management operations and is responsible for overseeing IRS operations and providing executive leadership on policies, programs and activities. The Deputy assists and acts on behalf of the IRS Commissioner in directing, coordinating and controlling the policies, programs and activities of the IRS; in establishing tax administration policy, and developing strategic issues and objectives for IRS strategic management.


title: Internal Revenue Service

text: The Deputy Commissioner for Services and Enforcement reports directly to the Commissioner and oversees the four primary operating divisions responsible for the major customer segments and other taxpayer-facing functions. The Deputy Commissioner for Services and Enforcement serves as the IRS Commissioner's essential assistant acting on behalf of the commissioner in establishing and enforcing tax administration policy and upholding IRS's mission to provide America's taxpayers top-quality service by helping them understand and meet their tax responsibilities.


title: Internal Revenue Service

text: The Office of the Taxpayer Advocate, also called the Taxpayer Advocate Service, is an independent office within the IRS responsible for assisting taxpayers in resolving their problems with the IRS and identifying systemic problems that exist within the IRS. The current head of the organization, known as the "United States Taxpayer Advocate", is Erin M. Collins.


title: Internal Revenue Service

text: The Independent Office of Appeals is an independent organization within the IRS that helps taxpayers resolve their tax disputes through an informal, administrative process. Its mission is to resolve tax controversies fairly and impartially, without litigation. Resolution of a case in Appeals "could take anywhere from 90 days to a year". The current chief is Donna C. Hansberry.


title: Internal Revenue Service

text: OPR investigates suspected misconduct by attorneys, CPAs and enrolled agents ("tax practitioners") involving practice before the IRS and has the power to impose various penalties. OPR can also take action against tax practitioners for conviction of a crime or failure to file their own tax returns. According to former OPR director Karen Hawkins, "The focus has been on roadkillthe easy cases of tax practitioners who are non-filers." The current acting director is Elizabeth Kastenberg.


title: Internal Revenue Service

text: Internal Revenue Service, Criminal Investigation (IRS-CI) is responsible for investigating potential criminal violations of the U.S. Internal Revenue Code and related financial crimes, such as money laundering, currency violations, tax-related identity theft fraud, and terrorist financing that adversely affect tax administration. This division is headed by the "Chief, Criminal Investigation" appointed by the IRS Commissioner.


title: Internal Revenue Service

text: Volunteer Income Tax Assistance (VITA) and Tax Counseling for the Elderly (TCE) are volunteer programs that the IRS runs to train volunteers and provide tax assistance and counseling to taxpayers. Volunteers can study e-course material, take tests, and practice using tax-preparation software. Link & Learn Taxes (searchable by keyword on the IRS website), is the free e-learning portion of VITA/TCE program for training volunteers.


title: Internal Revenue Service

text: For fiscal year 2009, the U.S. Congress appropriated spending of approximately $12.624billion of "discretionary budget authority" to operate the Department of the Treasury, of which $11.522billion was allocated to the IRS. The projected estimate of the budget for the IRS for fiscal year 2011 was $12.633billion. By contrast, during Fiscal Year (FY) 2006, the IRS collected more than $2.2trillion in tax (net of refunds), about 44 percent of which was attributable to the individual income tax. This is partially due to the nature of the individual income tax category, containing taxes collected from working class, small business, self-employed, and capital gains. The top 5% of income earners pay 38.284% of the federal tax collected.


title: Internal Revenue Service

text: As of 2007, the agency estimates that the United States Treasury is owed $354billion more than the amount the IRS collects. This is known as the tax gap.


title: Internal Revenue Service

text: The gross tax gap is the amount of true tax liability that is not paid voluntarily and timely. For years 2008–2010, the estimated gross tax gap was $458billion. The net tax gap is the gross tax gap less tax that will be subsequently collected, either paid voluntarily or as the result of IRS administrative and enforcement activities; it is the portion of the gross tax gap that will not be paid. It is estimated that $52billion of the gross tax gap was eventually collected resulting in a net tax gap of $406billion.


title: Internal Revenue Service

text: In 2011, 234 million tax returns were filed allowing the IRS to collect $2.4trillion out of which $384billion were attributed to mistake or fraud.


title: Internal Revenue Service

text: In September 2006, the IRS started to outsource the collection of taxpayers debts to private debt collection agencies. Opponents to this change note that the IRS will be handing over personal information to these debt collection agencies, who are being paid between 29% and 39% of the amount collected. Opponents are also worried about the agencies' being paid on percent collected, because it will encourage the collectors to use pressure tactics to collect the maximum amount. IRS spokesman Terry Lemons responds to these critics saying the new system "is a sound, balanced program that respects taxpayers' rights and taxpayer privacy". Other state and local agencies also use private collection agencies.


title: Internal Revenue Service

text: In March 2009, the IRS announced that it would no longer outsource the collection of taxpayers debts to private debt collection agencies. The IRS decided not to renew contracts to private debt collection agencies, and began a hiring program at its call sites and processing centers across the country to bring on more personnel to process collections internally from taxpayers. As of October 2009, the IRS has ceased using private debt collection agencies.


title: Internal Revenue Service

text: In September 2009, after undercover exposé videos of questionable activities by staff of one of the IRS's volunteer tax-assistance organizations were made public, the IRS removed ACORN from its volunteer tax-assistance program.


title: Internal Revenue Service

text: The IRS publishes tax forms which taxpayers are required to choose from and use for calculating and reporting their federal tax obligations. The IRS also publishes a number of forms for its own internal operations, such as Forms 3471 and 4228 (which are used during the initial processing of income tax returns).


title: Internal Revenue Service

text: In addition to collection of revenue and pursuing tax cheaters, the IRS issues administrative rulings such as revenue rulings and private letter rulings. In addition, the Service publishes the Internal Revenue Bulletin containing the various IRS pronouncements. The controlling authority of regulations and revenue rulings allows taxpayers to rely on them. A letter ruling is good for the taxpayer to whom it is issued, and gives some explanation of the Service's position on a particular tax issue. Additionally, a letter ruling reasonably relied upon by a taxpayer allows for the waiver of penalties for underpayment of tax.


title: Internal Revenue Service

text: As is the case with all administrative pronouncements, taxpayers sometimes litigate the validity of the pronouncements, and courts sometimes determine a particular rule to be invalid where the agency has exceeded its authority. The IRS also issues formal pronouncements called Revenue Procedures. These guide taxpayers through different processes, such as correcting prior tax errors. The IRS's own internal operations manual is the Internal Revenue Manual, which describes the clerical procedures for processing and auditing tax returns for almost any circumstance. For example, the Internal Revenue Manual includes special procedures for processing tax returns from the President and Vice President of the United States.


title: Internal Revenue Service

text: In addition to the foregoing procedures, the IRS also engages in formal rulemaking in order to provide its own formal interpretation of a statute, or when the statute itself directs that the Secretary of the Treasury shall provide for such rulemaking. The IRS initiates the formal regulation process by publishing a notice of proposed rulemaking (NPRM) in the Federal Register which announces the proposed regulation, the date of the in-person hearing, and the process for interested parties to have their views heard either in person at the hearing in Washington, D.C., or by mail. Following the statutory period provided in the Administrative Procedure Act the Service decides on the final regulations "as is", or as reflecting changes, or sometimes withdraws the proposed regulations. Generally, taxpayers may rely on proposed regulations until final regulations become effective. For example, human resource professionals are relying on the October 4, 2005 Proposed Regulations (citation 70 F.R. 57930–57984) for the Section 409A on deferred compensation (the so-called Enron rules on deferred compensation to add teeth to the old rules) because regulations have not been finalized.


title: Internal Revenue Service

text: The IRS oversaw the Homebuyer Credit and First Time Homebuyer Credit programs instituted by the federal government from 2008 to 2010. Those programs provided United States citizens with money toward the purchase of homes, regardless of income tax filings.


title: Internal Revenue Service

text: Most non-supervisory employees at the IRS are represented by a labor union. The exclusive labor union at the IRS is the National Treasury Employees Union (NTEU). Employees are not required to join the union or pay dues. The IRS and NTEU have a national collective bargaining agreement.


title: Internal Revenue Service

text: In pursuing administrative remedies against the IRS for certain unfair or illegal personnel actions, under federal law an IRS employee may choose only one of the three forums below:


title: Internal Revenue Service

text: Employees are also required to report certain misconduct to TIGTA. Federal law prohibits reprisal or retaliation against an employee who reports wrongdoing.


title: Internal Revenue Service

text: The IRS has been accused of abusive behavior on multiple occasions. Testimony was given before a Senate subcommittee that focused on cases of overly aggressive IRS collection tactics in considering a need for legislation to give taxpayers greater protection in disputes with the agency.


title: Internal Revenue Service

text: Congress passed the Taxpayer Bill of Rights III on July 22, 1998, which shifted the burden of proof from the taxpayer to the IRS in certain limited situations. The IRS retains the legal authority to enforce liens and seize assets without obtaining judgment in court.


