title: Crown Jewels of the United Kingdom

text: Use of regalia by monarchs in England can be traced back to when it was converted to Christianity in the Early Middle Ages. A permanent set of coronation regalia, once belonging to Edward the Confessor, was established after he was made a saint in the 12th century. These holy relics were kept at Westminster Abbey, the venue of coronations since 1066, and another set of regalia was reserved for religious feasts and State Openings of Parliament. Collectively, these objects came to be known as the Jewels of the Crown. Most of the present collection dates from around 350 years ago when Charles II ascended the throne. The medieval and Tudor regalia had been sold or melted down after the monarchy was abolished in 1649 during the English Civil War. Only four original items predate the Restoration: a late 12th-century anointing spoon (the oldest object) and three early 17th-century swords. The regalia continued to be used by British monarchs after the kingdoms of England and Scotland merged in 1707.


title: Crown Jewels of the United Kingdom

text: The regalia contain 23,578 gemstones, among them Cullinan I (), the largest clear cut diamond in the world, set in the Sovereign's Sceptre with Cross. It was cut from the largest gem-quality rough diamond ever found, the eponymous Cullinan, discovered in South Africa in 1905 and presented to Edward VII. On the Imperial State Crown are Cullinan II (), the Stuart Sapphire, St Edward's Sapphire, and the Black Prince's Ruby – a large red spinel. The Koh-i-Noor diamond () was acquired by Queen Victoria from India and has been featured on three consort crowns. A small number of historical objects at the Tower are either empty or set with glass and crystal replicas.


title: Crown Jewels of the United Kingdom

text: At a coronation, the monarch is anointed using holy oil poured from an ampulla into the spoon, invested with robes and ornaments, and crowned with St Edward's Crown. Afterwards, it is exchanged for the lighter Imperial State Crown, which is also usually worn at State Openings of Parliament. Wives of kings are invested with a plainer set of regalia, and since 1831, a new crown has been made specially for each queen consort. Also regarded as crown jewels are state swords, trumpets, ceremonial maces, church plate, historical regalia, banqueting plate, and royal christening fonts. They are part of the Royal Collection and belong to the institution of monarchy, passing from one sovereign to the next. When not in use, the Jewels are on public display in the Jewel House and Martin Tower, where they are seen by 2.5 million visitors every year.


title: Crown Jewels of the United Kingdom

text: The earliest known use of a crown in Britain was discovered by archaeologists in 1988 in Deal, Kent, and dates to between 200 and 150 BCE. A sword, brooch, ceremonial shield, and decorated bronze crown with a single arch, which sat directly on the head of its wearer, were found inside the tomb of the Mill Hill Warrior. At this point, crowns were symbols of authority worn by religious and military leaders. Priests continued to use crowns following the Roman conquest of Britain in 43 CE. A dig in a field at Hockwold cum Wilton, Norfolk, in the 1950s revealed a bronze crown with two arches and depictions of male faces, as well as two bronze diadems with an adjustable headband and "repoussé" silver embellishments, dating from the Roman period. One diadem features a plaque in the centre depicting a man holding a sphere and an object similar to a shepherd's crook, analogues of the orb and sceptre that evolved later as royal ornaments.


title: Crown Jewels of the United Kingdom

text: By the early 5th century, the Romans had withdrawn from Britain, and the Angles and the Saxons settled. A heptarchy of new kingdoms began to emerge. One method used by regional kings to solidify their authority was the use of ceremony and insignia. The tomb of an unknown king – evidence suggests it may be Rædwald of East Anglia () – at Sutton Hoo provides insight into the regalia of a pre-Christian Anglo-Saxon monarch. Inside the early 7th-century tomb, discovered in 1939, was found the ornate Sutton Hoo helmet, consisting of an iron cap, a neck guard, and a face mask decorated with copper alloy images of animals and warriors set with garnets. He was also buried with a decorated sword; a ceremonial shield; and a heavy whetstone sceptre, on top of which is an iron ring surmounted by the figure of a stag.


title: Crown Jewels of the United Kingdom

text: In 597 CE, a Benedictine monk was sent by Pope Gregory I to start converting Pagan England to Christianity. The monk, Augustine, became the first Archbishop of Canterbury. Within two centuries, the ritual of anointing monarchs with holy oil and crowning them (initially with helmets) in a Christian ceremony had been established, and regalia took on a religious identity. There was still no permanent set of coronation regalia; each monarch generally had a new set made, with which they were buried upon death. In 9th-century Europe, gold crowns in the Byzantine tradition were replacing bronze, and gold soon became the standard material for English royal crowns.


title: Crown Jewels of the United Kingdom

text: King Æthelstan () united the various Anglo-Saxon realms to form the Kingdom of England. In the earliest known depiction of an English king wearing a crown he is shown presenting a copy of Bede's "Life of St Cuthbert" to the saint himself. Until his reign, kings were portrayed on coins wearing helmets and circlets, or wreath-like diadems in the style of Roman emperor Constantine the Great. Whether they actually wore such an item is not known. Edgar the Peaceful () was the first English king to be crowned with an actual crown, and a sceptre was also introduced for his coronation. After crowns, sceptres were the most potent symbols of royal authority in medieval England.


