title: Pea

text: Favism, or Fava-bean-ism, is a genetic deficiency of the enzyme glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase that affects Jews, other Middle Eastern Semitic peoples and other descendants of the Mediterranean coastal regions. In this condition, the toxic reaction to eating most, if not all, beans is hemolytic anemia, and in severe cases the released circulating free hemoglobin causes acute kidney injury.


title: Pea

text: Peas, like many legumes, contain symbiotic bacteria called "Rhizobia" within root nodules of their root systems. These bacteria have the special ability to fix nitrogen from atmospheric, molecular nitrogen () into ammonia (). The chemical reaction is:


title: Pea

text: Ammonia is then converted to another form, ammonium (), usable by (some) plants by the following reaction:


title: Pea

text: The root nodules of peas and other legumes are sources of nitrogen that they can use to make amino acids, constituents of proteins. Hence, legumes are good sources of plant protein.


title: Pea

text: When a pea plant dies in the field, for example following the harvest, all of its remaining nitrogen, incorporated into amino acids inside the remaining plant parts, is released back into the soil. In the soil, the amino acids are converted to nitrate (), that is available to other plants, thereby serving as fertilizer for future crops.


title: Pea

text: The term "pea" originates from the Latin word "pisum", which is the latinisation of the Greek πίσον ("pison"), neuter of πίσος ("pisos") "pea". It was adopted into English as the noun "pease" (plural "peasen"), as in pease pudding. However, by analogy with other plurals ending in "-s", speakers began construing "pease" as a plural and constructing the singular form by dropping the "-s", giving the term "pea". This process is known as back-formation.


title: Big Trouble in Little China

text: Big Trouble in Little China (also in known as John Carpenter's Big Trouble in Little China) is a 1986 American fantasy martial arts action comedy film directed by John Carpenter and starring Kurt Russell, Kim Cattrall, Dennis Dun and James Hong. The film tells the story of truck driver Jack Burton (Russell), who helps his friend Wang Chi (Dun) rescue Wang's green-eyed fiancée from bandits in San Francisco's Chinatown. They go into the mysterious underworld beneath Chinatown, where they face an ancient sorcerer named David Lo Pan (Hong), who requires a woman with green eyes to marry him in order to be released from a centuries-old curse.


title: Big Trouble in Little China

text: Although the original screenplay by first-time screenwriters Gary Goldman and David Z. Weinstein was envisioned as a Western set in the 1880s, screenwriter W. D. Richter was hired to rewrite the script extensively and modernize it. The studio hired Carpenter to direct the film and rushed "Big Trouble in Little China" into production so that it would be released before a similarly themed Eddie Murphy film, "The Golden Child", which was slated to come out around the same time. The project fulfilled Carpenter's long-standing desire to make a martial arts film.


title: Big Trouble in Little China

text: The film was a commercial failure, grossing $11.1 million in North America, below its estimated $19 to $25 million budget. It received generally positive reviews, but left Carpenter disillusioned with Hollywood and influenced his decision to return to independent filmmaking. It gained a steady audience on home video and has become a cult classic.


title: Big Trouble in Little China

text: Truck driver Jack Burton wins a bet with his friend Wang Chi. To make sure he follows through on payment, Jack accompanies him to the airport to pick up Wang's Chinese fiancée Miao Yin, where a Chinese-American street gang, the Lords of Death, tries to kidnap another Chinese girl. She is being met by her friend Gracie Law. After Jack intervenes, they take Miao Yin instead.


title: Big Trouble in Little China

text: Jack and Wang track the Lords of Death to Chinatown, where they find a funeral procession that erupts into a battle between the Chang Sing and Wing Kong, two ancient Chinese warrior societies. When "The Three Storms" – Thunder, Rain, and Lightning, warriors with weather-themed powers – appear, slaughtering the Chang Sing, Jack attempts to gun his big-rig through the crowd, but runs over David Lo Pan, a man directing the Three Storms. Horrified, Jack exits his truck, but finds Lo Pan unhurt and glowing with magic. Wang hurriedly guides Jack through the alleys; the two escape, but Jack's truck is stolen.


title: Big Trouble in Little China

text: Wang takes Jack to his restaurant, where they meet with Gracie, her journalist friend Margo, Wang's friend Eddie Lee, and magician Egg Shen, a local authority on mysticism and Lo Pan. They explain to Jack (who only wants his truck back) the ancient knowledge and sorcery the Chinese brought with them to America. The group devises a plan to infiltrate a brothel, where they believe Miao Yin is held. They break in, but are interrupted by the Storms who kidnap Miao Yin, and take her to Lo Pan. Jack and Wang track down the front business used by Lo Pan and impersonate telephone repairmen to gain access, but are quickly subdued by Rain. After being tied up and beaten by Thunder, the two meet Lo Pan – however, he now appears as a crippled old man.


title: Big Trouble in Little China

text: Wang tells Jack that Lo Pan needs a green-eyed girl to break an ancient curse, and he intends to sacrifice Miao Yin. Centuries ago, Lo Pan was defeated in battle by Emperor Qin Shi Huang. He cursed Lo Pan with incorporeality; although Lo Pan can be temporarily granted a decrepit body by supplication to the gods, he can permanently break the curse by marrying a woman with green eyes and sacrificing her. Jack and Wang's friends attempt to save them, and are also captured. After getting the drop on Thunder, Jack, Wang, and Eddie escape and free women kept in cells. An orangutan-like Wild-Man recaptures Gracie before she escapes. Lo Pan notes that Gracie has green eyes, too, and decides to sacrifice her while making Miao Yin his wife.


title: Big Trouble in Little China

text: Wang and Jack regroup with the Chang Sing and Egg Shen, and enter a cavern to return to Lo Pan's headquarters. Egg pours the group a potent potion. They interrupt the wedding, and start a battle. Wang kills Rain in a sword duel, while Jack and Gracie chase Lo Pan, who has regained his corporeal form by consuming a few drops of Miao Yin's blood. Wang joins them; Lo Pan attempts to kill Jack with a throwing knife, but Jack catches it and kills him with a throw to his head. Thunder – who had been distracted with Wang – reappears, and, enraged at finding Lo Pan dead, swells up and explodes. Jack, Wang, Gracie, and Miao Yin are cornered by Lightning in a corridor, who triggers a collapse. Egg rescues them with a rope and kills Lightning by dropping a Buddha statue on him when he tries to follow. After finding Jack's truck and dealing with the remaining Wing Kong guards, the group escapes back to Wang's restaurant.


title: Big Trouble in Little China

text: The group celebrates in the restaurant; Wang and Miao Yin prepare to marry, while Eddie pairs with Margo. Egg sets off to China. Gracie offers to join Jack but he leaves alone. Unbeknownst to him, the Wild-Man survived the battle and has stowed away on his truck.


title: Big Trouble in Little China

text: Al Leong, Gerald Okamura and Nathan Jung appear as Wing Kong hatchet men. Lia Chang and Cary-Hiroyuki Tagawa have minor roles as Wing Kong members. Frank Ho and James Lew (the film's martial arts choreographer) appear as Chang Sing warriors. Noble Craig appears as "Sewer Monster".


title: Big Trouble in Little China

text: The first version of the screenplay was written by first-time screenwriters Gary Goldman and David Z. Weinstein. Goldman had been inspired by a new wave of martial arts films that had "all sorts of weird actions and special effects, shot against this background of Oriental mysticism and modern sensibilities". They had written a Western originally set in the 1880s with Jack Burton as a cowboy who rides into town. Goldman and Weinstein envisioned what amounts to a Weird Western, in this case, combining Chinese fantasy elements within an Old West setting. They submitted the script to TAFT Entertainment Pictures executive producers Paul Monash and Keith Barish during the summer of 1982. Monash bought their script and had them do at least one rewrite but still did not like the results. He remembers, "The problems came largely from the fact it was set in turn-of-the-century San Francisco, which affected everything—style, dialogue, action". Goldman rejected a request by 20th Century Fox for a rewrite that asked for major alterations. He was angered when the studio wanted to update it to a contemporary setting. The studio then removed the writers from the project. However, they still wanted credit for their contributions.


title: Big Trouble in Little China

text: The studio brought in screenwriter W. D. Richter, a veteran script doctor (and director of "The Adventures of Buckaroo Banzai") to extensively rewrite the script, as he felt that the Wild West and fantasy elements did not work together. The screenwriter modernized everything. Almost everything in the original script was discarded except for Lo Pan's story. Richter realized that "what it needed wasn't a rewrite but a complete overhaul. It was a dreadful screenplay. This happens often when scripts are bought and there's no intention that the original writers will stay on". Richter used "Rosemary's Baby" as his template, presenting "the foreground story in a familiar context – rather than San Francisco at the turn-of-the-century, which distances the audience immediately – and just have one simple remove, the world underground, you have a much better chance of making direct contact with the audience". He wrote his own draft in 10 weeks. Goldman contacted Richter and suggested that he should not work on the project. Richter told him, "I'm sorry the studio doesn't want to go forward with you guys, but my turning it down is not going to get you the job. They'll just hire someone else".


title: Big Trouble in Little China

text: Fox wanted to deny Goldman and Weinstein writing credit, and eliminated their names from press releases. They wanted only Richter to have credit. In March 1986, the Writers Guild of America, West determined that "written by" credit would go to Goldman and Weinstein, based on the WGA screenwriting credit system which protects original writers. However, Richter did get an "adaptation by" credit for his work on the script. Director John Carpenter was disappointed that Richter did not get a proper screenwriting credit because of the ruling. Carpenter made his own additions to Richter's rewrites, which included strengthening the Gracie Law role and linking her to Chinatown, removing a few action sequences due to budgetary restrictions and eliminating material deemed offensive to Chinese Americans. The characters in the film reminded Carpenter "of the characters in "Bringing Up Baby" or "His Girl Friday". These are very 1930s, Howard Hawks people." The rapid-fire delivery of dialogue, especially between Jack Burton and Gracie Law, is an example of what the director is referring to.


title: Big Trouble in Little China

text: Hong Kong wuxia films, particularly Tsui Hark's "Zu Warriors from the Magic Mountain" (1983), also served as an influence.


title: Big Trouble in Little China

text: Barish and Monash first offered the project to Carpenter in July 1985. He had read the Goldman/Weinstein script and deemed it "outrageously unreadable though it had many interesting elements". To compete with rival production "The Golden Child"’s casting of box office draw Eddie Murphy, Carpenter wanted a big star of his own and both Clint Eastwood and Jack Nicholson were considered but were busy.