title: Internal Revenue Service

text: In 2002, the IRS accused James and Pamela Moran, as well as several others, of conspiracy, filing false tax returns and mail fraud as part of the Anderson Ark investment scheme. The Morans were eventually acquitted, and their attorney stated that the government should have realized that the couple was merely duped by those running the scheme.


title: Internal Revenue Service

text: In 2004, the law licenses of two former IRS lawyers were suspended after a federal court ruled that they defrauded the courts so the IRS could win a sum in tax shelter cases.


title: Internal Revenue Service

text: In 2013, the Internal Revenue Service became embroiled in a political scandal in which it was discovered that the agency subjected conservative or conservative-sounding groups filing for tax-exempt status to extra scrutiny.


title: Internal Revenue Service

text: On September 5, 2014, 16 months after the scandal first erupted, a Senate Subcommittee released a report that confirmed that Internal Revenue Service used inappropriate criteria to target Tea Party groups, but found no evidence of political bias. The chairman of the Senate Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations confirmed that while the actions were "inappropriate, intrusive, and burdensome", the Democrats have often experienced similar treatment. Republicans noted that 83% of the groups being held up by the IRS were right-leaning; and the Subcommittee Minority staff, which did not join the Majority staff report, filed a dissenting report entitled, "IRS Targeting Tea Party Groups".


title: Internal Revenue Service

text: On May 25, 2015, the agency announced that over several months criminals had accessed the private tax information of more than 100,000 taxpayers and stolen about $50million in fraudulent returns. By providing Social Security numbers and other information obtained from prior computer crimes, the criminals were able to use the IRS's online "Get Transcript" function to have the IRS provide them with the tax returns and other private information of American tax filers. On August 17, 2015, IRS disclosed that the breach had compromised an additional 220,000 taxpayer records. On February 27, 2016, the IRS disclosed that more than 700,000 Social Security numbers and other sensitive information had been stolen.


title: Internal Revenue Service

text: The Internal Revenue Service has been the subject of frequent criticism by many elected officials and candidates for political office, including some who have called to abolish the IRS. Among them were Ted Cruz, Rand Paul, Ben Carson, Mike Huckabee, and Richard Lugar. In 1998, a Republican congressman introduced a bill to repeal the Internal Revenue Code by 2002. In 2016, The Republican Study Committee, which counts over two-thirds of House of Representatives Republicans as its members, called for "the complete elimination of the IRS", and Republican Representative Rob Woodall of Georgia has introduced a bill every year since he entered Congress in 2011 to eliminate income taxes and abolish the IRS.


title: Internal Revenue Service

text: In 2022 Representative Matt Gaetz of Florida introduced a bill to disarm the IRS after the agency had drawn public attention for a $700,000 purchase of ammunition.


title: Internal Revenue Service

text: The IRS has been criticized for its reliance on legacy software. Systems such as the Individual Master File are more than 50 years old and have been identified by the Government Accountability Office as "facing significant risks due to their reliance on legacy programming languages, outdated hardware, and a shortage of human resources with critical skills".


title: Hodgkin lymphoma

text: Hodgkin lymphoma (HL) is a type of lymphoma, in which cancer originates from a specific type of white blood cell called lymphocytes, where multinucleated Reed–Sternberg cells (RS cells) are present in the patient's lymph nodes. The condition was named after the English physician Thomas Hodgkin, who first described it in 1832. Symptoms may include fever, night sweats, and weight loss. Often, nonpainful enlarged lymph nodes occur in the neck, under the arm, or in the groin. Those affected may feel tired or be itchy.


title: Hodgkin lymphoma

text: The two major types of Hodgkin lymphoma are classic Hodgkin lymphoma and nodular lymphocyte-predominant Hodgkin lymphoma. About half of cases of Hodgkin lymphoma are due to Epstein–Barr virus (EBV) and these are generally the classic form. Other risk factors include a family history of the condition and having HIV/AIDS. Diagnosis is conducted by confirming the presence of cancer and identifying RS cells in lymph node biopsies. The virus-positive cases are classified as a form of the Epstein–Barr virus-associated lymphoproliferative diseases.


title: Hodgkin lymphoma

text: Hodgkin lymphoma may be treated with chemotherapy, radiation therapy, and stem cell transplantation. The choice of treatment often depends on how advanced the cancer has become and whether or not it has favorable features. If the disease is detected early, a cure is often possible. In the United States, 88% of people diagnosed with Hodgkin Lymphoma survive for five years or longer. For those under the age of 20, rates of survival are 97%. Radiation and some chemotherapy drugs, however, increase the risk of other cancers, heart disease, or lung disease over the subsequent decades.


title: Hodgkin lymphoma

text: In 2015, about 574,000 people globally had Hodgkin lymphoma, and 23,900 (4.2%) died. In the United States, 0.2% of people are affected at some point in their life. Most people are diagnosed with the disease between the ages of 20 and 40.


title: Hodgkin lymphoma

text: Hodgkin lymphoma must be distinguished from non-cancerous causes of lymph node swelling (such as various infections) and from other types of cancer. Definitive diagnosis is by lymph node biopsy (usually excisional biopsy with microscopic examination). Blood tests are also performed to assess function of major organs and to assess safety for chemotherapy. Positron emission tomography (PET) is used to detect small deposits that do not show on CT scanning. PET scans are also useful in functional imaging (by using a radiolabeled glucose to image tissues of high metabolism). In some cases, a gallium scan may be used instead of a PET scan.


title: Hodgkin lymphoma

text: There are two main types of Hodgkin lymphoma: classic Hodgkin lymphoma and nodular lymphocyte predominant Hodgkin lymphoma. The prevalence of classic Hodgkin lymphoma and nodular lymphocyte Hodgkin lymphoma are approximately 90% and 10%, respectively. The morphology, phenotype, molecular features, and, therefore, the clinical behaviour and presentation of the two types differ.


title: Hodgkin lymphoma

text: Classic Hodgkin lymphoma (excluding nodular lymphocyte predominant Hodgkin lymphoma) can be subclassified into four pathologic subtypes based upon Reed–Sternberg cell morphology and the composition of the reactive cell infiltrate seen in the lymph node biopsy specimen (the cell composition around the Reed–Sternberg cell(s)). Presence of EBV in Reed-Sternberg cells is most commonly found in the subtypes lymphocyte depleted HL (>70%) and mixed cellularity HL (70%), whilst being less prevalent in lymphocyte-rich HL (40%) and relatively uncommon by comparison in nodular sclerosing HL.


title: Hodgkin lymphoma

text: For the other forms, although the traditional B-cell markers (such as CD20) are not expressed on all cells, Reed–Sternberg cells are usually of B cell origin. Although Hodgkin's is now frequently grouped with other B-cell malignancies, some T-cell markers (such as CD2 and CD4) are occasionally expressed. However, this may be an artifact of the ambiguity inherent in the diagnosis.


title: Hodgkin lymphoma

text: Hodgkin cells produce interleukin-21 (IL-21), which was once thought to be exclusive to T-cells. This feature may explain the behavior of classic Hodgkin lymphoma, including clusters of other immune cells gathered around HL cells (infiltrate) in cultures.


title: Hodgkin lymphoma

text: Nodular lymphocyte predominant Hodgkin lymphoma (NLPHL) is another subtype of Hodgkin lymphoma distinct from classic Hodgkin lymphoma and is characterized by the presence of popcorn cells which express CD20. Due to these differences, among others, NLPHL is often treated differently from classic Hodgkin lymphoma, including using rituximab in combination with AVBD chemotherapy, though individual cases vary and clinical trials are ongoing.


title: Hodgkin lymphoma

text: After Hodgkin lymphoma is diagnosed, a person will be "staged": that is, they will undergo a series of tests and procedures that will determine what areas of the body are affected. These procedures may include documentation of their histology, a physical examination, blood tests, chest X-ray radiographs, computed tomography (CT)/positron emission tomography (PET)/magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans of the chest, abdomen and pelvis, and usually a bone marrow biopsy. PET scan is now used instead of the gallium scan for staging. On the PET scan, sites involved with lymphoma light up very brightly enabling accurate and reproducible imaging. In the past, a lymphangiogram or surgical laparotomy (which involves opening the abdominal cavity and visually inspecting for tumors) were performed. Lymphangiograms or laparotomies are very rarely performed, having been supplanted by improvements in imaging with the CT scan and PET scan.


title: Hodgkin lymphoma

text: On the basis of this staging, the person will be classified according to a staging classification (the Ann Arbor staging classification scheme is a common one):


title: Hodgkin lymphoma

text: The absence of systemic symptoms is signified by adding "A" to the stage; the presence of systemic symptoms is signified by adding "B" to the stage. For localised extranodal extension from mass of nodes that does not advance the stage, subscript "E" is added. Splenic involvement is signified by adding "S" to the stage. The inclusion of "bulky disease" is signified by "X".


title: Hodgkin lymphoma

text: Affected lymph nodes (most often, laterocervical lymph nodes) are enlarged, but their shape is preserved because the capsule is not invaded. Usually, the cut surface is white-grey and uniform; in some histological subtypes (e.g. nodular sclerosis) a nodular aspect may appear.


