title: Computer program

text: Writing large, reliable, and readable Lisp programs requires forethought. If properly planned, the program may be much shorter than an equivalent "imperative language" program. "Lisp" is widely used in artificial intelligence. However, its usage has been accepted only because it has "imperative language" operations, making unintended side-effects possible.


title: Computer program

text: ML (1973) stands for "Meta Language." ML checks to make sure only data of the same type are compared with one another. For example, this function has one input parameter (an integer) and returns an integer:


title: Computer program

text: Like "Lisp", "ML" is tailored to process lists. Unlike "Lisp", each element is the same datatype. Moreover, "ML" assigns the datatype of an element at compile-time. Assigning the datatype at compile-time is called static binding. Static binding increases reliability because the compiler checks the context of variables before they are used.


title: Computer program

text: Prolog (1972) stands for "PROgramming in LOgic." It was designed to process natural languages. The building blocks of a Prolog program are "objects" and their "relationships" to other objects. "Objects" are built by stating true "facts" about them.


title: Computer program

text: "Relationships" are formed using multiple items inside the parentheses. In our example we have codice_44 and codice_45.


title: Computer program

text: Prolog's usage has expanded to become a goal-oriented language. In a goal-oriented application, the goal is defined by providing a list of subgoals. Then each subgoal is defined by further providing a list of its subgoals, etc. If a path of subgoals fails to find a solution, then that subgoal is backtracked and another path is systematically attempted. Practical applications include solving the shortest path problem and producing family trees.


title: Computer program

text: Object-oriented programming is a programming method to execute operations (functions) on objects. The basic idea is to group the characteristics of a phenomenon into an object container and give the container a name. The "operations" on the phenomenon are also grouped into the container. "Object-oriented programming" developed by combining the need for containers and the need for safe functional programming. This programming method need not be confined to an "object-oriented language". In an object-oriented language, an object container is called a class. In a non-object-oriented language, a data structure (which is also known as a record) may become an object container. To turn a data structure into an object container, operations need to be written specifically for the structure. The resulting structure is called an abstract datatype. However, inheritance will be missing. Nonetheless, this shortcoming can be overcome.


title: Computer program

text: Here is a C programming language "header file" for the "GRADE abstract datatype" in a simple school application:


title: Computer program

text: Here is a C programming language "source file" for the "GRADE abstract datatype" in a simple school application:


title: Computer program

text: In the constructor, the function codice_50 is used instead of codice_4 because each memory cell will be set to zero.


title: Computer program

text: Here is a C programming language "header file" for the "PERSON abstract datatype" in a simple school application:


title: Computer program

text: Here is a C programming language "source file" for the "PERSON abstract datatype" in a simple school application:


title: Computer program

text: Here is a C programming language "header file" for the "STUDENT abstract datatype" in a simple school application:


title: Computer program

text: Here is a C programming language "source file" for the "STUDENT abstract datatype" in a simple school application:


title: Computer program

text: The syntax of a programming language is a list of production rules which govern its "form". A programming language's "form" is the correct placement of its declarations, expressions, and statements. Complementing the syntax of a language are its semantics. The "semantics" describe the meanings attached to various syntactic constructs. A syntactic construct may need a semantic description because a form may have an invalid interpretation. Also, different languages might have the same syntax; however, their behaviors may be different.


title: Computer program

text: The syntax of a language is formally described by listing the "production rules". Whereas the syntax of a natural language is extremely complicated, a subset of the English language can have this production rule listing:


title: Computer program

text: The words in bold-face are known as "non-terminals". The words in 'single quotes' are known as "terminals".


title: Computer program

text: From this production rule listing, complete sentences may be formed using a series of replacements. The process is to replace "non-terminals" with either a valid "non-terminal" or a valid "terminal". The replacement process repeats until only "terminals" remain. One valid sentence is:


title: Computer program

text: One "production rule" listing method is called the Backus–Naur form (BNF). BNF describes the syntax of a language and itself has a "syntax". This recursive definition is an example of a meta-language. The "syntax" of BNF includes:


title: Computer program

text: This allows for an infinite number of possibilities. Therefore, a "semantic" is necessary to describe a limitation of the number of digits.


title: Computer program

text: Two formal methods are available to describe "semantics". They are denotational semantics and axiomatic semantics.


title: Computer program

text: Software engineering is a variety of techniques to produce quality software. Computer programming is the process of writing or editing source code. In a formal environment, a systems analyst will gather information from managers about all the organization's processes to automate. This professional then prepares a detailed plan for the new or modified system. The plan is analogous to an architect's blueprint.


title: Computer program

text: The systems analyst has the objective to deliver the right information to the right person at the right time. The critical factors to achieve this objective are:


title: Computer program

text: Applying a systems development process will mitigate the axiom: the later in the process an error is detected, the more expensive it is to correct.


title: Computer program

text: The waterfall model is an implementation of a "systems development process". As the "waterfall" label implies, the basic phases overlap each other:


title: Computer program

text: A computer programmer is a specialist responsible for writing or modifying the source code to implement the detailed plan. A programming team is likely to be needed because most systems are too large to be completed by a single programmer. However, adding programmers to a project may not shorten the completion time. Instead, it may lower the quality of the system. To be effective, program modules need to be defined and distributed to team members. Also, team members must interact with one another in a meaningful and effective way.


title: Computer program

text: Computer programmers may be "programming-in-the-small": programming within a single module. Chances are a module will execute modules located in other source code files. Therefore, computer programmers may be "programming-in-the-large": programming modules so they will effectively couple with each other. Programming-in-the-large includes contributing to the application programming interface (API).


title: Computer program

text: Modular programming is a technique to refine "imperative language" programs. Refined programs may reduce the software size, separate responsibilities, and thereby mitigate software aging. A "program module" is a sequence of statements that are bounded within a block and together identified by a name. Modules have a "function", "context", and "logic":


title: Computer program

text: The module's name should be derived first by its "function", then by its "context". Its "logic" should not be part of the name. For example, codice_56 or codice_57 are appropriate module names. However, codice_58 is not.


title: Computer program

text: The degree of interaction "within" a module is its level of cohesion. "Cohesion" is a judgment of the relationship between a module's name and its "function". The degree of interaction "between" modules is the level of coupling. "Coupling" is a judgement of the relationship between a module's "context" and the elements being performed upon.


title: Computer program

text: "Data flow analysis" is a design method used to achieve modules of "functional cohesion" and "data coupling". The input to the method is a data-flow diagram. A data-flow diagram is a set of ovals representing modules. Each module's name is displayed inside its oval. Modules may be at the executable level or the function level.


title: Computer program

text: The diagram also has arrows connecting modules to each other. Arrows pointing into modules represent a set of inputs. Each module should have only one arrow pointing out from it to represent its single output object. (Optionally, an additional exception arrow points out.) A daisy chain of ovals will convey an entire algorithm. The input modules should start the diagram. The input modules should connect to the transform modules. The transform modules should connect to the output modules.


title: Computer program

text: "Computer programs" may be categorized along functional lines. The main functional categories are application software and system software. System software includes the operating system, which couples computer hardware with application software. The purpose of the operating system is to provide an environment where application software executes in a convenient and efficient manner. Both application software and system software execute utility programs. At the hardware level, a microcode program controls the circuits throughout the central processing unit.


title: Computer program

text: Application software is the key to unlocking the potential of the computer system. Enterprise application software bundles accounting, personnel, customer, and vendor applications. Examples include enterprise resource planning, customer relationship management, and supply chain management software.


title: Computer program

text: Enterprise applications may be developed in-house as a one-of-a-kind proprietary software. Alternatively, they may be purchased as off-the-shelf software. Purchased software may be modified to provide custom software. If the application is customized, then either the company's resources are used or the resources are outsourced. Outsourced software development may be from the original software vendor or a third-party developer.


title: Computer program

text: The potential advantages of in-house software are features and reports may be developed exactly to specification. Management may also be involved in the development process and offer a level of control. Management may decide to counteract a competitor's new initiative or implement a customer or vendor requirement. A merger or acquisition may necessitate enterprise software changes. The potential disadvantages of in-house software are time and resource costs may be extensive. Furthermore, risks concerning features and performance may be looming.


title: Computer program

text: The potential advantages of off-the-shelf software are upfront costs are identifiable, the basic needs should be fulfilled, and its performance and reliability have a track record. The potential disadvantages of off-the-shelf software are it may have unnecessary features that confuse end users, it may lack features the enterprise needs, and the data flow may not match the enterprise's work processes.


title: Computer program

text: One approach to economically obtaining a customized enterprise application is through an application service provider. Specialty companies provide hardware, custom software, and end-user support. They may speed the development of new applications because they possess skilled information system staff. The biggest advantage is it frees in-house resources from staffing and managing complex computer projects. Many application service providers target small, fast-growing companies with limited information system resources. On the other hand, larger companies with major systems will likely have their technical infrastructure in place. One risk is having to trust an external organization with sensitive information. Another risk is having to trust the provider's infrastructure reliability.


title: Computer program

text: An operating system is the low-level software that supports a computer's basic functions, such as scheduling processes and controlling peripherals.


title: Computer program

text: In the 1950s, the programmer, who was also the operator, would write a program and run it. After the program finished executing, the output may have been printed, or it may have been punched onto paper tape or cards for later processing. More often than not the program did not work. The programmer then looked at the console lights and fiddled with the console switches. If less fortunate, a memory printout was made for further study. In the 1960s, programmers reduced the amount of wasted time by automating the operator's job. A program called an "operating system" was kept in the computer at all times.


title: Computer program

text: The term "operating system" may refer to two levels of software. The operating system may refer to the kernel program that manages the processes, memory, and devices. More broadly, the operating system may refer to the entire package of the central software. The package includes a kernel program, command-line interpreter, graphical user interface, utility programs, and editor.


title: Computer program

text: Originally, operating systems were programmed in assembly; however, modern operating systems are typically written in higher-level languages like C, Objective-C, and Swift.


title: Computer program

text: A utility program is designed to aid system administration and software execution. Operating systems execute hardware utility programs to check the status of disk drives, memory, speakers, and printers. A utility program may optimize the placement of a file on a crowded disk. System utility programs monitor hardware and network performance. When a metric is outside an acceptable range, a trigger alert is generated.