title: Big Trouble in Little China

text: The studio felt Kurt Russell was an up-and-coming star. Russell was initially not interested because he felt there were "a number of different ways to approach Jack, but I didn't know if there was a way that would be interesting enough for this movie". After talking to Carpenter and reading the script a few more times, he gained insight into the character and liked the notion of playing "a hero who has so many faults. Jack is and isn't the hero. He falls on his ass as much as he comes through. This guy is a real blowhard. He's a lot of hot air, very self-assured, a screw-up". Furthermore, the actor felt that "at heart he thinks he's Indiana Jones but the circumstances are always too much for him". Russell felt that the film would be a hard one to market. "This is a difficult picture to sell because it's hard to explain. It's a mixture of the real history of Chinatown in San Francisco blended with Chinese legend and lore. It's bizarre stuff. There are only a handful of non-Asian actors in the cast".


title: Big Trouble in Little China

text: John Carpenter had seen Dennis Dun in "Year of the Dragon" and liked his work in that film. He met the actor twice before casting him in the role of Wang Chi only a few days before principal photography. The martial arts sequences were not hard for Dun who had "dabbled" in training as a kid and done Chinese opera as an adult. He was drawn to the portrayal of Asian characters in the movie as he said, "I’m seeing Chinese actors getting to do stuff that American movies usually don’t let them do. I’ve never seen this type of role for an Asian in an American film". Jackie Chan was at one point considered for the role of Wang Chi but decided after the box office disasters of "The Big Brawl" and "The Protector" he should put more time and effort into his career in Hong Kong's film industry with "Police Story" instead.


title: Big Trouble in Little China

text: The studio pressured Carpenter to cast a rock star in the role of Gracie Law, Jack Burton's love interest, but Carpenter wanted Kim Cattrall. The studio was not keen on the idea because at the time Cattrall was primarily known for raunchy comedies like "Porky's" and "Police Academy". She was drawn to the film because of the way her character was portrayed. "I'm not screaming for help the whole time. I think the humor comes out of the situations and my relationship with Jack Burton. I’m the brains and he's the brawn".


title: Big Trouble in Little China

text: Kurt Russell lifted weights and began running two months before production began to prepare for the physical demands of principal photography. In addition, Carpenter and his cast and crew did a week's rehearsals that mainly involved choreographing the martial arts scenes. 20th Century Fox was afraid that the production would create major overruns and hired Carpenter to direct because he could work fast. He was given only 10 weeks of pre-production.


title: Big Trouble in Little China

text: Problems began to arise when Carpenter learned that the next Eddie Murphy vehicle, "The Golden Child", featured a similar theme and was going to be released around the same time as "Big Trouble in Little China" (As it happened, Carpenter was asked by Paramount Pictures to direct "The Golden Child"). He remarked in an interview, "How many adventure pictures dealing with Chinese mysticism have been released by the major studios in the past 20 years? For two of them to come along at the exact same time is more than mere coincidence," To beat the rival production at being released in theaters, "Big Trouble" went into production in October 1985 so it could open in July 1986, five months before "The Golden Child"s Christmas release.


title: Big Trouble in Little China

text: Although the early exterior establishing scenes were filmed on location in Chinatown, most of the film was shot on sets built in the Fox lot in Los Angeles. Production designer John Lloyd designed the elaborate underground sets and recreated Chinatown with three-story buildings, roads, streetlights, sewers and so on. This was necessary for the staging of complicated special effects and kung fu fight sequences that would have been very hard to do on location. This forced the filmmaker to shoot the film in 15 weeks with a $25 million budget. For the film's many fight scenes Carpenter worked with martial arts choreographer James Lew, who planned out every move in advance. Says Carpenter, "I used every cheap gag – trampolines, wires, reverse movements and upside down sets. It was much like photographing a dance."


title: Big Trouble in Little China

text: Carpenter envisioned the film as an inverse of traditional scenarios in action films with a Caucasian protagonist helped by a minority sidekick. In "Big Trouble in Little China", Jack Burton, despite his bravado, is constantly portrayed as rather bumbling; in one fight sequence, he knocks himself unconscious before the fight begins. Wang Chi, on the other hand, is constantly portrayed as highly skilled and competent. On a commentary track for the DVD release, Carpenter said the film is really about a sidekick (Burton) who thinks he is a leading man. According to Carpenter, the studio "didn't get it" and made him write something that would explain the character of Jack Burton. Carpenter came up with the prologue scene between Egg Shen and the lawyer.


title: Big Trouble in Little China

text: Carpenter was not entirely satisfied with Boss Film Studios, the company in charge of the film's visual effects. According to the director, they took on more projects than they could handle and some effects for the film had to be cut down. Richard Edlund, head of Boss Film Studios, said that there were no difficulties with the company's workload and that "Big Trouble" was probably its favorite film at the time, with the exception of "Ghostbusters". The effects budget for the film was just under $2 million, which Edlund said was barely adequate. One of the more difficult effects was the floating eyeball, a spy for Lo-Pan. It was powered by several puppeteers and dozens of cables to control its facial expressions. It was shot with a special matting system specially designed for it.


title: Big Trouble in Little China

text: John Carpenter was nominated for a Saturn Award for Best Music for this film. With the soundtrack, Carpenter wanted to avoid the usual clichés, as he found that "other scores for American movies about Chinese characters are basically rinky tink, chop suey music. I didn’t want that for "Big Trouble"". Carpenter instead opted for his trademark synthesizer score mixed with rock 'n' roll music.


title: Big Trouble in Little China

text: Opening in 1,053 theaters on July 2, 1986, "Big Trouble in Little China" grossed $2.7 million in its opening weekend and went on to gross $11.1 million in North America, well below its estimated budget of $19–25 million. The film was released in the midst of the hype for James Cameron's blockbuster "Aliens", which was released 16 days after. On the DVD commentary for "Big Trouble in Little China", Carpenter and Russell discuss this among possible reasons for the film's disappointing box office gross.


title: Big Trouble in Little China

text: On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 75% based on 63 reviews, with an average rating of 6.4/10. The site's consensus reads: "Brimming with energy and packed with humor, "Big Trouble in Little China" distills kung fu B-movies as affectionately as it subverts them." On Metacritic it has a score of 53% based on reviews from 15 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Audiences surveyed by CinemaScore gave the film a grade "B+" on scale of A to F.


title: Big Trouble in Little China

text: Ron Base, in his review for the "Toronto Star", praised Russell's performance. "He does a great John Wayne imitation. But he's not just mimicking these heroes, he is using them to give his own character a broad, satiric edge." Walter Goodman in "The New York Times" wrote, "In kidding the flavorsome proceedings even as he gets the juice out of them, the director, John Carpenter, is conspicuously with it." Writer Harlan Ellison, widely known in Hollywood for his brutally honest critiques, praised the film, writing that it had "some of the funniest lines spoken by any actor this year to produce a cheerfully blathering live-action cartoon that will give you release from the real pressures of your basically dreary lives." In his review for "Time", Richard Corliss wrote, ""Little China" offers dollops of entertainment, but it is so stocked with canny references to other pictures that it suggests a master's thesis that moves."


title: Big Trouble in Little China

text: However, in his review for the "Chicago Sun-Times", Roger Ebert wrote, "special effects don't mean much unless we care about the characters who are surrounded by them, and in this movie the characters often seem to exist only to fill up the foregrounds," and felt that it was "straight out of the era of Charlie Chan and Fu Manchu, with no apologies and all of the usual stereotypes." Paul Attanasio, in "The Washington Post", criticized the screenwriters for being "much better at introducing a character than they are at developing one". David Ansen wrote, in his review for "Newsweek", "though it is action packed, spectacularly edited and often quite funny, one can't help feeling that Carpenter is squeezing the last drops out of a fatigued genre." In his review for "The Times", David Robinson felt that Carpenter was "overwhelmed by his own special effects, without a strong enough script to guide him."


title: Big Trouble in Little China

text: Alex Stewart reviewed "Big Trouble in Little China" for "White Dwarf" No. 83, and stated that the film was "Amiable nonsense, delivered with panache by fearsome demons and flying swordsmen; and the jokes work. Wayne Crawford should take notes."


title: Big Trouble in Little China

text: After the commercial and critical failure of the film, Carpenter became very disillusioned with Hollywood and became an independent filmmaker. He said in an interview, "The experience [of "Big Trouble"] was the reason I stopped making movies for the Hollywood studios. I won't work for them again. I think "Big Trouble" is a wonderful film, and I'm very proud of it. But the reception it received, and the reasons for that reception, were too much for me to deal with. I'm too old for that sort of bullshit."


title: Big Trouble in Little China

text: It has since enjoyed a resurgence on television and home video, and has received a good deal of retroactive positive press. Some critics and fans considered it one of Carpenter’s best movies. "Empire" magazine voted "Big Trouble in Little China" the 430th greatest film in their "500 Greatest Movies of All Time" list.


title: Big Trouble in Little China

text: "Big Trouble in Little China" was released on a two-disc special edition DVD set on May 22, 2001. "Entertainment Weekly" gave the DVD a "B+" rating and wrote, "The highlight of this two disc set – which also features deleted scenes, an extended ending, trailers, and a 1986 featurette – is the pitch perfect Russell and Carpenter commentary, which delves into Fox's marketing mishaps, Chinese history, and how Russell's son did in his hockey game." In his review for the "Onion A.V. Club", Noel Murray wrote, "If nothing else, this is a DVD designed for "Big Trouble" cultists; it's packed with articles from "Cinefex" and "American Cinematographer" that only a genre geek would appreciate."


title: Big Trouble in Little China

text: A single-disc movie-only DVD version was later released, with the only special features being the Carpenter/Russell commentary and the theatrical trailer.


title: Big Trouble in Little China

text: A Blu-ray Disc edition of the film was released on August 4, 2009. It contains the same content as the double-disc DVD release. In 2013, the film was released on Blu-ray Disc in the United Kingdom by Arrow Films as a regular case and Steelbook.


title: Big Trouble in Little China

text: On December 3, 2019, Scream Factory released a two-disc "Collector's Edition" Blu-ray of the film in the U.S., which included a bevy of new bonus features.


