title: James Clerk Maxwell

text: In the summer of his third year, Maxwell spent some time at the Suffolk home of the Rev C.B. Tayler, the uncle of a classmate, G.W.H. Tayler. The love of God shown by the family impressed Maxwell, particularly after he was nursed back from ill health by the minister and his wife.


title: James Clerk Maxwell

text: On his return to Cambridge, Maxwell writes to his recent host a chatty and affectionate letter including the following testimony,


title: James Clerk Maxwell

text: In November 1851, Maxwell studied under William Hopkins, whose success in nurturing mathematical genius had earned him the nickname of "senior wrangler-maker".


title: James Clerk Maxwell

text: In 1854, Maxwell graduated from Trinity with a degree in mathematics. He scored second highest in the final examination, coming behind Edward Routh and earning himself the title of Second Wrangler. He was later declared equal with Routh in the more exacting ordeal of the Smith's Prize examination. Immediately after earning his degree, Maxwell read his paper "On the Transformation of Surfaces by Bending" to the Cambridge Philosophical Society. This is one of the few purely mathematical papers he had written, demonstrating his growing stature as a mathematician. Maxwell decided to remain at Trinity after graduating and applied for a fellowship, which was a process that he could expect to take a couple of years. Buoyed by his success as a research student, he would be free, apart from some tutoring and examining duties, to pursue scientific interests at his own leisure.


title: James Clerk Maxwell

text: The nature and perception of colour was one such interest which he had begun at the University of Edinburgh while he was a student of Forbes. With the coloured spinning tops invented by Forbes, Maxwell was able to demonstrate that white light would result from a mixture of red, green, and blue light. His paper "Experiments on Colour" laid out the principles of colour combination and was presented to the Royal Society of Edinburgh in March 1855. Maxwell was this time able to deliver it himself.


title: James Clerk Maxwell

text: Maxwell was made a fellow of Trinity on 10 October 1855, sooner than was the norm, and was asked to prepare lectures on hydrostatics and optics and to set examination papers. The following February he was urged by Forbes to apply for the newly vacant Chair of Natural Philosophy at Marischal College, Aberdeen. His father assisted him in the task of preparing the necessary references, but died on 2 April at Glenlair before either knew the result of Maxwell's candidacy. He accepted the professorship at Aberdeen, leaving Cambridge in November 1856.


title: James Clerk Maxwell

text: The 25-year-old Maxwell was a good 15 years younger than any other professor at Marischal. He engaged himself with his new responsibilities as head of a department, devising the syllabus and preparing lectures. He committed himself to lecturing 15 hours a week, including a weekly "pro bono" lecture to the local working men's college. He lived in Aberdeen with his cousin William Dyce Cay, a Scottish civil engineer, during the six months of the academic year and spent the summers at Glenlair, which he had inherited from his father.


title: James Clerk Maxwell

text: He focused his attention on a problem that had eluded scientists for 200 years: the nature of Saturn's rings. It was unknown how they could remain stable without breaking up, drifting away or crashing into Saturn. The problem took on a particular resonance at that time because St John's College, Cambridge, had chosen it as the topic for the 1857 Adams Prize. Maxwell devoted two years to studying the problem, proving that a regular solid ring could not be stable, while a fluid ring would be forced by wave action to break up into blobs. Since neither was observed, he concluded that the rings must be composed of numerous small particles he called "brick-bats", each independently orbiting Saturn. Maxwell was awarded the £130 Adams Prize in 1859 for his essay "On the stability of the motion of Saturn's rings"; he was the only entrant to have made enough headway to submit an entry. His work was so detailed and convincing that when George Biddell Airy read it he commented, "It is one of the most remarkable applications of mathematics to physics that I have ever seen." It was considered the final word on the issue until direct observations by the "Voyager" flybys of the 1980s confirmed Maxwell's prediction that the rings were composed of particles. It is now understood, however, that the rings' particles are not stable at all, being pulled by gravity onto Saturn. The rings are expected to vanish entirely over the next 300 million years.


title: James Clerk Maxwell

text: In 1857 Maxwell befriended the Reverend Daniel Dewar, who was then the Principal of Marischal. Through him Maxwell met Dewar's daughter, Katherine Mary Dewar. They were engaged in February 1858 and married in Aberdeen on 2 June 1858. On the marriage record, Maxwell is listed as Professor of Natural Philosophy in Marischal College, Aberdeen. Katherine was seven years Maxwell's senior. Comparatively little is known of her, although it is known that she helped in his lab and worked on experiments in viscosity. Maxwell's biographer and friend, Lewis Campbell, adopted an uncharacteristic reticence on the subject of Katherine, though describing their married life as "one of unexampled devotion".


title: James Clerk Maxwell

text: In 1860 Marischal College merged with the neighbouring King's College to form the University of Aberdeen. There was no room for two professors of Natural Philosophy, so Maxwell, despite his scientific reputation, found himself laid off. He was unsuccessful in applying for Forbes's recently vacated chair at Edinburgh, the post instead going to Tait. Maxwell was granted the Chair of Natural Philosophy at King's College, London, instead. After recovering from a near-fatal bout of smallpox in 1860, he moved to London with his wife.


title: James Clerk Maxwell

text: Maxwell's time at King's was probably the most productive of his career. He was awarded the Royal Society's Rumford Medal in 1860 for his work on colour and was later elected to the Society in 1861. This period of his life would see him display the world's first light-fast colour photograph, further develop his ideas on the viscosity of gases, and propose a system of defining physical quantities—now known as dimensional analysis. Maxwell would often attend lectures at the Royal Institution, where he came into regular contact with Michael Faraday. The relationship between the two men could not be described as being close, because Faraday was 40 years Maxwell's senior and showed signs of senility. They nevertheless maintained a strong respect for each other's talents.


title: James Clerk Maxwell

text: This time is especially noteworthy for the advances Maxwell made in the fields of electricity and magnetism. He examined the nature of both electric and magnetic fields in his two-part paper "On physical lines of force", which was published in 1861. In it he provided a conceptual model for electromagnetic induction, consisting of tiny spinning cells of magnetic flux. Two more parts were later added to and published in that same paper in early 1862. In the first additional part he discussed the nature of electrostatics and displacement current. In the second additional part, he dealt with the rotation of the plane of the polarisation of light in a magnetic field, a phenomenon that had been discovered by Faraday and is now known as the Faraday effect.


title: James Clerk Maxwell

text: In 1865 Maxwell resigned the chair at King's College, London, and returned to Glenlair with Katherine. In his paper "On governors" (1868) he mathematically described the behaviour of governors—devices that control the speed of steam engines—thereby establishing the theoretical basis of control engineering. In his paper "On reciprocal figures, frames and diagrams of forces" (1870) he discussed the rigidity of various designs of lattice. He wrote the textbook "Theory of Heat" (1871) and the treatise "Matter and Motion" (1876). Maxwell was also the first to make explicit use of dimensional analysis, in 1871.


title: James Clerk Maxwell

text: In 1871 he returned to Cambridge to become the first Cavendish Professor of Physics. Maxwell was put in charge of the development of the Cavendish Laboratory, supervising every step in the progress of the building and of the purchase of the collection of apparatus. One of Maxwell's last great contributions to science was the editing (with copious original notes) of the research of Henry Cavendish, from which it appeared that Cavendish researched, amongst other things, such questions as the density of the Earth and the composition of water. He was elected as a member to the American Philosophical Society in 1876.In April 1879 Maxwell began to have difficulty in swallowing, the first symptom of his fatal illness.


title: James Clerk Maxwell

text: Maxwell died in Cambridge of abdominal cancer on 5 November 1879 at the age of 48. His mother had died at the same age of the same type of cancer. The minister who regularly visited him in his last weeks was astonished at his lucidity and the immense power and scope of his memory, but comments more particularly,


title: James Clerk Maxwell

text: Maxwell is buried at Parton Kirk, near Castle Douglas in Galloway close to where he grew up. The extended biography "The Life of James Clerk Maxwell", by his former schoolfellow and lifelong friend Professor Lewis Campbell, was published in 1882. His collected works were issued in two volumes by the Cambridge University Press in 1890.


title: James Clerk Maxwell

text: The executors of Maxwell's estate were his physician George Edward Paget, G. G. Stokes, and Colin Mackenzie, who was Maxwell's cousin. Overburdened with work, Stokes passed Maxwell's papers to William Garnett, who had effective custody of the papers until about 1884.


title: James Clerk Maxwell

text: As a great lover of Scottish poetry, Maxwell memorised poems and wrote his own. The best known is "Rigid Body Sings", closely based on "Comin' Through the Rye" by Robert Burns, which he apparently used to sing while accompanying himself on a guitar. It has the opening lines


title: James Clerk Maxwell

text: Descriptions of Maxwell remark upon his remarkable intellectual qualities being matched by social awkwardness.


title: James Clerk Maxwell

text: Maxwell was an evangelical Presbyterian and in his later years became an Elder of the Church of Scotland. Maxwell's religious beliefs and related activities have been the focus of a number of papers. Attending both Church of Scotland (his father's denomination) and Episcopalian (his mother's denomination) services as a child, Maxwell underwent an evangelical conversion in April 1853. One facet of this conversion may have aligned him with an antipositivist position.


title: James Clerk Maxwell

text: Maxwell had studied and commented on electricity and magnetism as early as 1855 when his paper "On Faraday's lines of force" was read to the Cambridge Philosophical Society. The paper presented a simplified model of Faraday's work and how electricity and magnetism are related. He reduced all of the current knowledge into a linked set of differential equations with 20 equations in 20 variables. This work was later published as "On Physical Lines of Force" in March 1861.


title: James Clerk Maxwell

text: Around 1862, while lecturing at King's College, Maxwell calculated that the speed of propagation of an electromagnetic field is approximately that of the speed of light. He considered this to be more than just a coincidence, commenting, "We can scarcely avoid the conclusion that light consists in the transverse undulations of the same medium which is the cause of electric and magnetic phenomena.


title: James Clerk Maxwell

text: Working on the problem further, Maxwell showed that the equations predict the existence of waves of oscillating electric and magnetic fields that travel through empty space at a speed that could be predicted from simple electrical experiments; using the data available at the time, Maxwell obtained a velocity of . In his 1865 paper "A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field", Maxwell wrote, "The agreement of the results seems to show that light and magnetism are affections of the same substance, and that light is an electromagnetic disturbance propagated through the field according to electromagnetic laws".


