title: Procol Harum

text: In late 1999, Brooker promised that "Procol will play in 2000", and in September the band played an open-air gig with the New London Sinfonia in Guildford.


title: Procol Harum

text: In 2000 Procol Harum received some attention after the song "In Held Twas in I" appeared on the band Transatlantic's debut album.


title: Procol Harum

text: Since 2001 the band, comprising Brooker, Fisher, Geoff Whitehorn (guitar), Matt Pegg (bass) and Mark Brzezicki (drums), has made several tours of mostly Europe, but also Japan and the US. A 2001 concert in Copenhagen, Denmark was released on DVD in 2002. In 2003 the band released a new studio album, "The Well's on Fire" and appeared at the Progman Cometh festival in Seattle. Their concert in London on Friday 12 December 2003, with much of the material from that album, was released on DVD in 2004: "Live at the Union Chapel".


title: Procol Harum

text: Long-time organist Matthew Fisher left the band in June 2004 due to "unresolved matters", with former stand-in Josh Phillips taking his place on Hammond again, leaving Brooker as the only original performing member. These matters were later revealed to have been a lawsuit filed by Fisher against Brooker and the band for songwriting credits and a share of royalties on "A Whiter Shade of Pale", which he won in December 2006.


title: Procol Harum

text: The band resumed a limited touring schedule in 2005. In June 2006 they played at the Isle of Wight Festival. In August they played two outdoor concerts with the Danish Radio Orchestra at Ledreborg Castle in Denmark, which were tele-recorded. An hour-long edit of the show was broadcast on Christmas morning 2008 on Danish Channel DR2 and the full concert was issued on DVD on 11 May 2009 (with six extra tracks from a Danish television recording of the band from 1974).


title: Procol Harum

text: Later in 2006, they played in Switzerland, Norway and Denmark, but with Geoff Dunn replacing Brzezicki on drums, because the latter's other band Casbah Club was touring with The Who. Then Dunn ended up replacing Brzezicki permanently for the band's European tour in 2007. Recordings from the Italian concerts were later released as "One Eye to the Future – Live in Italy 2007". Procol Harum also played an orchestral concert in Sweden on 30 June. They performed with the Gävle Symphony Orchestra at the outdoor opera venue Dalhalla, near Rättvik.


title: Procol Harum

text: On 20 and 21 July 2007 fans arranged the celebration of the 40th anniversary of the success of "A Whiter Shade of Pale" and invited the band to play. This took the form of two concerts at St John's, Smith Square in London. 20 July saw Procol Harum play a mixture of songs from their early days through to the début of a couple of new songs, "Sister Mary" and "Missing Persons". The following night 'Gary Brooker and Guests' performed a mixture of obscure songs by Brooker–Reid that had either never been recorded, never been performed live before or were significantly different from the versions they recorded.


title: Procol Harum

text: Although there was no Procol Harum activity in 2008, their manager Chris Cooke, on the web site Beyond the Pale, announced plans for a live DVD and a new album in 2009, as well as festival concerts in Norway on 17 July and Finland on 23 July. Just before the latter concert, Brooker fell off a pile of road-side logs in Finland and broke several ribs. The show went ahead but he was unable to sing properly, and many of the songs were performed either as instrumentals or sung by others in the band.


title: Procol Harum

text: In October 2009 with Brooker fully recovered, the band performed four concerts  – in Hagen (Germany), Drammen (Norway), Moscow and St Petersburg. "All This and More", a four-disc retrospective (three CDs and a DVD with historical notes) was released in the autumn of 2009, and Salvo also issued all of the band's previous albums as remastered CDs with extra tracks, some never previously heard.


title: Procol Harum

text: Procol played a string of US (and Toronto) concert dates in June 2010, mostly opening for Jethro Tull. On 22 July Procol again headlined at the Keitelejazz Festival in Äänekoski, Finland – the venue where the band performed with an injured Brooker in 2009. They described this loyal Finnish audience as "the best in the world" and played a unique three-verse version of "A Whiter Shade of Pale" with a guitar solo from Geoff Whitehorn. 48 hours later Procol were invited to give a free concert at the courtyard of the Palace of the Province of Bergamo in Italy.


title: Procol Harum

text: In August 2010 they appeared in Bad Krozingen in Germany and a Rock Legends event at the Dolina Charlotty Amphitheater in Poland. After a Halloween gig in Leamington Spa (their first in the UK for three years) the band returned to North America in November, including a return orchestral event with the Edmonton Symphony Orchestra on 9 November. After playing in Tallinn, Estonia on 18 November, they returned to the US for an orchestral concert in Wilmington, Delaware on 4 December. Over 13,000 people saw eight New Year concerts with the Danish Radio Orchestra in Copenhagen and other Danish cities in January 2011.


title: Procol Harum

text: On 29 May 2012 Gary Brooker was hospitalised after suffering a fall in his hotel room in Cape Town. He was due to have performed with his band at GrandWest Arena on the 30th, with fellow Brits 10cc and The Moody Blues, in a tour billed as the 'British Invasion' and then again in Johannesburg on Friday 1 June 2012. Brooker (whose birthday it was) had been in his room at the five-star Table Bay Hotel. He was admitted to the ICU of the Christiaan Barnard Memorial Hospital with a serious skull fracture.


title: Procol Harum

text: The band returned to Denmark for the Kløften Festival on 25 June before embarking on a 27-date U.S. tour supporting Yes.


title: Procol Harum

text: In 2012 the Japanese artist Yumi Matsutoya came to London to record "A Whiter Shade of Pale" with Procol Harum, a band she considered an inspiration for her work. She sang a duet with Gary Brooker on this new version of the 1967 classic, which featured three verses and a guitar solo by Geoff Whitehorn. Yumi and Procol Harum then played a series of December concerts in major Japanese cities, one of which was recorded for a later television showing (on 31 March 2013).


title: Procol Harum

text: Also in 2012, Henry Scott-Irvine published a biography of the band, "Procol Harum – The Ghosts of A Whiter Shade of Pale". Scott-Irvine also hosted a rare Procol Harum film evening at the BFI on the South Bank, which was attended by members of the group.


title: Procol Harum

text: In September 2012 Procol Harum was among fifteen final nominees for the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame Class of 2013 (induction 18 April 2013). In the subsequent election that December, however, the band failed to gain enough votes for election.


title: Procol Harum

text: In March and April 2013 Procol Harum played a series of five orchestral concerts in Denmark and two such events in Wuppertal in Germany. Four band-only concerts in Sweden & Finland were held in early October.


title: Procol Harum

text: In 2014 the band toured again in France, Switzerland, Germany, Canada (Ottawa with orchestra) and the Eastern U.S. The band also played a five-song set at Kenney Jones' Rock'n'Horsepower charity event at Ewhurst, Surrey in June, on a bill including Alvin Stardust, John Lodge, Nik Kershaw, Mike Rutherford, Judie Tzuke and The Who. A twin CD, "Inside & Outside", was issued with studio tracks from the Chrysalis years and a live CD including new material and performances of tracks from their first four Zonophone albums.


title: Procol Harum

text: On Monday 24 November Procol Harum appeared at the Dominion Theatre in London with the BBC Concert Orchestra and the Crouch End Festival Chorus in an event recorded for broadcast on BBC Radio 2's Friday Night is Music Night on 28 November. Guitarist Geoff Whitehorn was hospitalised during rehearsals and at short notice Rick Wakeman's guitarist Dave Colquhoun deputised (on crutches, after a broken ankle). He played a guitar solo in the first extended, orchestrated version of Keith Reid's 9/11 tribute song "Blink of an Eye", dedicated by Gary Brooker to the brave firefighters of the 8th Avenue station who the band often talked with after gigs in New York.


title: Procol Harum

text: The band's 13th album, "Novum", was released on 21 April 2017 and the band played 36 dates in the UK and Europe to promote it. However, the most significant concert of the year came in March when the band played with an orchestra at the Royal Festival Hall in London. Whilst leaving the stage at the end of the first half, Gary Brooker fell and was seriously hurt. He reappeared for the second half with his head bandaged and nursing "a broken hand".


title: Procol Harum

text: In 2018 the band again toured in Europe, including an orchestral show at the London Palladium on 9 October. They commenced 2019 with a Caribbean cruise hosted by Justin Hayward, with many well-known rock acts. A US tour was due to follow.


title: Procol Harum

text: Brooker, the only constant member of the band and the main songwriter, died on 19 February 2022. The band's website described him as "a brightly shining, irreplaceable light in the music industry". "A Whiter Shade of Pale" entered the UK Official Singles Sales Chart Top 100 at number 38 on 25 February 2022.


title: Procol Harum

text: In July 2009, Matthew Fisher won a British court judgment awarding him 40% of the music royalties from 2005 onwards for 1967's "A Whiter Shade of Pale", which had previously gone 50% to Brooker for the music and 50% to Reid for the lyrics.


title: Kostas Antetokounmpo

text: Konstantinos Ndubuisi "Kostas" Antetokounmpo ( ; , ; born Adetokunbo November 20, 1997) is a Greek professional basketball player who plays for the Fenerbahçe of the BSL and the EuroLeague. He played college basketball for the Dayton Flyers.


title: Kostas Antetokounmpo

text: Antetokounmpo was drafted 60th overall by the Philadelphia 76ers in the 2018 NBA draft, and his draft rights were then traded to the Dallas Mavericks. He won an NBA championship with the Los Angeles Lakers in 2020.


title: Kostas Antetokounmpo

text: Antetokounmpo was born in Sepolia in Athens, Greece. His parents were immigrants from Nigeria. His late father, Charles, was a former Nigerian soccer player, while his mother, Veronica, was a high jumper. Charles died in September 2017, at age 54. His parents are from different Nigerian ethnic groups; Charles was Yoruba, and Veronica is Igbo.


title: Kostas Antetokounmpo

text: He has a Nigerian passport, granted to him in June 2013 so that he could gain a visa, and be allowed to legally enter the United States. He officially became a full Greek citizen in 2016.


title: Kostas Antetokounmpo

text: He is the younger brother of basketball players Giannis and Thanasis and the older brother of Alex. His oldest brother, Francis, is also a professional association football player.


title: Kostas Antetokounmpo

text: After his older brother Giannis was drafted by the Milwaukee Bucks in the 2013 NBA draft, Antetokounmpo, along with his parents and his younger brother, Alexis, moved to Milwaukee. He attended Dominican High School in Whitefish Bay, Wisconsin, where he played high school basketball during his junior and senior years. As a senior, he led his team to a state championship.


