title: Sarbanes–Oxley Act

text: The bankruptcy of Enron drew attention to off-balance sheet instruments that were used fraudulently. During 2010, the court examiner's review of the Lehman Brothers bankruptcy also brought these instruments back into focus, as Lehman had used an instrument called "Repo 105" to allegedly move assets and debt off-balance sheet to make its financial position look more favorable to investors. Sarbanes-Oxley required the disclosure of all material off-balance sheet items. It also required an SEC study and report to better understand the extent of usage of such instruments and whether accounting principles adequately addressed these instruments; the SEC report was issued June 15, 2005. Interim guidance was issued in May 2006, which was later finalized. Critics argued the SEC did not take adequate steps to regulate and monitor this activity.


title: Sarbanes–Oxley Act

text: The most contentious aspect of SOX is Section 404, which requires management and the external auditor to report on the adequacy of the company's internal control on financial reporting (ICFR). This is the most costly aspect of the legislation for companies to implement, as documenting and testing important financial manual and automated controls requires enormous effort.


title: Sarbanes–Oxley Act

text: Under Section 404 of the Act, management is required to produce an "internal control report" as part of each annual Exchange Act report. "See" . The report must affirm "the responsibility of management for establishing and maintaining an adequate internal control structure and procedures for financial reporting". . The report must also "contain an assessment, as of the end of the most recent fiscal year of the Company, of the effectiveness of the internal control structure and procedures of the issuer for financial reporting". To do this, managers are generally adopting an internal control framework such as that described in COSO.


title: Sarbanes–Oxley Act

text: To help alleviate the high costs of compliance, guidance and practice have continued to evolve. The Public Company Accounting Oversight Board (PCAOB) approved Auditing Standard No. 5 for public accounting firms on July 25, 2007. This standard superseded Auditing Standard No. 2, the initial guidance provided in 2004. The SEC also released its interpretive guidance on June 27, 2007. It is generally consistent with the PCAOB's guidance, but intended to provide guidance for management. Both management and the external auditor are responsible for performing their assessment in the context of a top-down risk assessment, which requires management to base both the scope of its assessment and evidence gathered on risk. This gives management wider discretion in its assessment approach. These two standards together require management to:


title: Sarbanes–Oxley Act

text: SOX 404 compliance costs represent a tax on inefficiency, encouraging companies to centralize and automate their financial reporting systems. This is apparent in the comparative costs of companies with decentralized operations and systems, versus those with centralized, more efficient systems. For example, the 2007 Financial Executives International (FEI) survey indicated average compliance costs for decentralized companies were $1.9 million, while centralized company costs were $1.3 million. Costs of evaluating manual control procedures are dramatically reduced through automation.


title: Sarbanes–Oxley Act

text: The cost of complying with SOX 404 impacts smaller companies disproportionately, as there is a significant fixed cost involved in completing the assessment. For example, during 2004 U.S. companies with revenues exceeding $5 billion spent 0.06% of revenue on SOX compliance, while companies with less than $100 million in revenue spent 2.55%.


title: Sarbanes–Oxley Act

text: This disparity is a focal point of 2007 SEC and U.S. Senate action. The PCAOB intends to issue further guidance to help companies scale their assessment based on company size and complexity during 2007. The SEC issued their guidance to management in June, 2007.


title: Sarbanes–Oxley Act

text: After the SEC and PCAOB issued their guidance, the SEC required smaller public companies (non-accelerated filers) with fiscal years ending after December 15, 2007 to document a Management Assessment of their Internal Controls over Financial Reporting (ICFR). Outside auditors of non-accelerated filers however opine or test internal controls under PCAOB (Public Company Accounting Oversight Board) Auditing Standards for years ending after December 15, 2008. Another extension was granted by the SEC for the outside auditor assessment until years ending after December 15, 2009. The reason for the timing disparity was to address the House Committee on Small Business concern that the cost of complying with Section 404 of the Sarbanes–Oxley Act of 2002 was still unknown and could therefore be disproportionately high for smaller publicly held companies. On October 2, 2009, the SEC granted another extension for the outside auditor assessment until fiscal years ending after June 15, 2010. The SEC stated in their release that the extension was granted so that the SEC's Office of Economic Analysis could complete a study of whether additional guidance provided to company managers and auditors in 2007 was effective in reducing the costs of compliance. They also stated that there will be no further extensions in the future.


title: Sarbanes–Oxley Act

text: On September 15, 2010 the SEC issued final rule 33–9142 the permanently exempts registrants that are neither accelerated nor large accelerated filers as defined by Rule 12b-2 of the Securities and Exchange Act of 1934 from Section 404(b) internal control audit requirement.


title: Sarbanes–Oxley Act

text: Section 806 of the Sarbanes–Oxley Act, also known as the whistleblower-protection provision, prohibits any "officer, employee, contractor, subcontractor, or agent" of a publicly traded company from retaliating against "an employee" for disclosing reasonably perceived potential or actual violations of the six enumerated categories of protected conduct in Section 806 (securities fraud, shareholder fraud, bank fraud, a violation of any SEC rule or regulation, mail fraud, or wire fraud). Section 806 prohibits a broad range of retaliatory adverse employment actions, including discharging, demoting, suspending, threatening, harassing, or in any other manner discriminating against a whistleblower. Recently a federal court of appeals held that merely "outing" or disclosing the identity of a whistleblower is actionable retaliation.


title: Sarbanes–Oxley Act

text: A claim under the anti-retaliation provision of the Sarbanes–Oxley Act must be filed initially at the Occupational Safety and Health Administration at the U.S. Department of Labor. OSHA will perform an investigation and if they conclude that the employer violated SOX, OSHA can order preliminary reinstatement. OSHA is required to dismiss the complaint if the complaint fails to make a "prima facie" showing that the protected activity was a "contributing factor" in the adverse employment action.


title: Sarbanes–Oxley Act

text: In the sixteen-year period from the passage of the Sarbanes Oxley Act in 2002 through December 31, 2018, a total of 1039 cases have been filed with the Department of Labor of which 62 were still pending before the Department of Labor as of January 1, 2019.


title: Sarbanes–Oxley Act

text: (a) Certification of Periodic Financial Reports.— Each periodic report containing financial statements filed by an issuer with the Securities Exchange Commission pursuant to section 13(a) or 15(d) of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934 (15 U.S.C. 78m (a) or 78o (d)) shall be accompanied by a written statement by the chief executive officer and chief financial officer (or equivalent thereof) of the issuer.


title: Sarbanes–Oxley Act

text: (b) Content.— The statement required under subsection (a) shall certify that the periodic report containing the financial statements fully complies with the requirements of section 13(a) or 15(d) of the Securities Exchange Act of [1] 1934 (15 U.S.C. 78m or 78o (d)) and that information contained in the periodic report fairly presents, in all material respects, the financial condition and results of operations of the issuer.


title: Sarbanes–Oxley Act

text: (1) certifies any statement as set forth in subsections (a) and (b) of this section knowing that the periodic report accompanying the statement does not comport with all the requirements set forth in this section shall be fined not more than $1,000,000 or imprisoned not more than 10 years, or both; or


title: Sarbanes–Oxley Act

text: (2) willfully certifies any statement as set forth in subsections (a) and (b) of this section knowing that the periodic report accompanying the statement does not comport with all the requirements set forth in this section shall be fined not more than $5,000,000, or imprisoned not more than 20 years, or both.


title: Sarbanes–Oxley Act

text: One of the highlights of the law was a provision that allowed the SEC to force a company's CEO or CFO to disgorge any executive compensation (such as bonus pay or proceeds from stock sales) earned within a year of misconduct that results in an earnings restatement. However, according to Gretchen Morgenson of "The New York Times", such clawbacks have actually been rare, due in part to the requirement that the misconduct must be either deliberate or reckless. The SEC did not attempt to claw back any executive compensation until 2007, and as of December 2013 had only brought 31 cases, 13 of which were begun after 2010. However, according to Dan Whalen of the accounting research firm Audit Analytics, the threat of clawbacks, and the time-consuming litigation associated with them, has forced companies to tighten their financial reporting standards.


title: Sarbanes–Oxley Act

text: Congressman Ron Paul and others such as former Arkansas governor Mike Huckabee have contended that SOX was an unnecessary and costly government intrusion into corporate management that places U.S. corporations at a competitive disadvantage with foreign firms, driving businesses out of the United States. In an April 14, 2005 speech before the U.S. House of Representatives, Paul stated


title: Sarbanes–Oxley Act

text: A research study published by Joseph Piotroski of Stanford University and Suraj Srinivasan of Harvard Business School titled "Regulation and Bonding: Sarbanes Oxley Act and the Flow of International Listings" in the Journal of Accounting Research in 2008 found that following the act's passage, smaller international companies were more likely to list in stock exchanges in the U.K. rather than U.S. stock exchanges.


title: Sarbanes–Oxley Act

text: During the financial crisis of 2007–2010, critics blamed Sarbanes–Oxley for the low number of Initial Public Offerings (IPOs) on American stock exchanges during 2008. In November 2008, Newt Gingrich and co-author David W. Kralik called on Congress to repeal Sarbanes–Oxley.


title: Sarbanes–Oxley Act

text: A 2012 Wall St. Journal editorial stated, "One reason the U.S. economy isn't creating enough jobs is that it's not creating enough employers ... For the third year in a row the world's leading exchange for new stock offerings was located not in New York, but in Hong Kong ... Given that the U.S. is still home to the world's largest economy, there's no reason it shouldn't have the most vibrant equity markets—unless regulation is holding back the creation of new public companies. On that score it's getting harder for backers of the Sarbanes-Oxley accounting law to explain away each disappointing year since its 2002 enactment as some kind of temporary or unrelated setback."


title: Sarbanes–Oxley Act

text: Former Federal Reserve Chairman Alan Greenspan praised the Sarbanes–Oxley Act in 2005: "I am surprised that the Sarbanes–Oxley Act, so rapidly developed and enacted, has functioned as well as it has ... the act importantly reinforced the principle that shareholders own our corporations and that corporate managers should be working on behalf of shareholders to allocate business resources to their optimum use."


title: Sarbanes–Oxley Act

text: SOX has been praised by a cross-section of financial industry experts, citing improved investor confidence and more accurate, reliable financial statements. The CEO and CFO are now required to unequivocally take ownership for their financial statements under Section 302, which was not the case prior to SOX. Further, auditor conflicts of interest have been addressed, by prohibiting auditors from also having lucrative consulting agreements with the firms they audit under Section 201. SEC Chairman Christopher Cox stated in 2007: "Sarbanes–Oxley helped restore trust in U.S. markets by increasing accountability, speeding up reporting, and making audits more independent."