title: James Clerk Maxwell

text: His famous twenty equations, in their modern form of partial differential equations, first appeared in fully developed form in his textbook "A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism" in 1873. Most of this work was done by Maxwell at Glenlair during the period between holding his London post and his taking up the Cavendish chair. Oliver Heaviside reduced the complexity of Maxwell's theory down to four partial differential equations, known now collectively as Maxwell's Laws or Maxwell's equations. Although potentials became much less popular in the nineteenth century, the use of scalar and vector potentials is now standard in the solution of Maxwell's equations.


title: James Clerk Maxwell

text: Maxwell expressed electromagnetism in the algebra of quaternions and made the electromagnetic potential the centerpiece of his theory. In 1881 Heaviside replaced the electromagnetic potential field by force fields as the centerpiece of electromagnetic theory. According to Heaviside, the electromagnetic potential field was arbitrary and needed to be "assassinated". ("sic") A few years later there was a debate between Heaviside and [Peter Guthrie] Tate ("sic") about the relative merits of vector analysis and quaternions. The result was the realization that there was no need for the greater physical insights provided by quaternions if the theory was purely local, and vector analysis became commonplace.


title: James Clerk Maxwell

text: Maxwell was proved correct, and his quantitative connection between light and electromagnetism is considered one of the great accomplishments of 19th-century mathematical physics.


title: James Clerk Maxwell

text: Heinrich Hertz said of Maxwell's equations, "It is impossible to study this wonderful theory without feeling as if the mathematical equations had an independent life and intelligence of their own, as if they were wiser than ourselves, indeed wiser than their discoverer, as if they gave forth more than he put into them." Hertz used Maxwell's equations to produce radio waves, leading to the invention of radar and much else.


title: James Clerk Maxwell

text: Maxwell also introduced the concept of the "electromagnetic field" in comparison to force lines that Faraday described. By understanding the propagation of electromagnetism as a field emitted by active particles, Maxwell could advance his work on light. At that time, Maxwell believed that the propagation of light required a medium for the waves, dubbed the luminiferous aether. Over time, the existence of such a medium, permeating all space and yet apparently undetectable by mechanical means, proved impossible to reconcile with experiments such as the Michelson–Morley experiment. Moreover, it seemed to require an absolute frame of reference in which the equations were valid, with the distasteful result that the equations changed form for a moving observer. These difficulties inspired Albert Einstein to formulate the theory of special relativity; in the process Einstein dispensed with the requirement of a stationary luminiferous aether.


title: James Clerk Maxwell

text: Along with most physicists of the time, Maxwell had a strong interest in psychology. Following in the steps of Isaac Newton and Thomas Young, he was particularly interested in the study of colour vision. From 1855 to 1872, Maxwell published at intervals a series of investigations concerning the perception of colour, colour-blindness, and colour theory, and was awarded the Rumford Medal for "On the Theory of Colour Vision".


title: James Clerk Maxwell

text: Isaac Newton had demonstrated, using prisms, that white light, such as sunlight, is composed of a number of monochromatic components which could then be recombined into white light. Newton also showed that an orange paint made of yellow and red could look exactly like a monochromatic orange light, although being composed of two monochromatic yellow and red lights. Hence the paradox that puzzled physicists of the time: two complex lights (composed of more than one monochromatic light) could look alike but be physically different, called "metamers". Thomas Young later proposed that this paradox could be explained by colours being perceived through a limited number of channels in the eyes, which he proposed to be threefold, the "trichromatic colour theory". Maxwell used the recently developed linear algebra to prove Young's theory. Any monochromatic light stimulating three receptors should be able to be equally stimulated by a set of three different monochromatic lights (in fact, by any set of three different lights). He demonstrated that to be the case, inventing colour matching experiments and Colourimetry.


title: James Clerk Maxwell

text: Maxwell was also interested in applying his theory of colour perception, namely in colour photography. Stemming directly from his psychological work on colour perception: if a sum of any three lights could reproduce any perceivable colour, then colour photographs could be produced with a set of three coloured filters. In the course of his 1855 paper, Maxwell proposed that, if three black-and-white photographs of a scene were taken through red, green, and blue filters, and transparent prints of the images were projected onto a screen using three projectors equipped with similar filters, when superimposed on the screen the result would be perceived by the human eye as a complete reproduction of all the colours in the scene.


title: James Clerk Maxwell

text: During an 1861 Royal Institution lecture on colour theory, Maxwell presented the world's first demonstration of colour photography by this principle of three-colour analysis and synthesis. Thomas Sutton, inventor of the single-lens reflex camera, took the picture. He photographed a tartan ribbon three times, through red, green, and blue filters, also making a fourth photograph through a yellow filter, which, according to Maxwell's account, was not used in the demonstration. Because Sutton's photographic plates were insensitive to red and barely sensitive to green, the results of this pioneering experiment were far from perfect. It was remarked in the published account of the lecture that "if the red and green images had been as fully photographed as the blue", it "would have been a truly-coloured image of the riband. By finding photographic materials more sensitive to the less refrangible rays, the representation of the colours of objects might be greatly improved." Researchers in 1961 concluded that the seemingly impossible partial success of the red-filtered exposure was due to ultraviolet light, which is strongly reflected by some red dyes, not entirely blocked by the red filter used, and within the range of sensitivity of the wet collodion process Sutton employed.


title: James Clerk Maxwell

text: Maxwell also investigated the kinetic theory of gases. Originating with Daniel Bernoulli, this theory was advanced by the successive labours of John Herapath, John James Waterston, James Joule, and particularly Rudolf Clausius, to such an extent as to put its general accuracy beyond a doubt; but it received enormous development from Maxwell, who in this field appeared as an experimenter (on the laws of gaseous friction) as well as a mathematician.


title: James Clerk Maxwell

text: Between 1859 and 1866, he developed the theory of the distributions of velocities in particles of a gas, work later generalised by Ludwig Boltzmann. The formula, called the Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution, gives the fraction of gas molecules moving at a specified velocity at any given temperature. In the kinetic theory, temperatures and heat involve only molecular movement. This approach generalised the previously established laws of thermodynamics and explained existing observations and experiments in a better way than had been achieved previously. His work on thermodynamics led him to devise the thought experiment that came to be known as Maxwell's demon, where the second law of thermodynamics is violated by an imaginary being capable of sorting particles by energy.


title: James Clerk Maxwell

text: In 1871, he established Maxwell's thermodynamic relations, which are statements of equality among the second derivatives of the thermodynamic potentials with respect to different thermodynamic variables. In 1874, he constructed a plaster thermodynamic visualisation as a way of exploring phase transitions, based on the American scientist Josiah Willard Gibbs's graphical thermodynamics papers.


title: James Clerk Maxwell

text: Maxwell published the paper "On governors" in the "Proceedings of the Royal Society", vol. 16 (1867–1868). This paper is considered a central paper of the early days of control theory. Here "governors" refers to the governor or the centrifugal governor used to regulate steam engines.


title: Eva Marie Saint

text: Eva Marie Saint (born July 4, 1924) is an American actress of film, theatre and television. In a career spanning over 70 years, she has won an Academy Award and a Primetime Emmy Award, alongside nominations for a Golden Globe Award and two British Academy Film Awards. Upon the deaths of Olivia de Havilland in 2020 and Angela Lansbury in 2022, Saint became the oldest living and later earliest surviving winner of an Academy Award, and one of the last surviving stars from the Golden Age of Hollywood cinema.


title: Eva Marie Saint

text: Born in New Jersey and raised in New York, Saint attended Bowling Green State University and began her career as a television and radio actress in the late 1940s. Among her notable early credits, she originated the role of Thelma in Horton Foote's "The Trip to Bountiful" (1953), originally an NBC telecast before being adapted into the Tony Award-winning play of the same name. For her performance in the stage version, she won an Outer Critics Circle Award. She made her film debut in Elia Kazan's "On the Waterfront" (1954), opposite Marlon Brando. The film, which received eight Oscars, including Best Picture, earned her the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress and a nomination for the BAFTA Award for Most Promising Newcomer. Establishing her as an immediate star, it is widely considered to be one of the greatest and most influential films ever made.


title: Eva Marie Saint

text: From then on, Saint appeared in a variety of roles, including "That Certain Feeling" (1956), opposite Bob Hope; "Raintree County" (1957), opposite Montgomery Clift and Elizabeth Taylor; and Fred Zinnemann's "A Hatful of Rain" (1957), opposite Don Murray and Anthony Franciosa, for which she was nominated for the Golden Globe Award for Best Performance by an Actress in a Motion Picture - Drama. One of her most notable roles came playing Eve Kendall opposite Cary Grant in Alfred Hitchcock's "North by Northwest" (1959). Throughout the 1960s, Saint sustained a film presence with appearances in "Exodus" (1960), alongside Paul Newman; "The Russians Are Coming, the Russians Are Coming" (1965), alongside Carl Reiner and Alan Arkin; "The Sandpiper" (1965), which reunited her with Elizabeth Taylor and featured Richard Burton; and John Frankenheimer's "Grand Prix" (1966).


title: Eva Marie Saint

text: Saint gained consecutive nominations for the Primetime Emmy Award for Best Actress in a Single Performance for her appearances in the anthology series "The Philco Television Playhouse" (1954) and "Producers' Showcase" (1955). Beginning in the 1970s, her film career began to decline, though she garnered praise for her role opposite George Segal in "Loving" (1970). She gained additional consecutive Primetime Emmy Award nominations for "How the West Was Won" (1977) and "Taxi!!!" (1978), and won the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Miniseries or a Special for the miniseries "People Like Us" (1990). Saint returned to film with "Nothing in Common" (1986), opposite Tom Hanks, and continues to act occasionally, notably in "Superman Returns" (2006), and voicing in "The Legend of Korra" (2012–2014).


title: Eva Marie Saint

text: Saint was born on July 4, 1924, in Newark, New Jersey, to Quaker parents. She attended Bethlehem Central High School in Delmar, New York, near Albany, graduating in 1942. She was inducted into the high school's hall of fame in 2006. She studied acting at Bowling Green State University and joined Delta Gamma Sorority. During this time she played the lead role in a production of "Personal Appearance". A theater on Bowling Green's campus is named after her. She was an active member in the theater honorary fraternity, Theta Alpha Phi, and served as record keeper of the student council in 1944.


title: Eva Marie Saint

text: Saint's introduction to television began as an NBC page. She appeared in the live NBC-TV show "Campus Hoopla" in 1946–47. Her performances on this program are recorded on rare kinescope, and audio recordings of these telecasts are preserved in the Library of Congress. She also appeared in "Bonnie Maid's Versa-Tile Varieties" on NBC in 1949 as one of the original singing "Bonnie Maids" used in the live commercials.


