title: Úrsula Corberó

text: In 2013, she starred in the comedy "¿Quién mató a Bambi?" alongside actors Clara Lago and Quim Gutiérrez. The film was well received by the critics and the public. The same year, she lent her voice to Sam in "Cloudy with a Chance of Meatballs 2".


title: Úrsula Corberó

text: In 2014, she played Margarita de Austria in the successful historical series "Isabel". The same year, she became the first actress in history to receive the "Untameable Award" at the Sitges Film Festival, rewarding her career. Men's Health's magazine named her "Woman of the Year", an award that she received from the hand of her friend and legendary actress, Rossy de Palma.


title: Úrsula Corberó

text: In 2015, Corberó went to Trento to shoot "La Dama Velata", a Spanish-Italian coproduction starring Miriam Leone, Andrea Bosca and Aura Garrido. Later this year, she played Natalia de Figueroa y Martorell in the Spanish sitcom "Anclados" alongside actress Rossy de Palma.


title: Úrsula Corberó

text: In March 2015, she starred as Nadia in "Perdiendo el Norte" alongside the actors Blanca Suarez and Yon Gonzalez. This same year, she received the "Ciudad de Alicante Award", an award created by the Alicante Film Festival to encourage Spanish young talents. In December 2015, she landed a main-role in the new thriller series written by the creators of "Gran Hotel", "La Embajada". The series was presented at Cannes during the MIPTV and bought by the American network UniMás.


title: Úrsula Corberó

text: In 2015, she also landed her first main role in a movie in "Cómo sobrevivir a una despedida" and confirmed she's one of the best comical actresses of Spain. The film was presented at the Málaga Film Festival in the official competition and was nominated for "Best Picture".


title: Úrsula Corberó

text: In 2016, she reprised her role of Margarita de Austria in the movie "La corona partida". The film is a continuation of the series "Isabel" and "Carlos, rey emperador". The same year, she repeated the dubbing experience by lending her voice to Katie in "The Secret Life of Pets".


title: Úrsula Corberó

text: In 2017, Corberó landed a main role in the heist television series "La Casa de Papel" ("Money Heist"). She plays "Tokyo", the narrator of the story, a runaway robber who is scouted by the Professor to participate in his plan. The series, created by Álex Pina, who previously wrote "Vis a Vis", is characterized by its dark humor, its anticapitalist discourse and the importance of women. It first aired in Spain on Antena 3 and was later made available internationally through Netflix. For the first time in her career, Úrsula Corberó is acclaimed by the critics and the audience who see in this part a "before and after" in her career, in rupture with her previous roles. She was nominated for "Best Actress in a TV Series" at the Premios Feroz and won an Atv Award for "Best Actress". The series won "Best Drama Series" at the 46th International Emmy Awards. It became a worldwide hit and is the most viewed non-English speaking series on the platform.


title: Úrsula Corberó

text: Later that year, she was given her first main dramatic role in cinema by Julio Medem. "The Tree of Blood" is a thriller and Corberó is Rebecca, a mysterious woman who, along with her husband, discover secrets from her family. The actress was also directed by Isabel Coixet for the movie "Proyecto Tiempo: La Llave". The film debuted at the San Sebastian Film Festival.


title: Úrsula Corberó

text: In 2018, she is given her first English-speaking role in the American crime-drama series "Snatch". She stars alongside actors Rupert Grint and Luke Pasqualino.


title: Úrsula Corberó

text: In 2020, she starred in the music video of "Un Día (One Day)", a song by J Balvin, Dua Lipa, Bad Bunny and Tainy.


title: Úrsula Corberó

text: In late 2019, Corberó was announced as playing G.I. Joe villain the Baroness in "Snake Eyes", a spin-off from the "G.I. Joe" franchise. The film, directed by Robert Schwentke and starring actors Henry Golding, Andrew Koji and Samara Weaving, was released on 23 July 2021 in Dolby Cinema and IMAX. It was made available to stream on Paramount+ 45 days after its theatrical debut.


title: Úrsula Corberó

text: In April 2022, Corberó joined the cast of the upcoming Netflix action film entitled "Lift", starring Gugu Mbatha-Raw, Kevin Hart, Vincent D'Onofrio and Paul Anderson, among others. The film is directed by F. Gary Gray and produced by Matt Reeves.


title: Úrsula Corberó

text: In September 2022, Corberó was announced as the lead of Netflix's new miniseries, based on a real story, entitled "El cuerpo en llamas". She will play Rosa Peral, agent of the Guàrdia Urbana and wife of fellow agent Pedro Rodríguez, whose body was found carbonized in a car near Pantano de Foix in 2017.


title: Úrsula Corberó

text: Since October 2018, Corberó has been the ambassador of the "Fiorever collection" by Bulgari. She's been the face of several brands over the years such as Tampax (2011 and 2014), Stradivarius (2014), Maybelline (from 2015 to 2017), Calzedonia (2015) and Falabella (2019). She created the "Harajuku collection" for the eyewear brand Multiopticas in 2018.


title: Úrsula Corberó

text: In 2020, Corberó posed for the French fashion designer Simon Porte Jacquemus during the "#JacquemusAtHome" campaign. In 2021, she became the global ambassador of the Japanese cosmetics producer, Shiseido.


title: Úrsula Corberó

text: Corberó is considered a "fashion icon" and created buzz with her Teresa Helbig dress, which featured an lateral opening that showed her leg, at the 30th Goya Awards. She has denied rumors of anorexia, attributing her physique to a healthy diet and various forms of exercise, including pilates.


title: Úrsula Corberó

text: Corberó is ethnically Catalan but does not have an opinion on the Catalan independence movement. Following the outcome of the 2017 Catalan independence referendum, she tweeted that she was "heartbroken" by the ensuing police violence.


title: Úrsula Corberó

text: In May 2018, thanks to the worldwide success of "La Casa de Papel", Corberó became the most followed Spanish celebrity on Instagram with more than 5 million followers. She currently has over 24 million followers.


title: Úrsula Corberó

text: Corberó is a feminist. In 2018, she participated in a video in favor of the legalization of abortion in Argentina.


title: Úrsula Corberó

text: Corberó is the co-founder of Ymas, a company of artists that allows people to attend film premieres, behind the scenes, and more.


title: Úrsula Corberó

text: Corberó has participated in several breast cancer awareness campaigns with actresses Blanca Suarez and Clara Lago. She is also committed to childhood cancer with the Atresmedia Foundation.


title: Úrsula Corberó

text: Corberó also uses her platform to raise awareness about climate change and was a jury member of the 4th edition of the We Art Water Film Festival. In 2020, she participated to "#REInventaElSistema", a campaign launched by Greenpeace to raise awareness about climate change following the COVID-19 pandemic, alongside personalities like anthropologist Jane Goodall, singer Alejandro Sanz, and actress Elena Anaya.


title: Úrsula Corberó

text: Corberó dated actor Israel Rodríguez from 2009 to 2011, tennis player Feliciano López for five months in 2011, and model Andrés Velencoso from 2013 to 2016.


title: Úrsula Corberó

text: Since 2016, Corberó has been in a relationship with Argentine actor Chino Darín, whom she met on the set of the television series "The Embassy".


title: Draco Malfoy

text: Draco Lucius Malfoy is a fictional character in J. K. Rowling's "Harry Potter" series. He is a student in Harry Potter's year belonging in the Slytherin house. He is frequently accompanied by his two cronies, Vincent Crabbe and Gregory Goyle, who act as henchmen. Draco is characterised as a cowardly bully who tricks and hurts people to get what he wants; nevertheless, he is a cunning user of magic. He was played by Tom Felton in the "Harry Potter" film series.


title: Draco Malfoy

text: Draco serves as a foil to the hero, Harry Potter and is loosely based on bullies Rowling encountered during her school days. Harry first encounters Draco's snobbish bigotry after their initial encounter at Madam Malkin's. Rowling uses the Malfoys to introduce themes of intolerance and bigotry into a setting where people are often judged solely by their blood lineage rather than their good character or accomplishments. Draco, adhering to his family's beliefs, thinks that Muggle-born witches and wizards, which he and other characters derogatorily describe by the epithet "Mudbloods", should be denied a magical education. Harry's first impression that the Wizarding community is a "magical wonderland" is instantly shattered. Says Rowling, "[Harry] found out that many people in power in the wizarding world are just as corrupt and nasty as they are in our world."


title: Draco Malfoy

text: Malfoy was originally named "Draco Spungen" in the earliest drafts of "Philosopher's Stone." "Spungen" also appeared on her pre-canon class list, but it was crossed out and replaced with the surname "Spinks", while "Malfoy" was later added after the completion of the list. Philip Nel believes that "Malfoy" is derived from the French phrase "mal foi", meaning "bad faith".


title: Draco Malfoy

text: In an article published in 2002, Nilsen and Nilsen argue that "Draco" has connotations with "draconian", and that his name starts with "mal", a French prefix for "bad" or "evil".


title: Draco Malfoy

text: Many of Draco's relatives on his mother's side of the family (the Blacks) are named for stars or constellations (e.g., Sirius Black, Regulus Black, Andromeda Black Tonks, Bellatrix Black Lestrange, Cygnus Black, Orion Black). Another constellation is Draco (the Dragon). Draco Malfoy eventually named his son for yet another constellation, Scorpius.


title: Draco Malfoy

text: Draco Malfoy makes his first appearance in the series when he and Harry meet while being fitted for school robes at Madam Malkin's, a clothing shop in Diagon Alley. Not realising that the boy in the store is Harry Potter—a child whose parents were murdered when he was one year old by the powerful dark wizard Lord Voldemort—Draco engages him in (for him) polite conversation. Harry, however, is alienated by the arrogance of Draco, who asks whether the orphan's parents are "our kind" (pure-blood wizards). Draco then proclaims that "the other sort" (Muggle-borns) should not be allowed at Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry, because "they've never been brought up to know our ways". The two boys part without introductions, but meet again on the Hogwarts Express. After Draco ridicules Ron Weasley's family, Harry rejects his offer of friendship, demonstrated by a handshake, and their mutual antagonism is born. According to Rowling, Malfoy originally makes an effort to be Harry's friend because "it will be cool to turn up at the school being Harry Potter's friend, because Harry is so famous." However, Harry did not want Malfoy as a friend because he "has been so rude about Rubeus Hagrid and about Ron, who Harry likes so much". At the first years' Sorting Ceremony, the Sorting Hat places him into Slytherin (barely touching Draco's head), the house that has developed all of the bad wizards, where he becomes an instant favourite of Potions teacher and Slytherin Head of House, Severus Snape, so-called follower of Lord Voldemort. Draco attempts to get Harry expelled by tricking him into participating in a midnight wizard's duel after secretly informing Argus Filch in advance, but the plan fails when Harry evades Filch and safely makes it back to his dormitory.