title: Crown Jewels of the United Kingdom

text: Edward the Confessor () is depicted on a throne and wearing a crown and holding a sceptre in the first scene of the Bayeux Tapestry. Edward died without an heir, and William the Conqueror emerged as the first Norman king of England following his victory over the English at the Battle of Hastings. Wearing a crown became an important part of William I's efforts to assert authority over his new territory and subjects. At his death in 1087, the "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle" reported: "[William] kept great state … He wore his crown three times a year as often as he was in England … He was so stern and relentless … we must not forget the good order he kept in the land". Those crown-wearings were held on the religious festivals of Easter, Whitsun, and Christmas.


title: Crown Jewels of the United Kingdom

text: In 1161, Edward the Confessor was made a saint, and objects connected with his reign became holy relics. The monks at his burial place of Westminster Abbey claimed that Edward had asked them to look after his regalia in perpetuity and that they were to be used at the coronations of all future kings. A note to this effect is contained in an inventory of precious relics drawn up by a monk at the abbey in 1450, recording a tunicle, dalmatic, pallium, and other vestments; a gold sceptre, two rods, a gold crown, comb, and spoon; a crown and two rods for the queen's coronation; and a chalice of onyx stone and a paten made of gold for the Holy Communion. Although the Abbey's claim is likely to have been an exercise in self-promotion, and some of the regalia had probably been taken from Edward's grave when he was reinterred there, it became accepted as fact, thereby establishing the first known set of hereditary coronation regalia in Europe. Westminster Abbey is owned by a monarch, and the regalia had always been royal property – the abbots were mere custodians. In the following centuries, some of these objects would fall out of use and the regalia would expand to include many others used or worn by monarchs and queens consort at coronations.


title: Crown Jewels of the United Kingdom

text: A crown referred to as "St Edward's Crown" is first recorded as having been used for the coronation of Henry III () and appears to be the same crown worn by Edward. Being crowned and invested with regalia owned by a previous monarch who was also a saint reinforced the king's authority. It was also wrongly thought to have been originally owned by Alfred the Great () because an inscription on the lid of its box, translated from Latin, read: "This is the chief crown of the two, with which were crowned Kings Alfred, Edward and others". The crown would be used in many subsequent coronations until its eventual destruction 400 years later. Few descriptions survive, although one 17th century historian noted that it was "ancient Work with Flowers, adorn'd with Stones of somewhat a plain setting", and an inventory described it as "gold wire-work set with slight stones and two little bells", weighing . It had arches and may have been decorated with filigree and cloisonné enamels. Also in the Royal Collection in this period was an item called a state crown. Together with other crowns, rings, and swords, it constituted the monarch's state regalia that were kept separate from the coronation regalia, mostly at the royal palaces.


title: Crown Jewels of the United Kingdom

text: The transferring of crowns symbolised the transfer of power between rulers. Following the defeat in 1282 of the Welsh prince Llewelyn ap Gruffydd by Edward I (), the Welsh regalia, including the crown of the legendary King Arthur, were surrendered to England. According to the "Chronicle of Aberconwy Abbey", "and so the glory of Wales and the Welsh was handed over to the kings of England". After the invasion of Scotland in 1296, the Stone of Scone was sent to the Tower of London "in recognition", as the chronicler Walter of Guisborough put it, "of a kingdom surrendered and conquered". It was fitted into a wooden chair, which came to be used for the investiture of kings of England, earning its reputation as the Coronation Chair. The Scottish regalia were also taken to London and offered at the shrine of Edward the Confessor; Scotland eventually regained its independence. In the treasury of Edward II () there were no fewer than 10 crowns. When Richard II () was forced to abdicate, he symbolically handed St Edward's Crown over to his successor with the words "I present and give to you this crown … and all the rights dependent on it".


title: Crown Jewels of the United Kingdom

text: Monarchs often pledged items of state regalia as collateral for loans. Edward III () pawned his "magna corona" to Baldwin of Luxembourg in 1339 for more than £16,650, equal to £ . Three crowns and other jewels were held by the Bishop of London and the Earl of Arundel in the 1370s as security for £10,000. One crown was exchanged with the Corporation of London in 1386 for a £4,000 loan. Mayors, knights, peers, bankers, and other wealthy subjects sometimes released objects on a temporary basis for the royal family to use at state occasions. Monarchs also distributed plate and jewels to troops in lieu of money. At some point in the 14th century, all of the state regalia were moved to the White Tower at the Tower of London owing to a series of successful and attempted thefts in Westminster Abbey. The holy relics of the coronation regalia stayed behind intact at the Abbey. Two arches topped with a monde and cross appear on the state crown during the reign of Henry V (), though arches did not feature on the Great Seal until 1471. Known as a closed or imperial crown, the arches and cross symbolised the king's pretensions of being an emperor of his own domain, subservient to no one but God, unlike some continental rulers who owed fealty to more powerful kings or the Holy Roman Emperor.


title: Crown Jewels of the United Kingdom

text: The traditions established in the medieval period continued later. By the mid 15th century, a crown was formally worn on six religious feasts every year: Christmas, Epiphany, Easter, Whitsun, All Saints' Day, and one or both feasts of St Edward. A crown was displayed and worn at the annual State Opening of Parliament. Also around this time, three swords – symbols of kingship since ancient times – were being used in the coronation ceremony to represent the king's powers in the administration of justice: the Sword of Spiritual Justice, the Sword of Temporal Justice, and the blunt Sword of Mercy.