title: Sarbanes–Oxley Act

text: The 2007 FEI study and research by the Institute of Internal Auditors (IIA) also indicate SOX has improved investor confidence in financial reporting, a primary objective of the legislation. The IIA study also indicated improvements in board, audit committee, and senior management engagement in financial reporting and improvements in financial controls.


title: Sarbanes–Oxley Act

text: Financial restatements increased significantly in the wake of the SOX legislation, as companies "cleaned up" their books. Glass, Lewis & Co. LLC is a San Francisco-based firm that tracks the volume of do-overs by public companies. Its March 2006 report, "Getting It Wrong the First Time," shows 1,295 restatements of financial earnings in 2005 for companies listed on U.S. securities markets, almost twice the number for 2004. "That's about one restatement for every 12 public companies—up from one for every 23 in 2004," says the report.


title: Sarbanes–Oxley Act

text: A fraud documented by the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) in November 2009, validated whistleblower allegations first logged in 2005. may be directly credited to Sarbanes-Oxley. The fraud, which spanned nearly 20 years and involved over $24 million, was committed by Value Line () against its mutual fund shareholders. The fraud was first reported to the SEC in 2004 by the then Value Line Fund () portfolio manager and Chief Quantitative Strategist, Mr. John (Jack) R. Dempsey of Easton, Connecticut, who was required to sign a Code of Business Ethics as part of SOX. Restitution totaling $34 million was placed in a fair fund and returned to the affected Value Line mutual fund investors. The Commission ordered Value Line to pay a total of $43,705,765 in disgorgement, prejudgment interest and civil penalty, and ordered Buttner, CEO and Henigson, COO to pay civil penalties of $1,000,000 and $250,000, respectively. The Commission further imposed officer and director bars and broker-dealer, investment adviser, and investment company associational bars ("Associational Bars") against Buttner and Henigson. No criminal charges were filed.


title: Sarbanes–Oxley Act

text: The Sarbanes–Oxley Act has been praised for nurturing an ethical culture as it forces top management to be transparent and employees to be responsible for their acts whilst protecting whistleblowers. Indeed, courts have held that top management may be in violation of its obligation to assess and disclose material weaknesses in its internal control over financial reporting when it ignores an employee's concerns that could impact the company's SEC filings.


title: Sarbanes–Oxley Act

text: A lawsuit ("Free Enterprise Fund v. Public Company Accounting Oversight Board") was filed in 2006 challenging the constitutionality of the PCAOB. The complaint argues that because the PCAOB has regulatory powers over the accounting industry, its officers should be appointed by the President, rather than the SEC. Further, because the law lacks a "severability clause," if part of the law is judged unconstitutional, so is the remainder. If the plaintiff prevails, the U.S. Congress may have to devise a different method of officer appointment. Further, the other parts of the law may be open to revision.


title: Sarbanes–Oxley Act

text: The lawsuit was dismissed from a District Court; the decision was upheld by the Court of Appeals on August 22, 2008. Judge Kavanaugh, in his dissent, argued strongly against the constitutionality of the law. On May 18, 2009, the United States Supreme Court agreed to hear this case. On December 7, 2009, it heard the oral arguments. On June 28, 2010, the United States Supreme Court unanimously turned away a broad challenge to the law, but ruled 5–4 that a section related to appointments violates the Constitution's separation of powers mandate. The act remains "fully operative as a law" pending a process correction.


title: Sarbanes–Oxley Act

text: In its March 4, 2014 "Lawson v. FMR LLC" decision the United States Supreme Court rejected a narrow reading of the SOX whistleblower protection and instead held that the anti-retaliation protection that the Sarbanes–Oxley Act of 2002 provided to whistleblowers applies also to employees of a public company's private contractors and subcontractors, including the attorneys and accountants who prepare the SEC filings of public companies. Subsequent interpretations of Lawson, however, suggest that the disclosures of a contractor's employee are protected only if those disclosures pertain to fraud perpetrated by a publicly traded company, as opposed to wrongdoing by a private contractor.


title: Sarbanes–Oxley Act

text: In its February 25, 2015 "Yates v. United States" decision the Supreme Court of the United States sided with Yates by reversing the previous judgement, with a plurality of the justices reading the Act to cover "only objects one can use to record or preserve information, not all objects in the physical world". Justice Samuel Alito concurred in the judgment and noted that the statute's nouns and verbs only applies to filekeeping and not fish.


title: Sarbanes–Oxley Act

text: Close scrutiny of corporate governance and greater responsibility placed on directors to vouch for the reports submitted to the SEC and other federal agencies, have resulted in the growth of software solutions aimed at reducing the complexity, time and expense involved in creating the reports. This trend accelerated in 2008 with the passage of the Dodd–Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act. Software as a service (SaaS) products allow corporate directors and internal auditors to assemble and analyze financial and other relevant data—including unstructured data—and create the needed reports quickly and without the need of an outside vendor.


title: Sarbanes–Oxley Act

text: Some twenty years after its implementation, a provision of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act, 18 U.S. Code § 1512, was introduced in the prosecution of many of the rioters of the Jan. 6, 2021 Capitol insurrection. Some 40% were charged with corruptly impeding an official proceeding.


title: Film industry

text: The film industry or motion picture industry comprises the technological and commercial institutions of filmmaking, i.e., film production companies, film studios, cinematography, animation, film production, screenwriting, pre-production, post production, film festivals, distribution, and actors. Though the expense involved in making films almost immediately led film production to concentrate under the auspices of standing production companies, advances in affordable filmmaking equipment, as well as an expansion of opportunities to acquire investment capital from outside the film industry itself, have allowed independent film production to evolve.


title: Film industry

text: In 2019, the global box office was worth . When including box office and home entertainment revenue, the global film industry was worth in 2018. Hollywood is the world's oldest [de facto] national film industry. However, in 2020, China became the largest box office territory, overtaking North America in gross total. The transition, long anticipated by analysts, was accelerated by the COVID-19 pandemic. Indian cinema is the largest national film industry in terms of the number of films produced, with 2,446 feature films produced annually ., Chinese cinema has the highest annual ticket sales with 1,650 million tickets sold.


title: Film industry

text: The worldwide theatrical market had a box office of in 2019. The top three continents/regions by box office gross were: Asia-Pacific with , the U.S. and Canada with , and Europe, the Middle East and North Africa with . , the largest markets by box office were, in decreasing order, the United States, China, India, Japan, South Korea, the United Kingdom, and France. , the countries with the largest number of film productions were India, Nigeria, and the United States. In Europe, significant centers of movie production are Italy, France, Germany, Spain, and the United Kingdom.


title: Film industry

text: The cinema of the United States, often generally referred to as Hollywood, has had a profound effect on cinema across the world since the early 20th century. The United States cinema (Hollywood) is the oldest film industry in the world and also the largest film industry in terms of revenue. Hollywood is the primary nexus of the U.S. film industry with established film study facilities such as the American Film Institute, LA Film School and NYFA being established in the area. However, four of the six major film studios are owned by East Coast companies. The major film studios of Hollywood including Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, 20th Century Fox, and Paramount Pictures are the primary source of the most commercially successful movies in the world, such as "The Sound of Music" (1965), "Star Wars" (1977), "Titanic" (1997), and "Avatar" (2009).


title: Film industry

text: American film studios today collectively generate several hundred films every year, making the United States one of the most prolific producers of films in the world. Only The Walt Disney Company — which owns the Walt Disney Studios — is fully based in Southern California. And while Sony Pictures Entertainment is headquartered in Culver City, California, its parent company, the Sony Corporation, is headquartered in Tokyo, Japan. Most shooting now takes place in California, New York, Louisiana, Georgia and North Carolina. New Mexico, especially in the Albuquerque and Santa Fe areas, had been an increasingly popular state for filming; "Breaking Bad", the television show was set there, and movies such as "No Country for Old Men" and "Rust" were shot there. Between 2009 and 2015, Hollywood consistently grossed $10 billion (or more) annually. Hollywood's award ceremony, the Academy Awards, officially known as The Oscars, is held by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences (AMPAS) every year and as of 2019, more than 3,000 Oscars have been awarded.


title: Film industry

text: On 27 October 1911, Nestor Film Company established Hollywood's first permanent film studio. The California weather allowed for year-round filming. In 1912, Universal Studios was formed, merging Nestor and several other motion picture companies, including Independent Moving Pictures (IMP).


title: Film industry

text: France is the birthplace of cinema and was responsible for many of its significant contributions to the art form and the film-making process itself. Several important cinematic movements, including the Nouvelle Vague, began in the country. It is noted for having a particularly strong film industry, due in part to protections afforded by the French government.


title: Film industry

text: French cinema is sometimes intertwined with the cinema of foreign nations. Directors from nations such as Poland (Roman Polanski, Krzysztof Kieślowski, and Andrzej Żuławski), Argentina (Gaspar Noé and Edgardo Cozarinsky), Russia (Alexandre Alexeieff, Anatole Litvak), Austria (Michael Haneke), and Georgia (Géla Babluani, Otar Iosseliani) are prominent in the ranks of French cinema. Conversely, some French directors have had careers in other countries, such as Luc Besson, Jacques Tourneur, or Francis Veber in the United States.


title: Film industry

text: Another element supporting this fact is that Paris has the highest density of cinemas in the world, measured by the number of movie theaters per inhabitant, and that in most "downtown Paris" movie theaters, foreign movies which would be secluded to "art houses" cinemas in other places are shown alongside "mainstream" works. Philippe Binant realized, on 2 February 2000, the first digital cinema projection in Europe, with the DLP CINEMA technology developed by Texas Instruments, in Paris. Paris also boasts the Cité du cinéma, a major studio north of the city, and Disney Studio, a theme park devoted to the cinema and the third theme park near the city behind Disneyland and Parc Asterix.


title: Film industry

text: In 2015, France saw a record-breaking 300 feature-length films produced. US and UK films only represented 44.9% of total admissions in 2014. This is largely due to the commercial strength of domestic productions, which accounted for 44,5% of admissions in 2014 (35.5% in 2015; 35.3% in 2016). In the mid-2000s, the French film industry was described as being "closer to being entirely self-sufficient than any other country in Europe, recovering around 80 – 90% of their budget in revenues generated from the domestic market". In 2018, French films had an international box office of €237m with 40 million admissions (down 52% from 2017), with Italy being the top foreign market.