title: Draco Malfoy

text: In "Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets", Draco becomes the new Seeker for the Slytherin Quidditch team after his father, Lucius Malfoy, donates new, high-quality Nimbus 2001 broomsticks. When Hermione Granger comments that the Gryffindor players made the team through talent and not bribery, Draco responds by calling her a Mudblood. This provokes an immediate, violent response from Ron Weasley. Because of Draco's contempt for Muggle-borns, Harry, Ron, and Hermione suspect that Draco is the Heir of Slytherin, who has recently reopened the Chamber of Secrets. Harry and Ron disguise themselves as Crabbe and Goyle with Polyjuice Potion and infiltrate the Slytherin common room in an attempt to collect additional information, whereupon they realise that their initial suspicion about Draco is incorrect.


title: Draco Malfoy

text: During Hagrid's debut as Care of Magical Creatures instructor in "Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban", the hippogriff, Buckbeak, attacks Draco after he fails to observe proper protocol while approaching it and insults it. He exaggerates the extent of his injury, giving Slytherin a chance to postpone their Quidditch match against Gryffindor until later in the year and as an attempt to have Hagrid fired. Hermione punches Draco when he mocks Hagrid for crying over Buckbeak's death sentence. Draco, who implies that he is aware of how Sirius Black was supposedly involved in the deaths of Harry's parents, also taunts Harry about the impending threat of Black: ""If it was me, I'd want revenge. I'd hunt him down myself.""


title: Draco Malfoy

text: After Harry is unexpectedly chosen as a Triwizard Tournament champion in "Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire", Draco shows off a "Support Cedric Diggory" badge to Harry, then presses it to replace that phrase with "Potter Stinks." Draco also gives malicious and often false information about Harry and Hagrid to muckraking "Daily Prophet" journalist Rita Skeeter. When Draco attempts to curse Harry behind his back, the Defence Against the Dark Arts professor Alastor Moody (actually Barty Crouch, Jr in disguise via Polyjuice Potion) humiliates Draco by transforming him into a ferret and repeatedly slamming him against the ground as well as dropping him down Goyle's pants.


title: Draco Malfoy

text: In "Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix," Draco is named a Slytherin prefect along with Pansy Parkinson. He gets Harry and the Weasley twins banned from the Gryffindor Quidditch team when they attack him during a postmatch brawl after Draco insults their families following Gryffindor's win over Slytherin. He later joins Dolores Umbridge's Inquisitorial Squad, with whom he plays an important part in the exposure of Dumbledore's Army. As the D.A. flees the Room of Requirement, Draco earns Slytherin fifty points after catching Harry, and helps hold several members captive in Umbridge's office, letting them free only after Ginny Weasley performs her famous Bat Bogey Hex. After his father and other Death Eaters are captured and sentenced to Azkaban following the events at the Department of Mysteries, Draco twice attempts to get revenge on Harry, but Snape and Minerva McGonagall thwart his first effort, and while returning home on the Hogwarts Express, Draco, Crabbe, and Goyle are transformed into giant slugs by a barrage of hexes cast by several D.A. members coming to Harry's defence.


title: Draco Malfoy

text: Draco is drawn into Death-Eaters' activities more directly in "Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince". Because of Lucius' arrest and fall from Voldemort's favour, Narcissa Malfoy and Bellatrix Lestrange visit Snape at his home to discuss a dangerous task that Voldemort has assigned Draco. Narcissa, deeply worried that her son will be killed in his attempt to complete it, begs Snape to make an Unbreakable Vow to aid Draco with this task and protect him at all costs, and if Draco fails to complete the mission, he will complete it himself; he agrees.


title: Draco Malfoy

text: Under the Invisibility Cloak, Harry, Ron, and Hermione follow Draco to Borgin and Burkes, a dark magic shop in Knockturn Alley. Draco threatens Mr. Borgin about repairing one item and keeping another safe for him. Draco shows Mr. Borgin something on his arm that Harry believes to be the Dark Mark, Voldemort's sign, though whether or not Harry is correct is never confirmed. (In the film version Draco Malfoy shows Dumbledore the Dark Mark on his arm.) On the Hogwarts Express, Harry invisibly spies on Draco and overhears him discussing Voldemort's task with several other Slytherins. Draco knows Harry is present and, once alone in the compartment, immobilises him and breaks his nose causing Harry to hate Draco even more. Harry is left stranded on the train until Nymphadora Tonks (Luna Lovegood in the film adaptation) rescues him. Harry spends much of the year trailing Draco's whereabouts on his Marauder's Map, but loses track of him once Draco enters the Room of Requirement. When Katie Bell is almost killed in Hogsmeade after handling a cursed necklace and Ron nearly dies by drinking poisoned mead, Harry suspects Draco is behind both attacks.


title: Draco Malfoy

text: In this book, Draco is, for the first time since being introduced in the series, portrayed as having considerable initiative, ingenuity, and perseverance. However, unlike Harry, who always relies on his friends' support and help, Draco mostly works alone in the Room of Requirement, refusing to confide in or involve his own circle of friends, whom he treats more as underlings. This, and the realisation of what he is ultimately expected to do, nearly drives him to a nervous breakdown. When Harry walks in on Malfoy crying in Moaning Myrtle's bathroom, Draco attempts to cast the Cruciatus Curse. Harry is faster to the draw with an obscure "Sectumsempra" spell that he learned from the mysterious Half-Blood Prince's book. The spell cuts deep gashes into Malfoy's face and chest, resulting in severe blood loss. Snape, alerted by Myrtle's screams, swiftly arrives and heals Draco's cuts, then takes him to the hospital wing.


title: Draco Malfoy

text: Near the conclusion, Draco ambushes and disarms a gravely weakened Dumbledore at the Astronomy Tower. After Draco disarms him, Dumbledore calmly reasons with the frightened teenager and persuades him to reveal how he was, according to Voldemort's orders, to kill the headmaster through the cursed necklace and the poisoned mead. Malfoy reveals that he mended the broken Vanishing Cabinet in the Room of Requirement to act as a portal enabling Death Eaters to enter Hogwarts. Draco is hesitant to kill Dumbledore and he eventually lowers his wand. Snape arrives, dispatches Dumbledore himself and then flees Hogwarts with Draco in tow. As revealed during his confrontation with Dumbledore, Draco was an insecure boy incapable of committing cold-blooded murder and was forced to do Voldemort's bidding under the threat of his and his parents' deaths. Harry, who was horrified by the result of his duel with Draco in the bathroom incident, feels "the tiniest drop of pity mingled with his dislike" for his old rival.


title: Draco Malfoy

text: During an interview in 2005, Rowling revealed that she enjoyed writing Draco in this book, and that the character "did a lot of growing up" as well.


title: Draco Malfoy

text: The Malfoys remain reluctant followers of Voldemort, who now uses their home as his headquarters; Draco passes out after witnessing Voldemort murder Muggle Studies professor Charity Burbage. Harry experiences occasional and disturbing visions of Draco being forced into performing Voldemort's bidding and feels "sickened... by the use to which Draco was now being put by Voldemort." When Harry, Ron, and Hermione are captured and taken to Malfoy Manor, Draco is asked to identify them, and though they are clearly recognisable, he only ambiguously replies "It might be." During the successful escape from Malfoy Manor headed by Dobby, Harry overpowers Draco and captures his wand.


title: Draco Malfoy

text: When Harry, Ron, and Hermione seek Ravenclaw's diadem in the Room of Requirement, Draco, along with Crabbe and Goyle (Blaise Zabini in film version rather than Crabbe), attempts to capture Harry alive. However, Crabbe (Goyle in film version) defies Draco's orders and attempts to kill the trio by casting the deadly Fiendfyre; unable to control the spell, he dies in the blaze while the trio rescue Draco and Goyle (Zabini in film version). Draco, despite his often condescending and belittling attitude toward Crabbe and Goyle (as well as his other underlings), grieves for his lost friend. During the Battle of Hogwarts, Draco is seen pleading with a Death Eater who seems intent on killing him. He is once again saved by Harry and Ron, the latter of whom punches Draco in the face under the invisibility cloak for attempting to appease the Death Eater.


title: Draco Malfoy

text: At about this time, it is revealed through the Pensieve that Dumbledore had known he was dying after being cursed by Voldemort's ring. However, to spare Draco's soul from being forever tainted by committing murder, Dumbledore pre-arranged his own death with Snape. Voldemort intended Draco to die in the attempt to kill Dumbledore so that Lucius would be punished for his failure to retrieve the prophecy from the Ministry of Magic.


title: Draco Malfoy

text: After Harry is struck by the "Avada Kedavra" curse, Voldemort orders Narcissa to verify that Harry is actually dead. She detects his heartbeat, but she lies to Voldemort, knowing that she will be allowed to search for her son if the Death Eaters return to Hogwarts ""as part of the conquering army."" Although Draco does not directly take part in Harry's final confrontation with Voldemort, as he and his parents flee the battle for their personal safety, he influences its outcome; a plot twist reveals that Draco had unwittingly become the Elder Wand's master when he disarmed Dumbledore, even though Draco never actually possessed the wand. The wand's allegiance passes to whoever defeats its owner, so Harry, having taken Draco's wand at Malfoy Manor, became its new master; this prevents Voldemort from using its full power. In the end, it is Narcissa's lie to Voldemort concerning Harry's death that enables the Malfoys to narrowly avoid imprisonment in Azkaban.


title: Draco Malfoy

text: In the epilogue, Draco has married and has a son, Scorpius Malfoy. Draco's hairline has receded, making his face look even more pointed. Though they are not friends, Malfoy has somewhat decreased his animosity toward Harry, and, upon seeing them at King's Cross station, gives a brief and curt nod to Harry, Ron, Hermione and Ginny.


title: Draco Malfoy

text: In the play "Harry Potter and the Cursed Child", Draco appears with his son Scorpius Hyperion Malfoy, who became best friends with Harry's second son Albus Severus Potter. It was revealed that during the fourth year of Scorpius's time in Hogwarts that Draco became widowed, as his wife Astoria Malfoy (nee Greengrass) died due to an inherited blood curse, which could shorten her lifespan and disallow her from growing into old age.


title: Draco Malfoy

text: The play also explores some of Draco's later life after the second wizarding war and prior to the events of the play. Due to the harrowing experiences he had during his time with the Death Eaters and his remorse over his criminal acts as a Death Eater, Draco had realised the error in his ways and thus abandoned the old pure-blood beliefs he was raised to adopt and believe in. This notably caused friction between him and his parents (who maintained these beliefs despite having defected from Voldemort). As he slowly grew into adulthood, Draco fell in love with a fellow Slytherin Astoria Greengrass, who also witnessed the carnage and horrors which the war and the old beliefs brought about (though lesser than Draco). This romance and eventual marriage would disappoint Draco's parents further given that they expected a more suitable candidate from one of the wizarding world's oldest pure-blood families and also an individual who had the embodiment of the old pure-blood beliefs. Despite having lost the favour of his parents, he still inherits the massive fortune of the Malfoy family, which made him independently wealthy and having no need to work. The inheritance also included his father's collection of Dark Arts artefacts.


