title: Binary search algorithm

text: In computer science, binary search, also known as half-interval search, logarithmic search, or binary chop, is a search algorithm that finds the position of a target value within a sorted array. Binary search compares the target value to the middle element of the array. If they are not equal, the half in which the target cannot lie is eliminated and the search continues on the remaining half, again taking the middle element to compare to the target value, and repeating this until the target value is found. If the search ends with the remaining half being empty, the target is not in the array.


title: Binary search algorithm

text: Binary search runs in logarithmic time in the worst case, making formula_1 comparisons, where formula_2 is the number of elements in the array. Binary search is faster than linear search except for small arrays. However, the array must be sorted first to be able to apply binary search. There are specialized data structures designed for fast searching, such as hash tables, that can be searched more efficiently than binary search. However, binary search can be used to solve a wider range of problems, such as finding the next-smallest or next-largest element in the array relative to the target even if it is absent from the array.


title: Binary search algorithm

text: There are numerous variations of binary search. In particular, fractional cascading speeds up binary searches for the same value in multiple arrays. Fractional cascading efficiently solves a number of search problems in computational geometry and in numerous other fields. Exponential search extends binary search to unbounded lists. The binary search tree and B-tree data structures are based on binary search.


title: Binary search algorithm

text: Binary search works on sorted arrays. Binary search begins by comparing an element in the middle of the array with the target value. If the target value matches the element, its position in the array is returned. If the target value is less than the element, the search continues in the lower half of the array. If the target value is greater than the element, the search continues in the upper half of the array. By doing this, the algorithm eliminates the half in which the target value cannot lie in each iteration.


title: Binary search algorithm

text: Given an array formula_3 of formula_2 elements with values or records formula_5sorted such that formula_6, and target value formula_7, the following subroutine uses binary search to find the index of formula_7 in formula_3.


title: Binary search algorithm

text: This iterative procedure keeps track of the search boundaries with the two variables formula_10 and formula_12. The procedure may be expressed in pseudocode as follows, where the variable names and types remain the same as above, codice_1 is the floor function, and codice_2 refers to a specific value that conveys the failure of the search.


title: Binary search algorithm

text: Alternatively, the algorithm may take the ceiling of formula_16. This may change the result if the target value appears more than once in the array.


title: Binary search algorithm

text: In the above procedure, the algorithm checks whether the middle element (formula_15) is equal to the target (formula_7) in every iteration. Some implementations leave out this check during each iteration. The algorithm would perform this check only when one element is left (when formula_31). This results in a faster comparison loop, as one comparison is eliminated per iteration, while it requires only one more iteration on average.


title: Binary search algorithm

text: The procedure may return any index whose element is equal to the target value, even if there are duplicate elements in the array. For example, if the array to be searched was formula_49 and the target was formula_50, then it would be correct for the algorithm to either return the 4th (index 3) or 5th (index 4) element. The regular procedure would return the 4th element (index 3) in this case. It does not always return the first duplicate (consider formula_51 which still returns the 4th element). However, it is sometimes necessary to find the leftmost element or the rightmost element for a target value that is duplicated in the array. In the above example, the 4th element is the leftmost element of the value 4, while the 5th element is the rightmost element of the value 4. The alternative procedure above will always return the index of the rightmost element if such an element exists.


title: Binary search algorithm

text: If formula_67 and formula_68, then formula_69 is the leftmost element that equals formula_7. Even if formula_7 is not in the array, formula_10 is the rank of formula_7 in the array, or the number of elements in the array that are less than formula_7.


title: Binary search algorithm

text: If formula_90 and formula_91, then formula_92 is the rightmost element that equals formula_7. Even if "formula_7" is not in the array, formula_95 is the number of elements in the array that are greater than "formula_7".


title: Binary search algorithm

text: The above procedure only performs "exact" matches, finding the position of a target value. However, it is trivial to extend binary search to perform approximate matches because binary search operates on sorted arrays. For example, binary search can be used to compute, for a given value, its rank (the number of smaller elements), predecessor (next-smallest element), successor (next-largest element), and nearest neighbor. Range queries seeking the number of elements between two values can be performed with two rank queries.


title: Binary search algorithm

text: In terms of the number of comparisons, the performance of binary search can be analyzed by viewing the run of the procedure on a binary tree. The root node of the tree is the middle element of the array. The middle element of the lower half is the left child node of the root, and the middle element of the upper half is the right child node of the root. The rest of the tree is built in a similar fashion. Starting from the root node, the left or right subtrees are traversed depending on whether the target value is less or more than the node under consideration.


title: Binary search algorithm

text: In the worst case, binary search makes formula_101 iterations of the comparison loop, where the formula_102 notation denotes the floor function that yields the greatest integer less than or equal to the argument, and formula_103 is the binary logarithm. This is because the worst case is reached when the search reaches the deepest level of the tree, and there are always formula_101 levels in the tree for any binary search.


title: Binary search algorithm

text: The worst case may also be reached when the target element is not in the array. If formula_105 is one less than a power of two, then this is always the case. Otherwise, the search may perform formula_101iterations if the search reaches the deepest level of the tree. However, it may make formula_107 iterations, which is one less than the worst case, if the search ends at the second-deepest level of the tree.


title: Binary search algorithm

text: On average, assuming that each element is equally likely to be searched, binary search makes formula_108 iterations when the target element is in the array. This is approximately equal to formula_109 iterations. When the target element is not in the array, binary search makes formula_110 iterations on average, assuming that the range between and outside elements is equally likely to be searched.


title: Binary search algorithm

text: In the best case, where the target value is the middle element of the array, its position is returned after one iteration.


title: Binary search algorithm

text: In terms of iterations, no search algorithm that works only by comparing elements can exhibit better average and worst-case performance than binary search. The comparison tree representing binary search has the fewest levels possible as every level above the lowest level of the tree is filled completely. Otherwise, the search algorithm can eliminate few elements in an iteration, increasing the number of iterations required in the average and worst case. This is the case for other search algorithms based on comparisons, as while they may work faster on some target values, the average performance over "all" elements is worse than binary search. By dividing the array in half, binary search ensures that the size of both subarrays are as similar as possible.


title: Binary search algorithm

text: Binary search requires three pointers to elements, which may be array indices or pointers to memory locations, regardless of the size of the array. Therefore, the space complexity of binary search is formula_111 in the word RAM model of computation.


title: Binary search algorithm

text: The average number of iterations performed by binary search depends on the probability of each element being searched. The average case is different for successful searches and unsuccessful searches. It will be assumed that each element is equally likely to be searched for successful searches. For unsuccessful searches, it will be assumed that the intervals between and outside elements are equally likely to be searched. The average case for successful searches is the number of iterations required to search every element exactly once, divided by formula_2, the number of elements. The average case for unsuccessful searches is the number of iterations required to search an element within every interval exactly once, divided by the formula_113 intervals.


title: Binary search algorithm

text: In the binary tree representation, a successful search can be represented by a path from the root to the target node, called an "internal path". The length of a path is the number of edges (connections between nodes) that the path passes through. The number of iterations performed by a search, given that the corresponding path has length formula_114, is formula_115 counting the initial iteration. The "internal path length" is the sum of the lengths of all unique internal paths. Since there is only one path from the root to any single node, each internal path represents a search for a specific element. If there are formula_2 elements, which is a positive integer, and the internal path length is formula_117, then the average number of iterations for a successful search formula_118, with the one iteration added to count the initial iteration.


title: Binary search algorithm

text: Since binary search is the optimal algorithm for searching with comparisons, this problem is reduced to calculating the minimum internal path length of all binary trees with formula_2 nodes, which is equal to:


title: Binary search algorithm

text: For example, in a 7-element array, the root requires one iteration, the two elements below the root require two iterations, and the four elements below require three iterations. In this case, the internal path length is:


title: Binary search algorithm

text: The average number of iterations would be formula_122 based on the equation for the average case. The sum for formula_117 can be simplified to:


title: Binary search algorithm

text: For integer formula_2, this is equivalent to the equation for the average case on a successful search specified above.


title: Binary search algorithm

text: Unsuccessful searches can be represented by augmenting the tree with "external nodes", which forms an "extended binary tree". If an internal node, or a node present in the tree, has fewer than two child nodes, then additional child nodes, called external nodes, are added so that each internal node has two children. By doing so, an unsuccessful search can be represented as a path to an external node, whose parent is the single element that remains during the last iteration. An "external path" is a path from the root to an external node. The "external path length" is the sum of the lengths of all unique external paths. If there are formula_2 elements, which is a positive integer, and the external path length is formula_130, then the average number of iterations for an unsuccessful search formula_131, with the one iteration added to count the initial iteration. The external path length is divided by formula_132 instead of formula_2 because there are formula_132 external paths, representing the intervals between and outside the elements of the array.


title: Binary search algorithm

text: This problem can similarly be reduced to determining the minimum external path length of all binary trees with formula_2 nodes. For all binary trees, the external path length is equal to the internal path length plus formula_136. Substituting the equation for formula_117:


title: Binary search algorithm

text: Substituting the equation for formula_130 into the equation for formula_140, the average case for unsuccessful searches can be determined:


title: Binary search algorithm

text: Each iteration of the binary search procedure defined above makes one or two comparisons, checking if the middle element is equal to the target in each iteration. Assuming that each element is equally likely to be searched, each iteration makes 1.5 comparisons on average. A variation of the algorithm checks whether the middle element is equal to the target at the end of the search. On average, this eliminates half a comparison from each iteration. This slightly cuts the time taken per iteration on most computers. However, it guarantees that the search takes the maximum number of iterations, on average adding one iteration to the search. Because the comparison loop is performed only formula_101 times in the worst case, the slight increase in efficiency per iteration does not compensate for the extra iteration for all but very large formula_105.