title: Film industry

text: The cinema of China is one of three distinct historical threads of Chinese-language cinema together with the cinema of Hong Kong and the cinema of Taiwan. Cinema was introduced in China in 1896 and the first Chinese film, "Dingjun Mountain", was made in 1905, with the film industry being centered on Shanghai in the first decades. China is the home of the largest film studio in the world, the Hengdian World Studios, and in 2010 it had the third largest film industry by number of feature films produced annually. For the next decade the production companies were mainly foreign-owned, and the domestic film industry was centered on Shanghai, a thriving entrepot and the largest city in the Far East. In 1913, the first independent Chinese screenplay, "The Difficult Couple", was filmed in Shanghai by Zheng Zhengqiu and Zhang Shichuan.


title: Film industry

text: As the Sixth Generation gained international exposure, many subsequent films were joint ventures and projects with international backers, but remained quite resolutely low-key and low budget. Jia's "Platform" (2000) was funded in part by Takeshi Kitano's production house, while his "Still Life" was shot on HD video. "Still Life" was a surprise addition and Golden Lion winner of the 2006 Venice International Film Festival. "Still Life", which concerns provincial workers around the Three Gorges region, sharply contrasts with the works of Fifth Generation Chinese directors like Zhang Yimou and Chen Kaige who were at the time producing "House of Flying Daggers" (2004) and "The Promise" (2005). It featured no star of international renown and was acted mostly by non-professionals. In 2012 the country became the second-largest market in the world by box office receipts. In 2014, the gross box office in China was ¥29.6 billion (US$4.82 billion), with domestic films having a share of 55%. China has also become a major hub of business for Hollywood studios.


title: Film industry

text: In 2013, China's gross box office was ¥21.8 billion (US$3.6 billion), the second-largest film market in the world by box office receipts It increased to $4.8 Billion in 2014 box office grosser in film industry. In 2020, China overtook North America as world's biggest box office, being the first country achieved this status.


title: Film industry

text: India is the largest producer of films in the world and second oldest film industry in the world. The country is home to one of the most important city in the global film industry, Mumbai (previously Bombay). In 2009 India produced a total of 2,961 films on celluloid; this figure includes 1,288 feature films. Besides being the largest producer of films in the world, India also has the largest number of admissions. Indian film industry is multi-lingual and the largest in the world in terms of ticket sales but 3rd largest in terms of revenue mainly due to having among the lowest ticket prices in the world. The industry is viewed mainly by a vast film-going Indian public, and Indian films have been gaining increasing popularity in the rest of the world—notably in countries with large numbers of expatriate Indians. Indian film industry is also the dominant source of films and entertainment in its neighboring countries of South Asia. The largest film and most popular industry in India is the Hindi film industry, followed by Tamil cinema and Telugu cinema. The Hindi film industry mostly concentrated in Mumbai (Bombay), and is commonly referred to as Bollywood, a portmanteau of Bombay and Hollywood. The Tamil film industry i.e. Kollywood is mostly concentrated in Chennai. Sandalwood industry is (Kannada cinema) concentrated in Bengaluru. The Mollywood industry concentrated in the state of Kerala refers to the Malayalam cinema. Tollywood (Telugu cinema) is concentrated in Hyderabad. By 2021, Telugu cinema (Tollywood) has overtaken Hindi cinema (Bollywood) and emerged as the largest film industry in India in terms of box-office.


title: Film industry

text: Besides the mainstream commercial movies, India also offers a different approach to cinema- the parallel cinema.The parallel cinema movement originated in West Bengal around the 1950s. Parallel cinema is a blanket term designated to a certain type of films that stray away from the conventions of popular mainstream cinema.Parallel cinema has assumed various forms throughout the years. Filmmakers associated with parallel cinema are Satyajit Ray, Mrinal Sen, Ritwik Ghatak. Parallel films are characterized by their rejection of popular forms like the songs and fight sequences, their affinity for rural settings, use of method actors and toned down colour palettes. Some examples of such movies are "Raincoat", "Dhobi Ghat", "Mithya".


title: Film industry

text: Indian films have garnered popularity not only in the domestic market but also in the international markets with "Dangal" having an overseas gross revenue of $260 million, "Secret Superstar", and "Bajrangi Bhaijaan" with a gross revenue of $80.4 million, and " and " a recent blockbuster from Tollywood(Telugu cinema) was shot simultaneously in Tamil and Telugu.


title: Film industry

text: The other largest film industries are Malayalam cinema, Bangla cinema (cinema of West Bengal) and Marathi cinema, which are located in Kochi, Kolkata and Mumbai respectively. The remaining majority portion is spread across northern, western, eastern and southern India (with Gujarati, Punjabi, Odia, Bhojpuri, Assamese Cinema). However, there are several smaller centres of Indian film industries in regional languages centred in the states where those languages are spoken. Indian cinema encloses a number of several artforms like Indian classical music, folk music of different regions throughout the country, Indian classical dance, folk dance and much more. Bollywood, Kollywood and Tollywood is the largest portion of the Indian film industry and is viewed all over the Indian Subcontinent, and is increasingly popular in UK, United States, Australia, New Zealand, Southeast Asia, Africa, the Gulf countries, European countries, East Asia and China. The largest film studio complex in the world is Ramoji Film City located at Hyderabad, India, which opened in 1996 and measures 674 ha (1,666 acres). Comprising 47 sound stages, it has permanent sets ranging from railway stations to temples.


title: Film industry

text: By 1986, India's annual film output had increased from 741 films produced annually to 833 films annually, making India the world's largest film producer. , Bollywood represents 45℅ of Indian net box office revenue, while Tamil & Telugu cinema represent 36%, and the rest of the regional film industries constitute 21% of Indian cinema.


title: Film industry

text: The United Kingdom has had a significant film industry for over a century. While film production reached an all-time high in 1936, the "golden age" of British cinema is usually thought to have occurred in the 1940s, during which the directors David Lean, Michael Powell, (with Emeric Pressburger) and Carol Reed produced their most highly acclaimed work. Many British actors have achieved worldwide fame and critical success, such as Maggie Smith, Roger Moore, Michael Caine, Sean Connery, Daniel Day-Lewis, Gary Oldman, and Kate Winslet. Some of the films with the largest ever box office returns have been made in the United Kingdom, including the third and fourth highest-grossing film series ("Harry Potter" and "James Bond").


title: Film industry

text: The first moving picture was shot in Leeds by Louis Le Prince in 1888 and the first moving pictures developed on celluloid film were made in Hyde Park, London in 1889 by British inventor William Friese Greene, who patented the process in 1890.


title: Film industry

text: Two of the top eight highest-grossing films worldwide of all time have some British historical, cultural or creative dimensions: "Titanic" (1997), "Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 2" (2011), "" (2003), made in New Zealand, and "" (2005). Adding four more "Harry Potter" films and one more "Lord of the Rings" movie, plus the Tim Burton version of "Alice in Wonderland" (2010), and more than half of the top twenty most financially successful films, had a substantial British dimension.


title: Film industry

text: British influence can also be seen with the 'English Cycle' of Disney animated films, which include "Alice in Wonderland" (1951), "Peter Pan" (1953), "One Hundred and One Dalmatians" (1961), "The Sword in the Stone" (1963), and "The Jungle Book" (1967). Disney first became interested in live-action films as a means of using financial reserves which had built up in Britain, and could not be repatriated owing to exchange controls, by making two films from Scottish and English sources. These were "Treasure Island" (1950) and "The Story of Robin Hood and His Merrie Men" (1952), which were both successes at the box office. The studio continued to draw on British source material for its animated films after Walt Disney's death in 1967, with the cartoon feature films "Robin Hood" (1973), "The Rescuers" (1976) and "The Many Adventures of Winnie the Pooh" (1977), one of many Disney to draw on A. A. Milne's characters.


title: Film industry

text: In the 1970s and 1980s, British studios established a reputation for great special effects in films such as "Superman" (1978), "Alien" (1979), and "Batman" (1989). Some of this reputation was founded on the core of talent brought together for the filming of "" (1968) who subsequently worked together on series and feature films for Gerry Anderson. The Bristol-based Aardman Animations is known for its stop-motion animation.


title: Film industry

text: In late 1998, Channel 4 launched their free-to-air film channel Film4 – a channel specifically designed to show films. It broadcasts from 11:00am BST and competes with pay television film network Sky Cinema.


title: Film industry

text: The London-based visual effects company Framestore, with Tim Webber the visual effects supervisor, have worked on the films "The Dark Knight" (2008) and "Gravity" (2013), with new techniques involved in "Gravity" taking three years to complete.


title: Film industry

text: Cinema of the Philippines began with the introduction of the first moving pictures to the country on August 31, 1897, at the "Salón de Pertierra" in Manila. The following year, local scenes were shot on film for the first time by a Spaniard, Antonio Ramos, using the Lumiere Cinematograph. While most early filmmakers and producers in the country were mostly wealthy enterprising foreigners and expatriates, on September 12, 1919, "Dalagang Bukid (Country Maiden)", a movie based on a popular musical play, was the first movie made and shown by Filipino filmmaker José Nepomuceno. Dubbed as the "Father of Philippine Cinema," his work marked the start of cinema as an art form in the Philippines.


title: Film industry

text: The history of Cinema of Poland is almost as long as the history of cinematography, and it has universally recognized achievements, even though Polish films tend to be less commercially available than films from several other European nations.


title: Film industry

text: After World War II, the communist government built an auteur-based national cinema, trained hundreds of new directors and empowered them to make films. Filmmakers like Roman Polański, Krzysztof Kieślowski, Agnieszka Holland, Andrzej Wajda, Andrzej Żuławski, Andrzej Munk, and Jerzy Skolimowski impacted the development of Polish film-making. In more recent years, the industry has been producer-led with finance being the key to a film being made, and with many independent filmmakers of all genres, Polish productions tend to be more inspired by American film.


title: Film industry

text: The Polish Film School was under heavy influence of Italian neorealists. It took advantage of the liberal changes in Poland after 1956 Polish October to portray the complexity of Polish history during World War II and German occupation. Among the most important topics were the generation of former Home Army soldiers and their role in post-war Poland and the national tragedies like the German concentration camps and the Warsaw Uprising. The political changes allowed the group to speak more openly of the recent history of Poland. However, the rule of censorship was still strong when it comes to history after 1945 and there were very few films on the contemporary events. This marked the major difference between the members of the Polish Film School and Italian neorealists.