title: Computer program

text: Utility programs include compression programs so data files are stored on less disk space. Compressed programs also save time when data files are transmitted over the network. Utility programs can sort and merge data sets. Utility programs detect computer viruses.


title: Computer program

text: A microcode program is the bottom-level interpreter that controls the data path of software-driven computers.


title: Computer program

text: (Advances in hardware have migrated these operations to hardware execution circuits.) Microcode instructions allow the programmer to more easily implement the digital logic level—the computer's real hardware. The digital logic level is the boundary between computer science and computer engineering.


title: Computer program

text: These five gates form the building blocks of binary algebra—the digital logic functions of the computer.


title: Computer program

text: Microcode instructions are mnemonics programmers may use to execute digital logic functions instead of forming them in binary algebra. They are stored in a central processing unit's (CPU) control store.


title: Computer program

text: The micro-instruction cycle begins when the microsequencer uses its microprogram counter to "fetch" the next machine instruction from random-access memory. The next step is to "decode" the machine instruction by selecting the proper output line to the hardware module.


title: Computer program

text: Instructions to perform arithmetic are passed through an arithmetic logic unit (ALU). The ALU has circuits to perform elementary operations to add, shift, and compare integers. By combining and looping the elementary operations through the ALU, the CPU performs its complex arithmetic.


title: Computer program

text: Microcode instructions move data between the CPU and the memory controller. Memory controller microcode instructions manipulate two registers. The memory address register is used to access each memory cell's address. The memory data register is used to set and read each cell's contents.


title: Computer program

text: Microcode instructions move data between the CPU and the many computer buses. The disk controller bus writes to and reads from hard disk drives. Data is also moved between the CPU and other functional units via the peripheral component interconnect express bus.


title: Fairy tale

text: A fairy tale (alternative names include fairytale, fairy story, magic tale, or wonder tale) is a short story that belongs to the folklore genre. Such stories typically feature magic, enchantments, and mythical or fanciful beings. In most cultures, there is no clear line separating myth from folk or fairy tale; all these together form the literature of preliterate societies. Fairy tales may be distinguished from other folk narratives such as legends (which generally involve belief in the veracity of the events described) and explicit moral tales, including beast fables.


title: Fairy tale

text: In less technical contexts, the term is also used to describe something blessed with unusual happiness, as in "fairy-tale ending" (a happy ending) or "fairy-tale romance". Colloquially, the term "fairy tale" or "fairy story" can also mean any far-fetched story or tall tale; it is used especially of any story that not only is not true, but could not possibly be true. Legends are perceived as real within their culture; fairy tales may merge into legends, where the narrative is perceived both by teller and hearers as being grounded in historical truth. However, unlike legends and epics, fairy tales usually do not contain more than superficial references to religion and to actual places, people, and events; they take place "once upon a time" rather than in actual times.


title: Fairy tale

text: Fairy tales occur both in oral and in literary form; the name "fairy tale" (""conte de fées"" in French) was first ascribed to them by Madame d'Aulnoy in the late 17th century. Many of today's fairy tales have evolved from centuries-old stories that have appeared, with variations, in multiple cultures around the world.


title: Fairy tale

text: The history of the fairy tale is particularly difficult to trace because only the literary forms can survive. Still, according to researchers at universities in Durham and Lisbon, such stories may date back thousands of years, some to the Bronze Age. Fairy tales, and works derived from fairy tales, are still written today.


title: Fairy tale

text: The Jatakas are probably the oldest collection of such tales in literature, and the greater part of the rest are demonstrably more than a thousand years old. It is certain that much (perhaps one~fifth) of the popular literature of modern Europe is derived from those portions of this large bulk which came west with the Crusades through the medium of Arabs and Jews.


title: Fairy tale

text: Folklorists have classified fairy tales in various ways. The Aarne-Thompson classification system and the morphological analysis of Vladimir Propp are among the most notable. Other folklorists have interpreted the tales' significance, but no school has been definitively established for the meaning of the tales.


title: Fairy tale

text: Some folklorists prefer to use the German term "Märchen" or "wonder tale" to refer to the genre rather than "fairy tale", a practice given weight by the definition of Thompson in his 1977 [1946] edition of "The Folktale": "a tale of some length involving a succession of motifs or episodes. It moves in an unreal world without definite locality or definite creatures and is filled with the marvellous. In this never-never land, humble heroes kill adversaries, succeed to kingdoms and marry princesses." The characters and motifs of fairy tales are simple and archetypal: princesses and goose-girls; youngest sons and gallant princes; ogres, giants, dragons, and trolls; wicked stepmothers and false heroes; fairy godmothers and other magical helpers, often talking horses, or foxes, or birds; glass mountains; and prohibitions and breaking of prohibitions.


title: Fairy tale

text: Although the fairy tale is a distinct genre within the larger category of folktale, the definition that marks a work as a fairy tale is a source of considerable dispute. The term itself comes from the translation of Madame D'Aulnoy's "Conte de fées", first used in her collection in 1697. Common parlance conflates fairy tales with beast fables and other folktales, and scholars differ on the degree to which the presence of fairies and/or similarly mythical beings (e.g., elves, goblins, trolls, giants, huge monsters, or mermaids) should be taken as a differentiator. Vladimir Propp, in his "Morphology of the Folktale", criticized the common distinction between "fairy tales" and "animal tales" on the grounds that many tales contained both fantastic elements and animals. Nevertheless, to select works for his analysis, Propp used all Russian folktales classified as a folklore, Aarne–Thompson–Uther Index 300–749, – in a cataloguing system that made such a distinction – to gain a clear set of tales. His own analysis identified fairy tales by their plot elements, but that in itself has been criticized, as the analysis does not lend itself easily to tales that do not involve a quest, and furthermore, the same plot elements are found in non-fairy tale works.


title: Fairy tale

text: As Stith Thompson points out, talking animals and the presence of magic seem to be more common to the fairy tale than fairies themselves. However, the mere presence of animals that talk does not make a tale a fairy tale, especially when the animal is clearly a mask on a human face, as in fables.


title: Fairy tale

text: In his essay "On Fairy-Stories", J. R. R. Tolkien agreed with the exclusion of "fairies" from the definition, defining fairy tales as stories about the adventures of men in "Faërie", the land of fairies, fairytale princes and princesses, dwarves, elves, and not only other magical species but many other marvels. However, the same essay excludes tales that are often considered fairy tales, citing as an example "The Monkey's Heart", which Andrew Lang included in "The Lilac Fairy Book".


title: Fairy tale

text: Steven Swann Jones identified the presence of magic as the feature by which fairy tales can be distinguished from other sorts of folktales. Davidson and Chaudri identify "transformation" as the key feature of the genre. From a psychological point of view, Jean Chiriac argued for the necessity of the fantastic in these narratives.


title: Fairy tale

text: In terms of aesthetic values, Italo Calvino cited the fairy tale as a prime example of "quickness" in literature, because of the economy and concision of the tales.


title: Fairy tale

text: Originally, stories that would contemporarily be considered fairy tales were not marked out as a separate genre. The German term "Märchen" stems from the old German word "Mär", which means news or tale. The word "Märchen" is the diminutive of the word "Mär", therefore it means a "little story". Together with the common beginning "once upon a time", this tells us that a fairy tale or a märchen was originally a little story from a long time ago when the world was still magic. (Indeed, one less regular German opening is "In the old times when wishing was still effective".)


title: Fairy tale

text: Roots of the genre come from different oral stories passed down in European cultures. The genre was first marked out by writers of the Renaissance, such as Giovanni Francesco Straparola and Giambattista Basile, and stabilized through the works of later collectors such as Charles Perrault and the Brothers Grimm. In this evolution, the name was coined when the "précieuses" took up writing literary stories; Madame d'Aulnoy invented the term "Conte de fée", or fairy tale, in the late 17th century.


title: Fairy tale

text: Before the definition of the genre of fantasy, many works that would now be classified as fantasy were termed "fairy tales", including Tolkien's "The Hobbit", George Orwell's "Animal Farm", and L. Frank Baum's "The Wonderful Wizard of Oz". Indeed, Tolkien's "On Fairy-Stories" includes discussions of world-building and is considered a vital part of fantasy criticism. Although fantasy, particularly the subgenre of fairytale fantasy, draws heavily on fairy tale motifs, the genres are now regarded as distinct.


title: Fairy tale

text: The fairy tale, told orally, is a sub-class of the folktale. Many writers have written in the form of the fairy tale. These are the literary fairy tales, or "Kunstmärchen". The oldest forms, from "Panchatantra" to the "Pentamerone", show considerable reworking from the oral form. The Grimm brothers were among the first to try to preserve the features of oral tales. Yet the stories printed under the Grimm name have been considerably reworked to fit the written form.


title: Fairy tale

text: Literary fairy tales and oral fairy tales freely exchanged plots, motifs, and elements with one another and with the tales of foreign lands. The literary fairy tale came into fashion during the 17th century, developed by aristocratic women as a parlour game. This, in turn, helped to maintain the oral tradition. According to Jack Zipes, "The subject matter of the conversations consisted of literature, mores, taste, and etiquette, whereby the speakers all endeavoured to portray ideal situations in the most effective oratorical style that would gradually have a major effect on literary forms." Many 18th-century folklorists attempted to recover the "pure" folktale, uncontaminated by literary versions. Yet while oral fairy tales likely existed for thousands of years before the literary forms, there is no pure folktale, and each literary fairy tale draws on folk traditions, if only in parody. This makes it impossible to trace forms of transmission of a fairy tale. Oral story-tellers have been known to read literary fairy tales to increase their own stock of stories and treatments.


title: Fairy tale

text: The oral tradition of the fairy tale came long before the written page. Tales were told or enacted dramatically, rather than written down, and handed down from generation to generation. Because of this, the history of their development is necessarily obscure and blurred. Fairy tales appear, now and again, in written literature throughout literate cultures, as in "The Golden Ass", which includes "Cupid and Psyche" (Roman, 100–200 AD), or the "Panchatantra" (India 3rd century BC), but it is unknown to what extent these reflect the actual folk tales even of their own time. The stylistic evidence indicates that these, and many later collections, reworked folk tales into literary forms. What they do show is that the fairy tale has ancient roots, older than the "Arabian Nights" collection of magical tales (compiled "circa" 1500 AD), such as "Vikram and the Vampire", and "Bel and the Dragon". Besides such collections and individual tales, in China, Taoist philosophers such as Liezi and Zhuangzi recounted fairy tales in their philosophical works. In the broader definition of the genre, the first famous Western fairy tales are those of Aesop (6th century BC) in ancient Greece.