title: Kostas Antetokounmpo

text: After high school, Antetokounmpo moved on to play college basketball at the University of Dayton. In the 2016–17 season, his first with the Flyers, he was red-shirted, after being ruled a "partial qualifier", due to having spent his first two years of high school in Greece. He debuted in the 2017–18 season, averaging 5.2 points, 2.9 rebounds, 0.4 assists, 0.2 steals, and 1.1 blocks per game, in 15.1 minutes per game.


title: Kostas Antetokounmpo

text: On March 22, 2018, Antetokounmpo declared for the 2018 NBA draft. On May 4, 2018, Antetokounmpo was one of a record-high 69 players to enter the NBA Draft Combine. Antetokounmpo was projected to be a second round selection, similar to his older brother Thanasis, due to his lack of notable progress in his redshirt freshman college season. He was the last pick of the 2018 NBA draft, selected by the Philadelphia 76ers, and then immediately traded to the Dallas Mavericks. Antetokounmpo signed a two-way contract on July 13. Throughout the contract, he would split his playing time between the Mavericks and their NBA G League affiliate, the Texas Legends. He made his NBA debut on March 20, 2019 in a 118–126 loss to the Portland Trail Blazers.


title: Kostas Antetokounmpo

text: Antetokounmpo was claimed off waivers by the Los Angeles Lakers on July 22, 2019. He played 5 games throughout the season on a two-way contract and scored a career high 7 points in the team's 136–122 loss to the Sacramento Kings on August 13, 2020. Antetokounmpo won his first championship after the Lakers defeated the Miami Heat in six games. He became the first Greek-born player to win an NBA championship; one season later, his brothers Giannis and Thanasis won their own championships as teammates on the Milwaukee Bucks.


title: Kostas Antetokounmpo

text: On July 16, 2021, Antetokounmpo signed with LDLC ASVEL of the French Betclic Élite and the EuroLeague.


title: Kostas Antetokounmpo

text: On October 14, 2022, Antetokounmpo signed a two-way contract with the Chicago Bulls. He was waived by the Bulls on December 16, 2022, without appearing in a game for the team.


title: Kostas Antetokounmpo

text: Antetokounmpo played with the junior Greek Under-20 national team. He played at the 2016 FIBA Europe Under-20 Championship Division B, where he won a bronze medal. During the tournament, he averaged 1.3 points, 1.8 rebounds, and 0.3 assists per game.


title: Plessy v. Ferguson

text: Plessy v. Ferguson, 163 U.S. 537 (1896), was a landmark U.S. Supreme Court decision in which the Court ruled that racial segregation laws did not violate the U.S. Constitution as long as the facilities for each race were equal in quality, a doctrine that came to be known as "separate but equal". The decision legitimized the many state laws re-establishing racial segregation that had been passed in the American South after the end of the Reconstruction era (1865–1877).


title: Plessy v. Ferguson

text: The underlying case began in 1892 when Homer Plessy, a mixed-race man, deliberately boarded a "whites-only" train car in New Orleans. By boarding the whites-only car, Plessy violated Louisiana's Separate Car Act of 1890, which required "equal, but separate" railroad accommodations for white and non-white passengers. Plessy was charged under the Act, and at his trial his lawyers argued that judge John Howard Ferguson should dismiss the charges on the grounds that the Act was unconstitutional. Ferguson denied the request, and the Louisiana Supreme Court upheld Ferguson's ruling on appeal. Plessy then appealed to the U.S. Supreme Court.


title: Plessy v. Ferguson

text: In May 1896, the Supreme Court issued a 7–1 decision against Plessy, ruling that the Louisiana law did not violate the Fourteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution and stating that although the Fourteenth Amendment established the legal equality of whites and blacks it did not and could not require the elimination of all "distinctions based upon color". The Court rejected Plessy's lawyers' arguments that the Louisiana law inherently implied that black people were inferior, and gave great deference to American state legislatures' inherent power to make laws regulating health, safety, and morals—the "police power"—and to determine the reasonableness of the laws they passed. Justice John Marshall Harlan was the lone dissenter from the Court's decision, writing that the U.S. Constitution "is color-blind, and neither knows nor tolerates classes among citizens", and so the law's distinguishing of passengers' races should have been found unconstitutional.


title: Plessy v. Ferguson

text: "Plessy" is widely regarded as one of the worst decisions in U.S. Supreme Court history. Despite its infamy, the decision has never been explicitly overruled. But a series of the Court's later decisions, beginning with the 1954 decision "Brown v. Board of Education"which held that the "separate but equal" doctrine is unconstitutional in the context of public schoolshave severely weakened "Plessy" to the point that it is considered to have been "de facto" overruled. The United States Congress regards "Plessy" as having been overruled by "Bob Jones University v. United States."


title: Plessy v. Ferguson

text: In 1890, the Louisiana State Legislature passed a law called the Separate Car Act, which required separate accommodations for blacks and whites on Louisiana railroads. The law required passenger train officers to "assign each passenger to the coach or compartment used for the race to which such passenger belongs". It also made it a misdemeanor for any passenger to "insist[] on going into a coach or compartment to which by race he does not belong," punishable by either a $25 fine or up to 20 days in prison.


title: Plessy v. Ferguson

text: A group of prominent black, creole of color, and white creole New Orleans residents formed a civil rights group called the Comité des Citoyens (Committee of Citizens). The group was dedicated to repealing the Separate Car Act and fighting its implementation. The Comité eventually persuaded Homer Plessy, a man of mixed race who was an "octoroon" (person of seven-eighths white and one-eighth black ancestry), to participate in an orchestrated test case to challenge the Act. Plessy had been born a free man and was fair-skinned. However, under Louisiana law, he was classified as black, and thus required to sit in the "colored" car.


title: Plessy v. Ferguson

text: On June 7, 1892, Plessy bought a first-class ticket at the Press Street Depot and boarded a "Whites Only" car of the East Louisiana Railroad in New Orleans, Louisiana, bound for Covington, Louisiana. The railroad company, which had opposed the law on the grounds that it would require the purchase of more railcars, had been previously informed of Plessy's racial lineage, and the intent to challenge the law. Additionally, the Comité des Citoyens hired a private detective with arrest powers to detain Plessy, to ensure that he would be charged for violating the Separate Car Act, as opposed to vagrancy or some other offense. After Plessy took a seat in the whites-only railway car, he was asked to vacate it, and sit instead in the blacks-only car. Plessy refused and was arrested immediately by the detective. As planned, the train was stopped, and Plessy was taken off the train at Press and Royal streets. Plessy was remanded for trial in Orleans Parish.


title: Plessy v. Ferguson

text: Plessy petitioned the state district criminal court to throw out the case, "State v. Homer Adolph Plessy", on the grounds that the state law requiring East Louisiana Railroad to segregate trains had denied him his rights under the Thirteenth and Fourteenth amendments of the United States Constitution, which provided for equal treatment under the law. However, the judge presiding over his case, John Howard Ferguson, ruled that Louisiana had the right to regulate railroad companies while they operated within state boundaries. Four days later, Plessy petitioned the Louisiana Supreme Court for a writ of prohibition to stop his criminal trial.


title: Plessy v. Ferguson

text: The Louisiana Supreme Court issued a temporary writ of prohibition while it reviewed Plessy's case. In December 1892, the court upheld Judge Ferguson's ruling, and denied Plessy's attorneys' subsequent request for a rehearing. In speaking for the court's decision that Ferguson's judgment did not violate the 14th Amendment, Louisiana Supreme Court Justice Charles Erasmus Fenner cited a number of precedents, including two key cases from Northern states. The Massachusetts Supreme Court had ruled in 1849—before the 14th amendment—that segregated schools were constitutional. In answering the charge that segregation perpetuated race prejudice, the Massachusetts court famously stated: "This prejudice, if it exists, is not created by law, and probably cannot be changed by law." The law itself was repealed five years later, but the precedent stood.


title: Plessy v. Ferguson

text: In a Pennsylvania law mandating separate railcars for different races the Pennsylvania Supreme Court stated: "To assert separateness is not to declare inferiority ... It is simply to say that following the order of Divine Providence, human authority ought not to compel these widely separated races to intermix."


title: Plessy v. Ferguson

text: Undaunted, the Committee appealed to the United States Supreme Court. Two legal briefs were submitted on Plessy's behalf. One was signed by Albion W. Tourgée and James C. Walker and the other by Samuel F. Phillips and his legal partner F. D. McKenney. Oral arguments were held before the Supreme Court on April 13, 1896. Tourgée and Phillips appeared in the courtroom to speak on behalf of Plessy.


title: Plessy v. Ferguson

text: Tourgée built his case upon violation of Plessy's rights under the 13th Amendment, prohibiting slavery, and the 14th Amendment, which states "No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States; nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws." Tourgée argued that the reputation of being a black man was "property", which, by the law, implied the inferiority of African Americans as compared to whites. The state legal brief was prepared by Attorney General Milton Joseph Cunningham of Natchitoches and New Orleans. Cunningham was a staunch supporter of white supremacy, who according to a laudatory 1916 obituary "worked so effectively [during Reconstruction] in restoring white supremacy in politics that he finally was arrested, with fifty-one other men of that community, and tried by federal officials."


title: Plessy v. Ferguson

text: On May 18, 1896, the Supreme Court issued a 7–1 decision against Plessy that upheld the constitutionality of Louisiana's train car segregation laws.


title: Plessy v. Ferguson

text: Seven justices formed the Court's majority and joined an opinion written by Justice Henry Billings Brown. The Court first dismissed any claim that the Louisiana law violated the Thirteenth Amendment, which, in the majority's opinion, did no more than ensure that black Americans had the basic level of legal equality needed to abolish slavery.


title: Plessy v. Ferguson

text: Next, the Court considered whether the law violated the Fourteenth Amendment Equal Protection Clause, which reads: "nor shall any State ... deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws." The Court said that although the Fourteenth Amendment was meant to guarantee the legal equality of all races in America, it was not intended to prevent social or other types of discrimination.


title: Plessy v. Ferguson

text: The Court reasoned that laws requiring racial separation were within Louisiana's police power: the core sovereign authority of U.S. states to pass laws on matters of "health, safety, and morals". It held that as long as a law that classified and separated people by their race was a reasonable and good faith exercise of a state's police power and was not designed to oppress a particular class, the law did not violate the Equal Protection Clause. According to the Court, the question in any case that involved a racial segregation law was whether the law was reasonable, and the Court gave State legislatures broad discretion to determine the reasonableness of the laws they passed.