title: Film industry

text: The Polish Film School was the first to underline the national character of Poles and one of the first artistic movements in Central Europe to openly oppose the official guidelines of Socialist realism. The members of the movement tend to underline the role of individual as opposed to collectivity. There were two trends within the movement: young directors such as Andrzej Wajda generally studied the idea of heroism, while another group (the most notable being Andrzej Munk) analysed the Polish character via irony, humor and a dissection of national myths.


title: Film industry

text: The cinema of Nigeria, often referred to informally as Nollywood is the cinema of Nigeria. The Nigerian Film Industry is the largest movie industry globally in terms of output, and is the third largest, in terms of overall revenues generated. Cinema of Nigeria Its history dates back to as early as the late 19th century and into the colonial era in the early 20th century. The history and development of the Nigerian motion picture industry is sometimes generally classified in four main eras: the Colonial era, Golden Age, Video film era and the emerging New Nigerian cinema.


title: Film industry

text: Film as a medium first arrived in Nigeria in the late 19th century, in the form of peephole viewing of motion picture devices. These were soon replaced in the early 20th century with improved motion picture exhibition devices, with the first set of films screened at the Glover Memorial Hall in Lagos from 12 to 22 August 1903. The earliest feature film made in Nigeria is 1926's "Palaver" produced by Geoffrey Barkas; the film was also the first film ever to feature Nigerian actors in a speaking role. As of 1954, mobile cinema vans played to at least 3.5 million people in Nigeria, and films being produced by the Nigerian Film Unit were screened for free at the 44 available cinemas. The first film entirely copyrighted to the Nigerian Film unit is "Fincho" (1957) by Sam Zebba; which is also the first Nigerian film to be shot in colour.


title: Film industry

text: After Nigeria's independence in 1960, the cinema business rapidly expanded, with new cinema houses being established. As a result, Nigerian films in theaters increased in the late 1960s into the 1970s, especially productions from Western Nigeria, owing to former theater practitioners such as Hubert Ogunde and Moses Olaiya transitioning into the big screen. In 1972, the "Indigenization Decree" was issued by Yakubu Gowon, which demands the transfer of ownership of about a total of 300 film theaters from their foreign owners to Nigerians, which resulted in more Nigerians playing active roles in the cinema and film. The oil boom of 1973 through 1978 also contributed immensely to the spontaneous boost of the cinema culture in Nigeria, as the increased purchasing power in Nigeria made a wide range of citizens to have disposable income to spend on cinema going and on home television sets. After several moderate performing films, "Papa Ajasco" (1984) by Wale Adenuga became the first blockbuster, grossing approximately ₦61,000 (approx. 2015 ₦21,552,673) in three days. A year later, "Mosebolatan" (1985) by Moses Olaiya also went ahead to gross ₦107,000 (approx. 2015 ₦44,180,499) in five days.


title: Film industry

text: Since 1976, Cairo has held the annual Cairo International Film Festival (CIFF), which is accredited by the International Federation of Film Producers Association. In 1996, the Egyptian Media Production City (EMPC) was inaugurated in 6th of October City south of Cairo, although by 2001, only one of 29 planned studios was operational. Censorship, formerly an obstacle to freedom of expression, has decreased remarkably by 2012, when the Egyptian cinema had begun to tackle boldly issues ranging from sexual issues to heavy government criticism.


title: Film industry

text: The 1940s, 1950s and the 1960s are generally considered the golden age of Egyptian cinema. As in the West, films responded to the popular imagination, with most falling into predictable genres (happy endings being the norm), and many actors making careers out of playing strongly typed parts. In the words of one critic, "If an Egyptian film intended for popular audiences lacked any of these prerequisites, it constituted a betrayal of the unwritten contract with the spectator, the results of which would manifest themselves in the box office." Since the 1990s, Egypt's cinema has gone in separate directions. Smaller art films attract some international attention but sparse attendance at home. Popular films, often broad comedies such as "What A Lie!", and the extremely profitable works of comedian Mohamed Saad, battle to hold audiences either drawn to Western films or, increasingly, wary of the perceived immorality of film.


title: Film industry

text: The cinema of Iran (Persian: "سینمای ایران") or cinema of Persia refers to the cinema and film industries in Iran which produce a variety of commercial films annually. Iranian art films have garnered international fame and now enjoy a global following.


title: Film industry

text: Along with China, Iran has been lauded as one of the best exporters of cinema in the 1990s, according to Jamsheed Akrami. Some critics now rank Iran as the world's most important national cinema, artistically, with a significance that invites comparison to Italian neorealism and similar movements in past decades. German filmmaker Werner Herzog has praised Iranian cinema as one of the world's most important artistic cinemas.


title: Film industry

text: Japan has one of the oldest and largest film industries in the world; as of 2010, it was the fourth largest by number of feature films produced. Movies have been produced in Japan since 1897, when the first foreign cameramen arrived.


title: Film industry

text: In a "Sight & Sound" list of the best films produced in Asia, Japanese works made up eight of the top 12, with "Tokyo Story" (1953) ranked number one. "Tokyo Story" also topped the 2012 "Sight & Sound" directors' poll of The Top 50 Greatest Films of All Time, dethroning "Citizen Kane", while Akira Kurosawa's "Seven Samurai" (1954) was voted the greatest foreign-language film of all time in BBC's 2018 poll of 209 critics in 43 countries. Japan has won the Academy Award for the Best Foreign Language Film four times ("Rashomon", "Gate of Hell", "", and "Departures"), more than any other Asian country.


title: Film industry

text: The term cinema of Korea (or Korean cinema) encompasses the motion picture industries of North and South Korea. As with all aspects of Korean life during the past century, the film industry has often been at the mercy of political events, from the late Joseon dynasty to the Korean War to domestic governmental interference. While both countries have relatively robust film industries today, only South Korean films have achieved wide international acclaim. North Korean films tend to portray their communist or revolutionary themes.


title: Film industry

text: South Korean films enjoyed a "Golden age" during the late 1950s, and 1960s. By 2005 South Korea had become one of few nations to watch more domestic than imported films in theaters due largely to laws placing limits on the number of foreign films able to be shown per theater per year. In the theaters, Korean films must be played for 73 days per year since 2006. On cable TV 25% domestic film quota will be reduced to 20% after KOR-US FTA.


title: Film industry

text: The cinema of South Korea had a total box office gross in the country in 2015 of ₩ and had 113,000,000 admissions, 52% of the total admissions.


title: Film industry

text: Hong Kong is a filmmaking hub for the Chinese-speaking world (including the worldwide diaspora) and East Asia in general. For decades it was the third largest motion picture industry in the world (after Bollywood and Hollywood) and the second largest exporter of films. Despite an industry crisis starting in the mid-1990s and Hong Kong's return to Chinese sovereignty in July 1997 Hong Kong film has retained much of its distinctive identity and continues to play a prominent part on the world cinema stage.


title: Film industry

text: Unlike many film industries, Hong Kong has enjoyed little to no direct government support, through either subsidies or import quotas. It has always been a thoroughly commercial cinema, concentrating on crowd-pleasing genres, like comedy and action, and heavily reliant on formulas, sequels and remakes. Typically of commercial cinemas, its heart is a highly developed star system, which in this case also features substantial overlap with the pop music industry.


title: Film industry

text: The Turkish film market stands out in the pan-European landscape as the only market where national films regularly outperform US films. In 2013, it had 1.2 million number of admissions and 87 feature films were released. Between 2004 and 2014, the estimated 12.9 million admissions generated on non-national European markets only accounted for 7% of total admissions to Turkish films in Europe (including Turkey). This was the third lowest share among the 30 European markets for which such data are available and clearly illustrates the strong dependence of Turkish films on the domestic market, a feature which is shared by Polish and Russian films.


title: Film industry

text: In 2014, "Kış Uykusu" ("Winter's Sleep") won the Cannes Film Festival Award for Best Film. In 2013, Turkey still ranked behind the Netherlands in terms of box office with just over EUR 200 million as Europe's eight largest box office market ahead of Sweden and Switzerland with a clear gap to the top 6 markets all of which registered GBO between EUR 504 million (Spain) up to over EUR 1 billion in France, the UK, Germany and the Russian Federation. Cinema going is comparatively cheap in Turkey. In 2013 a cinema ticket cost on average EUR 4.0 in Turkey, and this was estimated to be the lowest average ticket price – measured in Euro – in Europe, marginally cheaper than in several Central and Eastern European markets like Croatia, Romania, Lithuania or Bulgaria (subject to exchange rates).


title: Film industry

text: The cinema of Pakistan, or simply Pakistani cinema (), refers to Pakistan's film industry. Most of the feature films shot in Pakistan are in Urdu, the national language, but may also include films in English, the official language, and regional languages such as Punjabi, Pashto, Balochi, and Sindhi. Lahore has been described as the epicentre of Pakistani cinema, giving rise to the term "Lollywood"as portmanteau of Lahore and Hollywood.


title: Film industry

text: Before the separation of Bangladesh, Pakistan had three main film production centres: Lahore, Karachi and Dhaka. The regime of Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq, VCRs, film piracy, the introduction of entertainment taxes, strict laws based upon ultra-conservative jurisprudence, was an obstacle to the industry's growth. Once thriving, the cinema in Pakistan had a sudden collapse in the 1980s and by the 2000s "an industry that once produced an average of 80 films annually was now struggling to even churn out few movies." However, with the boom in the Television Industry in Karachi which gave rise to bigger privately owned media houses led to revival of Pakistan Film Industry. Karachi, now is the biggest production center of Film Industry in Pakistan which produces Urdu, English and Sindhi language Pakistani Cinema. Lahore is the second big film producer now (mostly Urdu and Punjabi movies) followed by Peshawar where mostly Pashto films are produced. Films are also being produced on a very small scale from Islamabad (Urdu and English movies) and Quetta (Balochi movies).Pakistani films are gaining its market in the local cticuit and international markets like Gulf countries, UK-Europe, US-North America and Far-East. Many Pakistani movies made their ways to Oscars' foreign language film category i.e. Jaago Hua Sawera-The Day Shall Dawn (1953), The Veil (Ghoonghat) (1963), Zinda Bhaag (2013), Dukhtar (2014), Moor (2015), Mah-e-Mir (2016), Saawan (2017), Cake (2018), Lal Kabootar (2019). Two Pakistani documentary films won the Oscars' for the best documentary film, these are, Saving Face (2012) and A Girl in the River (2016).