title: Fairy tale

text: Scholarship points out that Medieval literature contains early versions or predecessors of later known tales and motifs, such as the grateful dead, The Bird Lover or the quest for the lost wife. Recognizable folktales have also been reworked as the plot of folk literature and oral epics.


title: Fairy tale

text: Jack Zipes writes in "When Dreams Came True", "There are fairy tale elements in Chaucer's "The Canterbury Tales", Edmund Spenser's "The Faerie Queene", and in many of William Shakespeare plays." "King Lear" can be considered a literary variant of fairy tales such as "Water and Salt" and "Cap O' Rushes". The tale itself resurfaced in Western literature in the 16th and 17th centuries, with "The Facetious Nights of Straparola" by Giovanni Francesco Straparola (Italy, 1550 and 1553), which contains many fairy tales in its inset tales, and the Neapolitan tales of Giambattista Basile (Naples, 1634–36), which are all fairy tales. Carlo Gozzi made use of many fairy tale motifs among his Commedia dell'Arte scenarios, including among them one based on "The Love For Three Oranges" (1761). Simultaneously, Pu Songling, in China, included many fairy tales in his collection, "Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio" (published posthumously, 1766). The fairy tale itself became popular among the "précieuses" of upper-class France (1690–1710), and among the tales told in that time were the ones of La Fontaine and the "Contes" of Charles Perrault (1697), who fixed the forms of "Sleeping Beauty" and "Cinderella". Although Straparola's, Basile's and Perrault's collections contain the oldest known forms of various fairy tales, on the stylistic evidence, all the writers rewrote the tales for literary effect.


title: Fairy tale

text: In the mid-17th century, a vogue for magical tales emerged among the intellectuals who frequented the salons of Paris. These salons were regular gatherings hosted by prominent aristocratic women, where women and men could gather together to discuss the issues of the day.


title: Fairy tale

text: In the 1630s, aristocratic women began to gather in their own living rooms, salons, to discuss the topics of their choice: arts and letters, politics, and social matters of immediate concern to the women of their class: marriage, love, financial and physical independence, and access to education. This was a time when women were barred from receiving a formal education. Some of the most gifted women writers of the period came out of these early salons (such as Madeleine de Scudéry and Madame de Lafayette), which encouraged women's independence and pushed against the gender barriers that defined their lives. The salonnières argued particularly for love and intellectual compatibility between the sexes, opposing the system of arranged marriages.


title: Fairy tale

text: Sometime in the middle of the 17th century, a passion for the conversational parlour game based on the plots of old folk tales swept through the salons. Each salonnière was called upon to retell an old tale or rework an old theme, spinning clever new stories that not only showcased verbal agility and imagination but also slyly commented on the conditions of aristocratic life. Great emphasis was placed on a mode of delivery that seemed natural and spontaneous. The decorative language of the fairy tales served an important function: disguising the rebellious subtext of the stories and sliding them past the court censors. Critiques of court life (and even of the king) were embedded in extravagant tales and in dark, sharply dystopian ones. Not surprisingly, the tales by women often featured young (but clever) aristocratic girls whose lives were controlled by the arbitrary whims of fathers, kings, and elderly wicked fairies, as well as tales in which groups of wise fairies (i.e., intelligent, independent women) stepped in and put all to rights.


title: Fairy tale

text: The salon tales as they were originally written and published have been preserved in a monumental work called "Le Cabinet des Fées", an enormous collection of stories from the 17th and 18th centuries.


title: Fairy tale

text: The first collectors to attempt to preserve not only the plot and characters of the tale, but also the style in which they were told, was the Brothers Grimm, collecting German fairy tales; ironically, this meant although their first edition (1812 & 1815) remains a treasure for folklorists, they rewrote the tales in later editions to make them more acceptable, which ensured their sales and the later popularity of their work.


title: Fairy tale

text: Such literary forms did not merely draw from the folktale, but also influenced folktales in turn. The Brothers Grimm rejected several tales for their collection, though told orally to them by Germans, because the tales derived from Perrault, and they concluded they were thereby French and not German tales; an oral version of "Bluebeard" was thus rejected, and the tale of "Little Briar Rose", clearly related to Perrault's "The Sleeping Beauty", was included only because Jacob Grimm convinced his brother that the figure of Brynhildr, from much earlier Norse mythology, proved that the sleeping princess was authentically Germanic folklore.


title: Fairy tale

text: This consideration of whether to keep "Sleeping Beauty" reflected a belief common among folklorists of the 19th century: that the folk tradition preserved fairy tales in forms from pre-history except when "contaminated" by such literary forms, leading people to tell inauthentic tales. The rural, illiterate, and uneducated peasants, if suitably isolated, were the "folk" and would tell pure "folk" tales. Sometimes they regarded fairy tales as a form of fossil, the remnants of a once-perfect tale. However, further research has concluded that fairy tales never had a fixed form, and regardless of literary influence, the tellers constantly altered them for their own purposes.


title: Fairy tale

text: The work of the Brothers Grimm influenced other collectors, both inspiring them to collect tales and leading them to similarly believe, in a spirit of romantic nationalism, that the fairy tales of a country were particularly representative of it, to the neglect of cross-cultural influence. Among those influenced were the Russian Alexander Afanasyev (first published in 1866), the Norwegians Peter Christen Asbjørnsen and Jørgen Moe (first published in 1845), the Romanian Petre Ispirescu (first published in 1874), the English Joseph Jacobs (first published in 1890), and Jeremiah Curtin, an American who collected Irish tales (first published in 1890). Ethnographers collected fairy tales throughout the world, finding similar tales in Africa, the Americas, and Australia; Andrew Lang was able to draw on not only the written tales of Europe and Asia, but those collected by ethnographers, to fill his "coloured" fairy books series. They also encouraged other collectors of fairy tales, as when Yei Theodora Ozaki created a collection, "Japanese Fairy Tales" (1908), after encouragement from Lang. Simultaneously, writers such as Hans Christian Andersen and George MacDonald continued the tradition of literary fairy tales. Andersen's work sometimes drew on old folktales, but more often deployed fairytale motifs and plots in new tales. MacDonald incorporated fairytale motifs both in new literary fairy tales, such as "The Light Princess", and in works of the genre that would become fantasy, as in "The Princess and the Goblin" or "Lilith".


title: Fairy tale

text: Two theories of origins have attempted to explain the common elements in fairy tales found spread over continents. One is that a single point of origin generated any given tale, which then spread over the centuries; the other is that such fairy tales stem from common human experience and therefore can appear separately in many different origins.


title: Fairy tale

text: Fairy tales with very similar plots, characters, and motifs are found spread across many different cultures. Many researchers hold this to be caused by the spread of such tales, as people repeat tales they have heard in foreign lands, although the oral nature makes it impossible to trace the route except by inference. Folklorists have attempted to determine the origin by internal evidence, which can not always be clear; Joseph Jacobs, comparing the Scottish tale "The Ridere of Riddles" with the version collected by the Brothers Grimm, "The Riddle", noted that in "The Ridere of Riddles" one hero ends up polygamously married, which might point to an ancient custom, but in "The Riddle", the simpler riddle might argue greater antiquity.


title: Fairy tale

text: Folklorists of the "Finnish" (or historical-geographical) school attempted to place fairy tales to their origin, with inconclusive results. Sometimes influence, especially within a limited area and time, is clearer, as when considering the influence of Perrault's tales on those collected by the Brothers Grimm. "Little Briar-Rose" appears to stem from Perrault's "The Sleeping Beauty", as the Grimms' tale appears to be the only independent German variant. Similarly, the close agreement between the opening of the Grimms' version of "Little Red Riding Hood" and Perrault's tale points to an influence, although the Grimms' version adds a different ending (perhaps derived from "The Wolf and the Seven Young Kids").


title: Fairy tale

text: Fairy tales tend to take on the color of their location, through the choice of motifs, the style in which they are told, and the depiction of character and local color.


title: Fairy tale

text: The Brothers Grimm believed that European fairy tales derived from the cultural history shared by all Indo-European peoples and were therefore ancient, far older than written records. This view is supported by research by the anthropologist Jamie Tehrani and the folklorist Sara Graca Da Silva using phylogenetic analysis, a technique developed by evolutionary biologists to trace the relatedness of living and fossil species. Among the tales analysed were "Jack and the Beanstalk", traced to the time of splitting of Eastern and Western Indo-European, over 5000 years ago. Both "Beauty and the Beast" and "Rumpelstiltskin" appear to have been created some 4000 years ago. The story of "The Smith and the Devil" (Deal with the Devil) appears to date from the Bronze Age, some 6000 years ago. Various other studies converge to suggest that some fairy tales, for example the swan maiden, could go back to the Upper Palaeolithic.


title: Fairy tale

text: Originally, adults were the audience of a fairy tale just as often as children. Literary fairy tales appeared in works intended for adults, but in the 19th and 20th centuries the fairy tale became associated with children's literature.


title: Fairy tale

text: The "précieuses", including Madame d'Aulnoy, intended their works for adults, but regarded their source as the tales that servants, or other women of lower class, would tell to children. Indeed, a novel of that time, depicting a countess's suitor offering to tell such a tale, has the countess exclaim that she loves fairy tales as if she were still a child. Among the late "précieuses", Jeanne-Marie Le Prince de Beaumont redacted a version of "Beauty and the Beast" for children, and it is her tale that is best known today. The Brothers Grimm titled their collection "Children's and Household Tales" and rewrote their tales after complaints that they were not suitable for children.


title: Fairy tale

text: In the modern era, fairy tales were altered so that they could be read to children. The Brothers Grimm concentrated mostly on sexual references; Rapunzel, in the first edition, revealed the prince's visits by asking why her clothing had grown tight, thus letting the witch deduce that she was pregnant, but in subsequent editions carelessly revealed that it was easier to pull up the prince than the witch. On the other hand, in many respects, violenceparticularly when punishing villainswas increased. Other, later, revisions cut out violence; J.R.R.Tolkien noted that "The Juniper Tree" often had its cannibalistic stew cut out in a version intended for children. The moralizing strain in the Victorian era altered the classical tales to teach lessons, as when George Cruikshank rewrote "Cinderella" in 1854 to contain temperance themes. His acquaintance Charles Dickens protested, "In an utilitarian age, of all other times, it is a matter of grave importance that fairy tales should be respected."


