title: Polyester

text: Liquid crystalline polyesters are among the first industrially used liquid crystal polymers. They are used for their mechanical properties and heat-resistance. These traits are also important in their application as an abradable seal in jet engines.


title: Polyester

text: Polyesters are one of the most economically important classes of polymers, driven especially by PET, which is counted among the commodity plastics; in 2000 around 30 million tons were produced worldwide. There is great variety of structures and properties in the polyester family, based on the varying nature of the R group (see first figure with blue ester group).


title: Polyester

text: Polyesters occurring in nature include the cutin component of plant cuticles, which consists of omega hydroxy acids and their derivatives, interlinked via ester bonds, forming polyester polymers of indeterminate size. Polyesters are also produced by bees in the genus "Colletes", which secrete a cellophane-like polyester lining for their underground brood cells earning them the nickname "polyester bees".


title: Polyester

text: Depending on the chemical structure, polyester can be a thermoplastic or thermoset. There are also polyester resins cured by hardeners; however, the most common polyesters are thermoplastics. The OH group is reacted with an Isocyanate functional compound in a 2 component system producing coatings which may optionally be pigmented. Polyesters as thermoplastics may change shape after the application of heat. While combustible at high temperatures, polyesters tend to shrink away from flames and self-extinguish upon ignition. Polyester fibers have high tenacity and E-modulus as well as low water absorption and minimal shrinkage in comparison with other industrial fibers.


title: Polyester

text: Increasing the aromatic parts of polyesters increases their glass transition temperature, melting temperature, thermal stability, chemical stability, and solvent resistance.


title: Polyester

text: Polyesters can also be telechelic oligomers like the polycaprolactone diol (PCL) and the polyethylene adipate diol (PEA). They are then used as prepolymers.


title: Polyester

text: Thermally stable polymers, which generally have a high proportion of aromatic structures, are also called high-performance plastics. This application-oriented classification compares such polymers with engineering plastics and commodity plastics. The continuous service temperature of high-performance plastics is generally stated as being higher than 150 °C, whereas engineering plastics (such as polyamide or polycarbonate) are often defined as thermoplastics that retain their properties above 100 °C. Commodity plastics (such as polyethylene or polypropylene) have in this respect even greater limitations, but they are manufactured in great amounts at low cost.


title: Polyester

text: Poly(ester imides) contain an aromatic imide group in the repeat unit, the imide-based polymers have a high proportion of aromatic structures in the main chain and belong to the class of thermally stable polymers. Such polymers contain structures that impart high melting temperatures, resistance to oxidative degradation and stability to radiation and chemical reagents. Among the thermally stable polymers with commercial relevance are polyimides, polysulfones, polyetherketones, and polybenzimidazoles. Of these, polyimides are most widely applied. The polymers' structures result also in poor processing characteristics, in particular a high melting point and low solubility. The named properties are in particular based on a high percentage of aromatic carbons in the polymer backbone which produces a certain stiffness. Approaches for an improvement of processability include the incorporation of flexible spacers into the backbone, the attachment of stable pendent groups or the incorporation of non-symmetrical structures. Flexible spacers include, for example, ether or hexafluoroisopropylidene, carbonyl or aliphatic groups like isopropylidene; these groups allow bond rotation between aromatic rings. Less symmetrical structures, for example based on "meta"- or "ortho"-linked monomers introduce structural disorder and thereby decrease the crystallinity.


title: Polyester

text: The generally poor processability of aromatic polymers (for example, a high melting point and a low solubility) also limits the available options for synthesis and may require strong electron-donating co-solvents like HFIP or TFA for analysis (e. g. H NMR spectroscopy) which themselves can introduce further practical limitations.


title: Polyester

text: Fabrics woven or knitted from polyester thread or yarn are used extensively in apparel and home furnishings, from shirts and pants to jackets and hats, bed sheets, blankets, upholstered furniture and computer mouse mats. Industrial polyester fibers, yarns and ropes are used in car tire reinforcements, fabrics for conveyor belts, safety belts, coated fabrics and plastic reinforcements with high-energy absorption. Polyester fiber is used as cushioning and insulating material in pillows, comforters and upholstery padding. Polyester fabrics are highly stain-resistant since polyester is a hydrophobic material, making it hard to absorb liquids. The only class of dyes which can be used to alter the color of polyester fabric are what are known as disperse dyes.


title: Polyester

text: Polyesters are also used to make bottles, films, tarpaulin, sails (Dacron), canoes, liquid crystal displays, holograms, filters, dielectric film for capacitors, film insulation for wire and insulating tapes. Polyesters are widely used as a finish on high-quality wood products such as guitars, pianos, and vehicle/yacht interiors. Thixotropic properties of spray-applicable polyesters make them ideal for use on open-grain timbers, as they can quickly fill wood grain, with a high-build film thickness per coat.


title: Polyester

text: It can be used for fashionable dresses, but it is most admired for its ability to resist wrinkling and shrinking while washing the product. Its toughness makes it a frequent choice for children's wear. Polyester is often blended with other fibres like cotton to get the desirable properties of both materials.


title: Polyester

text: Polyethylene terephthalate, the polyester with the greatest market share, is a synthetic polymer made of purified terephthalic acid (PTA) or its dimethyl ester dimethyl terephthalate (DMT) and monoethylene glycol (MEG). With 18% market share of all plastic materials produced, it ranges third after polyethylene (33.5%) and polypropylene (19.5%) and is counted as commodity plastic.


title: Polyester

text: In the following table, the estimated world polyester production is shown. Main applications are textile polyester, bottle polyester resin, film polyester mainly for packaging and specialty polyesters for engineering plastics. According to this table, the world's total polyester production might exceed 50 million tons per annum before the year 2010.


title: Polyester

text: After the first stage of polymer production in the melt phase, the product stream divides into two different application areas which are mainly textile applications and packaging applications. In the following table, the main applications of textile and packaging of polyester are listed.


title: Polyester

text: A comparable small market segment (much less than 1 million tonnes/year) of polyester is used to produce engineering plastics and masterbatch.


title: Polyester

text: In order to produce the polyester melt with a high efficiency, high-output processing steps like staple fiber (50–300 tonnes/day per spinning line) or POY /FDY (up to 600 tonnes/day split into about 10 spinning machines) are meanwhile more and more vertically integrated direct processes. This means the polymer melt is directly converted into the textile fibers or filaments without the common step of pelletizing. We are talking about full vertical integration when polyester is produced at one site starting from crude oil or distillation products in the chain oil → benzene → PX → PTA → PET melt → fiber/filament or bottle-grade resin. Such integrated processes are meanwhile established in more or less interrupted processes at one production site. Eastman Chemicals were the first to introduce the idea of closing the chain from PX to PET resin with their so-called INTEGREX process. The capacity of such vertically integrated production sites is >1000 tonnes/day and can easily reach 2500 tonnes/day.


title: Polyester

text: Besides the above-mentioned large processing units to produce staple fiber or yarns, there are ten thousands of small and very small processing plants, so that one can estimate that polyester is processed and recycled in more than 10 000 plants around the globe. This is without counting all the companies involved in the supply industry, beginning with engineering and processing machines and ending with special additives, stabilizers and colors. This is a gigantic industry complex and it is still growing by 4–8% per year, depending on the world region.


title: Polyester

text: Synthesis of polyesters is generally achieved by a polycondensation reaction. The general equation for the reaction of a diol with a diacid is:


title: Polyester

text: Polyesters can be obtained by a wide range of reactions of which the most important are the reaction of acids and alcohols, alcoholysis and or acidolysis of low-molecular weight esters or the alcoholysis of acyl chlorides. The following figure gives an overview over such typical polycondensation reactions for polyester production. Furthermore, polyesters are accessible via ring-opening polymerization.


title: Polyester

text: Azeotrope esterification is a classical method for condensation. The water formed by the reaction of alcohol and a carboxylic acid is continually removed by azeotrope distillation. When melting points of the monomers are sufficiently low, a polyester can be formed via direct esterification while removing the reaction water via vacuum.


title: Polyester

text: Direct bulk polyesterification at high temperatures (150 – 290 °C) is well-suited and used on the industrial scale for the production of aliphatic polyesters, unsaturated polyesters, and aromatic–aliphatic polyesters. Monomers containing phenolic or tertiary hydroxyl groups exhibit a low reactivity with carboxylic acids and cannot be polymerized via direct acid alcohol-based polyesterification. In the case of PET production, however, the direct process has several advantages, in particular a higher reaction rate, a higher attainable molecular weight, the release of water instead of methanol and lower storage costs of the acid when compared to the ester due to the lower weight.


title: Polyester

text: Transesterification: An alcohol-terminated oligomer and an ester-terminated oligomer condense to form an ester linkage, with loss of an alcohol. R and R' are the two oligomer chains, <nowiki>R"</nowiki> is a sacrificial unit such as a methyl group (methanol is the byproduct of the esterification reaction).


title: Polyester

text: The term "transesterification" is typically used to describe hydroxy–ester, carboxy–ester, and ester–ester exchange reactions. The hydroxy–ester exchange reaction possesses the highest rate of reaction and is used for the production of numerous aromatic–aliphatic and wholly aromatic polyesters. The transesterification based synthesis is particularly useful for when high melting and poorly soluble dicarboxylic acids are used. In addition, alcohols as condensation product are more volatile and thereby easier to remove than water.


title: Polyester

text: The high-temperature melt synthesis between bisphenol diacetates and aromatic dicarboxylic acids or in reverse between bisphenols and aromatic dicarboxylic acid diphenyl esters (carried out at 220 to 320 °C upon the release of acetic acid) is, besides the acyl chloride based synthesis, the preferred route to wholly aromatic polyesters.


title: Polyester

text: In acylation, the acid begins as an acid chloride, and thus the polycondensation proceeds with emission of hydrochloric acid (HCl) instead of water.


title: Polyester

text: The reaction between diacyl chlorides and alcohols or phenolic compounds has been widely applied to polyester synthesis and has been subject of numerous reviews and book chapters. The reaction is carried out at lower temperatures than the equilibrium methods; possible types are the high-temperature solution condensation, amine catalysed and interfacial reactions. In addition, the use of activating agents is counted as non-equilibrium method. The equilibrium constants for the acyl chloride-based condensation yielding yielding arylates and polyarylates are very high indeed and are reported to be 4.3 × 10 and 4.7 × 10, respectively. This reaction is thus often referred to as a 'non-equilibrium' polyesterification. Even though the acyl chloride based synthesis is also subject of reports in the patent literature, it is unlikely that the reaction is utilized on the production scale. The method is limited by the acid dichlorides' high cost, its sensitivity to hydrolysis and the occurrence of side reactions.