title: Binary search algorithm

text: In analyzing the performance of binary search, another consideration is the time required to compare two elements. For integers and strings, the time required increases linearly as the encoding length (usually the number of bits) of the elements increase. For example, comparing a pair of 64-bit unsigned integers would require comparing up to double the bits as comparing a pair of 32-bit unsigned integers. The worst case is achieved when the integers are equal. This can be significant when the encoding lengths of the elements are large, such as with large integer types or long strings, which makes comparing elements expensive. Furthermore, comparing floating-point values (the most common digital representation of real numbers) is often more expensive than comparing integers or short strings.


title: Binary search algorithm

text: On most computer architectures, the processor has a hardware cache separate from RAM. Since they are located within the processor itself, caches are much faster to access but usually store much less data than RAM. Therefore, most processors store memory locations that have been accessed recently, along with memory locations close to it. For example, when an array element is accessed, the element itself may be stored along with the elements that are stored close to it in RAM, making it faster to sequentially access array elements that are close in index to each other (locality of reference). On a sorted array, binary search can jump to distant memory locations if the array is large, unlike algorithms (such as linear search and linear probing in hash tables) which access elements in sequence. This adds slightly to the running time of binary search for large arrays on most systems.


title: Binary search algorithm

text: Sorted arrays with binary search are a very inefficient solution when insertion and deletion operations are interleaved with retrieval, taking formula_144 time for each such operation. In addition, sorted arrays can complicate memory use especially when elements are often inserted into the array. There are other data structures that support much more efficient insertion and deletion. Binary search can be used to perform exact matching and set membership (determining whether a target value is in a collection of values). There are data structures that support faster exact matching and set membership. However, unlike many other searching schemes, binary search can be used for efficient approximate matching, usually performing such matches in formula_145 time regardless of the type or structure of the values themselves. In addition, there are some operations, like finding the smallest and largest element, that can be performed efficiently on a sorted array.


title: Binary search algorithm

text: Linear search is a simple search algorithm that checks every record until it finds the target value. Linear search can be done on a linked list, which allows for faster insertion and deletion than an array. Binary search is faster than linear search for sorted arrays except if the array is short, although the array needs to be sorted beforehand. All sorting algorithms based on comparing elements, such as quicksort and merge sort, require at least formula_146 comparisons in the worst case. Unlike linear search, binary search can be used for efficient approximate matching. There are operations such as finding the smallest and largest element that can be done efficiently on a sorted array but not on an unsorted array.


title: Binary search algorithm

text: A binary search tree is a binary tree data structure that works based on the principle of binary search. The records of the tree are arranged in sorted order, and each record in the tree can be searched using an algorithm similar to binary search, taking on average logarithmic time. Insertion and deletion also require on average logarithmic time in binary search trees. This can be faster than the linear time insertion and deletion of sorted arrays, and binary trees retain the ability to perform all the operations possible on a sorted array, including range and approximate queries.


title: Binary search algorithm

text: However, binary search is usually more efficient for searching as binary search trees will most likely be imperfectly balanced, resulting in slightly worse performance than binary search. This even applies to balanced binary search trees, binary search trees that balance their own nodes, because they rarely produce the tree with the fewest possible levels. Except for balanced binary search trees, the tree may be severely imbalanced with few internal nodes with two children, resulting in the average and worst-case search time approaching formula_105 comparisons. Binary search trees take more space than sorted arrays.


title: Binary search algorithm

text: Binary search trees lend themselves to fast searching in external memory stored in hard disks, as binary search trees can be efficiently structured in filesystems. The B-tree generalizes this method of tree organization. B-trees are frequently used to organize long-term storage such as databases and filesystems.


title: Binary search algorithm

text: For implementing associative arrays, hash tables, a data structure that maps keys to records using a hash function, are generally faster than binary search on a sorted array of records. Most hash table implementations require only amortized constant time on average. However, hashing is not useful for approximate matches, such as computing the next-smallest, next-largest, and nearest key, as the only information given on a failed search is that the target is not present in any record. Binary search is ideal for such matches, performing them in logarithmic time. Binary search also supports approximate matches. Some operations, like finding the smallest and largest element, can be done efficiently on sorted arrays but not on hash tables.


title: Binary search algorithm

text: A related problem to search is set membership. Any algorithm that does lookup, like binary search, can also be used for set membership. There are other algorithms that are more specifically suited for set membership. A bit array is the simplest, useful when the range of keys is limited. It compactly stores a collection of bits, with each bit representing a single key within the range of keys. Bit arrays are very fast, requiring only formula_148 time. The Judy1 type of Judy array handles 64-bit keys efficiently.


title: Binary search algorithm

text: For approximate results, Bloom filters, another probabilistic data structure based on hashing, store a set of keys by encoding the keys using a bit array and multiple hash functions. Bloom filters are much more space-efficient than bit arrays in most cases and not much slower: with formula_149 hash functions, membership queries require only formula_150 time. However, Bloom filters suffer from false positives.


title: Binary search algorithm

text: There exist data structures that may improve on binary search in some cases for both searching and other operations available for sorted arrays. For example, searches, approximate matches, and the operations available to sorted arrays can be performed more efficiently than binary search on specialized data structures such as van Emde Boas trees, fusion trees, tries, and bit arrays. These specialized data structures are usually only faster because they take advantage of the properties of keys with a certain attribute (usually keys that are small integers), and thus will be time or space consuming for keys that lack that attribute. As long as the keys can be ordered, these operations can always be done at least efficiently on a sorted array regardless of the keys. Some structures, such as Judy arrays, use a combination of approaches to mitigate this while retaining efficiency and the ability to perform approximate matching.


title: Binary search algorithm

text: Uniform binary search stores, instead of the lower and upper bounds, the difference in the index of the middle element from the current iteration to the next iteration. A lookup table containing the differences is computed beforehand. For example, if the array to be searched is , the middle element (formula_15) would be . In this case, the middle element of the left subarray () is and the middle element of the right subarray () is . Uniform binary search would store the value of as both indices differ from by this same amount. To reduce the search space, the algorithm either adds or subtracts this change from the index of the middle element. Uniform binary search may be faster on systems where it is inefficient to calculate the midpoint, such as on decimal computers.


title: Binary search algorithm

text: Exponential search extends binary search to unbounded lists. It starts by finding the first element with an index that is both a power of two and greater than the target value. Afterwards, it sets that index as the upper bound, and switches to binary search. A search takes formula_152 iterations before binary search is started and at most formula_153 iterations of the binary search, where formula_154 is the position of the target value. Exponential search works on bounded lists, but becomes an improvement over binary search only if the target value lies near the beginning of the array.


title: Binary search algorithm

text: Instead of calculating the midpoint, interpolation search estimates the position of the target value, taking into account the lowest and highest elements in the array as well as length of the array. It works on the basis that the midpoint is not the best guess in many cases. For example, if the target value is close to the highest element in the array, it is likely to be located near the end of the array.


title: Binary search algorithm

text: A common interpolation function is linear interpolation. If formula_3 is the array, formula_156 are the lower and upper bounds respectively, and formula_7 is the target, then the target is estimated to be about formula_158 of the way between formula_10 and formula_12. When linear interpolation is used, and the distribution of the array elements is uniform or near uniform, interpolation search makes formula_161 comparisons.


title: Binary search algorithm

text: In practice, interpolation search is slower than binary search for small arrays, as interpolation search requires extra computation. Its time complexity grows more slowly than binary search, but this only compensates for the extra computation for large arrays.


title: Binary search algorithm

text: Fractional cascading is a technique that speeds up binary searches for the same element in multiple sorted arrays. Searching each array separately requires formula_162 time, where formula_149 is the number of arrays. Fractional cascading reduces this to formula_164 by storing specific information in each array about each element and its position in the other arrays.


title: Binary search algorithm

text: Fractional cascading was originally developed to efficiently solve various computational geometry problems. Fractional cascading has been applied elsewhere, such as in data mining and Internet Protocol routing.


title: Binary search algorithm

text: Binary search has been generalized to work on certain types of graphs, where the target value is stored in a vertex instead of an array element. Binary search trees are one such generalization—when a vertex (node) in the tree is queried, the algorithm either learns that the vertex is the target, or otherwise which subtree the target would be located in. However, this can be further generalized as follows: given an undirected, positively weighted graph and a target vertex, the algorithm learns upon querying a vertex that it is equal to the target, or it is given an incident edge that is on the shortest path from the queried vertex to the target. The standard binary search algorithm is simply the case where the graph is a path. Similarly, binary search trees are the case where the edges to the left or right subtrees are given when the queried vertex is unequal to the target. For all undirected, positively weighted graphs, there is an algorithm that finds the target vertex in formula_1 queries in the worst case.


title: Binary search algorithm

text: Noisy binary search algorithms solve the case where the algorithm cannot reliably compare elements of the array. For each pair of elements, there is a certain probability that the algorithm makes the wrong comparison. Noisy binary search can find the correct position of the target with a given probability that controls the reliability of the yielded position. Every noisy binary search procedure must make at least formula_166 comparisons on average, where formula_167 is the binary entropy function and formula_168 is the probability that the procedure yields the wrong position. The noisy binary search problem can be considered as a case of the Rényi-Ulam game, a variant of Twenty Questions where the answers may be wrong.


title: Binary search algorithm

text: Classical computers are bounded to the worst case of exactly formula_169 iterations when performing binary search. Quantum algorithms for binary search are still bounded to a proportion of formula_170 queries (representing iterations of the classical procedure), but the constant factor is less than one, providing for a lower time complexity on quantum computers. Any "exact" quantum binary search procedure—that is, a procedure that always yields the correct result—requires at least formula_171 queries in the worst case, where formula_172 is the natural logarithm. There is an exact quantum binary search procedure that runs in formula_173 queries in the worst case. In comparison, Grover's algorithm is the optimal quantum algorithm for searching an unordered list of elements, and it requires formula_174 queries.


title: Binary search algorithm

text: The idea of sorting a list of items to allow for faster searching dates back to antiquity. The earliest known example was the Inakibit-Anu tablet from Babylon dating back to . The tablet contained about 500 sexagesimal numbers and their reciprocals sorted in lexicographical order, which made searching for a specific entry easier. In addition, several lists of names that were sorted by their first letter were discovered on the Aegean Islands. "Catholicon", a Latin dictionary finished in 1286 CE, was the first work to describe rules for sorting words into alphabetical order, as opposed to just the first few letters.