title: Fairy tale

text: Psychoanalysts such as Bruno Bettelheim, who regarded the cruelty of older fairy tales as indicative of psychological conflicts, strongly criticized this expurgation, because it weakened their usefulness to both children and adults as ways of symbolically resolving issues. Fairy tales do teach children how to deal with difficult times. To quote Rebecca Walters (2017, p. 56) "Fairytales and folktales are part of the cultural conserve that can be used to address children’s fears …. and give them some role training in an approach that honors the children’s window of tolerance". These fairy tales teach children how to deal with certain social situations and helps them to find their place in society. Fairy tales teach children other important lessons too. For example, Tsitsani et al. carried out a study on children to determine the benefits of fairy tales. Parents of the children who took part in the study found that fairy tales, especially the color in them, triggered their child's imagination as they read them.Jungian Analyst and fairy tale scholar, Marie Louise Von Franz interprets fairy tales based on Jung's view of fairy tales as a spontaneous and naive product of soul, which can only express what soul is. That means, she looks at fairy tales as images of different phases of experiencing the reality of the soul. They are the "purest and simplest expression of collective unconscious psychic processes" and "they represent the archetypes in their simplest, barest and most concise form" because they are less overlaid with conscious material than myths and legends. "In this pure form, the archetypal images afford us the best clues to the understanding of the processes going on in the collective psyche". "The fairy tale itself is its own best explanation; that is, its meaning is contained in the totality of its motifs connected by the thread of the story. [...] Every fairy tale is a relatively closed system compounding one essential psychological meaning which is expressed in a series of symbolical pictures and events and is discoverable in these". "I have come to the conclusion that all fairy tales endeavour to describe one and the same psychic fact, but a fact so complex and far-reaching and so difficult for us to realize in all its different aspects that hundreds of tales and thousands of repetitions with a musician's variation are needed until this unknown fact is delivered into consciousness; and even then the theme is not exhausted. This unknown fact is what Jung calls the Self, which is the psychic reality of the collective unconscious. [...] Every archetype is in its essence only one aspect of the collective unconscious as well as always representing also the whole collective unconscious.


title: Fairy tale

text: Other famous people commented on the importance of fairy tales, especially for children. For example, Albert Einstein once showed how important he believed fairy tales were for children's intelligence in the quote "If you want your children to be intelligent, read them fairytales. If you want them to be more intelligent, read them more fairytales."


title: Fairy tale

text: The adaptation of fairy tales for children continues. Walt Disney's influential "Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs" was largely (although certainly not solely) intended for the children's market. The anime "Magical Princess Minky Momo" draws on the fairy tale "Momotarō". Jack Zipes has spent many years working to make the older traditional stories accessible to modern readers and their children.


title: Fairy tale

text: Many fairy tales feature an absentee mother, as an example Beauty and the Beast, The Little Mermaid, Little Red Riding Hood and Donkeyskin, where the mother is deceased or absent and unable to help the heroines. Mothers are depicted as absent or wicked in the most popular contemporary versions of tales like Rapunzel, Snow White, Cinderella and Hansel and Gretel, however,


title: Fairy tale

text: some lesser known tales or variants such as those found in volumes edited by Angela Carter and Jane Yolen depict mothers in a more positive light.


title: Fairy tale

text: Carter's protagonist in "The Bloody Chamber" is an impoverished piano student married to a Marquis who was much older than herself to "banish the spectre of poverty". The story is a variant on Bluebeard, a tale about a wealthy man who murders numerous young women. Carter's protagonist, who is unnamed, describes her mother as "eagle-featured" and "indomitable". Her mother is depicted as a woman who is prepared for violence, instead of hiding from it or sacrificing herself to it. The protagonist recalls how her mother kept an "antique service revolver" and once "shot a man-eating tiger with her own hand."


title: Fairy tale

text: In contemporary literature, many authors have used the form of fairy tales for various reasons, such as examining the human condition from the simple framework a fairytale provides. Some authors seek to recreate a sense of the fantastic in a contemporary discourse. Some writers use fairy tale forms for modern issues; this can include using the psychological dramas implicit in the story, as when Robin McKinley retold "Donkeyskin" as the novel "Deerskin", with emphasis on the abusive treatment the father of the tale dealt to his daughter. Sometimes, especially in children's literature, fairy tales are retold with a twist simply for comic effect, such as "The Stinky Cheese Man" by Jon Scieszka and "The ASBO Fairy Tales" by Chris Pilbeam. A common comic motif is a world where all the fairy tales take place, and the characters are aware of their role in the story, such as in the film series Shrek.


title: Fairy tale

text: Other authors may have specific motives, such as multicultural or feminist reevaluations of predominantly Eurocentric masculine-dominated fairy tales, implying critique of older narratives. The figure of the damsel in distress has been particularly attacked by many feminist critics. Examples of narrative reversal rejecting this figure include "The Paperbag Princess" by Robert Munsch, a picture book aimed at children in which a princess rescues a prince, Angela Carter's "The Bloody Chamber", which retells a number of fairy tales from a female point of view and Simon Hood's contemporary interpretation of various popular classics.


title: Fairy tale

text: There are also many contemporary erotic retellings of fairy tales, which explicitly draw upon the original spirit of the tales, and are specifically for adults. Modern retellings focus on exploring the tale through use of the erotic, explicit sexuality, dark and/or comic themes, female empowerment, fetish and BDSM, multicultural, and heterosexual characters. Cleis Press has released several fairy tale-themed erotic anthologies, including "Fairy Tale Lust", "Lustfully Ever After", and "A Princess Bound".


title: Fairy tale

text: It may be hard to lay down the rule between fairy tales and fantasies that use fairy tale motifs, or even whole plots, but the distinction is commonly made, even within the works of a single author: George MacDonald's "Lilith" and "Phantastes" are regarded as fantasies, while his "The Light Princess", "The Golden Key", and "The Wise Woman" are commonly called fairy tales. The most notable distinction is that fairytale fantasies, like other fantasies, make use of novelistic writing conventions of prose, characterization, or setting.


title: Fairy tale

text: Fairy tales have been enacted dramatically; records exist of this in commedia dell'arte, and later in pantomime. Unlike oral and literacy form, fairy tales in film is considered one of the most effective way to convey the story to the audience. The advent of cinema has meant that such stories could be presented in a more plausible manner, with the use of special effects and animation. The Walt Disney Company has had a significant impact on the evolution of the fairy tale film. Some of the earliest short silent films from the Disney studio were based on fairy tales, and some fairy tales were adapted into shorts in the musical comedy series "Silly Symphony", such as "Three Little Pigs". Walt Disney's first feature-length film "Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs", released in 1937, was a ground-breaking film for fairy tales and, indeed, fantasy in general. With the cost of over 400 percent of the budget and more than 300 artists, assistants and animators, "Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs" was arguably one of the highest work force demanded film at that time. The studio even hired Don Graham to open animation training programs for more than 700 staffs. As for the motion capture and personality expression, the studio used a dancer, Marjorie Celeste, from the beginning to the end for the best results. Disney and his creative successors have returned to traditional and literary fairy tales numerous times with films such as "Cinderella" (1950), "Sleeping Beauty" (1959), "The Little Mermaid" (1989) and "Beauty and the Beast" (1991). Disney's influence helped establish the fairy tale genre as a genre for children, and has been accused by some of bowdlerizing the gritty naturalism – and sometimes unhappy endings – of many folk fairy tales. However, others note that the softening of fairy tales occurred long before Disney, some of which was even done by the Grimm brothers themselves.


title: Fairy tale

text: Many filmed fairy tales have been made primarily for children, from Disney's later works to Aleksandr Rou's retelling of "Vasilissa the Beautiful", the first Soviet film to use Russian folk tales in a big-budget feature. Others have used the conventions of fairy tales to create new stories with sentiments more relevant to contemporary life, as in "Labyrinth", "My Neighbor Totoro", "Happily N'Ever After", and the films of Michel Ocelot.


title: Fairy tale

text: Other works have retold familiar fairy tales in a darker, more horrific or psychological variant aimed primarily at adults. Notable examples are Jean Cocteau's "Beauty and the Beast" and "The Company of Wolves", based on Angela Carter's retelling of "Little Red Riding Hood". Likewise, "Princess Mononoke", "Pan's Labyrinth", "Suspiria", and "Spike" create new stories in this genre from fairy tale and folklore motifs.


title: Fairy tale

text: In comics and animated TV series, "The Sandman", "Revolutionary Girl Utena", "Princess Tutu", "Fables" and "MÄR" all make use of standard fairy tale elements to various extents but are more accurately categorised as fairytale fantasy due to the definite locations and characters which a longer narrative requires.


title: Fairy tale

text: A more modern cinematic fairy tale would be Luchino Visconti's "Le Notti Bianche", starring Marcello Mastroianni before he became a superstar. It involves many of the romantic conventions of fairy tales, yet it takes place in post-World War II Italy, and it ends realistically.


title: Fairy tale

text: In recent years, Disney has been dominating the fairy tale film industry by remaking their animated fairy tale films into live action. Examples include "Maleficent" (2014), "Cinderella" (2015), "Beauty and the Beast" (2017) and so on.


title: Fairy tale

text: Any comparison of fairy tales quickly discovers that many fairy tales have features in common with each other. Two of the most influential classifications are those of Antti Aarne, as revised by Stith Thompson into the Aarne-Thompson classification system, and Vladimir Propp's "Morphology of the Folk Tale".


title: Fairy tale

text: This system groups fairy and folk tales according to their overall plot. Common, identifying features are picked out to decide which tales are grouped together. Much therefore depends on what features are regarded as decisive.


title: Fairy tale

text: For instance, tales like "Cinderella" – in which a persecuted heroine, with the help of the fairy godmother or similar magical helper, attends an event (or three) in which she wins the love of a prince and is identified as his true brideare classified as type 510, the persecuted heroine. Some such tales are "The Wonderful Birch"; "Aschenputtel"; "Katie Woodencloak"; "The Story of Tam and Cam"; "Ye Xian"; "Cap O' Rushes"; "Catskin"; "Fair, Brown and Trembling"; "Finette Cendron"; "Allerleirauh".