title: Crown Jewels of the United Kingdom

text: An emerging item of regalia was the orb, described in Tudor inventories as a gold ball with a cross, which underlined the monarch's sovereignty. Orbs had been pictorial emblems of royal authority in England since the early Middle Ages, but a real orb was probably not used at any English coronation until Henry VIII (). State regalia increasingly passed from one monarch to the next. The best example of this was the imperial state Tudor Crown, which was probably created at the beginning of the Tudor dynasty. It first appears in a royal inventory during Henry VIII's reign and was one of three used to crown each of his next three successors, the others being St Edward's Crown and a personal crown. After the English Reformation, when England broke away from the authority of the Roman Catholic Church, the Church of England denounced the veneration of medieval relics and downplayed the history of St Edward's regalia.


title: Crown Jewels of the United Kingdom

text: The concept of hereditary state regalia was enshrined in English law in 1606 when James I (), the first Stuart king to rule England, decreed a list of "Roiall and Princely ornaments and Jewells to be indyvidually and inseparably for ever hereafter annexed to the Kingdome of this Realme". After James died, his son, Charles I () ascended the throne. Desperate for money, one of his first acts was to load 41 masterpieces from the Jewel House onto a ship bound for Amsterdam – the hub of Europe's jewel trade. This hoard of unique treasures, including the Mirror of Great Britain brooch, a 14th-century pendant called the Three Brothers, a gold salt cellar known as the Morris Dance, and much fine Elizabethan plate, was expected to swell the king's coffers by £300,000, but fetched only £70,000.


title: Crown Jewels of the United Kingdom

text: Charles's many conflicts with Parliament, stemming from his belief in the divine right of kings and the many religious conflicts that pervaded his reign, triggered the English Civil War in 1642. Parliament deemed the regalia as "Jewels of the Crown": their ownership was vested in the monarch by virtue of his public role as king and not owned by him personally. To avoid putting his subjects at legal risk, Charles asked his wife Henrietta Maria to smuggle the inalienable property of the Crown abroad and sell it on the Dutch jewellery market. Upon learning of the scheme, the House of Lords and House of Commons both declared anyone involved in trafficking the Crown Jewels to be an enemy of the state. Henrietta succeeded in disposing of a small quantity of jewels, albeit at a heavy discount, and shipped guns and ammunition back to England for the royalist cause. Two years later, Parliament seized of rare silver-gilt pieces from the Jewel House and used the proceeds to bankroll its own side of the war.


title: Crown Jewels of the United Kingdom

text: After six years of war, Charles was defeated and executed, and less than a week later, the Rump Parliament voted to abolish the monarchy. The newly created English Commonwealth found itself short of money. To raise funds, the Act for the Sale of the Goods and Personal Estate of the Late King, Queen and Prince was brought into law, and trustees were appointed to value the Jewels – then regarded by Oliver Cromwell as "symbolic of the detestable rule of kings" and "monuments of superstition and idolatry"  – and sell them to the highest bidder. The most valuable object was Henry VIII's Crown, valued at £1,100. Their gemstones and pearls removed, most of the coronation and state regalia were melted down, and the gold was struck into coins by the Mint.


title: Crown Jewels of the United Kingdom

text: Two nuptial crowns survived: the Crown of Margaret of York and the Crown of Princess Blanche had been taken out of England centuries before the Civil War when Margaret and Blanche married kings in continental Europe. Both crowns and the 9th-century Alfred Jewel give a sense of the character of royal jewellery in England in the Middle Ages. Another rare survivor is the 600-year-old Crystal Sceptre, a gift from Henry V to the Lord Mayor of London, who still bears it at coronations. Many pieces of English plate that were presented to visiting dignitaries can be seen in museums throughout Europe. Cromwell declined Parliament's invitations to be made king and became Lord Protector. It was marked by a ceremony in Westminster Hall in 1657, where he donned purple robes, sat on the Coronation Chair, and was invested with many traditional symbols of sovereignty, except a crown. A crown—perhaps made of gilded base metal, which was typical of funerary crowns in those days—was placed beside Cromwell at his lying in state in 1660.


title: Crown Jewels of the United Kingdom

text: The monarchy was restored after Cromwell's death. For the English coronation of Charles II (), who had been living in exile abroad, new Jewels were made based on records of the lost items. They were supplied by the banker and royal goldsmith, Sir Robert Vyner, at a cost of £12,184 7s 2d – as much as three warships. It was decided to fashion the replicas like the medieval regalia and to use the original names. These 22-carat gold objects, made in 1660 and 1661, form the nucleus of today's Crown Jewels: St Edward's Crown, two sceptres, an orb, an ampulla, a pair of spurs, a pair of armills or bracelets, and a staff. A medieval silver-gilt anointing spoon and three early Stuart swords had survived and were returned to the Crown, and the Dutch ambassador arranged the return of extant jewels pawned in Holland. The king also spent £11,800 acquiring of altar and banqueting plate, and he was presented with conciliatory gifts.