title: Plessy v. Ferguson

text: Plessy's lawyers had argued that segregation laws inherently implied that black people were inferior, and therefore stigmatized them with a second-class status that violated the Equal Protection Clause. But the Court rejected this argument.


title: Plessy v. Ferguson

text: The Court rejected the notion that the law marked black Americans with "a badge of inferiority", and said that racial prejudice could not be overcome by legislation.


title: Plessy v. Ferguson

text: Justice John Marshall Harlan was the lone dissenter from the decision. Harlan strongly disagreed with the Court's conclusion that the Louisiana law did not imply that black people were inferior, and he accused the majority of being willfully ignorant on the subject.


title: Plessy v. Ferguson

text: To support his argument, Harlan pointed out that the Louisiana law contained an exception for "nurses attending children of the other race". This exception allowed black women who were nannies to white children to be in the white-only train cars. Harlan said that this showed that the Louisiana law only allowed black people to be in white-only cars if it was obvious that they were "social subordinates" or "domestics".


title: Plessy v. Ferguson

text: Harlan argued that even though many white Americans of the late 19th century considered themselves superior to Americans of other races, the U.S. Constitution was "color-blind" in matters of law and civil rights.


title: Plessy v. Ferguson

text: Harlan predicted that the "Plessy" decision would eventually become as infamous as the Court's 1857 decision "Dred Scott v. Sandford", in which the Court ruled that black Americans could not be citizens under the U.S. Constitution, and that its legal protections and privileges could never apply to them.


title: Plessy v. Ferguson

text: After the Supreme Court ruling, Plessy's criminal trial went ahead in Ferguson's court in Louisiana on February 11, 1897. Plessy changed his plea to "guilty" of violating the Separate Car Act, which carried a $25 fine or 20 days in jail. He opted to pay the fine. The Comité des Citoyens disbanded shortly after the trial's end.


title: Plessy v. Ferguson

text: "Plessy" legitimized state laws establishing "racial" segregation in the South and provided an impetus for further segregation laws. It also legitimized laws in the North requiring "racial" segregation, such as in the Boston school segregation case noted by Justice Brown in his majority opinion. Legislative achievements won during the Reconstruction Era were erased through means of the "separate but equal" doctrine. The doctrine had been strengthened also by an 1875 Supreme Court decision that limited the federal government's ability to intervene in state affairs, guaranteeing to Congress only the power "to restrain states from acts of racial discrimination and segregation". The ruling basically granted states legislative immunity when dealing with questions of "race", guaranteeing the states' right to implement racially separate institutions, requiring them only to be equal.


title: Plessy v. Ferguson

text: Despite the pretense of "separate but equal", non-whites essentially always received inferior facilities and treatment, if they received them at all.


title: Plessy v. Ferguson

text: The prospect of greater state influence in matters of race worried numerous advocates of civil equality, including Supreme Court Justice John Harlan, who wrote in his "Plessy" dissent, "we shall enter upon an era of constitutional law, when the rights of freedom and American citizenship cannot receive from the nation that efficient protection which heretofore was unhesitatingly accorded to slavery and the rights of the master." Harlan's concerns about the encroachment on the 14th Amendment would prove well-founded; states proceeded to institute segregation-based laws that became known as the Jim Crow system. In addition, from 1890 to 1908, Southern states passed new or amended constitutions including provisions that effectively disenfranchised blacks and thousands of poor whites.


title: Plessy v. Ferguson

text: Some commentators, such as Gabriel J. Chin and Eric Maltz, have viewed Harlan's "Plessy" dissent in a more critical light, and suggested it be viewed in context with his other decisions. Maltz has argued that "modern commentators have often overstated Harlan's distaste for race-based classifications", pointing to other aspects of decisions in which Harlan was involved. Both point to a passage of Harlan's "Plessy" dissent as particularly troubling: There is a race so different from our own that we do not permit those belonging to it to become citizens of the United States. Persons belonging to it are, with few exceptions, absolutely excluded from our country. I allude to the Chinese race. But, by the statute in question, a Chinaman can ride in the same passenger coach with white citizens of the United States, while citizens of the black race in Louisiana, many of whom, perhaps, risked their lives for the preservation of the Union... and who have all the legal rights that belong to white citizens, are yet declared to be criminals, liable to imprisonment, if they ride in a public coach occupied by citizens of the white race.


title: Plessy v. Ferguson

text: New Orleans historian Keith Weldon Medley, author of "We As Freemen: Plessy v. Ferguson, The Fight Against Legal Segregation", said the words in Justice Harlan's "Great Dissent" were taken from papers filed with the court by "The Citizen's Committee".


title: Plessy v. Ferguson

text: The effect of the "Plessy" ruling was immediate; there were already significant differences in funding for the segregated school system, which continued into the 20th century; states consistently underfunded black schools, providing them with substandard buildings, textbooks, and supplies. States which had successfully integrated elements of their society abruptly adopted oppressive legislation that erased reconstruction era efforts. The principles of "Plessy v. Ferguson" were affirmed in "Lum v. Rice" (1927), which upheld the right of a Mississippi public school for white children to exclude a Chinese American girl. Despite the laws enforcing compulsory education, and the lack of public schools for Chinese children in Lum's area, the Supreme Court ruled that she had the choice to attend a private school. Jim Crow laws and practices spread northward in response to a second wave of African-American migration from the South to northern and midwestern cities. Some established de jure segregated educational facilities, separate public institutions such as hotels and restaurants, separate beaches among other public facilities, and restrictions on interracial marriage, but in other cases segregation in the North was related to unstated practices and operated on a de facto basis, although not by law, among numerous other facets of daily life.


title: Plessy v. Ferguson

text: The separate facilities and institutions accorded to the African-American community were consistently inferior to those provided to the White community. This contradicted the vague declaration of "separate but equal" issued after the "Plessy" decision. Since no state wrote the "separate but equal" doctrine into a statute, there was no remedy, other than going back to the U.S. Supreme Court, if the separate facilities were not equal, and states faced no consequences if they underfunded services and facilities for non-whites.


title: Plessy v. Ferguson

text: From 1890 to 1908, state legislatures in the South disenfranchised most blacks and many poor whites through rejecting them for voter registration and voting: making voter registration more difficult by providing more detailed records, such as proof of land ownership or literacy tests administered by white staff at poll stations. African-American community leaders, who had achieved brief political success during the Reconstruction era and even into the 1880s, lost gains made when their voters were excluded from the political system. Historian Rogers Smith noted on the subject that "lawmakers frequently admitted, indeed boasted, that such measures as complex registration rules, literacy and property tests, poll taxes, white primaries, and grandfather clauses were designed to produce an electorate confined to a white race that declared itself supreme", notably rejecting the 14th and 15th Amendments to the American Constitution.


title: Plessy v. Ferguson

text: In "Brown v. Board of Education" (1954), the US Supreme Court ruled that segregation in public education was unconstitutional. While "Plessy v. Ferguson" was never explicitly overruled by the Supreme Court, it is effectively dead as a precedent; the Interstate Commerce Commission ruled that segregation on interstate transport violated the Interstate Commerce Act in the 1955 case "Keys v. Carolina Coach Co". The Civil Rights Act of 1964 prohibited legal segregation and the Voting Rights Act of 1965 provided for federal oversight and enforcement of voter registration and voting.


title: Plessy v. Ferguson

text: In 2009, Keith Plessy and Phoebe Ferguson, descendants of participants on both sides of the 1896 Supreme Court case, announced establishing the Plessy and Ferguson Foundation for Education and Reconciliation. The foundation will work to create new ways to teach the history of civil rights through film, art, and public programs designed to create understanding of this historic case and its effect on the American conscience.


title: Plessy v. Ferguson

text: In 2009, a marker was placed at the corner of Press and Royal Streets, near where Plessy had boarded his train.


title: Plessy v. Ferguson

text: In 2021, the Louisiana Board of Pardons unanimously approved a posthumous pardon of Plessy, sending it to Governor John Bel Edwards for final approval. Edwards granted the pardon on January 5, 2022.


title: Colt Single Action Army

text: The Colt Single Action Army (also known as the SAA, Model P, Peacemaker, or M1873) is a single-action revolver handgun. It was designed in 1872 for the U.S. government service revolver trials of 1872 by Colt's Patent Firearms Manufacturing Company (today known as Colt's Manufacturing Company) and was adopted as the standard-issued pistol of the US Army in 1873 until 1892.


title: Colt Single Action Army

text: The Colt SAA has been offered in over 30 different calibers and various barrel lengths. Its overall appearance has remained consistent since 1873. Colt has cancelled its production twice, but brought it back due to popular demand. The revolver was dubbed as "Colt Peacemaker" and is a famous piece of Americana, as it was popular with ranchers, lawmen, and outlaws alike since its creation and due to its association with the American Wild West era. Today, they are mainly bought as memorabilia by collectors and re-enactors. Its design has influenced the production of numerous other models from other companies.


title: Colt Single Action Army

text: Bound by the Rollin White patent () and not wanting to pay a royalty fee to Smith & Wesson, Colt could not begin development of bored-through revolver cylinders for metallic cartridge use until April 4, 1869. For the design, Colt turned to two of its best engineers: William Mason and Charles Brinckerhoff Richards who had developed a number of revolvers and black powder conversions for the company. Their effort was designed for the United States government service revolver trials of 1872 by Colt's Patent Firearms Manufacturing Company and adopted as the standard military service revolver. Production began in 1873 with the Single Action Army model 1873, also referred to as the "New Model Army Metallic Cartridge Revolving Pistol".


title: Colt Single Action Army

text: The very first production Single Action Army, serial number 1, thought lost for many years after its production, was found in a barn in Nashua, New Hampshire, in the early 1900s. This gun was chambered in .44 S&W, a centerfire design containing charges of up to of fine-grained black powder and a blunt roundnosed bullet. Relative to period cartridges and most later handgun rounds, it was quite powerful in its full loading.


title: Colt Single Action Army

text: The Colt Single Action Army revolver, along with the 1870 and 1875 Smith & Wesson Model 3 "Schofield" revolver, replaced the Colt 1860 Army Percussion revolver. The Colt quickly gained favor over the S&W and remained the primary U.S. military sidearm until 1892 when it was replaced by the .38 Long Colt caliber Colt Model 1892, a double-action revolver with swing-out cylinder. By the end of 1874, serial no. 16,000 was reached; 12,500 Colt Single Action Army revolvers chambered for the .45 Colt cartridge had entered service and the remaining revolvers were sold in the civilian market.