title: Polyester

text: The high temperature reaction (100 to > 300 °C) of an diacyl chloride with an dialcohol yields the polyester and hydrogen chloride. Under these relatively high temperatures the reaction proceeds rapidly without a catalyst:


title: Polyester

text: The conversion of the reaction can be followed by titration of the evolved hydrogen chloride. A wide variety of solvents has been described including chlorinated benzenes (e.g. dichlorobenzene), chlorinated naphthalenes or diphenyls, as well as non-chlorinated aromatics like terphenyls, benzophenones or dibenzylbenzenes. The reaction was also applied successfully to the preparation of highly crystalline and poorly soluble polymers which require high temperatures to be kept in solution (at least until a sufficiently high molecular weight was achieved).


title: Polyester

text: In an interfacial acyl chloride-based reaction, the alcohol (generally in fact a phenol) is dissolved in the form of an alkoxide in an aqueous sodium hydroxide solution, the acyl chloride in an organic solvent immiscible with water such as dichloromethane, chlorobenzene or hexane, the reaction occurs at the interface under high-speed agitation near room temperature.


title: Polyester

text: The procedure is used for the production of polyarylates (polyesters based on bisphenols), polyamides, polycarbonates, poly(thiocarbonate)s, and others. Since the molecular weight of the product obtained by a high-temperature synthesis can be seriously limited by side reactions, this problem is circumvented by the mild temperatures of interfacial polycondensation. The procedure is applied to the commercial production of bisphenol-A-based polyarylates like Unitika's U-Polymer. Water could be in some cases replaced by an immiscible organic solvent (e. g. in the adiponitrile/carbon tetrachloride system). The procedure is of little use in the production of polyesters based on aliphatic diols which have higher p"K" values than phenols and therefore do not form alcoholate ions in aqueous solutions. The base catalysed reaction of an acyl chloride with an alcohol may also be carried out in one phase using tertiary amines (e. g. triethylamine, EtN) or pyridine as acid acceptors:


title: Polyester

text: While acyl chloride-based polyesterifications proceed only very slowly at room temperature without a catalyst, the amine accelerates the reaction in several possible ways, although the mechanism is not fully understood. However, it is known that tertiary amines can cause side-reactions such as the formation of ketenes and ketene dimers.


title: Polyester

text: Aliphatic polyesters can be assembled from lactones under very mild conditions, catalyzed anionically, cationically, metallorganically or enzyme-based. A number of catalytic methods for the copolymerization of epoxides with cyclic anhydrides have also recently been shown to provide a wide array of functionalized polyesters, both saturated and unsaturated. Ring-opening polymerization of lactones and lactides is also applied on the industrial scale.


title: Polyester

text: Numerous other reactions have been reported for the synthesis of selected polyesters, but are limited to laboratory-scale syntheses using specific conditions, for example using dicarboxylic acid salts and dialkyl halides or reactions between bisketenes and diols.


title: Polyester

text: Instead of acyl chlorides, so-called activating agents can be used, such as 1,1'-carbonyldiimidazole, dicyclohexylcarbodiimide, or trifluoroacetic anhydride. The polycondensation proceeds via the "in situ" conversion of the carboxylic acid into a more reactive intermediate while the activating agents are consumed. The reaction proceeds, for example, via an intermediate "N"-acylimidazole which reacts with catalytically acting sodium alkoxide:


title: Polyester

text: The use of activating agents for the production of high-melting aromatic polyesters and polyamides under mild conditions has been subject of intensive academic research since the 1980s, but the reactions have not gained commercial acceptance as similar results can be achieved with cheaper reactants.


title: Polyester

text: Polyesterifications are grouped by some authors into two main categories: a) equilibrium polyesterifications (mainly alcohol-acid reaction, alcohol–ester and acid–ester interchange reactions, carried out in bulk at high temperatures), and b) non-equilibrium polyesterifications, using highly reactive monomers (for example acid chlorides or activated carboxylic acids, mostly carried out at lower temperatures in solution).


title: Polyester

text: The acid-alcohol based polyesterification is one example of an equilibrium reaction. The ratio between the polymer-forming ester group (-C(O)O-) and the condensation product water (HO) against the acid-based (-C(O)OH) and alcohol-based (-OH) monomers is described by the equilibrium constant "K".


title: Polyester

text: The equilibrium constant of the acid-alcohol based polyesterification is typically "K" ≤ 10, what is not high enough to obtain high-molecular weight polymers ("DP" ≥ 100), as the number average degree of polymerization ("DP") can be calculated from the equilibrium constant "K".


title: Polyester

text: In equilibrium reactions, it is therefore necessary to remove the condensation product continuously and efficiently from the reaction medium in order to drive the equilibrium towards polymer. The condensation product is therefore removed at reduced pressure and high temperatures (150–320 °C, depending on the monomers) to prevent the back reaction. With the progress of the reaction, the concentration of active chain ends is decreasing and the viscosity of the melt or solution increasing. For an increase of the reaction rate, the reaction is carried out at high end group concentration (preferably in the bulk), promoted by the elevated temperatures.


title: Polyester

text: Equilibrium constants of magnitude "K" ≥ 10 are achieved when using reactive reactants (acid chlorides or acid anhydrides) or activating agents like 1,1′-carbonyldiimidazole. Using these reactants, molecular weights required for technical applications can be achieved even without active removal of the condensation product.


title: Polyester

text: In 1926, United States-based E.I. du Pont de Nemours and Co. began research on large molecules and synthetic fibers. This early research, headed by W.H. Carothers, centered on what became nylon, which was one of the first synthetic fibers. Carothers was working for duPont at the time. Carothers' research was incomplete and had not advanced to investigating the polyester formed from mixing ethylene glycol and terephthalic acid. In 1928 polyester was patented in Britain by the International General Electric company. Carothers' project was revived by British scientists Whinfield and Dickson, who patented polyethylene terephthalate (PET) or PETE in 1941. Polyethylene terephthalate forms the basis for synthetic fibers like Dacron, Terylene and polyester. In 1946, duPont bought all legal rights from Imperial Chemical Industries (ICI).


title: Polyester

text: The Futuro houses were made of fibreglass-reinforced polyester plastic; polyester-polyurethane, and poly(methyl methacrylate). One house was found to be degrading by cyanobacteria and Archaea.


title: Polyester

text: Unsaturated polyesters are thermosetting polymers. They are generally copolymers prepared by polymerizing one or more diols with saturated and unsaturated dicarboxylic acids (maleic acid, fumaric acid, etc.) or their anhydrides. The double bond of unsaturated polyesters reacts with a vinyl monomer, usually styrene, resulting in a 3-D cross-linked structure. This structure acts as a thermoset. The exothermic cross-linking reaction is initiated through a catalyst, usually an organic peroxide such as methyl ethyl ketone peroxide or benzoyl peroxide.


title: Polyester

text: A team at Plymouth University in the UK spent 12 months analysing what happened when a number of synthetic materials were washed at different temperatures in domestic washing machines, using different combinations of detergents, to quantify the microfibres shed. They found that an average washing load of 6 kg could release an estimated 137,951 fibres from polyester-cotton blend fabric, 496,030 fibres from polyester and 728,789 from acrylic. Those fibers add to the general microplastics pollution.


title: Polyester

text: Recycling of polymers has become very important as the production and use of plastic is continuously rising. Global plastic waste may almost triple by 2060 if this continues Plastics can be recycled by various means like mechanical recycling, chemical recycling, etc. Among the recyclable polymers, Polyester PET is one of the most recycled plastic. The ester bond present in polyesters is susceptible to hydrolysis (acidic or basic conditions), methanolysis and glycolysis which makes this class of polymers suitable for chemical recycling. Enzymatic/biological recycling of PET can be carried out using different enzymes like PETase, cutinase, esterase, lipase, etc. PETase has been also reported for enzymatic degradation of other synthetic polyesters (PBT, PHT, Akestra™, etc) which contains similar aromatic ester bond as that of PET.


title: Mars Attacks!

text: Mars Attacks! is a 1996 American science fiction comedy film directed by Tim Burton, who also co-produced it with Larry J. Franco. The screenplay by Jonathan Gems was based on the Topps trading card series of the same name. The film features an ensemble cast consisting of Jack Nicholson (in a dual role), Glenn Close, Annette Bening, Pierce Brosnan, Danny DeVito, Martin Short, Sarah Jessica Parker, Michael J. Fox, Rod Steiger, Tom Jones, Lukas Haas, Pam Grier, Natalie Portman, Jim Brown, Jack Black, Lisa Marie, and Sylvia Sidney in her final film role.


title: Mars Attacks!

text: Alex Cox had tried to make a "Mars Attacks" film in the 1980s before Burton and Gems began development in 1993. When Gems turned in his first draft in 1994, Warner Bros. commissioned rewrites from Gems, Burton, Scott Alexander and Larry Karaszewski in an attempt to lower the budget to $60 million. The final production budget came to $80 million, while Warner Bros. spent another $20 million on the "Mars Attacks!" marketing campaign. Filming took place from February to June 1996. The film was shot in California, Nevada, Kansas, Arizona and Argentina.


title: Mars Attacks!

text: The filmmakers hired Industrial Light & Magic to create the Martians using computer animation after their previous plan to use stop motion animation, supervised by Barry Purves, fell through because of budget limitations. "Mars Attacks!" was released theatrically by Warner Bros. Pictures in the United States on December 13, 1996 and received mixed reviews from critics. The film grossed approximately $101 million in box office totals, which was seen as a disappointment. "Mars Attacks!" was nominated for the Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation and earned multiple nominations at the Saturn Awards.


title: Mars Attacks!

text: When Earth is visited by a massive fleet of flying saucers from Mars, President of the United States James Dale addresses the people of the United States. Talk show host Nathalie Lake and her boyfriend, news reporter Jason Stone, attempt to capitalize on the developing story with an interview with President Dale's scientific advisor Professor Donald Kessler, which is unexpectedly interrupted by a broadcast from the Martian leader. As the Martians prepare to land outside Pahrump, Nevada, numerous people around the country react to their arrival, including donut shop employee Richie Norris and his older brother Billy Glenn, flamboyant casino operator Art Land and his hippie wife Barbara, divorced ex-boxer Byron Williams and his former wife Louise, and Byron and Louise's children Cedric and Neville.


title: Mars Attacks!