title: Draco Malfoy

text: After he was married, Draco initially contemplated letting the Malfoy bloodline end with him to allow Astoria live longer (much to Lucius's disappointment), as he was aware of Astoria's family blood curse and that childbirth would weaken her further. Astoria, however, persuaded him from doing so as she wanted a child not for the pure-blood beliefs, but for him so that he will not be alone should she died some day, which culminated in the birth of Draco's first and only child Scorpius. Draco had once considered the birth of his son as the greatest day of his life, even though Scorpius's birth had led to Astoria's health to be further weakened and eventually caused her to die fourteen years later.


title: Draco Malfoy

text: As a father, Draco was strict in Scorpius's upbringing and taught him to not believe in the old pure-blood beliefs and instead raised him to become a better child than Draco was in his own childhood, and was willing to allow his son to be punished for breaking the school rules. He was also supportive of Scorpius's decision to befriend Harry's son Albus Severus, even though he and Harry had a history of animosity during their schooling years. Draco even trusted Albus to help Scorpius to heal him of his pain over losing his mother, and he valued his son's friendship to the point that he personally went to the Potter house to confront Harry, who tried to separate the two best friends apart. Despite having become more civil with his old enemies from the past, Draco remained apathetic and full of mockery towards them, including how he continued to mock Harry and his friends and sending a cold reply letter to Ginny's request to invite Scorpius to stay in the Potter house. These feelings only began to dissipate gradually as they became united by their common interest to save their sons. He was also revealed to be constantly envious of how Harry had true friends like Ron and Hermione (the latter whom became Minister of Magic) during his schooling years while he had only Crabbe and Goyle, who did not amount to being true friends for Draco.


title: Draco Malfoy

text: During the events of the play, Draco slowly made amends with Harry and his friends as they all embarked on a journey to save their sons from Voldemort's daughter Delphini, demonstrating his slow, but gradual acknowledgement of Harry as a friend and his outright denouncement of his Death Eater past.


title: Draco Malfoy

text: Tom Felton played Draco Malfoy in all of the "Harry Potter" films. Prior to landing the part of Malfoy, Felton auditioned to play Harry and Ron.


title: Draco Malfoy

text: Felton contributed to premieres, articles and interviews, and received the Disney Channel's Kids Awards for Best DVD "Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets" on 22 September 2003 with Hermione Granger actress, Emma Watson. He also won the MTV Movie Award for Best Villain for his portrayal as Malfoy in the 2010 MTV Movie Awards and the 2011 MTV Movie Awards.


title: Draco Malfoy

text: Malfoy grew into one of the series' most popular characters due to Felton's performances and Felton quickly became synonymous with the character to many female fans, much to Rowling's dismay. "I'm trying to clearly distinguish between Tom Felton, who is a good looking young boy, and Draco, who, whatever he looks like, is not a nice man. It’s a romantic, but unhealthy, and unfortunately all too common delusion of girls ... it actually worried me a little bit, to see young girls swearing undying devotion to this really imperfect character ... I mean, I understand the psychology of it, but it is pretty unhealthy." Rowling has also noted that Malfoy "is certainly stylish in the film."


title: Draco Malfoy

text: In the theatre play "Harry Potter and the Cursed Child" Draco was portrayed by Alex Price and later by James Howard. In the theatre play Draco has a style like his father's, such as his long hair. Draco was married to Astoria Greengrass, who had died, and has a son named Scorpius.


title: Draco Malfoy

text: Draco is described as a tall, slender boy with a pale, pointed face, sleek blond hair, and ice grey eyes.


title: Draco Malfoy

text: Draco is the prototypical spoiled, rich brat; he believes that his family's wealth and social position gives him the right to bully those poorer than himself, such as Ron Weasley. He also insults Hermione Granger's Muggle-born status by referring to her as a "Mudblood", a term that, as stated by Hagrid, is one not used in civilised conversations. As Rowling explained in 1999, "He's a bigot and he's a bully, and as I say, in the most refined sense, he knows exactly what will hurt people".


title: Draco Malfoy

text: In a July 2005 interview, Rowling added that Draco, unlike Harry, never feels remorse for his actions: "I thought of Draco as someone who is very capable of compartmentalising his life and his emotions, and always has done. So he's shut down his pity, enabling him to bully effectively. He's shut down compassion— how else would you become a Death Eater?"


title: Draco Malfoy

text: Draco, as well as Dudley Dursley, was indoctrinated with his parents' beliefs. Rowling commented that "The moment Draco got what he thought he wanted, to become a Death Eater, and given a mission by Lord Voldemort, as he did in "Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince", reality finally hit him" because his dream was "so very different". Rowling also stated that there was a real moral cowardice in Draco, but that he was not wholly bad.


title: Draco Malfoy

text: Having gone through the horrors of the second wizarding war as a Death Eater, Draco abandoned the pure-blood beliefs he was originally devoted to, and grew to become a better person than he was in his youth, growing more tolerant and accepting of the non-pure-bloods of the wizarding world. He also made sure to discipline his son Scorpius to be a better child than he himself was in his youth, which made Scorpius to show kindness and become friends with Harry's son Albus Severus, as evidence of his reformation.


title: Draco Malfoy

text: During the series, Draco is portrayed as a cunning, competent young wizard. In his second year, he successfully performed the "Tarantallegra" curse against Harry, a curse used by Death Eater Antonin Dolohov in book 5, and also successfully cast the Serpensortia spell in the same scene, conjuring a serpent from his wand just as Voldemort would later do against Dumbledore in book 5, and Snape against McGonagall in the final book. His character further develops in the sixth book, in which he is among very few students able to reach the required level to take Advanced Potions. Draco also proved capable at Occlumency, which he learned from his Aunt Bellatrix. Rowling recalled a discussion with her editor about Draco having mastered Occlumency while Harry could not. The author said that this is due to Draco being someone "very capable of compartmentalising his life and his emotions". Draco's wand is 10 inches precisely, made of hawthorn with a unicorn hair core, and which Ollivander states is "reasonably springy".


title: Draco Malfoy

text: When asked what shape Draco's Patronus Charm is, Rowling replied that, at least by the end of the sixth book, Draco was not capable of producing a Patronus, as it is not magic routinely taught at Hogwarts.


title: Draco Malfoy

text: The Malfoy family is one of the few remaining pure-blood wizarding clans in the "Harry Potter" series, and among the wealthiest. The anti-Muggle editor Brutus Malfoy is their ancestor. Lucius Malfoy was a Death Eater during both wizard wars. He marries Narcissa Black and together they have one son, Draco, who is the first Malfoy family member introduced in the series. The Malfoys are related to the Black family through Narcissa (a first cousin of Sirius Black, Harry's godfather), which makes Draco a nephew of both Bellatrix Lestrange and Andromeda Tonks. Draco is also Nymphadora Tonks' first cousin through their mothers. Three of Draco's grandparents are identified: Abraxas Malfoy, Cygnus Black, and Druella Rosier. Abraxas died before the series begins and was a friend of Professor Slughorn. Draco is, therefore, the scion of two old magical families. The Malfoy home, Malfoy Manor, is an elegant mansion located in the western English county of Wiltshire. They were served by Dobby the house elf until the end of "Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets".


title: Draco Malfoy

text: The Malfoys are a wealthy gentry family respected in the Wizarding world mainly from Lucius' influence with Hogwarts and the Ministry of Magic, gained mostly from his monetary donations to the Ministry and St Mungo's Hospital for Magical Maladies and Injuries, as well as from his post on the Hogwarts board of governors as chairman. However, he was removed from his position at the conclusion of the second book and imprisoned in Azkaban following the battle at the Department of Mysteries in "Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix". Despite maintaining a respectable, but false, image before these events, some in the Wizarding world were previously aware that the Malfoys were devoted to Voldemort and the Dark Arts. Draco constantly uses his elite status and his father's name and influence to gain advantages and to threaten others. Lucius is also known to have used bribery and threats.


title: Draco Malfoy

text: In an interview at the Royal Albert Hall, Rowling noted that boys liked to dress up as Malfoy a lot more than Harry, and that people are "getting far too fond of Draco", which she finds "a little bit worrying". In the same interview, Stephen Fry noted that just as Harry met Malfoy, he found out that there is also racism in the wizarding world and that many characters in power can be "as nasty and corrupt as in our world". Fry also noted that while "Malfoy, Goyle and Crabbe are almost irredeemably bad", Malfoy, unlike his companions, "is reasonably stylish". IGN listed Malfoy as their ninth top "Harry Potter" character.


title: Draco Malfoy

text: Wizard-rock band Draco and the Malfoys' lyrics are inspired by the "Harry Potter" books but from Draco Malfoy's point of view. As well as Harry and the Potters, the members of Draco and the Malfoys dress themselves as Hogwarts students, in this case in Slytherin-themed costumes. The band is one of about 750 bands of young musicians playing music inspired by the "Harry Potter" series.


title: Draco Malfoy

text: Draco is parodied as Jerko Phoenix in the series "Wizards of Waverly Place", during the episodes "Wizard School Part 1" and "Wizard School Part 2", in which Alex and Justin Russo go to a wizarding school named Wiz-tech, where everyone wears yellow and black robes, and glasses reminiscent of Harry Potter. Draco also appears as Sacco (played by Shane Lyons) in the "Harry Bladder" sketches in "All That", in which Harry Bladder and other students often encounter Sacco's mischief-making. In the stage production "Harry Potter and the Obnoxious Voice", Malfoy is seen interacting with Hagrid and a dementor. Draco was also parodied in a Big Bite sketch, where he was known as Mailboy (with his father Lucius being parodied as Mailman). In Neil Cicierega's "Potter Puppet Pals", Draco stars in the episode "Draco Puppet". He is different from all the other characters, simplistically made out of paper and is a smaller puppet, held and voiced by the Harry puppet. Harry created him in order to torture him, and after the puppet "annoys" Harry, he does a series of strange things to the paper Draco and eventually burns it on a stove. In "A Very Potter Musical" Draco is played by actress Lauren Lopez. He has a very obvious crush on Hermione and spends a great deal of time posing and rolling around on the floor.


title: Cliff Robertson

text: Clifford Parker Robertson III (September 9, 1923 – September 10, 2011) was an American actor whose career in film and television spanned over six decades. Robertson portrayed a young John F. Kennedy in the 1963 film "PT 109", and won the 1968 Academy Award for Best Actor for his role in the film "Charly".