title: Film industry

text: Pakistani movies especially Urdu movies revolve around family drama, romance, love stories, comedy, thriller, social matters, political issues. In contemporary era some Pakistani films have gained international acclaim, these include, Khuda Kay Liye (In the name of God), Bol, Verna, Zinda Bhaag, Load-Wedding, Wrong Number, Cake, Teefa in Trouble, Lal Kabootar, Mah-e-Meer, Moor, Baaji.


title: Film industry

text: Punjabi cinema is mostly themed on romance, family drama and action while Pashto cinema revolves around action and tribal feuds.


title: Film industry

text: The cinema of Bangladesh is the Bengali language film industry based in Dhaka, Bangladesh. The industry often has been a significant film industry since the early 1970s. The word "Dhollywood" is a portmanteau of the words Dhaka and Hollywood. The dominant style of Bangladeshi cinema is Melodramatic cinema, which developed from 1947 to 1990 and characterizes most films to this day. Cinema was introduced in Bangladesh in 1898 by Bradford Bioscope Company, credited to have arranged the first film release in Bangladesh. Between 1913 and 1914, the first production company named Picture House was opened. A short silent film titled "Sukumari" ("The Good Girl") was the first produced film in the region during 1928. The first full-length film "The Last Kiss", was released in 1931. From the separation of Bangladesh from Pakistan, Dhaka is the center of Bangladeshi film industry, and generated the majority share of revenue, production and audiences. The 1960s, 1970s, 1980s and the first half of the 1990s were the golden years for Bangladeshi films as the industry produced many successful films. "The Face and the Mask", the first Bengali language Bangladeshi full-length feature film was produced in 1956. Matir Moina, a 2002 film by Tarek Masud, became the first Bangladeshi film to be honored at Cannes Film Festival.


title: Film industry

text: The biggest film studios in Southeast Asia has been soft opened on 5 November 2011 on 10 hectares of land in Nongsa, Batam Island, Indonesia. Infinite Frameworks (IFW) is a Singapore-based company (closed to Batam Island) which is owned by a consortium with 90 percent of it hold by Indonesian businessman and film producer, Mike Wiluan. In 2010–2011, due to the substantial increase in value added tax applied to foreign films, cinemas no longer had access to many foreign films, including Oscar-winning films. Foreign films include major box offices from the west, and other major film producers of the world. This caused a massive ripple effect on the country's economy. It is assumed that this increased the purchase of unlicensed DVDs. However, even copyright violating DVDs took longer to obtain. The minimum cost to view a foreign film not screened locally, was 1 million Rupiah. This was equivalent to US$100, as it includes a plane ticket to Singapore.


title: Film industry

text: The cinema of Malaysia consists of feature films produced in Malaysia, shot in the languages English, Tamil, Malay, Mandarin and Cantonese.


title: Film industry

text: Malaysia produces about 60 feature films annually, and between 300 and 400 television dramas and serials a year apart from the in-house productions by the individual television stations. The country also holds its own annual national level film awards, known as the Malaysia Film Festival. There are about 150 cinemas and cineplexes in Malaysia, showing not only local films but also foreign films.


title: Film industry

text: Trinidad and Tobago's film sector began emerging in the late 1950s to early 1960s and by the late 1970s, there were a handful of local productions, both feature film and television. The first full-length feature film to be produced in Trinidad and Tobago was "The Right and the Wrong" (1970) by Indian director/writer/producer, Harbance Kumar. The screenplay was written by the Trinidadian playwright, Freddie Kissoon. The rest of the 20th century saw a couple more feature films being made in the country, with "Bim" (1974), being singled out by Bruce Paddington as "one of the most important films to be produced in Trinidad and Tobago ... . and one of the classics of Caribbean cinema." It was one of the first films to feature an almost entirely Trinidadian cast and crew. There was a rise in Trinidadian film production in the 2000s. Films such as "Ivan the Terrible" (2004), "SistaGod" (2006), "I'm Santana: The Movie" (2012) and "God Loves the Fighter" (2013) were released both locally and internationally. "SistaGod" had its world premiere at the 2006 Toronto International Film Festival.


title: Film industry

text: The Trinidad and Tobago Film Company is the national agency that was established in 2006 to further development of the film industry. Trinidad and Tobago puts on a number of film festivals which are organized by different committees and organizations. These include the Secondary Schools Short Film Festival and Smartphone Film Festival organized by Trinidad and Tobago Film Company. There is also an annual Trinidad and Tobago Film Festival which runs for two weeks in the latter half of September.


title: Film industry

text: Nepali film does not have a very long film history, but the industry has its own place in the cultural heritage of the country. It is often referred to as 'Nepali Chalchitra' (which translates to "Nepali films" in English). The terms Kollywood and Kallywood are also used, as a portmanteau of "Kathmandu" and "Hollywood"; "Kollywood" however is more frequently used to refer to Tamil cinema. Chhakka Panja has been considered the highest-grossing film of all time in Nepali film industry and Kohinoor the second highest. The Nepali films The Black Hen (2015) and Kagbeni (2006) received international acclaim. The Nepali feature film White Sun (Seto Surya) received the Best Film award at the 27th Singapore International Film Festival (SGIFF) in 2016.


title: Film industry

text: Les frères Lumière released the first projection with the Cinematograph, in Paris on 28 December 1895. The French film industry in the late 19th century and early 20th century was the world's most important. Auguste and Louis Lumière invented the cinématographe and their L'Arrivée d'un train en gare de La Ciotat in Paris in 1895 is considered by many historians as the official birth of cinematography.


title: Film industry

text: The first feature film to be made was the 1906 Australian silent "The Story of the Kelly Gang", an account of the notorious gang led by Ned Kelly that was directed and produced by the Melburnians Dan Barry and Charles Tait. It ran, continuously, for eighty minutes.


title: Film industry

text: In the early 1910s, the film industry had fully emerged with D.W. Griffith's "The Birth of a Nation". Also in the early 1900s motion picture production companies from New York and New Jersey started moving to California because of the good weather and longer days. Although electric lights existed at that time, none were powerful enough to adequately expose film; the best source of illumination for movie production was natural sunlight. Besides the moderate, dry climate, they were also drawn to the state because of its open spaces and wide variety of natural scenery.


title: Film industry

text: In 1900, Charles Pathé began film production under the Pathé-Frères brand, with Ferdinand Zecca hired to actually make the films. By 1905, Pathé was the largest film company in the world, a position it retained until World War I. Léon Gaumont began film production in 1896, supervised by Alice Guy.


title: Film industry

text: Besides American Mutoscope, there were also numerous smaller producers in the United States, and some of them established a long-term presence in the new century. American Vitagraph, one of these minor producers, built studios in Brooklyn, and expanded its operations in 1905.


title: Film industry

text: The first successful permanent theatre showing only films was "The Nickelodeon", which was opened in Pittsburgh in 1905. By then, there were enough films several minutes long available to fill a programme running for at least half an hour, and which could be changed weekly when the local audience became bored with it. Other exhibitors in the United States quickly followed suit, and within two years, there were 8,000 of these nickelodeons in operation across the United States. The American experience led to a worldwide boom in the production and exhibition of films from 1906 onwards.


title: Film industry

text: Movie theaters became popular entertainment venues and social hubs in the early 20th century, much like cabarets and other theaters.


title: Film industry

text: By 1907, purpose-built cinemas for motion pictures were being opened across the United States, Britain and France. The films were often shown with the accompaniment of music provided by a pianist, though there could be more musicians. There were also a very few larger cinemas in some of the biggest cities. Initially, the majority of films in the programmes were Pathé films, but this changed fairly quickly as the American companies cranked up production. The programme was made up of just a few films, and the show lasted around 30 minutes. The reel of film, of maximum length , which usually contained one individual film, became the standard unit of film production and exhibition in this period. The programme was changed twice or more a week, but went up to five changes of programme a week after a couple of years. In general, cinemas were set up in the established entertainment districts of the cities. In 1907, Pathé began renting their films to cinemas through film exchanges rather than selling the films outright.


title: Film industry

text: The litigation over patents between all the major American film-making companies had continued, and at the end of 1908 they decided to pool their patents and form a trust to use them to control the American film business. The companies concerned were Pathé, Edison, Biograph, Vitagraph, Lubin, Selig, Essanay, Kalem, and the Kleine Optical Company, a major importer of European films. The George Eastman company, the only manufacturer of film stock in the United States, was also part of the combine, which was called the Motion Picture Patents Company (MPPC), and Eastman Kodak agreed to only supply the members with film stock. License fees for distributing and projecting films were extracted from all distributors and exhibitors. The producing companies that were part of the trust were allocated production quotas (two reels, i.e. films, a week for the biggest ones, one reel a week for the smaller), which were supposed to be enough to fill the programmes of the licensed exhibitors. But the market was bigger than that, for although 6,000 exhibitors signed with the MPPC, about 2,000 others did not. A minority of the exchanges (i.e. distributors) stayed outside the MPPC, and in 1909 these independent exchanges immediately began to fund new film producing companies. By 1911 there were enough independent and foreign films available to programme all the shows of the independent exhibitors, and in 1912 the independents had nearly half of the market. The MPPC had effectively been defeated in its plan to control the whole United States market, and the government anti-trust action, which only now started against the MPPC, was not really necessary to defeat it.


title: Film industry

text: In the early 20th century, before Hollywood, the United States motion picture industry was mainly based in Fort Lee, New Jersey across the Hudson River from New York City. In need of a winter headquarters, moviemakers were attracted to Jacksonville, Florida due to its warm climate, exotic locations, excellent rail access, and cheaper labor, earning the city the title of "The Winter Film Capital of the World." New York-based Kalem Studios was the first to open a permanent studio in Jacksonville in 1908. Over the course of the next decade, more than 30 silent film companies established studios in town, including Metro Pictures (later MGM), Edison Studios, Majestic Films, King-Bee Film Company, Vim Comedy Company, Norman Studios, Gaumont Studios and the Lubin Manufacturing Company. The first motion picture made in Technicolor and the first feature-length color movie produced in the United States, The Gulf Between, was also filmed on location in Jacksonville in 1917.