title: Big Trouble in Little China

text: In June 2015, "TheWrap" reported that Dwayne Johnson was developing a remake to star as Jack Burton and produce with his Seven Bucks Productions film studio. Ashley Miller and Zack Stentz were hired screenwriters. In an interview with "Entertainment Weekly", Johnson expressed interest in having Carpenter involved in the film. Carpenter responded stating, "It's very early in the process. I haven't spoken to Dwayne Johnson about any of this... I'm ambivalent about a remake."


title: Big Trouble in Little China

text: By August 27, 2018, Seven Bucks Productions' President Hiram Garcia clarified that the film will be a sequel and a continuation of the previous film. The creative minds behind the new film acknowledged that they have no intention of replacing Kurt Russell by re-casting Johnson as Jack Burton, but will make a follow-up movie to the original.


title: Big Trouble in Little China

text: A tie-in video game of the same name was published in 1986 by Electric Dreams Software for the ZX Spectrum, Commodore 64 and Amstrad CPC. Critical reception was mixed.


title: Big Trouble in Little China

text: On February 27, 2014, Boom! Studios announced they were working on a comic book series. The comic book is written by Eric Powell and John Carpenter with artwork by Brian Churilla. The series began in June 2014.


title: Big Trouble in Little China

text: Boom! released a crossover limited series between Jack Burton and Snake Plissken titled "Big Trouble in Little China/Escape from New York" in October 2016.


title: Big Trouble in Little China

text: A previously projected comic book series previewed by Top Cow Productions at the 2009 San Diego Comic-Con failed to appear.


title: Big Trouble in Little China

text: On June 14, 2017, Boom! announced a new four-issue limited series, to be published in September 2017, called "Big Trouble in Little China: Old Man Jack", written by Carpenter and Anthony Burch, with art by Jorge Corona. Taking place in 2020, Jack Burton comes out of retirement to battle Ching Dai and save the world.


title: Big Trouble in Little China

text: In February 2015, Funko released a line of ReAction and Pop! vinyl figures based on "Big Trouble in Little China".


title: Big Trouble in Little China

text: On July 15, 2016, Boom! Studios announced a partnership with Everything Epic and Flipside to create a board game based on the film. It was released in 2018, and is a highly thematic cooperative miniatures board game for 1–4 players.


title: Big Trouble in Little China

text: In August 2016, Upper Deck released the "Legendary: Big Trouble in Little China" deck-building card game. It is a semi-cooperative game for 2–5 players using the deck-building mechanic in which players purchase cards from a central pool to work together against the "villain" deck. The cards feature original artwork based on characters from the movie. It comes with 400 cards and a special playmat, and retails for around $40.


title: Big Trouble in Little China

text: Marvel supervillain The Mandarin in the 1990s Iron Man comic run by John Byrne and John Romita Jr. was modeled in appearance after Lo Pan.


title: Big Trouble in Little China

text: The film's portrayal of the lightning sorcerer/demigod character has been occasionally described as an inspiration for the character of Raiden from "Mortal Kombat", introducing the archetype of a straw hat–wearing monk able to control lightning with his hands to Western audiences. (In traditional Chinese and Japanese culture, the lightning god is represented more akin to a traditional Asian creature.) Additionally, the character David Lo Pan has been credited as the original inspiration for the soul-stealing Mortal Kombat villain Shang Tsung.


title: Big Trouble in Little China

text: The twenty-third episode of the second season of the 2012 "Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles" TV series, called "A Chinatown Ghost Story", uses concepts from the film, but renames the antagonist Lo Pan to Ho Chan, and the Storm figure Rain is replaced by Wind. In addition, James Hong (Lo Pan) reprises his "Little China" performance as the principal villain character.


title: Big Trouble in Little China

text: The song "We Have Candy" by the South African rap-rave group Die Antwoord features lead singer Ninja reciting some of Jack Burton's dialogue from the film.


title: Big Trouble in Little China

text: In 2006, American experimental rock band Man Man released an album with the title "Six Demon Bag", which is a reference to a line in the film.


title: Big Trouble in Little China

text: A 2012 parody music video of the song "Gangnam Style" was entitled "Lo Pan Style" and featured the storyline and characters from the movie, including a cameo by James Hong.


title: Big Trouble in Little China

text: The "Regular Show" Season 3 episode "Fortune Cookie" The villain is The Warlock who has a Resemblance to Lo Pan. In fact the character was played by James Hong who played the same character.


title: Big Trouble in Little China

text: The season 2 episode of "Rick and Morty" Titled "Big Trouble in Little Sanchez" is a reference title of the movie.


title: Big Trouble in Little China

text: The Ninety-seven episode of "" episode Titled "Big Trouble in Little Norrisville" The episode has a place name Little Norrisville and the Shopkeeper also played by James Hong who played Lo Pan.


title: Only the Brave (2017 film)

text: Only the Brave is a 2017 American biographical drama film directed by Joseph Kosinski, and written by Ken Nolan and Eric Warren Singer, based on the "GQ" article ""No Exit"" by Sean Flynn. The film tells the story of the Granite Mountain Hotshots, an elite crew of firefighters from Prescott, Arizona who lost 19 of 20 members while fighting the Yarnell Hill Fire in June 2013, and is dedicated to their memory. It features an ensemble cast, including Josh Brolin, James Badge Dale, Jeff Bridges, Miles Teller, Alex Russell, Taylor Kitsch, Ben Hardy, Thad Luckinbill, Geoff Stults, Scott Haze, Andie MacDowell, and Jennifer Connelly.


title: Only the Brave (2017 film)

text: Principal photography began in New Mexico in June 2016. "Only the Brave" was released by Columbia Pictures in North America and by Summit Entertainment in other territories on October 20, 2017. The film was a box-office bomb, grossing just $26.3 million worldwide against a $38 million budget. However, it received positive reviews, with praise for the cast and the film's touching tribute to its subjects. The film is dedicated to the Granite Mountain Hotshots and their families.


title: Only the Brave (2017 film)

text: Eric Marsh, superintendent of Fire and Rescue Crew 7 in Prescott, Arizona, receives a call to a wildfire. Due to Crew 7's status as municipal firefighters, Eric's prediction that the fire will threaten a nearby neighborhood is ignored by a hotshot crew from California. The fire behaves as Eric anticipated, and the neighborhood is destroyed. Eric speaks to fire chief Duane Steinbrink regarding his desire for Crew 7 to become certified hotshots. Duane warns that no other municipal crew in the country has that status and they will have to commit to a longer working season. This frustrates Eric's wife Amanda, who resents how the time commitment already keeps Eric from wanting to start a family.


title: Only the Brave (2017 film)

text: Brendan McDonough is unemployed and abuses drugs. His ex-girlfriend Natalie is pregnant with his baby, but she feels that he is too irresponsible to be in her life. When he is arrested for larceny, his mother kicks him out of the house. When his daughter is born, he wants to provide for her, so he interviews with Eric, who hires him despite the reservations of some of the crew.


title: Only the Brave (2017 film)

text: The crew trains hard and is finally deployed to a wildfire for evaluation. They pass and become the "Granite Mountain Hotshots". Natalie begins to accept Brendan and lets him spend time with their daughter.


title: Only the Brave (2017 film)

text: The crew fights several fires, including saving a historic juniper tree where Brendan is bitten by a rattlesnake while walking a fire line. The crew become local heroes. While he recovers in the hospital, Brendan's mother suggests that he should reconsider his career for his daughter's sake. Brendan later approaches Eric about transferring to a structural firefighting crew. Eric snaps, suggesting that Brendan’s criminal past makes a transfer nearly impossible, and that he will return to drugs without the purpose being a hotshot provides. Eric, a recovering addict himself, argues with Amanda about his attitude towards Brendan's sense of priorities, and his reluctance to start a family. Eric has a heartfelt talk with Duane and returns home to tell Amanda he's ready to start a family.


title: Only the Brave (2017 film)

text: The Granite Mountain Hotshots are called to the next wildfire. Traveling to the area, Eric tells his second-in-command Jesse that he will be stepping down and will appoint Jesse as the superintendent in the near future. Walking into the fire zone, Eric apologizes to Brendan for snapping at him. Eric tells Brendan that he will help him secure a transfer so that he can spend more time with his family. The crew begins a counterattack to contain the fire, but an air tanker mistakes it for a secondary fire, and extinguishes it. The crew now has to relocate, so Eric sends Brendan to higher ground as a lookout. When the wind suddenly intensifies and shifts, Brendan is rescued by another hotshot crew, and they evacuate to the mobile headquarters. The rest of the crew head to a safe zone after realizing that the fast-moving fire is too intense.


title: Only the Brave (2017 film)

text: The fire picks up speed and jumps the safe zone, continuing towards the crew and cutting off their escape route. The crew clears a small site, and Eric calls in an air tanker to douse the rapidly advancing fire front. The tanker misses the crew, and they deploy their compact personal fire shelters. As the fire sweeps over the crew, multiple radio calls go unanswered. Brendan hears the radio call from the first helicopter to reach the site: all 19 crew members are confirmed dead.


title: Only the Brave (2017 film)

text: The devastated families of the hotshots gather at Prescott Middle School, where they hear reports of a lone survivor of the twenty firefighters. Brendan insists that he should be taken to the school and enters the gymnasium. Upon seeing Brendan, knowing that he was one of the hotshots, they realize that he is the only one who survived, and that their loved ones have perished. As they grieve, Brendan storms out of the gym and has a psychological breakdown due to survivors guilt, and Amanda consoles him.


title: Only the Brave (2017 film)

text: Three years later, Brendan takes his daughter to the juniper tree that was saved by the crew. During the closing credits, photos are shown of the actual Granite Mountain Hotshots and their actor counterparts.


title: Only the Brave (2017 film)

text: On March 1, 2016, Josh Brolin and Miles Teller joined the cast of the film. Jeff Bridges and Taylor Kitsch later also joined the cast. The film was produced under the working title "Granite Mountain". Principal photography on the film began in New Mexico on June 13, 2016. Filming took place at different locations in and around Santa Fe and Los Alamos.


title: Only the Brave (2017 film)

text: Joseph Trapanese composed the film's score. Dierks Bentley released a single called "Hold The Light", featuring S. Carey. The single and the music video was released on October 6, 2017.


title: Only the Brave (2017 film)

text: "Only the Brave," originally titled "Granite Mountain", was released on October 20, 2017, by Sony Pictures Releasing under its Columbia Pictures label. Before that the film was set a release date for September 22, 2017, but a disagreement between Lionsgate and production company Black Label Media saw the U.S. distribution rights change to Columbia Pictures. Summit Entertainment will retain international rights in select countries for the film. The trailer came out on July 19, and the film was retitled "Only the Brave". The film was released digitally on January 23, 2018, and on DVD and Blu-ray on February 6, 2018. As of December 2018, it had made $7.2 million in home video sales.