title: Cliff Robertson

text: On television, Robertson portrayed retired astronaut Buzz Aldrin in the 1976 TV film adaptation of Aldrin's autobiographic "Return to Earth", played a fictional character based on Director of Central Intelligence Richard Helms in the 1977 miniseries "", and portrayed Henry Ford in "" (1987). His last well-known film appearances were as Uncle Ben in the 2002–2007 "Spider-Man" film trilogy.


title: Cliff Robertson

text: Robertson was also an accomplished aviator who served as the founding chairman of the Experimental Aircraft Association (EAA)'s Young Eagles Program during its inception in the early 1990s. It became the most successful aviation youth advocacy program in history.


title: Cliff Robertson

text: Robertson was born in La Jolla, California, the son of Clifford Parker Robertson Jr. (1902–1968), and his first wife, Audrey Olga Robertson ("née" Willingham; 1903–1925). His Texas-born father was described as "the idle heir to a tidy sum of ranching money". Robertson once said, "[My father] was a very romantic figure – tall, handsome. He married four or five times, and between marriages he'd pop in to see me. He was a great raconteur, and he was always surrounded by sycophants who let him pick up the tab. During the Great Depression, he tapped the trust for $500,000, and six months later he was back for more."


title: Cliff Robertson

text: Robertson's parents divorced when he was one, and his mother died of peritonitis a year later in El Paso, Texas, at the age of 21. He was raised by his maternal grandmother, Mary Eleanor "Eleanora" Willingham ("née" Sawyer, 1875–1957), in California, and rarely saw his father. He graduated in 1941 from La Jolla High School, where he was known as "The Walking Phoenix".


title: Cliff Robertson

text: He served as a third mate in the U.S. Merchant Marine during World War II, before attending Antioch College in Yellow Springs, Ohio, and dropping out to work for a short time as a journalist.


title: Cliff Robertson

text: Robertson studied at the Actors Studio, becoming a life member. In the early 1950s he worked steadily in television, including a stint as the lead of "Rod Brown of the Rocket Rangers" (1953–1954). He appeared in Broadway in "Late Love" (1953–1954) and "The Wisteria Tree" (1955), the latter written by Joshua Logan.


title: Cliff Robertson

text: Robertson made his film debut in "Picnic" (1955), directed by Logan. Robertson played the role of William Holden's best friend – a part originated on stage by Paul Newman.


title: Cliff Robertson

text: The film was a box office success and Robertson was promoted to Joan Crawford's co star in "Autumn Leaves" (1956), also at Columbia Pictures, playing her mentally unstable younger lover. This meant he had to pass up the chance to replace Ben Gazzara on Broadway in "Cat on a Hot Tin Roof". However he did return to Broadway to appear in "Orpheus Descending" by Tennessee Williams, which only had a short run.


title: Cliff Robertson

text: Robertson went to RKO to make two films: "The Naked and the Dead" (1958), an adaptation of the famous novel, co-starring Aldo Ray; and "The Girl Most Likely" (1958), a musical – the last film made by RKO Studios. Robertson received superb reviews for "Days of Wine and Roses" on TV with Piper Laurie.


title: Cliff Robertson

text: He was in Columbia's "Gidget" (1959) appearing opposite Sandra Dee as the Big Kahuna. It was popular and led to two sequels, neither of which Robertson appeared in. Less successful was a war film at Columbia, "Battle of the Coral Sea" (1959).


title: Cliff Robertson

text: Robertson had better luck on TV, appearing in "A Hundred Yards Over the Rim" and "The Dummy" for "The Twilight Zone". He was the third lead in Paramount's "All in a Night's Work" (1961) and starred in Samuel Fuller's "Underworld U.S.A." (1961) at Columbia.


title: Cliff Robertson

text: Robertson supported Esther Williams in "The Big Show" (1961). He had his first film hit since "Gidget" with Columbia's "The Interns" (1962). After supporting Debbie Reynolds in "My Six Loves" (1963), Robertson was President John F. Kennedy's personal choice to play him in 1963's "PT 109". The film was not a success at the box office.


title: Cliff Robertson

text: More popular was "Sunday in New York" (1963), where Robertson supported Rod Taylor and Jane Fonda, and "The Best Man" where he was a ruthless presidential candidate.


title: Cliff Robertson

text: Robertson appeared in a popular war film "633 Squadron" (1964) then supported Lana Turner in a melodrama, "Love Has Many Faces" (1965). In 1965 he said his contract with Columbia was for one film a year.


title: Cliff Robertson

text: In 1961 Robertson had played the lead role in a "United States Steel Hour" television production titled "The Two Worlds of Charlie Gordon", based on the novel "Flowers for Algernon" by Daniel Keyes. Frustrated at the progress of his career, Robertson optioned the rights to the teleplay and hired William Goldman to write a script. Before Goldman completed his work, Robertson arranged for Goldman to be hired to Americanize the dialogue for "Masquerade" (1965), a spy spoof which Robertson starred in, replacing Rex Harrison.


title: Cliff Robertson

text: Robertson then made a war film, "Up from the Beach" (1965) for Fox and guest-starred on that studio's TV show, "Batman" (1966). He co-starred with Harrison in "The Honey Pot" (1967) for Joseph L. Mankiewicz then appeared in another war film, "The Devil's Brigade" (1968) with William Holden.


title: Cliff Robertson

text: Robertson disliked Goldman's "Algernon" script and replaced the writer with Stirling Silliphant for what became "Charly" (1968). The film was another box office success and Robertson won the 1968 Academy Award for Best Actor for his portrayal of a mentally-challenged man.


title: Cliff Robertson

text: "Charly" was made by ABC Pictures, which insisted that Robert Aldrich use Robertson in "Too Late the Hero" (1970), a war film with Michael Caine that was a disappointment at the box office.


title: Cliff Robertson

text: Robertson turned down roles in "The Anderson Tapes", "Straw Dogs" (before Peckinpah was involved), and "Dirty Harry". Instead Robertson co-wrote, starred in, and directed "J. W. Coop" (1972), another commercial disappointment despite excellent reviews.


title: Cliff Robertson

text: Looking back on his career, Robertson said: "nobody made more mediocre movies than I did. Nobody ever did such a wide variety of mediocrity".


title: Cliff Robertson

text: In 1969, immediately after winning the Academy Award for "Charly", Robertson, a lifelong aviation enthusiast, attempted to produce and direct an aviation film, "I Shot Down the Red Baron, I Think", featuring World War I aerial combat, using Lynn Garrison's Irish aviation facility. The comedic storyline portrayed the Red Baron as gay. The aircraft featured garish paint schemes. The film was never completed or released.


title: Cliff Robertson

text: Robertson played Cole Younger in "The Great Northfield Minnesota Raid" (1972) and a pilot in "Ace Eli and Rodger of the Skies" (1973). He appeared in the 1974 thriller "Man on a Swing" and the 1975 British drama "Out of Season".


title: Cliff Robertson

text: Robertson returned to supporting parts in "Three Days of the Condor" (1975), which was a big hit. He played the lead in "Obsession" (1976), a popular thriller from Brian De Palma and Paul Schrader, and in the Canadian drama, "Shoot" (1976). He was also one of several stars in "Midway" (1976).


title: Cliff Robertson

text: Robertson turned to television for "" (1977), then had the lead in a thriller, "Dominique" (1978). He returned to directing for "The Pilot" (1980), also playing the title role, an alcoholic flyer. Robertson played Hugh Hefner in "Star 80" (1980). He attempted to make "Charly II" in 1980 but it did not happen.


title: Cliff Robertson

text: From the 1980s and 1990s onwards, Robertson was predominantly a character actor. He played villains in "Class" (1983) and "Brainstorm" (1983). He did have the lead in "Shaker Run" (1985) in New Zealand, and "" (1986) on TV.


title: Cliff Robertson

text: He was a villain in "Malone" (1987), did "Dead Reckoning" (1990) on TV and supported in "Wild Hearts Can't Be Broken" (1991), "Wind" (1991), "Renaissance Man" (1994) and John Carpenter's "Escape from L.A." (1996).


title: Cliff Robertson

text: Late in his life Robertson's career had a resurgence. He appeared as Uncle Ben Parker in Sam Raimi's "Spider-Man" (2002), as well as in the sequels "Spider-Man 2" (2004) and "Spider-Man 3" (2007; his last acting role). He commented on his website: "Since "Spider-Man 1" and "2", I seem to have a whole new generation of fans. That in itself is a fine residual." He also starred in and wrote "13th Child" (2002) and appeared in "Riding the Bullet" (2004), both horror films.


title: Cliff Robertson

text: Robertson's early television appearances included a starring role in the live space opera "Rod Brown of the Rocket Rangers" (1953–1954), as well as recurring roles on "Hallmark Hall of Fame" (1952), "Alcoa Theatre" (1959), and "Playhouse 90" (1958, 1960), "Outlaws" (three episodes). Robertson also appeared as a special guest star on "Wagon Train" for one episode, portraying an Irish immigrant.


title: Cliff Robertson

text: In 1958, Robertson portrayed Joe Clay in the first broadcast of "Playhouse 90"'s "Days of Wine and Roses". In 1960, he was cast as Martinus Van Der Brig, a con man, in the episode "End of a Dream" of "Riverboat".


title: Cliff Robertson

text: Other appearances included, 1958 "Wagon Train", "The Twilight Zone" episodes "A Hundred Yards Over the Rim" (1961) and "The Dummy" (1962), followed by "The Eleventh Hour" in the 1963 episode, "The Man Who Came Home Late". He guest-starred on such television series as "The Greatest Show on Earth", "Breaking Point" and "ABC Stage 67". He had starring roles in episodes of both the 1960s and 1990s versions of "The Outer Limits". He was awarded an Emmy for his leading role in a 1965 episode, "The Game" of "Bob Hope Presents the Chrysler Theatre". He appeared twice as a guest-villain on ABC's "Batman" as the gunfighter "Shame" (1966 and 1968), the second time with his wife, Dina Merrill, as "Calamity Jan".


title: Cliff Robertson

text: In 1976, he portrayed a retired Buzz Aldrin in an adaptation of Aldrin's autobiography "Return to Earth". The next year, he portrayed a fictional Director of Central Intelligence (based on Richard Helms) in "", an adaptation of John Ehrlichman's roman à clef "The Company", in turn based on the Watergate scandal. In 1987, he portrayed Henry Ford in "Ford: The Man and The Machine". From 1983 to 1984, he played Dr. Michael Ranson in "Falcon Crest".