title: Hodgkin lymphoma

text: Microscopic examination of the lymph node biopsy reveals complete or partial effacement of the lymph node architecture by scattered large malignant cells known as Reed-Sternberg cells (RSC) (typical and variants) admixed within a reactive cell infiltrate composed of variable proportions of lymphocytes, histiocytes, eosinophils, and plasma cells. The Reed–Sternberg cells are identified as large often bi-nucleated cells with prominent nucleoli and an unusual CD45-, CD30+, CD15+/- immunophenotype. In approximately 50% of cases, the Reed–Sternberg cells are infected by the Epstein–Barr virus.


title: Hodgkin lymphoma

text: Hodgkin lymphoma can be sub-classified by histological type. The cell histology in Hodgkin lymphoma is not as important as it is in non-Hodgkin lymphoma: the treatment and prognosis in classic Hodgkin lymphoma usually depends on the stage of disease rather than the histotype.


title: Hodgkin lymphoma

text: The current approach for treatment aims to reduce the acute and long-term toxicities associated with Hodgkin lymphoma (e.g. cardiac damage and secondary cancers) and increase overall survival.


title: Hodgkin lymphoma

text: People with early stage disease (IA or IIA) are effectively treated with radiation therapy or chemotherapy. The choice of treatment depends on the age, sex, bulk and the histological subtype of the disease.


title: Hodgkin lymphoma

text: Adding localised radiation therapy after the chemotherapy regimen may provide a longer progression-free survival compared with chemotherapy treatment alone. People with later disease (III, IVA, or IVB) are treated with combination chemotherapy alone. People of any stage with a large mass in the chest are usually treated with combined chemotherapy and radiation therapy.


title: Hodgkin lymphoma

text: The common non-Hodgkin treatment, rituximab (which is a monoclonal antibody against CD20) is not routinely used to treat Hodgkin lymphoma due to the lack of CD20 surface antigens in most cases. The use of rituximab in Hodgkin lymphoma, including the lymphocyte predominant subtype has been recently reviewed. The evidence is very uncertain about the effect of Nivolumab for patients with a Hodgkin's lymphoma e.g. on the overall survival.


title: Hodgkin lymphoma

text: Increased age is an adverse risk factor for Hodgkin lymphoma, but in general elderly people (≥ 60 years of age) without major comorbidities are sufficiently fit to tolerate therapy with curative intent. Despite this, treatment outcome in the elderly patient is not comparable to that of younger people and the disease is a different entity in older people where different considerations enter into treatment decisions.


title: Hodgkin lymphoma

text: Recently, two novel targeted drugs have been developed for relapsing and refractory HL patients; Brentuximab vedotin, a CD30 antibody conjugated with a cytotoxic component MMAE, and the checkpoint inhibitors, Nivolumab and Pembrolizumab. This has been an important step in the treatment for the few, but still existing refractory patients.


title: Hodgkin lymphoma

text: For Hodgkin lymphomas, radiation oncologists typically use external beam radiation therapy (sometimes shortened to EBRT or XRT). Radiation oncologists deliver external beam radiation therapy to the lymphoma from a machine called a linear accelerator which produces high energy X-rays and electrons. People usually describe treatments as painless and similar to getting an X-ray. Treatments last less than 30 minutes each.


title: Hodgkin lymphoma

text: For lymphomas, there are a few different ways radiation oncologists target the cancer cells. Involved site radiation is when the radiation oncologists give radiation only to those parts of the person's body known to have the cancer. Very often, this is combined with chemotherapy. Radiation therapy directed above the diaphragm to the neck, chest or underarms is called mantle field radiation. Radiation to below the diaphragm to the abdomen, spleen or pelvis is called inverted-Y field radiation. Total nodal irradiation is when the therapist gives radiation to all the lymph nodes in the body to destroy cells that may have spread.


title: Hodgkin lymphoma

text: The high cure rates and long survival of many people with Hodgkin lymphoma has led to a high concern with late adverse effects of treatment, including cardiovascular disease and second malignancies such as acute leukemias, lymphomas, and solid tumors within the radiation therapy field. Most people with early-stage disease are now treated with abbreviated chemotherapy and involved site radiation therapy rather than with radiation therapy alone. Clinical research strategies are exploring reduction of the duration of chemotherapy and dose and volume of radiation therapy in an attempt to reduce late morbidity and mortality of treatment while maintaining high cure rates. Hospitals are also treating those who respond quickly to chemotherapy with no radiation.


title: Hodgkin lymphoma

text: In childhood cases of Hodgkin lymphoma, long-term endocrine adverse effects are a major concern, mainly gonadal dysfunction and growth retardation. Gonadal dysfunction seems to be the most severe endocrine long-term effect, especially after treatment with alkylating agents or pelvic radiotherapy.


title: Hodgkin lymphoma

text: It is possible that patients undergoing a chemotherapy need a platelet transfusion. If a stem cell transplantation is necessary for the treatment of a relapse, graft-versus-host diseases might occur.


title: Hodgkin lymphoma

text: Adding physical exercises to the standard treatment for adult patients with haematological malignancies like Hodgkin lymphoma may result in little to no difference in the mortality, the quality of life and the physical functioning. These exercises may result in a slight reduction in depression. Furthermore, aerobic physical exercises probably reduce fatigue. The evidence is very uncertain about the effect on anxiety and serious adverse events.


title: Hodgkin lymphoma

text: Treatment of Hodgkin's disease has been improving over the past few decades. Recent trials that have made use of new types of chemotherapy have indicated higher survival rates than have previously been seen. In one recent European trial, the five-year survival rate for those people with a favorable prognosis (FFP) was 98%, while that for people with worse outlooks was at least 85%.


title: Hodgkin lymphoma

text: In 1998, an international effort identified seven prognostic factors that accurately predict the success rate of conventional treatment in people with locally extensive or advanced-stage Hodgkin lymphoma. Freedom from progression (FFP) at five years was directly related to the number of factors present in a person. The five-year FFP for people with zero factors is 84%. Each additional factor lowers the five-year FFP rate by 7%, such that the five-year FFP for a person with five or more factors is 42%.


title: Hodgkin lymphoma

text: Other studies have reported the following to be the most important adverse prognostic factors: mixed-cellularity or lymphocyte-depleted histologies, male sex, large number of involved nodal sites, advanced stage, age of 40 years or more, the presence of B symptoms, high erythrocyte sedimentation rate, and bulky disease (widening of the mediastinum by more than one third, or the presence of a nodal mass measuring more than 10 cm in any dimension.)


title: Hodgkin lymphoma

text: More recently, the use of positron emission tomography (PET) early after commencing chemotherapy has demonstrated to have powerful prognostic ability. This enables assessment of an individual's response to chemotherapy as the PET activity switches off rapidly in people who are responding. In this study, after two cycles of ABVD chemotherapy, 83% of people were free of disease at 3 years if they had a negative PET versus only 28% in those with positive PET scans. This prognostic method improves on FFP estimates based on the seven conventional factors. Several trials are underway to see if PET-based risk adapted response can be used to improve a person's outcomes by changing chemotherapy early in people who are not responding.


title: Hodgkin lymphoma

text: The evidence is very uncertain about the effect of negative (= good prognosis) or positive (= bad prognosis) interim PET scan results for patients with a Hodgkin's lymphoma on the progression-free survival. Negative interim PET scan results may result in an increase in progression-free survival compared if the adjusted result was measured. Negative interim PET scan results probably result in a large increase in the overall survival compared to those with a positive interim PET scan result,


title: Hodgkin lymphoma

text: Unlike some other lymphomas, whose number of new cases per year increases with age, Hodgkin lymphoma has a bimodal curve for the number of cases; that is, it occurs most frequently in two separate age groups, the first being young adulthood (age 15–35) and the second being in those over 55 years old although these peaks may vary slightly with nationality. Overall, it is more common in males, except for the nodular sclerosis variant, which is slightly more common in females. The annual number of cases of Hodgkin lymphoma is 2.7 per 100,000 per persons per year, and the disease accounts for slightly less than 1% of all cancers worldwide.


title: Hodgkin lymphoma

text: In 2010, globally it resulted in about 18,000 deaths down from 19,000 in 1990. In 2012, there were an estimated 65,950 cases and 25,469 deaths from Hodgkin lymphoma worldwide, with 28,852 and 37,098 cases occurring in developed and developing countries, respectively. However, the age-standardized rates were higher in developed regions, with the greatest rates in the Americas (1.5 per 100,000), East Mediterranean Region (1.5 per 100,000), and Europe (2.0 per 100,000). The East Mediterranean Region also has the highest age-standardized mortality rate of 1.0 per 100,000, which is mainly attributed to lifestyle and environmental risk factors associated with transitional economies such as smoking, obesity, physical inactivity, and reproductive behaviors, as well as availability of diagnostic practices and awareness of the disease.


title: Hodgkin lymphoma

text: The number of cases of Hodgkin lymphoma is increased in people with HIV infection. In contrast to many other lymphomas associated with HIV infection it occurs most commonly in people with higher CD4 T cell counts.