title: Crown Jewels of the United Kingdom

text: In 1669, the Jewels went on public display for the first time in the Jewel House at the Tower of London. The Deputy Keeper of the Jewel House took the regalia out of a cupboard and showed it to visitors for a small fee. This informal arrangement was ended two years later when Thomas Blood, an Irish-born army officer loyal to Parliament, attacked the 77-year-old and stole a crown, a sceptre, and an orb. Blood and his three accomplices were apprehended at the castle perimeter, but the crown had been flattened with a mallet in an attempt to conceal it, and there was a dent in the orb. He was pardoned by the king, who also gave him land and a pension; it has been suggested that Blood was treated leniently because he was a government spy. Ever since, the Jewels have been protected by armed guards.


title: Crown Jewels of the United Kingdom

text: Since the Restoration, there have been many additions and alterations to the regalia. A new set was commissioned in 1685 for Mary of Modena, the first queen consort to be crowned since the Restoration (Charles II was unmarried when he took the throne). Another, more elaborate set had to be made for Mary II (), who was crowned as joint sovereign with her husband William III (). After England and Scotland were united as one kingdom by the Acts of Union 1707, the Scottish regalia were locked away in a chest, and the English regalia continued to be used by British monarchs. Gemstones were hired for coronations – the fee typically being 4% of their value – and replaced with glass and crystals for display in the Jewel House, a practice that continued until the early 20th century.


title: Crown Jewels of the United Kingdom

text: As enemy planes targeted London during the Second World War, the Crown Jewels were secretly moved to Windsor Castle. The most valuable gemstones were taken out of their settings by James Mann, Master of the Armouries, and Sir Owen Morshead, the Royal Librarian. They were wrapped in cotton wool, placed in a tall glass preserving-jar, which was then sealed in a biscuit tin, and hidden in the castle's basement. Also placed in the jar was a note from the King, stating that he had personally directed that the gemstones be removed from their settings. As the Crown Jewels were bulky and thus difficult to transport without a vehicle, the idea was that if the Nazis invaded, the historic precious stones could easily be carried on someone's person without drawing suspicion and if necessary buried or sunk.


title: Crown Jewels of the United Kingdom

text: After the war, the Jewels were kept in a vault at the Bank of England for two years while the Jewel House was repaired; the Tower had been struck by a bomb. In 1953, St Edward's Crown was placed on the head of Elizabeth II () in what is now the only ceremony of its kind in Europe. Other European monarchies have abandoned coronations in favour of secular ceremonies. Today, 142 objects make up the Crown Jewels, which are permanently set with 23,578 precious and semi-precious stones and are seen by around 2.5 million visitors every year.


title: Crown Jewels of the United Kingdom

text: Crowns are the main symbols of royal authority. All crowns in the Tower are decorated with alternating crosses pattée and fleurs-de-lis, a pattern which first appears on the great seal of Richard III, and their arches are surmounted with a monde and cross pattée. Most of the crowns also have a red or purple velvet cap and an ermine border.


title: Crown Jewels of the United Kingdom

text: The centrepiece of the coronation regalia is named after Edward the Confessor and is placed on the monarch's head at the moment of crowning. Made of gold and completed in 1661, St Edward's Crown is embellished with 444 stones, including amethysts, garnets, peridots, rubies, sapphires, topazes, tourmalines and zircons. The coronation crown closely resembles the medieval one, with a heavy gold base and clusters of semi-precious stones, but the disproportionately large arches are a Baroque affectation. It was long assumed to be the original as their weight is almost identical and an invoice produced in 1661 was for the addition of gold to an existing crown. In 2008, new research found that it had actually been made in 1660 and was enhanced the following year when Parliament increased the budget for Charles II's twice-delayed coronation. The crown is tall and at a weight of has been noted to be extremely heavy. After 1689, monarchs chose to be crowned with a lighter, bespoke coronation crown (e.g., that of George IV) or their state crown, while St Edward's Crown rested on the high altar. At Queen Victoria's coronation in 1838 it was entirely absent from the ceremony. The tradition of using St Edward's Crown was revived in 1911 by George V and has continued ever since. In 1953 Elizabeth II opted for a stylised image of this crown to be used on coats of arms, badges, logos and various other insignia in the Commonwealth realms to symbolise her royal authority, replacing the image of a Tudor-style crown adopted in 1901 by Edward VII.


title: Crown Jewels of the United Kingdom

text: A much lighter crown is worn by the monarch when leaving Westminster Abbey, and at the annual State Opening of Parliament. The current Imperial State Crown was made in 1937 for George VI and is a copy of the one made in 1838 for Queen Victoria, which had fallen into a poor state of repair, and had been made using gems from its own predecessor, the State Crown of George I. In 1953, the crown was resized to fit Elizabeth II, and the arches were lowered by to give it a more feminine appearance. The gold, silver and platinum crown is decorated with 2,868 diamonds, 273 pearls, 17 sapphires, 11 emeralds and 5 rubies. Among the largest stones are the Cullinan II diamond, also known as the Second Star of Africa, added to the crown in 1909 (the larger Cullinan I is set in the Sovereign's Sceptre). The Black Prince's Ruby, set in the front cross, is not actually a ruby but a large cabochon red spinel. According to legend it was given to Edward the Black Prince by the Spanish king Peter of Castile in 1367 and Henry V wore it at the Battle of Agincourt. How the stone found its way back into the Royal Collection after the Interregnum is unclear, but a substantial "ruby" was acquired for the Crown Jewels in 1661 at a cost of £400, and this may well have been the spinel. On the back of the crown is the cabochon Stuart Sapphire, and in the top cross is St Edward's Sapphire, reputedly taken from the ring of the Confessor when his body was re-interred at the Abbey in 1163. Below the monde hang four pearls, three of which are often said to have belonged to Elizabeth I, but the association is almost certainly erroneous.