title: Film industry

text: Jacksonville was especially important to the African American film industry. One notable individual in this regard is the European American producer Richard Norman, who created a string of films starring black actors in the vein of Oscar Micheaux and the Lincoln Motion Picture Company. In contrast to the degrading parts offered in certain white films such as "The Birth of a Nation", Norman and his contemporaries sought to create positive stories featuring African Americans in what he termed "splendidly assuming different roles."


title: Film industry

text: Jacksonville's mostly conservative residents, however, objected to the hallmarks of the early movie industry, such as car chases in the streets, simulated bank robberies and fire alarms in public places, and even the occasional riot. In 1917, conservative Democrat John W. Martin was elected mayor on the platform of taming the city's movie industry. By that time, southern California was emerging as the major movie production center, thanks in large part to the move of film pioneers like William Selig and D.W. Griffith to the area. These factors quickly sealed the demise of Jacksonville as a major film destination.


title: Film industry

text: Another factor for the industry's move west was that up until 1913, most American film production was still carried out around New York, but due to the monopoly of Thomas A. Edison, Inc.'s film patents and its litigious attempts to preserve it, many filmmakers moved to Southern California, starting with Selig in 1909. The sunshine and scenery was important for the production of Westerns, which came to form a major American film genre with the first cowboy stars, G.M. Anderson ("Broncho Billy") and Tom Mix. Selig pioneered the use of (fairly) wild animals from a zoo for a series of exotic adventures, with the actors being menaced or saved by the animals. Kalem Company sent film crews to places in America and abroad to film stories in the actual places they were supposed to have happened. Kalem also pioneered the female action heroine from 1912, with Ruth Roland playing starring roles in their Westerns.


title: Film industry

text: In France, Pathé retained its dominant position, followed still by Gaumont, and then other new companies that appeared to cater to the film boom. A film company with a different approach was Film d'Art. Film d'Art was set up at the beginning of 1908 to make films of a serious artistic nature. Their declared programme was to make films using only the best dramatists, artists and actors. The first of these was "L'Assassinat du Duc de Guise" ("The Assassination of the Duc de Guise"), a historical subject set in the court of Henri III. This film used leading actors from the Comédie-Française, and had a special accompanying score written by Camille Saint-Saëns. The other French majors followed suit, and this wave gave rise to the English-language description of films with artistic pretensions aimed at a sophisticated audience as "art films". By 1910, the French film companies were starting to make films as long as two, or even three reels, though most were still one reel long. This trend was followed in Italy, Denmark, and Sweden.


title: Film industry

text: In Britain, the Cinematograph Act 1909 was the first primary legislation to specifically regulate the film industry. Film exhibitions often took place in temporary venues and the use of highly flammable cellulose nitrate for film, combined with limelight illumination, created a significant fire hazard. The Act specified a strict building code which required, amongst other things, that the projector be enclosed within a fire resisting enclosure.


title: Film industry

text: The Babelsberg Studio near Berlin in Germany was the first large-scale film studio in the world, founded 1912, and the forerunner to Hollywood with its several establishments of large studios in the early 20th century.


title: Film industry

text: The first movie studio in Hollywood area, Nestor Studios, was founded in 1911 by Al Christie for David Horsley. Other East Coast studios had already moved production to Los Angeles. Over time, Hollywood came to be so strongly associated with the film industry that the word "Hollywood" is now used colloquially to refer to the entire American film industry.


title: Film industry

text: In 1913 Cecil B. DeMille, in association with Jesse Lasky, leased a barn with studio facilities in Hollywood where "The Squaw Man" (1914) was made. It is now the location of the Hollywood Heritage Museum.


title: Film industry

text: The Charlie Chaplin Studios were built in 1917. The site was also used by Kling Studios, for the "Superman" TV series; Red Skelton, who used the sound stages for his CBS TV variety show; and CBS, which filmed the TV series "Perry Mason" there. It has also been owned by Herb Alpert's A&M Records and Tijuana Brass Enterprises. It is currently The Jim Henson Company, home of the Muppets. In 1969 The Los Angeles Cultural Heritage Board named it a historical cultural monument.


title: Film industry

text: The noted Hollywood Sign originally read "Hollywoodland". It was erected in 1923 to advertise a new housing development in the hills above Hollywood. In 1949 the Hollywood Chamber of Commerce stepped in and removed the last four letters and repaired the others. It is a registered trademark and cannot be used without the permission of the Hollywood Chamber of Commerce.


title: Film industry

text: The period between the years 1927 (the effective end of the silent era) to 1948 is considered the age of the "Hollywood studio system", or the "Golden Age of Hollywood". In a landmark 1948 court decision, the Supreme Court ruled that movie studios could not own theaters and play only the movies of their studio and movie stars; thus an era of Hollywood history ended.


title: Film industry

text: Bollywood is the Hindi-language film industry based in Mumbai (formerly known as Bombay), Maharashtra, India. The term is often incorrectly used to refer to the whole of Indian cinema; however, it is only a part of the total Indian film industry, which includes other production centres producing films in multiple languages. Bollywood is the largest film producer in India and one of the largest centres of film production in the world.


title: Film industry

text: Bollywood is formally referred to as Hindi cinema. Linguistically, Bollywood films tend to use vernacular Hindustani, mutually intelligible to self-identified speakers of both Hindi and Urdu, while modern Bollywood films also increasingly incorporate elements of Hinglish.


title: Film industry

text: "The Wrestlers" (1899) and "The Man and His Monkeys" (1899), directed and produced by Harischandra Sakharam Bhatawdekar (H. S. Bhatavdekar), were the first two films made by Indian filmmakers, which were both short films. He was also the first Indian filmmaker to direct and produce the first documentary and news related film, titled "The Landing of Sir M.M. Bhownuggree".


title: Film industry

text: The 1930s and 1940s were tumultuous times: India was buffeted by the Great Depression, World War II, the Indian independence movement, and the violence of the Partition. Most Bollywood films were unabashedly escapist, but there were also a number of filmmakers who tackled tough social issues, or used the struggle for Indian independence as a backdrop for their plots.


title: Film industry

text: In 1937 Ardeshir Irani, of "Alam Ara" fame, made the first colour film in Hindi, "Kisan Kanya". The next year, he made another colour film, a version of "Mother India".


title: Film industry

text: Following India's independence, the period from the late 1940s to the early 1960s is regarded by film historians as the "Golden Age" of Hindi cinema. Defining key figures during this time included Raj Kapoor, Guru Dutt, Mehboob Khan, and Dilip Kumar.


title: Film industry

text: The 1970s was when the name "Bollywood" was coined, and when the quintessential conventions of commercial Bollywood films were established. Key to this was the emergence of the masala film genre, which combines elements of multiple genres (action, comedy, romance, drama, melodrama, musical). The masala film was pioneered in the early 1970s by filmmaker Nasir Hussain, along with screenwriter duo Salim–Javed, pioneering the Bollywood blockbuster format.


title: Film industry

text: Tollywood is the Bengali language Film Industry of India. Started by Royal Bioscope Company in 1898 by Hiralal Sen, along with Matilal Sen, Deboki Lal Sen, and Bholanath Gupta. Combining live theater performances of actors, the Bengali industry was notable for using sound as an important part of the drama in its Bioscope format whose cinematic language was extremely different from Western silent films. This was followed by Jamshedji Framji Madan of the Elphinstone Bioscope Company who also controlled Madan Theatre Company. J J Madan became managing director of Madan Theatres after the death of his father in 1923 and Madan Theatres reached a peak in late 1920s when it owned 127 theaters and controlled half of the country's box office. Madan Theatres produced a number of popular and landmark films till 1937, parallel to works of '20s Bengali stars like Dhirendra Nath Ganguly who started the Indo British Film Co. – the first Bengali-owned production company in 1918. The rise of the industry followed in 1930s to 1940s when a diversity of films were made. Many prints were destroyed by fire. The prints and records of films from 1937 to 1947 films were majorly destroyed but this period in Bengal served as the age of political films in India which was supremely influential for the struggle for Indian Independence. After 1947, The industry saw a new era of creative studio-system collaborators who made films under the name of Agradoot. This saw a renaissance of commercial films and musicals where stars like Uttam Kumar and Suchitra Sen mesmerized the audience with their captivating screen presence and subdued performances. Ritwick Ghatak, Satyajit Ray, Tapan Sinha, Mrinal Sen and Rituparno Ghosh were the other notable directors whose works influenced world cinema beyond an incomparable degree. The name of the industry was coined after the place Tollygunge, which also served as a cheeky tribute to Hollywood.


title: Film industry

text: The cinema of Egypt refers to the flourishing film industry based in Cairo which is known to be the Hollywood of the MENA region. In 1896, a limited number of silent films was made in Egypt beginning in 1896; 1927's "Laila" was notable as the first full-length feature. Cairo's film industry became a regional force with the coming of sound. Between 1930 and 1936, various small studios produced at least 44 feature films. In 1936, Studio Misr, financed by industrialist Talaat Harb, emerged as the leading Egyptian equivalent to Hollywood's major studios, a role the company retained for three decades.


title: Film industry

text: Historians disagree in determining the beginning of cinema in Egypt. Some say in 1896, when the first film was watched in Egypt, while others date the beginning from 20 June 1907 with a short documentary film about the visit of Khedive Abbas Hilmi II to the Institute of Mursi Abul-Abbas in Alexandria. In 1917, the director Mohammed Karim established a production company in Alexandria. The company produced two films: "Dead Flowers" and "Honor the Bedouin", which were shown in the city of Alexandria in early 1918.


title: Film industry

text: Since 1976, the capital has held the annual Cairo International Film Festival, which has been accredited by the International Federation of Film Producers Associations. There is also another 12 festivals. Of the more than 4,000 short and feature-length films made in MENA region since 1908, more than three-quarters were Egyptian films. Egyptian films are typically spoken in the Egyptian Arabic dialect. Since then, more than 4,000 films have been produced in Egypt, three quarters of the total Arab production. Historian Samir Kassir notes (2004) that Misr Studios in particular, "despite their ups and downs, were to make Cairo the third capital of the world's film industry, after Hollywood and Bombay but ahead of Italy's Cinecittà." Egypt is the most productive country in the Middle East in the field of film production, and the one with the most developed media system.


title: Film industry

text: Nollywood is a sobriquet that originally referred to the Nigerian film industry. The origin of the term dates back to the early 2000s, traced to an article in "The New York Times". Due to the history of evolving meanings and contexts, there is no clear or agreed-upon definition for the term, which has made it a subject of several controversies.