text: Against the advice of the hawkish General Decker, President Dale chooses to greet the Martians as foreign dignitaries, ordering military officer General Casey to welcome them to Earth. Billy Glenn, a private in the US Army, is among the soldiers who volunteers to accompany General Casey as he greets the Martians in Nevada. Despite the translated message from the Martian ambassador stating that the Martians "come in peace", they turn on the assembled crowd and attack them with rayguns, killing General Casey, Jason, and Billy Glenn, and abducting Nathalie and her pet chihuahua Poppy.


title: Mars Attacks!

text: Kessler convinces President Dale that the Martians' attack in Nevada may have been the result of a cultural misunderstanding, and President Dale agrees to let the Martian ambassador address Congress after the Martians issue a formal apology for their actions. Once again, the Martians turn on the assembled humans, massacring most of Congress and abducting Kessler. While Nathalie and Kessler are held captive in the Martian mothership, the Martians switch Nathalie and Poppy's heads and reduce Kessler to a disembodied head.


title: Mars Attacks!

text: President Dale narrowly survives an assassination attempt by a Martian disguised as an attractive blonde woman, who infiltrates the White House by seducing and killing his press secretary Jerry Ross. Following the assassination attempt, the Martians commence a full-scale invasion of Earth, attacking major cities throughout the world. When Martian soldiers overrun the White House, First Lady Marsha Dale is killed by a falling chandelier as President Dale escapes to a secure bunker. Shortly after, Land is killed when the Martians destroy his casino in Las Vegas.


title: Mars Attacks!

text: In Las Vegas, Barbara prepares to flee to Tahoe in Art's private plane, and offers to let Byron accompany her. The pair are joined by Byron's co-worker Cindy and singer Tom Jones, who offers to pilot the plane. Meanwhile, Richie abandons his parents in their mobile home and goes to his grandmother Florence's retirement home to escort her to safety, leaving his parents to be killed by a Martian piloting a giant robot. At the retirement home, the Martians' brains unexpectedly explode when they hear Florence's record of Slim Whitman's "Indian Love Call", revealing their only weakness.


title: Mars Attacks!

text: Eventually, Martian soldiers breach President Dale's secure bunker, crushing General Decker after reducing him to minuscule size with a shrink ray. President Dale makes an impassioned speech attempting to convince the Martians to make peace with humanity, but the Martian leader kills him with a gadget disguised as a hand after offering him a handshake.


title: Mars Attacks!

text: Barbara, Byron, Cindy, and Tom Jones reach Art's plane, but find the runway overrun by a group of Martians led by the Martian ambassador. To buy time for his companions to escape, Byron steps forward to challenge the ambassador to a boxing match, and beats him to death before being seemingly overrun by Martians as the plane takes off. Around the world, the Martians are defeated as humans play "Indian Love Call" to incapacitate them.


title: Mars Attacks!

text: In the aftermath of the war with the Martians, President Dale's teenage daughter Taffy awards the Congressional Medal of Honor to Richie and Florence. In Washington, D.C., Byron—who survived his encounter with the Martians—walks up to Louise's home to greet his family. In Tahoe, Barbara, Cindy, and Tom Jones emerge unharmed from a cavern.


title: Mars Attacks!

text: Other significant actors to appear in the film include Willie Garson as Corporate Guy, John Roselius as GNN Boss, Michael Reilly Burke and Valerie Wildman as GNN Reporters, Rebecca Broussard as a Hooker, Steve Valentine as TV Director, Enrique Castillo as Hispanic Colonel, John Finnegan as Speaker of the House, Gregg Daniel as Lab Technician, and J. Kenneth Campbell as a Doctor. Ron Howard's father Rance Howard has a small part as a Texas Investor, while Simpsons writer Josh Weinstein portrays the Hippie who sets loose the dove. Voice actor Frank Welker provided the voices of the Martians.


title: Mars Attacks!

text: In 1985, Alex Cox pitched the idea of a film based on the "Mars Attacks" trading card series as a joint-production to Orion and Tristar Pictures. He wrote three drafts over the next four years, but was replaced by Martin Amis before Orion and Tristar placed "Mars Attacks" in turnaround.


title: Mars Attacks!

text: Jonathan Gems, who had previously written multiple unproduced screenplays for director Tim Burton, came up with his own idea for a "Mars Attacks" film in 1993. The writer pitched both concepts of "Mars Attacks" and "Dinosaurs Attack!" to Burton, who both decided that "Dinosaurs Attack!" would be too similar to "Jurassic Park" (1993). Burton, who was busy preparing "Ed Wood" (1994), believed that "Mars Attacks!" would be a perfect opportunity to pay homage to the films of Edward D. Wood Jr., especially "Plan 9 from Outer Space" (1959), and other 1950s science fiction B movies, such as "Invaders from Mars" (1953), "It Came from Outer Space" (1953), "The War of the Worlds" (1953), "Target Earth" (1954), "Invasion of the Body Snatchers" (1956) and "Earth vs. the Flying Saucers" (1956).


title: Mars Attacks!

text: Burton set "Mars Attacks!" up with Warner Bros. and the studio purchased the film rights to the trading card series on his behalf. The original theatrical release date was planned for the summer of 1996. Gems completed his original script in 1994, which was budgeted by Warner Bros. at $260 million. The studio wanted to make the film for no more than $60 million. After turning in numerous drafts in an attempt to lower the budget, Gems was replaced by "Ed Wood" writers Scott Alexander and Larry Karaszewski. Alexander and Karaszewski worked on the film through July 1995, focusing the characters and making the tone more satirical.


title: Mars Attacks!

text: Gems eventually returned to the project, writing a total of 12 drafts of the script. Although he is credited with both the screen story and screenplay of "Mars Attacks!", Gems dedicates his novelization of the movie to Burton, who "co-wrote the screenplay and didn't ask for a credit". Warner Bros. was dubious of the Martian dialogue and wanted Burton to add closed captioning subtitles, but he resisted. Working with Burton, Gems pared the film's 60 leading characters down to 23 and the worldwide destruction planned for the film was isolated to three major cities. Scenes featuring Martians attacking China, the Philippines, Japan, Europe, Africa, India and Russia were deleted from the screenplay, leaving only Paris and the Taj Mahal. "Bear in mind this was way before "Independence Day" (1996) was written," Gems commented. "We had things like Manhattan being destroyed building by building, the White House went and so did the Empire State Building. Warner Bros. figured all this would be too expensive, so we cut most of that out to reduce the cost." Further discussing the differences between "Mars Attacks!" and "Independence Day", Gems stated, ""Independence Day" is more like a movie called "Fail-Safe" and "Mars Attacks" is like "Dr. Strangelove"", in that both films had a similar story, but with different tones. Howard Stern claimed that the film's climax, where an attack by Martians was thwarted by playing Slim Whitman songs to them, was originally created by him when he worked at WNBC in 1982, in a sketch named "Slim Whitman vs. The Midget Aliens From Mars."


title: Mars Attacks!

text: The decision to hire an A-list ensemble cast for "Mars Attacks!" parallels the strategy Irwin Allen used for his disaster films, notably "The Poseidon Adventure" (1972) and "The Towering Inferno" (1974). Jack Nicholson, approached for the role of the President, jokingly remarked that he wanted to play all the roles. Burton agreed to cast Nicholson as both Art Land and President Dale, specifically remembering his positive working relationship with the actor on "Batman".


title: Mars Attacks!

text: Susan Sarandon was originally set to play Barbara Land before Annette Bening was cast. Bening modeled the character after Ann-Margret's performance in "Viva Las Vegas" (1964). Hugh Grant was the first choice for Professor Donald Kessler, a role which eventually went to Pierce Brosnan. Meryl Streep, Diane Keaton and Stockard Channing were considered for First Lady Marsha Dale, but Glenn Close won the role. In addition to Nicholson, other actors who reunited with Burton on "Mars Attacks!" include Sylvia Sidney from "Beetlejuice" (1988), O-Lan Jones from "Edward Scissorhands" (1990) and Danny DeVito from "Batman Returns" (1992), continuing Burton's trend of recasting actors several times from his previous works.


title: Mars Attacks!

text: Roger L. Jackson, best known as the voice of Ghostface in the Scream film franchise, makes an uncredited appearance as the voice of the Martian translator device. His performance in "Mars Attacks!" helped him get the audition for "Scream".


title: Mars Attacks!

text: The originally scheduled start date was mid-August 1995, but filming was delayed until February 26, 1996. Director Tim Burton hired Peter Suschitzky as the cinematographer, because he was a fan of his work in David Cronenberg's films. Production designer Thomas Wynn ("A Beautiful Mind", "Malcolm X") intended to have the war room pay tribute to "Dr. Strangelove" (1964). During production, Burton insisted that the art direction, cinematography and costume design of "Mars Attacks!" incorporate the look of the 1960s trading cards.


title: Mars Attacks!

text: On designing the Martian (played by Burton's girlfriend Lisa Marie Smith) who seduces and kills Jerry Ross (Martin Short), costume designer Colleen Atwood took combined inspiration from the playing cards, Marilyn Monroe, the work of Alberto Vargas and Jane Fonda in "Barbarella" (1968). Filming for "Mars Attacks!" ended on June 1, 1996. The film score was composed by Burton's regular composer Danny Elfman, to whom Burton was reconciled after a quarrel that occurred during "The Nightmare Before Christmas" (1993), for which they did not co-operate in producing "Ed Wood" (1994). Elfman enlisted the help of Oingo Boingo lead guitarist Steve Bartek to help arrange the compositions for the orchestra.


title: Mars Attacks!

text: Tim Burton initially intended to use stop motion animation to feature the Martians, viewing it as a homage to the work of Ray Harryhausen, primarily "Jason and the Argonauts". Similar to his own "Beetlejuice", Burton "wanted to make [the special effects] look cheap and purposely fake-looking as possible." He first approached Henry Selick, director of "The Nightmare Before Christmas", to supervise the stop motion work, but Selick was busy directing "James and the Giant Peach", also produced by Burton. Despite the fact that Warner Bros. was skeptical of the escalating budget and had not yet greenlit the film for production, Burton hired Barry Purves to shepherd the stop motion work. Purves created an international team of about 70 animators, who worked on "Mars Attacks!" for eight months and began compiling test footage in Burbank, California. The department workers studied Gloria Swanson's choreography and movement as Norma Desmond in "Sunset Boulevard" for inspiration on the Martians' movement.


title: Mars Attacks!