title: Eva Marie Saint

text: She appeared in a 1947 "Life" Magazine special about television, and also in a 1949 feature "Life" article about her as a struggling actress earning minimum amounts from early TV while trying to make ends meet in New York City. In the late 1940s, Saint continued to make her living by extensive work in radio and television. In 1953, she won the Drama Critics Award for her Broadway stage role in the Horton Foote play "The Trip to Bountiful" (1953), in which she co-starred with such formidable actors as Lillian Gish and Jo Van Fleet.


title: Eva Marie Saint

text: In 1955, Saint was nominated for her first Emmy for "Best Actress In A Single Performance" on "The Philco Television Playhouse," playing the young mistress of middle-aged E. G. Marshall in "Middle of the Night" by Paddy Chayefsky. She won another Emmy nomination for the 1955 television musical version of "Our Town," adapted from the Thornton Wilder play of the same name. Co-stars were Paul Newman and Frank Sinatra. Her success and acclaim in TV productions were of such a high level that "one slightly hyperbolic primordial TV critic dubbed her 'the Helen Hayes of television.'"


title: Eva Marie Saint

text: Saint made her feature film debut in "On the Waterfront" (1954), starring Marlon Brando and directed by Elia Kazan—a performance for which she won the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress. Her performance in the role of Edie Doyle (whose brother's death sets the film's drama in motion), which she won over such leading contenders as Claire Trevor, Nina Foch, Katy Jurado and Jan Sterling, also earned her a British Academy of Film and Television Award nomination for "Most Promising Newcomer". In his review for "The New York Times", film critic A. H. Weiler wrote, "In casting Eva Marie Saint—a newcomer to movies from TV and Broadway—Mr. Kazan has come up with a pretty and blond artisan who does not have to depend on these attributes. Her parochial school training is no bar to love with the proper stranger. Amid scenes of carnage, she gives tenderness and sensitivity to genuine romance." The film was a major success and launched Saint's movie career. She received $7,500 for the role.


title: Eva Marie Saint

text: In a 2000 interview in "Premiere" magazine, Saint recalled making the film, which has been highly influential, saying, "[Elia] Kazan put me in a room with Marlon Brando. He said 'Brando is the boyfriend of your sister. You're not used to being with a young man. Don't let him in the door under any circumstances.' I don't know what he told Marlon; you'll have to ask him—good luck! [Brando] came in and started teasing me. He put me off balance. And I remained off balance for the whole shoot." She repeated the anecdote in a 2010 interview.


title: Eva Marie Saint

text: She appeared alongside Bob Hope in "That Certain Feeling" (1956) for which she received $50,000. She was then offered $100,000 to star in the lavish Civil War epic "Raintree County" (1957) with Elizabeth Taylor and Montgomery Clift. After that, she starred with Don Murray in "A Hatful of Rain", the pioneering drug-addiction drama, which although made later than "Raintree Country" was released earlier in 1957. She received a nomination for the "Best Foreign Actress" award from the British Academy of Film and Television for her performance.


title: Eva Marie Saint

text: Director Alfred Hitchcock surprised many by choosing Saint over dozens of other candidates for the femme fatale role in what was to become a suspense classic "North by Northwest" (1959) with Cary Grant and James Mason. Written by Ernest Lehman, the film updated and expanded upon the director's early "wrong man" spy adventures of the 1930s, 1940s, and 1950s, including "The 39 Steps", "Young and Innocent", and "Saboteur". "North by Northwest" became a box-office hit and an influence on spy films for decades. The film ranks number forty on the American Film Institute's list of the 100 Greatest American Movies of All Time.


title: Eva Marie Saint

text: Hitchcock worked with Saint to make her voice lower and huskier, and personally chose costumes for her during a shopping trip to Bergdorf Goodman in New York City.


title: Eva Marie Saint

text: The change in Saint's screen persona, coupled with her adroit performance as a seductive woman of mystery who keeps Cary Grant (and the audience) off balance, was widely heralded. In his review of August 7, 1959, "The New York Times" critic Abe H. Weiler wrote, "In casting Eva Marie Saint as [Cary Grant's] romantic vis-a-vis, Mr. Hitchcock has plumbed some talents not shown by the actress heretofore. Although she is seemingly a hard, designing type, she also emerges both the sweet heroine and a glamorous charmer."


title: Eva Marie Saint

text: In 2000, recalling her experience making the picture with Cary Grant and Hitchcock, Saint said, "[Grant] would say, 'See, Eva Marie, you don't have to cry in a movie to have a good time. Just kick up your heels and have fun.' Hitchcock said, 'I don't want you to do a sink-to-sink movie again, ever. You've done these black-and-white movies like "On the Waterfront". It's drab in that tenement house. Women go to the movies, and they've just left the sink at home. They don't want to see you at the sink.' In a 2010 interview she stated: "I said, 'I can't promise you that, Hitch, because I love those dramas.'"


title: Eva Marie Saint

text: Although "North by Northwest" might have propelled her to the top ranks of stardom, Saint chose to limit her film work in order to spend time with her husband since 1951, director Jeffrey Hayden, and their two children. In the 1960s, Saint continued to distinguish herself in both high-profile and offbeat pictures. She co-starred with Paul Newman in "Exodus" (1960), a historical drama about the founding of the state of Israel adapted from the novel of the same name by Leon Uris. It was directed by Otto Preminger. She also co-starred with Warren Beatty, Karl Malden and Angela Lansbury as a tragic beauty in the drama "All Fall Down" (1962). Based upon a novel by James Leo Herlihy and a screenplay by William Inge, the film was directed by John Frankenheimer.


title: Eva Marie Saint

text: She appeared with Elizabeth Taylor and Richard Burton in the melodrama "The Sandpiper" for Vincente Minnelli, and with James Garner in the World War II thriller "36 Hours" (1965), directed by George Seaton. Saint joined an all-star cast in the comedic satire, "The Russians Are Coming, the Russians Are Coming", directed by Norman Jewison, and the international racing drama, "Grand Prix" (1966) directed by Frankenheimer and presented in Cinerama.


title: Eva Marie Saint

text: Saint received some of her best reviews for her performance in "Loving" (1970), co-starring as the wife of George Segal. The movie was about a commercial artist's relationship with his wife and other women; it was critically acclaimed but did not have wide viewership.


title: Eva Marie Saint

text: Because of the mostly second-rate film roles that came her way in the 1970s, Saint returned to television and the stage in the 1980s. She received an Emmy nomination for the 1977 miniseries "How The West Was Won" and a 1978 Emmy nomination for "Taxi!!!". She was reunited with "On the Waterfront" co-star Karl Malden in the television film "Fatal Vision", this time as the wife of his character, as he investigated the murder of his daughter and granddaughters. She played the mother of Cybill Shepherd in the television series "Moonlighting", a role which spanned episodes over three years.


title: Eva Marie Saint

text: Saint returned to the big screen for the first time in over a decade in "Nothing in Common" (1986), in which she played the mother of Tom Hanks's character; it was directed by Garry Marshall. Critics applauded her return to features.


title: Eva Marie Saint

text: Saint was soon back on the small screen in numerous projects. After receiving five nominations, she won her first Emmy Award for the 1990 miniseries "People Like Us". She appeared in a number of television productions in the 1990s and was cast as the mother of radio producer, Roz Doyle, in a 1999 episode of the comedy series "Frasier".


title: Eva Marie Saint

text: In 2000, Saint returned to feature films in "I Dreamed of Africa" with Kim Basinger. In 2005, she co-starred with Jessica Lange and Sam Shepard in "Don't Come Knocking". Also in 2005, she appeared in the family film "Because of Winn-Dixie", co-starring AnnaSophia Robb, Jeff Daniels, and Cicely Tyson.


title: Eva Marie Saint

text: In 2006, Saint appeared in "Superman Returns" as Martha Kent, the adoptive mother of Superman, alongside Brandon Routh and a computer-generated performance from her "On the Waterfront" co-star Marlon Brando.


title: Eva Marie Saint

text: Saint has lent her voice to the 2012 Nickelodeon animated series "The Legend of Korra", a sequel to the hit TV show "," playing the now-elderly , a main character from the original series.


title: Eva Marie Saint

text: In September 2012, she was cast as the adult version of Willa in the film adaptation of the novel "Winter's Tale" by Mark Helprin. The film was released on Valentine's Day 2014.


title: Eva Marie Saint

text: At the age of 93, Saint appeared at the 2018 Academy Award ceremonies to present the award for Costume Design. She received a standing ovation upon entering the stage.


title: Eva Marie Saint

text: In 2021, Saint appeared alongside Marisa Tomei in the podcast play series "The Pack Podcast" as part of the segment "The Bus Ride".


title: Eva Marie Saint

text: She has two stars on the Hollywood Walk of Fame, one for motion pictures at 6624 Hollywood Boulevard, and one for television at 6730 Hollywood Boulevard.


title: Eva Marie Saint

text: Saint married producer and director Jeffrey Hayden on October 28, 1951. They had two children together: son Darrell Hayden and daughter Laurette Hayden. Their first child, Darrell, was born two days after she won an Academy Award for "On the Waterfront". Saint and Hayden also have four grandchildren and were married for 65 years, until Hayden's death on December 24, 2016, at the age of 90.


title: Haber process

text: The Haber process, also called the Haber–Bosch process, is an artificial nitrogen fixation process and is the main industrial procedure for the production of ammonia today. It is named after its inventors, the German chemists Fritz Haber and Carl Bosch, who developed it in the first decade of the 20th century. The process converts atmospheric nitrogen (N) to ammonia (NH) by a reaction with hydrogen (H) using a metal catalyst under high temperatures and pressures:


title: Haber process

text: Though this reaction is exothermic (i.e. it releases energy, albeit not very much), it results in a decrease in entropy, which is the central reason why it is very challenging to carry out.


title: Haber process

text: Before the development of the Haber process, it had been difficult to produce ammonia on an industrial scale, with early methods, such as the Birkeland–Eyde process and the Frank–Caro process, all highly inefficient.


title: Haber process

text: During World War I, the Haber process provided Germany with a source of ammonia for the production of explosives, compensating for the Allied Powers' trade blockade on Chilean saltpeter.


title: Haber process

text: During the 19th century, the demand for nitrates and ammonia for use as fertilizers and industrial feedstocks had been steadily increasing. The main source was mining niter deposits and guano from tropical islands. At the beginning of the 20th century it was being predicted that these reserves could not satisfy future demands, and research into new potential sources of ammonia became more important. Although atmospheric nitrogen (N) is abundant, comprising ~78% of the air, it is exceptionally stable and does not readily react with other chemicals. Converting N into ammonia posed a challenge for chemists globally.