title: Fairy tale

text: Further analysis of the tales shows that in "Cinderella", "The Wonderful Birch", "The Story of Tam and Cam", "Ye Xian", and "Aschenputtel", the heroine is persecuted by her stepmother and refused permission to go to the ball or other event, and in "Fair, Brown and Trembling" and "Finette Cendron" by her sisters and other female figures, and these are grouped as 510A; while in "Cap O' Rushes", "Catskin", and "Allerleirauh", the heroine is driven from home by her father's persecutions, and must take work in a kitchen elsewhere, and these are grouped as 510B. But in "Katie Woodencloak", she is driven from home by her stepmother's persecutions and must take service in a kitchen elsewhere, and in "Tattercoats", she is refused permission to go to the ball by her grandfather. Given these features common with both types of 510, "Katie Woodencloak" is classified as 510A because the villain is the stepmother, and "Tattercoats" as 510B because the grandfather fills the father's role.


title: Fairy tale

text: This system has its weaknesses in the difficulty of having no way to classify subportions of a tale as motifs. "Rapunzel" is type 310 (The Maiden in the Tower), but it opens with a child being demanded in return for stolen food, as does "Puddocky"; but "Puddocky" is not a Maiden in the Tower tale, while "The Canary Prince", which opens with a jealous stepmother, is.


title: Fairy tale

text: It also lends itself to emphasis on the common elements, to the extent that the folklorist describes "The Black Bull of Norroway" as the same story as "Beauty and the Beast". This can be useful as a shorthand but can also erase the coloring and details of a story.


title: Fairy tale

text: Vladimir Propp specifically studied a collection of Russian fairy tales, but his analysis has been found useful for the tales of other countries. Having criticized Aarne-Thompson type analysis for ignoring what motifs "did" in stories, and because the motifs used were not clearly distinct, he analyzed the tales for the "function" each character and action fulfilled and concluded that a tale was composed of thirty-one elements ('functions') and seven characters or 'spheres of action' ('the princess and her father' are a single sphere). While the elements were not all required for all tales, when they appeared they did so in an invariant order – except that each individual element might be negated twice, so that it would appear three times, as when, in "Brother and Sister", the brother resists drinking from enchanted streams twice, so that it is the third that enchants him. Propp's 31 functions also fall within six 'stages' (preparation, complication, transference, struggle, return, recognition), and a stage can also be repeated, which can affect the perceived order of elements.


title: Fairy tale

text: One such element is the "donor" who gives the hero magical assistance, often after testing him. In "The Golden Bird", the talking fox tests the hero by warning him against entering an inn and, after he succeeds, helps him find the object of his quest; in "The Boy Who Drew Cats", the priest advised the hero to stay in small places at night, which protects him from an evil spirit; in "Cinderella", the fairy godmother gives Cinderella the dresses she needs to attend the ball, as their mothers' spirits do in "Bawang Putih Bawang Merah" and "The Wonderful Birch"; in "The Fox Sister", a Buddhist monk gives the brothers magical bottles to protect against the fox spirit. The roles can be more complicated. In "The Red Ettin", the role is split into the motherwho offers the hero the whole of a journey cake with her curse or half with her blessingand when he takes the half, a fairy who gives him advice; in "Mr Simigdáli", the sun, the moon, and the stars all give the heroine a magical gift. Characters who are not always the donor can act like the donor. In "Kallo and the Goblins", the villain goblins also give the heroine gifts, because they are tricked; in "Schippeitaro", the evil cats betray their secret to the hero, giving him the means to defeat them. Other fairy tales, such as "The Story of the Youth Who Went Forth to Learn What Fear Was", do not feature the donor.


title: Fairy tale

text: Many fairy tales have been interpreted for their (purported) significance. One mythological interpretation saw many fairy tales, including "Hansel and Gretel", "Sleeping Beauty", and "The Frog King", as solar myths; this mode of interpretation subsequently became rather less popular. Freudian, Jungian, and other psychological analyses have also explicated many tales, but no mode of interpretation has established itself definitively.


title: Fairy tale

text: Specific analyses have often been criticized for lending great importance to motifs that are not, in fact, integral to the tale; this has often stemmed from treating one instance of a fairy tale as the definitive text, where the tale has been told and retold in many variations. In variants of "Bluebeard", the wife's curiosity is betrayed by a blood-stained key, by an egg's breaking, or by the singing of a rose she wore, without affecting the tale, but interpretations of specific variants have claimed that the precise object is integral to the tale.


title: Fairy tale

text: Other folklorists have interpreted tales as historical documents. Many German folklorists, believing the tales to have preserved details from ancient times, have used the Grimms' tales to explain ancient customs.


title: Fairy tale

text: One approach sees the topography of European Märchen as echoing the period immediately following the last Ice Age.


title: Fairy tale

text: Other folklorists have explained the figure of the wicked stepmother in a historical/sociological context: many women did die in childbirth, their husbands remarried, and the new stepmothers competed with the children of the first marriage for resources.


title: Fairy tale

text: In a 2012 lecture, Jack Zipes reads fairy tales as examples of what he calls "childism". He suggests that there are terrible aspects to the tales, which (among other things) have conditioned children to accept mistreatment and even abuse.


title: Fairy tale

text: Fairy tales have inspired music, namely opera, such as the French Opéra féerie and the German Märchenoper. French examples include Gretry's "Zémire et Azor", and Auber's "Le cheval de bronze", German operas are Mozart's "Die Zauberflöte", Humperdinck's "Hänsel und Gretel", Siegfried Wagner's "An allem ist Hütchen schuld!", which is based on many fairy tales, and Carl Orff's "Die Kluge".


title: Fairy tale

text: Ballet, too, is fertile ground for bringing fairy tales to life. Igor Stravinsky's first ballet, The Firebird uses elements from various classic Russian tales in that work.


title: Fairy tale

text: Even contemporary fairy tales have been written for the purpose of inspiration in the music world. "Raven Girl" by Audrey Niffenegger was written to inspire a new dance for the Royal Ballet in London. The song "Singring and the Glass Guitar" by the American band Utopia, recorded for their album "Ra", is called "An Electrified Fairytale". Composed by the four members of the band, Roger Powell, Kasim Sulton, Willie Wilcox and Todd Rundgren, it tells the story of the theft of the Glass Guitar by Evil Forces, which has to be recovered by the four heroes.


title: Combat Vehicle 90

text: The Combat Vehicle 90 (CV90; Sw. "Stridsfordon" 90, Strf90) is a family of Swedish tracked combat vehicles designed by Sweden's Defence Materiel Administration ("Försvarets Materielverk", FMV), Hägglunds and Bofors during the mid-1980s to early 1990s, entering service in Sweden in the mid-1990s. The CV90 platform design has continuously evolved in steps from Mk0 to current MkIV with advances in technology and in response to changing battlefield requirements. The Swedish version of the main infantry fighting vehicle (IFV) is fitted with a turret from Bofors that is equipped with a 40 mm Bofors autocannon. Export versions are fitted with Hägglunds E-series turrets, armed with either a 30 mm Mk44 or a 35 mm Bushmaster autocannon.


title: Combat Vehicle 90

text: Developed specifically for the Nordic subarctic climate, the vehicle has very good mobility in snow and wetlands while carrying and supporting eight, later versions six, fully equipped dismounted soldiers. Other variants include Forward artillery observation, command and control, anti-aircraft, armoured recovery vehicle, electronic warfare and so forth. The CV90 and Hägglunds E-series turrets have been under continuous development with more than 4 million hours invested and are still produced with modern protection, armament and network enabled solutions. Currently, 1,280 vehicles in 15 variants are in service with seven user nations, four of which are NATO members, under BAE Systems Hägglunds AB.


title: Combat Vehicle 90

text: During the Cold War, in 1983, the Swedish Army required vehicles with high mobility, air defence and anti-tank capability, high survivability and protection. The "Stridsfordon 90" project group was formed by representatives from the Swedish armed forces ("Försvarsmakten"), the FMV and Swedish industry, including Hägglunds and Bofors, which in 1985 finalized the design for a "unity-vehicle" that originated from an air force concept. In 1986, the prototypes for Strf 9040 and Strf 9025 were ordered. Five prototypes were constructed but, before delivery in 1988, the 9025-version was discontinued. These prototypes were tested during extensive trials for three years between 1988 and 1991, during which the prototypes for specialized variants (forward observation, command and control and armoured recovery vehicles were ordered. The first deliveries started in 1994.


title: Combat Vehicle 90

text: The CV90 has undergone four mark shifts to meet different customer requirements, focused on capability enhancements.


title: Combat Vehicle 90

text: The first delivered CV90 was for Sweden. It was armed with the Bofors 40/L70 cannon in a two-man turret. The vehicle had a conventional electrical system and was fitted for but not with appliqué armour systems. The Swedish Army ordered five variants of the CV90. The requirements expressed by the Swedish FMV on signature management were extremely challenging and led to a lot of new design features that have been inherited by all subsequent generations (Mk 0-III). FMV also prioritized the requirements to provide the best possible design to fulfil user needs. Furthermore, the CV90 was also built for high reliability and ease-of-maintenance using only standard on-board tools and conscripts to maintain and operate.


title: Combat Vehicle 90

text: The next variant of CV90 is known as the Mk I and was delivered to Norway. CV90 Mk I won the Norwegian competition for a new IFV against other contemporary IFVs, such as American M2 Bradley, British FV510 Warrior and Austro-Spanish ASCOD (Pizarro/ULAN). The Mk I variant of the CV90 had a newly designed two-man 30 mm turret evolved from the 25 mm turret. CV90 Mk I was the first IFV with a high hit probability performance during suppression fire modes, both while the vehicle is on the move and against air targets. The CV90 Mk I incorporated several improvements compared to the original Swedish CV90. Trials on mobility, reliability, lethality, fightability, ergonomics, durability and survivability were performed during the trials phase for these vehicles with good results for CV90 Mk I.