title: Cliff Robertson

text: In 1977, Robertson discovered that his signature had been forged on a $10,000 check payable to him, although it was for work he had not performed. He also learned that the forgery had been carried out by then-Columbia Pictures head David Begelman, and on reporting it he inadvertently triggered one of the biggest Hollywood scandals of the 1970s. Begelman was charged with embezzlement, convicted, and later fired from Columbia. Despite pressure to remain quiet, Robertson and his wife Dina Merrill spoke to the press. As a result, Hollywood producers blacklisted him.


title: Cliff Robertson

text: He finally returned to studio film five years later, starring in "Brainstorm" (1983). The story of the scandal is told in David McClintick's 1982 bestseller "Indecent Exposure".


title: Cliff Robertson

text: In 1957, Robertson married actress Cynthia Stone, the former wife of actor Jack Lemmon. They had a daughter, Stephanie, before divorcing in 1959; he also had a stepson by this marriage, Chris Lemmon. In 1966, he married actress and Post Cereals heiress Dina Merrill, the former wife of Stanley M. Rumbough Jr.; they had a daughter, Heather (1968–2007), before divorcing. By this marriage, he also had stepchildren Stanley Hutton Rumbough, David Post Rumbough, and Nedenia Colgate Rumbough. He resided in Water Mill, New York.


title: Cliff Robertson

text: Robertson was a Democrat and supported Arizona congressman Morris K. Udall during the 1976 Democratic presidential primaries.


title: Cliff Robertson

text: A certified private pilot, one of Robertson's main hobbies was flying and, among other aircraft, he owned several de Havilland Tiger Moths, a Messerschmitt Bf 108, and a genuine World War II – era Mk.IX Supermarine Spitfire MK923. His first plane flight was in a Lockheed Model 9 Orion. As a 13-year-old he cleaned hangars for airplane rides. He met Paul Mantz, Art Scholl, and Charles Lindbergh while flying at local California airports. His piloting skills helped him get the part as the squadron leader in the British war film "633 Squadron". He entered balloon races, including one in 1964 from the mainland to Catalina Island that ended with him being rescued from the Pacific Ocean. He was also a glider pilot and owned a Grobe Astir.


title: Cliff Robertson

text: In 1969, during the civil war conflict in Nigeria, Robertson helped organize an effort to fly food and medical supplies into the area. He also organized flights of supplies to the ravaged country of Ethiopia when it experienced famine in 1978. Within the EAA, he founded the Cliff Robertson Work Experience in 1993, which offers youths the chance to work for flight and ground school instruction.


title: Cliff Robertson

text: Robertson was flying a private Beechcraft Baron over New York City on the morning of September 11, 2001, two days after his 78th birthday. He was directly above the World Trade Center climbing through 7,500 feet when the first Boeing 767 struck. He was instructed by air traffic control to land immediately at the nearest airport after a nationwide order to ground all civilian and commercial aircraft following the attacks.


title: Cliff Robertson

text: He was a longtime member of the Experimental Aircraft Association (EAA), working his way through the ranks in prominence and eventually co-founding the Young Eagles Program with EAA president Tom Poberezny. Robertson chaired the program from its 1992 inception to 1994 (succeeded by former test pilot Gen. Chuck Yeager). Along with educating youth about aviation, the initial goal of the Young Eagles was to fly one million children (many of them never having flown before) prior to the 100th Anniversary of Flight celebration on December 17, 2003. That goal was achieved on November 13, 2003. On July 28, 2016, the two millionth Young Eagle was flown by actor Harrison Ford.


title: Cliff Robertson

text: On September 10, 2011, one day after his 88th birthday, Robertson died of natural causes in Stony Brook, New York. His body was cremated, and a private funeral was held at St. Luke's Episcopal Church in East Hampton, New York and was interred at the Cedar Lawn Cemetery.


title: Cliff Robertson

text: Robertson was inducted into the National Aviation Hall of Fame in 2006. He received the Rebecca Rice Alumni Award from Antioch College in 2007. In addition to his Oscar and Emmy and several lifetime achievement awards from various film festivals, Robertson has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 6801 Hollywood Blvd. He was also awarded the 2008 Ambassador of Good Will Aviation Award by the National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) Bar Association in Alexandria, Virginia, for his leadership in and promotion of general aviation. In 2009, Robertson was inducted into the International Air & Space Hall of Fame at the San Diego Air & Space Museum, and was part of the Living Legends of Aviation.


title: Malayan Emergency

text: The Malayan Emergency, also known as the Anti–British National Liberation War was a guerrilla war fought in British Malaya between communist pro-independence fighters of the Malayan National Liberation Army (MNLA) and the military forces of the British Empire and Commonwealth. The communists fought to win independence for Malaya from the British Empire and to establish a socialist economy, while the Commonwealth forces fought to combat communism and protect British economic and colonial interests. The conflict was called the "Anti–British National Liberation War" by the MNLA, but an "Emergency" by the British, as London-based insurers would not have paid out in instances of civil wars.


title: Malayan Emergency

text: On 17 June 1948, Britain declared a state of emergency in Malaya following attacks on plantations, which in turn were revenge attacks for the killing of left-wing activists. Leader of the Malayan Communist Party (MCP) Chin Peng and his allies fled into the jungles and formed the MNLA to wage a war for national liberation against British colonial rule. Many MNLA fighters were veterans of the Malayan Peoples' Anti-Japanese Army (MPAJA), a communist guerrilla army previously trained, armed and funded by the British to fight against Japan during World War II. The communists gained support from a high number of civilians, mainly those from the Chinese community.


title: Malayan Emergency

text: After establishing a series of jungle bases the MNLA began raiding British colonial police and military installations. Mines, plantations, and trains were attacked by the MNLA to gain independence for Malaya by bankrupting the British occupation. The British attempted to starve the MNLA using scorched earth policies through food rationing, killing livestock, and aerial spraying of the herbicide Agent Orange. British attempts to defeat the communists included extrajudicial killings of unarmed villagers, in violation of the Geneva Conventions. The most infamous example is the Batang Kali massacre, which the British press have referred to as "Britain's Mỹ Lai". The Briggs Plan forcibly relocated 400,000 to one million civilians into concentration camps, which were referred to by the British as "New villages". Many Orang Asli indigenous communities were also targeted for internment because the British believed that they were supporting the communists. The communists' belief in class consciousness, and both ethnic and gender equality, inspired many women and indigenous people to join both the MNLA and its undercover supply network the Min Yuen.


title: Malayan Emergency

text: Although the emergency was declared over in 1960, communist leader Chin Peng renewed the insurgency against the Malaysian government in 1967. This second phase of the insurgency lasted until 1989.


title: Malayan Emergency

text: At the end of World War II, the withdrawal of Japan left the British Malayan economy disrupted with widespread unemployment, low wages, and high levels of food price inflation. The weak economy was a factor in the growth of trade union movements and caused a rise in communist party membership, with considerable labour unrest and a large number of strikes occurred between 1946 and 1948. Malayan communists organised a successful 24-hour general strike on 29 January 1946, before organising 300 strikes in 1947. To combat rising trade union activity the British used police and soldiers as strikebreakers, and employers enacted mass dismissals, forced evictions of striking workers from their homes, legal harassement, and began cutting the wages of their workers. Colonial police responded to rising trade union activity through arrests, deportations, and beating striking workers to death. Responding to the attacks against trade unions, communist militants began assassinating strikebreakers, and attacking anti-union estates. These attacks were used by the colonial occupation as a pretence to conduct mass arrests of left-wing activists. On 12 June the British colonial occupation banned Malaya's largest trade union the PMFTU.


title: Malayan Emergency

text: Malaya's rubber and tin resources were used by the British to pay war debts to the United States and to recover from the damage of the second world war. Malaysian rubber exports to the United States were of greater value than all domestic exports from Britain to America, causing Malaya to be viewed by the British as a vital asset. Britain had prepared for Malaya to become an independent state, but only by handing power to a government which would be subservient to Britain and allow British businesses to keep control of Malaya's natural resources.


title: Malayan Emergency

text: The first shots of the Malayan Emergency during the Sungai Siput incident, fired at 8:30 am on 16 June 1948, in the office of the Elphil Estate twenty miles east of the Sungai Siput town, Perak. Three European plantation managers, Arthur Walker, John Allison, and Ian Christian, were killed by three young Chinese men. Another attack was planned on a fourth European estate nearby, however this failed because the target's jeep broke down making him late for work. More gunmen were sent to kill him but left after failing to find him. The British enacted emergency measures into law in response to the Sungai Siput incident. Under these measures the colonial government outlawed the Malayan Communist Party (MCP) and began mass arresting thousands of trade union and left-wing activists.


title: Malayan Emergency

text: Although the Malayan communists had begun preparations for a guerrilla war against the British, the emergency measures and mass arrest of communists and left-wing activists took them by surprise. Led by Chin Peng the remaining Malayan communists retreated to rural areas and formed the Malayan National Liberation Army (MNLA), although their name has commonly been mistranslated as the Malayan Races Liberation Army (MRLA) or the Malayan People's Liberation Army (MPLA). The MNLA was partly a re-formation of the Malayan Peoples' Anti-Japanese Army (MPAJA), the MCP-led guerrilla force which had been the principal resistance in Malaya against the Japanese occupation of Malaya. The British had secretly helped form the MPAJA in 1942 and trained them in the use of explosives, firearms and radios. Chin Peng was a veteran anti-fascist and trade unionist who had played an integral role in the MPAJA's resistance.


title: Malayan Emergency

text: The MNLA began their war for Malayan independence by targeting the colonial resource extraction industries, namely the tin mines and rubber plantations which were the main sources of income for the British occupation of Malaya. The MNLA attacked these industries in the hopes of bankrupting the British and winning independence by making the colonial administration too expensive to maintain. The MNLA launched their first guerrilla attacks in the Gua Musang district.


title: Malayan Emergency

text: Disbanded in December 1945, the MPAJA officially turned in its weapons to the British Military Administration, although many MPAJA soldiers secretly hid stockpiles of weapons in jungle hideouts. Members who agreed to disband were offered economic incentives. Around 4,000 members rejected these incentives and went underground.


title: Malayan Emergency

text: The MNLA commonly employed guerrilla tactics, sabotaging installations, attacking rubber plantations and destroying transport and infrastructure. Support for the MNLA mainly came from around 500,000 of the 3.12 million ethnic Chinese then living in Malaya. There was a particular component of the Chinese community referred to as 'squatters', farmers living on the edge of the jungles where the MNLA were based. This allowed the MNLA to supply themselves with food, in particular, as well as providing a source of new recruits. The ethnic Malay population supported them in smaller numbers. The MNLA gained the support of the Chinese because the Chinese were denied the equal right to vote in elections, had no land rights to speak of, and were usually very poor. The MNLA's supply organisation was called the Min Yuen (People’s Movement). It had a network of contacts within the general population. Besides supplying material, especially food, it was also important to the MNLA as a source of intelligence.