title: Haber process

text: Haber, with his assistant Robert Le Rossignol, developed the high-pressure devices and catalysts needed to demonstrate the Haber process at laboratory scale. They demonstrated their process in the summer of 1909 by producing ammonia from air, drop by drop, at the rate of about per hour. The process was purchased by the German chemical company BASF, which assigned Carl Bosch the task of scaling up Haber's tabletop machine to industrial-level production. He succeeded in 1910. Haber and Bosch were later awarded Nobel prizes, in 1918 and 1931 respectively, for their work in overcoming the chemical and engineering problems of large-scale, continuous-flow, high-pressure technology.


title: Haber process

text: Ammonia was first manufactured using the Haber process on an industrial scale in 1913 in BASF's Oppau plant in Germany, reaching 20 tonnes per day the following year. During World War I, the production of munitions required large amounts of nitrate. The Allies had access to large deposits of sodium nitrate in Chile (Chile saltpetre) controlled by British companies. Germany had no such resources, so the Haber process proved essential to the German war effort. Synthetic ammonia from the Haber process was used for the production of nitric acid, a precursor to the nitrates used in explosives.


title: Haber process

text: Today, the most popular catalysts are based on iron promoted with KO, CaO, SiO, and AlO. Earlier, molybdenum was also used as a promoter. The original Haber–Bosch reaction chambers used osmium as the catalyst, but it was available in extremely small quantities. Haber noted uranium was almost as effective and easier to obtain than osmium. Under Bosch's direction in 1909, the BASF researcher Alwin Mittasch discovered a much less expensive iron-based catalyst, which is still used today. A major contributor to the elucidation of this catalysis was Gerhard Ertl.


title: Haber process

text: During the interwar years, alternative processes were developed, the most notably different being the Casale process, Claude process and the Mont-Cenis process by Friedrich Uhde Ingenieurbüro, founded in 1921. Luigi Casale and Georges Claude proposed to increase the pressure of the synthesis loop to , thereby increasing the single-pass ammonia conversion and making nearly complete liquefaction at ambient temperature feasible. Georges Claude even proposed to have three or four converters with liquefaction steps in series, thereby omitting the need for a recycle. Nowadays, most plants resemble the original Haber process ( and ), albeit with improved single-pass conversion and lower energy consumption due to process and catalyst optimization.


title: Haber process

text: This conversion is typically conducted at pressures above 10 MPa (100 bar; 1,450 psi) and between , as the gases (nitrogen and hydrogen) are passed over four beds of catalyst, with cooling between each pass for maintaining a reasonable equilibrium constant. On each pass only about 15% conversion occurs, but any unreacted gases are recycled, and eventually an overall conversion of 97% is achieved.


title: Haber process

text: The steam reforming, shift conversion, carbon dioxide removal, and methanation steps each operate at pressures of about , and the ammonia synthesis loop operates at pressures ranging from , depending upon which proprietary process is used.


title: Haber process

text: The major source of hydrogen is methane from natural gas. The conversion, steam reforming, is conducted with steam in a high-temperature and pressure tube inside a reformer with a nickel catalyst, separating the carbon and hydrogen atoms in the natural gas, yielding hydrogen gas and carbon monoxide waste (converted to carbon dioxide later in the process). Other fossil fuel sources include coal, heavy fuel oil and naphtha. Green hydrogen is produced without fossil fuels or carbon dioxide waste from biomass, electrolysis of water and the thermochemical (solar or other heat source) splitting of water, however, these sources of hydrogen are not competitive with the steam reforming process. Green ammonia can become competitive with current trends in technology improvements and e.g. carbon taxes.


title: Haber process

text: Nitrogen gas (N) is very unreactive because the atoms are held together by strong triple bonds. The Haber process relies on catalysts that accelerate the scission of this triple bond.


title: Haber process

text: Two opposing considerations are relevant to this synthesis: the position of the equilibrium and the rate of reaction. At room temperature, the equilibrium is strongly in favor of ammonia, but the reaction doesn't proceed at a detectable rate due to its high activation energy. Because the reaction is exothermic, the equilibrium constant becomes unity at around (see Le Châtelier's principle).


title: Haber process

text: Above this temperature, the equilibrium quickly becomes quite unfavorable for the reaction product at atmospheric pressure, according to the Van 't Hoff equation. Lowering the temperature is also unhelpful because the catalyst requires a temperature of at least 400 °C to be efficient.


title: Haber process

text: Increased pressure does favor the forward reaction because there are 4 moles of reactant for every 2 moles of product, and the pressure used () alters the equilibrium concentrations to give a substantial ammonia yield. The reason for this is evident in the equilibrium relationship, which is


title: Haber process

text: where formula_3 is the fugacity coefficient of species formula_4, formula_5 is the mole fraction of the same species, formula_6 is the pressure in the reactor, and formula_7 is standard pressure, typically .


title: Haber process

text: Economically, pressurization of the reactor is expensive: pipes, valves, and reaction vessels need to be strengthened, and there are safety considerations when working at 20 MPa. In addition, running compressors takes considerable energy, as work must be done on the (very compressible) gas. Thus, the compromise used gives a single-pass yield of around 15%


title: Haber process

text: While removing the product (i.e., ammonia gas) from the system would increase the reaction yield, this step is not used in practice, since the temperature is too high; it is removed from the equilibrium mixture of gases leaving the reaction vessel. The hot gases are cooled enough, whilst maintaining a high pressure, for the ammonia to condense and be removed as liquid. Unreacted hydrogen and nitrogen gases are then returned to the reaction vessel to undergo further reaction. While most ammonia is removed (typically down to 2–5 mol.%), some ammonia remains in the recycle stream to the converter. In academic literature, more complete separation of ammonia has been proposed by absorption in metal halides and by adsorption on zeolites. Such a process is called an "absorbent-enhanced Haber process" or "adsorbent-enhanced Haber–Bosch process".


title: Haber process

text: The Haber–Bosch process relies on catalysts to accelerate the hydrogenation of N. The catalysts are "heterogeneous", meaning that they are solids that interact on gaseous reagents.


title: Haber process

text: The catalyst typically consists of finely divided iron bound to an iron oxide carrier containing promoters possibly including aluminium oxide, potassium oxide, calcium oxide, potassium hydroxide, molybdenum, and magnesium oxide.


title: Haber process

text: In industrial practice, the iron catalyst is obtained from finely ground iron powder, which is usually obtained by reduction of high-purity magnetite (FeO). The pulverized iron is burnt (oxidized) to give magnetite or wüstite (FeO, ferrous oxide) particles of a specific size. The magnetite (or wüstite) particles are then partially reduced, removing some of the oxygen in the process. The resulting catalyst particles consist of a core of magnetite, encased in a shell of wüstite, which in turn is surrounded by an outer shell of metallic iron. The catalyst maintains most of its bulk volume during the reduction, resulting in a highly porous high-surface-area material, which enhances its effectiveness as a catalyst. Other minor components of the catalyst include calcium and aluminium oxides, which support the iron catalyst and help it maintain its surface area. These oxides of Ca, Al, K, and Si are unreactive to reduction by the hydrogen.


title: Haber process

text: The production of the required magnetite catalyst requires a particular melting process in which the used raw materials must be free of catalyst poisons and the promoter aggregates must be evenly distributed in the magnetite melt. Rapid cooling of the magnetite melt, which has an initial temperature of about 3500 °C, produces the precursor desired highly active catalyst. Unfortunately, the rapid cooling ultimately forms a catalyst of reduced abrasion resistance. Despite this disadvantage, the method of rapid cooling is often preferred in practice.


title: Haber process

text: The reduction of the catalyst precursor magnetite to α-iron is carried out directly in the production plant with synthesis gas. The reduction of the magnetite proceeds via the formation of wüstite (FeO), so that particles with a core of magnetite surrounded by a shell of wüstite are formed. The further reduction of magnetite and wüstite leads to the formation of α-iron, which forms together with the promoters the outer shell. The involved processes are complex and depend on the reduction temperature: At lower temperatures, wüstite disproportionates into an iron phase and a magnetite phase; at higher temperatures, the reduction of the wüstite and magnetite to iron dominates.


title: Haber process

text: The α-iron forms primary crystallites with a diameter of about 30 nanometers. These form crystallites a bimodal pore system with pore diameters of about 10 nanometers (produced by the reduction of the magnetite phase) and of 25 to 50 nanometers (produced by the reduction of the wüstite phase). With the exception of cobalt oxide, the promoters are not reduced.


title: Haber process

text: During the reduction of the iron oxide with synthesis gas, water vapour is formed. This water vapor must be considered for high catalyst quality as contact with the finely divided iron would lead to premature aging of the catalyst through recrystallization, especially in conjunction with high temperatures. The vapour pressure of the water in the gas mixture produced during catalyst formation is thus kept as low as possible, target values are below 3 gm. For this reason, the reduction is carried out at high gas exchange, low pressure and low temperatures. The exothermic nature of the ammonia formation ensures a gradual increase in temperature.


title: Haber process

text: The reduction of fresh, fully oxidized catalyst or precursor to full production capacity takes four to ten days. The wüstite phase is reduced faster and at lower temperatures than the magnetite phase (FeO). After detailed kinetic, microscopic and X-ray spectroscopic investigations it was shown that wüstite reacts first to metallic iron. This leads to a gradient of iron(II) ions, whereby these diffuse from the magnetite through the wüstite to the particle surface and precipitate there as iron nuclei.


title: Haber process

text: In industrial practice, pre-reduced, stabilised catalysts have gained a significant market share. They are delivered showing the fully developed pore structure, but have been oxidized again on the surface after manufacture and are therefore no longer pyrophoric. The reactivation of such pre-reduced catalysts requires only 30 to 40 hours instead of the usual time periods of several days. In addition to the short start-up time, they also have other advantages such as higher water resistance and lower weight.


title: Haber process

text: Since the industrial launch of the Haber–Bosch process, many efforts have been made to improve it. Many metals were intensively tested in the search for suitable catalysts: The requirement for suitability is the dissociative adsorption of nitrogen (i. e. the nitrogen molecule must be split into nitrogen atoms upon absorption). At the same time the binding of the nitrogen atoms must not be too strong, otherwise the catalyst would be blocked and the catalytic ability would be reduced (i. e. self-poisoning). The elements in the periodic table at the left of the iron group show such a strong bond to nitrogen. The formation of surface nitrides makes for example chromium catalysts ineffective. Metals to the right of the iron group, in contrast, adsorb nitrogen too weakly to be able to activate it sufficiently for ammonia synthesis. Haber initially used catalysts based on osmium and uranium. Uranium reacts to its nitride during catalysis, while osmium oxide is rare.