title: Crown Jewels of the United Kingdom

text: After the Restoration, wives of kings – queens consort – traditionally wore the State Crown of Mary of Modena, wife of James II, who first wore it at their coronation in 1685. Originally set with 561 hired diamonds and 129 pearls, it is now set with crystals and cultured pearls for display in the Jewel House along with a matching diadem that consorts wore in procession to the Abbey. The diadem once held 177 diamonds, 1 ruby, 1 sapphire, and 1 emerald. By the 19th century, that crown was judged to be too theatrical and in a poor state of repair, so in 1831 the Crown of Queen Adelaide was made for Queen Adelaide, wife of William IV, using gemstones from her private jewellery.


title: Crown Jewels of the United Kingdom

text: Thus began a tradition of each queen consort having a crown made specially for their use. In 1902 the Crown of Queen Alexandra, a European-style crown – flatter and with eight half-arches instead of the typical four – was made for Queen Alexandra, wife of Edward VII, to wear at their coronation. Set with over 3,000 diamonds, it was the first consort crown to include the Koh-i-Noor diamond presented to Queen Victoria in 1850 following the British conquest of the Punjab. Originally and set in an armlet, it was cut down to an oval brilliant weighing , which Victoria mounted in a brooch and circlet. The second was the Crown of Queen Mary; also unusual for a British crown owing to its eight half-arches, it was made in 1911 for Queen Mary, wife of George V. Mary paid for the Art Deco-inspired crown out of her own pocket and had originally hoped it would become the one traditionally used by future consorts. Altogether, it is adorned with 2,200 diamonds, and once contained the Cullinan III and Cullinan IV diamonds. Its arches were made detachable in 1914 allowing it to be worn as an open crown or circlet.


title: Crown Jewels of the United Kingdom

text: After George V's death, Mary continued wearing the crown (without its arches) as a queen mother, so the Crown of Queen Elizabeth was created for Queen Elizabeth, wife of George VI, and later known as the Queen Mother, to wear at their coronation in 1937. It is the only British crown made entirely out of platinum, and was modelled on Queen Mary's Crown, but has four half-arches instead of eight. The crown is decorated with about 2,800 diamonds, most notably the Koh-i-Noor in the middle of the front cross. It also contains a replica of the Lahore Diamond given to Queen Victoria by the East India Company in 1851, and a diamond given to her by Abdülmecid I, Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, in 1856. The crown was laid on top of the Queen Mother's coffin in 2002 during her lying in state and funeral. The crowns of Queen Alexandra and Queen Mary now feature crystal replicas of the Koh-i-Noor, which has been the subject of repeated controversy, with governments of both India and Pakistan claiming to be the diamond's rightful owners and demanding its return ever since gaining independence from the UK.


title: Crown Jewels of the United Kingdom

text: A relatively modest gold coronet was made in 1728 for Frederick, Prince of Wales, the eldest son of George II. It takes the form laid down in a royal warrant issued by Charles II in 1677, which states "the Son & Heir apparent of the Crown for the time being shall use & bear his coronett composed of crosses & flowers de Lizs with one Arch & in the midst a Ball & Cross". The single arch denotes inferiority to the monarch while showing that the prince outranks other royal children, whose coronets have no arches. Frederick never wore his coronet; instead, it was placed on a cushion in front of him when he first took his seat in the House of Lords. It was subsequently used by George III, George IV, and Edward VII when they were Princes of Wales. Due to its age, a new silver-gilt coronet was made for the future George V to wear at Edward VII's coronation in 1902. In contrast to the earlier coronet, which has a depressed arch, the arch on this one is raised. At George's coronation in 1911 the coronet was worn by his elder son Edward, who was invested as Prince of Wales at Caernarfon Castle a month later. The revival of this public ceremony, not performed since the early 17th century, was intended to boost the Royal family's profile in Wales. Princely regalia known as the Honours of Wales were designed for the occasion by Goscombe John, comprising a Welsh gold circlet with pearls, amethysts and engraved daffodils; a rod; a ring; a sword; and a robe with doublet and sash. After he became king in 1936, Edward VIII abdicated the same year and emigrated to France, where the 1902 coronet remained in his possession until his death in 1972. In its absence, a new coronet had to be created in 1969 for the investiture of the future Charles III, which is made from gold and platinum and is set with diamonds and emeralds. Both it and the rod were added to the Jewel House in 2020, joining the 1728 and 1902 coronets.