title: Only the Brave (2017 film)

text: "Only the Brave" grossed $18.3 million in the United States and Canada, and $7.4 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $25.8 million, against a production budget of $38 million.


title: Only the Brave (2017 film)

text: In the United States and Canada, "Only the Brave" was released alongside "Boo 2! A Madea Halloween", "The Snowman" and "Geostorm", and was expected to gross around $7 million from 2,575 theaters in its opening weekend. It made $305,000 from Thursday night previews and $2.1 million on its first day. It ended up debuting to $6 million, finishing 5th at the box office. In its second week the film dropped 42.5% to $3.4 million, finishing 7th.


title: Only the Brave (2017 film)

text: On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 87% based on 160 reviews, with an average rating of 7.09/10. The website's critical consensus reads, ""Only the Brave"s impressive veteran cast and affecting fact-based story add up to a no-frills drama that's just as stolidly powerful as the real-life heroes it honors." On Metacritic, which assigns a weighted average rating to reviews, the film has a weighted average score of 72 out of 100, based on 35 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A" on an A+ to F scale.


title: Only the Brave (2017 film)

text: Bilge Ebiri of "Village Voice" wrote, ""Only the Brave" is a visually splendid, spellbinding, and surreal movie that also happens to be an emotionally shattering, over-the-top ugly-cry for the ages." Todd McCarthy of "The Hollywood Reporter" called the film "an engaging account of a tragic real-life story."


title: Only the Brave (2017 film)

text: Richard Roeper of the "Chicago Sun-Times" gave the film 3.5 out of 4 stars, saying: "The blending of practical effects and CGI is impressive, and we come to understand the risks these men are taking, but some of the techniques and approaches they take remain a mystery, up to and through the climactic fire. Not that we need a manual to understand these men were working-class, everyday heroes." Scott Menzel of "We Live Entertainment" also praised the film, saying, ""Only the Brave" is without question the best firefighter film since "Backdraft" and one that pays tribute to the brave men that sacrificed their own lives to protect thousands of others."


title: Only the Brave (2017 film)

text: Richard Brody noted in "The New Yorker" that ""Only the Brave" ties the characters’ private lives to their work lives in a plethora of details, but it never looks beyond the work life into life at large, or even into the life that surrounds them in their own home town." Brody described the film as a missed opportunity to depict those who battled local politicians to secure benefits for survivors of the Yarnell Hill Fire and the widows of the deceased Hotshots. The review quoted Fernanda Santos in "The New York Times" who wrote that "Juliann Ashcraft decided to leave Prescott altogether to spare her four children the discomfort of whispers and glares" — a reference to the harassment of women who challenged the decision to treat victims differently based on their employment status.


title: Genevieve O'Reilly

text: Genevieve O'Reilly (born 6 January 1977) is an Irish-Australian actress. She is known for her work in the "Star Wars" franchise as Mon Mothma, having portrayed the character in "", "Rogue One", and the Disney+ series "Andor", as well as her voice role as the character in "Star Wars Rebels", and as Moira in "Overwatch".


title: Genevieve O'Reilly

text: Alongside her appearances in television, O'Reilly is also known for her career in films with her credits in the movie industry notably including the 2004 film "Avatar" in which she portrayed Dash MacKenzie, the 2009 period drama "The Young Victoria" in which she played Lady Flora Hastings, and the 2010 romantic movie "Forget Me Not" where she played Eve. In 2016, O'Reilly appeared in the role of Tarzan's mother in "The Legend of Tarzan".


title: Genevieve O'Reilly

text: O'Reilly was born on 6 January 1977 in Dublin, Ireland, and raised in Adelaide, Australia. She is the eldest of four siblings. At the age of twenty O'Reilly moved to Sydney to attend the National Institute of Dramatic Art, graduating in 2000.


title: Genevieve O'Reilly

text: In 2005, she moved to the United Kingdom with her husband, Luke Mulvihill, and lives in East London. They have two children, a son and a daughter.


title: Genevieve O'Reilly

text: O'Reilly was cast as the understudy in director Gale Edwards' production of "The White Devil" a week after graduating from drama school. She went on to appear in Edwards' Sydney Theatre Company production of "The Way of the World". Other theatre credits include "The Weir" by Conor McPherson, at the Gate Theatre, Dublin, and "Richard II" at the Old Vic. Recent parts at the Royal National Theatre have been in new play, Mike Bartlett's "13", and as Helena, wife to Andrew Scott's emperor Julian in the 2011 production of Ibsen's epic "Emperor and Galilean". In July 2012, O'Reilly performed in George Bernard Shaw's "The Doctor's Dilemma".


title: Genevieve O'Reilly

text: In 2017, she played Mary Carney in "The Ferryman," first at the Royal Court Theatre and later at the Gielgud Theatre in the West End of London.


title: Genevieve O'Reilly

text: O'Reilly has appeared in several productions filmed in Australia, including the first two sequels to "The Matrix". She was also in the 2004 Singaporean science fiction film "Avatar", playing the lead role of Dash MacKenzie.


title: Genevieve O'Reilly

text: In 2005, O'Reilly played the young Mon Mothma in "", though most of her scenes were ultimately cut. The scenes were included as bonus material for the 2005 DVD release. In 2016, she reprised her role as Mon Mothma in "Rogue One: A Star Wars Story", and voiced the same character in the animated TV show "Star Wars Rebels" in early 2017. In April 2020, she was revealed to be again reprising her role as Mon Mothma in the Disney+ series "Andor" that premiered in September 2022.


title: Genevieve O'Reilly

text: In television, O'Reilly's first appearance was in 2001 in the Canadian television series "BeastMaster" as a guest star in "Slayer's Return". The following year O'Reilly appeared in "Young Lions" as Kimberly Oswald in the episode "Asylum Seekers". O'Reilly then appeared as a prominent character in "All Saints" from 2002 - 2005 as Leanne Curtis. From 2011 to 2014, O'Reilly appeared in the series "Episodes" as a recurring character alongside Matt LeBlanc. Later in 2014, O'Reilly starred in the television mini series "The Honourable Woman" as Frances Pirsig in which she starred in six episodes. In the following year of 2015, O'Reilly starred in the BBC television series "Banished" as Mary Johnson. In 2016, O'Reilly starred in the British drama "The Secret" from which she gained acclaim and was reported to play her character "beautifully".


title: Genevieve O'Reilly

text: Since moving to the UK, O'Reilly has starred in the political mini-series "The State Within", played Princess Diana in the 2007 television docudrama "", and taken the lead role in "The Time of Your Life". She played CIA liaison officer Sarah Caulfield in the eighth series of BBC drama "Spooks". She played Julie Rees in "Harbinger", S9:E1&2 of "Waking the Dead" broadcast 17 June 2009. O'Reilly also played the character of Michelle Beadley in the remake of "The Day of the Triffids" that aired on BBC One in December 2009.


title: Genevieve O'Reilly

text: In June 2013, O'Reilly appeared in the pilot episode of the international crime drama "Crossing Lines" cast as detective and interrogation specialist Sienna Pride, attached to the ICC team from Britain's Scotland Yard.


title: Genevieve O'Reilly

text: In early 2015, O'Reilly starred as Mary Johnson in Jimmy McGovern's "Banished", a television drama focusing on British convicts in an Australian penal colony.


title: Genevieve O'Reilly

text: In 2015, O'Reilly starred as Dr Elishia McKellar, in an Australian paranormal drama "Glitch", set in fictional small country town called Yoorana. Series 1 with 6 episodes won major awards. Series 2 was broadcast on ABC1 and Netflix toward the end of 2017.


title: Allied-occupied Germany

text: Germany was already de facto occupied by the Allies from the real fall of Nazi Germany in World War II on 8 May 1945 to the establishment of the East Germany on 7 October 1949. The Allies (United States, United Kingdom, Soviet Union, and France) asserted joint authority and sovereignty at the 1945 Berlin Declaration. At first, defining Allied-occupied Germany as all territories of the former German Reich before the Nazi annexing of Austria and later in the 1945 Potsdam Conference of the Allies themselves, the Potsdam Agreement decided the new German border as it stands today by giving Poland and the Soviet Union all regions of Germany east of the Oder–Neisse line (eastern parts of Pomerania, Neumark, Posen-West Prussia, Free City of Danzig, East-Prussia & Silesia) and divided the remaining "Germany as a whole" into the four occupation zones for administrative purposes under the United States, the United Kingdom, France, and the Soviet Union. Although the three of Allies (United States, United Kingdom, and Soviet Union) agreed about the occupation and division in Germany in the legal protocol in London 1944 before, the four occupied zones with new border of Germany were only agreed by 3 Allies at the February 1945 Yalta Conference.


title: Allied-occupied Germany

text: All territories annexed by Germany before the war from Austria and Czechoslovakia were returned to these countries. The Memel Territory, annexed by Germany from Lithuania before the war, was annexed by the Soviet Union in 1945 and transferred to the Lithuanian SSR. All territories annexed by Germany during the war from Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, Poland and Yugoslavia were returned to their respective countries.


title: Allied-occupied Germany

text: Deviating from the occupation zones planned according to the London Protocol in 1944, at Potsdam, the United States, United Kingdom and the Soviet Union approved the detachment from Germany of the territories east of the Oder–Neisse line, with the exact line of the boundary to be determined in a final German peace treaty. This treaty was expected to confirm the shifting westward of Poland's borders, as the United Kingdom and United States committed themselves to support the permanent incorporation of eastern Germany into Poland and the Soviet Union. From March 1945 to July 1945, these former eastern territories of Germany had been administered under Soviet military occupation authorities, but following the Potsdam Conference they were handed over to Soviet and Polish civilian administrations and ceased to constitute part of Allied-occupied Germany.


title: Allied-occupied Germany

text: In the closing weeks of fighting in Europe, United States forces had pushed beyond the agreed boundaries for the future zones of occupation, in some places by as much as . The so-called line of contact between Soviet and U.S. forces at the end of hostilities, mostly lying eastward of the July 1945-established inner German border, was temporary. After two months in which they had held areas that had been assigned to the Soviet zone, U.S. forces withdrew in the first days of July 1945. Some have concluded that this was a crucial move that persuaded the Soviet Union to allow American, British and French forces into their designated sectors in Berlin, which occurred at roughly the same time, although the need for intelligence gathering (Operation Paperclip) may also have been a factor. In 1949, two German states of East and West Germany emerged.