title: Haber process

text: Due to the comparatively low price, high availability, easy processing, lifespan and activity, iron was ultimately chosen as catalyst. The production of 1800 tons ammonia per day requires a gas pressure of at least 130 bar, temperatures of 400 to 500 °C and a reactor volume of at least 100 m³. According to theoretical and practical studies, further improvements of the pure iron catalyst are limited. It was noticed that the activity of iron catalysts were increased by inclusion of cobalt.


title: Haber process

text: Ruthenium forms highly active catalysts. Allowing milder operating pressures and temperatures, Ru-based materials are referred to as second-generation catalysts. Such catalysts are prepared by decomposition of triruthenium dodecacarbonyl on graphite. A drawback of activated-carbon-supported ruthenium-based catalysts is the methanation of the support in the presence of hydrogen. Their activity is strongly dependent on the catalyst carrier and the promoters. A wide range of substances can be used as carriers, including carbon, magnesium oxide, aluminium oxide, zeolites, spinels, and boron nitride.


title: Haber process

text: Ruthenium-activated carbon-based catalysts have been used industrially in the KBR Advanced Ammonia Process (KAAP) since 1992. The carbon carrier is partially degraded to methane; however, this can be mitigated by a special treatment of the carbon at 1500 °C, thus prolonging the lifetime of the catalyst. In addition, the finely dispersed carbon poses a risk of explosion. For these reasons and due to its low acidity, magnesium oxide has proven to be a good alternative. Carriers with acidic properties extract electrons from ruthenium, make it less reactive, and have the undesirable effect of binding ammonia to the surface.


title: Haber process

text: Catalyst poisons lower the activity of the catalyst. They are usually impurities in the synthesis gas (a raw material). Concerning gaseous catalyst poisons, a distinction should be made between permanent poisons causing an irreversible loss of catalytic activity and temporary poisons which lower the activity while present in the synthesis gas. Sulfur compounds, phosphorus compounds, arsenic compounds, and chlorine compounds are permanent catalyst poisons. Oxygenic compounds like water, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide and oxygen are temporary catalyst poisons.


title: Haber process

text: Although chemically inert components of the synthesis gas mixture such as noble gases or methane are not catalyst poisons in the strict sense, they accumulate through the recycling of the process gases and thus lower the partial pressure of the reactants, which in turn has a negative effect on the conversion.


title: Haber process

text: The reaction is an exothermic equilibrium reaction in which the gas volume is reduced. The equilibrium constant K of the reaction (see table) is obtained from the following equation:


title: Haber process

text: Since the reaction is exothermic, the equilibrium of the reaction shifts at lower temperatures to the side of the ammonia. Furthermore, four volumetric parts of the raw materials produce two volumetric parts of ammonia. According to Le Chatelier's principle, a high pressure therefore also favours the formation of ammonia. In addition, a high pressure is necessary to ensure sufficient surface coverage of the catalyst with nitrogen. For this reason, a ratio of nitrogen to hydrogen of 1 to 3, a pressure of 250 to 350 bar, a temperature of 450 to 550 °C and α iron are used as catalysts.


title: Haber process

text: The catalyst ferrite (α-Fe) is produced in the reactor by the reduction of magnetite with hydrogen. The catalyst has its highest efficiency at temperatures of about 400 to 500 °C. Even though the catalyst greatly lowers the activation energy for the cleavage of the triple bond of the nitrogen molecule, high temperatures are still required for an appropriate reaction rate. At the industrially utilized reaction temperature of 450 to 550 °C an optimum between the decomposition of ammonia into the starting materials and the effectiveness of the catalyst is achieved. The formed ammonia is continuously removed from the system. The volume fraction of ammonia in the gas mixture is about 20%.


title: Haber process

text: The inert components, especially the noble gases such as argon, should not exceed a certain content in order not to reduce the partial pressure of the reactants too much. To remove the inert gas components, part of the gas is removed and the argon is separated in a gas separation plant. The extraction of pure argon from the circulating gas is carried out using the Linde process.


title: Haber process

text: Modern ammonia plants produce more than 3000 tons per day in one production line. The following diagram shows the set-up of a Haber–Bosch plant:


title: Haber process

text: Depending on its origin, the synthesis gas must first be freed from impurities such as Hydrogen sulfide or organic sulphur compounds, which act as a catalyst poison. High concentrations of hydrogen sulfide, which occur in synthesis gas from carbonization coke, are removed in a wet cleaning stage such as the Sulfosolvan process, while low concentrations are removed by adsorption on activated carbon. Organosulfur compounds are separated by pressure swing adsorption together with carbon dioxide after CO conversion.


title: Haber process

text: To produce hydrogen by steam reforming, methane reacts with water vapor using a nickel oxide-alumina catalyst in the primary reformer to form carbon monoxide and hydrogen. The energy required for this, the enthalpy ΔH, is 206 kJ/mol.


title: Haber process

text: The methane gas reacts in the primary reformer only partially. In order to increase the hydrogen yield and keep the content of inert components (i. e. methane) as low as possible, the remaining methane gas is converted in a second step with oxygen to hydrogen and carbon monoxide in the secondary reformer. The secondary reformer is supplied with air as oxygen source. Also the required nitrogen for the subsequent ammonia synthesis is added to the gas mixture.


title: Haber process

text: In a third step, the carbon monoxide is oxidized to carbon dioxide, which is called CO conversion or water-gas shift reaction.


title: Haber process

text: Carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide would form carbamates with ammonia, which would clog (as solids) pipelines and apparatus within a short time. In the following process step, the carbon dioxide must therefore be removed from the gas mixture. In contrast to carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide can easily be removed from the gas mixture by gas scrubbing with triethanolamine. The gas mixture then still contains methane and noble gases such as argon, which, however, behave inertly.


title: Haber process

text: The gas mixture is then compressed to operating pressure by turbo compressors. The resulting compression heat is dissipated by heat exchangers; it is used to preheat raw gases.


title: Haber process

text: The actual production of ammonia takes place in the ammonia reactor. The first reactors were bursting under the high pressure because the atomic hydrogen in the carbonaceous steel partially recombined to methane and produced cracks in the steel. Bosch therefore developed tube reactors consisting of a pressure-bearing steel tube in which a low-carbon iron lining tube was inserted filled with the catalyst. Hydrogen that diffused through the inner steel pipe escaped to the outside via thin holes in the outer steel jacket, the so-called Bosch holes. A disadvantage of the tubular reactors was the relatively high pressure loss, which had to be applied again by compression. The development of hydrogen-resistant chromium-molybdenum steels made it possible to construct single-walled pipes.


title: Haber process

text: Modern ammonia reactors are designed as multi-storey reactors with low pressure drop, in which the catalysts are distributed as fills over about ten storeys one above the other. The gas mixture flows through them one after the other from top to bottom. Cold gas is injected from the side for cooling. A disadvantage of this reactor type is the incomplete conversion of the cold gas mixture in the last catalyst bed.


title: Haber process

text: Alternatively, the reaction mixture between the catalyst layers is cooled using heat exchangers, whereby the hydrogen-nitrogen mixture is preheated to reaction temperature. Reactors of this type have three catalyst beds. In addition to good temperature control, this reactor type has the advantage of better conversion of the raw material gases compared to reactors with cold gas injection.


title: Haber process

text: Uhde has developed and is using an ammonia converter with three radial flow catalyst beds and two internal heat exchangers instead of axial flow catalyst beds. This further reduces the pressure drop in the converter.


title: Haber process

text: The reaction product is continuously removed for maximum yield. The gas mixture is cooled to 450 °C in a heat exchanger using water, freshly supplied gases and other process streams. The ammonia also condenses and is separated in a pressure separator. Unreacted nitrogen and hydrogen are than compressed back to the process by a circulating gas compressor, supplemented with fresh gas and fed to the reactor. In a subsequent distillation, the product ammonia is purified.


title: Haber process

text: Transport and diffusion (the first and last two steps) are fast compared to adsorption, reaction and desorption because of the shell structure of the catalyst. It is known from various investigations that the rate-determining step of the ammonia synthesis is the dissociation of nitrogen. In contrast, exchange reactions between hydrogen and deuterium on the Haber–Bosch catalysts still take place at temperatures of at a measurable rate; the exchange between deuterium and hydrogen on the ammonia molecule also takes place at room temperature. Since the adsorption of both molecules is rapid, it cannot determine the speed of ammonia synthesis.


title: Haber process

text: In addition to the reaction conditions, the adsorption of nitrogen on the catalyst surface depends on the microscopic structure of the catalyst surface. Iron has different crystal surfaces, whose reactivity is very different. The Fe(111) and Fe(211) surfaces have by far the highest activity. The explanation for this is that only these surfaces have so-called C7 sites - these are iron atoms with seven closest neighbours.


title: Haber process

text: The dissociative adsorption of nitrogen on the surface follows the following scheme, where S* symbolizes an iron atom on the surface of the catalyst:


title: Haber process

text: The adsorption of nitrogen is similar to the chemisorption of carbon monoxide. On a Fe(111) surface, the adsorption of nitrogen first leads to an adsorbed γ-species with an adsorption energy of 24 kJmol and an N-N stretch vibration of 2100 cm. Since the nitrogen is isoelectronic to carbon monoxide, it adsorbs in an on-end configuration in which the molecule is bound perpendicular to the metal surface at one nitrogen atom. This has been confirmed by photoelectron spectroscopy.


title: Haber process

text: Ab-initio-MO calculations have shown that, in addition to the σ binding of the free electron pair of nitrogen to the metal, there is a π binding from the d orbitals of the metal to the π* orbitals of nitrogen, which strengthens the iron-nitrogen bond. The nitrogen in the α state is more strongly bound with 31 kJmol. The resulting N-N bond weakening could be experimentally confirmed by a reduction of the wave numbers of the N-N stretching oscillation to 1490 cm.


title: Haber process

text: Further heating of the Fe(111) area covered by α-N leads to both desorption and emergence of a new band at 450 cm. This represents a metal-nitrogen oscillation, the β state. A comparison with vibration spectra of complex compounds allows the conclusion that the N molecule is bound "side-on", with an N atom in contact with a C7 site. This structure is called "surface nitride". The surface nitride is very strongly bound to the surface. Hydrogen atoms (H), which are very mobile on the catalyst surface, quickly combine with it.


title: Haber process

text: Infrared spectroscopically detected surface imides (NH), surface amides (NH) and surface ammoniacates (NH) are formed, the latter decay under NH release (desorption). The individual molecules were identified or assigned by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), high-resolution electron energy loss spectroscopy (HREELS) and IR spectroscopy.