title: Film industry

text: The origin of the term "Nollywood" remains unclear; Jonathan Haynes traced the earliest usage of the word to a 2002 article by Matt Steinglass in "the New York Times", where it was used to describe Nigerian cinema. Charles Igwe noted that Norimitsu Onishi also used the name in a September 2002 article he wrote for "the New York Times". The term continues to be used in the media to refer to the Nigerian film industry, with its definition later assumed to be a portmanteau of the words "Nigeria" and "Hollywood", the American major film hub.


title: Film industry

text: Definition of which films are considered Nollywood has always been a subject of debate. Alex Eyengho defined Nollywood as "the totality of activities taking place in the Nigerian film industry, be it in English, Yoruba, Hausa, Igbo, Itsekiri, Edo, Efik, Ijaw, Urhobo or any other of the over 300 Nigerian languages". He further stated that "the historical trajectory of Nollywood started since the pre and post independent Nigeria, with the theatrical (stage) and cinematic (celluloid) efforts of the likes of Chief Hubert Ogunde, Chief Amata, Baba Sala, Ade Love, Eddie Ugbomah and a few others".


title: Film industry

text: The Influence of the Nigerian movie industry often referred to informally as Nollywood has influence all Africa countries.


title: Film industry

text: By the end of 2013, the film industry reportedly hit a record-breaking revenue of ₦1.72 trillion (US$4.1 billion). As of 2014, the industry was worth ₦853.9 billion (US$5.1 billion)


title: Film industry

text: behind the United States and India. It contributed about 1.4% to Nigeria's economy; this was attributed to the increase in the number of quality films produced and more formal distribution methods.


title: Film industry

text: Profitability of a film studio is crucially dependent on picking the right film projects and involving the right management and creative teams (cast, direction, visual design, score, photography, costume, set design, editing, and many additional specialties), but it also depends heavily on choosing the right scale and approach to film promotion, control over receipts through technologies such as digital rights management (DRM), sophisticated accounting practices, and management of ancillary revenue streams; in the extreme, for a major media franchise centered on film, the film might itself be only one large component of many large contributions to total franchise revenue.


title: Film industry

text: The film industry is a brutally competitive winner-take-all market driven by wildly fluctuating "nonlinear processes". Box office revenue is highly concentrated in a small number of very successful films, and film industry market share is also highly concentrated in the film studios lucky enough to make such films. But the market is "extremely volatile" and it is impossible to predict in advance who will become the market winner at any given moment "or how long their domination will last". The dominant films and film studios "change places dramatically and often".


title: Film industry

text: The following is a list of the top 15 countries by the number of feature films (fiction, animation and documentary) produced, according to the UNESCO Institute for Statistics, unless otherwise noted.


title: Film industry

text: The following countries are the largest box office markets in terms of the gross box office revenue, according to the THEME Report 2020 by the MPA (Motion Picture Association).


title: Film industry

text: The following countries are the largest box office markets in terms of the number of tickets sold in 2019.


title: Colman Domingo

text: Colman Jason Domingo (born November 28, 1969) is an American actor, writer, and director. He gained acclaim for his performance as Mr. Bones in the Broadway musical "The Scottsboro Boys" (2011), for which he received a Tony Award nomination for Best Featured Actor in a Musical. He is known for his role as recovering drug addict Ali on "Euphoria", for which he won the Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Drama Series in 2022, and his role as Victor Strand on "Fear the Walking Dead" (2015–present).


title: Colman Domingo

text: Domingo has played supporting roles in the films "Lincoln" by Steven Spielberg (2012), "Selma" by Ava DuVernay (2014), "If Beale Street Could Talk" by Barry Jenkins (2018), "Ma Rainey's Black Bottom" by George C. Wolfe and "Zola" by Janicza Bravo (2021).


title: Colman Domingo

text: Domingo was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. His father is from Guatemala. Domingo attended Overbrook High School and later Temple University, where he majored in journalism. Soon thereafter he moved to San Francisco, California, where he started acting, mainly in theatre productions.


title: Colman Domingo

text: Domingo starred as Mr. Franklin Jones, Joop, and Mr. Venus, in the critically acclaimed rock musical "Passing Strange", which, after a successful 2007 run at The Public Theater, opened on Broadway on February 28, 2008. He received an Obie Award in spring 2008 as part of the ensemble of "Passing Strange" Off-Broadway and reprised his roles in the film version of "Passing Strange", directed by Spike Lee, which made its premiere at the Sundance Film Festival in January 2009. In 2010, Domingo's self-penned, one-man autobiographical play "A Boy and His Soul" premiered Off-Broadway at the Vineyard Theatre, for which he won a Lucille Lortel Award for Outstanding Solo Show. He was also nominated for a Drama Desk Award and a Drama League Award.


title: Colman Domingo

text: Domingo starred as Billy Flynn in "Chicago", the longest running revival on Broadway, and in the final collaboration by Kander and Ebb of "The Scottsboro Boys," directed by Susan Stroman on Broadway in Fall 2010. For the latter role, he was nominated for the Tony Award for Best Performance by an Actor in a Featured Role in a Musical in May 2011. When "The Scottsboro Boys" opened in London in Fall 2013, Domingo was nominated for the Olivier Award for Best Performance in a Supporting Role in a Musical in April 2014. He was nominated for the Fred Astaire Award for Best Principal Dancer on Broadway in 2011.


title: Colman Domingo

text: In 2015, Domingo began appearing in a recurring role on AMC's post-apocalyptic, zombie series "Fear the Walking Dead", as a character named Victor Strand. In December 2015, it was announced that Domingo was promoted to series regular for Season 2 of the series.


title: Colman Domingo

text: In 2017, Domingo joined Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences as a member of the Actors' Branch.


title: Colman Domingo

text: In 2018, Domingo joined the Directors Guild of America as a director of episode 12 of season 4 of "Fear The Walking Dead". He is the first ever actor in "The Walking Dead" universe to helm an episode.


title: Colman Domingo

text: Domingo has taught at the O'Neill National Theater Institute, University of Texas at Austin, and University of Wisconsin at Madison.


title: Conrad Murray

text: Conrad Robert Murray (born February 19, 1953) is a Grenadian former cardiologist who was the personal physician of Michael Jackson at the time of his death in 2009. Murray was found guilty of involuntary manslaughter for improperly administering the anesthetic drug propofol that led to Jackson's death, and ultimately served about two years out of the original four-year prison sentence he was given.


title: Conrad Murray

text: Murray was born on February 19, 1953 and was raised by his maternal grandparents, who were farmers in Grenada until he joined his mother, Milta, in Trinidad and Tobago when he was seven years old. He grew up poor in Port of Spain, the capital of Trinidad and Tobago. He did not meet his father, Rawle Andrew, also a physician, until he was 25. Andrew, who died in 2001, was devoted to providing medical services to the poor. Murray finished high school and worked as a volunteer elementary school teacher in Trinidad for a while. After teaching, he worked to save up for college tuition as a customs clerk and insurance underwriter.


title: Conrad Murray

text: In 1973, Murray moved to Houston, Texas, where his father worked, to attend Texas Southern University, and graduated "magna cum laude" with a degree in pre-med and biological sciences. Murray continued his education at Meharry Medical College, in Nashville, Tennessee, the same school his father attended, and the first medical school in the Southern United States for African Americans. He began his internal medicine residency at the Mayo Clinic in Rochester, Minnesota. Murray completed it at the Loma Linda University Medical Center in California. He then completed a cardiology fellowship at the University of Arizona.


title: Conrad Murray

text: Murray worked at the Sharp Memorial Hospital in San Diego as an associate director of its cardiology fellowship training program. In 1990, he opened a private practice in Las Vegas. In 2006, he founded the Acres Homes Heart and Vascular Institute in Houston. Murray met Michael Jackson in 2006, in Las Vegas, and treated his daughter Paris when she fell ill. Jackson hired Murray to be his exclusive personal physician prior to his tour in July 2009. Jackson insisted that Murray be employed by his show promoter, AEG Live, for $150,000 monthly. However, AEG later claimed that there was never a contract with Murray. Murray and AEG agree that Murray was never paid. In 2018, Murray released a memoir, "This Is It!", which detailed his experience as Michael Jackson's physician. The book was poorly received by critics, with The A.V. Club calling it "literary poison with no antidote" and "The Daily Telegraph" describing its "thousand words of self-aggrandising, poorly punctuated and repetitive text."


title: Conrad Murray

text: In May 2009, Murray began working as Jackson's personal physician. By that time, he had reportedly fathered seven children by six different women. He was in arrears on the mortgage for the Las Vegas home occupied by his first wife and children and owed child support to the mothers of children outside of his marriage, which he could not pay due to the amount of money he owed to Michael Jackson's family. He was married to Blanche, his second wife, whom he met at medical school, and helped pay rent for another woman, Nicole Alvarez. Murray met Alvarez at a gentlemen's club in Las Vegas when she worked as a stripper, and Alvarez gave birth to their son Che Giovanni Murray in March 2009. Another relationship, with a cocktail waitress from Houston, was also reported.


title: Conrad Murray

text: Murray was at risk of losing his California medical license due to unpaid child support to one of his children and owed $13,000 to a California woman, Nenita Malibiran. Murray was a defendant in numerous civil lawsuits (though none for medical malpractice). By 2008, he had accumulated over $600,000 in court judgments against him for medical equipment and unpaid rent for his practices in Texas and Nevada. He also owed $71,000 for student loans at Meharry Medical College. Murray filed for bankruptcy in 2002, in California.


title: Conrad Murray

text: On June 25, 2009, only weeks after hiring Murray, Michael Jackson died due to a lethal dose of propofol administered by Murray. Court documents released in August 2009 revealed that the coroner's preliminary conclusion indicated that Jackson overdosed on propofol. However, the coroner's office declined to comment on reports claiming that the death was ruled a homicide. Several offices of doctors who were believed to have treated Jackson were searched. Based on the autopsy and toxicology findings, the cause of Jackson's death was determined to be acute propofol intoxication with a contributory benzodiazepine effect and the manner of death to be a homicide, eventually, so that the focus of the investigation shifted toward Murray. He admitted administering of propofol intravenously, for insomnia, on the night of Jackson's death. He claimed that he tried treating him with other drugs and that he only administered the propofol after Jackson insisted, according to a police affidavit. Murray said he worried that Jackson had become dependent on the drug as a sleep aid, and was trying to wean him from it. Propofol is usually given in a hospital or a clinical setting with close monitoring, mostly used for general anesthesia during surgery. It is not indicated or approved as a sleep aid (though any FDA-approved drug can be used off-label) and is only supposed to be administered by anesthesiologists, nurse anesthetists, anesthesia assistants or intensive medicine practitioners who have extensive training in the use and monitoring of anesthetics. Murray did not have any such training.