title: Hodgkin lymphoma

text: Hodgkin lymphoma accounts for 0.6% of all male cancer cases, and 0.4% of all female cancer cases in Canada. In 2017, approximately 990 Canadians will be diagnosed with Hodgkin lymphoma, and 140 will die of the disease.


title: Hodgkin lymphoma

text: Hodgkin lymphoma accounts for less than 1% of all cancer cases and deaths in the UK. Around 1,800 people were diagnosed with the disease in 2011, and around 330 people died in 2012.


title: Hodgkin lymphoma

text: In 2016, there were 8,389 new cases and 1,000 mortalities attributed to Hodgkin Lymphoma, a decrease from the 8,625 new cases and 1,120 mortalities in 2015. As of January 1, 2016, the 5-year limited duration prevalence of Hodgkin Lymphoma was 37,513 representing 0.71% of all diagnosed cancers in the U.S.


title: Hodgkin lymphoma

text: Hodgkin lymphoma was first described in an 1832 report by Thomas Hodgkin, although Hodgkin noted that perhaps an earlier reference to the condition was provided by Marcello Malpighi in 1666. While occupied as museum curator at Guy's Hospital, London, Hodgkin studied seven people with painless lymph node enlargement. Of the seven cases, two were under the care of Richard Bright, one was of Thomas Addison, and one was of Robert Carswell. Carswell's report of the seventh case was accompanied by numerous illustrations that aided early descriptions of the disease.


title: Hodgkin lymphoma

text: Hodgkin's report on the seven cases, entitled "On some morbid appearances of the absorbent glands and spleen", was presented to the Medical and Chirurgical Society of London in January 1832 and was subsequently published in the society's journal, "Medical-Chirurgical Society Transactions". Hodgkin's paper went largely unnoticed, however, even though Bright highlighted it in an 1838 publication. Indeed, Hodgkin himself did not view his contribution as particularly significant.


title: Hodgkin lymphoma

text: In 1856, Samuel Wilks independently reported on a series of patients with the same disease that Hodgkin had previously described. Wilks, a successor to Hodgkin at Guy's Hospital, was unaware of Hodgkin's prior work on the subject. Bright informed Wilks of Hodgkin's contribution and in 1865, Wilks published a second paper, entitled "Cases of enlargement of the lymphatic glands and spleen", in which he named the illness "Hodgkin's disease" in honor of his predecessor.


title: Hodgkin lymphoma

text: Theodor Langhans and WS Greenfield first described the microscopic characteristics of Hodgkin lymphoma in 1872 and 1878, respectively. In 1898 and 1902, respectively, Carl Sternberg and Dorothy Reed independently described the cytogenetic features of the malignant cells of Hodgkin lymphoma, now called Reed–Sternberg cells.


title: Hodgkin lymphoma

text: Tissue specimens from Hodgkin's seven cases were preserved at Guy's Hospital. Nearly 100 years after Hodgkin's initial publication, histopathologic reexamination confirmed Hodgkin lymphoma in only three of seven of these people. The remaining cases included non-Hodgkin lymphoma, tuberculosis, and syphilis.


title: Hodgkin lymphoma

text: Hodgkin lymphoma was one of the first cancers to be treated successfully with radiation therapy and, later, it was one of the first to be treated by combination chemotherapy.


title: Ford Bronco

text: The Ford Bronco is a model line of sport utility vehicles manufactured and marketed by Ford. The first SUV model developed by the company, five generations of the Bronco were sold from the 1966 to 1996 model years. A sixth generation of the model line was introduced for the 2021 model year. The nameplate has been used on other Ford SUVs, namely the 1984–1990 Bronco II compact SUV and the 2021 Bronco Sport compact crossover.


title: Ford Bronco

text: Originally developed as a compact off-road vehicle using its own chassis, the Bronco initially competed against the Jeep CJ-5 and International Harvester Scout. For 1978, Ford enlarged the Bronco, making it a short-wheelbase version of the F-Series pickup truck; the full-size Bronco competed against the Chevrolet K5 Blazer and Dodge Ramcharger.


title: Ford Bronco

text: Following a decline in demand for large two-door SUVs, Ford discontinued the Bronco after the 1996 model year, replacing it with the four-door Ford Expedition; followed by the larger Ford Excursion. After a 25-year hiatus, the sixth-generation Bronco is now offered as a mid-size two-door SUV for the first time. It is also offered as a full-size four-door SUV with a longer wheelbase. It competes directly with the Jeep Wrangler as both a two-door and a four-door (hardtop) convertible.


title: Ford Bronco

text: From 1965 to 1996, the Ford Bronco was manufactured by Ford at its Michigan Truck Plant in Wayne, Michigan, where it will also manufacture the sixth-generation version.


title: Ford Bronco

text: The idea behind the Bronco began with Ford product manager Donald N. Frey in the early 1960s (who also conceived the Ford Mustang) and was engineered by Paul G. Axelrad, with Lee Iacocca approving the final model for production in February 1964, after the first clay models were built in mid-1963. Developed as an off-road vehicle (ORV), the Bronco was intended as a competitor for the Jeep CJ-5, International Harvester Scout and Toyota Land Cruiser. Today a compact SUV in terms of size, Ford marketing shows a very early example of promoting a civilian off-roader as a "Sports Utility" (the two-door pickup version).


title: Ford Bronco

text: Initially selling well, following the introduction of the Chevrolet Blazer, Jeep Cherokee, and International Scout II (from 1969 to 1974), demand shifted towards SUVs with better on-road capability, leading to a decline in demand for the Bronco.


title: Ford Bronco

text: The first-generation Bronco is built upon a chassis developed specifically for the model range, shared with no other Ford or Lincoln-Mercury vehicle. Built on a 92-inch wheelbase (sized between the CJ-5 and Scout; only an inch shorter than the later CJ-7), the Bronco used box-section body-on-frame construction.


title: Ford Bronco

text: To simplify production, all examples were sold with four-wheel drive; a shift-on the-fly Dana 20 transfer case and locking hubs were standard. The rear axle was a Ford 9-inch axle, with Hotchkiss drive and leaf springs; the front axle was a Dana 30, replaced by a Dana 44 in 1971. In contrast to the Twin I-Beams of larger Ford trucks, the Bronco used radius arms to locate the coil-sprung front axle, along with a lateral track bar, allowing for a 34-foot turning circle, long wheel travel, and antidive geometry (useful for snowplowing). A heavier-duty suspension system was an option, along with air front springs.


title: Ford Bronco

text: At its August 1965 launch, the Bronco was offered with a 170-cubic-inch inline six. Derived from the Ford Falcon, the 105-hp engine was modified with solid valve lifters, a oil pan, heavy-duty fuel pump, oil-bath air cleaner, and carburetor with a float bowl compensated against tilting. In March 1966, a 200-hp 289-cubic-inch V8 was introduced as an option. For the 1969 model year, the 289 V8 was enlarged to 302 cubic inches, remaining through the 1977 model year. For 1973, a 200 cubic-inch inline six became the standard engine, offered through 1977.


title: Ford Bronco

text: To lower production costs, at its launch, the Bronco was offered solely with a three-speed, column-shifted manual transmission and floor-mounted transfer case shifter (with a floor-mounted transmission shifter later becoming a popular modification). In 1973, in response to buyer demand, a three-speed automatic transmission was offered as an option.


title: Ford Bronco

text: In a central theme of the first-generation Bronco, styling was subordinated to simplicity and economy, so all glass was flat, bumpers were straight C-sections, and the left and right door skins were symmetrical (prior to the fitment of door-mounting hardware).


title: Ford Bronco

text: For 1966, three Bronco body configurations were offered, including a two-door wagon, a half-cab pickup, and an open-body roadster. With a base price of $2,194 ($20,055 in 2022 dollars), the Bronco included few amenities as standard. However, a large number of options were offered through both Ford and its dealers, including front bucket seats, a rear bench seat, a tachometer, and a CB radio, as well as functional items such as a tow bar, an auxiliary gas tank, a power take-off, a snowplow, a winch, and a posthole digger. Aftermarket accessories included campers, overdrive units, and the usual array of wheels, tires, chassis, and engine parts for increased performance.


title: Ford Bronco

text: For 1967, Ford introduced the Sport option package for the Bronco wagon. Consisting primarily of chrome exterior trim and wheel covers, the Sport package was distinguished by red-painted "FORD" grille lettering. For 1970, the Bronco Sport became a freestanding model rather than an option package.


title: Ford Bronco

text: To comply with federal regulations, the Bronco was fitted with back-up lights and side marker lamps in 1967 and 1968, respectively. After struggling with sales, the open-body Bronco roadster was withdrawn after the 1968 model year.


title: Ford Bronco

text: After 1972, the Bronco half-cab was withdrawn; along with its lower sales compared to the wagon, Ford had introduced the larger Ford Courier compact pickup.


title: Ford Bronco

text: In a minor revision, for 1977, the exterior-mounted fuel tank caps were replaced behind hinged doors (as on all other Ford trucks).


title: Ford Bronco

text: Initially offered as a single trim level with a long option list, for 1967, Ford introduced the Sport option package for the Bronco wagon. Consisting primarily of chrome exterior trim and wheelcovers, the Sport package was distinguished by red-painted FORD grille lettering. For 1970, the Bronco Sport became a freestanding model rather than an option package.