title: Colt Single Action Army

text: The Single Action Army became available in standard barrel lengths of inch, inch, as well as the Cavalry standard, original inch. The shorter barrelled revolvers are sometimes called the "Civilian" or "Gunfighter" model ( inch) and the Artillery Model ( inch). There was also a variant with a sub-4-inch barrel, without an ejector rod, unofficially called the "Sheriff's Model", "Banker's Special", or "Storekeeper".


title: Colt Single Action Army

text: From 1875 until 1880 Colt marketed a single-action revolver chambered in .44 Henry in a separate number range from no. 1 to 1,863.


title: Colt Single Action Army

text: A "Flattop Target Model" was listed in Colt's catalogs from 1890 to 1898. Colt manufactured 914 of these revolvers with a frame that was flat on top and fitted with an adjustable leaf rear sight. The front sight consisted of a base with an interchangeable blade.


title: Colt Single Action Army

text: In 1896, at serial number 164,100, a spring-loaded base pin latch replaced the cylinder pin retaining screw and by 1900, at serial number 192,000, the Colt Single Action was certified for use with smokeless powder. In 1920, larger, highly visible sights replaced the original thin blade and notch. The revolvers remained essentially unchanged from that point until cessation of manufacture at the beginning of World War II.


title: Colt Single Action Army

text: From 1873 through 1940 (with small numbers assembled during and after World War II, the so-called "Pre-War, Post-War" model), production of the Colt Single Action Army reached 357,859. This is identified as the "Pre War" or "First Generation" of the model. Calibers, at least thirty in all, ranged from .22 rimfire through .476 Eley, with approximately half, or 158,884 (including Bisley and Flat Top Target variations), chambered for .45 Colt. The next most prevalent were the .44-40 Winchester Center fire (WCF) at 71,392; 38-40 (38 WCF) at 50,520; .32-20 Winchester (32 WCF) at 43,284 and, the 41 Colt at 19,676.


title: Colt Single Action Army

text: All original, good condition, U.S. Cavalry and Artillery Single Action Armies (those produced between 1873 and 1891) are among the most valuable to collectors. Especially valuable, often going for well over $10,000, are the OWA (Orville Wood Ainsworth) and the rare Henry Nettleton inspected Single Action Army Colts.


title: Colt Single Action Army

text: The OWA Colt refers to the earliest issued Single Action Army guns, which were inspected by Orville W. Ainsworth. Ainsworth was the ordnance sub-inspector at the Colt factory for the first 13 months (October 1873 to November 1874) of the Single Action Army's production. It was Ainsworth who inspected the Colts used by Col. G. A. Custer's 7th Cavalry at the Battle of the Little Bighorn. The number range of possible Little Bighorn Colts is 4500–7527.


title: Colt Single Action Army

text: Henry Nettleton was the U.S. Principal Sub-inspector in 1878 at the Springfield Armory. Second only to the OWA Colts, Nettleton Colts are prized by serious collectors. Both the Nettleton and OWA Colts have the cartouche (OWA or HN) on the left side of the wood grip.


title: Colt Single Action Army

text: By the mid-1870s, the Army had purchased a significant number of Smith & Wesson Schofield revolvers chambering a shorter .45 round. Logistical problems arose because the ammunition was not interchangeable. The Colt revolvers would accept the shorter round, but not vice versa. For a time, the Government stopped orders for the longer Colt cartridge and used the Smith & Wesson round exclusively. The Schofield was soon retired and sold to the civilian market.


title: Colt Single Action Army

text: The largest group of U.S. Colt Cavalry revolvers was inspected by David F. Clark, his D.F.C. cartouche being encountered on revolvers inspected from 1880 to 1887. During 1893, the .45 U.S. Colt Single Action Army revolver was retired by the Cavalry and replaced by the .38 caliber Colt Model 1892 Double Action Army revolver. The .45 Single Action Army revolver was still standard issue to the Infantry, Artillery and other branches of the U.S. Army.


title: Colt Single Action Army

text: In 1895–1896, the U.S. federal government returned 2000 SAA revolvers to Colt to be refurbished; 800 were issued to the New York Militia with the barrel and 1,200 were altered to a barrel length of . In 1898, 14,900 of the SAA revolvers were altered the same way by Springfield Armory. The original records of the War Department do refer to these revolvers with the shortened barrel as the "Altered Revolver". The name "Artillery" is actually a misnomer, which Sapp speculates may have originated because the Light Artillery happened to have the first units armed with the altered revolver.


title: Colt Single Action Army

text: The Artillery Single Actions were issued to the Infantry, the Light Artillery, the Volunteer Cavalry and other troops because the standard-issue .38 caliber Colt M 1892 double-action revolver was lacking in stopping power. For that reason, the .45 Artillery SAA Revolvers were used successfully by front troops in the Spanish–American War and the Philippine–American War. Theodore Roosevelt's Rough Riders charged up San Juan Hill wielding the .45 caliber Artillery Model.


title: Colt Single Action Army

text: The Artillery Model usually had mixed numbers. It can be identified by the U.S. on the frame, the inspector's stamps on different parts (such as a tiny A for Orville W. Ainsworth, DFC, HN, RAC for later inspectors and K for replacement parts) and the cartouche of Rinaldo A. Carr (RAC), the inspector who inspected the refurbished guns, on the grip.


title: Colt Single Action Army

text: The Colt Frontier or Frontier Six-Shooter was a Colt's 1873 "Model P" type revolver manufactured in .44-40 Winchester caliber instead of .45 Colt (in which configuration it was called the "Single Action Army") so that it was compatible with Winchester Model 1873 ammunition. Production began in 1877. "Colt Frontier Six-Shooter" was the actual name of the Colt pistol model, and this was acid-etched on the left side of the barrel. After 1889, the legend was roll-stamped until 1919, when the caliber designation ".44-40" was added. Later Colt 1878 Double Action Army Models also wore this designation on the barrel when chambered in .44 WCF/.44-40 Winchester. The Bisley 1895 Model was the final Colt to wear the Frontier Six Shooter designation.


title: Colt Single Action Army

text: The 44-40 was also promoted as the standard chambering for the new, hugely successful, Winchester Model 1873 rifle. Users of the .44-40 Winchester cartridge in the Far West appreciated the convenience of being able to carry a single caliber of ammunition, which they could fire in both revolver and rifle. The "Colt Frontier Six Shooter" Revolver and the Winchester Model 1873 or the Winchester Model 1892 in .44-40 WCF caliber were one of the most common combinations seen in "the Old West". For example, the two mounted "Cowboys" at the Gunfight at the O.K. Corral were armed with this rifle and pistol combination. .38-40 and .32-20 (.32 WCF) also qualify as "Frontier Calibers" because 1873 and 1892 Winchesters were made in these calibers, offering the same convenience as the 44-40 (44WCF) caliber, namely using the same cartridge in both revolver and rifle.


title: Colt Single Action Army

text: The Colt Bisley was introduced in 1894 as a target pistol. The name Bisley came from the famous firing range in Bisley, England. The Colt Bisley can be distinguished by the longer grip, the wider hammer spur, and the wider trigger. The distinguishing feature of the Bisley Target Model is the topstrap, which is flat and fitted with a sliding rear sight, adjustable for windage only. The front sight is a removable blade, which fits into the slotted base attached to the barrel. The revolvers were supplied with different blades for elevation.


title: Colt Single Action Army

text: The Bisley mainspring is longer than the SAA mainspring, and the two are not interchangeable; it is attached to the hammer with a stirrup via a forked upper end. The serial numbers are stamped on the frame, the backstrap and the trigger-guard at the end of production, with tiny dies.


title: Colt Single Action Army

text: Bisleys were serial-numbered in the range of 156300–331916, in the same sequence as the Single Action Army. All Bisleys after No. 161,376 had "BISLEY MODEL" with the caliber stamped on the left side of the barrel, which is rare for older Colt revolvers. The most common calibers were .32-20, .38-40, .45 Colt, .44-40, .41 Colt, and the British calibers .450 Eley and .455 Eley. A total number of 44,350 were manufactured. Production of the Bisley was terminated in 1912, but serial No. 331916 was shipped after the First World War. Most Bisley Standard Model Revolvers shipped to a United States address were not used for target shooting, but for self-defense, because the grip and hammer were ideal for fast shooting.


title: Colt Single Action Army

text: Surveys of existing Bisley show that a much larger number of Bisleys, perhaps as high as 62%, have survived as compared to the " and " barreled guns. Considering the majority of Bisleys were made in .32/20 and .38/40, some 60%, it appears that the market for SAAs was changing. The late 1890s with increased urbanization in the West suggests the possibility that many of these pistols were companions to the lever-action rifles of the same period and that the low slung hammer, less humped backstrap, and short barrel may have suited the city-dwelling suit-coat-wearing clientele who still found themselves outdoors not only on horses but in buggies and automobiles. The need for man-stopping bullets was decreasing in urbanized environments, although in semi-urban areas, a pistol like the Bisley would be suitable for discouraging both four-legged and two-legged "varmints" while also suitable for collecting supper along the road. The Bisley may mark a movement to a more civilized West.


title: Colt Single Action Army

text: Wyatt Earp biographer Stuart N. Lake popularized the myth of the Buntline Special. In his highly fictionalized biography, "Wyatt Earp: Frontier Marshal", published in 1931, he wrote that Earp and four other lawmen—Bat Masterson, Bill Tilghman, Charlie Bassett and Neal Brown—were each presented with a customized revolver with a barrel. However, according to some other accounts, on October 26, 1881, the day of the Gunfight at the O.K. Corral, Wyatt Earp carried an 1869 .44 caliber Smith & Wesson American Model with an barrel.


title: Colt Single Action Army

text: At the beginning of World War II, Colt ceased production of the Single Action Army revolver to devote more time to filling orders for the war. When the war ended, no plans were made to revive the Single Action Army revolver as the design was seen as obsolete. However the advent of television and Western-themed movies created customer demand for the revolver, so Colt resumed manufacture in 1956 with the Second Generation line of Single Action Army revolvers.


title: Colt Single Action Army

text: These Second Generation Colt Single Action Army revolvers were produced from 1956 to 1974 and carried serial numbers in the range of 0001SA to 73,205SA. Due to the popularity of the television show, "The Life and Legend of Wyatt Earp", Colt introduced the aforementioned Buntline Special as a Second generation offering from 1957 to 1974.


title: Colt Single Action Army

text: From 1961 to 1975, Colt offered an adjustable-sight model known as "The New Frontier", capitalizing on President John F. Kennedy's campaign slogan. Colt manufactured 4200 of these revolvers, including 70 built on the Buntline frame.