title: Malayan Emergency

text: The MNLA's camps and hideouts were in the inaccessible tropical jungle and had limited infrastructure. Almost 90% of MNLA guerrillas were ethnic Chinese, though there were some Malays, Indonesians and Indians among its members. The MNLA was organised into regiments, although these had no fixed establishments and each included all communist forces operating in a particular region. The regiments had political sections, commissars, instructors and secret service. In the camps, the soldiers attended lectures on Marxism–Leninism, and produced political newsletters to be distributed to civilians.


title: Malayan Emergency

text: In the early stages of the conflict, the guerrillas envisaged establishing control in "liberated areas" from which the government forces had been driven, but did not succeed in this. On 6 October 1951, the MNLA ambushed and killed the British High Commissioner, Sir Henry Gurney.


title: Malayan Emergency

text: During the first couple of years of the war, the British forces responded with a terror campaign characterised by high levels of state coercion against the civilian population. Police corruption and the British military's widespread destruction of farmland and burning of homes belonging to villagers rumoured to be helping communists, led to a sharp increase in civilians joining the communist forces.


title: Malayan Emergency

text: On the military front, the security forces did not know how to fight an enemy moving freely in the jungle and enjoying support from the Chinese rural population. British planters and miners, who bore the brunt of the communist attacks, began to talk about government incompetence and being betrayed by Whitehall.


title: Malayan Emergency

text: The initial government strategy was primarily to guard important economic targets, such as mines and plantation estates. Later, in April 1950, General Sir Harold Briggs, the British Army's Director of Operations, was appointed to Malaya. The central tenet of the Briggs Plan was that the best way to defeat an insurgency, such as the government was facing, was to cut the insurgents off from their supporters among the population. The Briggs Plan also recognised the inhospitable nature of the Malayan jungle. A major part of the strategy involved targeting the MNLA food supply, which Briggs recognised came from three main sources: camps within the Malayan jungle where land was cleared to provide food, aboriginal jungle dwellers who could supply the MNLA with food gathered within the jungle, and the MNLA supporters within the 'squatter' communities on the edge of the jungle.


title: Malayan Emergency

text: The Briggs Plan was multifaceted but one aspect has become particularly well known: the forced relocation of some 500,000 rural Malayans, including 400,000 Chinese civilians, into internment camps called "new villages". These villages were surrounded by barbed wire, police posts, and floodlit areas, designed to stop the inmates from being able to contact communist MNLA guerrillas in the jungles.


title: Malayan Emergency

text: At the start of the Emergency, the British had 13 infantry battalions in Malaya, including seven partly formed Gurkha battalions, three British battalions, two battalions of the Royal Malay Regiment and a British Royal Artillery Regiment being used as infantry. This force was too small to fight the insurgents effectively, and more infantry battalions were needed in Malaya. The British brought in soldiers from units such as the Royal Marines and King's African Rifles. Another element in the strategy was the re-formation of the Special Air Service in 1950 as a specialised reconnaissance, raiding, and counter-insurgency unit.


title: Malayan Emergency

text: The Permanent Secretary of Defence for Malaya, Sir Robert Grainger Ker Thompson, had served in the Chindits in Burma during World War II. Thompson's in-depth experience of jungle warfare proved invaluable during this period as he was able to build effective civil-military relations and was one of the chief architects of the counter-insurgency plan in Malaya.


title: Malayan Emergency

text: On 6 October 1951, the British High Commissioner in Malaya, Sir Henry Gurney, was assassinated during an MNLA ambush. General Gerald Templer was chosen to become the new High Commissioner in January 1952. During Templer's two-year command, "two-thirds of the guerrillas were wiped out and lost over half their strength, the incident rate fell from 500 to less than 100 per month and the civilian and security force casualties from 200 to less than 40." Orthodox historiography suggests that Templer changed the situation in the Emergency and his actions and policies were a major part of British success during his period in command. Revisionist historians have challenged this view and frequently support the ideas of Victor Purcell, a Sinologist who as early as 1954 claimed that Templer merely continued policies begun by his predecessors.


title: Malayan Emergency

text: The MNLA was vastly outnumbered by the British forces and their Commonwealth and colonial allies in terms of regular full-time soldiers. Siding with the British occupation were a maximum of 40,000 British and other Commonwealth troops, 250,000 Home Guard members, and 66,000 police agents. Supporting the communists were 7,000+ communist guerrillas (1951 peak), an estimated 1,000,000 sympathisers, and an unknown number of civilian Min Yuen supporters and Orang Asli sympathisers.


title: Malayan Emergency

text: At all levels of the Malayan government (national, state, and district levels), the military and civil authority was assumed by a committee of military, police and civilian administration officials. This allowed intelligence from all sources to be rapidly evaluated and disseminated and also allowed all anti-guerrilla measures to be co-ordinated.


title: Malayan Emergency

text: Each of the Malay states had a State War Executive Committee which included the State Chief Minister as chairman, the Chief Police Officer, the senior military commander, state home guard officer, state financial officer, state information officer, executive secretary, and up to six selected community leaders. The Police, Military, and Home Guard representatives and the Secretary formed the operations sub-committee responsible for the day-to-day direction of emergency operations. The operations subcommittees as a whole made joint decisions.


title: Malayan Emergency

text: The British Army soon realised that clumsy sweeps by large formations were unproductive. Instead, platoons or sections carried out patrols and laid ambushes, based on intelligence from various sources, including informers, surrendered MNLA personnel, aerial reconnaissance and so on. A typical operation was "Nassau", carried out in the Kuala Langat swamp (excerpt from the Marine Corps School's "The Guerrilla – and how to Fight Him"):


title: Malayan Emergency

text: Insurgents had numerous advantages over British forces since they lived in closer proximity to villagers, they sometimes had relatives or close friends in the village, and they were not afraid to threaten violence or torture and murder village leaders as an example to the others, which forced them to assist them with food and information. British forces thus faced a dual threat: the insurgents and the silent network in villages who supported them. British troops often described the terror of jungle patrols. In addition to watching out for insurgent fighters, they had to navigate difficult terrain and avoid dangerous animals and insects. Many patrols would stay in the jungle for days, even weeks, without encountering the MNLA guerrillas. That strategy led to the infamous Batang Kali massacre in which 24 unarmed villagers were executed by British troops.


title: Malayan Emergency

text: Commonwealth forces from Africa and the Pacific fought on the British side during the Malayan Emergency. These included troops from Australia, New Zealand, Fiji, Kenya, Nyasaland, Northern and Southern Rhodesia.


title: Malayan Emergency

text: Australian ground forces, specifically the 2nd Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment (2 RAR), began fighting in Malaya in 1955. The battalion was later replaced by 3 RAR, which in turn was replaced by 1 RAR. The Royal Australian Air Force contributed No. 1 Squadron (Avro Lincoln bombers) and No. 38 Squadron (C-47 transports), operating out of Singapore, early in the conflict. In 1955, the RAAF extended Butterworth air base, from which Canberra bombers of No. 2 Squadron (replacing No. 1 Squadron) and CAC Sabres of No. 78 Wing carried out ground attack missions against the guerrillas. The Royal Australian Navy destroyers and joined the force in June 1955. Between 1956 and 1960, the aircraft carriers and and destroyers , , , , , , , and were attached to the Commonwealth Strategic Reserve forces for three to nine months at a time. Several of the destroyers fired on communist positions in Johor State.


title: Malayan Emergency

text: New Zealand's first contribution came in 1949, when Douglas C-47 Dakotas of RNZAF No. 41 Squadron were attached to the Royal Air Force's Far East Air Force. New Zealand became more directly involved in the conflict in 1955; from May, RNZAF de Havilland Vampires and Venoms began to fly strike missions. In November 1955 133 soldiers of what was to become the Special Air Service of New Zealand arrived from Singapore, for training in-country with the British SAS, beginning operations by April 1956. The Royal New Zealand Air Force continued to carry out strike missions with Venoms of No. 14 Squadron and later No. 75 Squadron English Electric Canberras bombers, as well as supply-dropping operations in support of anti-guerrilla forces, using the Bristol Freighter. A total of 1,300 New Zealanders served in the Malayan Emergency between 1948 and 1964, and fifteen lost their lives.


title: Malayan Emergency

text: Fijian troops fought in the Malayan Emergency from 1952 to 1956, some 1,600 Fijian troops served. The first to arrive were the 1st Battalion, Fiji Infantry Regiment. Twenty-five Fijian troops died in combat in Malaya. Friendships on and off the battlefield developed between the two nations; the first Prime Minister of Malaysia, Tunku Abdul Rahman, became a friend and mentor to Ratu Sir Edward Cakobau, who was a commander of the Fijian Battalion, and who later went on to become the Deputy PM of Fiji and whose son Brigadier General Ratu Epeli was a future President of Fiji. The experience was captured in the documentary, "Back to Batu Pahat".


title: Malayan Emergency

text: Southern Rhodesia and its successor, the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland, contributed two units to Malaya. Between 1951 and 1953, white Southern Rhodesian volunteers formed "C" Squadron of the Special Air Service. The Rhodesian African Rifles, comprising black soldiers and warrant officers but led by white officers, served in Johore state for two years from 1956. The 1st, 2nd, and 3rd Battalions of the King's African Rifles from Nyasaland, Northern Rhodesia and Kenya respectively also served there suffering 23 losses.


title: Malayan Emergency

text: Later, MNLA leader Chin Peng stated that the killing of Henry Gurney had little effect and that the communists were already altering their strategy, according to new guidelines enshrined in the so-called "October Resolutions". The October Resolutions, a response to the Briggs Plan, involved a change of tactics by the MNLA by reducing attacks on economic targets and civilian collaborators, redirecting their efforts towards political organisation and subversion, and bolstering the supply network from the Min Yuen as well as jungle farming.


title: Malayan Emergency

text: On 8 September 1955, the Government of the Federation of Malaya issued a declaration of amnesty to the communists. The Government of Singapore issued an identical offer at the same time. Tunku Abdul Rahman, as Chief Minister, offered amnesty but rejected negotiations with the MNLA. The amnesty read that:


title: Malayan Emergency

text: Following this amnesty declaration, an intensive publicity campaign was launched by the government. Alliance Ministers in the Federal Government travelled extensively up and down the country exhorting the people to call upon the communists to lay down their arms and take advantage of the amnesty. Despite the campaign, few Communist guerrillas chose to surrender. Some political activists criticised the amnesty for being too restrictive and for being a rewording of surrender terms which had already been in force for a long period. These critics advocated for direct negotiations with the communist guerrillas of the MNLA and MCP to work on a peace settlement. Leading officials of the Labour Party had, as part of the settlement, not excluded the possibility of recognition of the MCP as a political organisation. Within the Alliance itself, influential elements in both the MCA and UMNO were endeavouring to persuade the Chief Minister, Tunku Abdul Rahman, to hold negotiations with the MCP.