title: Crown Jewels of the United Kingdom

text: In the Jewel House there are two crowns that were never intended to be worn at a coronation. Queen Victoria's Small Diamond Crown is just tall and was made in 1870 using 1,187 diamonds for Victoria to wear on top of her widow's cap. She often wore it at State Openings of Parliament in place of the much heavier Imperial State Crown. After the queen's death in 1901 the crown passed to her daughter-in-law Queen Alexandra and later Queen Mary. When George V attended the Delhi Durbar with Queen Mary in 1911 to be proclaimed (but not crowned) as Emperor of India, he wore the Imperial Crown of India. As the British constitution forbids coronation regalia to leave the United Kingdom, it was not possible for him to wear St Edward's Crown or the Imperial State Crown, so one had to be made specially for the event. It contains 6,170 diamonds, 9 emeralds, 4 rubies and 4 sapphires. The crown has not been used since and is now considered a part of the Crown Jewels.


title: Crown Jewels of the United Kingdom

text: The swords of state reflect a monarch's role as Head of the British Armed Forces and Defender of the Faith. Three are carried before the monarch into the Abbey: the blunt Sword of Mercy (also known as Curtana), the Sword of Spiritual Justice, and the Sword of Temporal Justice. All are believed to have been supplied at the time of James I between 1610 and 1620, probably by a member of the Worshipful Company of Cutlers, using blades created in the 1580s by Italian bladesmiths Giandonato and Andrea Ferrara. They were deposited with St Edward's regalia at the Abbey by Charles II. Before that point, new swords had been made for each coronation since the 15th century. Sold in the civil war, they were returned at the Restoration, and their use was first recorded at the coronation of James II in 1685.


title: Crown Jewels of the United Kingdom

text: The two-handed Sword of State, made in 1678 symbolises the monarch's authority and is also carried before the monarch at State Openings of Parliament. Its wooden sheath, made in 1689, is bound in crimson velvet decorated with silver-gilt emblems of England, Scotland and Ireland, fleurs-de-lis, and portcullises. The lion of England and unicorn of Scotland form the cross-piece to the sword's handle. Before the investiture, it is exchanged for the principal Sword of Offering, of which the Sword of State is a metaphor. Commissioned by George IV for his 1821 coronation, its gilded leather sheath is encrusted with 1,251 diamonds, 16 rubies, 2 sapphires and 2 turquoises. The sword has a Damascus steel blade and its handle is set with 2,141 diamonds, 12 emeralds and 4 rubies. The stones are arranged to form roses, thistles, shamrocks, oak leaves and acorns. Two diamond lion heads, one at each end of the cross-piece, have ruby eyes. George paid more than £5,000 for the sword out of his own pocket in a radical change from the austere £2 swords used by his 18th-century predecessors. It remained in personal ownership of the Royal family until 1903 when it was deposited with the Crown Jewels and has been used at every coronation since 1911. A monarch is girded and blessed using the sword, which is returned to the Keeper of the Jewel House by the Abbey for a token sum of £5, and is borne unsheathed for the rest of the ceremony.


title: Crown Jewels of the United Kingdom

text: The 17th-century Irish Sword of State was held by the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland (a viceroy) prior to Ireland's independence from the UK in 1922 and has been displayed in the Jewel House since 1959. The handle takes the form of a lion and a unicorn and is decorated with a celtic harp. Each new viceroy was invested with the sword at Dublin Castle where it usually sat across the arms of a throne, representing the king or queen in their absence. It was borne in procession in front of monarchs during their official visits to Dublin. In June 1921 the sword was present at the official opening of the Parliament of Northern Ireland by George V. The sword was displayed at Dublin Castle in 2018 as part of the 'Making Majesty' exhibition – the first time it had been to Ireland in 95 years.


title: Crown Jewels of the United Kingdom

text: St Edward's Staff is a ceremonial gold walking stick made for Charles II in 1661. It has a plain monde and cross at the top and a steel pike at the bottom. This object is almost certainly a copy of the long rod mentioned in the list of royal plate and jewels destroyed in 1649, although the pre-Interregnum version was gold and silver and topped by a dove. The staff's intended role in the coronation has been forgotten since medieval times, and so it is carried into the Abbey by a peer as a holy relic and laid on the altar, where it remains throughout the ceremony.


title: Crown Jewels of the United Kingdom

text: The Crown Jewels include 16 silver trumpets dating from between 1780 and 1848. Nine are draped with red silk damask banners embroidered with coats of arms in gold, originally made for Queen Victoria's coronation in 1838. They have not been used since the Corps of State Trumpeters was disbanded as a cost-cutting measure in the 19th century. The trumpeters' main job was to sound a fanfare at key points in the coronation, and they also played at the banquet afterwards in Westminster Hall. Today, the Band of the Household Cavalry and the Central Band of the Royal Air Force play their own trumpets at state occasions.


title: Crown Jewels of the United Kingdom

text: Beginning as lethal weapons of medieval knights, maces evolved into ceremonial objects carried by sergeants-at-arms and now represent a monarch's authority. The House of Commons can only operate lawfully when the royal mace – dating from Charles II's reign – is present at the table. Two other maces dating from the reigns of Charles II and William III are used by the House of Lords, one of which is placed on the Woolsack before the house meets and is absent when a monarch is there in person delivering the King's or Queen's Speech. In the late 17th century there were 16 maces, but only 13 survive, 10 of which are on display at the Tower of London. Two of these are carried in the royal procession at State Openings of Parliament and coronations. Each mace is about long and weighs an average of . They are silver-gilt and were made between 1660 and 1695.