title: Haber process

text: On the basis of these experimental findings, the reaction mechanism is believed to involve the following steps (see also figure):


title: Haber process

text: Reaction 5 occurs in three steps, forming NH, NH, and then NH. Experimental evidence points to reaction 2 as being the slow, rate-determining step. This is not unexpected, since the bond broken, the nitrogen triple bond, is the strongest of the bonds that must be broken.


title: Haber process

text: As with all Haber–Bosch catalysts, nitrogen dissociation is the rate determining step for ruthenium activated carbon catalysts. The active center for ruthenium is a so-called B5 site, a 5-fold coordinated position on the Ru(0001) surface where two ruthenium atoms form a step edge with three ruthenium atoms on the Ru(0001) surface. The number of B5 sites depends on the size and shape of the ruthenium particles, the ruthenium precursor and the amount of ruthenium used. The reinforcing effect of the basic carrier used in the ruthenium catalyst is similar to the promoter effect of alkali metals used in the iron catalyst.


title: Haber process

text: An energy diagram can be created based on the enthalpy of reaction of the individual steps. The energy diagram can be used to compare homogeneous and heterogeneous reactions: Due to the high activation energy of the dissociation of nitrogen, the homogeneous gas phase reaction is not realizable. The catalyst avoids this problem as the energy gain resulting from the binding of nitrogen atoms to the catalyst surface overcompensates for the necessary dissociation energy so that the reaction is finally exothermic. Nevertheless, the dissociative adsorption of nitrogen remains the rate determining step: not because of the activation energy, but mainly because of the unfavorable pre-exponential factor of the rate constant. Although hydrogenation is endothermic, this energy can easily be applied by the reaction temperature (about 700 K).


title: Haber process

text: When first invented, the Haber process competed against another industrial process, the cyanamide process. However, the cyanamide process consumed large amounts of electrical power and was more labor-intensive than the Haber process.


title: Haber process

text: As of 2018, the Haber process produces 230 million tonnes of anhydrous ammonia per year. The ammonia is used mainly as a nitrogen fertilizer as ammonia itself, in the form of ammonium nitrate, and as urea. The Haber process consumes 3–5% of the world's natural-gas production (around 1–2% of the world's energy supply). In combination with advances in breeding, herbicides and pesticides, these fertilizers have helped to increase the productivity of agricultural land:


title: Haber process

text: The energy-intensivity of the process contributes to climate change and other environmental problems such as leaching of nitrates into ground water, rivers, ponds and lakes; expanding dead zones in coastal ocean waters, resulting from recurrent eutrophication; atmospheric deposition of nitrates and ammonia affecting natural ecosystems; higher emissions of nitrous oxide (NO), now the third most important greenhouse gas following CO and CH. The Haber–Bosch process is one of the largest contributors to a buildup of reactive nitrogen in the biosphere, causing an anthropogenic disruption to the nitrogen cycle.


title: Haber process

text: Since nitrogen use efficiency is typically less than 50%, farm runoff from heavy use of fixed industrial nitrogen disrupts biological habitats.


title: Haber process

text: Nearly 50% of the nitrogen found in human tissues originated from the Haber–Bosch process. Thus, the Haber process serves as the "detonator of the population explosion", enabling the global population to increase from 1.6 billion in 1900 to 7.7 billion by November 2018.


title: Indigo

text: Indigo is a deep color close to the color wheel blue (a primary color in the RGB color space), as well as to some variants of ultramarine, based on the ancient dye of the same name. The word "indigo" comes from the Latin word "indicum", meaning "Indian", as the dye was originally exported to Europe from India.


title: Indigo

text: It is traditionally regarded as a color in the visible spectrum, as well as one of the seven colors of the rainbow: the color between blue and violet; however, sources differ as to its actual position in the electromagnetic spectrum.


title: Indigo

text: "Indigofera tinctoria" and related species were cultivated in East Asia, Egypt, India, Bangladesh and Peru in antiquity. The earliest direct evidence for the use of indigo dates to around 4000 BC and comes from Huaca Prieta, in contemporary Peru. Pliny the Elder mentions India as the source of the dye after which it was named. It was imported from there in small quantities via the Silk Road.


title: Indigo

text: The Ancient Greek term for the dye was ("Indian dye"), which, adopted to Latin (second declension case) as "indicum" or "indico" and via Portuguese, gave rise to the modern word indigo.


title: Indigo

text: Spanish explorers discovered an American species of indigo and began to cultivate the product in Guatemala. The English and French subsequently began to encourage indigo cultivation in their colonies in the West Indies.


title: Indigo

text: In North America, indigo was introduced by Eliza Lucas into colonial South Carolina, where it became the colony's second-most important cash crop (after rice). Before the Revolutionary War, indigo accounted for more than one-third of the value of exports from the American colonies.


title: Indigo

text: Blue dye can be made from two different types of plants: the indigo plant, which produces the best results, and from the woad plant "Isatis tinctoria", also known as pastel. For a long time, woad was the main source of blue dye in Europe. Woad was replaced by true indigo as trade routes opened up, and both plant sources have now been largely replaced by synthetic dyes.


title: Indigo

text: The Early Modern English word indigo referred to the dye, not to the color (hue) itself, and indigo is not traditionally part of the basic color-naming system. Modern sources place indigo in the electromagnetic spectrum between 420 and 450 nanometers, which lies on the short-wave side of color wheel (RGB) blue, towards (spectral) violet.


title: Indigo

text: The correspondence of this definition with colors of actual indigo dyes, though, is disputed. Optical scientists Hardy and Perrin list indigo as between 445 and 464 nm wavelength, which occupies a spectrum segment from roughly the color wheel (RGB) blue extending to the long-wave side, towards azure.


title: Indigo

text: Isaac Newton introduced indigo as one of the seven base colors of his work. In the mid-1660s, when Newton bought a pair of prisms at a fair near Cambridge, the East India Company had begun importing indigo dye into England, supplanting the homegrown woad as source of blue dye. In a pivotal experiment in the history of optics, the young Newton shone a narrow beam of sunlight through a prism to produce a rainbow-like band of colors on the wall. In describing this optical spectrum, Newton acknowledged that the spectrum had a continuum of colors, but named seven: "The originall or primary colours are Red, yellow, Green, Blew, & a violet purple; together with Orang, Indico, & an indefinite varietie of intermediate gradations." He linked the seven prismatic colors to the seven notes of a western major scale, as shown in his color wheel, with orange and indigo as the semitones. Having decided upon seven colors, he asked a friend to repeatedly divide up the spectrum that was projected from the prism onto the wall:


title: Indigo

text: I desired a friend to draw with a pencil lines cross the image, or pillar of colours, where every one of the seven aforenamed colours was most full and brisk, and also where he judged the truest confines of them to be, whilst I held the paper so, that the said image might fall within a certain compass marked on it. And this I did, partly because my own eyes are not very critical in distinguishing colours, partly because another, to whom I had not communicated my thoughts about this matter, could have nothing but his eyes to determine his fancy in making those marks.


title: Indigo

text: Indigo is therefore counted as one of the traditional colors of the rainbow, the order of which is given by the mnemonics "Richard of York gave battle in vain" and "Roy G. Biv". James Clerk Maxwell and Hermann von Helmholtz accepted indigo as an appropriate name for the color flanking violet in the spectrum.


title: Indigo

text: According to Gary Waldman, "A careful reading of Newton's work indicates that the color he called indigo, we would normally call blue; his blue is then what we would name blue-green or cyan." If this is true, Newton's seven spectral colors would have been:


title: Indigo

text: The human eye does not readily differentiate hues in the wavelengths between what are now called blue and violet. If this is where Newton meant indigo to lie, most individuals would have difficulty distinguishing indigo from its neighbors. According to Isaac Asimov, "It is customary to list indigo as a color lying between blue and violet, but it has never seemed to me that indigo is worth the dignity of being considered a separate color. To my eyes, it seems merely deep blue."


title: Indigo

text: Modern color scientists typically divide the spectrum between violet and blue at about 450 nm, with no indigo.


title: Indigo

text: Like many other colors (orange, rose, and violet are the best-known), indigo gets its name from an object in the natural world—the plant named indigo once used for dyeing cloth (see also Indigo dye).


title: Indigo

text: The color "electric indigo" is a bright and saturated color between the traditional indigo and violet. This is the brightest color indigo that can be approximated on a computer screen; it is a color located between the (primary) blue and the color violet of the RGB color wheel.


title: Indigo

text: The web color blue violet or deep indigo is a tone of indigo brighter than pigment indigo, but not as bright as electric indigo.


title: Indigo

text: The color pigment indigo is equivalent to the web color indigo and approximates the color indigo that is usually reproduced in pigments and colored pencils.


title: Indigo

text: The color of indigo dye is a different color from either spectrum indigo or pigment indigo. This is the actual color of the dye. A vat full of this dye is a darker color, approximating the web color midnight blue.


title: Indigo

text: "Electric indigo" is brighter than the pigment indigo reproduced below. When plotted on the CIE chromaticity diagram, this color is at 435 nanometers, in the middle of the portion of the spectrum traditionally considered indigo, i.e., between 450 and 420 nanometers. This color is only an approximation of spectral indigo, since actual spectral colors are outside the gamut of the sRGB color system.


title: Indigo

text: At right is displayed the web color "blue-violet", a color intermediate in brightness between electric indigo and pigment indigo. It is also known as "deep indigo".


title: Indigo

text: The color box on the right displays the web color indigo, the color indigo as it would be reproduced by artists' paints as opposed to the brighter indigo above (electric indigo) that is possible to reproduce on a computer screen. Its hue is closer to violet than to indigo dye for which the color is named. Pigment indigo can be obtained by mixing 55% pigment cyan with about 45% pigment magenta.


title: Indigo

text: Compare the subtractive colors to the additive colors in the two primary color charts in the article on primary colors to see the distinction between electric colors as reproducible from light on a computer screen (additive colors) and the pigment colors reproducible with pigments (subtractive colors); the additive colors are significantly brighter because they are produced from light instead of pigment.


title: Indigo

text: Web color indigo represents the way the color indigo was always reproduced in pigments, paints, or colored pencils in the 1950s. By the 1970s, because of the advent of psychedelic art, artists became accustomed to brighter pigments. Pigments called "bright indigo" or "bright blue-violet" (the pigment equivalent of the electric indigo reproduced in the section above) became available in artists' pigments and colored pencils.


title: Indigo

text: 'Tropical Indigo' is the color that is called "añil" in the "Guía de coloraciones" (Guide to colorations) by Rosa Gallego and


title: Indigo

text: Juan Carlos Sanz, a color dictionary published in 2005 that is widely popular in the Hispanophone realm.