title: Allied-occupied Germany

text: The American zone in Southern Germany consisted of Bavaria (without the Rhine Palatinate Region and the Lindau District, both part of the French zone) and Hesse (without Rhenish Hesse and Montabaur Region, both part of the French zone) with a new capital in Wiesbaden, and of northern parts of "Württemberg" and "Baden". Those formed Württemberg-Baden and became northern portions of the present-day German state of Baden-Württemberg founded in 1952.


title: Allied-occupied Germany

text: The ports of Bremen (on the lower Weser River) and Bremerhaven (at the Weser estuary of the North Sea) were also placed under U.S. control because of the U.S. request to have certain toeholds in Northern Germany.


title: Allied-occupied Germany

text: The headquarters of the American military government was the former IG Farben Building in Frankfurt am Main.


title: Allied-occupied Germany

text: Following the complete closure of all Nazi German media, the launch and operation of completely new newspaper titles began by licensing carefully selected Germans as publishers. Licenses were granted to Germans not involved in Nazi propaganda to establish those newspapers, including "Frankfurter Rundschau" (August 1945), "Der Tagesspiegel" (Berlin; September 1945), and "Süddeutsche Zeitung" (Munich; October 1945). Radio stations were run by the military government. Later, "Radio Frankfurt", "Radio München" (Munich) and "Radio Stuttgart" gave way for the "Hessischer Rundfunk", "Bayerischer Rundfunk", and "Süddeutscher Rundfunk", respectively. The RIAS in West-Berlin remained a radio station under U.S. control.


title: Allied-occupied Germany

text: By May 1945 the British and Canadian Armies had liberated the Netherlands and had conquered Northern Germany. The Canadian forces went home following the German surrender, leaving Northern Germany to be occupied by the British.


title: Allied-occupied Germany

text: In July the British withdrew from Mecklenburg's capital Schwerin which they had taken over from the Americans a few weeks before, as it had previously been agreed to be occupied by the Soviet Army. The Control Commission for Germany (British Element) (CCG/BE) ceded more slices of its area of occupation to the Soviet Union – specifically the Amt Neuhaus of Hanover and some exclaves and fringes of Brunswick, for example the County of Blankenburg, and exchanged some villages between British Holstein and Soviet Mecklenburg under the Barber-Lyashchenko Agreement.


title: Allied-occupied Germany

text: Within the British Zone of Occupation, the CCG/BE re-established the city of Hamburg as a German state, but with borders that had been drawn by the Nazi government in 1937. The British also created the new German states of:


title: Allied-occupied Germany

text: Also in 1947, the American Zone of Occupation being inland had no port facilities – thus the Free Hanseatic City of Bremen and Bremerhaven became exclaves within the British Zone.


title: Allied-occupied Germany

text: The British headquarters were originally based in Bad Oeynhausen from 1946, but in 1954 it was moved to Mönchengladbach where it was known as JHQ Rheindahlen.


title: Allied-occupied Germany

text: Another special feature of the British zone was the Enclave of Bonn. It was created in July 1949 and was not under British or any other allied control. Instead it was under the control of the Allied High Commission. In June 1950, Ivone Kirkpatrick became the British High Commissioner for Germany. Kirkpatrick carried immense responsibility particularly with respect to the negotiation of the Bonn–Paris conventions during 1951–1952, which terminated the occupation and prepared the way for the rearmament of West Germany.


title: Allied-occupied Germany

text: Army units from other countries were stationed within the British occupation zone. The Belgians were allocated a territory which was garrisoned by their troops. The zone formed a strip from the Belgian-German border at the south of the British zone, and included the important cities of Cologne and Aachen. The Belgian army of occupation in Germany (known as the Belgian Forces in Germany from 1951) became autonomous in 1946 under the command, initially, of Jean-Baptiste Piron. Belgian soldiers remained in Germany until 31 December 2005.


title: Allied-occupied Germany

text: Polish units mainly from 1st Armoured Division were stationed in the northern area of the district of Emsland as well as in the areas of Oldenburg and Leer. This region bordered the Netherlands and covered an area of 6,500 km, and was originally intended to serve as a collection and dispersal territory for the millions of Polish displaced persons in Germany and western Europe after the war. Early British proposals for this to form the basis of a formal Polish Zone of Occupation, were however, soon abandoned due to Soviet opposition. The zone had a large camp constructed largely for displaced persons and was administered by the Polish government in exile. The administrative centre of the Polish occupation zone was the city of Haren the German population of which was temporarily removed. The city was renamed "Maczków" (after Stanisław Maczek) from 1945 to 1947. Once the British recognised the pro-Soviet government in Poland, and withdrew recognition from the London-based Polish government in exile, the Emsland zone became more of an embarrassment. Polish units within the British Army were demobilised in June 1947. The expelled German populations were allowed to return and the last Polish residents left in 1948.


title: Allied-occupied Germany

text: In 1946, the Norwegian Brigade Group in Germany had 4,000 soldiers in Hanover; amongst whom was future Chancellor Willy Brandt (then a Norwegian citizen) as press attaché.


title: Allied-occupied Germany

text: The French Republic was at first not granted an occupation zone in Germany, but the British and American governments later agreed to cede some western parts of their zones of occupation to the French Army. In April and May 1945, the French 1st Army had captured Karlsruhe and Stuttgart, and conquered a territory extending to Hitler's Eagle's Nest and the westernmost part of Austria. In July, the French relinquished Stuttgart to the Americans, and in exchange were given control over cities west of the Rhine such as Mainz and Koblenz. All this resulted in two barely contiguous areas of Germany along the French border which met at just a single point along the River Rhine. Three German states ("Land") were established: Rheinland Pfalz in the North and West and on the other hand Württemberg-Hohenzollern and South Baden, who later formed Baden-Württemberg together with "Württemberg-Baden" of the American Zone.


title: Allied-occupied Germany

text: The French Zone of Occupation included the Saargebiet, which was disentangled from it on 16 February 1946. By 18 December 1946 customs controls were established between the Saar area and Allied-occupied Germany. The French zone ceded further areas adjacent to the Saar (in mid-1946, early 1947, and early 1949). Included in the French zone was the town of Büsingen am Hochrhein, a German exclave separated from the rest of the country by a narrow strip of neutral Swiss territory. The Swiss government agreed to allow limited numbers of French troops to pass through its territory in order to maintain law and order in Büsingen.


title: Allied-occupied Germany

text: From November 1945, Luxembourg was allocated a zone within the French sector. The Luxembourg 2nd Infantry Battalion was garrisoned in Bitburg and the 1st Battalion was sent to Saarburg. The final Luxembourg forces in Germany, in Bitburg, left in 1955.


title: Allied-occupied Germany

text: The Soviet occupation zone incorporated Thuringia, Saxony, Saxony-Anhalt, Brandenburg and Mecklenburg-Vorpommern. The Soviet Military Administration in Germany was headquartered in Berlin-Karlshorst.


title: Allied-occupied Germany

text: While located wholly within the Soviet zone, because of its symbolic importance as the nation's capital and seat of the former Nazi government, the city of Berlin was jointly occupied by the Allied powers and subdivided into four sectors. All four occupying powers were entitled to privileges throughout Berlin that were not extended to the rest of Germany – this included the Soviet sector of Berlin, which was legally separate from the rest of the Soviet zone.


title: Allied-occupied Germany

text: In 1945 Germany east of the Oder–Neisse line (Farther Pomerania, the New March, Silesia and southern East Prussia) was assigned to Poland by the Potsdam Conference to be "temporarily administered" pending the Final Peace Treaty on Germany; eventually (under the September 1990 Peace Treaty) the northern portion of East Prussia became the Kaliningrad Oblast within the Soviet Union. A small area west of the Oder, near Szczecin, also fell to Poland. Most German citizens residing in these areas were subsequently expropriated and expelled. Returning refugees, who had fled from war hostilities, were denied return.


title: Allied-occupied Germany

text: The Saargebiet, an important area of Germany because of its large deposits of coal, was turned into the Saar protectorate. The Saar was disengaged from the French zone on 16 February 1946. In the speech Restatement of Policy on Germany on 6 September 1946, the U.S. Secretary of State James F. Byrnes stated the U.S.' motive in detaching the Saar from Germany as "The United States does not feel that it can deny to France, which has been invaded three times by Germany in 70 years, its claim to the Saar territory."


title: Allied-occupied Germany

text: By 18 December 1946 customs controls were established between the Saar and Allied-occupied Germany. Most German citizens residing in the Saar area were allowed to stay and keep their property. Returning refugees, who had fled from war hostilities, were allowed to return; in particular, refugees who had fled the Nazi dictatorship were invited and welcomed to return to the Saar.


title: Allied-occupied Germany

text: The protectorate was a state nominally independent of Germany and France, but with its economy integrated into that of France. The Saar territory was enlarged at the expense of the French zone in mid-1946, early 1947 (when 61 municipalities were returned to the French zone), and early 1949. On 15 November 1947 the French currency became legal tender in the Saar Protectorate, followed by the full integration of the Saar into the French economy (customs union as of 23 March 1948). In July the Saar population was stripped of its German citizenship and became of Sarrois nationality.


title: Allied-occupied Germany

text: The original Allied plan to govern Germany as a single unit through the Allied Control Council broke down in 1946–1947 due to growing tensions between the Allies, with Britain and the US wishing cooperation, France obstructing any collaboration in order to partition Germany into many independent states, and the Soviet Union unilaterally implementing from early on elements of a Marxist political-economic system (enforced redistribution of land, nationalisation of businesses). Another dispute was the absorption of post-war expellees. While the UK, the US and the Soviet Union had agreed to accept, house and feed about six million expelled German citizens from former eastern Germany and four million expelled and denaturalised Czechoslovaks, Poles, Hungarians and Yugoslavs of German ethnicity in their zones, France generally had not agreed to the expulsions approved by the Potsdam agreement (a decision made without input from France). Therefore, France strictly refused to absorb war refugees who were denied return to their homes in seized eastern German territories or destitute post-war expellees who had been expropriated there, into the French zone, let alone into the separated Saar protectorate. However, the native population, returning after Nazi-imposed removals (e.g., political and Jewish refugees) and war-related relocations (e.g., evacuation from air raids), were allowed to return home in the areas under French control. The other Allies complained that they had to shoulder the burden to feed, house and clothe the expellees who had to leave their belongings behind.