title: Binary search algorithm

text: In 1934, John Mauchly made the first mention of binary search as part of the Moore School Lectures, a seminal and foundational college course in computing. In 1957, William Wesley Peterson published the first method for interpolation search. Every published binary search algorithm worked only for arrays whose length is one less than a power of two until 1960, when Derrick Henry Lehmer published a binary search algorithm that worked on all arrays. In 1962, Hermann Bottenbruch presented an ALGOL 60 implementation of binary search that placed the comparison for equality at the end, increasing the average number of iterations by one, but reducing to one the number of comparisons per iteration. The uniform binary search was developed by A. K. Chandra of Stanford University in 1971. In 1986, Bernard Chazelle and Leonidas J. Guibas introduced fractional cascading as a method to solve numerous search problems in computational geometry.


title: Binary search algorithm

text: When Jon Bentley assigned binary search as a problem in a course for professional programmers, he found that ninety percent failed to provide a correct solution after several hours of working on it, mainly because the incorrect implementations failed to run or returned a wrong answer in rare edge cases. A study published in 1988 shows that accurate code for it is only found in five out of twenty textbooks. Furthermore, Bentley's own implementation of binary search, published in his 1986 book "Programming Pearls", contained an overflow error that remained undetected for over twenty years. The Java programming language library implementation of binary search had the same overflow bug for more than nine years.


title: Binary search algorithm

text: In a practical implementation, the variables used to represent the indices will often be of fixed size (integers), and this can result in an arithmetic overflow for very large arrays. If the midpoint of the span is calculated as formula_16, then the value of formula_176 may exceed the range of integers of the data type used to store the midpoint, even if formula_10 and formula_12 are within the range. If "formula_10" and "formula_12" are nonnegative, this can be avoided by calculating the midpoint as formula_181.


title: Binary search algorithm

text: An infinite loop may occur if the exit conditions for the loop are not defined correctly. Once "formula_10" exceeds "formula_12", the search has failed and must convey the failure of the search. In addition, the loop must be exited when the target element is found, or in the case of an implementation where this check is moved to the end, checks for whether the search was successful or failed at the end must be in place. Bentley found that most of the programmers who incorrectly implemented binary search made an error in defining the exit conditions.


title: Fatty liver disease

text: Fatty liver disease (FLD), also known as hepatic steatosis, is a condition where excess fat builds up in the liver. Often there are no or few symptoms. Occasionally there may be tiredness or pain in the upper right side of the abdomen. Complications may include cirrhosis, liver cancer, and esophageal varices.


title: Fatty liver disease

text: There are two types of fatty liver disease: non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) and alcoholic liver disease. NAFLD is made up of simple fatty liver and non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH). The primary risks include alcohol, type 2 diabetes, and obesity. Other risk factors include certain medications such as glucocorticoids, and hepatitis C. It is unclear why some people with NAFLD develop simple fatty liver and others develop NASH. Diagnosis is based on the medical history supported by blood tests, medical imaging, and occasionally liver biopsy.


title: Fatty liver disease

text: Treatment of NAFLD is generally by dietary changes and exercise to bring about weight loss. In those who are severely affected, liver transplantation may be an option. More than 90% of heavy drinkers develop fatty liver while about 25% develop the more severe alcoholic hepatitis. NAFLD affects about 30% of people in Western countries and 10% of people in Asia. NAFLD affects about 10% of children in the United States. It occurs more often in older people and males.


title: Fatty liver disease

text: Often there are no or few symptoms. Occasionally there may be tiredness or pain in the upper right side of the abdomen.


title: Fatty liver disease

text: Fatty liver can develop into a fibrosis or a liver cancer. For people affected by NAFLD, the 10-year survival rate was about 80%. The rate of progression of fibrosis is estimated to be one per 7 years in NASH and one per 14 years in NAFLD, with an increasing speed. There is a strong relationship between these pathologies and metabolic illnesses (diabetes type II, metabolic syndrome). These pathologies can also affect non-obese people, who are then at a higher risk.


title: Fatty liver disease

text: Less than 10% of people with cirrhotic alcoholic FLD will develop hepatocellular carcinoma, the most common type of primary liver cancer in adults, but up to 45% people with NASH without cirrhosis can develop hepatocellular carcinoma.


title: Fatty liver disease

text: Fatty liver (FL) is commonly associated with metabolic syndrome (diabetes, hypertension, obesity, and dyslipidemia), but can also be due to any one of many causes:


title: Fatty liver disease

text: Fatty change represents the intracytoplasmatic accumulation of triglycerides (neutral fats). At the beginning, the hepatocytes present small fat vacuoles (liposomes) around the nucleus (microvesicular fatty change). In this stage, liver cells are filled with multiple fat droplets that do not displace the centrally located nucleus. In the late stages, the size of the vacuoles increases, pushing the nucleus to the periphery of the cell, giving characteristic signet ring appearance (macrovesicular fatty change). These vesicles are well-delineated and optically "empty" because fats dissolve during tissue processing. Large vacuoles may coalesce and produce fatty cysts, which are irreversible lesions. Macrovesicular steatosis is the most common form and is typically associated with alcohol, diabetes, obesity, and corticosteroids. Acute fatty liver of pregnancy and Reye's syndrome are examples of severe liver disease caused by microvesicular fatty change. The diagnosis of steatosis is made when fat in the liver exceeds 5–10% by weight.


title: Fatty liver disease

text: Defects in fatty acid metabolism are responsible for pathogenesis of FLD, which may be due to imbalance in energy consumption and its combustion, resulting in lipid storage, or can be a consequence of peripheral resistance to insulin, whereby the transport of fatty acids from adipose tissue to the liver is increased.


title: Fatty liver disease

text: Impairment or inhibition of receptor molecules (PPAR-α, PPAR-γ and SREBP1) that control the enzymes responsible for the oxidation and synthesis of fatty acids appears to contribute to fat accumulation. In addition, alcohol use disorder is known to damage mitochondria and other cellular structures, further impairing cellular energy mechanism. On the other hand, non-alcoholic FLD may begin as excess of unmetabolised energy in liver cells. Hepatic steatosis is considered reversible and to some extent nonprogressive if the underlying cause is reduced or removed.


title: Fatty liver disease

text: Severe fatty liver is sometimes accompanied by inflammation, a situation referred to as steatohepatitis. Progression to alcoholic steatohepatitis (ASH) or non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) depends on the persistence or severity of the inciting cause. Pathological lesions in both conditions are similar. However, the extent of inflammatory response varies widely and does not always correlate with degree of fat accumulation. Steatosis (retention of lipid) and onset of steatohepatitis may represent successive stages in FLD progression.


title: Fatty liver disease

text: Liver disease with extensive inflammation and a high degree of steatosis often progresses to more severe forms of the disease. Hepatocyte ballooning and necrosis of varying degrees are often present at this stage. Liver cell death and inflammatory responses lead to the activation of hepatic stellate cells, which play a pivotal role in hepatic fibrosis. The extent of fibrosis varies widely. Perisinusoidal fibrosis is most common, especially in adults, and predominates in zone 3 around the terminal hepatic veins.


title: Fatty liver disease

text: The progression to cirrhosis may be influenced by the amount of fat and degree of steatohepatitis and by a variety of other sensitizing factors. In alcoholic FLD, the transition to cirrhosis related to continued alcohol consumption is well-documented, but the process involved in non-alcoholic FLD is less clear.


title: Fatty liver disease

text: Most individuals are asymptomatic and are usually discovered incidentally because of abnormal liver function tests or hepatomegaly noted in unrelated medical conditions. Elevated liver enzymes are found in 50% of patients with simple steatosis. The serum alanine transaminase (ALT) level usually is greater than the aspartate transaminase (AST) level in the nonalcoholic variant and the opposite in alcoholic FLD (AST:ALT more than 2:1). Simple blood test may help to determine the magnitude of the disease by assessing the degree of liver fibrosis. For example, AST-to-platelets ratio index (APRI score) and several other score, calculated from the results of blood test, can detect the degree of liver fibrosis and predict the future formation of liver cancer.


title: Fatty liver disease

text: Imaging studies are often obtained during the evaluation process. Ultrasonography reveals a "bright" liver with increased echogenicity. Medical imaging can aid in diagnosis of fatty liver; fatty livers have lower density than spleens on computed tomography (CT), and fat appears bright in T1-weighted magnetic resonance images (MRIs). Magnetic resonance elastography, a variant of magnetic resonance imaging, is investigated as a non-invasive method to diagnose fibrosis progression. Histological diagnosis by liver biopsy is the most accurate measure of fibrosis and liver fat progression as of 2018. Conventional imaging methods, such as ultrasound, CT and MRI, are not specific enough to detect fatty liver disease unless fat occupies at least 30% of the liver volume.


title: Fatty liver disease

text: Decreasing caloric intake by at least 30% or by approximately 750–1,000 kcal/day results in improvement in hepatic steatosis. For people with NAFLD or NASH, weight loss via a combination of diet and exercise was shown to improve or resolve the disease. In more serious cases, medications that decrease insulin resistance, hyperlipidemia, and those that induce weight loss such as bariatric surgery as well as Vitamin E have been shown to improve or resolve liver function.


title: Fatty liver disease

text: Bariatric surgery, while not recommended in 2017 as a treatment for fatty liver disease (FLD) alone, has been shown to revert FLD, NAFLD, NASH and advanced steatohepatitis in over 90% of people who have undergone this surgery for the treatment of obesity.


title: Fatty liver disease

text: In the case of long-term total parenteral nutrition induced fatty liver disease, choline has been shown to alleviate symptoms. This may be due to a deficiency in the methionine cycle.