title: Combat Vehicle 90

text: The CV90 Mk I was the base for the next development step, CV90 Mk II. The CV90 Mk II was produced in three variants: CV9030 CH (Switzerland) IFV and COM, and CV9030 FIN (Finland) IFV. Both contracts were won in competition with other IFVs. The difference between the two variants is mainly the size of the hull. The Swiss variant is 100 mm higher over the front part of the hull and an additional 70 mm over the combat compartment at the rear. The principal difference between the Mk I and Mk II is that the Mk II was partly digitized and provided with built-in Health & Unit Monitoring System (HUMS) together with interactive manuals and instructions. The CV90 Mk II's standard armament is the Mk44 Bushmaster II autocannon.


title: Combat Vehicle 90

text: The Mk III variant of the CV90 is a further development of the CV90 Mk II. The areas that have undergone most development compared to Mk II are lethality, fightability, electronic architecture, survivability and mobility. The weapon system has been upgraded to a 35/50 mm Bushmaster III cannon with an integrated muzzle ammunition programmer and a number of different firing scenarios depending on target setup. The crew station design provides the gunner and commander with a continuous eye-on-target engagement feature (crew do not need to remove head from eye-piece to see and operate equipment).


title: Combat Vehicle 90

text: The electronic architecture has been further upgraded for Mk III to be completely digitized. The mobility improvements, in the field of upgraded suspension and power to weight ratio, was performed to handle the increased gross vehicle weight. The improved survivability was mainly in the areas of mine protection and top attack. The horizontal protection has been designed in similar ways as to the other marks of CV90, i.e. appliqué systems. The first variant of the Mk III, the Mk III a, was delivered to The Netherlands and Denmark. The second, most modern Mk IIIb variant, was delivered to Norway.


title: Combat Vehicle 90

text: The CV90 Mk IV is equipped with a new Scania engine which develops up to 1000 horsepower and the latest upgraded X300 heavy-duty transmission. Its max weight has increased from 35 to 37 tons with space for two tons of additional payload without a decrease in vehicle agility. It features a new augmented reality system named iFighting. The iFighting concept fuses together data from different systems within the vehicle to filter through and prioritize the most critical information. This allows the crew to make quicker decisions to improve overall performance on the battlefield. The Mk IV generation will also be the first Western IFV with a qualified Active Protection System. It will be equipped with fourth generation electronic architecture supporting future technology adoption and growth.


title: Combat Vehicle 90

text: Various customer requirements have led to several variants of the CV90, where major differences are in survivability and electronic architecture. Higher protection has led to higher curb weight; the vehicle's combat weight has risen from 23 to 35 tonnes. With increasingly more powerful diesel engines, the power-to-weight ratio has remained approximately the same. The track suspension system has seen upgrades in several stages.


title: Combat Vehicle 90

text: The Mk III version has a digital electronic architecture with several different CAN-buses and digital networks, and is the first IFV incorporating an automatic Defensive Aid Suite which classifies threats and, in automatic mode, can fire smoke and/or the main gun to eliminate or evade targets, as well as instruct the driver on potential threats. At the Eurosatory 2010 exhibition, a version called Armadillo was presented. The Armadillo shown was an Armoured Personnel Carrier (APC) version. The basic chassis can be readily converted to ambulance, control vehicle or other turreted versions.


title: Combat Vehicle 90

text: The CV9040's basic armour provides all-round protection against 14.5 mm armour-piercing rounds. Armour protection over the frontal arc is classified, but all models from CV9040B and later are said to be protected against 30 mm APFSDS. Some variants, including the CV9030N, can be fitted with MEXAS, a ceramic appliqué armor that provides protection against 30 mm APFSDS. This armour kit is intended to provide increased protection against Improvised explosive device, explosively formed penetrator and 30 mm caliber armour piercing rounds. All CV90s are fitted with a spall liner, which covers the interior spaces and provides protection for the troops inside against shrapnel and anti-personnel artillery munitions.


title: Combat Vehicle 90

text: The CV90 can be also fitted with cage armour, which provides protection against tandem-charge and shaped charge warheads. The CV90 is fitted with a nuclear, biological, and chemical (NBC) filtration system accompanied by a chemical detector and radiation detector systems. The CV90 also uses heat-absorbing filters to provide temporary protection against thermal imaging (TIS), image intensifier and infrared camera (IR). The CV 90 was designed to produce a very low and very compact structure to minimize radar and IR-signatures.


title: Combat Vehicle 90

text: With every generation of CV90 there has been an increase in payload and corresponding protection levels. The inherent mine protection levels have risen substantially to presently defeat the heaviest (10 kg TNT) anti-tank mines.


title: Combat Vehicle 90

text: In December 2016, BAE Systems received a contract from the Netherlands to test the Israel Military Industries (IMI) Iron Fist active protection system on their CV9035 vehicles. Iron Fist employs a multi-sensor early warning system using both infrared and radar sensors to deploy soft- and hard-kill countermeasures against anti-tank rockets and missiles. A decision for integration is to be made by early 2018.


title: Combat Vehicle 90

text: The CV90 Mk0 is powered by a DSI14 engine developed by Scania, which provides 550 horse power (HP) and it can reach speeds of per hour. The basic CV90 has a maximum road range of , but the latest generation can reach up to . The CV90 offers quieter movement for improved stealth, greater speed over good terrain, and higher ground clearance for protection against mines and improvised explosive devices.


title: Combat Vehicle 90

text: BAE Systems is considering upgrading the CV90 with a hybrid-electric propulsion system as armies look to cut fuel expenses, due to environmental issues and fuel economy. A hybrid-electric drive could cut fuel consumption by 10 to 30 percent. The new system would also provide a power boost to move the vehicle. The hybrid-electric combines a standard diesel engine with a battery pack to provide extra power to propel the vehicle or provide additional electricity. BAE Systems Hägglunds uses the knowledge acquired through many years of hybrid-electric drive development for the military SEP vehicles and the ongoing civilian hybrid-electric projects for forest machines, airplane howlers and loaders.


title: Combat Vehicle 90

text: In April 2015, BAE Systems fitted a CV90 with an active damping suspension system derived from Formula One racing cars. This technology calculates the vehicle's speed and anticipates the terrain ahead, then pressurizes the suspension at independent points to lift the chassis and keep the vehicle level. The suspension, which had been modified to suit a 38-ton armored vehicle rather than the racing car, reportedly increases speed by 30-40 percent on rough terrain, outrunning main battle tanks, decreases vehicle pitch acceleration by 40 percent, gives greater maneuverability and stability for on-the-move gunnery, and reduces crew fatigue and life-cycle costs.


title: Combat Vehicle 90

text: The basic CV90 is fitted with a two-man turret armed with a 40 mm Bofors autocannon and a coaxial 7.62 mm machine gun. The CV90 also carries six 76-mm grenade launchers, which are arranged in two clusters of three launchers; the clusters are positioned on each side of the turret. The grenade launchers are intended for smoke grenades, but can also be loaded with a variety of combat grenades.


title: Combat Vehicle 90

text: The CV90 export variants are fitted with a Hagglunds E-series turret, with more than 600 E30 and E35 turrets delivered. BAE Systems Australia Limited presented an offer for LAND 400 Phase 3 is the CV9035 with an E35 turret. It provides high commonality with BAE Systems’ LAND 400 Phase 2 CRV offer – the AMV35 – through its use of the same E35 turret system.


title: Combat Vehicle 90

text: The CV90 is equipped with a UTAAS (Universal Tank and Anti-Aircraft Sight) from Saab. Daytime optical, thermal imaging System (TIS) and Generation III image intensification. The Norwegian IFV, C2, Recce, Mortar and Combat Engineer variants are delivered with the Kongsberg Protector Remote Weapon Station with 360 degrees day and night sights as well as hunter killer capability.


title: Combat Vehicle 90

text: Production of the CV 90 began in 1993, and as of 2014 over 1,200 vehicles had been ordered. In November 2000, Finland ordered 57 CV9030 vehicles. Total cost was €250 million (2008 value), or €4.42 million per vehicle. In June 2004, Finland made another purchase, bringing the overall quantity ordered to 102. This time, the cost was €2.92 million (2008 value) per vehicle. In December 2005, Denmark ordered 45 CV9035 vehicles for a cost of €188 million or €4.18 million per vehicle.


title: Combat Vehicle 90

text: The Netherlands ordered 184 combat plus 8 instruction CV9035 vehicles for a cost of €749 million, or €3.9 million per vehicle. Norway initially bought 104 CV90s in the 1990s, buying new vehicles and upgrading the old ones in the 2010s. The Norwegian Army fields 164 CV90s, of which 74 are combat vehicles, 28 combat-engineering vehicles, 24 multi-purpose vehicles, 21 reconnaissance vehicles, 15 command vehicles, and two instruction vehicles. The upgrade of the Norwegian CV90s was estimated to cost around .


title: Combat Vehicle 90

text: In 2011, Hägglunds (now BAE Systems AB) demonstrated a version with an infrared camouflage called Adaptiv, consisting of thermoelectric plates capable of posing as many different objects, such as ordinary cars, stones, trees etc. to an enemy IR-viewfinder. It takes 1,500 plates to cover a CV90, at a cost of $100 per plate.


title: Combat Vehicle 90

text: The following versions were developed by Hägglund/Bofors in cooperation with FOA and FMV for Försvarsmakten as part of the Stridsfordon 90 (Strf 90)-family. Sweden originally planned for a mix of CV9040 and CV9025, tests of the 25 mm turret being carried out on an Ikv 91 chassis, but finally decided on the 40 mm version, due to the much higher versatility of the larger calibre.


title: Combat Vehicle 90

text: The export versions of CV90 is delivered with the combat proven BAE Systems Hägglunds E-series turrets with armament ranging from 30–120mm. The vast majority of the 600 turrets delivered are fitted with 30mm or 35mm guns.


title: Combat Vehicle 90

text: Since production began in 1993, the CV90 had remained untested in combat until November 2007, when Norwegian Army CV90s from the 2nd Battalion saw heavy combat during Operation Harekate Yolo in Afghanistan. During the first week of November, Norwegian ISAF forces from the 2nd Battalion and "Kystjegerkommandoen" based in Mazar-e-Sharif, responded to a Taliban attack on Afghan National Army forces in the Ghowrmach district. Having been heavily outnumbered by the Taliban forces, the Norwegians used mortars and, in particular, CV90s, to suppress the attack. The operation left an unknown number of Taliban casualties, but Norwegian news sources say as many as 45 to 65 Taliban fighters may have been killed, and many more wounded.