text: When the budget was projected at $100 million (Warner Bros. wanted it for no more than $75 million), producer Larry J. Franco commissioned a test reel from Industrial Light & Magic (ILM), the visual effects company he worked with on "Jumanji". Burton was persuaded to change his mind to employ computer animation, which brought the final production budget to $80 million. Although Purves was uncredited for his work, stop motion supervisors Ian Mackinnon and Peter Saunders, who would later collaborate with Burton on "Corpse Bride", received character design credit. Warner Digital Studios was responsible for the scenes of global destruction, airborne flying saucer sequences, the Martian landing in Nevada and the robot that chases Richie Norris in his pickup truck. Warner Digital also used practical effects, such as building scale models of Big Ben and other landmarks. The destruction of Art Land's hotel was footage of the real life nighttime demolition of the Landmark Hotel and Casino, a building Burton wished to immortalize.


title: Mars Attacks!

text: The film's music was composed by Danny Elfman. The soundtrack was released on March 4, 1997 by Atlantic Records.


title: Mars Attacks!

text: Warner Bros. spent $20 million on the movie's marketing campaign; together with $80 million spent during production, the final combined budget came to $100 million. A novelization, written by screenwriter Jonathan Gems, was published by Puffin Books in January 1997. The film was released in the United States on December 13, 1996, earning $9.38 million in its opening weekend. "Mars Attacks!" eventually made $37.77 million in U.S. totals and $63.6 million elsewhere, coming to a worldwide total of $101.37 million.


title: Mars Attacks!

text: The film was considered a box office bomb in the U.S., but generally achieved greater success both critically and commercially in Europe. Many observers found similarities with "Independence Day", which also came out in 1996. "It was just a coincidence. Nobody told me about it. I was surprised how close it was," director Tim Burton continued, "but then it's a pretty basic genre I guess. "Independence Day" was different in tone – it was different in everything. It almost seemed like we had done kind of a "Mad" magazine version of "Independence Day"." During the film's theatrical run in January 1997, TBS purchased the broadcasting rights of the film.


title: Mars Attacks!

text: The film received mixed responses from critics. On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 56% based on 86 reviews, with an average rating of 6.00/10. The website's critical consensus reads, "Tim Burton's alien invasion spoof faithfully recreates the wooden characters and schlocky story of cheesy '50s sci-fi and Ed Wood movies -- perhaps a little "too" faithfully for audiences." On Metacritic, the film received a score of 52 based on 19 reviews, indicating "mixed or average reviews".


title: Mars Attacks!

text: Roger Ebert observed the homages to the 1950s science fiction B movies: "Ed Wood himself could have told us what's wrong with this movie: the makers felt superior to the material. To be funny, even schlock has to believe in itself. Look for "Infra-Man" (1975) or "Invasion of the Bee Girls" (1973) and you will find movies that lack stars and big budgets and fancy special effects but are funny and fun in a way that Burton's megaproduction never really understands."


title: Mars Attacks!

text: Kenneth Turan of the "Los Angeles Times" wrote that ""Mars Attacks!" is all 1990s cynicism and disbelief, mocking the conventions that "Independence Day" takes seriously. This all sounds clever enough but in truth, "Mars Attacks!" is not as much fun as it should be. Few of its numerous actors make a lasting impression and Burton's heart and soul is not in the humor". Desson Thomson from "The Washington Post" said ""Mars Attacks!" evokes plenty of sci-fi classics, from "The Day the Earth Stood Still" (1951) to "Dr. Strangelove" (1964), but it doesn't do much beyond that superficial exercise. With the exception of Burton's jolting sight gags (I may never recover from the vision of Sarah Jessica Parker's head grafted on to the body of a chihuahua), the comedy is half-developed, pedestrian material. And the climactic battle between Earthlings and Martians is dull and overextended."


title: Mars Attacks!

text: Richard Schickel, writing in "Time" magazine, gave a positive review. "You have to admire everyone's chutzpah: the breadth of Burton's (and writer Jonathan Gems') movie references, which range from Kurosawa to Kubrick; and above all their refusal to offer us a single likable character. Perhaps they don't create quite enough deeply funny earthlings to go around, but a thoroughly mean-spirited big-budget movie is always a treasurable rarity." Jonathan Rosenbaum from the "Chicago Reader" praised the surreal humor and black comedy, which he found to be in the vein of "Dr. Strangelove" and "Gremlins" (1984). He said it was far from clear whether the movie was a satire, although critics were describing it as one. Todd McCarthy of "Variety" called "Mars Attacks!" "a cult sci-fi comedy miscast as an elaborate, all-star studio extravaganza."


title: Mars Attacks!

text: "Mars Attacks!" was on the shortlist for the Academy Award for Best Visual Effects nomination, but the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences selected "Independence Day", "Dragonheart", and "Twister" instead. The film was nominated for seven categories at the Saturn Awards. Danny Elfman won Best Music, while director Tim Burton, writer Jonathan Gems, actor Lukas Haas, costume designer Colleen Atwood and the visual effects department at Industrial Light & Magic received nominations. "Mars Attacks!" was nominated for both the Saturn Award for Best Science Fiction Film (which went to "Independence Day") and the Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation.


title: Better Call Saul (season 3)

text: The third season of the American television drama series "Better Call Saul" premiered on April 10, 2017, and concluded on June 19, 2017. The ten-episode season was broadcast on Monday nights in the United States on AMC. A spin-off of "Breaking Bad", "Better Call Saul" was created by Vince Gilligan and Peter Gould, both of whom also worked on "Breaking Bad".


title: Better Call Saul (season 3)

text: The third season immediately follows the events of the second season, which take place in late 2002. The year is 2003 by the third season's conclusion. Bob Odenkirk reprises his role as Jimmy McGill, a lawyer who is engaged in a feud with his brother Chuck (Michael McKean), an attorney who believes Jimmy is unfit to be a lawyer and plots to have him disbarred. Jonathan Banks also reprises his role as Mike Ehrmantraut, who begins a partnership with Gustavo Fring (Giancarlo Esposito), while Nacho Varga (Michael Mando) is plotting to murder their rival, Hector Salamanca (Mark Margolis).


title: Better Call Saul (season 3)

text: The third season of "Better Call Saul" received acclaim from critics, particularly for McKean's performance as Chuck, and the character development of Jimmy McGill, and eight nominations for the 69th Primetime Emmy Awards, including Outstanding Drama Series.


title: Better Call Saul (season 3)

text: In March 2016, AMC announced that "Better Call Saul" was renewed for a 10-episode third season which premiered April 10, 2017.


title: Better Call Saul (season 3)

text: Early in the writing stages, series co-creator and co-showrunner Vince Gilligan left the writers room to focus on new projects. This resulted in Peter Gould, who also created and developed the show, becoming the sole showrunner, a transition that had been planned since the series' beginning.


title: Better Call Saul (season 3)

text: The third season of "Better Call Saul" features the return of several of the original cast from "Breaking Bad", most notably Giancarlo Esposito (Gus Fring), who returned in the second episode "Witness". In a Q&A with AMC, Esposito expressed excitement on his return into the "Breaking Bad" universe, saying,


title: Better Call Saul (season 3)

text: All of the main cast members returned for this season. Bob Odenkirk returns as Jimmy McGill, Jonathan Banks returns as Mike Ehrmantraut, Rhea Seehorn returns as Kim Wexler, Patrick Fabian returns as Howard Hamlin, Michael Mando returns as Nacho Varga, and Michael McKean returns as Chuck McGill, Jimmy's elder brother. This was the first season of "Better Call Saul" to feature Giancarlo Esposito as a member of the main cast.


title: Better Call Saul (season 3)

text: "Better Call Saul" is set and filmed in Albuquerque, New Mexico, the same location as its predecessor.


title: Better Call Saul (season 3)

text: In the first scene from the first episode, Jimmy is hiding his real identity under his Gene Takavic alias while working at a Cinnabon in a shopping mall in Omaha, Nebraska. The Cinnabon scenes in "Better Call Saul" are set in Omaha, but filmed at the Cottonwood Mall in Albuquerque, New Mexico.


title: Better Call Saul (season 3)

text: The third season of "Better Call Saul", much like the previous two, received universal acclaim, particularly for McKean's performance as Chuck, and the character development of Jimmy McGill. On Rotten Tomatoes, the third season has an approval rating of 98% based on 175 reviews, with an average rating of 8.78/10. The site's critical consensus is: ""Better Call Saul" shows no signs of slipping in season 3, as the introduction of more familiar faces causes the inevitable transformation of its lead to pick up exciting speed." On the review aggregator website Metacritic, the season has a score of 87 out of 100 based on 18 critics, indicating "universal acclaim".


title: Better Call Saul (season 3)

text: Terri Schwartz of IGN rated the third season 9.1/10, praising Jimmy's character development saying: ""Better Call Saul" was better than it's ever been in Season 3." Verne Gay of "Newsday" gave it an "A+" grade and wrote, "Based on the first two episodes, "Saul" is making a case that it could be even better than "Breaking Bad"."


title: Better Call Saul (season 3)

text: Jimmy tries to make amends with Chuck in the season finale "Lantern", but Chuck coldly cuts ties with Jimmy, telling him that "he never really mattered all that much to him". After Chuck forces Jimmy away, his EHS symptoms begin to re-emerge, and he becomes obsessed with disabling all electronic devices in his home to the point of tearing walls open to remove the wiring. He eventually reaches a breaking point and knocks a gas lantern over, setting fire to his house. After this scene, there was much speculation as to what happened to Chuck after the fire started. Showrunner Peter Gould said, "I don't want to define anything more than what's on screen". Michael McKean, who played Chuck, told "Vulture": "I got a call on my cell from Peter [Gould] [and] Vince [Gilligan]. I said, 'If this is the death call, I'm going to pull over.' And that's what I did. I pulled into the parking lot of the bookstore and I called them back and they told me what they had planned. They told me they had laughed about what I had said, but they had to deliver it". When asked if his character was dead, McKean said: "I am. I know they want to bring me in for some flashbacks this coming season, but that's kind of beside the point". As revealed in the fourth season's premiere, Howard notifies Jimmy and Kim about the fire, and they arrive at the scene just in time to see Chuck's body being taken away.


title: Better Call Saul (season 3)

text: The third season was released on Blu-ray and DVD in region 1 on January 16, 2018. The set contains all 10 episodes, plus audio commentaries for every episode and several behind-the-scenes featurettes.


title: Better Call Saul (season 3)

text: Outside the U.S. in certain international markets, season 3 was released on Netflix with episodes available the day after the episodes were broadcast on AMC.


title: Better Call Saul (season 3)

text: "Talking Saul" is a live aftershow hosted by Chris Hardwick, which features guests discussing episodes of "Better Call Saul". These episodes discussed the third-season premiere and finale episodes of "Better Call Saul".