title: Ford Bronco

text: For 1972, in line with the F-Series trucks, the Ranger trim became the top-of-the-line Bronco, offering body stripes, model-specific wheel covers, cloth seats, woodgrain door panels, and carpeted interior.


title: Ford Bronco

text: In a 1975 interior revision, the Bronco Sport and Bronco Ranger adapted the two-spoke steering wheel from the F-Series.


title: Ford Bronco

text: The optional full wheel covers on all first generation Broncos were the same ones used on the 1966 Galaxie.


title: Ford Bronco

text: In 1965, race car builder Bill Stroppe assembled a team of Broncos for long-distance off-road competition. Partnering with Holman-Moody, the Stroppe/Holman/Moody (SHM) Broncos competed in the Mint 400, Baja 500, and Mexican 1000 (later named the Baja 1000). In 1969, SHM again entered a team of six Broncos in the Baja 1000. In 1971, a "Baja Bronco" package was marketed through Ford dealers, featuring quick-ratio power steering, automatic transmission, fender flares covering Gates Commando tires, a roll bar, reinforced bumpers, a padded steering wheel, and distinctive red, white, blue, and black paint. Priced at US$5,566, versus the standard V8 Bronco price of $3,665, only 650 were sold over the next four years.


title: Ford Bronco

text: In 1966, a Bronco "funny car" built by Doug Nash for the quarter-mile dragstrip finished with a few low 8-second times, but it was sidelined by sanctioning organizations when pickups and aluminum frames were outlawed.


title: Ford Bronco

text: For the 1978 model year, the second-generation Bronco was introduced; to better compete with the Chevrolet K5 Blazer, Dodge Ramcharger, and Jeep Cherokee, the Bronco entered the full-size SUV segment. In place of a model-specific chassis, the Bronco was adapted directly from the Ford F-Series, becoming a shortened version of the F-100 4x4. Originally intended for a 1974 launch, the second-generation Bronco (named "Project Shorthorn" during its development) was postponed to 1978 in response to fuel economy concerns related to the 1973 fuel crisis; the second-generation Bronco was released for sale after development was nearly finalized on its 1980 successor.


title: Ford Bronco

text: In a notable break from a period of downsizing in the American automotive industry, the second-generation Bronco grew significantly in size, adding 12 inches of wheelbase, approximately 28 inches of length, 11 inches of width, and 4 inches of height; based on powertrain configuration, the Bronco gained 1,100 to 1,600 pounds of curb weight over its predecessor.


title: Ford Bronco

text: The second-generation Bronco marks the introduction of design commonality with the Ford F-Series and retained the lift-off hardtop bodystyle for the three-door wagon, though now fiberglass over the rear seat area only (and not a full-length steel top), continued through the 1996 withdrawal of the model line. In spite of its short production cycle (only two years), the second-generation Bronco proved successful, overtaking the Blazer and Ramcharger in sales for the first time; initial demand was so strong that customers waited several months to receive vehicles from dealers.


title: Ford Bronco

text: The second generation Bronco is based on the Ford F-100 pickup truck chassis (1973–1979 sixth generation). Approximately one foot shorter than the shortest F-100, the Bronco has a 104-inch wheelbase (12 inches longer than the previous Bronco). The second generation Bronco is still fitted exclusively with four-wheel drive; a part-time system was standard with a New Process 205 gear-driven transfer case with the option of permanent four-wheel drive and a New Process 203 chain-driven transfer case.


title: Ford Bronco

text: The second generation Bronco has a coil-sprung Dana 44 front axle and a leaf-sprung rear Ford 9-inch axle (similar to the later first generation Broncos). The first and second generation Broncos both have non-independent front suspension (solid front axle). Third generation and later have the Ford/Dana twin traction beam independent front suspension system. These were also later used in the Ford Transit 4x4 range.


title: Ford Bronco

text: Two different V8 engines were offered for the second generation Bronco: the 5.8L 351M and the 6.6L 400. While offering virtually the same horsepower output, the 400 produced a higher torque output over the 351M. As the 460 V8 was restricted to rear-wheel drive F-Series trucks, it was not offered in the Bronco.


title: Ford Bronco

text: For 1979, Ford added emissions controls to its light-truck engines; the Bronco gained a catalytic converter (among other equipment) in both engine configurations.


title: Ford Bronco

text: Replacing the multiple body configurations of the first generation, the second-generation Bronco was offered solely as a 3-door wagon with a lift-off rear hardtop. During its development as Project Shorthorn, a central requirement by Ford was to adopt bodywork from the F-100 with minimal modification. As with its chassis, the second-generation Bronco derives much of its body from the F-Series truck line, sharing the doors, front roofline and sheetmetal, and interior with the F-Series.


title: Ford Bronco

text: Retaining the wagon body from its predecessor, Ford designers shifted from a full-length hardtop (as with the previous Bronco and on the Jeep CJ-7) to a lift-off hardtop from behind the B-pillars. Designed by Dick Nesbitt, the configuration achieved higher commonality with the F-100 (sharing the doors and overhead roof stamping); attention was focused on minimizing leaks around the top seals (a problem related to the design of the K5 Blazer hardtop of the time). In a configuration similar to the Ford LTD Country Squire, the glass of the rear window rolled down into the tailgate (via a dash-mounted switch or from using the key on the outside), allowing the tailgate to fold down.


title: Ford Bronco

text: Coinciding with its commonality with the F-100, the second-generation Bronco introduced features new to the model line for the first time, including air conditioning, radio, and tilt steering. While a two-seat interior remained standard, the 11-inch wider interior allowed for a three-passenger front bench seat; with a folding and removable rear seat, the Bronco became a six-passenger vehicle for the first time.


title: Ford Bronco

text: For 1979, the Bronco saw little change from 1978 models. Along with the F-Series, rectangular headlamps (introduced on the Ranger trim for 1978) became standard on all Broncos. In an interior revision, captain's chair front seats became an option.


title: Ford Bronco

text: For the second-generation Bronco, the model line adopted the same trim nomenclature as the F-Series. The Bronco Custom served as the standard-trim model with the Bronco Ranger XLT as the top-level trim. For 1978, as with the F-Series trucks, Customs were fitted with round headlamps while Ranger XLTs had rectangular units, which became standard for all Broncos for 1979.


title: Ford Bronco

text: During 1978 and 1979, alongside the Econoline, F-Series, and Courier, the Bronco was sold with a "Free-Wheelin" cosmetic option package for both Custom and Ranger XLT trims. Featuring tricolor striping and blacked-out exterior trim, the package featured revised exterior striping for 1979.


title: Ford Bronco

text: Beginning production development in 1977 (before its predecessor was released for sale) the 1980–1986 Bronco was designed to address many concerns that held the 1978–1979 Bronco out of production. Nominally shorter and lighter, the 1980 Bronco was designed to adopt a more efficient powertrain while retaining its full-size dimensions.


title: Ford Bronco

text: In 1982, the Ford Bronco II made its debut; unrelated to the full-size Bronco, the Bronco II was a compact SUV based on a shortened Ranger pickup truck and sized similarly to the 1966–1977 Bronco.


title: Ford Bronco

text: Again based on the Ford F-Series, the 1980–1986 Bronco is based upon the Ford F-150 (1980–1986 seventh generation). Although based on an all-new chassis, the Bronco retained its wheelbase. Ford engineers attempting to get as much fuel economy from weight reduction of curb weight from the previous year, the 1980-81 models had a much weaker frame with holes stamped out at the factory. This extra lightened frame was dropped in 1982 for more strength and rigidity gaining curb weight. Both transfer cases were replaced with a New Process 208 or Borg Warner 1345 version.


title: Ford Bronco

text: In front, the 1980–1986 Bronco is fitted with a Dana 44 front axle with Ford TTB (Twin Traction Beam) independent front suspension. As with the 1978–1979 Bronco, the rear axle was first a leaf-sprung Ford 9-inch axle in early models, however Ford transitioned all half ton trucks to their 8.8 rear axle by the end of 1986.


title: Ford Bronco

text: For the first time since 1977, the Bronco came with an inline-six engine as standard; the 4.9L 300 I6 was available solely with a manual transmission. The 400 V8 was discontinued, with the 351M taking its place and the 302 V8 making its return as the base-equipment V8. The 351 Windsor made its debut in the Bronco as it replaced the 351M in 1982; gaining a 210 hp "high-output" version in 1984. In 1985, the 5.0L V8 (302) saw its carburetor replaced by a multiport electronic fuel-injection system, rising to 190 hp (the standard 156 hp 5.8L V8 was discontinued for 1986).


title: Ford Bronco

text: As with its 1978–1979 predecessor, the 1980–1986 Bronco shares much of its external sheetmetal with the F-Series pickup line, with the same parts from the doors forward. Based on a design proposal originally used in the development of the previous-generation Bronco, the B-pillar of the roofline was modified slightly to produce an improved seal for the hardtop. Prior to 1984, the hardtop included sliding window glass as an option.