title: Crown Jewels of the United Kingdom

text: When a monarch is anointed, the Dean of Westminster first pours holy anointing oil from an ampulla into a spoon.


title: Crown Jewels of the United Kingdom

text: The Ampulla, tall and weighing , is a hollow gold vessel made in 1661 and shaped like an eagle with outspread wings. Its head unscrews, enabling the vessel to be filled with oil, which exits via a hole in the beak. The original ampulla was a small stone phial, sometimes worn around the neck as a pendant by kings, and otherwise kept inside an eagle-shaped golden reliquary. According to 14th-century legend, the Virgin Mary appeared to Thomas Becket, Archbishop of Canterbury from 1162 until 1170, and presented him with a gold eagle and some oil for anointing English kings. This ampulla was first recorded as being used at Henry IV's coronation in 1399 and was deposited for safekeeping with St Edward's regalia at the Abbey by Richard III in 1483. Known as the Holy Oil of St Thomas, the same batch was used to anoint all subsequent kings and queens (except Mary I) until it eventually ran out in 1625. It is unclear why, after the Restoration, the vessel itself came to be reinterpreted as an eagle standing on a domed base. In terms of religious importance, the anointing objects are second only to St Edward's Crown, and in 2013 the ampulla stood beside the crown on the altar of Westminster Abbey at a service marking the 60th anniversary of Elizabeth II's coronation.


title: Crown Jewels of the United Kingdom

text: The Coronation Spoon, which dates from the late 12th century, is silver-gilt and set with four pearls added in the 17th century. A ridge divides the bowl in half, creating grooves into which the Archbishop of Canterbury dips two fingers and anoints the monarch as Supreme Governor of the Church of England. Originally, it may have been used for mixing water and wine in a chalice. The spoon is first known to have been used to anoint a monarch at the English coronation of James I in 1603. It is the oldest surviving piece of the Crown Jewels (and the only surviving English royal goldsmith's work from the 1100s), first recorded in the Royal Collection in 1349 as "a spoon of ancient form", and was probably made for Henry II or Richard I. In 1649 the spoon was sold for 16 shillings to Clement Kynnersley, Yeoman of the Removing Wardrobe, who returned it to Charles II upon the restoration of the monarchy.


title: Crown Jewels of the United Kingdom

text: All the robes have priestly connotations and their form has changed little since the Middle Ages. A tradition of wearing St Edward's robes came to an end in 1547 after the English Reformation, but was revived in 1603 by James I to emphasise his belief in the divine nature of kingship. As well as robes, a monarch also wore cloth-of-gold buskins or sandals, depending on his or her foot size. These holy relics were destroyed along with royal crowns and ornaments in the Civil War. New robes were made for each monarch starting with Charles II, a practice that ended in 1911, when George V wore the Supertunica (a dalmatic), and the Imperial Mantle (a cope), both fashioned for George IV in 1821. They were also worn by his successors George VI and Elizabeth II. Together the gold robes weigh approximately . A new stole was made in 1953 for Elizabeth II by the Worshipful Company of Girdlers. It is adorned with floral emblems of Australia, Canada, Ceylon, India, New Zealand, and the four countries of the United Kingdom – members of the Commonwealth, which was headed by the Queen.


title: Crown Jewels of the United Kingdom

text: Prick spurs remade for Charles II are presented to the monarch. They are made of solid gold, richly embossed with floral patterns and scrolls, and have crimson velvet straps embroidered in gold. Both necks terminate in a Tudor rose with a spike at its centre. Also known as St George's Spurs, they are emblems of knighthood and chivalry, and denote the sovereign's role as head of the armed forces. Gold spurs are first known to have been used in 1189 at the coronation of Richard I, though it is likely they were introduced for Henry the Young King in 1170, and this element of the service was probably inspired by the initiation ceremony of knights. A pair of mid 14th-century spurs were added to St Edward's regalia at the Abbey in 1399 and used at all coronations until their destruction in 1649. Historically, spurs were fastened to a monarch's feet, but since the Restoration they are simply brushed against the heels of kings or shown to queens.


title: Crown Jewels of the United Kingdom

text: The Armills are gold bracelets of sincerity and wisdom. Like spurs, they were first used at English coronations in the 12th century. By the 17th century, armills were no longer delivered to the monarch, but simply carried at the coronation. A new pair had to be made in 1661; they are wide, in diameter, and champlevé enamelled on the surface with roses, thistles and harps (the national symbols of England, Scotland and Ireland) as well as fleurs-de-lis. For Elizabeth II's coronation in 1953, the medieval tradition was revived, and a new set of plain 22-karat gold armills lined with crimson velvet presented to the Queen on behalf of various Commonwealth governments. Each bracelet is fitted with an invisible hinge and a clasp in the form of a Tudor rose. The hallmark includes a tiny portrait of the Queen, who continued to wear the armills upon leaving the Abbey, and could be seen wearing them later, along with the Imperial State Crown and Sovereign's Ring, at her appearance on the balcony of Buckingham Palace.