title: Conrad Murray

text: In February 2011, Murray was formally charged with involuntary manslaughter. On September 27, 2011, Murray went on trial in Los Angeles and was convicted of involuntary manslaughter on November 7, 2011. His bail was revoked and he was remanded to custody pending his November 29 sentencing date. He received the maximum penalty of four years in prison. His Texas medical license was revoked, and his California and Nevada licenses were suspended. After serving two years, Murray was released on parole on October 28, 2013.


title: Conrad Murray

text: Jackson's father, Joe Jackson, filed a wrongful death lawsuit against Murray in 2010 but dropped it in 2012. Also in 2010, Jackson's mother, Katherine Jackson, and three children, filed a separate wrongful death suit against AEG, claiming that the company was negligent in hiring Murray; the jury decided in favor of AEG in 2013.


title: Conrad Murray

text: In 2016, "Inside Edition" reported that Murray was "still visiting patients," although Murray claimed that he does not charge patients anything for his services, that he is only "providing a consultation" without prescribing medication, and that therefore he "is not breaking the law".


title: Meena (actress)

text: Meena Durairaj (born 16 September 1976), known professionally as Meena, is an Indian actress who predominantly works in the South Indian film industry as well as Hindi cinema.


title: Meena (actress)

text: Meena has acted in Tamil, Telugu, Malayalam, Kannada, and Hindi films. In addition to acting, Meena is also a playback singer, TV judge, and occasional dubbing artist. She has received numerous accolades, including two Filmfare Awards South, three Tamil Nadu State Film Awards, two Nandi Award for Best Actress and Cinema Express Awards. In 1998, she was honoured with the Kalaimamani Award by Government of Tamil Nadu.


title: Meena (actress)

text: Meena was born in 1976 and was brought up in Chennai (then Madras), Tamil Nadu. Her mother rajamallika from Kannur district of Kerala while her father Durairaj is from Andhra.


title: Meena (actress)

text: Meena started her career in 1982 as a child artist in the film "Nenjangal", featuring Sivaji Ganesan in the lead role after he saw her at a birthday party. She has acted in several films along with Ganesan as a child artist. She has acted with Rajinikanth in two movies namely "Enkeyo Ketta Kural" and "Anbulla Rajinikanth" as a child artist. "Anbulla Rajinikanth", in which she acted as a terminally ill child who warms up to


title: Meena (actress)

text: Rajinikanth —that became a major pointer in her career growth. Her debut in Malayalam as a child artist was in the movie Oru Kochukatha Aarum Parayatha Katha, directed by P.G. Viswambharan. She appeared in over 45 films as a child.


title: Meena (actress)

text: Meena has been one of the top star pairing up with every big star down South. She made her debut in Telugu beside Rajendra Prasad in "Navayugam" in 1990. While her Tamil admission as a heroine was in "Oru Pudhiya Kadhai" in the same year. Her first break was through Tamil film "En Rasavin Manasile" (1991) opposite Rajkiran, which was directed by Kasthuri Raja. Meena's portrayal as Solaiyamma won her fans' hearts. Later, the movie was remade in Telugu as "Moratodu Naa Mogudu" (1992) with Meena reprising her role


title: Meena (actress)

text: Meena starred in the Malayalam industry with the movie "Santhwanam" (1991) where she played as Suresh Gopi's daughter in the film released in 1991. Its success attracted more roles with senior Malayalam heroes. Meena has expressed a wish to do more films in Malayalam.


title: Meena (actress)

text: Telugu film "Chanti" (1992), opposite Venkatesh was nominated for Filmfare Award for Best Actress – Telugu and the movie was a big hit at the box office.


title: Meena (actress)

text: She made her Bollywood debut opposite Chunky Pandey in the film "Parda Hai Parda" (1992). This was followed by "Allari Pilla" (1992), directed by Kodi Ramakrishna. "Allari Mogudu" (1992) and "Sundarakanda" (1992), both directed by K. Raghavendra Rao. "President Gari Pellam" (1992) with Nagarjuna, directed by A. Kodandarami Reddy.


title: Meena (actress)

text: In 1993, another film was "Rajeswari Kalyanam", directed by Kranthi Kumar. She won Nandi Award for Best Actress for her performance. She followed it up with films like "Muta Mesthri" and "Yejaman". This performance won her the Tamil Nadu State Film Award for Best Actress. She plays Sudha, a smart and intelligent young wife in "Abbaigaru". She also appeared in the comedy film "Allari Alludu".


title: Meena (actress)

text: In 1994, she has acted in P. Vasu's "Sethupathi IPS" co-starring Vijayakanth. In her follow-up movie again with Rajinikanth in "Veera" and "Muthu" (1995). Followed by movies as "Maaman Magal" (1995), "Sengottai" (1996) and "Avvai Shanmugi" (1996).


title: Meena (actress)

text: She debuted in Malayalam as a lead actress with the 1997 release "Varnapakittu", where in she romance with Mohanlal on screen. Later the duo was paired in "Olympian Anthony Adam" (1999), "Mr. Brahmachari" (2003), "Natturajavu" (2004), "Udayananu Tharam" (2005) and "Chandrolsavam" (2005) among others.


title: Meena (actress)

text: Meena's releases in 2009 were "Mariyadhai" with Vijayakanth, directed by Vikraman. "" with Sreenivasan. She played in Telugu as Saint Vengamamba in "Tarigonda Vengamamba", directed by Uday Bhaskar.


title: Meena (actress)

text: In 2010, Meena returns to the big screen with the Kannada film "Hendtheer Darbar". This was her first film after her marriage.


title: Meena (actress)

text: Meena returned to Malayalam cinema played the role of wife to Mohanlal in "Drishyam" (2013) and "Balyakalasakhi" alongside Mammootty. She reprised her role in the 2014 Telugu remake, "Drushyam". Meena returned to Tamil cinema in "Annaatthe" (2021) with Rajinikanth.


title: Meena (actress)

text: Meena has been a playback singer for some albums with actor Manoj. Also she has been a playback singer in two pop albums called 16 Vayathinile, and Kadhalism, which she began recording in 2001 with actor Vikram.


title: Meena (actress)

text: Meena married Vidyasagar, a Bangalore-based software engineer, on 12 July 2009 at Arya Vysya Samaj Kalyana Mandapam. The couple later visited Tirumala Venkateswara Temple, Andhra Pradesh. The couple came back to Chennai to hold a reception at Mayor Ramanathan Chettiar Hall, in which all leading southern Indian actors participated. The couple has a daughter Nainika who made her acting debut at the age of 5 in the film "Theri" (2016). Vidyasagar died on 28 June 2022 due to lung related ailments.


title: Jonathan David

text: Jonathan Christian David (born January 14, 2000) is a Canadian professional soccer player who plays as a forward for Ligue 1 club Lille. Born in the United States to Haitian parents, David was raised in Ottawa, Ontario, and represents the Canada national team.


title: Jonathan David

text: David was born in New York City, but moved to Haiti when he was still a baby, and immigrated to Ottawa, Canada at the age of six. Raised in the Franco-Ontarian community of east-Ottawa, he played for several local youth clubs before moving to Belgium in 2018, where he recorded his professional debut for Gent. Two years later he joined French side Lille, where he aided in winning one Ligue 1 title and one Trophée des Champions. In 2019, David was named the male Canada Soccer Player of the Year.


title: Jonathan David

text: David was born in New York City to Haitian parents, and moved to Port-au-Prince when he was three months old. At the age of six, he and his parents emigrated from Haiti to Canada and settled in Ottawa. Growing up, David went to the Francophone public school École secondaire publique Louis-Riel. He cites this as a reason for his success: "It helped to always have the ball at my feet when I was at Louis Riel."


title: Jonathan David

text: David began playing organised football at age ten with Ottawa club Gloucester Dragons SA. A year later he joined Ottawa Gloucester SC, where he played for the club's Hornets team until 2015. In 2016, he joined Ottawa Internationals SC.


title: Jonathan David

text: Growing up, David watched European soccer but not Major League Soccer as he had no desire to play professionally in North America. Instead, he was singularly focused on playing professionally in Europe. He credits youth coach Hanny El-Magraby with being an early mentor and father figure who helped him achieve his dream of playing professional football in Europe. Before signing with Gent, David had trials at FC Salzburg and VfB Stuttgart, but was rejected by both.


title: Jonathan David

text: In January 2018, David joined Belgian First Division A side Gent. He made his professional debut on August 4, 2018, against Zulte Waregem and scored a goal in stoppage time to salvage a 1–1 draw. Just five days after his league debut, David came in as a second-half substitute in a Europa League Third Round Qualifier against Jagiellonia Białystok, scoring a goal in the 85th minute to secure a 1–0 win for his team. David continued his scoring streak three days later, coming in as a 71st minute substitute and scoring two late goals to secure a 4–1 league win against Waasland-Beveren. After scoring five goals in his first five games, Gent signed David to a contract extension through 2022. He further extended his contract by a year to 2023 in September 2019. In the January 2020 transfer window, Gent chairman Ivan de Witte indicated there was significant interest in David from bigger clubs, with his value estimated at €20 million.


title: Jonathan David

text: On August 11, 2020, Ligue 1 side Lille confirmed the signing of David on a five-year contract. The reported fee for David was €30 million, making him the most expensive Canadian transfer to date. He made his competitive debut for Lille on August 22 against Rennes in their Ligue 1 season opener. After a difficult start to the season, David scored his first goal for Lille on November 22 against Lorient, netting the final goal in a 4–0 victory.


title: Jonathan David

text: After going scoreless in his previous seven games, David netted an extra-time winner against Reims to even Lille on points with Paris Saint-Germain (PSG) at the top of the table. On February 3, 2021, David scored as Lille defeated Bordeaux by a score of 3–0. Continuing his run of form, David netted his first career Ligue 1 brace, scoring two goals on February 7 against Nantes. After only scoring two goals during the first half of the 2020–21 campaign, this brace marked David's fifth goal in as many games. On April 3, he scored the winning goal in a 1–0 away win over PSG, to be Lille's first away league win over the Parisians since April 1996.