title: Allied-occupied Germany

text: In practice, each of the four occupying powers wielded government authority in their respective zones and carried out different policies toward the population and local and state governments there. A uniform administration of the western zones evolved, known first as the Bizone (the American and British zones merged as of 1 January 1947) and later the Trizone (after inclusion of the French zone). The complete breakdown of east–west allied cooperation and joint administration in Germany became clear with the Soviet imposition of the Berlin Blockade that was enforced from June 1948 to May 1949. The three western zones were merged to form the Federal Republic of Germany in May 1949, and the Soviets followed suit in October 1949 with the establishment of the German Democratic Republic (GDR).


title: Allied-occupied Germany

text: In the west, the occupation continued until 5 May 1955, when the General Treaty () entered into force. However, upon the creation of the Federal Republic in May 1949, the military governors were replaced by civilian high commissioners, whose powers lay somewhere between those of a governor and those of an ambassador. When the "Deutschlandvertrag" became law, the occupation ended, the western occupation zones ceased to exist, and the high commissioners were replaced by normal ambassadors. West Germany was also allowed to build a military, and the Bundeswehr, or Federal Defense Force, was established on 12 November 1955.


title: Allied-occupied Germany

text: A similar situation occurred in East Germany. The GDR was founded on 7 October 1949. On 10 October the Soviet Military Administration in Germany was replaced by the Soviet Control Commission, although limited sovereignty was not granted to the GDR government until 11 November 1949. After the death of Joseph Stalin in March 1953, the Soviet Control Commission was replaced with the office of the Soviet High Commissioner on 28 May 1953. This office was abolished (and replaced by an ambassador) and (general) sovereignty was granted to the GDR, when the Soviet Union concluded a state treaty "(Staatsvertrag)" with the GDR on 20 September 1955. On 1 March 1956, the GDR established a military, the National People's Army (NVA).


title: Allied-occupied Germany

text: Despite the grants of general sovereignty to both German states in 1955, full and unrestricted sovereignty under international law was not enjoyed by any German government until after the reunification of Germany in October 1990. Though West Germany was effectively independent, the western Allies maintained limited legal jurisdiction over 'Germany as a whole' in respect of West Germany and Berlin. At the same time, East Germany progressed from being a satellite state of the Soviet Union to increasing independence of action; while still deferring in matters of security to Soviet authority. The provisions of the Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany, also known as the "Two-plus-Four Treaty", granting full sovereign powers to Germany did not become law until 15 March 1991, after all of the participating governments had ratified the treaty. As envisaged by the Treaty, the last occupation troops departed from Germany when the Russian presence was terminated in 1994, although the Belgian Forces in Germany stayed in German territory until the end of 2005.


title: Allied-occupied Germany

text: A 1956 plebiscite ended the French administration of the Saar protectorate, and it joined the Federal Republic as "Saarland" on 1 January 1957, becoming its tenth state.


title: Allied-occupied Germany

text: The city of Berlin was not part of either state and continued to be under Allied occupation until the reunification of Germany in October 1990. For administrative purposes, the three western sectors of Berlin were merged into the entity of West Berlin. The Soviet sector became known as East Berlin and while not recognised by the Western powers as a part of East Germany, the GDR declared it its capital "(Hauptstadt der DDR)".


title: Allied-occupied Germany

text: At the end of the war, General Eisenhower issued a non-fraternization policy to troops under his command in occupied Germany. This policy was relaxed in stages. By June 1945 the prohibition on speaking with German children was made less strict. In July it became possible to speak to German adults in certain circumstances. In September the policy was completely dropped in Austria and Germany.


title: Allied-occupied Germany

text: Nevertheless, due to the large numbers of Disarmed Enemy Forces being held in "Rheinwiesenlagers" throughout western Germany, the Americans and the British – not the Soviets – used armed units of "Feldgendarmerie" to maintain control and discipline in the camps. In June 1946, these German military police units became the last "Wehrmacht" troops to surrender their arms to the western powers.


title: Allied-occupied Germany

text: By December 1945, over 100,000 German civilians were interned as security threats and for possible trial and sentencing as members of criminal organisations.


title: Allied-occupied Germany

text: The food situation in occupied Germany was initially very dire. By the spring of 1946 the official ration in the American zone was no more than per day, with some areas probably receiving as little as per day. In the British zone the food situation was dire, as found during a visit by the British (and Jewish) publisher Victor Gollancz in October and November 1946. In Düsseldorf the normal 28-day allocation should have been including of bread, but as there was limited grain the bread ration was only . However, as there was only sufficient bread for about 50% of this "called up" ration, the total deficiency was about 50%, not 15% as stated in a ministerial reply in the British Parliament on 11 December. So only about would have been supplied, and he said the German winter ration would be as the recent increase was "largely mythical". His book includes photos taken on the visit and critical letters and newspaper articles by him published in several British newspapers; "The Times, the Daily Herald, the Manchester Guardian", etc.


title: Allied-occupied Germany

text: Some occupation soldiers took advantage of the desperate food situation by exploiting their ample supply of food and cigarettes (the currency of the black market) to get to the local German girls as what became known as "frau bait" ("The New York Times", 25 June 1945). Some soldiers still felt the girls were the enemy, but used them for sex nevertheless.


title: Allied-occupied Germany

text: The often destitute mothers of the resulting children usually received no child support. In the earliest stages of the occupation, U.S. soldiers were not allowed to pay maintenance for a child they admitted having fathered, since to do so was considered "aiding the enemy". Marriages between white U.S. soldiers and Austrian women were not permitted until January 1946, and with German women until December 1946.


title: Allied-occupied Germany

text: The children of African-American soldiers, commonly called "Negermischlinge" ("Negro half-breeds"), comprising about three percent of the total number of children fathered by GIs, were particularly disadvantaged because of their inability to conceal the foreign identity of their father. For many white U.S. soldiers of this era, miscegenation even with an "enemy" white population was regarded as an intolerable outrage. African-American soldiers were therefore reluctant to admit to fathering such children since this would invite reprisals and even accusations of rape, a crime which was much more aggressively prosecuted by military authorities against African-Americans compared with Caucasian soldiers, much more likely to result in a conviction by court-martial (in part because a German woman was both less likely to acknowledge consensual sexual relations with an African-American and more likely to be believed if she alleged rape against an African-American) and which carried a potential death sentence. Even in the rare cases where an African-American soldier was willing to take responsibility for fathering a child, until 1948 the U.S. Army prohibited interracial marriages. The mothers of the children would often face particularly harsh ostracism.


title: Allied-occupied Germany

text: Between 1950 and 1955, the Allied High Commission for Germany prohibited "proceedings to establish paternity or liability for maintenance of children." Even after the lifting of the ban West German courts had little power over American soldiers.


title: Allied-occupied Germany

text: In general, the British authorities were less strict than the Americans about fraternisation, whereas the French and Soviet authorities were more strict.


title: Allied-occupied Germany

text: While Allied servicemen were ordered to obey local laws while in Germany, soldiers could not be prosecuted by German courts for crimes committed against German citizens except as authorised by the occupation authorities. Invariably, when a soldier was accused of criminal behaviour the occupation authorities preferred to handle the matter within the military justice system. This sometimes led to harsher punishments than would have been available under German law – in particular, U.S. servicemen could be executed if court-martialed and convicted of rape. See United States v. Private First Class John A. Bennett, 7 C.M.A. 97, 21 C.M.R. 223 (1956).


title: Allied-occupied Germany

text: The last Allied war advances into Germany and Allied occupation plans were affected by rumors of the Nazi Werwolf plan for insurgency, and successful Nazi deception about plans to withdraw forces to the "Alpenfestung" redoubt. This base was to be used to conduct guerrilla warfare, but the rumours turned out to be false. No Allied deaths can be reliably attributed to any Nazi insurgency.


title: Allied-occupied Germany

text: The Potsdam conference, where the victorious Allies drew up plans for the future of Germany, noted in article XIII of the Potsdam Agreement on 1 August 1945 that "the transfer to Germany of German populations...in Poland, Czechoslovakia and Hungary will have to be undertaken"; "wild expulsion" was already going on.


title: Allied-occupied Germany

text: Hungary, which had been allied with Germany and whose population was opposed to an expulsion of the German minority, tried to resist the transfer. Hungary had to yield to the pressure exerted mainly by the Soviet Union and by the Allied Control Council. Millions of people were expelled from former eastern territories of Germany, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary and elsewhere to the occupation zones of the UK, US, and USSR, which agreed in the Potsdam Agreement to absorb the post-war expellees into their zones. Many remained in refugee camps for a long time. Some Germans remained in the Soviet Union and were used for forced labour for a period of years.


title: Allied-occupied Germany

text: France was not invited to the Potsdam Conference. As a result, it chose to adopt some decisions of the Potsdam Agreements and to dismiss others. France maintained the position that it did not approve post-war expulsions and that therefore it was not responsible to accommodate and nourish the destitute expellees in its zone. While the few war-related refugees who had reached the area to become the French zone before July 1945 were taken care of, the French military government for Germany refused to absorb post-war expellees deported from the East into its zone. In December 1946, the French military government for Germany absorbed into its zone German refugees from Denmark, where 250,000 Germans had found a refuge from the Soviets by sea vessels between February and May 1945. These clearly were war-related refugees from the eastern parts of Germany however, and not post-war expellees.


title: Allied-occupied Germany

text: online, later published as "Winning the Peace: The British in Occupied Germany, 1945-1948", 2017, Bloomsbury Academic


title: Nootropic

text: Nootropics ( , or ) (colloquial: smart drugs and cognitive enhancers, similar to adaptogens) are a wide range of natural or synthetic supplements or drugs and other substances that are claimed to improve cognitive function or to promote relaxation, particularly boosting mood, executive functions, attention, memory, creativity, or motivation in healthy individuals.


title: Nootropic

text: The use of cognition-enhancing supplements by healthy individuals in the absence of a medical indication spans numerous controversial issues, including the ethics and fairness of their use, concerns over adverse effects, and the diversion of prescription drugs for non-medical uses. Nonetheless, the international sales of cognitive- or mood-enhancing supplements have continued to grow over time and in 2012 reached 0.69 billion. With sales supported by global health trends, the market is expected to reach US$33.85 billion by the year 2030, at a CAGR of 14.8%.