title: Ford Bronco

text: For 1982, the Bronco saw a slight facelift as it adopted Ford's blue oval emblem, taking the place of "F-O-R-D" lettering on the hood, and the bronco horse was removed from the fender emblems.


title: Ford Bronco

text: The 1980–1986 Bronco adopted the same trim levels as the Ford F-Series pickups. Following the introduction of the Ford Ranger compact pickup, the Bronco adopted Bronco (base, replacing Custom), Bronco XL, and Bronco XLT.


title: Ford Bronco

text: In 1985, Ford added an Eddie Bauer trim package for the Bronco. Featuring a color-keyed two-tone exterior, the trim package featured an outdoors-themed interior.


title: Ford Bronco

text: Outside of the US, the third generation Bronco was also assembled in Australia by Ford Australia, utilizing locally produced 4.1-litre six-cylinder and 5.8-litre V8 engines. It was marketed in Australia from March 1981 through to 1987.


title: Ford Bronco

text: For the 1987 model year, the fourth-generation Bronco was designed as a short-wheelbase version of the eighth-generation Ford F-150. Sharing its chassis with the previous generation, the 1987 Bronco was given a number of updates to both the exterior and interior. Sharing a common front fascia with the F-Series, the Bronco received a reshaped front bumper, flatter front grille, and reshaped hood; composite headlamps replaced the previous sealed-beam units. In another body revision, the wheel openings were reshaped. The interior was given redesigned front seats, door panels, dashboard and controls (including a new steering wheel), and instrument panels.


title: Ford Bronco

text: The Bronco returned its 4.9L inline-6, 5.0L V8, and the 5.8L H.O. V8 engines from the previous generations; first introduced on the 5.0L V8 in 1985, fuel injection was added to the inline-6 for 1987 and to the 5.8L V8 for 1988. For the 1988 model year, a Mazda-sourced 5-speed manual was introduced. The 3-speed C6 automatic was offered from 1987 to 1990, phased out in favor of the overdrive-equipped 4-speed AOD (1990 only) and heavier-duty E4OD (1990-1991).


title: Ford Bronco

text: In the interest of safety, rear-wheel anti-lock brakes (ABS) became standard for the 1987 model. As an option, push-button control was introduced for the four-wheel drive system for 1987. For 1988, skid plates for the transfer case became standard equipment.


title: Ford Bronco

text: To commemorate 25 years of production, Ford offered a Silver Anniversary Edition Bronco for the 1991 model year. A cosmetic option package, the Silver Anniversary Edition featured Currant Red exterior paint (package exclusive) and a gray leather interior (the first time leather seating was available for a Bronco).


title: Ford Bronco

text: For 1991 through 1992, the Nite option package featured a completely blacked-out exterior with contrasting graphics. Alongside the top-line Eddie Bauer trim, both special editions were available only with a V8 engine and automatic transmission.


title: Ford Bronco

text: For the 1992 model year, the fifth-generation Bronco followed the design development of the ninth-generation Ford F-150. Again retaining the chassis introduced for the 1980 model year, the front fascia of the Bronco adopted additional aerodynamic revisions. While designed with a larger grille, front bumper, and headlight units, the front fascia was given a slightly rounded design.


title: Ford Bronco

text: The interior again saw updates to the dashboard and instrument panel, with the addition of leather front seats as an option for XLT and Eddie Bauer trims as well as optional remote keyless entry with an anti-theft alarm. Maroon and blue leather seats were offered from 1992 through the end of production. After having power windows and locks as an option throughout the 1980s, power mirrors were offered for the first time for 1992. For 1996, the Ford Bronco became the first Ford vehicle to incorporate turn signal lights into its side mirrors.


title: Ford Bronco

text: The fifth generation introduced additional changes related to safety. 4-wheel anti-lock braking system (ABS) replaced rear-wheel ABS for 1993, with a driver-side airbag introduced for 1994. The redesign included a safety front crumple zone into the frame and a center-mounted brake light to the hardtop; the hardtop was now the mounting point of 3-point seatbelts for the rear passengers.


title: Ford Bronco

text: In the aftermath of the safety upgrades, the Bronco was no longer able to be marketed as a lift-off hardtop (from a legal standpoint). While still physically possible, the hardtop contained the upper mounts for the now required 3 point seat seatbelts and the required center brake light was mounted above the rear window on this hardtop (unlike Jeep mounting the 3rd brake light to the spare tire). To discourage owners from doing removing the hardtop, Ford removed all literature in the vehicle owner's manual related to its removal. To further inhibit its removal, Ford secured the hardtop in place with #40 Security Torx bolts, instead of the standard bolts used on previous model years. Removal of the hardtop could lead to a traffic citation, for tampering with the center brake light and/or inoperable rear seatbelts, depending on local and State laws.


title: Ford Bronco

text: The fifth-generation Bronco carried over the previous 4.9L inline-6, 5.0L V8, and the 5.8L H.O. V8 engines from the previous generation. For 1994, the Bronco became powered solely by V8 engines, as the 4.9L inline-6 was withdrawn from the model line. For 1996, the two V8 powertrains became OBD-II compliant.


title: Ford Bronco

text: The monochrome Nite edition was again available, though 1992 was its last offering. Monochrome paint versions were reintroduced from 1993 (1994 model) to 1996, as the XLT Sport variant of the Bronco available in black, red, or white. Another variant of the XLT was a two-tone light teal green and white (charcoal gray interior); approximately 600 were produced each year.


title: Ford Bronco

text: The Eddie Bauer outdoors-themed edition made its return, offered from 1992 to 1996. Again combining nearly every option for the Bronco with a trim-specific exterior and interior combination, the Bronco Eddie Bauer introduced an overhead console for 1994 along with lighted sun visors and an auto-dimming rearview mirror (both offered as option on the XLT). For 1995, the Eddie Bauer saw the addition of front bumper vents (added to the XLT for 1996).


title: Ford Bronco

text: The last fifth-generation Bronco built rolled off the Wayne, Michigan assembly line on June 12, 1996. According to Ford, the discontinuation of the model line was unrelated to any stigma created from the then-recent O.J. Simpson police chase, as sales of the model line had been in decline previous to the incident. To better compete with the Chevrolet/GMC Suburban and the Chevrolet Tahoe/GMC Yukon, Ford introduced the Ford Expedition for 1997 to replace the Bronco.


title: Ford Bronco

text: Following the lineage of the 1978-1996 Bronco, the Expedition was derived from the tenth-generation F-150, but shifted from a two-door body with a lift-off hardtop to a five-door wagon/SUV body, slotted above the Ranger-based Ford Explorer.


title: Ford Bronco

text: A four-door Ford competitor for the Chevrolet Tahoe was not released until the introduction of the Expedition for the 1997 model year (and the 2000 Excursion, competing against the ¾-ton version known as the Chevrolet Suburban 2500). As the Bronco was produced solely as a two-door wagon after 1972, all four-door Broncos were developed and produced on a license-built basis by the aftermarket.


title: Ford Bronco

text: During the 1980s and early 1990s, Centurion Vehicles, a converter specializing in Ford trucks based in White Pigeon, Michigan, constructed the Centurion Classic, a four-door version of the fourth- and fifth-generation Bronco. In the construction of each Classic, Centurion would mate the cab of an F-Series crew-cab pickup (from the C-pillar forward) to body of a Bronco (from the B-pillar rearward), including the rear quarter panels, hardtop, and tailgate of the SUV. Early models used fiberglass rear body panels, but later, these were made from steel. As the body conversion retained the rear seat of the Bronco, a Centurion Classic was equipped with three-row seating for up to nine people.


title: Ford Bronco

text: Centurion Vehicles offered two models of the Classic: the C-150 (based on the Ford F-150 chassis, with optional four-wheel drive) and the C-350 (based on the F-350, four-wheel drive was standard). Both models used a 140-inch wheelbase (9 inches longer than the Suburban); as the F-150 was not produced as a crew cab, a C-150 was constructed from three different vehicles (crew cab, Bronco rear, and F-150 frame). In contrast to the ¾-ton Suburban 2500, the C-350 Classic utilized a one-ton chassis. The C-150 was offered with 5.0L and 5.8L V8 engines; the C-350 used the 7.3L diesel V8 and 7.5L gasoline V8 (the only Bronco variants to use these engines).


title: Ford Bronco

text: The Centurion Classic was offered until the end of Bronco production in 1996; though the Bronco was directly replaced by the Expedition, the C-150/C-350 is closest in size to the Ford Excursion introduced for the 2000 model year. As of current production, the C-350 is the only SUV produced on a one-ton chassis (the 2000–2005 Ford Excursion was produced on a ¾-ton chassis).


title: Ford Bronco

text: The Ford Bronco gained notoriety on June 17, 1994, when Al Cowlings drove his white 1993 Bronco XLT with his accused friend O.J. Simpson in the back seat, in a low-speed police chase on Interstate 405, ending in his eventual surrender. The incident was simulcast on television worldwide, with approximately 95 million Americans watching live.