title: Indigo

text: "Indigo dye" is a greenish dark blue color, obtained from either the leaves of the tropical Indigo plant ("Indigofera"), or from woad ("Isatis tinctoria"), or the Chinese indigo ("Persicaria tinctoria"). Many societies make use of the "Indigofera" plant for producing different shades of blue. Cloth that is repeatedly boiled in an indigo dye bath-solution (boiled and left to dry, boiled and left to dry, etc.), the blue pigment becomes darker on the cloth. After dyeing, the cloth is hung in the open air to dry.


title: Indigo

text: We raised our indigo which we cut in the morning while the dew was still on it; then we put it in a tub and soaked it overnight, and the next day we foamed it up by beating it with a gourd. We let it stand overnight again, and the next day rubbed tallow on our hands to kill the foam. Afterwards, we poured the water off, and the sediment left in the bottom we would pour into a pitcher or crock to let it get dry, and then we would put it into a poke made of cloth (i.e. sack made of coarse cloth) and then when we wanted any of it to dye [there]with, we would take the dry indigo.


title: Indigo

text: In Sa Pa, Vietnam, the tropical Indigo ("Indigo tinctoria") leaves are harvested and, while still fresh, placed inside a tub of room-temperature to lukewarm water where they are left to sit for 3 to 4 days and allowed to ferment, until the water turns green. Afterwards, crushed limestone (pickling lime) is added to the water, at which time the water with the leaves are vigorously agitated for 15 to 20 minutes, until the water turns blue. The blue pigment settles as sediment at the bottom of the tub. The sediment is scooped out and stored. When dyeing cloth, the pigment is then boiled in a vat of water; the cloth (usually made from yarns of hemp) is inserted into the vat for absorbing the dye. After hanging out to dry, the boiling process is repeated as often as needed to produce a darker color.


title: Indigo

text: Marina Warner's novel "Indigo" (1992) is a retelling of Shakespeare's "The Tempest" and features the production of indigo dye by Sycorax.


title: Indigo

text: The French Army adopted dark blue indigo at the time of the French Revolution, as a replacement for the white uniforms previously worn by the Royal infantry regiments. In 1806, Napoleon decided to restore the white coats because of shortages of indigo dye imposed by the British continental blockade. However, the greater practicability of the blue color led to its retention, and indigo remained the dominant color of French military coats until 1914.


title: Indigo

text: In the "Better Call Saul" episode "Hero", Howard Hamlin mentions that his law firm Hamlin Hamlin & McGill trademarked a colour called "Hamlindigo" whilst confronting Jimmy McGill over trademark infringement in a billboard advertisement he produced for his own legal services.


title: Indigo

text: The spiritualist applications use electric indigo, because the color is positioned between blue and violet on the spectrum.


title: Peter Cullen

text: Peter Claver Cullen (born July 28, 1941) is a Canadian voice actor. He is best known as the voice of Optimus Prime in the original 1980s "Transformers" animated series, reprising the role many times since 2007. He has also voiced many other characters across a wide variety of popular media, including Eeyore in the "Winnie the Pooh" franchise, Monterey Jack in "", the first voice of KARR in "Knight Rider" and the vocalizations of the title character in "Predator". In 2007, Cullen returned to the role of Optimus Prime in "Transformers" media, starting with the first live-action film.


title: Peter Cullen

text: Cullen was born on July 28, 1941, in Montreal, Quebec, to Henry and Muriel (née McCann) Cullen. He is of Irish descent. He has three siblings: Michaela, Sonny, and Larry. He is a member of the first graduating class of the National Theatre School of Canada, which he graduated in 1963. His brother, Larry Cullen, was a retired Captain in the United States Marine Corps, and helped inspire the voice of Optimus Prime.


title: Peter Cullen

text: In 1968, he and Joan Stuart appeared as "Giles" and "Penelope" in "L'Anglaise", a recurring segment about a French-Canadian man with an English-Canadian wife, on the CBC Radio comedy series, "Funny You Should Say That".


title: Peter Cullen

text: Cullen played a French-Canadian astronaut character named Commander Bi Bi Latuque alongside Ted Zeigler for the 1969 children's show, "The Buddies" on CFCF-TV in Montreal. He honed his voice skills by working as a radio announcer, notably in his home town of Montreal on (then) MOR station CKGM doing the overnight and weekend swing shifts. From 1967 to 1969, he was the announcer for "Smothers Brothers Comedy Hour".


title: Peter Cullen

text: From 1971 to 1974, he, Zeigler and Billy Van were series regulars on "The Sonny & Cher Comedy Hour". In 1974, Cullen was the announcer and a series regular (with Ted Zeigler and Billy Van) on "The Hudson Brothers Razzle Dazzle Show". He lent his voice to a character in the album "The Story of Halloween Horror" in 1977.


title: Peter Cullen

text: Cullen recalls auditioning for the role of the robot superhero Optimus Prime at a casting house in Burbank, California, explaining that as he read Prime's character breakdown, he saw that it was "the opportunity of the year", and heeded his brother Larry's advice: "Peter, don't be a Hollywood hero, be a real hero. Real heroes don't yell and act tough; they're tough enough to be gentle, so control yourself." Cullen later learned from his agent, Steve Tisherman, that he not only won the part of Prime, but also, to his surprise, the role of Ironhide as well, which he saw as a "home run".


title: Peter Cullen

text: He has stated that Optimus is his favorite voice role, and that he based the voice of the Autobot leader on his older brother Larry, who served in Vietnam. "When he came home, I could see a change. He was quieter and he was a man and a superhero to me," says the actor. "I watched him and listened to him. I'd never had an opportunity to do a superhero, and when that came, [that voice] just came right out of me and I sounded like Optimus."


title: Peter Cullen

text: He has also stated that he had no idea of Prime's popularity until the character's controversial death in the , because the studio had never given him fan letters from children addressed to Optimus. The public backlash over Optimus's death surprised producers greatly. Children were leaving the theaters distraught because of the character's death. The writers temporarily revived the character for a single episode in Season 3 called "Dark Awakening". Initially, this was intended to be his final appearance, but after fan requests continued, "The Return of Optimus Prime", a two-part episode was produced. The original ending of "Dark Awakening" was altered in reruns to include a teaser about the return of the character, and indeed, Optimus returned once and for all to lead the Autobots for the final five episodes of the original American cartoon series.


title: Peter Cullen

text: Cullen reprised the role of Optimus Prime in the 2007 "Transformers" live-action film, the sequels "", "", "" and "", the spin-off "Bumblebee" and the forthcoming "" and the video games based on the film series. Though he was only contractually obligated to voice Optimus up to "The Last Knight", producer Lorenzo di Bonaventura stated in 2021 that Cullen was welcome to voice the character for as long as he wanted.


title: Peter Cullen

text: Cullen again reprised his role as Optimus Prime in the video games "", "" and "", and in the recent television series "", "" and "". His performance in the premiere season of "" earned him a nomination for a 2011 Daytime Emmy Award in the Outstanding Performer in an Animated Program category.


title: Peter Cullen

text: In the 1980s and 1990s, Cullen appeared on a number of television shows. He has played Coran, Stride the Tiger Fighter, and King Alfor in the Lion "Voltron" series, the transforming spaceship/robot Ramrod, the heroic Commander Eagle and the villainous Nemesis in the 1980s anime series "Saber Rider and the Star Sheriffs", Commander James Hawkins in the Vehicle "Voltron" series, Eeyore in the "Winnie the Pooh" franchise, Original First Voice of KARR in "Knight Rider", Antor and Bomba, and Gunner, in "Dino-Riders", Airborne, Zandar and Nemesis Enforcer in "", He played Mantor/Mantys in Coleco's 5 episode mini-series "Sectaurs" in 1986; Red Skull in the 1981 cartoon series of "Spider-Man", Klaar and Zanzoar in "Megas XLR" and Mantus in "The Pirates of Dark Water". He also had a voice part in the 1984 motion picture "Gremlins" (as a gremlin) and in the first season of the 2008 "Knight Rider" series, where he reprised his vocal role as KARR (from the original "Knight Rider" series). He also did voicework in "" series, notably as Japheth, one of Noah's sons in the "Noah's Ark" episode, and the King of Nineveh in the "Jonah" episode. He was well known by some as the main villain Venger in the animated series of "Dungeons and Dragons". He played the evil sorcerer Renwick in the lesser known series "Little Wizards" and played Cindarr in the short-lived series "".


title: Peter Cullen

text: Among many other television series and films, he has also lent his basso voice to many film trailers and television commercials, including announcing for the "Toonami" and "You Are Here" blocks on the Cartoon Network. Cullen spent some of his early professional years in Montreal as a radio announcer/DJ on CKGM; and as a character in a then-popular local television kids show. He acted the role of a French-Canadian astronaut, along with writer and his partner on the show, Ted Ziegler. Both Ziegler and Cullen were in the supporting cast of "The Sonny & Cher Comedy Hour", as well as other network comedies of the era.


title: Peter Cullen

text: He voiced Nintendo's mascot Mario in the "Donkey Kong" segments on "Saturday Supercade", making him the first person to ever provide a voice for the character in western media.


title: Peter Cullen

text: Cullen has done voicework on drum and bass DJ Dieselboy's 2004 album, "The Dungeonmaster's Guide", and narration on the 2013 album "Tetragrammaton" by the Dutch extreme metal band The Monolith Deathcult. "Tetragrammaton" also featured Cullen on bass in "God's Among Insects." Additionally, he did voicework for the unreleased Blizzard Entertainment game "", and provided narration for the "Star Wars" fan film series I.M.P.S.: The Relentless.


title: Peter Cullen

text: Cullen is a voice announcer on "Police Story 4: First Strike" in advertisements for New Line Cinema, lending his experience as an ex-cop for the Santa Monica division to the cast.


title: Peter Cullen

text: Cullen has four children: Clay, Angus, Claire, Pilar and three grandchildren. He is a good friend of his longtime "Transformers" co-star and fellow voice actor Frank Welker.


title: Peter Cullen

text: Cullen is a devoted fan and supporter of NASA, citing the Apollo 11 moon-landing of 1969 as the start of his interest.


title: Peter Cullen

text: At BotCon 2010, Hasbro named Cullen as one of the first four human inductees in the Transformers Hall of Fame for his role as the voice of Optimus Prime.


title: Rick Fox

text: Ulrich Alexander Fox (born July 24, 1969) is a Canadian-Bahamian actor and former basketball player. He played in the National Basketball Association (NBA) for the Boston Celtics and Los Angeles Lakers, and played college basketball for the North Carolina Tar Heels. He was the owner of the eSports franchise Echo Fox until his departure from the franchise in October 2019.