title: Nootropic

text: While most nootropics are not regulated, there are other nootropics like theanine, which the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) considers to be generally recognized as safe (GRAS) and allows its sale as a dietary supplement.


title: Nootropic

text: They are often found in supplement form as nutraceuticals, or in recent years, as functional food or drinks. Recently, some companies even began using nootropics in beer as an alcohol replacement.


title: Nootropic

text: The term "nootropic" is derived . It was first introduced by Corneliu Giurgea in 1972 to describe a new classification of molecules that acted selectively towards the brain's higher-level integrative activity. In order for a product to qualify as a true nootropic, it must fulfill Giurgea's five criteria for the category.


title: Nootropic

text: Nootropics are often advertised with unproven claims of effectiveness at improving cognition. The FDA and FTC warned manufacturers and consumers in 2019 about possible advertising fraud and marketing scams concerning nootropic supplement products. The FDA and FTC stated that some nootropic products had not been approved as a drug effective for any medical purpose, were not proven to be safe, and were illegally marketed in the United States under violation of the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act.


title: Nootropic

text: Having said that, there are some nootropics like Theanine, that the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) considered generally recognized as safe (GRAS) and allows its sale as a dietary supplement.


title: Nootropic

text: In 2018 in the United States, some nootropic supplements were identified as having misleading ingredients and illegal marketing. In 2019, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and Federal Trade Commission (FTC) warned manufacturers and consumers about possible advertising fraud and marketing scams concerning nootropic supplements.


title: Nootropic

text: Over the years 2010 to 2019, the FDA warned numerous supplement manufacturers about the illegal status of their products as unapproved drugs with no proven safety or efficacy at the doses recommended, together with misleading marketing.


title: Nootropic

text: In 2008, the most commonly used class of drug was stimulants, such as caffeine. Manufacturers' marketing claims for dietary supplements are usually not formally tested and verified by independent entities.


title: Nootropic

text: In 2016, the American Medical Association adopted a policy to discourage prescriptions of nootropics for healthy people, on the basis that the cognitive effects appear to be highly variable among individuals, are dose-dependent, and limited or modest at best.


title: Nootropic

text: The use of prescription stimulants is especially prevalent among students. Surveys suggest that 0.7–4.5% of German students have used cognitive enhancers in their lifetimes.<ref name="doi10.1371/journal.pone.0068821"></ref><ref name="C4WDefault-10.3109/10826084.2012.751426"></ref> Stimulants such as dimethylamylamine and methylphenidate are used on college campuses and by younger groups. Based upon studies of self-reported illicit stimulant use, of college students use diverted ADHD stimulants, which are primarily used for enhancement of academic performance rather than as recreational drugs. Several factors positively and negatively influence an individual's willingness to use a drug for the purpose of enhancing cognitive performance. Among them are personal characteristics, drug characteristics, and characteristics of the social context.<ref name="C4WDefault-10.1186/1747-597X-9-8"></ref><ref name="PLOS ONE-10.1371/journal.pone.0071452"></ref>


title: Nootropic

text: The main concern with pharmaceutical drugs is adverse effects, which also apply to nootropics with undefined effect. Long-term safety evidence is typically unavailable for nootropics. Racetams, piracetam and other compounds that are structurally related to piracetam, have few serious adverse effects and low toxicity, but there is little evidence that they enhance cognition in people having no cognitive impairments.


title: Nootropic

text: In the United States, dietary supplements may be marketed if the manufacturer can show that the supplement is generally recognized as safe, and if the manufacturer does not make any claims about using the supplement to treat or prevent any disease or condition; supplements that contain drugs or advertise health claims are illegal under US law.


title: Nootropic

text: Systematic reviews and meta-analyses of clinical human research using low doses of certain central nervous system stimulants found that these drugs enhance cognition in healthy people. In particular, the classes of stimulants that demonstrate cognition-enhancing effects in humans act as direct agonists or indirect agonists of dopamine receptor D, adrenoceptor A, or both types of receptor in the prefrontal cortex. Relatively high doses of stimulants cause cognitive deficits.


title: Nootropic

text: A 2016 review reported that theanine may increase alpha waves in the brain. Alpha waves may contribute to a relaxed yet alert mental state. Another study has shown that an oral administration of theanine at doses of 50–200 mg promoted "relaxation without causing drowsiness" within 40 mins after consumption. A 2014 systematic review and meta-analysis found that concurrent caffeine and -theanine use had synergistic psychoactive effects that promoted alertness, attention, and task switching. These effects were most pronounced during the first hour post-dose.


title: Nootropic

text: Racetams, such as piracetam, oxiracetam, phenylpiracetam, and aniracetam, are often marketed as cognitive enhancers and sold over the counter. A 2019 study found that piracetam supplements sold in the United States were inaccurately labeled. Racetams are often referred to as nootropics, but this property is not well established. The racetams have poorly understood mechanisms, although piracetam and aniracetam are known to act as positive allosteric modulators of AMPA receptors and appear to modulate cholinergic systems.


title: Nootropic

text: Piracetam is not a vitamin, mineral, amino acid, herb or other botanical, or dietary substance for use by humans to supplement the diet by increasing the total dietary intake. Further, piracetam is not a concentrate, metabolite, constituent, extract or combination of any such dietary ingredient. [...] Accordingly, these products are drugs, under section 201(g)(1)(C) of the Act, 21 U.S.C. § 321(g)(1)(C), because they are not foods and they are intended to affect the structure or any function of the body. Moreover, these products are new drugs as defined by section 201(p) of the Act, 21 U.S.C. § 321(p), because they are not generally recognized as safe and effective for use under the conditions prescribed, recommended, or suggested in their labeling.


title: Nootropic

text: Some of the most widely used nootropic substances are the cholinergics. These are typically compounds and analogues of choline. Choline is an essential nutrient needed for the synthesis of acetylcholine (a neurotransmitter), and phosphatidylcholine (a structural component of brain cell membranes).


title: Nootropic

text: The cognitive enhancing effects of pramipexole, guanfacine, clonidine, and fexofenadine have been tested, but no significant cognition-enhancing effects in healthy individuals were found.


title: Nootropic

text: Psychedelic microdosing is the novel practice of using sub-threshold doses (microdoses) of psychedelic drugs in an attempt to improve mood and cognition. The efficacy of this has not been verified. In a study examining the qualitative reports of 278 microdosers the researchers found that there were mixed results among users. While some users reported positive effects such as improved mood and cognition, others paradoxically reported negative effects such as physiological discomfort and anxiety. In one of the only double-blind, randomized studies to date, those given microdoses of LSD did not perform better than those given the placebo on cognitive tasks.


title: Nootropic

text: A 2015 review found that use of omega-3 fatty acids, B vitamins, and vitamin E as nootropics was ineffective on cognitive function in normal middle-aged and older people.


title: Northumbria

text: Northumbria (; ; ) was an early medieval Anglo-Saxon kingdom in what is now Northern England and south-east Scotland.


title: Northumbria

text: The name derives from the Old English meaning "the people or province north of the Humber", as opposed to the people south of the Humber Estuary. Northumbria started to consolidate into one kingdom in the early seventh century, when the two earlier core territories of Deira and Bernicia entered into a dynastic union. At its height, the kingdom extended from the Humber, Peak District and the River Mersey on the south to the Firth of Forth (now in Scotland) on the north. Northumbria ceased to be an independent kingdom in the mid-tenth century when Deira was conquered by the Danes and formed into the Kingdom of York. The rump Earldom of Bamburgh maintained control of Bernicia for a period of time; however, the area north of the Tweed was eventually absorbed into the medieval Kingdom of Scotland while the portion south of the Tweed was absorbed into the Kingdom of England and formed into the county of Northumberland and County Palatine of Durham.


title: Northumbria

text: The Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Northumbria was originally two kingdoms divided approximately around the River Tees: Bernicia was to the north of the river and Deira to the south. It is possible that both regions originated as native Celtic British kingdoms, which the Germanic settlers later conquered, although there is very little information about the infrastructure and culture of the British kingdoms themselves. Much of the evidence for them comes from regional names that are British rather than Anglo-Saxon in origin. The names Deira and Bernicia are likely British in origin, for example, indicating that some British place names retained currency after the Anglo-Saxon migrations to Northumbria. There is also some archeological evidence to support British origins for the polities of Bernicia and Deira. In what would have been southern Bernicia, in the Cheviot Hills, a hill fort at Yeavering called Yeavering Bell contains evidence that it was an important centre for first the British and later the Anglo-Saxons. The fort is originally pre-Roman, dating back to the Iron Age at around the first century. In addition to signs of Roman occupation, the site contains evidence of timber buildings that pre-date Germanic settlement in the area that are probably signs of British settlement. Moreover, Brian Hope-Taylor has traced the origins of the name Yeavering, which looks deceptively English, back to the British gafr from Bede's mention of a township called Gefrin in the same area. Yeavering continued to be an important political centre after the Anglo-Saxons began settling in the north, as King Edwin had a royal palace at Yeavering.


title: Northumbria

text: Overall, English place-names dominate the Northumbrian landscape, suggesting the prevalence of an Anglo-Saxon elite culture by the time that Bede – Anglo-Saxon England's most prominent historian – was writing in the eighth century. According to Bede, the Angles predominated Germanic immigrants, who settled north of the Humber and gained political prominence during this time period. While the British natives may have partially assimilated into the Northumbrian political structure, relatively contemporary textual sources such as Bede's Ecclesiastical History of the English People depict relations between Northumbrians and the British as fraught.


title: Northumbria

text: The Anglo-Saxon countries of Bernicia and Deira were often in conflict before their eventual semi-permanent unification in 654. Political power in Deira was concentrated in the East Riding of Yorkshire, which included York, the North York Moors, and the Vale of York. The political heartlands of Bernicia were the areas around Bamburgh and Lindisfarne, Monkwearmouth and Jarrow, and in Cumbria, west of the Pennines in the area around Carlisle. The name that these two countries eventually united under, Northumbria, may have been coined by Bede and made popular through his Ecclesiastical History of the English People.


title: Northumbria

text: Information on the early royal genealogies for Bernicia and Deira comes from Bede's "Ecclesiastical History of the English People" and Welsh chronicler Nennius’ Historia Brittonum. According to Nennius, the Bernician royal line begins with Ida, son of Eoppa. Ida reigned for twelve years (beginning in 547) and was able to annex Bamburgh to Bernicia. In Nennius' genealogy of Deira, a king named Soemil was the first to separate Bernicia and Deira, which could mean that he wrested the kingdom of Deira from the native British. The date of this supposed separation is unknown. The first Deiran king to make an appearance in Bede's "Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Anglorum" is Ælle, the father of the first Christian Northumbrian king Edwin.