title: Better Call Saul (season 3)

text: AMC released a series of ten short videos on YouTube and their social media accounts during season three as "Los Pollos Hermanos Employee Training", combining live-action shots featuring Esposito as Gus along with animated segments, presented as employee training videos for Gus's Los Pollos Hermanos restaurant workers. The series won the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Short Form Comedy or Drama Series in 2017.


title: Better Call Saul (season 3)

text: On June 19, 2017, the night of "Saul"s season finale, fans were able to access the three-minute short film "No Picnic", which feature the Kettlemans, who were not seen since the first season. The short, directed by "Saul" associate producer Jenn Carroll and written by the show's writers' assistant Ariel Levine, shows the Kettleman family organizing a picnic close to family patriarch Craig, who is seen picking up roadside litter with his fellow inmates as part of his prison sentence.


title: Better Call Saul (season 3)

text: Fans were originally able to access "No Picnic" through "Los Pollos Hermanos Employee Training", which directed fans to participate in a bingo trivia game on the show's digital and social platforms. The video was unlockable on June 12, 2017, but could not be viewed until a week later.


title: Bo Burnham: Inside

text: Bo Burnham: Inside is a 2021 special written, directed, filmed, edited, and performed by American comedian Bo Burnham. Created in the guest house of Burnham's Los Angeles home during the COVID-19 pandemic without a crew or audience, it was released on Netflix on May 30, 2021. Featuring a variety of songs and sketches about his day-to-day life indoors, it depicts Burnham's deteriorating mental health, explores themes of performativity and his relationship to the Internet and the audience it helped him reach, and addresses topics such as climate change and social movements. Other segments discuss online activities such as FaceTiming one's mother, posting on Instagram, sexting, and livestreaming video games.


title: Bo Burnham: Inside

text: "Inside" follows Burnham's previous stand-up comedy special "Make Happy" (2016), which led him to quit performing as he began to experience panic attacks onstage during that special's tour. An album of songs from the special, "Inside (The Songs)", was released digitally on June 10, 2021. The special received critical acclaim, with reviewers praising its music, direction, cinematography, and presentation of life during the COVID-19 pandemic. Critics found that the special incorporates a variety of art forms including music, stand-up comedy bits, and meta-commentary, describing it as some combination of comedy, drama, documentary, and theater. For "Inside", Burnham received a Peabody Award, Emmy Awards for Outstanding Directing for a Variety Special, Outstanding Music Direction, and Outstanding Writing for a Variety Special, and the Grammy Award for Best Song Written for Visual Media for "All Eyes on Me".


title: Bo Burnham: Inside

text: On the one-year anniversary of the special's release, Burnham uploaded "The Inside Outtakes", an hour-long YouTube video of outtakes, unused songs, behind-the-scenes footage, and alternate takes from the special. A deluxe album including these outtakes, "Inside (Deluxe)", was released on June 3, 2022.


title: Bo Burnham: Inside

text: Bo Burnham is an American musical comedian who rose to fame by posting videos on YouTube from 2006 onwards. After these songs were adapted into his debut self-titled album (2009), he performed three stand-up tours, the first two of which were released as albums and the last two as recorded performances: "Words Words Words" (2010), "what." (2013), and "Make Happy" (2016). During the tour for "Make Happy", Burnham began to have panic attacks onstage. In the intervening years, he wrote and directed "Eighth Grade" (2018) and starred in "Promising Young Woman" (2020).


title: Bo Burnham: Inside

text: Unable to leave his home, Burnham performs in a single room. He gives periodic updates about the time that has passed while he worked on the special, with his hair and beard growing throughout. After singing "Content" and satirizing white male comedians in "Comedy", he finds the motivation to begin making the special. He performs "FaceTime with My Mom (Tonight)", a song about the frustrations of FaceTiming his mother. He then sings "How the World Works" to teach children about nature, but the sock puppet he introduces begins to sing about various controversial topics, including historical genocide and worker exploitation, before criticizing Burnham for explaining the issues through his perspective.


title: Bo Burnham: Inside

text: In a parody of a product brand consultant, Burnham talks about companies needing to perform moral virtues. He sings "White Woman's Instagram" about Instagram tropes. In a stand-up format, he questions the necessity of every individual voicing their opinions. Burnham records a reaction video to "Unpaid Intern", his brief song about the disposability of unpaid internships, but begins reacting to a multiplying loop of himself recording the reaction video. He then sings "Bezos I", which disingenuously praises Jeff Bezos.


title: Bo Burnham: Inside

text: Burnham sings about sexting in a song of the same name before parodying a typical YouTuber's "thank-you" video while holding a knife. He performs "Look Who's Inside Again" and "Problematic", the latter addressing behavior from his past. He speaks to the viewer a few minutes before his 30th birthday, revealing that he had hoped to finish the special before this date; he then sings "30", in which he laments his aging. The song ends with him stating that he will commit suicide when he is 40, but he then urges viewers not to kill themselves despite confessing that he would do so if only temporary. This anti-suicide talk is projected onto his white T-shirt as he rewatches it several months later.


title: Bo Burnham: Inside

text: After an intermission in which he cleans the camera, Burnham rhetorically asks the audience what they think of the special in "Don't Wanna Know". In a video game streamer parody, he plays a game that consists of himself crying in his room while his streamer self provides commentary. He then sings the ironically upbeat song "Shit" about a depressive episode, then describes being at an "All Time Low" in his mental health. In "Welcome to the Internet", he discusses the origins and changing nature of the internet, encouraging the viewer to engage with diverse types of content, some upbeat and some morbid. After admitting that he does not want to finish the special because then he will have nothing to distract him, he satirizes Bezos again in "Bezos II" and then performs "That Funny Feeling", which describes a series of incongruous images and impending societal collapse. He attempts to talk to the viewer, but gets overwhelmed and strikes some equipment before breaking down in tears.


title: Bo Burnham: Inside

text: In "All Eyes On Me", Burnham sings for a pre-recorded track of an audience; he reveals that he stepped away from live comedy five years prior because he began suffering severe panic attacks on stage, and that his mental health had improved enough by January 2020 for him to return before "the funniest thing happened". The song instructs the audience to get up and alternately hold their hands up and pray for him. Growing angry with the viewer, he picks up the camera and dances with it before dropping it on the ground.


title: Bo Burnham: Inside

text: After going about normal morning activities and watching footage of the preceding scene on his laptop, Burnham says he is "done". A flashback shows him with a shorter hairstyle and beard, and he sings "Goodbye", in which he reflects on his life; the scene cuts back to his longer-haired, bearded self during the song, which incorporates several lyrics from previous songs. A montage shows Burnham setting up the room for each song from the special, before cutting to himself performing naked with a spotlight on him. After the song, he leaves the room in a white outfit, only to be locked out as an unseen audience applauds and then laughs at him for attempting to get back inside. Back in the room, he watches footage of this on his projector as the audience's laughter gets louder, and begins to smile before the screen abruptly cuts to black. The final song "Any Day Now" plays over the end credits, consisting solely of a stripped-down melody and the repeated lyrics "it'll stop any day now".


title: Bo Burnham: Inside

text: "Inside" was filmed in the guest house of the Los Angeles home Burnham shared with his long-time girlfriend, filmmaker Lorene Scafaria, before they moved to a different property a few months after the release of the special; the guest house was also used for filming the end of "Make Happy". A Zillow listing later revealed that the property is the same one that was used to film "A Nightmare on Elm Street" (1984). Burnham said that due to the COVID-19 pandemic, he worked on the show alone without a crew or audience. The outtakes for the special say that footage was captured between March 2020 and May 2021. A Netflix executive—Robbie Praw—said that Burnham contacted him "fairly early in the pandemic" about "Inside", and sent him 20 minutes of footage towards the end of 2020.


title: Bo Burnham: Inside

text: According to a leak supplied to Bloomberg News in October 2021, Netflix paid $3.9million for "Inside", and assigned it an internal "efficiency" value of 2.8, against a baseline score of 1 for content that breaks even; the Netflix spokesperson who provided the statistics for "Inside" and several other programs on the streaming service was later fired for releasing confidential and "commercially sensitive information".


title: Bo Burnham: Inside

text: Burnham announced "Inside" on April 28, 2021, along with a small trailer that showed a clean-cut Burnham during the ending of "Make Happy", which transitioned into a scene from "Inside" that featured his long-haired and bearded look. He also posted on both Twitter and Instagram. On May 21, he announced that "Inside" was to be released on May 30. The special was released without a press kit or a collection of stills. It was shown in select theaters in the United States between July 22 and July 25, 2021, with certain theaters adding showings after the initial weekend had passed.


title: Bo Burnham: Inside

text: As announced on June 8, 2021, music from "Inside" was released as "Inside (The Songs)" on June 10 on music streaming platforms through Republic Records. "Inside (The Songs)" reached the top ten in the United States, Canada, Denmark, Ireland, New Zealand, Norway, and the United Kingdom. It was the best-selling American comedy album of the year and was certified Gold in the United States. Additionally, a number of individual songs from the special charted. "All Eyes On Me" became the first comedy song to enter the "Billboard" Global 200 charts.


title: Bo Burnham: Inside

text: On May 30, 2022, Burnham marked the one-year anniversary of the special by premiering the hour-long "The Inside Outtakes" via YouTube. He announced that he would be posting the video one hour beforehand. The video was edited by Burnham from April to May 2022. The outtakes were also released on Netflix on August 11, 2022.


title: Bo Burnham: Inside

text: "The Inside Outtakes" shows behind-the-scenes takes, alternate versions of each song and scene in "Inside", and insight into the production process. It features 13 new songs, including alternate versions of "All Eyes on Me" and "Look Who's Inside Again", and short songs "Bezos III" and "Bezos IV". "The Future" contrasts Burnham's desires to have a daughter and effectively meditate with his unhappy reality. His Afrobeat-style song "Five Years" celebrates a relationship anniversary. "Biden" is about his reluctance to vote for Joe Biden in the 2020 United States presidential election. Autotune-heavy "This Isn't a Joke" is about Burnham's birth scar. "Chicken" is based on the question "why did the chicken cross the road?" It also includes other unused material, such as a podcast satirizing "The Joe Rogan Experience" and a parody of the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU). The video references YouTube's advertisement system, including a countdown to adverts ("Ad in 5"), "Inside"-styled web banners, and fake video recommendations.