title: Malayan Emergency

text: Realising that the tide of the war was turning against him, Chin Peng indicated that he would be ready to meet with British officials alongside senior Malayan politicians in 1955. The talks took place in the Government English School at Baling on 28 December. The MCP was represented by Chin Peng, the Secretary-General, Rashid Maidin and Chen Tien, head of the MCP's Central Propaganda Department. On the other side were three elected national representatives, Tunku Abdul Rahman, Dato' Tan Cheng-Lock and David Saul Marshall, the Chief Minister of Singapore.


title: Malayan Emergency

text: Chin Peng left the jungle to negotiate with the leader of the Federation, Tunku Abdul Rahman with the goal of ending the conflict. However, the British Intelligence Service was worried that the MCP would regain influence in society and the Malayan government representatives, led by Tunku Abdul Rahman, categorically dismissed Chin Peng's demands. As a result, the conflict heightened, and, in response, New Zealand sent NZSAS soldiers, No. 14 Squadron RNZAF, No. 41 (Bristol Freighter) Squadron RNZAF and, later, No. 75 Squadron RNZAF; other Commonwealth members also sent troops to aid the British.


title: Malayan Emergency

text: Following the failure of the talks, Tunku decided to withdraw the amnesty on 8 February 1956, five months after it had been offered, stating that he would not be willing to meet the Communists again unless they indicated beforehand their intention to make "a complete surrender". Despite the failure of the Baling Talks, the MCP made various efforts to resume peace talks with the Malayan government, all without success. Meanwhile, discussions began in the new Emergency Operations Council to intensify the "People's War" against the guerillas. In July 1957, a few weeks before independence, the MCP made another attempt at peace talks, suggesting the following conditions for a negotiated peace:


title: Malayan Emergency

text: The failure of the talks affected MCP policy. The strength of the MNLA and 'Min Yuen' declined to only 1830 members in August 1957. Those who remained faced exile, or death in the jungle. However, Tunku Abdul Rahman did not respond to the MCP's proposals. As Malaya declared its independence from the British under Prime Minister Tunku Abdul Rahman on 31 August 1957, the insurrection lost its rationale as a war of colonial liberation.


title: Malayan Emergency

text: The last serious resistance from MRLA guerrillas ended with a surrender in the Telok Anson marsh area in 1958. The remaining MRLA forces fled to the Thai border and further east. On 31 July 1960 the Malayan government declared the state of emergency over, and Chin Peng left south Thailand for Beijing where he was accommodated by the Chinese authorities in the International Liaison Bureau, where many other Southeast Asian Communist Party leaders were housed.


title: Malayan Emergency

text: During the Malayan Emergency, Britain became the first nation in history to use of herbicides and defoliants as a military weapon. It was used to destroy bushes, food crops, and trees to deprive the insurgents of both food and cover, playing a role in Britain's food denial campaign during the early 1950s. A variety of herbicides were used to clear lines of communication and wipe out food crops as part of this strategy. One of the herbicides, Trioxone, was an even mixture of butyl esters of 2,4,5-T and 2,4-D. This mixture was virtually identical to the later Agent Orange, though Trioxone likely had a heavier contamination of the health-damaging dioxin impurity.


title: Malayan Emergency

text: In 1952, Trioxone and mixtures of the aforementioned herbicides, were sent along a number of key roads. From June to October 1952, 1,250 acres of roadside vegetation at possible ambush points were sprayed with defoliant, described as a policy of "national importance." The British reported that the use of herbicides and defoliants could be effectively replaced by removing vegetation by hand and the spraying was stopped. However, after that strategy failed, the use of herbicides and defoliants in effort to fight the insurgents was restarted under the command of British General Sir Gerald Templer in February 1953 as a means of destroying food crops grown by communist forces in jungle clearings. Helicopters and fixed-wing aircraft despatched sodium trichloroacetate and Trioxone, along with pellets of chlorophenyl N,N-Dimethyl-1-naphthylamine onto crops such as sweet potatoes and maize. Many Commonwealth personnel who handled and/or used Agent Orange during the conflict suffered from serious exposure to dioxin and Agent Orange. An estimated 10,000 civilians and insurgents in Malaya also suffered from the effects of the defoliant, but many historians think that the number is much larger since Agent Orange was used on a large scale in the Malayan conflict and, unlike the US, the British government limited information about its use to avoid negative world public opinion. The prolonged absence of vegetation caused by defoliation also resulted in major soil erosion to areas of Malaya.


title: Malayan Emergency

text: After the Malayan Conflict ended in 1960, the US used the British precedent in deciding that the use of defoliants was a legally-accepted tactic of warfare. US Secretary of State Dean Rusk advised US President John F. Kennedy that the precedent of using herbicide in warfare had been established by the British through their use of aircraft to spray herbicide and thus destroy enemy crops and thin the thick jungle of northern Malaya.


title: Malayan Emergency

text: During the conflict, security forces killed 6,710 MRLA guerrillas and captured 1,287, while 2,702 guerrillas surrendered during the conflict, and approximately 500 more did so at its conclusion. 1,345 Malayan troops and police were killed during the fighting, as well as 519 Commonwealth personnel. 2,478 civilians were killed, with another 810 recorded as missing.


title: Malayan Emergency

text: War crimes have been broadly defined by the Nuremberg Principles as "violations of the laws or customs of war," which includes massacres, bombings of civilian targets, terrorism, mutilation, torture, and the murder of detainees and prisoners of war. Additional common crimes include theft, arson, and the destruction of property not warranted by military necessity.


title: Malayan Emergency

text: During the Malayan conflict, there were instances during operations to find insurgents where British troops detained and tortured villagers who were suspected of aiding the insurgents. Brian Lapping said that there was "some vicious conduct by the British forces, who routinely beat up Chinese squatters when they refused, or possibly were unable, to give information" about the insurgents. "The" "Scotsman" newspaper lauded these tactics as a good practice since "simple-minded peasants are told and come to believe that the communist leaders are invulnerable". Some civilians and detainees were also shot, either because they attempted to flee from and potentially aid insurgents or simply because they refused to give intelligence to British forces.


title: Malayan Emergency

text: Widespread use of arbitrary detention, punitive actions against villages, and use of torture by the police, "created animosity" between Chinese squatters and British forces in Malaya and "were therefore counterproductive in generating the one resource critical in a counterinsurgency, good intelligence".


title: Malayan Emergency

text: British troops were often unable to tell the difference between enemy combatants and civilians while conducting military operations through the jungles, due to the fact that many Min Yuen wore civilian clothing and had support from sympathetic civilian populations.


title: Malayan Emergency

text: During the Batang Kali massacre, 24 unarmed civilians were executed by the Scots Guards near a rubber plantation at Sungai Rimoh near Batang Kali in Selangor in December 1948. All the victims were male, ranging in age from young teenage boys to elderly men. Many of the victims' bodies were found to have been mutilated and their village of Batang Kali was burned to the ground. No weapons were found when the village was searched. The only survivor of the killings was a man named Chong Hong who was in his 20s at the time. He fainted and was presumed dead. Soon afterwards the British colonial government staged a coverup of British military abuses which served to obfuscate the exact details of the massacre.


title: Malayan Emergency

text: The massacre later became the focus of decades of legal battles between the UK government and the families of the civilians executed by British troops. According to Christi Silver, Batang Kali was notable in that it was the only incident of mass killings by Commonwealth forces during the war, which Silver attributes to the unique subculture of the Scots Guards and poor enforcement of discipline by junior officers.


title: Malayan Emergency

text: As part of the Briggs Plan devised by British General Sir Harold Briggs, 500,000 people (roughly ten percent of Malaya's population) were forced from their homes by British forces. Tens of thousands of homes were destroyed, and many people were imprisoned in British Internment Camps called "new villages". During the Malayan Emergency, 450 new villages were created. The policy aimed to inflict collective punishment on villages where people were thought to be support communism, and also to isolate civilians from guerrilla activity. Many of the forced evictions involved the destruction of existing settlements which went beyond the justification of military necessity. This practice was prohibited by the Geneva Conventions and customary international law, which stated that the destruction of property must not happen unless rendered absolutely necessary by military operations.


title: Malayan Emergency

text: A key British war measure was inflicting collective punishments on villages whose people were deemed to be aiding the insurgents. At Tanjong Malim in March 1952, Templer imposed a twenty-two-hour house curfew, banned everyone from leaving the village, closed the schools, stopped bus services, and reduced the rice rations for 20,000 people. The last measure prompted the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine to write to the Colonial Office to note that the "chronically undernourished Malayan" might not be able to survive as a result. "This measure is bound to result in an increase, not only of sickness but also of deaths, particularly amongst the mothers and very young children". Some people were fined for leaving their homes to use external latrines. In another collective punishment, at Sengei Pelek the following month, measures included a house curfew, a reduction of 40 percent in the rice ration and the construction of a chain-link fence 22 yards outside the existing barbed wire fence around the town. Officials explained that the measures were being imposed upon the 4,000 villagers "for their continually supplying food" to the insurgents and "because they did not give information to the authorities".


title: Malayan Emergency

text: Over the course of the war, some 30,000 mostly ethnic Chinese were deported by the British authorities to mainland China.


title: Malayan Emergency

text: During the war British and Commonwealth forces hired Iban (Dyak) headhunters from Borneo to decapitate suspected MNLA members, arguing that this was done so for identification purposes. Iban headhunters were also permitted by British military leaders to take the scalps of corpses to be kept as trophies. However in practice this led to British troops taking the decapitated heads of Malayan people as trophies. After the practice of headhunting in Malaya by Ibans had been exposed to the public, the Foreign Office first tried to deny that the practice existed, before then trying to justify Iban headhunting and conduct damage control in the press. Privately, the Colonial Office noted that "there is no doubt that under international law a similar case in wartime would be a war crime". One of the trophy heads was later found to have been displayed in a British regimental museum.


title: Malayan Emergency

text: In 1952, April, the British communist newspaper the "Daily Worker" (today known as the "Morning Star") published a photograph of British Royal Marines in a British military base in Malaya openly posing with decapitated human heads. Initially British government spokespersons belonging to the Admiralty and the Colonial Office claimed the photograph was fake. In response to the accusations that their headhunting photograph was fake, the "Daily Worker" released yet another photograph taken in Malaya showing British soldiers posing with a decapitated head. However, Colonial Secretary Oliver Lyttelton (after confirmation from Gerald Templer) confirmed to parliament that the photos were indeed genuine. In response to the "Daily Worker" articles exposing the decapitation of MNLA suspects, the practice was banned by Winston Churchill who feared that such photographs would give ammunition to communist propaganda.