title: Rick Fox

text: His acting credits have included roles in "Oz", "He Got Game", "One Tree Hill", "Ugly Betty", "The Game", "Meet the Browns", "Melrose Place", "Mr. Box Office", "Sin City Saints", "Krystal", "", "Greenleaf", "Morning Show Mysteries" and "All Rise".


title: Rick Fox

text: Fox was born in Toronto, the son of Dianne Gerace, who was an Olympic high jumper and women's pentathlete, and Ulrich Fox. His father is Bahamian and his mother is Canadian of Italian and Scottish descent. Fox's family moved to his father's native Bahamas when Fox was young. He attended Kingsway Academy in Nassau. Despite never playing organized ball before, he went to a summer camp and became a member of the high school's basketball team, the "Saints". Fox also played high school basketball in Warsaw, Indiana where he trained to excel. After two seasons (1984–1986) at Warsaw, Fox was projected to have a very successful senior season. Just prior to his senior season, the Indiana High School Athletic Association (IHSAA) ruled that he had no more high school eligibility left (due to completing eight semesters between the Bahamas and Indiana) and was not allowed to participate in any further IHSAA games. Despite not playing his senior season, Fox was voted onto the Indiana All-Star team in 1987. He then went on to star collegiately at the University of North Carolina where his highlights began his professional basketball career.


title: Rick Fox

text: Fox was selected by the Boston Celtics in the first round (24th pick overall) of the 1991 NBA draft. As a member of the Celtics, Fox became the first rookie starter on opening night since Larry Bird in 1979 and made the 1992 NBA All-Rookie Second Team after averaging 8 points per game. By the 1995–96 season, Fox became the team's starting small forward and achieved double-figure scoring. He recorded career highs of 15.4 points a game and 2.2 steals a game (fifth in the league) and made 101 three-point field goals in the 1996–97 season.


title: Rick Fox

text: In the summer of 1997, the Celtics released Fox, and he signed with the Los Angeles Lakers. He played and started in all 82 games during the 1997–98 season, averaging 12 points per game. In the playoffs, he tallied 10.9 points a game as the Lakers advanced to the Western Conference Finals before losing to the Utah Jazz. In the 1998–99 season, the Lakers acquired All-Star small forward Glen Rice. Fox primarily served as his backup during the next two seasons.


title: Rick Fox

text: In the 1999–2000 season playoffs, Fox played all 23 games as the Lakers advanced to the 2000 NBA Finals against the Indiana Pacers. In the Finals, Fox averaged 6.7 points, including 11 in the Lakers' game 1 victory. In game 6, with the Lakers leading the series 3–2, Fox hit a critical three-pointer in the fourth quarter to help the Lakers' final rally as they won the game and the NBA title, Fox's first.


title: Rick Fox

text: Following the departure of Glen Rice, Fox started 77 of 82 games in the 2000–01 season, posting an average of 9.6 points a game while shooting 39% from three-point range. In the playoffs, Fox started in all 16 games as the Lakers swept through the first three rounds and reached the 2001 NBA Finals against the Philadelphia 76ers. Fox scored 19 points in the Lakers' game 1 loss; the 76ers were led by Allen Iverson's 48 points. The Lakers would win the next four games of the series, securing their second straight championship. In the fifth game, Fox contributed with 20 points, and hit all three of his three-point field goal attempts.


title: Rick Fox

text: In the 2001–02 season, Fox played and started in all 82 games in the regular season and in all of the Lakers' 19 playoff games. The Lakers faced a grueling 7-game series against the Sacramento Kings, with Fox scoring 13 points in the Lakers' game 7 victory in Sacramento.


title: Rick Fox

text: In the 2002 NBA Finals against the New Jersey Nets, Fox averaged 9.8 points, 6.3 rebounds, and 1.5 steals as the Lakers swept the Nets in 4 games to win their third straight NBA title. In the beginning of the 2002 season, Fox was suspended 6 games after fighting with Sacramento Kings player Doug Christie in the preseason. In the 2002–03 season, Fox started in 75 of 76 games but suffered an ankle injury that kept him out of the last two games of the first round against the Minnesota Timberwolves and the entire Western Conference Semifinal series against the San Antonio Spurs. The Spurs defeated the Lakers 4–2. Fox missed 40 games in the 2003–04 season due to a foot injury, but started in 34 of 38 games while active. He would only start in 3 of 16 playoff games as the Lakers advanced to the 2004 NBA Finals but lost to the Detroit Pistons in 5 games. In 56 career NBA playoff games, Fox averaged 6.1 points per game, 2.6 rebounds, and 1.8 assists. Following the 2003–04 season, Fox was traded back to the Celtics in a deal that brought Chucky Atkins to the Lakers, but opted to retire instead of suiting up for the Celtics. During his 13-year NBA career, Fox earned more than $34 million in salary.


title: Rick Fox

text: While attending the University of North Carolina, Fox earned a bachelor's degree in radio, Television, and Motion Pictures. In 1994, Fox appeared in the film "Blue Chips" as a member of the Western University basketball team. In 1996, Fox then played the role of Terry Hastings in the film "Eddie", a slumping basketball player who receives help from fan "Eddie" played by Whoopi Goldberg. Fox then had a role as the ladies man Chick Deagan in the 1998 film "He Got Game", a film directed by Spike Lee. It was in 1997, however, that Fox received the biggest role of his early acting career playing prison inmate Jackson Vahue on the HBO prison drama "Oz", appearing in 11 episodes of the show between 1997 and 2003. Vahue is a superstar basketball player imprisoned for charges related to a sexual assault charge. He subsequently develops and overcomes a major drug addiction. Fox first appeared on the episode "To Your Health" and each of the following episodes for the rest of the first season. His character would again appear at the beginning of the second season, before returning during the middle of the fourth season on the episode "Revenge is Sweet" and appearing on the duration of the season, as Vahue is nearing probation. His character's last appearance would come in the show's final season, on series finale "Exeunt Omnes", when Vahue is almost killed by the character Brass.


title: Rick Fox

text: Fox was a supporting actor in the 1999 film "Resurrection" playing the role of Detective Scholfield and the role of Ray in the television film "The Collectors". At the time, ESPN quoted Fox as saying of trying to balance his acting career with his sports career that, "I mean, Penny Marshall is courtside. You got Jack (Nicholson) and Denzel (Washington). The head of the William Morris Agency is there. (Ally McBeal creator) David E. Kelley comes to some games ... I want to jump into conversations with them, but I'm working!"


title: Rick Fox

text: In addition to "Oz", Fox appeared in three more television series in the year 2003. On the first season of the crime drama "1-800-Missing" starring Vivica A. Fox, Rick Fox played the role of Eric Renard over five episodes. He also provided the voice of the characters Flash Williams and Smooth Daley on the "Crime Wave/Odd Ball" episode of Nickelodeon's animated series "The Fairly OddParents", and played the role of Peter Sampson on the television series "Street Time". As Eric Renard he played the love interest of the FBI agent Brooke Haslett, played by actress Gloria Reuben. That year he also appeared in the Walt Disney Pictures film "Holes" with the supporting character role of Clyde 'Sweetfeet' Livingston, a baseball player.


title: Rick Fox

text: In 2005, Fox guest starred as the character Stephen Melbourne in the UPN television series "Kevin Hill" and appeared in "Love, Inc." as the character David Marley, appearing in six episodes after only being announced for three. In 2006 Fox played the role of Fabrizio in the film "Mini's First Time" the same year he appeared in 5 episodes as villain Daunte in the CW drama series "One Tree Hill", which has basketball as its central sport. In 2007, Fox played Wilhelmina Slater's bodyguard and lover Dwayne in the second season of "Ugly Betty", opposite his former wife Vanessa Williams. The following year Fox signed on with the show "Dirt" to play a recurring role in a multi-episode storyline lasting six episodes playing the role of Prince Tyrese. In 2008 and 2009, he had a recurring role (as a fictionalized version of himself) on the BET comedy-drama television series "The Game", also returning to reprise his role in the 2012 season finale. In 2008, Fox also had a lead role in "Tyler Perry's Meet the Browns" as Harry, a coach trying to court the character of Brenda played by Angela Bassett.


title: Rick Fox

text: In 2009, Fox played himself in the comedies "Party Down" and "Head Case", and he currently has recurring roles on VH1's "Single Ladies" and "Tyler Perry's House of Payne". In 2010, Fox briefly guest starred on the science-fiction series "Dollhouse", and took on a recurring role on the CW remake of "Melrose Place". In 2011, Fox played the role of Bernadette's ex-boyfriend Glenn in "The Big Bang Theory" episode "The Love Car Displacement". In an article about his appearance, "TV Guide" quoted Fox as saying about his role, "It's all in Glenn's head now. 'How am I losing to this guy? He's smarter than me ... I love that they turned the 'threatening ex' on its ear. At the end of the day, I have more insecurity about my intellect and am constantly fighting to be accepted intellectually and be seen for more than my looks and my size. I want to appear intelligent and prove my intelligence. That's where I'm battling with him."


title: Rick Fox

text: In 2011, Fox also played a suspect on the crime drama "Body of Proof" and in 2012 he played the character Andre Carson on the series "Franklin & Bash". He also played the recurring role of Winston on "Single Ladies" and Andrew Thompson in the series "Mr. Box Office".


title: Rick Fox

text: In 2013, Fox played the role of Chase Vincent in the VH1 series "Hit the Floor". In 2014, Fox guest-starred as the character Dr. James Kendall in the CBS television series "Mom". On the same airdate, he appeared as himself on an episode of the CBS sitcom "The McCarthys". In 2015, Fox played the role of Sam Johnson, the general manager for the eponymous basketball team on Yahoo's original series "Sin City Saints", he appeared in the TV film "", and played retired basketball player Calvin Owens on "iZombie". In 2016, Fox also appeared in the Showtime original series "Shameless".


title: Rick Fox

text: From 2018 to 2019, Fox co-starred in the first five instalments of Hallmark's "Morning Show Mysteries", based on the novels of Al Roker. In 2019 he played the role of "Roger" in the holiday TV movie "One Fine Christmas". He played the role of journalist Darius Nash on the OWN series "Greenleaf".


title: Rick Fox

text: In late 2010, Fox was a celebrity contestant on ABC's "Dancing With The Stars", pairing with pro Cheryl Burke. They came in sixth place. He was also host of the "Jace Hall Show" for five episodes. Fox appeared as a contestant on "Are You Smarter than a Fifth Grader?", in season 3. He was a special guest judge during season 4 of "RuPaul's Drag Race". And in 2017, Fox was a contestant on the "Chopped" Star Power actors competition. Fox came in second place.