title: Fatty liver disease

text: In the United States rates are around 35% with about 7% having the severe form NASH. NAFLD affects about 10% of children in the United States. Recently the term Metabolic dysfunction-associated fatty liver disease (MAFLD) has been proposed to replace NAFLD. MAFLD is a more inclusionary diagnostic name as it is based on the detection of fatty liver by histology (biopsy),medical imaging or blood biomarkers but should be accompanied by either overweight/obesity, type 2 diabetes mellitus, or metabolic dysregulation. The new definition no longer excludes alcohol consumption or coexistence of other liver diseases such as viral hepatitis. Using this more inclusive definition, the global prevalence of MAFLD is an astonishingly high 50.7%. Indeed, also using the old NAFLD definition, the disease is observed in up to 80% of obese people, 35% of whom progress to NASH, and in up to 20% of normal weight people, despite no evidence of excessive alcohol consumption. FLD is the most common cause of abnormal liver function tests in the United States. Fatty liver is more prevalent in Hispanic people than white, with black people having the lowest susceptibility.


title: Fatty liver disease

text: In the study of Children of the 90s, 2.5% born in 1991 and 1992 were found by ultrasound at the age of 18 to have non-alcoholic fatty liver disease; five years later transient elastography (fibroscan) found over 20% to have the fatty deposits on the liver, indicating non-alcoholic fatty liver disease; half of those were classified as severe. The scans also found that 2.4% had the liver scarring, which can lead to cirrhosis.


title: Fatty liver disease

text: After the lockdown of the COVID-19 pandemic, a study demonstrated that 48% of patients with liver steatosis gained weight, while 16% had a worsened steatosis grade. Weight gain was associated with poor adherence to the suggested diet, reduced levels of physical activity, and increased prevalence of PNPLA3 GG gene. PNPLA3 genes are already known risk factors for NAFLD.


title: Fatty liver disease

text: Fatty liver disease can occur in pets such as reptiles (particularly turtles) and birds as well as mammals like cats and dogs. The most common cause is overnutrition. A distinct sign in birds is a misshapen beak. Fatty livers can be induced via gavage in geese or ducks to produce foie gras. Fatty liver can also be induced in ruminants such as sheep by a high caloric diet.


title: Jeffree Star

text: Jeffree Star (born Jeffrey Lynn Steininger Jr., November 15, 1985) is an American YouTuber, makeup artist, and former singer-songwriter. He is the founder and owner of Jeffree Star Cosmetics.


title: Jeffree Star

text: In 2009, Star released a studio album, "Beauty Killer", which included songs such as "Lollipop Luxury" featuring Nicki Minaj. He embarked on several world tours to promote his music. In 2010, he signed to Konvict Muzik but abruptly left the music industry by 2013 citing legal issues the label’s owner faced between 2007 and 2010. In November 2014, Star founded the company Jeffree Star Cosmetics. In 2018, "Forbes" revealed that he had earned $18 million from his YouTube endeavors alone, making him the fifth-highest-paid YouTuber that year.


title: Jeffree Star

text: Jeffree Lynn Steininger Jr. was born in Los Angeles County, California, on November 15, 1985 and grew up in Orange County, California. He says that he began experimenting with his mother's makeup as a child, and convinced her to let him wear it to school when he was in junior high. Star attended Pacifica High School in Garden Grove, California, where he graduated in 2002. After high school, he legally changed his name to Jeffree Star and relocated to Los Angeles where he supported himself with various makeup, modeling, and music jobs. He recalls his early years, spending his weekends using a fake ID to attend Hollywood clubs, which is where celebrities would hire him as a personal makeup artist.


title: Jeffree Star

text: Star used MySpace to further both his music as well as fashion design career. Using MySpace like a blog, Star shared his personal life, while also providing social commentary on "self-image and confidence", fame and beauty. Due to his use of several websites, Star already had a built-up fan base who signed up to join him on MySpace, giving his profile a large number of friends from its inception. His MySpace photoshoots would frequently gain over 50,000 comments. He also gained fame as one of the most popular independent artists, with the daily rankings placing him in the top tier on MySpace.


title: Jeffree Star

text: Star's career as an electronica and pop vocalist began when he befriended Peaches' drummer Samantha Maloney, who encouraged him to make music. During the summer of 2007, he was advertised as a part of the True Colors Tour 2007, which traveled through 15 cities in the United States and Canada. The tour, sponsored by the LGBT Logo channel, began on June 8, 2007, to coincide with Pride month.


title: Jeffree Star

text: Star released his first and only studio album "Beauty Killer" in 2009, which peaked at number seven on the US "Billboard" Top Electronic Albums chart. The album included songs such as "Lollipop Luxury" featuring Nicki Minaj. He embarked on several world tours to promote his music. In 2010, he signed to Konvict Muzik—whose founder Akon described Star as "the next Lady Gaga"—with plans to release a second album. However, it was never released and Star abruptly left the music industry in 2013 under unclear circumstances. He later described signing to Akon's record label as "the biggest mistake I've ever made."


title: Jeffree Star

text: He appeared in the second version of Kesha's music video for her single "Take It Off" in 2010. Star has worked with several other musical performers, including Blood on the Dance Floor, Deuce, Millionaires, and Larry Tee.


title: Jeffree Star

text: Star's quarrels with other media personalities include conversations with tattoo artist Kat Von D, who accused Star of "drug use, racism, and bullying"; Tati Westbrook, who accused Star and Shane Dawson of forcing her to upload a video attacking fellow beauty YouTuber James Charles, whose brother, Ian Jeffrey, was also bullied by Star on Twitter; Kylie Jenner, whose products were criticized by Star; Kim Kardashian; and Jerrod Blandino, co-founder of Too Faced Cosmetics.


title: Jeffree Star

text: In 2010, Star called Blood on the Dance Floor member Dahvie Vanity, who was arrested in 2009 on sexual assault charges, a "child fucker", tweeting that he saw Vanity "bring underage girls to his hotel room [...] 100% ILLEGAL". Star had said he had witnessed Vanity's actions in 2012. Other tweets show Star telling people to "get over the negativity" against Vanity, and promoting a Blood on the Dance Floor album. He was accused of associating with Vanity despite knowing about sexual assault allegations to profit off Vanity's continued success. Following a "HuffPost" report detailing sexual assault – before and after 2010 – against 21 individuals (many of whom were minors), Chris Hansen of "To Catch a Predator" started covering the story. Speaking to Hansen on YouTube, Star said he had no knowledge of any inappropriate activity between Vanity and underage girls while they worked together, and that his tweets were based on hearsay.


title: Jeffree Star

text: In 2014, Star founded his e-commerce makeup brand, Jeffree Star Cosmetics. In a five-part docuseries by Shane Dawson, Star stated that the end of his music career had left him essentially bankrupt, and that he had used his remaining savings to start his makeup brand. Star began promoting the brand through videos published on YouTube, leading to the success of his YouTube channel, with 17.4 million subscribers and over 2.4 billion views as of October 2020. "Bustle" magazine described Star as "a musician and onetime MySpace celeb that reinvented himself in the YouTube makeup tutorial space." His first cosmetics release was a collection of velour liquid lipsticks, which were followed by highlighter palettes, lip scrubs, eyeshadow palettes, clothing, and accessories, such as mirrors and make up bags. The first East Coast location to carry the cosmetics line was a Morphe Cosmetics store at the Westfield Garden State Plaza in Paramus, New Jersey on August 11, 2018. Star has since launched several successful collections, such as the "Blue Blood" eyeshadow palette.


title: Jeffree Star

text: Star was in a relationship with Nathan Schwandt from 2015 to January 2020. Star claims to abstain from alcohol, despite previously tweeting about drinking vodka on multiple occasions. He also says that he avoids cigarettes and hard drugs, although he does smoke cannabis, which is legal in California, where Star used to live. In Wyoming, however, the state has some of the strictest cannabis laws in the United States.


title: Jeffree Star

text: Following a car accident in Wyoming on April 16, 2021, Star and his friend were both hospitalized. He broke his back and had several fractures on his spine.


title: Jeffree Star

text: Star was accused of racism due to derogatory remarks about minorities. He later apologized for the remarks. A satirical skit between Star and a drag queen was posted on MySpace, in which Star allegedly states he wants to throw battery acid on a black woman to lighten her skin so it will match her foundation.


title: Jeffree Star

text: In June 2020, Star apologized after images and an archive of his former website Lipstick Nazi resurfaced. The website featured swastikas alongside photos of Star engaging in self-harm.


title: Jeffree Star

text: In an October 2020 report by journalist Kat Tenbarge, Star was accused of multiple instances of sexual assault, assault, and paying $10,000 in hush money to accusers. An attorney for Star denied all the allegations. Leaked documents later appeared to show one of Star's accusers being paid $45,000 by a Jeffree Star Cosmetics executive.


title: Chess rating system

text: A chess rating system is a system used in chess to estimate the strength of a player, based on their performance versus other players. They are used by organizations such as FIDE, the US Chess Federation (USCF or US Chess), International Correspondence Chess Federation, and the English Chess Federation. Most of the systems are used to recalculate ratings after a tournament or match but some are used to recalculate ratings after individual games. Popular online chess sites such as chess.com, Lichess, and Internet Chess Club also implement rating systems. In almost all systems, a higher number indicates a stronger player. In general, players' ratings go up if they perform better than expected and down if they perform worse than expected. The magnitude of the change depends on the rating of their opponents. The Elo rating system is currently the most widely used.


title: Chess rating system

text: The first modern rating system was used by the Correspondence Chess League of America in 1939. Soviet player Andrey Khachaturov proposed a similar system in 1946 . The first one that made an impact on international chess was the Ingo system in 1948. The USCF adopted the Harkness system in 1950. Shortly after, the British Chess Federation started using a system devised by Richard W. B. Clarke. The USCF switched to the Elo rating system in 1960, which was adopted by FIDE in 1970 .


title: Chess rating system

text: This was the system of the West German Chess Federation from 1948 until 1992, designed by Anton Hoesslinger and published in 1948. It was replaced by an Elo system, Deutsche Wertungszahl. It influenced some other rating systems.