title: Ford Bronco

text: Ford released its sixth generation Bronco for model year 2021, after a 25-year hiatus of the Bronco nameplate. Styling recalls many elements from the 1966–1977 series, and the design chief's 1976 Bronco was digitally scanned as a reference during the design process. Conceived as a direct competitor to the Jeep Wrangler, the Bronco is offered in a two and four door SUV, each reconfigurable as a convertible. Moreover, just like on a Wrangler, the doors can easily be removed, but unlike the Jeep's, the Bronco's doors are frameless, and with the door-glass wound down, the doors can be carried in dedicated covers, "within" the vehicle, while riding door-less. A "Bronco" and a "bucking horse" emblem on the tailgate and steering wheel replace the Ford Blue Oval. The Bronco is now a mid-size SUV, bringing its chassis and powertrain closer in size to the Ford Ranger.


title: Ford Bronco

text: The potential revival of the Bronco came up in 2016 negotiations between Ford and the UAW. At the time, it was discussed that Michigan Assembly would cancel production of the fourth-generation Ford Focus and the C-Max, which would move to Mexico. The UAW ultimately announced the factory would remain open, to be retooled for the revival of the Ford Ranger in North America and the Ford Bronco. The Bronco was developed as Ford expected the Ranger would not be enough to fill factory capacity, and needed a second model to be built alongside it.


title: Ford Bronco

text: While Ford did not share future product plans with the UAW, the company confirmed the return of the Bronco at the 2017 North American International Auto Show. Packaged as a direct competitor to the Jeep Wrangler, Ford announced two and four-door variants. Intended for a 2021 model year release, the sixth generation would be based on the Ford Ranger, retaining body-on-frame construction. In contrast to the Ford Everest sold overseas, the Bronco would receive a distinct body recalling the first generation with further off-road capability.


title: Ford Bronco

text: Ford showed a pre-production prototype to a group of dealers in March 2019. On November 1, 2019, an announcement was made for a spring 2020 reveal, intended for the 2021 model year. Originally scheduled for a March 2020 unveiling, the Bronco was unveiled on July 13, 2020, following multiple delays, mostly in relation to the global COVID-19 pandemic; Ford unintentionally scheduled the unveiling for July 9 (the date of O.J. Simpson's birthday). On March 27, 2021, at the Barrett-Jackson Scottsdale Auto Auction, the first production Bronco, a First Edition, sold for $1,075,000 with all the funds going to a charity Ford helped establish to help preserve forests.


title: Ford Bronco

text: When the reveal officially premiered, Ford accepted $100 reservations, with production scheduled for 2021.


title: Ford Bronco

text: The first production units rolled off the assembly line, on Monday, June 14, 2021 at Michigan Assembly Plant in Wayne, Michigan, the production facility of the previous five generations.


title: Ford Bronco

text: The take rate for the seven-speed manual transmission was reported to be around 15% for the initial orders.


title: Ford Bronco

text: The standard engine is a 2.3-liter turbocharged "EcoBoost" inline-four that makes and of torque. A 2.7-liter twin-turbocharged "EcoBoost" V6 is optional; the larger variant makes and of torque. The 2.7-liter V6 is only available with a 10-speed automatic transmission while the 2.3-liter can be mated with either the 10-speed automatic or a standard 7-speed Getrag manual. Despite the nomenclature, the Getrag transmission is not a true seven-speed transmission, instead being a traditional six-speed unit with a dedicated crawler gear (the "C" on the shift knob) as the "seventh gear".


title: Ford Bronco

text: Recalling the original Bronco Roadster, removable doors with frameless glass combined with a detachable roof allow open-air driving on both two- and four-door models, each with both a ground clearance. Doors can be user-removed and stored in the rear cargo area, and the mirrors are attached to the body cowl instead of on the doors, allowing the user to remove the doors and still have the mirrors attached to the vehicle. The leading edge of the front fenders feature raised black brackets, called trail sights, to facilitate navigation and serve as tie-downs and accessory mounts.


title: Ford Bronco

text: The body-on-frame construction uses front twin A-arm independent suspension and a rear five-link coilover suspension and a solid axle. The optional HOSS (High-Performance Off-Road Stability Suspension) setup replaces these with position-sensitive Bilstein shocks, with multiple compression and rebound zones, at all four corners. The front sway bar features a hydraulic disconnect to increase articulation when crawling, automatically reconnecting when brought back to speed. An option package, marketed as "Sasquatch", includes a mild suspension lift, and 35-inch tires - the largest of any production vehicle besides the upcoming 3rd generation Ford Raptor, which has optional 37-inch tires.


title: Ford Bronco

text: Standard equipment includes Dana axles with front and rear electronic differentials, both user-lockable via dashboard switches. The drivetrain can toggle between 4WD Low, 4WD High, 4WD Automatic, and 2WD High (rear-wheel drive), controlled by a dial near the gear selector rather than a secondary shifter aside the main shift lever.


title: Ford Bronco

text: Optional equipment includes a terrain management system, marketed as "G.O.A.T. Modes" (Goes Over Any Type of Terrain). The system calibrates throttle response, four-wheel drive, traction control, and transmission shifts to maximize traction when offroading. Up to seven modes are available with this system: Normal, Eco, Sport, Slippery, and Sand, along with Baja, Mud and Ruts, and Rock Crawl. The available Trail One-Pedal Drive automatically applies and holds the brakes when the driver lifts off the gas pedal, removing the need for left-foot braking and preventing unexpected rollbacks. The sixth-generation Bronco also offers Trail Turn Assist, which utilizes the torque-vectoring system to help the vehicle turn in tight offroad corners.


title: Ford Bronco

text: An optional topographical map software, marketed as "Trail Maps", allows owners to share smartphone-downloaded topo maps to the vehicle's In-car entertainment system and record videos of trail runs, display telemetry or map data, and upload to the cloud. The sixth generation features a tray that slides from under the rear cargo compartment. An action mount on the front dash to allow for phone and camera mounting, waterproof switches and rubber floors are also available.


title: Ford Bronco

text: Ford announced a Raptor trim level for 2022 in a 4-door version only. Developed by Ford Performance, the Bronco Raptor will have a EcoBoost 3.0 TT V6 with a "Baja Mode", the engine specifications will be close to the Lincoln Aviator and the Ford Explorer ST. The vehicle will also have an upgraded cooling system, which would allow the Bronco Raptor to run better in higher temperatures.


title: Ford Bronco

text: The Bronco Raptor is also wider at and sits on a new Fox suspension with of ground clearance (1.6 inches (41 mm) more than the Bronco with the Sasquatch package). Many other components in the Bronco Raptor have been upgraded or added such as stronger axles, more rigid cross bars, a dual exhaust with several different exhaust modes, 37 inch tires, a higher strength frame, reinforced front bumper, larger drive shafts for increased wheel torque, better brakes (from the F-150 Raptor), Ford nameplate grill (unlike Bronco on other trims), and a tow/haul mode. The Bronco Raptor is capable of towing which is more than the standard Bronco. Due to the Bronco Raptor's width, there is additional government-mandated lighting. The interior of the Bronco Raptor is also different from other trims. Unique "code orange" accents and stitching, additional bolstering to the seats with Raptor embroidered stitching, carbon fiber trim, a thicker steering wheel, magnesium paddle shifters, a leather stitched dashboard, and a larger center touchscreen.


title: Ford Bronco

text: "A special, customized version of Ford Division's 1966 Bronco, the Dune Duster, will be displayed at the Detroit Auto Show from November 27 through December 5. The utility/sports-type vehicle was designed in Ford's Styling Center in Dearborn and built by Parris Kustom in North Hollywood, California. Exterior paint is a specially formulated Golden Saddle Pearl and modifications include an NHRA-approved roll bar with integral headrests, a windshield designed to complement the contour of the roll bar, walnut appliques on the rear side panels and exposed chrome exhaust pipes. Custom interior appointments include a walnut steering wheel and front bucket seats with russet suede bolsters and perforated leather cushions and seatbacks. The instrument panel is trimmed with suede padding and outfitted with walnut-trimmed control knobs. Jump seats have been added to the rear compartment over the wheels and a tonneau cover for rear compartment protection was added for attachment with quick-fastening snaps."


title: Ford Bronco

text: "The Wildflower, a specially customized version of Ford Division's popular four-wheel-drive Bronco, is sure to be one of the most colorful show cars on display at automobile shows this year. The unique vehicle, planned in Ford's Design Center in Dearborn, Mich., was extensively modified, inside and out, to achieve a lively carefree appearance with added luxury and safety features. The dominant exterior characteristic of the Wildflower is the lively multi-colored paint treatment. The psychedelic design of blues, yellows and reds is topped off by a pink grille."


title: Ford Bronco

text: In 1973, Ford Advanced Light Truck Engineering developed four future Ford Bronco prototypes. To better match the market success of the Chevrolet Blazer, Ford required its designers to shift from a dedicated chassis used by the model line to a shortened F-100 as the basis for a future Bronco. Dubbed "Project Shorthorn", the prototype was constructed using the top and tailgate from a Chevrolet K5 Blazer, mating it to a shortened-wheelbase F-100. While the use of Chevrolet components was used purely for proof of concept, further development by Ford adopted a half-cab design (one design objective was the use of F-Series doors, along with a removable top).