title: Combat Vehicle 90

text: The CV90 was later used extensively by ISAF forces of the Norwegian Army's Telemark Battalion in May 2008, when the battalion came under heavy machine gun and RPG fire from Taliban fighters during Operation Karez in Badghis Province. The attack left 13 Taliban fighters dead and an unknown number wounded. No allied casualties were reported. In January 2010, a Norwegian soldier was killed when a CV9030 hit a large IED (improvised explosive device) in Ghowrmach, Afghanistan.


title: Combat Vehicle 90

text: In February 2010, Denmark sent ten CV9035DKs to Afghanistan in order to bolster their contingent in Helmand Province. The Danish contingent had suffered numerous casualties since they began operations in the province in the autumn of 2006. The vehicles are from the Danish Royal Lifeguard Regiment, based in the Northern part of Seeland. They are working alongside MOWAG Piranha IIIC, MOWAG Eagle IV, M113 G3DK and Leopard 2A5DK vehicles, all contributed by Denmark, in the Helmand Province. By April 2010, two of the ten vehicles had been hit with IEDs, in both cases protecting the crew and passengers from personal injury. The vehicles lost two wheels and tracks, and were sent back to the manufacturer in Sweden for further investigation. On 7 August 2010, a CV9035DK hit an IED in Afghanistan, killing two soldiers and wounding another three. The explosion was so powerful that the vehicle was turned over.


title: Father John Misty

text: Joshua Michael Tillman (born May 3, 1981), better known by his stage name Father John Misty, is an American musician, singer, songwriter, and record producer. He has also performed and released studio albums under the name J. Tillman.


title: Father John Misty

text: Maintaining a steady output of solo recordings since 2004, Tillman has been either a permanent or touring member of Demon Hunter, Saxon Shore, Fleet Foxes, Jeffertitti's Nile, Pearly Gate Music, Siberian, Har Mar Superstar, Poor Moon, Low Hums, and Jonathan Wilson, and has toured extensively with Damien Jurado, Jesse Sykes, and David Bazan. He has also made contributions to albums by more mainstream artists such as Beyoncé, Lady Gaga, Kid Cudi, and Post Malone.


title: Father John Misty

text: Joshua Michael Tillman was born in Rockville, Maryland, on May 3, 1981, the son of evangelical Christian parents Barbara and Irvin C. Tillman, an engineer at Hewlett-Packard, who met at a Christian youth group. His mother was raised in Ethiopia, where her parents were missionaries. The eldest of four children, he has a brother and two sisters. Before he settled on a career as a musician, he briefly had ambitions of becoming a pastor because of the performance aspect when he was approximately six years old. He has commented that his parents strongly emphasized Christianity in his upbringing, to a degree which he has described as "culturally oppressive". He was estranged from his parents for many years, but they have since reconciled.


title: Father John Misty

text: After learning drums at a young age, Tillman learned guitar when he was 12. He attended a Baptist church and an Episcopal elementary school while growing up, then a Pentecostal Messianic day school. He said he was naïve when he was growing up because there was limited secular cultural influence within the home and no secular music was allowed. Around the age of 17, his parents modified their cultural stipulations; he was allowed to listen to secular music that had a "spiritual theme". For this reason, his early purchases included albums like Bob Dylan's "Slow Train Coming" as he was able to convince his parents that Dylan was classified as a "Christian artist".


title: Father John Misty

text: After attending Nyack College in New York from 1999–2002, Tillman moved to Seattle when he was 21. He found a job there working at a bakery, which allowed him to record at night before his 4:30 am shift began. A demo he made eventually found its way to Seattle singer and songwriter Damien Jurado. A year later, Tillman started opening for Jurado. At shows Tillman would distribute CD-R copies of songs that would later become his album "I Will Return". During the tour, he also struck up a friendship with Eric Fisher, who produced another CD-R album, "Long May You Run". Both albums were later released on Keep Recordings. Tillman and Jurado both later signed on for a U.S. tour with Richard Buckner.


title: Father John Misty

text: In 2006, the independent label Fargo Records released Tillman's first properly distributed solo album, "Minor Works", and reissued "I Will Return" and "Long May You Run" as a two-disc set the same year. In 2007, Yer Bird Records released his more elaborately arranged fourth album, "Cancer and Delirium".


title: Father John Misty

text: After signing to independent record label Western Vinyl, Tillman released two albums in 2009, "Vacilando Territory Blues" and "Year in the Kingdom". Tillman said he wrote the title track of "Vacilando Territory Blues" to describe imagery he associates with his move to Seattle. His brother Zach subsequently moved there as well and is now in the musical group Pearly Gate Music. The following year Tillman released "Singing Ax".


title: Father John Misty

text: In 2008, Tillman joined Seattle folk rock band Fleet Foxes as their drummer. After extensive touring with Fleet Foxes, promoting their album "Helplessness Blues", Tillman played his final show with the band in Tokyo on January 20, 2012.


title: Father John Misty

text: After leaving Fleet Foxes, Tillman moved to Los Angeles and signed to new label Sub Pop. Dissatisfied with the slow and sad music he had previously made, he adopted the new performing name of Father John Misty. The first album under his new name, "Fear Fun", was released on May 1, 2012. A couple of months prior to the release of the album a video was released for the song "Hollywood Forever Cemetery Sings" starring "Parks and Recreation"s Aubrey Plaza. The album was a dramatic departure from any of Tillman's prior releases.


title: Father John Misty

text: As Father John Misty, Tillman was featured on Kid Cudi's 2013 album "Indicud". Tillman wrote an essay about Damien Jurado's recording, "Brothers and Sisters of the Eternal Son" (Secretly Canadian, 2014). He also wrote the soundtrack for a short film called "The History of Caves", directed by his wife, filmmaker Emma Elizabeth Tillman.


title: Father John Misty

text: The "Limited Run Promotional Poster" was available at the artist's website, and promoted a purported release called "New Winter", described as a "Christmas Neu-Jazz Double Album", and quoted several paradoxes and reviews (for example, from "The Wall Street Journal", calling it the "new standard by which all seasonal music must now be measured", or from "Spin", giving the release 10 out of 10 points and calling it "[e]ssential year-round listening"). The poster text further states that the release will be sold as "compact disc" as well as "[l]imited edition prismatic hologram 6xLP on merlot and emerald semi-translucent 180 gram vinyl with original alternate-side etchings by Josh Tillman available till[sic] supplies last". The poster names five songs that are part of the track list: "Gesture I: Inoculation (Mother And Child)", "Gesture II: Feast Of Spirits", "Anacrusis Future Seed", "Naked Fire/The Fifth Season" and "Gemini".


title: Father John Misty

text: The album "I Love You, Honeybear" was released in February 2015 to widespread acclaim. According to Tillman, it is a concept album about himself and his personal life. Tillman made headlines by covering Taylor Swift's "Blank Space" and "Welcome to New York" in 2015. He claimed to have never listened to the artist prior to recording the covers. This was done as a parody of Ryan Adams, who had released his own version of Swift's "1989", featuring covers of every song. Tillman released a new song entitled "Real Love Baby" on May 19, 2016. He appeared on the song "Saturday Night Inside Out" on The Avalanches' second studio album "Wildflower", which was released on July 1, 2016.


title: Father John Misty

text: Tillman gained media attention on July 22, 2016, after walking off stage at XPoNential Music Festival in Camden, New Jersey, after twenty minutes into his planned fifty-minute performance. Instead of performing his setlist, Tillman walked out and asked, "What the fuck is going on?" He then talked for six minutes about the "numbing" role entertainment plays in our lives and how "stupidity just fucking runs the world because entertainment is stupid." When the audience applauded him he asked them not to and responded by saying, "Maybe just take a moment to be really fucking profoundly sad." He finally played a thirteen-minute piece from his then-upcoming album "Pure Comedy" called "Leaving LA" which references the frustrations he spoke of during his speech. Tillman then covered Leonard Cohen's "Bird on the Wire" before telling the crowd he loved them and walked off the stage, cutting his performance short. The following day, Tillman explained his performance in an Instagram post, in which he called Donald Trump's speech at the 2016 Republican National Convention a "demonic clown pageant coronation of our next potential Idiot King", which took place the night before Tillman's performance.


title: Father John Misty

text: In September 2016, his voice and likeness were featured in Brad Neely's animated surreal comedy show "Harg Nallin' Sclopio Peepio" on Adult Swim. In the first-season finale episode "For Alba", he sings a song titled "This is America". The song features an animated Father John Misty singing what appears to be a humorous parody of his music, with lyrics most likely written by Brad Neely. The lyrics describe how Americans "die doing the dumbest of crap," such as riding unicycles, ghost hunting, and performing stunts while cosplaying as Batman. He also obsessively mentions Go-Gurts throughout the song.


title: Father John Misty

text: On January 23, 2017, the title track from Misty's third studio album, "Pure Comedy", was released with an accompanying music video. The second single released from "Pure Comedy", "Two Wildly Different Perspectives", was released with another music video on January 30, 2017. The third single released was "Ballad of the Dying Man" on February 1, 2017. The fourth single, "Total Entertainment Forever", was released on the night it was performed on "Saturday Night Live" on March 4, 2017. "Pure Comedy" was released on April 7, 2017. The album sees Tillman externalize the stereotypical Father John Misty character that he developed through the two previous albums to prevent himself from being constricted to the character's image, using his personhood and experiences to expose his outlook on life.


title: Father John Misty

text: The Pure Comedy World Tour began in April 2017 and continued into early 2018. During this tour, Tillman mixed the tracks for his next album produced with Jonathan Rado, revealing potential song titles "Mr. Tillman, Please Exit the Lobby" (later shortened to "Mr. Tillman"), "Ouch, I'm Drowning", "Well, We're Only People and There's Nothing Much We Can Do About It", and "Dum Dum Blues". The album explores heartache and was written during a six-week period where Tillman was living in a hotel. Tillman released the lead single, "Mr. Tillman", from "God's Favorite Customer" on February 20, 2018. The album was announced on April 18 and was released on June 1; its track listing was shared, alongside two further songs, "Disappointing Diamonds Are The Rarest Of Them All" and "Just Dumb Enough to Try".