title: Chess rating system

text: New players receive a high, fixed starting score. Players' new ratings centre on the average rating of entrants to their competition: then if having achieved better than a net draw set of result, "minus" the number of percentage points it is over 50% (e.g. a 12–4 or 24–8 wins-to-losses result is, as ever, noted as a 75% tournament outcome) – if having achieved worse than this then the number, again in percent, is "added" to the average of the tournament entrants' scores; thus in all cases recalibrating all players after each tournament completely. A consequence is at most 50 points gained or shed per tournament (namely by a totally winning or totally losing participant) away from the "tournament average". Unlike other modern, nationally used chess systems, lower numbers indicate better performance.


title: Chess rating system

text: This system was noted in "Chess Review" by tournament organizer Kenneth Harkness, who expounded his invention of it in articles of 1956, 14 years later. It was used by the USCF from 1950 to 1960 and other leagues.


title: Chess rating system

text: When players compete in a tournament, the average rating of their competition is calculated. If a player scores 50%, they receive the average competition rating as their performance rating. If they score more than 50%, their new rating is the competition average plus 10 points per percentage point exceeding 50. If they score less, their new rating is the competition average minus 10 points per percentage point shy of 50


title: Chess rating system

text: A player with a rating of 1600 plays in an eleven-round tournament and scores 2½–8½ (22.7%) against competition with an average rating of 1850. This is 27.3% below 50%, so their new rating is 1850 − (10 × 27.3) = 1577 .


title: Chess rating system

text: The ECF grading system was used by the English Chess Federation until 2020. It was published in 1958 by Richard W. B. Clarke. Each game has a large potential effect. Points (grades) are never immediately effective for every game won, lost or drawn, in a registered competition (including English congresses, local and county leagues, and registered, approved team events) but are averaged into personal grade (ECF Grade) over a cycle of at least 30 games.


title: Chess rating system

text: A player's contributing score for such averaging is taken to be their opponent's grade (but the gap is deemed to be 40 points, if greater than such a grade gap). However this is adjusted by adding 50 points for a win, subtracting 50 points for a loss, and making no adjustment for a draw. Negative grades are deemed to be nil, so a personal score of 50 arose quickly in the lower leagues and experienced novices aspire to a 100 grading. The cyclical averaging and cycle-persistent Grades are its hallmarks. The maximum gain in a single cycle is 90 points, which would entail beating much higher-rated opponents at every match. The opposite applies to losses.


title: Chess rating system

text: The Elo system was invented by Arpad Elo and is the most common rating system. It is used by FIDE, other organizations and some Chess websites such as Internet Chess Club and chess24.com. Elo once stated that the process of rating players was in any case rather approximate; he compared it to "the measurement of the position of a cork bobbing up and down on the surface of agitated water with a yard stick tied to a rope and which is swaying in the wind". Any attempt to consolidate all aspects of a player's strength into a single number inevitably misses some of the picture.


title: Chess rating system

text: FIDE divides all its normal tournaments into categories by a narrower average rating of the players. Each category is 25 rating points wide. Category 1 is for an average rating of 2251 to 2275, category 2 is 2276 to 2300, etc. Women's tournaments currently commence 200 points lower, including its Category 1.


title: Chess rating system

text: The USCF uses the USCF system, a modification of the Elo system, in which the K factor varies and it gives bonus points for superior performance in a tournament. USCF ratings are generally 50 to 100 points higher than the FIDE equivalents.


title: Chess rating system

text: Elo gives an example of amending the rating of Lajos Portisch, a 2635-rated player before his tournament, who scores 10½ points of a possible 16 winning points (as this is against 16 players). First, the difference in rating is recorded for each other player he faced. Then the expected score, against each, is determined from a table, which publishes this for every band of rating difference. For instance, one opponent was Vlastimil Hort, who was rated at 2600. The rating difference of 35 gave Portisch an expected score of "0.55". This is an impossible score as not 0, or 1 but as this is higher than 0.5 even a draw will very slightly damage Portisch's rating; conversely a draw will very slightly improve Hort's rating.


title: Chess rating system

text: Portisch's expected score is summed for each of his matches, which gave a total expected score of 9.66. Then the formula is:


title: Chess rating system

text: Elo devised a linear approximation to his full system, negating the need for look-up tables of expected score. With that method, a player's new rating is


title: Chess rating system

text: where "R" and "R" are the player's new and old rating respectively, "D" is the opponent's rating minus the player's rating, "W" is the number of wins, "L" is the number of losses, "C" = 200 and "K" = 32.


title: Chess rating system

text: The USCF used a modification of this system to calculate ratings after individual games of correspondence chess, with a "K" = 32 and "C" = 200.


title: Chess rating system

text: The Glicko system is a more modern approach, which was invented by Mark Glickman as an improvement of the Elo system. It is used by Chess.com, Free Internet Chess Server and other online chess servers. The Glicko-2 system is a refinement of the original Glicko system and is used by Lichess, Australian Chess Federation and other online websites.


title: Chess rating system

text: The Chessmetrics system was invented by Jeff Sonas. It is based on computer analysis of a large database of games and is intended to be more accurate than the Elo system.


title: Chess rating system

text: The Universal Rating System was developed by Mark Glickman, Jeff Sonas, J. Isaac Miller and Maxime Rischard, with the support of the Grand Chess Tour, the Kasparov Chess Foundation, and the Chess Club and Scholastic Center of Saint Louis.


title: Chess rating system

text: Many rating systems give a rating to players at a given time, but cannot compare players from different eras. In 2006, Matej Guid and Ivan Bratko pioneered a new way of rating players, by comparing their moves against the recommended moves of a chess engine. The authors used the program Crafty and argued that even a lower-ranked program (Elo around 2700) could identify good players. In their follow-up study, they used Rybka 3 to estimate chess player ratings.


title: Chess rating system

text: In 2017, Jean-Marc Alliot compared players using Stockfish 6 with an ELO rating around 3300, well above top human players.


title: Proletariat

text: The proletariat (; ) is the social class of wage-earners, those members of a society whose only possession of significant economic value is their labour power (their capacity to work). A member of such a class is a proletarian. Marxist philosophy considers the proletariat to be exploited under capitalism, forced to accept meager wages in return for operating the means of production, which belong to the class of business owners, the bourgeoisie.


title: Proletariat

text: Marx argued that this oppression gives the proletariat common economic and political interests that transcend national boundaries, impelling them to unite and take over power from the capitalist class, and eventually to create a communist society free from class distinctions.


title: Proletariat

text: The constituted a social class of Roman citizens who owned little or no property. The name presumably originated with the census, which Roman authorities conducted every five years to produce a register of citizens and their property, which determined their military duties and voting privileges. Those who owned 11,000 or less fell below the lowest category for military service, and their children— (offspring)—were listed instead of property; hence the name (producer of offspring). Roman citizen-soldiers paid for their own horses and arms, and fought without payment for the commonwealth, but the only military contribution of a was his children, the future Roman citizens who could colonize conquered territories. Officially, propertyless citizens were called because they were "persons registered not as to their property...but simply as to their existence as living individuals, primarily as heads () of a family."


title: Proletariat

text: Although included in the (Centuriate Assembly), were the lowest class, largely deprived of voting rights. Late Roman historians such as Livy vaguely described the as a popular assembly of early Rome composed of , voting units representing classes of citizens according to wealth. This assembly, which usually met on the to discuss public policy, designated the military duties of Roman citizens. One of the reconstructions of the features 18 of cavalry, and 170 of infantry divided into five classes by wealth, plus 5 of support personnel called , one of which represented the . In battle, the cavalry brought their horses and arms, the top infantry class full arms and armor, the next two classes less, the fourth class only spears, the fifth slings, while the assisting "adsidui" held no weapons. In voting, the cavalry and top infantry class were enough to decide an issue; as voting started at the top, issues were usually decided before the lower classes voted.


title: Proletariat

text: After the Second Punic War in 201 BC, the Jugurthine War and various conflicts in Macedonia and Asia reduced the number of Roman family farmers, and the Republic experienced a shortage of propertied citizen soldiers. The Marian reforms of 107 BC extended military eligibility to the urban poor, and henceforth the , as paid soldiers, became the backbone of the army, which later served as the decisive force in the fall of the Republic and the establishment of the Empire.


title: Proletariat

text: In the early 19th century, many Western European liberal scholars — who dealt with social sciences and economics — pointed out the socio-economic similarities of the modern rapidly growing industrial worker class and the classic proletarians. One of the earliest analogies can be found in the 1807 paper of French philosopher and political scientist Hugues Felicité Robert de Lamennais. Later it was translated to English with the title "Modern Slavery".


title: Proletariat

text: Swiss liberal economist and historian was the first to apply the proletariat term to the working class created under capitalism, and whose writings were frequently cited by Karl Marx. Marx most likely encountered the term while studying the works of Sismondi.


title: Proletariat

text: Marx, who studied Roman law at the Friedrich Wilhelm University of Berlin, used the term "proletariat" in his socio-political theory (Marxism) to describe a progressive working class untainted by private property and capable of revolutionary action to topple capitalism and abolish social classes, leading society to ever higher levels of prosperity and justice.


title: Proletariat

text: Marx defined the proletariat as the social class having no significant ownership of the means of production (factories, machines, land, mines, buildings, vehicles) and whose only means of subsistence is to sell their labor power for a wage or salary. Proletarians are wage-workers, while some (though not Marx himself) distinguish salaried workers as the "salariat".


title: Proletariat

text: Marxist theory only vaguely defines the borders between the proletariat and adjacent social classes. In the socially superior, less progressive direction are the lower petty bourgeoisie, such as small shopkeepers, who rely primarily on self-employment at an income comparable to an ordinary wage. Intermediate positions are possible, where wage-labor for an employer combines with self-employment. In another direction, the lumpenproletariat or "rag-proletariat", which Marx considers a retrograde class, live in the informal economy outside of legal employment: the poorest outcasts of society such as beggars, tricksters, entertainers, buskers, criminals and prostitutes. Socialist parties have often argued over whether they should organize and represent all the lower classes, or only the wage-earning proletariat.