title: Colt Single Action Army

text: The Third Generation began in 1976, characterized by a change in barrel thread pitch and a solid cylinder bushing replacing the removable/replaceable part from the first and second generations. This series ran until 1982 as a limited-issue product with the serial number range of SA80,000 to SA99,999.


title: Colt Single Action Army

text: In 1994, production of the SAA resumed with the increase in popularity of "Cowboy Action Shooting" matches. These models are known either as "Late Third Generation" or sometimes Fourth Generation. They have the original style removable/replaceable cylinder bushing. The serial number for this series started at S02001A and continue to use the "S" prefix and "A" suffix as of 2022. Colt currently offers the Single Action Army in one of two finishes: either an all-nickel, or blued with color case-hardened frame; in the traditional three barrel lengths: ; and eight chamberings: .32-20, .38-40, .44-40, .38 Special, .357 Magnum, .44 Special, .45 Colt, or .45 ACP; a total of 42 variations.


title: Colt Single Action Army

text: Colt manufactured Third Generation Buntlines and New Frontiers through the Colt Custom Shop, as well as many engraved pistols. In 2010, Colt released a "revival" of the Frontier Six Shooter with a nickel finish.


title: Colt Single Action Army

text: Starting in 1999, Colt began manufacturing a version of the Single Action Army revolver with a modern transfer bar safety, allowing it to be carried with the hammer resting on a loaded chamber. The Colt Cowboy, as it was named, was designed to be more affordable than the Single Action Army. It was offered with barrel lengths of 4.75", 5.5", and 7.5". The 7.5" variant was discontinued in 1999, as was the 4.75" variant, which was reintroduced in 2002. Manufacturing of the Colt Cowboy was discontinued in 2003.


title: Colt Single Action Army

text: Colt engraved about one percent of its first-generation production of the Single Action Army revolver, which makes these engraved models extremely rare and valuable with collectors. Engraved pieces were often ordered by or for famous people of the day, including lawmen, heads of state, and captains of industry. This tradition began with the founder, Samuel Colt, who regularly gave such examples away as a means of publicity for Colt.


title: Colt Single Action Army

text: Colt employed a number of engravers, many of whom were trained artisans who emigrated from Europe. These artisans, such as Gustave Young, Cuno A. Helfricht, Rudolph J. Kornbrath and Louis Daniel Nimschke, were known for inlaying gold, silver, and precious stones in their work. Many of these engraved pieces were adorned with stocks made of ivory or pearl, with engraving and inlays as well.


title: Colt Single Action Army

text: About 400 of the Second Generation Colt Single Actions were factory-engraved by Colt. The factory engravers of the period were Alvin Herbert, Earl Bieu, Dennis Kies, Robert Burt, Steve Kamyk and Leonard Francolini. One of the most sought-after engravers who have worked on Colt revolvers was Alvin White and the shop of A. A. White Engravers.


title: Colt Single Action Army

text: The Single Action Army action is a refinement of the earlier Colt percussion revolvers and the Colt 1871 cartridge revolver. The cylinder is mounted on a central axis and operated by a hand with a double finger whose more extended action allowed the cylinder-ratchet to be cut in a larger circle, giving more torsional force to the cylinder. Four notches on the face of the hammer engage the sear portion of the trigger, affording four basic hammer positions. The hammer when fully lowered rests within the frame. Drawn slightly to the rear, the hammer engages the safety notch of the sear and holds the firing pin out of direct contact with a chambered cartridge. Like the earlier percussion revolvers, the Single Action Army was designed to allow loading of all of the chambers.


title: Colt Single Action Army

text: The safety notch replaced pins on the rear of the percussion revolver cylinders, which served the same purpose as the safety position, by preventing hammer contact with the primer/percussion cap. However, many users adopted the practice of leaving one empty chamber under the hammer, because a sharp blow could damage the mechanism and allow a fully loaded revolver to fire. This practice is now universally recommended. Drawn back about half way, the hammer engages the second notch. This cams the cylinder bolt out of engagement and allows the cylinder to rotate for loading. Fully cocked, the revolver is ready to fire. Cartridge ejection is via the spring-loaded rod housed in a tube on the right side of the barrel.


title: Colt Single Action Army

text: It is possible to fire the SAA rapidly by holding down the trigger and "fanning" the hammer with the other hand. Ed McGivern dispelled the myth of the inaccuracy of this procedure by shooting tight groups while fanning the revolver.


title: Colt Single Action Army

text: By 1878 the Colt SAA was being offered from the factory in additional calibers for civilian and foreign military sales. Many were sold in .44-40 Winchester Center Fire (WCF), introduced in 1878 to allow cross-compatibility with the Winchester '73 lever-action rifle; this model was called the "Colt Frontier Six-Shooter", which was etched and later roll-stamped on the left side of the barrel. Additional period calibers for the SAA included .38-40 Winchester (38 WCF) introduced in 1884, the .32-20 Winchester (32 WCF) introduced in 1884, the .41 Colt introduced in 1885, the .38 Long Colt in 1887, the .38 Special and the .357 Magnum in the 20th century. Some of the separately-serialized .44 Henry rimfire revolvers were rechambered to .22 rimfire after 1885. The SAA at one time or another was offered in dozens of calibers from .22 rimfire to .476 Eley, though the .45 Colt has always been the most common. A scaled-down .22 rimfire version called the Scout or Frontier Scout was available in the late 20th century.


title: Colt Single Action Army

text: The first Colt Single Action Army prototypes were manufactured in .44 American caliber for the 1872 government trials, as the .44 American was the cartridge used in the 1,000 Smith & Wesson Model 3 revolvers issued to the troops. After the tests, the Colt was declared the superior revolver and the government specified that a .45 caliber cartridge would be required. With the adoption of the Colt Single Action Army revolver in 1873, the service cartridges were Copper-cased .45 centerfire Benét inside primed "Colt's Revolver Cartridges" loaded with 30 grains of black powder and an inside lubricated bullet of 250 grain. They were manufactured at Frankford Arsenal, Philadelphia, PA, through 1874. In 1875, the cartridge was shortened so that it would also function in the newly adopted S & W Schofield revolver. It was designated "Revolver Cartridge" and loaded with 28 grains of black powder and a bullet of 230 grain. The Bénet-primed cartridges were manufactured until 1882 and then replaced by reloadable cartridges with brass cases and external primers.


title: Colt Single Action Army

text: The original .45 Colt black-powder load of 40 grains propelled the 250–255 grain bullet at a nominal . Authors John Taffin and Mike Venturino have demonstrated that modern black-powder loadings of the .45 Colt cartridge frequently achieve velocities in the vicinity of with the " "cavalry" barrel length, even though modern solid-head cases make it impossible to load a full 40 grains. Specifications for 20th-century smokeless loads set velocity with a round-nosed flat-point bullet at providing energy.


title: Colt Single Action Army

text: The version of the .45 Colt as of 2014 differs from the original cartridge case in that the rim is significantly larger (with a groove immediately above it) and the internal aspect of the primer pocket is surrounded by solid brass instead of protruding into the powder chamber. This "solid head" case is stronger and resists deformation of the primer pocket. Some commercial and custom revolvers and single-shot pistols (such as the Ruger Blackhawk, T/C Contender and others) employ high-pressure loads that are dangerous in the Single Action Army and other vintage arms chambered for the .45 Colt cartridge, especially 19th-century "pre-smokeless" revolvers, which should be fired (if at all) with black powder only.


title: Colt Single Action Army

text: Prior to World War II, the .45 Colt used a groove diameter of .454"; post-WWII production adopted the .452" groove diameter of the .45 ACP. From 1924 through 1940, a small number of Single Actions in the pistol caliber .45 ACP were produced. Colt's records list several Single Actions chambered for the .45 Colt cartridge and being accompanied by an extra cylinder for the .45 ACP.


title: Colt Single Action Army

text: The power, accuracy and handling qualities of the Single Action Army (SAA) made it a popular sidearm from its inception, well into the 20th century. The association with the history of the American West remains to the present century, and these revolvers remain popular with shooters and collectors. George S. Patton, who began his career in the horse-cavalry, carried a custom-made SAA with ivory grips engraved with his initials and an eagle, which became his trademark. He used it during the Mexican Punitive Expedition of 1916 in a gunfight with two of Pancho Villa's lieutenants, and carried it until his death in 1945 shortly after the end of World War II. It remains on display, along with the SAA carried by actor George C. Scott portraying Patton in the 1970 film by the same name at the General George Patton Museum of Leadership at Fort Knox, KY


title: Colt Single Action Army

text: In the early and mid-20th century, original Peacemakers lacking historical provenance and not in pristine condition were not particularly valuable. They served as raw material for early enthusiasts such as Elmer Keith, Harold Croft and R. F. Sedgley who modified the revolvers to enhance performance and experimented with more effective ammunition. At the beginning of the 21st century, first- and second-generation SAAs are highly regarded as collectors' items and often considered too valuable to shoot.


title: Colt Single Action Army

text: After World War II, new interest in the SAA started and firearms enthusiast William R. Wilson recognized the need and the opportunity. In 1953 Wilson founded the Great Western Arms Company to produce an almost-exact clone of the old Colt SAA for television and movie westerns. The Great Western revolvers were manufactured in Los Angeles.


title: Colt Single Action Army

text: Later Colt editions are more common, and various copies and near-copies of the revolver are made by Uberti of Italy. Uberti is now owned by Beretta, producer of the Beretta Stampede. American manufacturers include Colt Manufacturing Company, which still retains the model in its catalog. Until its dissolution in 2017, U.S. Fire Arms Mfg. Co. built several variations true to the original first- and second-generation specifications. STI International has introduced a very precisely made Single Action Army with a modified hand/spring assembly designed to last longer than the originals.


title: Colt Single Action Army

text: The Single Action Army is the precursor and inspiration for modern sporting revolvers from John Linebaugh, Freedom Arms, Ruger, Cimarron, and others.


title: Colt Single Action Army

text: In 2010, Arizona State Rifle and Pistol Association President Noble C. Hathaway and Cast Bullet Director Dan Walliser surveyed state residents to determine what "Old West" firearm should be named the official state firearm. The Colt Patent Firearms Single Action Army won by a 38% margin. Afterwards, Hathaway submitted a bill to the Arizona legislature, and on the last day of the 2010–2011 regular legislative session, Arizona Senate Bill 1610 was passed. Governor Jan Brewer signed the bill into law. Arizona is the second state to have an official firearm, following Utah's adoption of the Colt M1911 pistol.