title: Bo Burnham: Inside

text: Some of the outtakes evoke songs or themes included in the final special—for instance, Mitchell Clark of "The Verge" compared "The Future" to "Problematic" due to the songs sharing a similar melody, with both songs sharing themes of depression and being stuck inside. Brian Logan of "The Guardian" reviewed that though some outtakes were only for fans of "Inside", "some of the material sparkles as brightly as the best of the original", including the podcast, "Five Years" and "Chicken". "The Big Issue"s Evie Breese, though less fond of "Chicken", praised the songs in the outtakes for their "mental claustrophobia", which continues to be relevant after the end of lockdowns.


title: Bo Burnham: Inside

text: "The Daily Beast"s Matt Wilstein praised that the podcast scene felt "more relevant in 2022", with its satire of podcasters like Joe Rogan who talk "about censorship while broadcasting to tens of millions of listeners every day", and ironic moments like an advert for "Manstuff's Dick Spray" appearing when the podcaster calls himself a "philosopher". Similarly, "The Mary Sue"s Vivian Kane praised that the scene showed that anti-"woke" or anti-"cancel culture" comedians use "thinly or not-at-all veiled bigotry" while "demanding reverence". Kane wrote that "the best takedown possible is just essentially repeating a bigot's own words and general ethos verbatim".


title: Bo Burnham: Inside

text: Following the special, a line of merchandise themed around the MCU parody sketch was released. The website's homepage and product descriptions are satirical, including such passages as "All you need to do is what we are calling 'BUY' this what we are calling 'WEARABLE CONTENT' with what we are calling 'YOUR MONEY.'"


title: Bo Burnham: Inside

text: Though often described as a comedy special, "Inside" tackles controversial and serious subject matter, with mental health and its deterioration being the most prevalent theme. Brian Logan of "The Guardian" called it a "comedy "Gesamtkunstwerk""—a piece of art combining many forms. Tom Power of "TechRadar" wrote that it was a "comedy-drama" and its alternation between stand-up material, music and "fly-on-the-wall" scenes makes it feel like the combination of "a documentary and stage act". Similarly, in "Vulture", Kathryn VanArendonk said that it "longs to be a concert" in some places and in others approaches "confessional" or "journalistic" styles. In contrast, NPR reviewer Linda Holmes saw it as "not a documentary but an exceptionally well-written piece of theater". Some parts of the special lack humor, while many jokes are met with silence. Both Holmes and "The New Yorker" Rachel Syme analyzed that, of the limited traditional comedy in the special, the punchlines feel out of place: Syme stated that they "feel deliberately hackneyed and out-of-date" and Holmes explained that Burnham felt "it makes no sense without an audience to laugh at it". There is meta-humor and footage of Burnham editing the special and viewing one of his previous videos. Eric Kohn of "IndieWire" identified "weird tonal shifts and abrupt transitions" between different sections of the special, and VanArendonk described Burnham as displaying "performance energy across a wide spectrum of affects and moods".


title: Bo Burnham: Inside

text: Power suggested that the setting of a single room is representative of Burnham's mind, explaining that "scattered instruments, clothes and recording equipment signify the cluttered, messy and overwhelming thoughts he has to deal with on a daily basis". On a related note, Jason Zinoman said in "The New York Times" that the title has a double meaning, referring to Burnham being inside a single room, and "also his head". Karl Quinn of "The Sydney Morning Herald" wrote that "Inside" employs the limited setting "as a canvas for creativity", but the overall feeling is "claustrophobia and cloying ennui", and even "full-blown depression". Power stated that Burnham "struggles with his solitary confinement" and "gradually loses his grip on reality"; VanArendonk pointed out that Burnham's growing beard and hair reflect this trajectory. Writing in "The Independent", Isobel Lewis saw that "the more he opens up, the more heightened the artifice" he employs, and concluded that this is a method of coping with despair.


title: Bo Burnham: Inside

text: Reviewers drew parallels to various other works. A stand-up comedy routine by Maria Bamford, "The Special Special Special" (2012), was filmed in her house with her parents as the audience, similar to Burnham's filming constraints of one room and no audience. "Staged" (2020), a British television comedy set during the COVID-19 pandemic in the UK, stars Michael Sheen and David Tennant as fictionalized versions of themselves attempting to rehearse a stage play solely via video calls during lockdown; "The A.V. Club"s Allison Shoemaker found that both "Inside" and "Staged" presented pandemic life as having a surreal quality. Isobel Lewis of "The Independent" said that "Inside" is "largely about comedy itself" and explores Burnham's "complex relationship with his audience", similar to Hannah Gadsby in her stand-up set "" (2017). "Den of Geek"s Bojalad drew tonal connections to "A Heartbreaking Work of Staggering Genius" (2000), a Dave Eggers memoir that portrays "the confusing, oft exhilarating human experience" through Eggers' experience of having to raise his younger brother after their parents died of cancer. The song "Unpaid Intern" and subsequent reaction video is similar to the sketch "Pre-Taped Call-In Show" from the Bob Odenkirk and David Cross sketch show "Mr. Show with Bob and David" (1995–1998), but Burnham further uses the recursive format as a way to portray his insecurities. "IndieWire"s Eric Kohn said that like Burnham's film "Eighth Grade", the focus is on "the dangerous allure of shutting the world out in an era of on-demand distractions"; Lewis stated that it was like some of Burnham's older material, such as the music video to "Words, Words, Words" (2010), in the "effort put into every rapidly changing shot". Several other publications drew comparisons of Burnham's lyrical content and appearance to those of musician Father John Misty.


title: Bo Burnham: Inside

text: NPR's Linda Holmes said that there are blurred lines between "truth and fiction" in the special. In "The Daily Beast", Kevin Fallon asked, "What is performance and what is voyeuristic when the pain we're watching is almost uncomfortably real?" He also suggested that not being able to distinguish may be intentional. Matthew Dessem of "Slate" saw the main subject as "Burnham's relationship to his own work, and that work's irrelevance in the face of global collapse". On this topic, Kohn described that Burnham's "maniacal, passive-aggressive screen presence suggests he's grown cynical about creating art in a world that reduces it to pure capitalist product". Some reviewers noticed recurring imagery of Burnham as Jesus, with long unkempt hair and a growing beard. Bojalad analyzed the special as "one entertainer beating his own ego to death"; in contrast, "TechRadar"s Tom Power said that though Burnham is "leading us through" the "deeply personal" work, "it's hard not to see yourself in Burnham's place". Holmes stated that it would be familiar to many people who lived through the pandemic that there is a "balance" between "two impulses": one to "stay in bed... alone", and the other to "create, stay busy, and make jokes".


title: Bo Burnham: Inside

text: Performativity and Burnham's relationship to his audience are key to the special. This follows on from "Make Happy" (2016), in which the closing stage song "Can't Handle This (Kanye Rant)" reflected his ambivalent relationship with his audience. After the stage section of "Make Happy" ends, Burnham performs "Are You Happy?" in the same guest house used in "Inside" and then leaves to join his girlfriend Lorene Scafaria and their dog in the garden. Dessem commented that the filming style creates "contrast between the austere demands of creative work and the vibrant life going on outside". Power wrote that "Inside" is a "continuation" and "extension" of these themes from "Make Happy". VanArendonk identified "endless loops of performance and consumption, worrying about performativity and authenticity and productivity". Through the final scene, in which Burnham watches a recording of himself locked outside while still in the room, Zinoman saw "Inside" as "encouraging skepticism of the performativity" of "realism".


title: Bo Burnham: Inside

text: The internet is a major topic in the special, which explicitly depicts media such as Instagram grids and Twitch livestreams. Zinoman believed it was the "dominant subject", as the pandemic increased the importance of "digital life", and that Burnham demonstrated a "harsh skepticism" towards it: according to Zinoman, "the incentives of the web, those that reward outrage, excess and sentiment" are cast as "the villains". Bojalad contextualized Burnham as having a "fraught relationship with technology and social media" since his career began with a series of YouTube videos posted before social media "became something far more corporate and sinister". Rebecca Reid of "The Daily Telegraph" saw Burnham as not "demonising" or "evangelising" about the internet, and instead "capturing the silliness, the horrors, the brilliance and the total futility".


title: Bo Burnham: Inside

text: Bojalad and Reid analyzed a verse in "White Woman's Instagram" about the character's emotions over the past death of her mother. The majority of the song is "a satirical tune about all the shallow and clout-chasing images that pop up on basic white women's Instagram accounts", according to Bojalad. It uses a narrow frame to mimic a cell phone screen—as did the earlier song "FaceTime With My Mom (Tonight)"—but as the character talks about her mother's death, the frame expands to full size. Reid saw this as a reflection of a young person's life on social media: "Vapid, inane rubbish... interspersed with occasional moments of boundary-breaking honesty and observation." Bojalad commented that Instagram can be performative, and as with Burnham's own performativity, "sometimes real sneaks itself through".


title: Bo Burnham: Inside

text: Gabrielle Sanchez of "The A.V. Club" reviewed "Problematic". She compared "Inside" with Burnham's earliest YouTube videos and found many similarities in performance style; however, he made "blatantly unfunny, homophobic, and misogynistic jokes" in his early career. Sanchez said that "Problematic" serves a dual purpose of apologizing for this content and satirizing "the current cycle of celebrity call-outs and apologies". Burnham initially uses his young age as an excuse, but then apologizes for doing so in the next verse: Sanchez argued that the message is that "the first step to being a better person is acknowledging mistakes".


title: Bo Burnham: Inside

text: On Metacritic, the special has a weighted average score of 98 out of 100 based on nine critics, indicating "universal acclaim". It is ranked the eighth-highest television show on Metacritic, and the second-highest television special. Out of five stars, it received five stars from "The Guardian", "The Times", and "The Sydney Morning Herald". "IndieWire" gave it an A− rating. Adrian Horton of "The Guardian" named "All Eyes On Me" one of his favorite songs of 2021.


title: Bo Burnham: Inside

text: Critics lauded the special's presentation of the COVID-19 pandemic, which is never mentioned by name. Dominic Maxwell of "The Times" called it "the first comic masterpiece" from the era and Bojalad thought that it could be "a definitive bit of Western popular art to come out" from it. "Slate"s Matthew Dessem wrote that it was "one of the most sincere artistic responses to the 21st century so far" and Quinn considered that it could be "the essential document" of the period. Kevin Fallon of "The Daily Beast" had not enjoyed other media made or set during the pandemic, but found "Inside" "the perfect punctuation on the grand quarantine TV experiment". Similarly, "The A.V. Club"s Allison Shoemaker described it as one of a small number of works that are an "effective and accurately surreal encapsulation" of pandemic life, and Power reviewed it as "culturally relevant and thematically resonant". Lewis identified its surrealism as what made it fit the cultural consciousness of the pandemic, saying that it left the viewer with a feeling of claustrophobia. Fallon said that other shows about the pandemic were "indulgent, patronizing, or mostly meaningless", but "Inside" has "an authenticity to its very intimate, very personal approach". "Den of Geek"s Alec Bojalad further argued that the film has a "timeless quality". Rachel Syme of "The New Yorker" viewed it as portraying specifically the "unmoored, wired, euphoric, listless" experience of being online during the pandemic with "a frenzied and dextrous clarity". Due to Burnham's practical constraints, "The New York Times"s Jason Zinoman believed it evidences that limitations are the best form of inspiration.