title: Proletariat

text: According to Marxism, capitalism is based on the exploitation of the proletariat by the bourgeoisie: the workers, who own no means of production, must use the property of others to produce goods and services and to earn their living. Workers cannot rent the means of production (e.g. a factory or department store) to produce on their own account; rather, capitalists hire workers, and the goods or services produced become the property of the capitalist, who sells them at market.


title: Proletariat

text: Part of the net selling price pays the workers' wages (variable costs); a second part renews the means of production (constant costs, capital investment); while the third part is consumed by the capitalist class, split between the capitalist's personal profit and fees to other owners (rents, taxes, interest on loans, etc.). The struggle over the first part (wage rates) puts the proletariat and bourgeoisie into irreconcilable conflict, as market competition pushes wages inexorably to the minimum necessary for the workers to survive and continue working. The second part, called capitalized surplus value, is used to renew or increase the means of production (capital), either in quantity or quality. The second and third parts are known as surplus value, the difference between the wealth the proletariat produce and the wealth they consume


title: Proletariat

text: Marxists argue that new wealth is created through labor applied to natural resources. The commodities that proletarians produce and capitalists sell are valued not for their usefulness, but for the amount of labor embodied in them: for example, air is essential but requires no labor to produce, and is therefore free; while a diamond is much less useful, but requires hundreds of hours of mining and cutting, and is therefore expensive. The same goes for the workers' labor power: it is valued not for the amount of wealth it produces, but for the amount of labor necessary to keep the workers fed, housed, sufficiently trained, and able to raise children as new workers. On the other hand, capitalists earn their wealth not as a function of their personal labor, which may even be null, but by the juridical relation of their property to the means of production (e.g. owning a factory or farmland).


title: Proletariat

text: Marx argues that history is made by man and not destiny. The instruments of production and the working class that use the tools in order to produce are referred to as the moving forces of society. Over time, this developed into the levels of social class where the owners of resources joined to squeeze productivity out of the individuals who depended on their labor power. Marx argues that these relations between the exploiters and exploited results in different modes of production and the successive stages in history. These modes of production in which mankind gains power over nature is distinguished into 5 different systems: the Primitive Community, Slave State, Feudal State, Capitalist System, and finally the Socialist Society. The transition between these systems were all due to an increase in civil unrest among those who felt oppressed by a higher social class.


title: Proletariat

text: The contention with feudalism began once the merchants and guild artisans grew in numbers and power. Once they organized themselves, they began opposing the fees imposed on them by the nobles and clergy. This development led to new ideas and eventually established the Bourgeoisie class which Marx opposes. Commerce began to change the form of production and markets began to shift in order to support larger production and profits. This change led to a series of revolutions by the bourgeois which resulted in capitalism. Marx argues that this same model can and should be applied to the fight for the proletariat. Forming unions similar to how the merchants and artisans did will establish enough power to enact change. Ultimately, Marx’s theory of the proletarians struggle would eventually lead to the fall of capitalism and the emergence of a new mode of production, socialism.


title: Proletariat

text: Marx argued that the proletariat would inevitably displace the capitalist system with the dictatorship of the proletariat, abolishing the social relationships underpinning the class system and then developing into a communist society in which "the free development of each is the condition for the free development of all".


title: Proletariat

text: Marx argued that each social class had its characteristic culture and politics. The socialist states stemming from the Russian Revolution championed and created the official version of proletarian culture.


title: Proletariat

text: This was quite different from the working-class culture of capitalist countries, which tend to experience "prole drift" (proletarian drift), in which everything inexorably becomes commonplace and commodified by means of mass production, mass selling, mass communication and mass education. Examples include best-seller lists, films, and music made to appeal to the masses, and shopping malls.


title: Shakespeare in Love

text: Shakespeare in Love is a 1998 romantic period comedy-drama film directed by John Madden, written by Marc Norman and playwright Tom Stoppard, and produced by Harvey Weinstein. It stars Gwyneth Paltrow, Joseph Fiennes, Geoffrey Rush, Colin Firth, Ben Affleck and Judi Dench.


title: Shakespeare in Love

text: The film depicts a fictional love affair involving playwright William Shakespeare (Joseph Fiennes) and Viola de Lesseps (Gwyneth Paltrow) while Shakespeare was writing "Romeo and Juliet". Several characters are based on historical figures, and many of the characters, lines, and plot devices allude to Shakespeare's plays.


title: Shakespeare in Love

text: "Shakespeare in Love" received acclaim from critics and was a box office success, grossing $289.3 million worldwide and was the ninth highest-grossing film of 1998. The film received numerous accolades, including seven Oscars at the 71st Academy Awards, including Best Picture, Best Actress (Gwyneth Paltrow), Best Supporting Actress (Judi Dench), and Best Screenplay Written Directly for the Screen.


title: Shakespeare in Love

text: In 1593 London, William Shakespeare is a sometime player in the Lord Chamberlain's Men and playwright for Philip Henslowe, owner of The Rose Theatre. Suffering from writer's block with a new comedy, "Romeo and Ethel, the Pirate's Daughter", Shakespeare attempts to seduce Rosaline, mistress of Richard Burbage, owner of the rival Curtain Theatre, and to convince Burbage to buy the play from Henslowe. Shakespeare receives advice from rival playwright Christopher Marlowe, but is despondent to learn Rosaline is sleeping with Master of the Revels Edmund Tilney. The desperate Henslowe, in debt to ruthless moneylender Fennyman, begins auditions anyway.


title: Shakespeare in Love

text: Viola de Lesseps, daughter of a wealthy merchant, who has seen Shakespeare's plays at court, disguises herself as a man named Thomas Kent to audition. Kent gains Shakespeare's interest with a speech from "Two Gentlemen of Verona", but runs away when Shakespeare questions her. He pursues Kent to Viola's house and leaves a note with her nurse, asking Kent to begin rehearsals at the Rose.


title: Shakespeare in Love

text: Shakespeare sneaks into a ball at the house, where Viola's parents arrange her betrothal to Lord Wessex, an aristocrat in need of money. Dancing with Viola, Shakespeare is struck speechless. Confronted by Wessex, Shakespeare introduces himself as Christopher Marlowe. Wessex ejects "Marlowe" and threatens to kill him. Shakespeare finds Viola on her balcony, where they confess their mutual attraction before he is discovered by her nurse and flees.


title: Shakespeare in Love

text: Inspired by Viola, Shakespeare quickly transforms the play into what will become "Romeo and Juliet". Rehearsals begin, with Thomas Kent as Romeo, the leading tragedian Ned Alleyn as Mercutio, and the stagestruck Fennyman in a small role. Shakespeare discovers Viola's true identity, and they begin a secret affair.


title: Shakespeare in Love

text: Viola is summoned to court to receive approval for her proposed marriage to Wessex. Shakespeare accompanies her, disguised as her nurse's female cousin, and anonymously persuades Wessex in public to wager £50 that a play can capture the true nature of love, the amount Shakespeare requires to buy a share in the Chamberlain's Men. Queen Elizabeth I declares that she will judge the matter.


title: Shakespeare in Love

text: Burbage learns Shakespeare has seduced Rosaline and cheated him out of payment for the play, and starts a brawl at the Rose with his company. The Rose players repel Burbage and his men and celebrate at the pub, where a drunken Henslowe lets slip to Viola that Shakespeare is married, albeit separated from his wife. News arrives that Marlowe has been murdered. A guilt-ridden Shakespeare assumes Wessex had Marlowe killed, believing him to be Viola's lover, while Viola believes Shakespeare to be the victim. Shakespeare appears at her church, allaying Viola's fears and terrifying Wessex, who believes he is a ghost. Viola confesses her love for Shakespeare, but both recognize she cannot escape her duty to marry Wessex.


title: Shakespeare in Love

text: John Webster, an unpleasant boy who hangs around the theatre, spies on Shakespeare and Viola making love and informs Tilney, who closes the Rose for breaking the ban on women actors. Viola's identity is exposed, leaving Shakespeare without a stage or a lead actor, until Burbage offers his theatre and the heartbroken Shakespeare takes the role of Romeo. Following her wedding, Viola learns the play will be performed that day, and runs away to the Curtain. She overhears that the boy playing Juliet cannot perform, his voice having broken, and Henslowe asks her to replace him. She plays Juliet to Shakespeare's Romeo to an enthralled audience.


title: Shakespeare in Love

text: Just after the play has concluded, Tilney arrives to arrest everyone for indecency due to Viola's presence, but the Queen reveals herself in attendance and restrains him, pretending that Kent is a man with a "remarkable resemblance" to a woman. Powerless to end a lawful marriage, she orders Viola to sail with Wessex to Virginia. The Queen also tells Wessex, who followed Viola to the theatre, that "Romeo and Juliet" has won the bet for Shakespeare, and has Kent deliver his £50 with instructions to write something "a little more cheerful next time, for Twelfth Night".


title: Shakespeare in Love

text: Viola and Shakespeare say their goodbyes, and he vows to immortalize her, as he imagines the beginning of "Twelfth Night", in character as a castaway disguised as a man after a voyage to a strange land.


title: Shakespeare in Love

text: The original idea for "Shakespeare in Love" was suggested to screenwriter Marc Norman in the late 1980s by his son Zachary. Norman wrote a draft screenplay which he presented to director Edward Zwick, which attracted Julia Roberts, who agreed to play Viola. However, Zwick disliked Norman's screenplay and hired the playwright Tom Stoppard to improve it (Stoppard's first major success had been with the Shakespeare-themed play "Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead").


title: Shakespeare in Love

text: The film went into production in 1991 at Universal, with Zwick as director, but although sets and costumes were in construction, Shakespeare had not yet been cast, because Roberts insisted that only Daniel Day-Lewis could play the role. Day-Lewis was uninterested, and when Roberts failed to persuade him, she withdrew from the film, six weeks before shooting was due to begin. The production went into turnaround, and Zwick was unable to persuade other studios to take up the screenplay.