title: Pieces of a Woman

text: Pieces of a Woman is a 2020 drama film directed by Kornél Mundruczó, from a screenplay by Kata Wéber. The film stars Vanessa Kirby, Shia LaBeouf, Molly Parker, Sarah Snook, Iliza Shlesinger, Benny Safdie, Jimmie Fails, and Ellen Burstyn as the family and associates of Martha (Kirby) involved in her traumatic childbirth, baby loss, and a subsequent court case against the midwife, Eva (Parker), whom Martha's mother Elizabeth (Burstyn) blames for the baby's death. Martin Scorsese and Sam Levinson served as executive producers, and the film was scored by Howard Shore.


title: Pieces of a Woman

text: An international co-production of the United States and Canada, the film is in part based on Mundruczó and Wéber's stage play of the same name and explores themes of grief and loss. It premiered on September 4, 2020, at the 77th Venice International Film Festival, where Kirby won the Volpi Cup for Best Actress. It was released in select theaters on December 30, 2020, before beginning to digitally stream on Netflix on January 7, 2021, and became noted for its long take childbirth scene at the start of the film.


title: Pieces of a Woman

text: The film received generally positive reviews, with praise for the actors, particularly Kirby, though elements of the plot were criticized. For her performance, Kirby received Academy Award, BAFTA, SAG, Critics' Choice, and Golden Globe nominations.


title: Pieces of a Woman

text: Martha and Sean, a young Boston couple, are expecting their first child. Sean resents Martha's mother Elizabeth, a wealthy Holocaust survivor, who is buying them a minivan.


title: Pieces of a Woman

text: Martha goes into labor at their home and Sean calls their midwife Barbara, who is unavailable and sends another midwife named Eva in her place. Martha struggles with nausea and pain during contractions and, when she reaches ten centimeters, Eva realizes the baby's heart rate has dropped dangerously low. Sean asks Eva if they are safe to continue and Eva tells Sean to call an ambulance. Martha soon gives birth to a baby girl who at first seems healthy. Eva then notices the baby is turning blue and attempts to revive her, but she goes into cardiac arrest and dies.


title: Pieces of a Woman

text: The following month, Martha and Sean attend an appointment with a coroner; Sean is eager to find out what went wrong, while Martha is reluctant. They learn the cause of death has not yet been established but are told they were able to determine that the baby was in a low-oxygen environment and start proceedings against Eva. Sean leaves, overcome with emotion, while Martha remains and decides that she wants to donate the baby's body to science.


title: Pieces of a Woman

text: The relationship between Martha and Sean continues to be strained, as is Martha's relationship with her mother, who wants to bury the baby and have a funeral. Both Martha and Sean remain deeply depressed. Sean returns the car that Elizabeth bought for them. He later has sex with Martha's cousin, Suzanne, and uses cocaine after being sober for almost seven years. Suzanne, who is also the attorney prosecuting Eva, informs him that a potential lawsuit against Eva could be very lucrative.


title: Pieces of a Woman

text: At a tense family gathering at her home, Elizabeth tells Martha that she has to attend Eva's trial and blames Martha for her baby's death because she decided to have a home birth. Elizabeth then tells Sean that she never liked him before offering him a check for a large sum of money to leave and never return. Martha drops Sean off at Logan International Airport and he leaves for Seattle.


title: Pieces of a Woman

text: Months later, Martha testifies at Eva's trial. After her testimony, the judge allows her to address the court, and she states that Eva is not at fault for the death and that she does not blame her. Back home, she discovers that the apple seeds she stored in her refrigerator have started to sprout. A month later, Martha scatters her daughter's ashes into the river from the bridge that Sean helped to build.


title: Pieces of a Woman

text: Years later, a little girl climbs an apple tree, picks an apple, and eats it. Martha calls her name, Lucianna, then helps her down. The two go inside together.


title: Pieces of a Woman

text: The play "Pieces of a Woman" was created by Kornél Mundruczó and Kata Wéber, a couple who experienced miscarriage during pregnancy. The couple did not initially talk about their experience or process their grief, but Mundruczó read a scene written in Wéber's notebook depicting a woman and her mother debate child loss and felt that it needed exploration. Wéber, who had already titled the scene "Pieces of a Woman", became the playwright after Mundruczó encouraged her to make a "family drama" from the scene; the play was originally performed at TR Warszawa in Warsaw, Poland. Following (Polish) Maja, her senile mother, and her Norwegian husband, the play contained two scenes: the childbirth and a family dinner in the aftermath. For BroadwayWorld, Filip Piotrowicz wrote that the scenes being performed in real time with real props (including a working oven and food being cooked inside) felt both like a film and classic theatrical form. The birth scene was multimedia, with the performance being recorded by a camera freely roaming the stage and live-streamed on screens in the theater, and other screens showing ultrasound scans of the fetus.


title: Pieces of a Woman

text: The film "Pieces of a Woman" was announced to be in production in October 2019, with Mundruczó directing from a screenplay by Wéber. It is based on their play, and also incorporates fictionalized aspects of the trial of Hungarian midwife Ágnes Geréb. Wéber consulted with psychiatrists and other women who had lost babies while writing the film. In developing the play for the screen, Mundruczó chose to set it in Boston, thinking the city's historic Irish Catholic culture was a good translation of the conservative Polish society of the original. It is his first film in the English language. Wéber submitted the script to the Hungarian National Film Fund but did not get support; Aaron Ryder read the script and showed it to producers Ashley Levinson and Kevin Turen, who took it on. Sam Levinson and Martin Scorsese, among others, served as executive producers on the film; Scorsese, who was shown the film by composer Howard Shore prior to its release, boarded after the film was complete, hoping to help its distribution as Mundruczó and Wéber were unknown filmmakers. Supporting actress Ellen Burstyn, who was directed by Scorsese in "Alice Doesn't Live Here Anymore", said that he "picked up on things [about "Pieces of a Woman"] that [she] never heard anybody else pick up on. And he has such an appreciation of the art of moviemaking that you feel seen."


title: Pieces of a Woman

text: The film explores themes of trauma, which Dr. Lipi Roy writing for "Forbes" found relevant during the COVID-19 pandemic when it was released; Mundruczó and lead actress Vanessa Kirby both also commented that the loss in the film can speak to people who have been bereaved in the pandemic, and Wéber spoke of the relevance of the isolation and inability to talk about feelings that Martha experiences. Kirby has described the film as "almost a character study on grief" that also explores intergenerational trauma. In the film, Martha's family are all physically present but not emotionally available to her, and they each find different ways to process their loss, according to Roy. Midwives speaking with "NOW" also noted that films exploring grief often do so by presenting it as a bonding experience, while "Pieces of a Woman" focused on the differences. Renaldo Matadeen of CBR compared the film's exploration of grief to that of "Marriage Story", though he felt that "Pieces of a Woman" did not explore the shared grief Martha and Sean experience. Also for "NOW", Kevin Ritchie noted that the film shifts focus on themes throughout, featuring class tensions at the start and, at the end, focusing on generational divides and present baggage of Holocaust survival. "The New Yorker" Anthony Lane wrote that the film "amounts to a set of variations on the theme of winter", reflected in its little-changing Boston setting; similarly, Lee Marshall of "Screen International" opined that the wintry setting and its "oppressive" Gothic Revival architecture helped to inform the themes of the film.


title: Pieces of a Woman

text: The first person to be cast was Shia LaBeouf as Sean. He was followed shortly by Vanessa Kirby, playing Martha, who had been shown the script by Sam Levinson; she had met with the Levinsons and told them she wanted to make a film like "A Woman Under the Influence". Mundruczó was a fan of "The Crown" and wanted to cast Kirby after watching her as Princess Margaret, Countess of Snowdon and thinking her performance resembled Claudia Cardinale and Catherine Deneuve. He also wanted to work with Kirby at this point in her career, "Where all of the skills are already there, but the fear is not [...] When you are very established, you are more and more careful." Though Kirby was considered a frontrunner in discussions for the role, the production had been turned down by bigger names before Kirby was shown the script; the day after she read it, she flew to Budapest and they had a two-hour meeting with Mundruczó. Asked about this, Kirby said that she "just loved the script ... You just know when you know".


title: Pieces of a Woman

text: Kirby and LaBeouf were revealed as the lead roles when the film was announced in October 2019. Kirby spoke with women who had experienced baby loss to prepare for her role, and prepared extensively for her performance of labor in the opening scene. She had not given birth herself and was concerned about realism; she first watched childbirth documentaries but felt these were too edited and so she wrote to obstetricians and was invited by one, Claire Mellon, to observe on a labor ward, including being allowed to witness a birth, which she told NPR she would not have been able to perform in the film without.


title: Pieces of a Woman

text: In December 2019, Jimmie Fails, Ellen Burstyn, Molly Parker and Iliza Shlesinger joined the cast of the film, followed by Sarah Snook and Benny Safdie in January 2020. Burstyn said getting cast in the film felt like "a win-win-win situation", as she was able to work with Mundruczó, whose "White God" Burstyn enjoyed, and Kirby, whose "The Crown" performance Burstyn had been impressed by; Kirby was also excited to work with Burstyn.


title: Pieces of a Woman

text: Principal photography began on December 3, 2019, in Montreal, Canada, and lasted until the end of January 2020.


title: Pieces of a Woman

text: The film is noted for its 24-minute long take labor scene at the start, dubbed "The Scene" by "The Guardian" Adrian Horton and described as "one of the most controversial scenes of the year" by "Entertainment Weekly". Writer Wéber did not anticipate a one-shot take, which Mundruczó planned from the start, though knew she wanted all the details present. Mundruczó began the scene with Martha's first pains and ended with the arrival of an ambulance "because [they didn't] want to show exactly what's happening", wanting to leave the audience having only seen the baby alive while creating suspense. As the director, Mundruczó wanted the actors to make their own performance choices in the scene; there were no marks to hit, LaBeouf came up with the bad jokes used himself, and the production team would not show the cast any of the stage performance so as not to influence them. Kirby told "Empire" that the cast "had a map of where to be, and then [they would] freefall and see what happened." Three crewmembers were used for the scene: director of photography Benjamin Loeb, acting as camera operator upon Mundruczó's request, and two boom operators. A birthing coach, Elan McAllister, had also been brought to the set to assist Kirby and LaBeouf. Loeb chose to shoot the scene with a gimbal as he wanted a "floaty" quality to the scene to represent the baby's perspective and felt that using a hand-held camera would make it look too much like a documentary; he also explained the smooth gimbal movement made the scene easier to physically watch, which was something Mundruczó wanted in order to compensate for the potentially-divisive subject matter. Loeb physically trained beforehand so that he would have the strength to carry a gimbal-loaded camera for the whole take, though the shoot still negatively affected his health.