title: Father John Misty

text: British screenwriter and film producer Drew Pearce, who had previously directed the music video for "The Night Josh Tillman Came to Our Apartment", sought out Tillman for his directorial debut "Hotel Artemis", when he wanted to cast a musician. Tillman has a small role in the film as a bank robber, and has said that his character "gets his head blown off within, like, 30 seconds." Tillman also contributed to the soundtrack of "Hotel Artemis" with the song "Gilded Cage", which was released on June 8, 2018, the same day as the film. The song has since been removed from streaming platforms for unknown reasons.


title: Father John Misty

text: On March 23, 2020, Tillman released a live album titled "Off-Key in Hamburg", which was recorded at the Hamburg Elbphilharmonie on August 8, 2019, on Bandcamp. All proceeds from the album go to the MusiCares COVID-19 Relief Fund. It has been described by "NME" as a "high-end luxury offering" and "immaculate".


title: Father John Misty

text: In December 2021, a spoken-word vinyl was mailed to fans by Bella Union. It was announced Father John Misty's fifth studio album, "Chloë and the Next 20th Century", would be released on April 8, 2022, by Sub Pop and Bella Union. It includes eleven tracks produced by Tillman and Jonathan Wilson. The album and its track listing were officially revealed on January 5, 2022, with its lead single "Funny Girl" released the same day. A second single from the album, "Q4", was released on February 9, 2022. A third, "Goodbye Mr Blue", was released on March 9, 2022. On April 4, 2022, "The Next 20th Century" was released as the fourth and final single to precede the album's release. The Father John Misty EP "Live at Electric Lady" was released on Sub Pop on September 15, 2022. It includes a cover of Stevie Wonder's


title: Father John Misty

text: Tillman's musical style has been described as indie rock, indie folk, folk rock, chamber pop, soft rock, psychedelic rock, folk, and country.


title: Father John Misty

text: Tillman met photographer Emma Elizabeth Garr after he moved to the Laurel Canyon neighborhood of Los Angeles in 2011. They were married in Big Sur in September 2013. They lived in New Orleans, but have since returned to Los Angeles. Garr had previously lived in Seattle for several years. She has taken photographs for his albums.


title: Father John Misty

text: Having been raised in an Evangelical Christian household, Tillman now openly criticizes religion in many of his songs. He has said that he is still "culturally Christian for all intents and purposes" but is troubled by the way Christianity is commonly expressed in the United States.


title: Father John Misty

text: Tillman has struggled with depression, anxiety, and drug use. He stated in 2017 that he microdoses on LSD every day to alleviate his depression and anxiety. He has also stated that he has been diagnosed with PTSD by three separate therapists.


title: Father John Misty

text: The Berlin Music Video Awards (BMVAs) are an annual festival that puts filmmakers and the art behind music videos in the spotlight.


title: Father John Misty

text: The Grammy Awards are awarded annually by the National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences of the United States. Josh has received one win from four nominations.


title: Father John Misty

text: Delivered since 2010, the GAFFA Awards (Swedish: GAFFA Priset) are a Swedish award that rewards popular music awarded by the magazine of the same name.


title: Father John Misty

text: The UK Music Video Awards is an annual award ceremony founded in 2008 to recognise creativity, technical excellence and innovation in music videos and moving images for music. Tillman has received one award from two nominations.


title: Hydrocarbon

text: In organic chemistry, a hydrocarbon is an organic compound consisting entirely of hydrogen and carbon. Hydrocarbons are examples of group 14 hydrides. Hydrocarbons are generally colourless and hydrophobic, and their odors are usually weak or exemplified by the odors of gasoline and lighter fluid. They occur in a diverse range of molecular structures and phases: they can be gases (such as methane and propane), liquids (such as hexane and benzene), low melting solids (such as paraffin wax and naphthalene) or polymers (such as polyethylene and polystyrene).


title: Hydrocarbon

text: In the fossil fuel industries, "hydrocarbon" refers to the naturally occurring petroleum, natural gas and coal, and to their hydrocarbon derivatives and purified forms. Combustion of hydrocarbons is the main source of the world's energy. Petroleum is the dominant raw-material source for organic commodity chemicals such as solvents and polymers. Most anthropogenic (human-generated) emissions of greenhouse gases are carbon dioxide from the burning of fossil fuels, and methane released from natural gas handling and from agriculture.


title: Hydrocarbon

text: As defined by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry's nomenclature of organic chemistry, the classifications for hydrocarbons are:


title: Hydrocarbon

text: The term 'aliphatic' refers to non-aromatic hydrocarbons. Saturated aliphatic hydrocarbons are sometimes referred to as 'paraffins'. Aliphatic hydrocarbons containing a double bond between carbon atoms are sometimes referred to as 'olefins'.


title: Hydrocarbon

text: The predominant use of hydrocarbons is as a combustible fuel source. Methane is the predominant component of natural gas. The C through C alkanes, alkenes and isomeric cycloalkanes are the top components of gasoline, naphtha, jet fuel and specialized industrial solvent mixtures. With the progressive addition of carbon units, the simple non-ring structured hydrocarbons have higher viscosities, lubricating indices, boiling points, solidification temperatures, and deeper color. At the opposite extreme from methane lie the heavy tars that remain as the "lowest fraction" in a crude oil refining retort. They are collected and widely utilized as roofing compounds, pavement composition (bitumen), wood preservatives (the creosote series) and as extremely high viscosity shear-resisting liquids.


title: Hydrocarbon

text: Some large-scale non-fuel applications of hydrocarbons begins with ethane and propane, which are obtained from petroleum and natural gas. These two gases are converted either to syngas or to ethylene and propylene. These two alkenes are precursors to polymers, including polyethylene, polystyrene, acrylates, polypropylene, etc. Another class of special hydrocarbons is BTX, a mixture of benzene, toluene, and the three xylene isomers. Global consumption of benzene in 2021 is estimated at more than 58 million metric tons, which will increase to 60 million tons in 2022.


title: Hydrocarbon

text: Hydrocarbons are also prevalent in nature. Some eusocial arthropods, such as the Brazilian stingless bee, "Schwarziana quadripunctata", use unique cuticular hydrocarbon "scents" in order to determine kin from non-kin. This hydrocarbon composition varies between age, sex, nest location, and hierarchal position.


title: Hydrocarbon

text: There is also potential to harvest hydrocarbons from plants like "Euphorbia lathyris" and "E. tirucalli" as an alternative and renewable energy source for vehicles that use diesel. Furthermore, endophytic bacteria from plants that naturally produce hydrocarbons have been used in hydrocarbon degradation in attempts to deplete hydrocarbon concentration in polluted soils.


title: Hydrocarbon

text: The noteworthy feature of saturated hydrocarbons is their inertness. Unsaturated hydrocarbons (alkanes, alkenes and aromatic compounds) react more readily, by means of substitution, addition, polymerization. At higher temperatures they undergo dehydrogenation, oxidation and combustion.


title: Hydrocarbon

text: Of the classes of hydrocarbons, aromatic compounds uniquely (or nearly so) undergo substitution reactions. The chemical process practiced on the largest scale is the reaction of benzene and ethene to give ethylbenzene:


title: Hydrocarbon

text: The resulting ethylbenzene is dehydrogenated to styrene and then polymerized to manufacture polystyrene, a common thermoplastic material.


title: Hydrocarbon

text: Substitution reactions occur also in saturated hydrocarbons (all single carbon–carbon bonds). Such reactions require highly reactive reagents, such as chlorine and fluorine. In the case of chlorination, one of the chlorine atoms replaces a hydrogen atom. The reactions proceed via free-radical pathways, in which the halogen first dissociates into a two neutral radical atoms (homolytic fission).


title: Hydrocarbon

text: Addition reactions apply to alkenes and alkynes. In this reaction a variety of reagents add "across" the pi-bond(s). Chlorine, hydrogen chloride, water, and hydrogen are illustrative reagents.


title: Hydrocarbon

text: Alkenes and some alkynes also undergo polymerization by opening of the multiple bonds to produce polyethylene, polybutylene, and polystyrene. The alkyne acetylene polymerizes to produce polyacetylene. Oligomers (chains of a few monomers) may be produced, for example in the Shell higher olefin process, where α-olefins are extended to make longer α-olefins by adding ethylene repeatedly.


title: Hydrocarbon

text: Some hydrocarbons undergo "metathesis", in which substituents attached by C–C bonds are exchanged between molecules. For a single C–C bond it is alkane metathesis, for a double C–C bond it is alkene metathesis (olefin metathesis), and for a triple C–C bond it is alkyne metathesis.


title: Hydrocarbon

text: Combustion of hydrocarbons is currently the main source of the world's energy for electric power generation, heating (such as home heating) and transportation. Often this energy is used directly as heat such as in home heaters, which use either petroleum or natural gas. The hydrocarbon is burnt and the heat is used to heat water, which is then circulated. A similar principle is used to create electrical energy in power plants.


title: Hydrocarbon

text: Common properties of hydrocarbons are the facts that they produce steam, carbon dioxide and heat during combustion and that oxygen is required for combustion to take place. The simplest hydrocarbon, methane, burns as follows:


title: Hydrocarbon

text: Partial oxidation characterizes the reactions of alkenes and oxygen. This process is the basis of rancidification and paint drying.


title: Hydrocarbon

text: The vast majority of hydrocarbons found on Earth occur in crude oil, petroleum, coal, and natural gas. Petroleum (literally "rock oil") and coal are generally thought to be products of decomposition of organic matter. Coal, in contrast to petroleum, is richer in carbon and poorer in hydrogen. Natural gas is the product of methanogenesis.


title: Hydrocarbon

text: A seemingly limitless variety of compounds comprise petroleum, hence the necessity of refineries. These hydrocarbons consist of saturated hydrocarbons, aromatic hydrocarbons, or combinations of the two. Missing in petroleum are alkenes and alkynes. Their production requires refineries. Petroleum-derived hydrocarbons are mainly consumed for fuel, but they are also the source of virtually all synthetic organic compounds, including plastics and pharmaceuticals. Natural gas is consumed almost exclusively as fuel. Coal is used as a fuel and as a reducing agent in metallurgy.


title: Hydrocarbon

text: A small fraction of hydrocarbon found on earth, and all currently-known hydrocarbon found on other planets and moons, is thought to be abiological.