title: Shakespeare in Love

text: Eventually, Zwick got Miramax interested in the screenplay, but Miramax chose John Madden as director. Miramax boss Harvey Weinstein acted as producer, and persuaded Ben Affleck to take a small role as Ned Alleyn. Kate Winslet was offered the role of Viola after the success of "Titanic", but she rejected it to pursue independent films. Winona Ryder, Diane Lane and Robin Wright were also considered for the lead role.


title: Shakespeare in Love

text: The film was considerably reworked after the first test screenings. The scene with Shakespeare and Viola in the punt was re-shot, to make it more emotional, and some lines were re-recorded to clarify the reasons why Viola had to marry Wessex. The ending was re-shot several times, until Stoppard eventually came up with the idea of Viola suggesting to Shakespeare that their parting could inspire his next play.


title: Shakespeare in Love

text: Among the locations used in the production were Hatfield House, Hertfordshire (for the fireworks scene), Broughton Castle, Oxfordshire (which played the role of the de Lesseps home), the beach at Holkham in Norfolk, the chapel at Eton College, Berkshire, and the Great Hall of Middle Temple, London.


title: Shakespeare in Love

text: Much of the action of the film echoes that of "Romeo and Juliet". Will and Viola play out the famous balcony and bedroom scenes; like Juliet, Viola has a witty nurse, and is separated from Will by a gulf of duty (although not the family enmity of the play: the "two households" of "Romeo and Juliet" are supposedly inspired by the two rival playhouses). In addition, the two lovers are equally "star-crossed"they are not ultimately destined to be together (since Viola is of rich and socially ambitious merchant stock and is promised to marry Lord Wessex, while Shakespeare himself is poor and already married). Rosaline, with whom Will is in love at the beginning of the film, is a namesake of Romeo's love-interest at the beginning of the play. There are references to earlier cinematic versions of Shakespeare, such as the balcony scene pastiching the Zeffirelli "Romeo and Juliet".


title: Shakespeare in Love

text: Many other plot devices used in the film are common in Shakespearean comedies and other plays of the Elizabethan era: the Queen disguised as a commoner, the cross-dressing disguises, mistaken identities, the sword fight, the suspicion of adultery, the appearance of a ghost (cf. "Macbeth"), and the "play within a play". According to Douglas Brode, the film deftly portrays many of these devices as though the events depicted were the inspiration for Shakespeare's own use of them in his plays.


title: Shakespeare in Love

text: Christopher Marlowe is presented in the film as the master playwright whom the characters consider the greatest English dramatist of that time – this is historically accurate, yet also humorous, since the film's audience knows what will eventually happen to Shakespeare's reputation. Marlowe gives Shakespeare a plot for his next play, "Romeo and Ethel the Pirate's Daughter" ("Romeo is Italian...always in and out of love...until he meets...Ethel. The daughter of his enemy! His best friend is killed in a duel by Ethel's brother or something. His name is Mercutio.") Marlowe's "Doctor Faustus" is quoted repeatedly: "Was this the face that launched a thousand ships/ And burned the topless towers of Ilium?" A reference is also made to Marlowe's final, unfinished play "The Massacre at Paris" in a scene wherein Marlowe (Rupert Everett) seeks payment for the final act of the play from Richard Burbage (Martin Clunes). Burbage promises the payment the next day, so Marlowe refuses to part with the pages and departs for Deptford, where he is killed. The only surviving text of "The Massacre at Paris" is an undated octavo that is probably too short to represent the complete original play. It has been suggested that it is a memorial reconstruction by the actors who performed the work.


title: Shakespeare in Love

text: The child John Webster (Joe Roberts), who plays with rats, is a reference to a leading figure in the next, Jacobean, generation of playwrights. His plays ("The Duchess of Malfi", "The White Devil") are known for their 'blood and gore', which is humorously referred to by the child saying that he enjoys "Titus Andronicus", and also saying of "Romeo and Juliet", when asked his opinion by the Queen, "I liked it when she stabbed herself."


title: Shakespeare in Love

text: When the clown Will Kempe (Patrick Barlow) says to Shakespeare that he would like to play in a drama, he is told that "they would laugh at Seneca if you played it", a reference to the Roman tragedian renowned for his sombre and bloody plot lines which were a major influence on the development of English tragedy.


title: Shakespeare in Love

text: Will is shown signing a paper repeatedly, with many relatively illegible signatures visible. This is a reference to the fact that several versions of Shakespeare's signature exist, and in each one he spelled his name differently.


title: Shakespeare in Love

text: After the film's release, certain publications, including "Private Eye", noted strong similarities between the film and the 1941 novel "No Bed for Bacon", by Caryl Brahms and S. J. Simon, which also features Shakespeare falling in love and finding inspiration for his later plays. In a foreword to a subsequent edition of "No Bed for Bacon" (which traded on the association by declaring itself "A Story of Shakespeare and Lady Viola in Love") Ned Sherrin, "Private Eye" insider and former writing partner of Brahms', confirmed that he had lent a copy of the novel to Stoppard after he joined the writing team, but that the basic plot of the film had been independently developed by Marc Norman, who was unaware of the earlier work.


title: Shakespeare in Love

text: The film's plot can claim a tradition in fiction reaching back to Alexandre Duval's "Shakespeare amoureux ou la Piece a l'Etude" (1804), in which Shakespeare falls in love with an actress who is playing Richard III.


title: Shakespeare in Love

text: The writers of "Shakespeare in Love" were sued in 1999 by bestselling author Faye Kellerman. She claimed that the plotline was stolen from her 1989 novel "The Quality of Mercy", in which Shakespeare romances a Jewish woman who dresses as a man, and attempts to solve a murder. Miramax Films spokesman Andrew Stengel derided the claim, filed in the US District Court six days before the 1999 Academy Awards, as "absurd", and argued that the timing "suggests a publicity stunt". An out-of-court settlement was reached, but the sum agreed between the parties indicates that the claim was "unwarranted".


title: Shakespeare in Love

text: The film is "not constrained by worries about literary or historical accuracy" and includes anachronisms such as a reference to Virginia tobacco plantations, at a time before the Colony of Virginia existed. A leading character is an Earl of Wessex, a title which in Shakespeare's time had not existed for over 500 years. Queen Elizabeth I never entered a public theatre, as she does in the film. Between "Romeo and Juliet" and "Twelfth Night", Shakespeare wrote ten other plays over a period of six years. Another historical liberty concerns the central theme of Shakespeare struggling to create the story of "Romeo and Juliet", as in real life he simply adapted an existing story for theatre. The Italian verse tale "The Tragical History of Romeus and Juliet" had been translated into English by Arthur Brooke in 1562, 32 years before Shakespeare's "Romeo and Juliet".


title: Shakespeare in Love

text: Janet Maslin made the film an "NYT Critics' Pick", calling it "pure enchantment". According to Maslin, "Gwyneth Paltrow, in her first great, fully realized starring performance, makes a heroine so breathtaking that she seems utterly plausible as the playwright's guiding light." Roger Ebert, who gave the film four stars out of four, wrote: "The contemporary feel of the humor (like Shakespeare's coffee mug, inscribed 'Souvenir of Stratford-Upon-Avon') makes the movie play like a contest between "Masterpiece Theatre" and Mel Brooks. Then the movie stirs in a sweet love story, juicy court intrigue, backstage politics and some lovely moments from "Romeo and Juliet"... Is this a movie or an anthology? I didn't care. I was carried along by the wit, the energy and a surprising sweetness."


title: Shakespeare in Love

text: Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a 92% approval rating based on 141 critical reviews, with an average rating of 8.30/10. The website's critical consensus states: "Endlessly witty, visually rapturous, and sweetly romantic, "Shakespeare in Love" is a delightful romantic comedy that succeeds on nearly every level." On Metacritic, the film holds a score of 87 out of 100 based on 33 critical reviews, indicating "universal acclaim".


title: Shakespeare in Love

text: "Shakespeare in Love" was among 1999's box office number-one films in the United Kingdom. The U.S. box office reached over $100 million; including the box office from the rest of the world, the film took in over $289 million.


title: Shakespeare in Love

text: "The Sunday Telegraph" claimed that the film prompted the revival of the title of Earl of Wessex. Prince Edward was originally to have been titled Duke of Cambridge following his marriage to Sophie Rhys-Jones in 1999, the year after the film's release. However, after watching "Shakespeare in Love", he reportedly became attracted to the title of the character played by Colin Firth, and asked his mother Queen Elizabeth II to be given the title of Earl of Wessex instead.


title: Shakespeare in Love

text: In the wake of sexual abuse allegations against Weinstein, many of the cast and crew began to distance themselves from the producer and his past behavior. Madden, while condemning Weinstein, stated that the producer "craved power and had power and, as we now know, he was using it in ways that are repugnant and should be utterly condemned".


title: Shakespeare in Love

text: "Shakespeare In Love" won the Best Picture Oscar at the 71st Academy Awards, controversially beating critically favored "Saving Private Ryan" and becoming the first comedy to win the award since "Annie Hall" (1977). The Academy's decision was criticized by many for awarding the film over "Saving Private Ryan", and Gwyneth Paltrow winning Best Actress over frontrunner Cate Blanchett for "Elizabeth".


title: Shakespeare in Love

text: Many industry pundits speculated that this win was attributed to the awards campaign led by Weinstein. Weinstein was reported to have strong-armed the movie's talent into participating in an unprecedented blitzkrieg of press. Terry Press, an executive at DreamWorks at the time, stated that Weinstein and Miramax "tried to get everybody to believe that "Saving Private Ryan" was all in the first 15 minutes". Mark Gill, an executive at Miramax at the time, claimed that Weinstein had a reliance on relatively cheap publicity. He stated, "This was not saying to the stars, 'O.K., you can go on a couple of talk shows to open the movie and do a weekend of interviews at a junket and thanks so much for helping, Gill said. "That was just 'Good morning. You've got three more months of shaking hands and kissing babies in you.