title: Pieces of a Woman

text: The scene was filmed six times over two days, four times on one day and twice the next, with one camera; it was the first scene shot for the film and took up over 30 pages in the script. The choice to use a single take stemmed from the scene in the play and its inclusion of live video. Loeb said that they "wanted to make sure that the sequence felt like it was presented as a long-winded breath in some ways". The fourth of the six takes was used; though less technically accurate than the takes on the second day, Mundruczó felt it was more alive. Kirby was glad to be filming the scene in one take, which, while intimidating, meant that she kept the same energy throughout; she said filming the scene was like performing on stage, and that it was "the best film experience of [her] life", though it took a long time to come down from the emotions she went through in making it. To stay in the emotional place between scenes, Kirby listened to a playlist of songs about expectancy and birth.


title: Pieces of a Woman

text: Set within the couple's apartment, the scene was filmed in a real house. It had large archways that allowed Loeb and the cast movement – Kirby was encouraged to make use of the space if she wanted to – except for the bathroom door; Mundruczó initially wanted to pass in and out of the bathroom three times but this was reduced to once to limit the possibility of the shot being ruined. He had chosen the house because it had the same layout as the set design of their play. Before shooting, one practice run was taken; filmed on Loeb's phone, the practice took 38 minutes. Mundruczó did not do another practice, telling "Vulture" that "if you are very choreographed, then the whole shot can be really cold and calculated, [and] when you don't fix anything, it [can] become a Dogme style of shaking camera." A real baby was used in the scene, with a CGI umbilical cord; the baby was held by its mother just outside the apartment and brought in off-camera for the moment of birth. Mundruczó and Kirby both felt the real baby was integral to the film. Other realism was achieved in the scene: partway through the scene, Sean frantically searches for a phone to call 9-1-1, and in about half of the takes, including the final cut, LaBeouf really struggled to remember where the prop was placed.


title: Pieces of a Woman

text: Richard Brody of "The New Yorker" described the scene as a "mere stunt", saying that it is emotionally empty until the last moments and its significance to the rest of the film is an "ultimately pointless symbolic function: as evidence." "Vulture" Hillary Kelly instead felt that the scene "is a technical trick, but an emotional lever, too, a reminder that labor is a process you cannot wriggle out of once it has begun."


title: Pieces of a Woman

text: Howard Shore composed the film's score. The opening piece of the film is a previously released Shore track, the second movement of his "Ruin and Memory" piano concerto performed by Lang Lang. The movement is ten minutes long and reflects the action of the film's 24-minute opening scene; following this, the music becomes "gradually thornier" as the story progresses, at times displaying discomfort. Much of the score comprises piano pieces, as well as featuring celesta and oboe, and was said by Maddy Shaw Roberts of Classic FM to guide the audience "through the story in a contemplative, dreamlike manner, accompanying Martha's reckoning". Shore became involved after he was introduced to Mundruczó by mutual friend Robert Lantos, and the pair collaborated due to Mundruczó's opera background; Mundruczó wanted a score that was classical. They began working on the music during COVID-19 pandemic lockdowns, collaborating remotely with Shore in New York, Mundruczó in Budapest, and the musicians at Teldex Studio in Germany.


title: Pieces of a Woman

text: Shore wanted to express the perspectives of Martha and of her child through his music, showing both grief and hope. Though he does not have a theme, Sean is often represented with darker music. The themes representing Martha and the baby recur throughout the film, including the baby's theme playing while Martha solemnly watches other children, and pieces of "Ruin and Memory" are repurposed in other parts of the score. At the end of the film, a new melody, which was "partly improvised" by Holger Groschopp, is used to represent Martha moving on.


title: Pieces of a Woman

text: The soundtrack was released digitally by Decca Records on January 8, 2021. Reviewers criticized the score as "intrusive".


title: Pieces of a Woman

text: The film had its world premiere at the 77th Venice International Film Festival in official competition on September 4, 2020, and had its North American premiere at TIFF Bell Lightbox during the 2020 Toronto International Film Festival (TIFF) shortly afterward. On September 12, Netflix acquired worldwide distribution rights to the film at TIFF. Mundruczó was happy to sell to Netflix, saying their appreciation of independent filmmakers is comparable to United Artists in the 1970s.


title: Pieces of a Woman

text: A trailer was released in November 2020, and the film opened in select theaters on December 30, 2020, before beginning to digitally stream on Netflix on January 7, 2021. Upon its digital release, it was the most-watched film over its first three days of release, and finished second overall in its debut weekend.


title: Pieces of a Woman

text: On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of based on reviews, with an average rating of . The website's critics consensus reads: ""Pieces of a Woman" struggles to maintain momentum after a stunning opening act, but Vanessa Kirby's performance makes the end result a poignant portrait of grief." On Metacritic, it has a weighted average score of 66 out of 100, based on 41 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".


title: Pieces of a Woman

text: Pippa Vosper of "Vogue", who had lost a child in a similar way to Martha in the film, said that Kirby played Martha "with unnerving accuracy" and was pleased that the film did not shy away from the harsher realities of baby loss. The "Evening Standard" Charlotte O'Sullivan also praised Mundruczó for treating Martha's extended grief with compassion. Horton critiqued that the film centered on Martha's trauma rather than Martha herself, which he found frustrating, though he highly praised Kirby's performance, as did other reviewers. "Empire" Terri White and "Entertainment Weekly" Leah Greenblatt also praised LaBeouf's performance.


title: Pieces of a Woman

text: Xan Brooks of "The Guardian" wrote that the film was an "acting masterclass" but felt too staged; colleague Peter Bradshaw agreed on the acting talent but felt that, besides the birth scene and the ending, the film comprises "a lot of frankly inauthentic, silly and jarring plot points". "The Hollywood Reporter"s David Rooney opined that while Kirby's performance is "the movie's shattered core", the film was undermined by a "pedestrian" courtroom speech and awkwardly upbeat ending. Rooney, O'Sullivan, and Justin Chang for NPR were critical of simplistic metaphors and melodrama.


title: Pieces of a Woman

text: Distributor Netflix initially campaigned for Kirby, LaBeouf, Burstyn, Mundruczó, Wéber, Safdie, Fails, and Snook for awards contention in acting, directing, and writing categories, but removed LaBeouf from their publicity after assault allegations were made against him by former girlfriend FKA Twigs in late 2020 to maintain focus on the film and its significance.


title: XOR gate

text: XOR gate (sometimes EOR, or EXOR and pronounced as Exclusive OR) is a digital logic gate that gives a true (1 or HIGH) output when the number of true inputs is odd. An XOR gate implements an exclusive or (formula_1) from mathematical logic; that is, a true output results if one, and only one, of the inputs to the gate is true. If both inputs are false (0/LOW) or both are true, a false output results. XOR represents the inequality function, i.e., the output is true if the inputs are not alike otherwise the output is false. A way to remember XOR is "must have one or the other but not both".


title: XOR gate

text: An XOR gate may serve as a "programmable inverter" in which one input determines whether to invert the other input, or to simply pass it along with no change. Hence it functions as a inverter (a NOT gate) which may be activated or deactivated by a switch.


title: XOR gate

text: XOR can also be viewed as addition modulo 2. As a result, XOR gates are used to implement binary addition in computers. A half adder consists of an XOR gate and an AND gate. The gate is also used in subtractors and comparators.


title: XOR gate

text: The algebraic expressions formula_2 or formula_3 or formula_4 all represent the XOR gate with inputs "A" and "B". The behavior of XOR is summarized in the truth table shown on the right.


title: XOR gate

text: There are three schematic symbols for XOR gates: the traditional ANSI and DIN symbols and the IEC symbol. In some cases, the DIN symbol is used with ⊕ instead of ≢. For more information see Logic Gate Symbols.


title: XOR gate

text: C-like languages use the caret symbol ^ to denote bitwise XOR. (Note that the caret does not denote logical conjunction (AND) in these languages, despite the similarity of symbol.)


title: XOR gate

text: The XOR gate is most commonly implemented using MOSFETs circuits. Some of those implementations include:


title: XOR gate

text: The nMOS and pMOS transistors are arranged so that the input pairs formula_5 and formula_6 activate the 2 pMOS transistors of the top left or the 2 pMOS transistors of the top right respectively, connecting Vdd to the output for a logic high. The remaining input pairs formula_7 and formula_8 activate each one of the two nMOS paths in the bottom to Vss for a logic low.


title: XOR gate

text: This is a twelve transistor implementation since two additional inverters with two gates each, not shown in the diagram, are needed to generate formula_9 and formula_10.


title: XOR gate

text: This implementation uses two Transmission gates and two inverters not shown in the diagram to generate formula_9 and formula_10 for a total of eight transistors, four less than in the previous design.


title: XOR gate

text: The XOR function is implemented by passing through to the output the inverted value of A when B is high and passing the value of A when B is at a logic low. so when both inputs are low the transmission gate at the bottom is off and the one at the top is on and lets A through which is low so the output is low. When both are high only the one at the bottom is active and lets the inverted value of A through and since A is high the output will again be low. Similarly if B stays high but A is low the output would be formula_9 which is high as expected and if B is low but A is high the value of A passes through and the output is high completing the truth table for the XOR gate.


title: XOR gate

text: The trade-off with the previous implementation is that since transmission gates are not an ideal switches, there is resistance associated with them, so depending on the signal strength of the input, cascading them may degrade the output levels.


title: XOR gate

text: The previous transmission gate implementation can be further optimized from eight to six transistors by implementing the functionality of the inverter that generates formula_9 and the bottom pass-gate with just two transistors arranged like an inverter but with the source of the pMOS connected to formula_15 instead of Vdd and the source of the nMOS connected to formula_10 instead of GND.


title: XOR gate

text: The two leftmost transistors mentioned above, perform an optimized conditional inversion of A when B is at a logic high using pass transistor logic to reduce the transistor count and when B is at a logic low, their output is at a high impedance state. The two in the middle are a transmission gate that drives the output to the value of A when B is at a logic low and the two rightmost transistors form an inverter needed to generate formula_10 used by the transmission gate and the pass transistor logic circuit.


title: XOR gate

text: As with the previous implementation, the direct connection of the inputs to the outputs through the pass gate transistors or thru the two leftmost transistors, should be taken into account, specially when cascading them.