title: Bo Burnham: Inside

text: Burnham was critically acclaimed for his filmmaking and acting. Power saw "Inside" "unique in its approach, content and subjectivity". "Vulture"s Kathryn VanArendonk lauded Burnham's directing, writing and performing and Bojalad described it as the best work of Burnham's career to date. Fallon said that Burnham's "chameleonic abilities" make the special work, while Shoemaker reviewed the filmmaking as "inherently and marvelously theatrical" and the performance as vulnerable. Lewis found Burnham's comedy and emotions were relatable. Zinoman commented that Burnham anticipated potential criticisms of the show as "indulgently overheated" with dialogue such as "Self-awareness does not absolve anyone of anything".


title: Bo Burnham: Inside

text: According to Zinoman, Burnham utilized facets of cinematography that are overlooked by other comedians. Power summarized that the angle and scope of shots, the editing and scene transitions, and the lighting effects combine to evoke "a fever dream". Kohn viewed the special as making "pitch-perfect gallows humor" from its musicality and visuals. Both Kohn and Shoemaker compared "Inside" favorably to "Eighth Grade", with Kohn saying that it was "a happy medium between the silly-strange nature of his stage presence and the advanced storytelling instincts evident from "Eighth Grade"", and Shoemaker opining that it combined "the remarkable filmmaking skill" of the movie with "his usual sharply comedic pop tunes".


title: Bo Burnham: Inside

text: Zinoman praised Burnham for showcasing a wider variety of musical styles than his previous specials, including bebop, synth-pop and show tunes, as well as becoming "as meticulous and creative with his visual vocabulary as his language". Power wrote that the songs move quickly from emotion to emotion, and will have the viewer "laughing one minute and experiencing an existential crisis the next". Many critics singled out songs for praise. Bojalad found a verse in "White Woman's Instagram" about the character's mother dying to be the "most remarkable moment of human kindness and empathy" of "Inside", experiencing it as an unexpected scene that had stayed with him since his viewing. Zinoman praised the same song as "visually precise and hilarious". Additionally, Kohn praised "How the World Works" as particularly strong, and Holmes praised "Welcome to the Internet" as "one of the best executions of" the "wildness" of being online.


title: Bo Burnham: Inside

text: Burnham became the first person to win three Emmys individually (not shared with another person) in a single year: directing, writing, and music direction.


title: Bo Burnham: Inside

text: After being deemed ineligible for the Best Comedy Album category, "Inside" was submitted at the Grammy Awards for the Best Compilation Soundtrack for Visual Media award.


title: Casino

text: A casino is a facility for certain types of gambling. Casinos are often built near or combined with hotels, resorts, restaurants, retail shopping, cruise ships, and other tourist attractions. Some casinos are also known for hosting live entertainment, such as stand-up comedy, concerts, and sports.


title: Casino

text: "Casino" is of Italian origin; the root means a house. The term "casino" may mean a small country villa, summerhouse, or social club. During the 19th century, "casino" came to include other public buildings where pleasurable activities took place; such edifices were usually built on the grounds of a larger Italian villa or palazzo, and were used to host civic town functions, including dancing, gambling, music listening, and sports. Examples in Italy include Villa Farnese and Villa Giulia, and in the US the Newport Casino in Newport, Rhode Island. In modern-day Italian, a is a brothel (also called , literally "closed house"), a mess (confusing situation), or a noisy environment; a gaming house is spelt , with an accent.


title: Casino

text: Not all casinos are used for gaming. The Catalina Casino, on Santa Catalina Island, California, has never been used for traditional games of chance, which were already outlawed in California by the time it was built. The Copenhagen Casino was a Danish theatre which also held public meetings during the 1848 Revolution, which made Denmark a constitutional monarchy.


title: Casino

text: The precise origin of gambling is unknown. It is generally believed that gambling in some form or another has been seen in almost every society in history. From Ancient Mesopotamia, Greeks and Romans to Napoleon's France and Elizabethan England, much of history is filled with stories of entertainment based on games of chance.


title: Casino

text: The first known European gambling house, not called a casino although meeting the modern definition, was the Ridotto, established in Venice, Italy, in 1638 by the Great Council of Venice to provide controlled gambling during the carnival season. It was closed in 1774 as the city government felt it was impoverishing the local gentry.


title: Casino

text: In American history, early gambling establishments were known as saloons. The creation and importance of saloons was greatly influenced by four major cities: New Orleans, St. Louis, Chicago and San Francisco. It was in the saloons that travelers could find people to talk to, drink with, and often gamble with. During the early 20th century in the US, gambling was outlawed by state legislation. However, in 1931, gambling was legalized throughout the state of Nevada, where the US's first legalized casinos were set up. In 1976 New Jersey allowed gambling in Atlantic City, now the US's second largest gambling city.


title: Casino

text: Customers gamble by playing games of chance, in some cases with an element of skill, such as craps, roulette, baccarat, blackjack, and video poker. Most games have mathematically determined odds that ensure the house has at all times an advantage over the players. This can be expressed more precisely by the notion of expected value, which is uniformly negative (from the player's perspective). This advantage is called the "house edge". In games such as poker where players play against each other, the house takes a commission called the rake. Casinos sometimes give out complimentary items or comps to gamblers.


title: Casino

text: Casinos in the United States say that a player staking money won from the casino is "playing with the house's money".


title: Casino

text: Video Lottery Machines (slot machines) have become one of the most popular forms of gambling in casinos. investigative reports have started calling into question whether the modern-day slot-machine is addictive.


title: Casino

text: Casino design—regarded as a psychological exercise—is an intricate process that involves optimising floor plan, décor and atmospherics to encourage gambling.


title: Casino

text: Factors influencing gambling tendencies include sound, odour and lighting. Natasha Dow Schüll, an anthropologist at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, highlights the decision of the audio directors at Silicon Gaming to make its slot machines resonate in "the universally pleasant tone of C, sampling existing casino soundscapes to create a sound that would please but not clash".


title: Casino

text: Alan Hirsch, founder of the Smell & Taste Treatment and Research Foundation in Chicago, studied the impact of certain scents on gamblers, discerning that a pleasant albeit unidentifiable odor released by Las Vegas slot machines generated about 50% more in daily revenue. He suggested that the scent acted as an aphrodisiac, causing a more aggressive form of gambling.


title: Casino

text: The following lists major casino markets in the world with casino revenue of over US$1 billion as published in PricewaterhouseCoopers's report on


title: Casino

text: According to Bloomberg, accumulated revenue of the biggest casino operator companies worldwide amounted to almost US$55 billion in 2011. SJM Holdings Ltd. was the leading company in this field, earning $9.7 bn in 2011, followed by Las Vegas Sands Corp. at $7.4 bn. The third-biggest casino operator company (based on revenue) was Caesars Entertainment, with revenue of US$6.2 bn.


title: Casino

text: While there are casinos in many places, a few places have become well known specifically for gambling. Perhaps the place almost defined by its casino is Monte Carlo, but other places are known as gambling centers.


title: Casino

text: Monte Carlo Casino has been depicted in many books, including Ben Mezrich's "Busting Vegas", where a group of Massachusetts Institute of Technology students beat the casino out of nearly $1 million. This book is based on real people and events; however, many of those events are contested by main character Semyon Dukach. Monte Carlo Casino has also been featured in multiple James Bond novels and films.


title: Casino

text: The casino is mentioned in the song "The Man Who Broke the Bank at Monte Carlo" as well as the film of the same name.


title: Casino

text: Casinò di Campione is located in the tiny Italian enclave of Campione d'Italia, within Ticino, Switzerland. The casino was founded in 1917 as a site to gather information from foreign diplomats during the First World War. Today it is owned by the Italian government, and operated by the municipality. With gambling laws being less strict than in Italy and Switzerland, it is among the most popular gambling destination besides Monte Carlo. The income from the casino is sufficient for the operation of Campione without the imposition of taxes, or obtaining of other revenue. In 2007, the casino moved into new premises of more than , making it the largest casino in Europe. The new casino was built alongside the old one, which dated from 1933 and has since been demolished.


title: Casino

text: the archipelago of Malta is a particularly famous place for casinos in particular the historic casino at the princely residence of Dragonara


title: Casino

text: The former Portuguese colony of Macau, a special administrative region of the People's Republic of China since 1999, is a popular destination for visitors who wish to gamble. This started in Portuguese times, when Macau was popular with visitors from nearby Hong Kong, where gambling was more closely regulated. The Venetian Macao is currently the largest casino in the world. Macau also surpassed Las Vegas as the largest gambling market in the world.


title: Casino

text: Machine-based gaming is only permitted in land-based casinos, restaurants, bars and gaming halls, and only subject to a licence. Online slots are, at the moment, only permitted if they are operated under a Schleswig-Holstein licence. AWPs are governed by federal law – the Trade Regulation Act and the Gaming Ordinance.


title: Casino

text: The Casino Estoril, located in the municipality of Cascais, on the Portuguese Riviera, near Lisbon, is the largest casino in Europe by capacity.


title: Casino

text: During the Second World War, it was reputed to be a gathering point for spies, dispossessed royals, and wartime adventurers; it became an inspiration for Ian Fleming's James Bond 007 novel "Casino Royale".


title: Casino

text: Singapore is an up-and-coming destination for visitors wanting to gamble, although there are currently only two casinos (both foreign owned), in Singapore. The Marina Bay Sands is the most expensive standalone casino in the world, at a price of US$8 billion, and is among the world's ten most expensive buildings. The Resorts World Sentosa has the world's largest oceanarium.


title: Casino

text: There are 4 legal gaming zones in Russia: "Siberian Coin" (Altay), "Yantarnaya" (Kaliningrad region), "Azov-city" (Rostov region) and "Primorie" (Primorie region).


title: Casino

text: With currently over 1,000 casinos, the United States has the largest number of casinos in the world. The number continues to grow steadily as more states seek to legalize casinos. 40 states now have some form of casino gambling. Interstate competition, such as gaining tourism, has been a driving factor to continuous legalization. Relatively small places such as Las Vegas are best known for gambling; larger cities such as Chicago are not defined by their casinos in spite of the large turnover.