title: Ford Bronco

text: Project Shorthorn was among four prototypes, alongside Longhorn (a four-door wagon-style SUV, similar to the Chevrolet Suburban), Midhorn (sized between the Jeep Wagoneer and International Travelall; a precursor to the Chevrolet Tahoe), and the Widehorn (a wide-body F-100 4x4, a precursor to the Ford Raptor).


title: Ford Bronco

text: As the development of Project Shorthorn happened during the OPEC oil crisis, the model program was postponed to the 1978 model year as Ford sought a more promising outcome. While the Longhorn/Midhorn four-door wagons saw a positive response, they were ultimately shelved, as the Project Shorthorn was introduced for only a two-year production (before a full redesign). Ford would not produce a production four-door SUV until the 1991 Ford Explorer (smaller than the Midhorn) and the 1997 Ford Expedition (between the Midhorn and Longhorn in size).


title: Ford Bronco

text: Built on a 1977 Bronco chassis, it included "a pair of expansive Plexiglas bubble doors that were removable and that had a vague resemblance to the expanse of clear plastic that passed for four-weather doors on the Dune Duster. It included a rollbar that – though likely not NHRA certified and though integrated with side louvers and lights – still had a rough airfoil shape like the Dune Duster's. It included side pipes like the Dune Duster's. It included fold-up bench seats for bed seating like the Dune Duster's In addition, the Montana Lobo included foam bumpers, a winch integrated into the front bumper, a retractable loading ramp built into the tailgate, storage compartments integrated into the bed sides, a T-top roof, and a massive tinted window between the cab and the bed that slid open."


title: Ford Bronco

text: Built on a Ford Escort platform, the DM-1 concept was a "4-wheel drive concept vehicle was the winning design in a Ford sponsored contest for industrial art students. Mr. Derek Millsap, who created the 5-seat sport-utility vehicle, lent his initials to the Bronco DM-1 name. The bulbous body was made of steel-reinforced fiberglass, and the large hatch extended into the roof."


title: Ford Bronco

text: In 1999, a new Bronco was secretly developed under Moray Callum, as a simple inexpensive off-roader in the spirit of the first generation Bronco, rather than the later full-size models. Planned as a 2-door and 4-door, it was codenamed U260, U meaning utility, 2 meaning 2-door, and 60 referring to the Ford Ranger's T6 platform it would have used. Land Rover underpinnings were considered but was deemed too costly. The project did not progress to a drivable state and was canceled in 2001 due to company cutbacks stemming from the Firestone and Ford tire incident. The project was publicly revealed for the first time in the leadup to the sixth gen Bronco's release, with a full-size research model displayed at the 2021 Concours d’Elegance Of America.


title: Ford Bronco

text: At the 2004 North American International Auto Show, a Ford Bronco concept vehicle was unveiled. Inspired by the first-generation (1966–1977) Ford Bronco, the 2004 concept adapted a short wheelbase, round headlamps, and squared-off roofline; the concept marked one of the first uses of a three-bar grille on Ford vehicles. Using a minimalist exterior design, the Bronco design was unveiled alongside a Shelby Cobra Concept at the same show.


title: Ford Bronco

text: Using the Ford CD2 platform of the Ford Escape, the Bronco concept was powered by a 2.0L four-cylinder turbodiesel (from the Ford Mondeo) and a six-speed manual transmission. Replacing ControlTrac II, an "Intelligent" 4-wheel drive system was intended for improved stability and fuel economy.


title: Ford Bronco

text: A new production Bronco was attempted in 2006, adapting the Bronco concept's design over the International Ford Ranger's chassis. It was to be exported to the US from South Africa, where it would have been built alongside the Ranger in Pretoria. It was canceled as it was seen as a risk due to rising gas prices, slowing SUV sales and weakening economy ahead of the Great Recession.


title: Ford Bronco

text: Ford marketer Mark Grueber spoke of a Ford Expedition show build concept that wore an intentionally nondescript rear Bronco badge, solely to prevent expiration of the Bronco trademark. It is unclear which concept he is referring to.


title: Ford Bronco

text: At the 2019 Baja 1000, Ford introduced the Ford Bronco R prototype with the drivetrain of the new as-yet unreleased 2021 Bronco with the intent of testing the engine, transmission and four wheel drive system to be used in the production-spec sixth-generation Bronco. The Baja 1000 was thought to be the perfect test for the new off-road vehicle Ford is producing, with 1000 miles of some of the world's roughest terrain. The 2020 race was also tougher after being delayed for 24 hours due to excessive rainfall in the days before the event. With the excessive rainfall, one of the Class One co-drivers Ford used in the race referred to it as the "Mud Bog 1000".


title: Ford Bronco

text: While the Bronco R prototype model used for the Baja 1000 shared some components with the production Bronco, Ford upfitted the Bronco R with off-road-tuned racing suspension as well as off-road wheels and 37-inch off-road tires. The Bronco R also used a 70-gallon fuel tank during the race, allowing the prototype to travel up to 315 miles of the course before refueling. While this would have been a significant advantage to the Bronco R team, it was not taken advantage of. The Bronco R team made a stop every 130 miles to swap drivers, as well as checking the vehicle's condition and making sure there were no repairs needed at the time.


title: Ford Bronco

text: Ford did not disclose details of the engine used in the Bronco R. The only information that is known was that the engine was a twin-turbo EcoBoost engine. When it came to the four-wheel drive system, the vehicle experienced no issues with muddy sections of the course. While the drivers only had to use four-wheel drive with low gearing to get out of thick mud, the Bronco R stopped multiple times along the course to tug other competitors out of the mud, including a near 6,000 pound trophy truck. While the Bronco R's engine, transmission and four-wheel drive held up with no issues, many of the aftermarket suspension components did not fare the same. Around mile 495 of the 1000 mile journey, the passenger side spindle, lower-control arm and CV joint had been destroyed. The team was able to fix most issues and were able to continue the race until around mile 580, when the engine cooling fans began giving out (one fan had completely seized up, while the other was not working at max speed) causing the Bronco R to overheat and needing to be towed about eight miles to the next filling station. After about 30 minutes of working on the Bronco R to try to get it back on course, Ford pulled the vehicle out of the race due to severe mechanical issues.


title: Robotics

text: Robotics is an interdisciplinary branch of computer science and engineering. Robotics involves design, construction, operation, and use of robots. The goal of robotics is to design machines that can help and assist humans. Robotics integrates fields of mechanical engineering, electrical engineering, information engineering, mechatronics, electronics, bioengineering, computer engineering, control engineering, software engineering, mathematics, etc.


title: Robotics

text: Robotics develops machines that can substitute for humans and replicate human actions. Robots can be used in many situations for many purposes, but today many are used in dangerous environments (including inspection of radioactive materials, bomb detection and deactivation), manufacturing processes, or where humans cannot survive (e.g. in space, underwater, in high heat, and clean up and containment of hazardous materials and radiation). Robots can take any form, but some are made to resemble humans in appearance. This is claimed to help in the acceptance of robots in certain replicative behaviors which are usually performed by people. Such robots attempt to replicate walking, lifting, speech, cognition, or any other human activity. Many of today's robots are inspired by nature, contributing to the field of bio-inspired robotics.


title: Robotics

text: Certain robots require user input to operate while other robots function autonomously. The concept of creating robots that can operate autonomously dates back to classical times, but research into the functionality and potential uses of robots did not grow substantially until the 20th century. Throughout history, it has been frequently assumed by various scholars, inventors, engineers, and technicians that robots will one day be able to mimic human behavior and manage tasks in a human-like fashion. Today, robotics is a rapidly growing field, as technological advances continue; researching, designing, and building new robots serve various practical purposes, whether domestically, commercially, or militarily. Many robots are built to do jobs that are hazardous to people, such as defusing bombs, finding survivors in unstable ruins, and exploring mines and shipwrecks. Robotics is also used in STEM (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) as a teaching aid.


title: Robotics

text: The word "robotics" was derived from the word "robot", which was introduced to the public by Czech writer Karel Čapek in his play "R.U.R. (Rossum's Universal Robots)", which was published in 1920. The word "robot" comes from the Slavic word "robota", which means work/job. The play begins in a factory that makes artificial people called "robots", creatures who can be mistaken for humans – very similar to the modern ideas of androids. Karel Čapek himself did not coin the word. He wrote a short letter in reference to an etymology in the "Oxford English Dictionary" in which he named his brother Josef Čapek as its actual originator.


title: Robotics

text: According to the "Oxford English Dictionary", the word "robotics" was first used in print by Isaac Asimov, in his science fiction short story ""Liar!"", published in May 1941 in "Astounding Science Fiction". Asimov was unaware that he was coining the term; since the science and technology of electrical devices is "electronics", he assumed "robotics" already referred to the science and technology of robots. In some of Asimov's other works, he states that the first use of the word "robotics" was in his short story "Runaround" (Astounding Science Fiction, March 1942), where he introduced his concept of The Three Laws of Robotics. However, the original publication of "Liar!" predates that of "Runaround" by ten months, so the former is generally cited as the word's origin.