title: Northumbria

text: A king of Bernicia, Ida's grandson Æthelfrith, was the first ruler to unite the two polities under his rule. He exiled the Deiran Edwin to the court of King Rædwald of the East Angles in order to claim both kingdoms, but Edwin returned in approximately 616 to conquer Northumbria with Rædwald's aid. Edwin, who ruled from approximately 616 to 633, was one of the last kings of the Deiran line to reign over all of Northumbria; it was Oswald of Bernicia (c. 634–642) who finally succeeded in making the merger more permanent. Oswald's brother Oswiu eventually succeeded him to the Northumbrian throne despite initial attempts on Deira's part to pull away again. Although the Bernician line ultimately became the royal line of Northumbria, a series of Derian sub-kings continued after Oswald, including Oswine (a relation of Edwin murdered by Oswiu in 651), Œthelwald (killed in battle 655), and Aldfrith (son of Oswiu, who disappeared after 664). Although both Œthelwald and Aldfrith were Oswiu's relations who may have received their sub-king status from him, both used Deira separatist sentiments to try to snatch independent rule of Deira. Ultimately, neither were successful and Oswiu's son Ecgfrith succeeded him to maintain the integrated Northumbrian line.


title: Northumbria

text: While violent conflicts between Bernicia and Deira played a significant part in determining which line ultimately gained supremacy in Northumbria, marriage alliances also helped bind these two territories together. Æthelfrith married Edwin's sister Acha, although this marriage did little to prevent future squabbles between the brothers-in-law and their descendants. The second intermarriage was more successful, with Oswiu marrying Edwin's daughter and his own cousin Eanflæd to produce Ecgfrith, the beginning of the Northumbrian line. However, Oswiu had another relationship with an Irish woman named Fina which produced the problematic Aldfrith. In his "Life and Miracles of St. Cuthbert," Bede declares that Aldfrith, known as Fland among the Irish, was illegitimate and therefore unfit to rule.


title: Northumbria

text: The Viking invasions of the ninth century and the establishment of the Danelaw once again divided Northumbria. Although primarily recorded in the southern provinces of England, the Anglo-Saxon Chronicles (particularly the D and E recensions) provide some information on Northumbria's conflicts with Vikings in the late eighth and early ninth centuries. According to these chronicles, Viking raids began to affect Northumbria when a band attacked Lindisfarne in 793. After this initial catastrophic blow, Viking raids in Northumbria were either sporadic for much of the early ninth century or evidence of them was lost. However, in 865 the so-called Great Heathen Army landed in East Anglia and began a sustained campaign of conquest. The Great Army fought in Northumbria in 866–867, striking York twice in less than one year. After the initial attack the Norse left to go north, leaving Kings Ælle and Osberht to recapture the city. The E recension of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle suggests that Northumbria was particularly vulnerable at this time because the Northumbrians were once again fighting among themselves, deposing Osberht in favor of Ælle. In the second raid the Vikings killed the Northumbrian kings Ælle and Osberht while recapturing the city.


title: Northumbria

text: After King Alfred reestablished his control of southern England the Norse invaders settled into what came to be known as the Danelaw in the Midlands, East Anglia, and the southern part of Northumbria. In Northumbria, the Norse established the Kingdom of York whose boundaries were roughly the River Tees and the Humber, giving it approximately the same dimensions as Deira. Although this kingdom fell to Hiberno-Norse colonizers in the 920s and was in constant conflict with the West-Saxon expansionists from the south, it survived until 954 when the last Scandinavian king Eric, who is usually identified as Eric Bloodaxe, was driven out and eventually killed.


title: Northumbria

text: In contrast, the Great Army was not as successful in conquering territory north of the River Tees. There were raids that extended into that area, but no sources mention lasting Norse occupation and there are very few Scandinavian place names to indicate significant Norse settlement in northern regions of Northumbria. The political landscape of the area north of the Tees during the Viking conquest of Northumbria consisted of the Community of St. Cuthbert and the remnants of the English Northumbrian elites. While the religious Community of St. Cuthbert "wandered" for a hundred years after Halfdan Ragnarsson attacked their original home Lindisfarne in 875, The History of St. Cuthbert indicates that they settled temporarily at Chester-le-Street between the years 875–883 on land granted to them by the Viking King of York, Guthred. According to the twelfth-century account "Historia Regum", Guthred granted them this land in exchange for their raising him up as king. The land extended from the Tees to the Tyne and anyone who fled there from either the north or the south would receive sanctuary for thirty-seven days, indicating that the Community of St. Cuthbert had some juridical autonomy. Based on their positioning and this right of sanctuary, this community may have acted as a buffer between the Norse in southern Northumbria and the Anglo-Saxons who continued to hold the north.


title: Northumbria

text: North of the Tyne, Northumbrians maintained partial political control in Bamburgh. The rule of kings continued in that area with Ecgberht I acting as regent around 867 and the kings Ricsige and Ecgberht II immediately following him. According to twelfth-century historian Symeon of Durham, Ecgberht I was a client-king for the Norse. The Northumbrians revolted against him in 872, deposing him in favor of Ricsige. Although the A and E recensions of the "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle" report that Halfdan was able to take control of Deira and take a raiding party north of the River Tyne to impose his rule on Bernicia in 874, after Halfdan's death (c. 877) the Norse had difficulty holding on to territory in northern Bernicia. Ricsige and his successor Ecgberht were able to maintain an English presence in Northumbria. After the reign of Ecgberht II, Eadwulf "King of the North Saxons" (r. 890–912) succeeded him for control of Bamburgh, but after Eadwulf rulership of this area switched over to earls who may have also been related to the last of the royal Northumbrian house.


title: Northumbria

text: Æthelfrith was the first Anglo-Saxon leader to hold the thrones of both Deira and Bernicia, and so he ruled over all the people north of the Humber. His rule was notable for his numerous victories over the Britons and the Gaels.


title: Northumbria

text: Edwin, like Æthelfrith, was king of both Deira and Bernicia and ruled them from 616 to 633. Under his reign the Isle of Man and the lands of Gwynedd in Northern Wales were incorporated into Northumbria. Edwin married Æthelburh, a Christian Princess from Kent in 625. He converted to Christianity two years later after a period of heavy consideration and after consulting numerous advisors. Edwin fell in battle in 633 against Cadwallon of Gwynedd and the pagan Penda of Mercia. He was venerated as a saint and martyr after his death.


title: Northumbria

text: Oswald was a King of Bernicia, who regained the kingdom of Deira after defeating Cadwallon in 634. Oswald then ruled Northumbria until his death in 642. A devout Christian, Oswald worked tirelessly to spread the religion in his traditionally pagan lands. It was during his reign that the monastery at Lindisfarne was created. Oswald fell in the Battle of Maserfield against Penda of Mercia in 642 but his influence endured because, like Edwin, Oswald was venerated as a saint after his death.


title: Northumbria

text: Oswiu was the brother of Oswald and succeeded him after the latter's defeat in Maserfield. Oswiu succeeded where Edwin and Oswald failed as, in 655, he slew Penda during the Battle of the Winwaed, making him the first Northumbrian King to also control the kingdom of Mercia. During his reign, he presided over the Synod of Whitby, an attempt to reconcile religious differences between Roman and Celtic Christianity, in which he eventually backed Rome. Oswiu died from illness in 670 and divided Deira and Bernicia between two of his sons.


title: Northumbria

text: Halfdan Ragnarsson was a Viking leader of the Great Heathen Army which invaded England in 865. He allegedly wanted revenge against Northumbria for the death of his father, who was supposedly killed by Ælla of Northumbria. While he himself only ruled Northumbria directly for about a year in 876, he placed Ecgberht on the throne as a client-king, who ruled from 867 to 872. Halfdan was killed in Ireland in 877 whilst trying to regain control over Dublin, a land he had ruled since 875. There were no further Viking kings in Northumbria until Guthfrith took over in 883.


title: Northumbria

text: Æthelstan ruled as King of the Anglo-Saxons from 924 to 927 and King of the English from 927 to 939. The shift in his title reflects that in 927, Æthelstan conquered the Viking Kingdom of York, previously part of the Northumbrian Kingdom. His reign was quite prosperous and saw great strides in many fields such as law and economics, but was also characterized by frequent clashes with the Scots and the Vikings. Æthelstan died in 939, which led to the Vikings' retaking of York. Æthelstan is widely considered one of the greatest Anglo-Saxon kings for his efforts to consolidate the English kingdom and the prosperity his reign brought.


title: Northumbria

text: In the early twentieth century, historians identified Eric of York with the Norwegian king Eric Bloodaxe, but more recent scholarship has challenged this association. He held two short terms as King of Northumbria, from 947 to 948 and 952 to 954. Historical documentation on his reign is scarce, but it seems Eric pushed out the joint English-Viking rulers of Northumbria in 947, who then regained the land in 948 or 949. Eric took back the throne in 952, only to be deposed again in 954. Eric of York was the last Danish king of Northumbria; after his death in 954, Eadred of Wessex stripped the kingdom of its independent status and made the land part of England.


title: Northumbria

text: Eadred of Wessex was the half-brother of Æthelstan and Eadmund of Wessex, all of whom were fathered by Edward the Elder. He was nominally the ruler of Northumbria from 946, as he succeeded Eadmund, but had to deal with the threat of independent Viking kingdoms under Amlaíb Cuarán and Eric Bloodaxe. He permanently absorbed Northumbria into the English Kingdom in 954 after the death of Eric.


title: Northumbria

text: Between the years of 737 AD and 806 AD, Northumbria had ten kings, all of whom were murdered, deposed, or exiled or became monks. Between Oswiu, the first king of Northumbria in 654, and Eric Bloodaxe, the last king of Northumbria in 954, there were forty-five kings, meaning that the average length of reign during the entire history of Northumbria is only six and a half years. Of the twenty-five kings before the Danish rule of Northumbria, only four died of natural causes. Of those that did not abdicate for a holy life, the rest were either deposed, exiled, or murdered. Kings during the Danish rule of Northumbria (see Danelaw) were often either kings of a larger North Sea or Danish empire, or were installed rulers.