title: Shakespeare in Love

text: In 2015, "The Hollywood Reporter" magazine, claiming to have interviewed "hundreds" of Academy members, indicated that, having to choose between "Shakespeare in Love" and "Saving Private Ryan", a majority of them would award the Oscar for Best Picture to the latter.


title: Shakespeare in Love

text: In November 2011, "Variety" reported that Disney Theatrical Productions intended to produce a stage version of the film in London with Sonia Friedman Productions. The production was officially announced in November 2013. Based on the film screenplay by Norman and Stoppard, it was adapted for the stage by Lee Hall. The production was directed by Declan Donnellan and designed by Nick Ormerod, the joint founders of Cheek by Jowl.


title: Shakespeare in Love

text: The production opened at the Noël Coward Theatre in London's West End on 23 July 2014, receiving rave reviews from critics. It was called "A joyous celebration of theatre" in the "Daily Telegraph", "Joyous" in "The Independent", and "A love letter to theatre" in "The Guardian".


title: Shakespeare in Love

text: From December 2016 to January 2017, "Shakespeare of True Love" (), a Japanese adaptation of "Shakespeare in Love" written by Shigeki Motoiki and Sakurako Fukuyama, was produced in Kanagawa Arts Theatre. It was not related to Lee Hall's play. Takaya Kamikawa played Will Shakespeare and Alisa Mizuki played Viola.


title: Terrifier 2

text: Terrifier 2 is a 2022 American slasher film written, directed, edited, and produced by Damien Leone. It is a sequel to "Terrifier" (2016), and is the third feature-length film to feature Art the Clown. It features the return of David Howard Thornton and Samantha Scaffidi, who respectively portrayed Art the Clown and Victoria Heyes in the first film, and stars Lauren LaVera, Elliott Fullam, Sarah Voigt, Kailey Hyman, and Casey Hartnett. The story follows Art's resurrection and pursuit of Sienna Shaw (LaVera) and her younger brother Jonathan (Fullam) on Halloween night — a year after the events of the first film.


title: Terrifier 2

text: The film originates from a feature film concept Leone began developing shortly after filming his directorial debut short film "The 9th Circle" (2009). The concept of the planned film focused heavily on an angel-dressed heroine and ultimately fell apart, but after the release of "Terrifier" (2016), Leone wanted to bring the heroine back as the protagonist—she would evolve into Sienna, someone Leone describes as the "heart and soul" of "Terrifier 2". Leone spent three months writing a character-driven screenplay following criticism of the first film's perceived lack of narrative.


title: Terrifier 2

text: Funding for the film was exacting as the script was more ambitious than the first film and required a bigger budget. Leone secured finances from private investors before filming, and he launched an Indiegogo campaign with a $50k goal to film a practical effects-driven scene. The campaign was a massive success, reaching over 430% of the initial goal with a total of $250k in donations. It is one of the numerous films impacted by the worldwide COVID-19 pandemic with principal photography coming to a halt mid-2020 due to the pandemic lockdowns.


title: Terrifier 2

text: The film had its world premiere at the FrightFest on August 29, 2022, and was theatrically released in the United States on October 6, 2022, becoming a hit at the box office, grossing $12 million. It was met with generally positive reviews from critics, with praise for Thornton and LaVera's performances and many critics considering the film to be an improvement over its predecessor.


title: Terrifier 2

text: After being resurrected by an unknown entity following the Miles County Massacre, Art the Clown brutally murders the coroner investigating his body with a hammer. He goes to the laundromat to clean his blood-soaked garments, where he encounters The Little Pale Girl—a mysterious sinister entity in similar clown attire. A lone patron sees Art interacting with the girl, who is invisible to him, before being killed.


title: Terrifier 2

text: A year later, teenager Sienna Shaw puts the finishing touches on her Halloween costume: an angel-warrior that was designed for her by her father, who recently passed away after a brain tumor. Sienna's brother Jonathan wants to dress as Art for Halloween and has become fixated on him since discovering sketches of him and his victims from the Miles County Massacre in their father's sketchbook. That night, Sienna has a nightmare where she encounters Art, and awakens to a fire on her dresser, while a sword that was a gift to her from her father remains unscathed.


title: Terrifier 2

text: On Halloween, Jonathan sees Art and The Little Pale Girl at school playing with a dead opossum, while Sienna has a panic attack when her friends Allie and Brooke discuss Victoria Heyes's meltdown and mutilation of controversial talk show host Monica Brown. Sienna and Allie go to the costume shop to buy a replacement pair of wings, where they encounter Art. Art kills the shop vendor and later breaks into Allie's home, where he theatrically mutilates her to death — slicing her eye, scalping her, flaying her back, breaking off one of her arms while tearing apart the other, and pouring bleach and salt on her wounds before ripping off half her face. Allie’s mother is also killed when she discovers her daughter’s body.


title: Terrifier 2

text: Jonathan shows Sienna and their mother, Barbara, his father's sketchbook of Art, filled with newspaper clippings of killings connected to him, revealing that The Little Pale Girl was his first victim named Emily Crane, the daughter of circus performers whose body was discovered in a makeup trailer. Jonathan believes their father knew how to stop Art, but they do not believe him. After Barbara tears up the sketchbook and hits Jonathan, he runs away. Barbara then finds her car vandalized and while cleaning it she is killed by Art. When Jonathan returns home, he finds his mother's corpse and Art chases after him before drugging and kidnapping him, stealing Sienna's sword in the process.


title: Terrifier 2

text: At a Halloween party, Brooke spikes Sienna's drink with MDMA in an attempt to calm her, but she has a panic attack when she sees The Little Pale Girl. Brooke and her boyfriend Jeff drive Sienna home, but the Little Pale Girl impersonates Jonathan over the phone and lures Sienna to The Terrifier haunted attraction at a defunct carnival where Art killed her years before. Art castrates and kills Jeff and chases Brooke into the haunted attraction before throwing acid on her face, bludgeoning her to death and eating her heart. Sienna discovers Brooke's corpse and fights Art until he knocks her unconscious. She awakens to find Art using a cat o' nine tails on her brother, overpowers Art and begins attacking him with his own weapons. After Art is killed several times by Sienna and Jonathan, he continuously manages to resurrect. He kills Sienna with her father's sword and throws her into a water torture cell. As Art attempts to eat Jonathan, Sienna is mysteriously resurrected by the sword before she decapitates Art, and rescues Jonathan. The Little Pale Girl takes Art's head and leaves without attacking Sienna and Jonathan.


title: Terrifier 2

text: In a mid-credits scene, an institutionalized Victoria is throwing up before writing "Vicky + Art" and obscenities on the wall with her blood. She gives birth to Art's living head, leaving the horrified nurse screaming.


title: Terrifier 2

text: Additionally, Griffin Santopietro appears as Eric, Owen Myre appears as Sean, Felissa Rose appears as Ms. Principe, Tamara Glynn appears as Shopping Mother, and Nedim Jahić as Travis Bryant.


title: Terrifier 2

text: Leone revealed February 12, 2019, in a post on his social media showing the cover page, that the first draft of the screenplay was complete. Leone envisioned the concept of the film dating back to 2008—with an idea of an angel-warrior costumed heroine battling the Art the Clown character. This heroine was the basis of Sienna, who Leone wanted to bring back as the protagonist of "Terrifier 2", which he knew he wanted to make while filming the first film. The writing process for the film differed from Leone's previous film projects, in which he had to work around part-time jobs. Leone spent three consecutive months writing. Much of his focus was on developing a protagonist that could rival Art in popularity. When he was not writing, he would read books about screenwriting and listen to screenwriters discuss their processes with writing.


title: Terrifier 2

text: He opted to bring back the angel-attired heroine a decade later and adapt her into Sienna Shaw. Leone described much of the screenplay revolving around the teenage girl, his favorite character he has ever written. Leone describes the screenplay as much bigger in scope than the previous film and recollects not considering a budget while writing.


title: Terrifier 2

text: One of the factors during writing was establishing an adversary to Art—something inspired by the relationship between superhero Batman and supervillain Joker. During a lunch with Leone and David Howard Thornton, the actress who plays Sienna, Lauren LaVera, was told of this intended dynamic between her character and Art. Besides Sienna, LaVera recollects the script focusing heavily on Sienna's younger brother Jonathan, their mother, and her friends—all of whom play a crucial part in the story.


title: Terrifier 2

text: Both Thornton and Scaffidi were confirmed to reprise their respective roles of Art and Victoria, becoming the only returning cast members of the prior film, other than a brief voice cameo by Michael Leavy (who played Will the Exterminator in the original film) as the Club Announcer and DJ voice, and Corey Duval, who returns as the coroner from the first movie. There were also reports of Steven Della Salla and Jason Leavy, the two cops in the original film, returning in cameo appearances as well; the three are all producers on the second installment. On September 11, 2019 it was announced that actress Lauren LaVera was cast in the lead role of Sienna Shaw. On October 15, it was announced that Felissa Rose, Chris Jericho and Tamara Glynn had joined the cast in cameo roles.


title: Terrifier 2

text: While Leone had secured full funding for the film from a handful of private investors prior to filming, he launched an Indiegogo with a $50k goal to finance a practical effects driven scene and to attach a well known actor to the project. The campaign was a major success, grossing over $125k in the first week. It reached a total of $250k by the end of the campaign, 430% more than the initial goal.


title: Terrifier 2

text: Filming began in October 2019. While a majority of the film's main story line had already been completed, principal photography was halted due to COVID-19, becoming one of many films affected by the worldwide COVID-19 pandemic. On September 7, Leone revealed that he was in the process of working on the prosthetic makeup for Victoria's disfigured face in preparation of filming Samantha Scaffidi's scenes. As Sienna's costume received a positive reception when production stills were officially released, when asked about the attire, LaVera described liking it on the first day of wearing it but began to feel disdain for it throughout the course of filming as it was uncomfortable to wear. She even obtained blisters from wearing it. Filming quietly resumed and wrapped on July 10, 2021.