title: Casino

text: The Las Vegas Valley has the largest concentration of casinos in the United States. Based on revenue, Atlantic City, New Jersey ranks second, and the Chicago region third.


title: Casino

text: The Nevada Gaming Control Board divides Clark County, which is coextensive with the Las Vegas metropolitan area, into seven market regions for reporting purposes.


title: Casino

text: Native American gaming has been responsible for a rise in the number of casinos outside of Las Vegas and Atlantic City.


title: Casino

text: Given the large amounts of currency handled within a casino, both patrons and staff may be tempted to cheat and steal, in collusion or independently; most casinos have security measures to prevent this. Security cameras located throughout the casino are the most basic measure.


title: Casino

text: Modern casino security is usually divided between a physical security force and a specialized surveillance department. The physical security force usually patrols the casino and responds to calls for assistance and reports of suspicious or definite criminal activity. A specialized surveillance department operates the casino's closed circuit television system, known in the industry as the eye in the sky. Both of these specialized casino security departments work very closely with each other to ensure the safety of both guests and the casino's assets, and have been quite successful in preventing crime. Some casinos also have catwalks in the ceiling above the casino floor, which allow surveillance personnel to look directly down, through one way glass, on the activities at the tables and slot machines.


title: Casino

text: In addition to cameras and other technological measures, casinos also enforce security through rules of conduct and behavior; for example, players at card games are required to keep the cards they are holding in their hands visible at all times.


title: Casino

text: Over the past few decades, casinos have developed many different marketing techniques for attracting and maintaining loyal patrons. Many casinos use a loyalty rewards program used to track players' spending habits and target their patrons more effectively, by sending mailings with free slot play and other promotions. Casino Helsinki in Helsinki, Finland, for example, donates all of its profits to charity.


title: Casino

text: Casinos have been linked to organised crime, with early casinos in Las Vegas originally dominated by the American Mafia and in Macau by Triad syndicates.


title: Casino

text: According to some police reports, local incidence of reported crime often doubles or triples within three years of a casino's opening. In a 2004 report by the US Department of Justice, researchers interviewed people who had been arrested in Las Vegas and Des Moines and found that the percentage of problem or pathological gamblers among the arrestees was three to five times higher than in the general population.


title: Casino

text: It has been said that economic studies showing a positive relationship between casinos and crime usually fail to consider the visiting population: they count crimes committed by visitors but do not count visitors in the population measure, which overstates the crime rate. Part of the reason this methodology is used, despite the overstatement, is that reliable data on tourist count are often not available.


title: Casino

text: There are unique occupational health issues in the casino industry. The most common are from cancers resulting from exposure to second-hand tobacco smoke and musculoskeletal injury (MSI) from repetitive motion injuries while running table games over many hours.


title: Hollow Earth

text: The Hollow Earth is a concept proposing that the planet Earth is entirely hollow or contains a substantial interior space. Notably suggested by Edmond Halley in the late 17th century, the notion was disproven, first tentatively by Pierre Bouguer in 1740, then definitively by Charles Hutton in his Schiehallion experiment around 1774.


title: Hollow Earth

text: It was still occasionally defended through the mid-19th century, notably by John Cleves Symmes Jr. and Jeremiah N. Reynolds, but by this time it was part of popular pseudoscience and no longer a scientifically viable hypothesis.


title: Hollow Earth

text: The concept of a hollow Earth still recurs in folklore and as a premise for subterranean fiction, a subgenre of adventure fiction.


title: Hollow Earth

text: In ancient times, the concept of a subterranean land inside the Earth appeared in mythology, folklore and legends. The idea of subterranean realms seemed arguable, and became intertwined with the concept of "places" of origin or afterlife, such as the Greek underworld, the Nordic Svartálfaheimr, the Christian Hell, and the Jewish Sheol (with details describing inner Earth in Kabalistic literature, such as the Zohar and Hesed L'Avraham). The idea of a subterranean realm is also mentioned in Tibetan Buddhist belief. According to one story from Tibetan Buddhist tradition, there is an ancient city called Shamballa which is located inside the Earth.


title: Hollow Earth

text: According to the Ancient Greeks, there were caverns under the surface which were entrances leading to the underworld, some of which were the caverns at Tainaron in Lakonia, at Troezen in Argolis, at Ephya in Thesprotia, at Herakleia in Pontos, and in Ermioni. In Thracian and Dacian legends, it is said that there are caverns occupied by an ancient god called Zalmoxis. In Mesopotamian religion there is a story of a man who, after traveling through the darkness of a tunnel in the mountain of "Mashu", entered a subterranean garden.


title: Hollow Earth

text: In Celtic mythology there is a legend of a cave called "Cruachan", also known as "Ireland's gate to Hell", a mythical and ancient cave from which according to legend strange creatures would emerge and be seen on the surface of the Earth. There are also stories of medieval knights and saints who went on pilgrimages to a cave located in Station Island, County Donegal in Ireland, where they made journeys inside the Earth into a place of purgatory. In County Down, Northern Ireland there is a myth which says tunnels lead to the land of the subterranean Tuatha Dé Danann, a group of people who are believed to have introduced Druidism to Ireland, and then went back underground.


title: Hollow Earth

text: In Hindu mythology, the underworld is referred to as Patala. In the Bengali version of the Hindu epic Ramayana, it has been depicted how Rama and Lakshmana were taken by the king of the underworld Ahiravan, brother of the demon king Ravana. Later on they were rescued by Hanuman. The Angami Naga tribes of India claim that their ancestors emerged in ancient times from a subterranean land inside the Earth. The Taino from Cuba believe their ancestors emerged in ancient times from two caves in a mountain underground.


title: Hollow Earth

text: Natives of the Trobriand Islands believe that their ancestors had come from a subterranean land through a cavern hole called "Obukula". Mexican folklore also tells of a cave in a mountain five miles south of Ojinaga, and that Mexico is possessed by devilish creatures who came from inside the Earth.


title: Hollow Earth

text: In the middle ages, an ancient German myth held that some mountains located between Eisenach and Gotha hold a portal to the inner Earth. A Russian legend says the Samoyeds, an ancient Siberian tribe, traveled to a cavern city to live inside the Earth. The Italian writer Dante describes a hollow earth in his well-known 14th-century work "Inferno", in which the fall of Lucifer from heaven caused an enormous funnel to appear in a previously solid and spherical earth, as well as an enormous mountain opposite it, "Purgatory".


title: Hollow Earth

text: In Native American mythology, it is said that the ancestors of the Mandan people in ancient times emerged from a subterranean land through a cave at the north side of the Missouri River. There is also a tale about a tunnel in the San Carlos Apache Indian Reservation in Arizona near which is said to lead inside the Earth to a land inhabited by a mysterious tribe. It is also the belief of the tribes of the Iroquois that their ancient ancestors emerged from a subterranean world inside the Earth. The elders of the Hopi people believe that a Sipapu entrance in the Grand Canyon exists which leads to the underworld.


title: Hollow Earth

text: Brazilian Indians, who live alongside the Parima River in Brazil, claim that their forefathers emerged in ancient times from an underground land, and that many of their ancestors still remained inside the Earth. Ancestors of the Inca supposedly came from caves which are located east of Cuzco, Peru.


title: Hollow Earth

text: The following lines from Act 3, Scene 2 of Shakespeare's play "A Midsummer Night's Dream", written in London in 1595/6, suggest that the idea may have been known in Western Europe 100 years before it took on a more scientific form:


title: Hollow Earth

text: The notion was further popularized by Athanasius Kircher's non-fiction "Mundus Subterraneus" (1665), which speculated that there is an "intricate system of cavities and a channel of water connecting the poles".


title: Hollow Earth

text: Edmond Halley in 1692 conjectured that the Earth might consist of a hollow shell about thick, two inner concentric shells and an innermost core. Atmospheres separate these shells, and each shell has its own magnetic poles. The spheres rotate at different speeds. Halley proposed this scheme in order to explain anomalous compass readings. He envisaged the atmosphere inside as luminous (and possibly inhabited) and speculated that escaping gas caused the Aurora Borealis.


title: Hollow Earth

text: Le Clerc Milfort in 1781 led a journey with hundreds of Muscogee Peoples to a series of caverns near the Red River above the junction of the Mississippi River. According to Milfort the original Muscogee Peoples' ancestors are believed to have emerged out to the surface of the Earth in ancient times from the caverns. Milfort also claimed the caverns they saw "could easily contain 15,000 – 20,000 families."


title: Hollow Earth

text: It is often claimed that mathematician Leonhard Euler proposed a single-shell hollow Earth with a small sun (1,000 kilometres across) at the center, providing light and warmth for an inner-Earth civilization, but that is not true. Instead, he did a thought experiment of an object dropped into a hole drilled through the center, unrelated to a hollow Earth.


title: Hollow Earth

text: In 1818, John Cleves Symmes, Jr. suggested that the Earth consisted of a hollow shell about thick, with openings about across at both poles with 4 inner shells each open at the poles. Symmes became the most famous of the early Hollow Earth proponents, and Hamilton, Ohio even has a monument to him and his ideas. He proposed making an expedition to the North Pole hole, thanks to efforts of one of his followers, James McBride.


title: Hollow Earth

text: Jeremiah Reynolds also delivered lectures on the "Hollow Earth" and argued for an expedition. Reynolds went on an expedition to Antarctica himself but missed joining the Great U.S. Exploring Expedition of 1838–1842, even though that venture was a result of his agitation.


title: Hollow Earth

text: Though Symmes himself never wrote a book on the subject, several authors published works discussing his ideas. McBride wrote "Symmes' Theory of Concentric Spheres" in 1826. It appears that Reynolds has an article that appeared as a separate booklet in 1827: "Remarks of Symmes' Theory Which Appeared in the American Quarterly Review." In 1868, a professor W.F. Lyons published "The Hollow Globe" which put forth a Symmes-like Hollow Earth hypothesis, but failed to mention Symmes himself. Symmes's son Americus then published "The Symmes' Theory of Concentric Spheres" in 1878 to set the record straight.


title: Hollow Earth

text: In 1864, in "Journey to the Center of the Earth" Jules Verne describes an expedition into the Earth's interior via the fictional Icelandic volcano Scartaris. The protagonists do not actually reach the centre, but nevertheless discover a subterranean ocean inhabited by creatures believed extinct. They escape through another volcano on the Italian island of Stromboli.