title: Malayan Emergency

text: Despite the shocking imagery of the photographs of soldiers posing with decapitated heads in Malaya, the "Daily Worker" was the only newspaper to publish them and the photographs were virtually ignored by the mainstream British press.


title: Malayan Emergency

text: The conflicts in Malaya and Vietnam have often been compared, with historians asking how a British force of 35,000 succeeded to quell a communist insurgency in Malaya, while over half a million U.S. and allied soldiers failed in the comparably sized Vietnam. The two conflicts differ in the following ways:


title: Malayan Emergency

text: The United States in Vietnam were highly influenced by Britain's military strategies during the Malayan Emergency and the two wars shared many similarities. Some examples are listed below.


title: Malayan Emergency

text: The Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation of 1963–66 arose from tensions between Indonesia and the new British backed Federation of Malaysia that was conceived in the aftermath of the Malayan Emergency.


title: Malayan Emergency

text: In the late 1960s, the coverage of the My Lai massacre during the Vietnam War prompted the initiation of investigations in the UK concerning war crimes perpetrated by British forces during the Emergency, such as the Batang Kali massacre. No charges have yet been brought against the British forces involved and the claims have been repeatedly dismissed by the British government as propaganda, despite evidence suggestive of a cover-up.


title: Malayan Emergency

text: Following the end of the Malayan Emergency in 1960, the predominantly ethnic Chinese Malayan National Liberation Army, the armed wing of the MCP, retreated to the Malaysian-Thailand border where it regrouped and retrained for future offensives against the Malaysian government. A new phase of communist insurgency began in 1968. It was triggered when the MCP ambushed security forces in Kroh–Betong, in the northern part of Peninsular Malaysia, on 17 June 1968. The new conflict coincided with renewed tensions between ethnic Malays and Chinese following the 13 May Incident of 1969, and the ongoing conflict of the Vietnam War.


title: Malayan Emergency

text: Communist leader Chin Peng spent much of the 1990s and early 2000s working to promote his perspective of the Emergency. In a collaboration with Australian academics, he met with historians and former Commonwealth military personnel at a series of meetings which led to the publication of "Dialogues with Chin Peng: New Light on the Malayan Communist Party." Peng also travelled to England and teamed up with conservative journalist Ian Ward and his wife Norma Miraflor to write his autobiography "Alias Chin Peng: My Side of History".


title: Malayan Emergency

text: Many colonial documents, possibly relating to British atrocities in Malaya, were either destroyed or hidden by the British colonial authorities as a part of Operation Legacy. Traces of these documents were rediscovered during a legal battle in 2011 involving the victims of rape and torture by the British military during the Mau Mau Uprising.


title: Malayan Emergency

text: In popular Malaysian culture, the Emergency has frequently been portrayed as a primarily Malay struggle against the Communists. This perception has been criticised by some, such as Information Minister Zainuddin Maidin, for not recognising Chinese and Indian efforts.


title: Babylonian captivity

text: The Babylonian captivity or Babylonian exile is the period in Jewish history during which a large number of Judeans from the ancient Kingdom of Judah were captives in Babylon, the capital city of the Neo-Babylonian Empire, following their defeat in the Jewish–Babylonian War and the destruction of Solomon's Temple in Jerusalem. The event is described in the Hebrew Bible, and its historicity is supported by archaeological and extra-biblical evidence.


title: Babylonian captivity

text: After the Battle of Carchemish in 605 BCE, the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar II besieged Jerusalem, which resulted in tribute being paid by the Judean king Jehoiakim. In the fourth year of Nebuchadnezzar II's reign, Jehoiakim refused to pay further tribute, which led to another siege of the city in Nebuchadnezzar II's seventh year (598/597 BCE) that culminated in the death of Jehoiakim and the exile to Babylonia of his successor Jeconiah, his court, and many others; Jeconiah's successor Zedekiah and others were exiled when Nebuchadnezzar II destroyed Jerusalem in his 18th year (587 BCE), and a later deportation occurred in Nebuchadnezzar II's 23rd year (582 BCE). However, the dates, numbers of deportations, and numbers of deportees vary in the several biblical accounts.


title: Babylonian captivity

text: After the fall of the Neo-Babylonian Empire to the Achaemenid Persian Empire and its founding king Cyrus the Great at the Battle of Opis in 539 BCE, exiled Judeans were permitted by the Persians to return to Judah. According to the biblical Book of Ezra, construction of the Second Temple in Jerusalem began in in the new Persian province of Yehud Medinata. All of these events are considered significant to the developed history and culture of the Jewish people, and ultimately had a far-reaching impact on the development of Judaism.


title: Babylonian captivity

text: Archaeological studies have revealed that, although the city of Jerusalem was utterly destroyed, other parts of Judah continued to be inhabited during the period of the exile. Most of the exiled did not return to their homeland, instead travelling westward and northward. Many settled in what is now northern Israel, Lebanon, and Syria. The Iraqi Jewish, Persian Jewish, Georgian Jewish, and Bukharan Jewish communities are believed to derive their ancestry in large part from these exiles; these communities have now largely immigrated to Israel.


title: Babylonian captivity

text: In the late 7th century BCE, the Kingdom of Judah was a client state of the Assyrian empire. In the last decades of the century, Assyria was overthrown by Babylon, an Assyrian province. Egypt, fearing the sudden rise of the Neo-Babylonian empire, seized control of Assyrian territory up to the Euphrates river in Syria, but Babylon counter-attacked. In the process Josiah, the king of Judah, was killed in a battle with the Egyptians at the Battle of Megiddo (609 BCE).


title: Babylonian captivity

text: After the defeat of Pharaoh Necho's army by the Babylonians at Carchemish in 605 BCE, Jehoiakim began paying tribute to Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylon. Some of the young nobility of Judah were taken to Babylon.


title: Babylonian captivity

text: In the following years, the court of Jerusalem was divided into two parties, one supporting Egypt, the other Babylon. After Nebuchadnezzar was defeated in battle in 601 BCE by Egypt, Judah revolted against Babylon, culminating in a three-month siege of Jerusalem beginning in late 598 BCE. Jehoiakim, the king of Judah, died during the siege and was succeeded by his son Jehoiachin (also called Jeconiah) at the age of eighteen. The city fell on 2 Adar (March 16) 597 BCE, and Nebuchadnezzar pillaged Jerusalem and its Temple and took Jeconiah, his court and other prominent citizens (including the prophet Ezekiel) back to Babylon. Jehoiakim's uncle Zedekiah was appointed king in his place, but the exiles in Babylon continued to consider Jeconiah as their Exilarch, or rightful ruler.


title: Babylonian captivity

text: Despite warnings by Jeremiah and others of the pro-Babylonian party, Zedekiah revolted against Babylon and entered into an alliance with Pharaoh Hophra. Nebuchadnezzar returned, defeated the Egyptians, and again besieged Jerusalem, resulting in the city's destruction in 587 BCE. Nebuchadnezzar destroyed the city wall and the Temple, together with the houses of the most important citizens. Zedekiah and his sons were captured and the sons were executed in front of Zedekiah, who was then blinded and taken to Babylon with many others (Jer 52:10–11). Judah became a Babylonian province, called Yehud, putting an end to the independent Kingdom of Judah (Because of the missing years in the Jewish calendar, rabbinic sources place the date of the destruction of the First Temple at 3338 AM (423 BCE) or 3358 AM (403 BCE)).


title: Babylonian captivity

text: The first governor appointed by Babylon was Gedaliah, a native Judahite; he encouraged the many Jews who had fled to surrounding countries such as Moab, Ammon and Edom to return, and he took steps to return the country to prosperity. Some time later, a surviving member of the royal family assassinated Gedaliah and his Babylonian advisors, prompting many refugees to seek safety in Egypt. By the end of the second decade of the 6th century, in addition to those who remained in Judah, there were significant Jewish communities in Babylon and in Egypt; this was the beginning of the later numerous Jewish communities living permanently outside Judah in the Jewish Diaspora.


title: Babylonian captivity

text: According to the book of Ezra, the Persian Cyrus the Great ended the exile in 538 BCE, the year after he captured Babylon. The exile ended with the return under Zerubbabel the Prince (so-called because he was a descendant of the royal line of David) and Joshua the Priest (a descendant of the line of the former High Priests of the Temple) and their construction of the Second Temple in the period 521–516 BCE.


title: Babylonian captivity

text: Nebuchadnezzar's siege of Jerusalem, his capture of King Jeconiah, his appointment of Zedekiah in his place, and the plundering of the city in 597 BCE are corroborated by a passage in the Babylonian Chronicles:In the seventh year, in the month of Kislev, the king of Akkad mustered his troops, marched to the Hatti-land, and encamped against the City of Judah and on the ninth day of the month of Adar he seized the city and captured the king. He appointed there a king of his own choice and taking heavy tribute brought it back to Babylon.


title: Babylonian captivity

text: Jehoiachin's Rations Tablets, describing ration orders for a captive King of Judah, identified with King Jeconiah, have been discovered during excavations in Babylon, in the royal archives of Nebuchadnezzar. One of the tablets refers to food rations for "Ya’u-kīnu, king of the land of Yahudu" and five royal princes, his sons.


title: Babylonian captivity

text: Nebuchadnezzar and the Babylonian forces returned in 589 BCE and rampaged through Judah, leaving clear archaeological evidence of destruction in many towns and settlements there. Clay ostraca from this period, referred to as the Lachish letters, were discovered during excavations; one, which was probably written to the commander at Lachish from an outlying base, describes how the signal fires from nearby towns were disappearing: "And may (my lord) be apprised that we are watching for the fire signals of Lachish according to all the signs which my lord has given, because we cannot see Azeqah." Archaeological finds from Jerusalem testify that virtually the whole city within the walls was burnt to rubble in 587 BCE and utterly destroyed.


title: Babylonian captivity

text: Archaeological excavations and surveys have enabled the population of Judah before the Babylonian destruction to be calculated with a high degree of confidence to have been approximately 75,000. Taking the different biblical numbers of exiles at their highest, 20,000, this would mean that only about 25% of the population had been deported to Babylon, with the remaining 75% staying in Judah. Although Jerusalem was destroyed and depopulated, with large parts of the city remaining in ruins for 150 years, numerous other settlements in Judah continued to be inhabited, with no signs of disruption visible in archaeological studies.


title: Babylonian captivity

text: Archaeologist Avraham Faust states that between the deportations and executions caused by the Babylonians, plus the famines and epidemics that occurred during the war, the population of Judah was reduced to barely a 10% of what it had been in the time before deportations.