title: XOR gate

text: If a specific type of gate is not available, a circuit that implements the same function can be constructed from other available gates. A circuit implementing an XOR function can be trivially constructed from an XNOR gate followed by a NOT gate. If we consider the expression formula_18, we can construct an XOR gate circuit directly using AND, OR and NOT gates. However, this approach requires five gates of three different kinds.


title: XOR gate

text: As alternative, if different gates are available we can apply Boolean algebra to transform formula_19 as stated above, and apply de Morgan's Law to the last term to get formula_20 which can be implemented using only three gates as shown on the right. intuitively, XOR is equivalent to OR except for when both A and B are high. So the AND of the OR with then NAND that gives a low only when both A and B are high is equivalent to the XOR.


title: XOR gate

text: An XOR gate circuit can be made from four NAND gates. In fact, both NAND and NOR gates are so-called "universal gates" and any logical function can be constructed from either NAND logic or NOR logic alone. If the four NAND gates are replaced by NOR gates, this results in an XNOR gate, which can be converted to an XOR gate by inverting the output or one of the inputs (e.g. with a fifth NOR gate).


title: XOR gate

text: An alternative arrangement is of five NOR gates in a topology that emphasizes the construction of the function from formula_21, noting from de Morgan's Law that a NOR gate is an inverted-input AND gate. Another alternative arrangement is of five NAND gates in a topology that emphasizes the construction of the function from formula_18, noting from de Morgan's Law that a NAND gate is an inverted-input OR gate.


title: XOR gate

text: For the NAND constructions, the upper arrangement requires fewer gates. For the NOR constructions, the lower arrangement offers the advantage of a shorter propagation delay (the time delay between an input changing and the output changing).


title: XOR gate

text: Literal interpretation of the name "exclusive or", or observation of the IEC rectangular symbol, raises the question of correct behaviour with additional inputs. If a logic gate were to accept three or more inputs and produce a true output if exactly one of those inputs were true, then it would in effect be a one-hot detector (and indeed this is the case for only two inputs). However, it is rarely implemented this way in practice.


title: XOR gate

text: It is most common to regard subsequent inputs as being applied through a cascade of binary exclusive-or operations: the first two signals are fed into an XOR gate, then the output of that gate is fed into a second XOR gate together with the third signal, and so on for any remaining signals. The result is a circuit that outputs a 1 when the number of 1s at its inputs is odd, and a 0 when the number of incoming 1s is even. This makes it practically useful as a parity generator or a modulo-2 adder.


title: XOR gate

text: For example, the 74LVC1G386 microchip is advertised as a three-input logic gate, and implements a parity generator.


title: XOR gate

text: The XOR logic gate can be used as a one-bit adder that adds any two bits together to output one bit. For example, if we add 1 plus 1 in binary, we expect a two-bit answer, 10 (i.e. 2 in decimal). Since the trailing "sum" bit in this output is achieved with XOR, the preceding "carry" bit is calculated with an AND gate. This is the main principle in Half Adders. A slightly larger Full Adder circuit may be chained together in order to add longer binary numbers.


title: XOR gate

text: In certain situations, the inputs to an OR gate (for example, in a full-adder) or to an XOR gate can never be both 1's. As this is the only combination for which the OR and XOR gate outputs differ, an OR gate may be replaced by an XOR gate (or vice versa) without altering the resulting logic. This is convenient if the circuit is being implemented using simple integrated circuit chips which contain only one gate type per chip.


title: XOR gate

text: Pseudo-random number (PRN) generators, specifically linear-feedback shift registers (LFSR), are defined in terms of the exclusive-or operation. Hence, a suitable setup of XOR gates can model a linear-feedback shift register, in order to generate random numbers.


title: XOR gate

text: XOR gates produce a 0 when both inputs match. When searching for a specific bit pattern or PRN sequence in a very long data sequence, a series of XOR gates can be used to compare a string of bits from the data sequence against the target sequence in parallel. The number of 0 outputs can then be counted to determine how well the data sequence matches the target sequence. Correlators are used in many communications devices such as CDMA receivers and decoders for error correction and channel codes. In a CDMA receiver, correlators are used to extract the polarity of a specific PRN sequence out of a combined collection of PRN sequences.


title: XOR gate

text: A correlator looking for 11010 in the data sequence 1110100101 would compare the incoming data bits against the target sequence at every possible offset while counting the number of matches (zeros):


title: XOR gate

text: In this example, the best match occurs when the target sequence is offset by 1 bit and all five bits match. When offset by 5 bits, the sequence exactly matches its inverse. By looking at the difference between the number of ones and zeros that come out of the bank of XOR gates, it is easy to see where the sequence occurs and whether or not it is inverted. Longer sequences are easier to detect than short sequences.


title: Ufotable

text: In March 2019, it was reported that a search was performed on Ufotable's offices due to alleged tax evasion. The next month, it was reported that Ufotable owed in taxes. In June 2020, both the studio and company founder and president Hikaru Kondo were charged with violating the Corporation Tax Act and Consumption Tax Act by failing to pay (about US$1.28 million) in taxes. The studio published a public statement apologizing for their actions. In July 2021, Hikaru Kondo was formally indicted with evading (about US$1.24 million) in taxes by the special investigation department of the Tokyo Public Prosecutor's Office. Ufotable acknowledged the indictment and gave assurance that the company had already filed a corrected tax return and paid the appropriate amount. In September 2021, Hikaru Kondo admitted to evading in taxes at a preliminary hearing by the Tokyo District Court. The prosecution said Ufotable and Kondo hid part of the income from the company's cafes and merchandise from 2015 to 2018 in order to buffer against future downturns in business. The company allegedly hid about (about US$4 million) in income. In November 2021, it was reported prosecutors were seeking a 20-month prison sentence for Kondo. The court delivered a verdict on December 10, 2021. Kondo was sentenced to 20 months in prison, but the sentence was suspended for three years.


title: Continuous uniform distribution

text: In probability theory and statistics, the continuous uniform distribution or rectangular distribution is a family of symmetric probability distributions. The distribution describes an experiment where there is an arbitrary outcome that lies between certain bounds. The bounds are defined by the parameters, "a" and "b", which are the minimum and maximum values. The interval can either be closed (e.g. [a, b]) or open (e.g. (a, b)). Therefore, the distribution is often abbreviated "U" ("a", "b"), where U stands for uniform distribution. The difference between the bounds defines the interval length; all intervals of the same length on the distribution's support are equally probable. It is the maximum entropy probability distribution for a random variable "X" under no constraint other than that it is contained in the distribution's support.


title: Continuous uniform distribution

text: The values of "f"("x") at the two boundaries "a" and "b" are usually unimportant because they do not alter the values of the integrals of over any interval, nor of or any higher moment. Sometimes they are chosen to be zero, and sometimes chosen to be . The latter is appropriate in the context of estimation by the method of maximum likelihood. In the context of Fourier analysis, one may take the value of "f"("a") or "f"("b") to be , since then the inverse transform of many integral transforms of this uniform function will yield back the function itself, rather than a function which is equal "almost everywhere", i.e. except on a set of points with zero measure. Also, it is consistent with the sign function which has no such ambiguity.


title: Continuous uniform distribution

text: Graphically, the probability density function is portrayed as a rectangle where is the base and is the height. As the distance between a and b increases, the density at any particular value within the distribution boundaries decreases. Since the probability density function integrates to 1, the height of the probability density function decreases as the base length increases.


title: Continuous uniform distribution

text: In graphical representation of uniform distribution function [f(x) vs x], the area under the curve within the specified bounds displays the probability (shaded area is depicted as a rectangle). For this specific example above, the base would be and the height would be .


title: Continuous uniform distribution

text: The example above is for a conditional probability case for the uniform distribution: given is true, what is the probability that . Conditional probability changes the sample space so a new interval length has to be calculated, where is 23 and is 8. The graphical representation would still follow Example 1, where the area under the curve within the specified bounds displays the probability and the base of the rectangle would be and the height .


title: Continuous uniform distribution

text: For a random variable following this distribution, the expected value is then "m" = ("a" + "b")/2 and the variance is


title: Continuous uniform distribution

text: For , the "n"th cumulant of the uniform distribution on the interval is "B"/"n", where "B" is the "n"th Bernoulli number.


title: Continuous uniform distribution

text: Restricting formula_19 and formula_20, the resulting distribution "U"(0,1) is called a standard uniform distribution.


title: Continuous uniform distribution

text: One interesting property of the standard uniform distribution is that if "u" has a standard uniform distribution, then so does 1-"u". This property can be used for generating antithetic variates, among other things. In other words, this property is known as the inversion method where the continuous standard uniform distribution can be used to generate random numbers for any other continuous distribution. If is a uniform random number with standard uniform distribution (0,1), then formula_21 generates a random number from any continuous distribution with the specified cumulative distribution function .


title: Continuous uniform distribution

text: As long as the same conventions are followed at the transition points, the probability density function may also be expressed in terms of the Heaviside step function:


title: Continuous uniform distribution

text: There is no ambiguity at the transition point of the sign function. Using the half-maximum convention at the transition points, the uniform distribution may be expressed in terms of the sign function as:


title: Continuous uniform distribution

text: Let "X", ..., "X" be an i.i.d. sample from "U"(0,1). Let "X" be the "k"th order statistic from this sample. Then the probability distribution of "X" is a Beta distribution with parameters "k" and . The expected value is


title: Continuous uniform distribution

text: The probability that a uniformly distributed random variable falls within any interval of fixed length is independent of the location of the interval itself (but it is dependent on the interval size), so long as the interval is contained in the distribution's support.


title: Continuous uniform distribution

text: To see this, if "X" ~ U("a","b") and ["x", "x"+"d"] is a subinterval of ["a","b"] with fixed "d" > 0, then


title: Continuous uniform distribution

text: This distribution can be generalized to more complicated sets than intervals. If "S" is a Borel set of positive, finite measure, the uniform probability distribution on "S" can be specified by defining the pdf to be zero outside "S" and constantly equal to 1/"K" on "S", where "K" is the Lebesgue measure of "S".


title: Continuous uniform distribution

text: where "m" is the sample maximum and "k" is the sample size, sampling without replacement (though this distinction almost surely makes no difference for a continuous distribution). This follows for the same reasons as estimation for the discrete distribution, and can be seen as a very simple case of maximum spacing estimation. This problem is commonly known as the German tank problem, due to application of maximum estimation to estimates of German tank production during World War II.


title: Continuous uniform distribution

text: where "m" is the sample maximum, also denoted as formula_34 the maximum order statistic of the sample.