title: Crown Jewels of the United Kingdom

text: An orb, a type of globus cruciger, was first used at an English coronation by Henry VIII in 1509, and then by all subsequent monarchs apart from the early Stuart kings James I and Charles I, who opted for the medieval coronation order. The Tudor orb was deposited with St Edward's regalia at Westminster Abbey in 1625. Since 1661 the Sovereign's Orb is a hollow gold sphere about in diameter and weighing (more than twice as heavy as the original) made for Charles II. A band of gems and pearls runs along the equator and there is a half-band on the top hemisphere. Atop the orb is an amethyst surmounted by a jewelled cross, symbolising the Christian world, with a sapphire on one side and an emerald on the other. Altogether, the orb is decorated with 375 pearls, 365 diamonds, 18 rubies, 9 emeralds, 9 sapphires, 1 amethyst and 1 piece of glass. It is handed to the sovereign during the investiture rite of the coronation, and is borne later in the left hand when leaving Westminster Abbey. A small version, originally set with hired gems, was made in 1689 for Mary II to hold at her joint coronation with William III; it was never used again at a coronation and is now set with imitation gems and cultured pearls. The orb is in diameter and weighs . Both orbs were laid on Queen Victoria's coffin at her state funeral in 1901. Officially, no reason was given for using Mary II's orb, but it may have been intended to reflect Victoria's position as Empress of India.


title: Crown Jewels of the United Kingdom

text: The Sovereign's Ring has been used by all monarchs from William IV in 1831 to Elizabeth II in 1953, with the exception of Queen Victoria, whose fingers were too small to retain it. In the centre is an octagonal sapphire overlaid with a cross made of rubies. Around the sapphire are 14 brilliant diamonds. The general design is intended to represent the red St George's Cross (England) on the blue background of St Andrew's Cross (Scotland). Rubies symbolise all the kingly virtues and have featured on coronation rings since the early Middle Ages. A small copy was made for Victoria, who wrote in a letter: "The Archbishop had (most awkwardly) put the ring on the wrong finger, and the consequence was that I had the greatest difficulty to take it off again, which I at last did with great pain". Her jewellers had measured the wrong finger. In 1919, it was deposited at the Tower along with the Sovereign's Ring and Queen Consort's Ring, which all wives of kings have worn from Queen Adelaide onwards.


title: Crown Jewels of the United Kingdom

text: Before 1831, monarchs generally received a new ring symbolising their "marriage" to the nation, with perhaps two exceptions: Richard II offered Westminster Abbey a "solemn jewel, a gold ring set with a precious stone called a ruby, of no small value" to be worn by his successors. Evidence suggests it was later worn by Henry V. Another was the Stuart Coronation Ring, probably used at the English coronations of Charles I and Charles II, and certainly that of James II, who took it into exile with him in France after the Glorious Revolution in 1688. It returned to the United Kingdom 100 years later and now belongs to the Royal Collection of Gems and Jewels. The ring has a large ruby etched with a St George's Cross and bordered by 26 diamonds. Since 1830 it has been on permanent loan from Windsor Castle to Edinburgh Castle where it is displayed with the Honours of Scotland. It may be of interest to note that Mary II's coronation ring survives in the Portland Collection at Welbeck Abbey.


title: Crown Jewels of the United Kingdom

text: The sceptre, a symbolic ornamental rod held by the monarch at a coronation, is derived from the shepherd's staff via the crozier of a bishop. Two gold sceptres made in 1661 are part of the coronation regalia. The Sovereign's Sceptre with Cross is a token of his or her temporal power as head of state. The whole object is long, weighs around , and is decorated with 333 diamonds, 31 rubies, 15 emeralds, 7 sapphires, 6 spinels, and 1 composite amethyst. In 1910, it was redesigned to incorporate Cullinan I, also known as the Great Star of Africa, which, at over , is the largest clear cut diamond in the world. It was part of a rough diamond weighing found in South Africa in 1905, and was named after Thomas Cullinan, the chairman of the mining company. The gold clasps holding it can be opened and the stone removed to be worn as a pendant hanging from Cullinan II, which is set in the Imperial State Crown, to form a brooch – Queen Mary, wife of George V, often wore it like this. Above the pear-shaped diamond is the amethyst surmounted by a cross pattée encrusted with an emerald and small diamonds.


title: Crown Jewels of the United Kingdom

text: The Sovereign's Sceptre with Dove, which has also been known as the Rod of Equity and Mercy, is emblematic of their spiritual role. It is slightly longer, at , but weighs about the same as the Sceptre with Cross. The sceptre is decorated with 285 gemstones, including 94 diamonds, 53 rubies, 10 emeralds, 4 sapphires and 3 spinels. Circling the rod are bands of precious stones. At the top is a gold monde set with diamonds and topped by a plain cross, upon which sits a white enamelled dove with its wings outspread, representing the Holy Ghost. A sceptre like this first appeared in the 11th century and was probably based on the German sceptre, which was topped by an Imperial Eagle. The Sceptre with Dove is the penultimate piece of regalia to be delivered. As the monarch holds both sceptres, they are crowned with St Edward's Crown.


title: Crown Jewels of the United Kingdom

text: The Crown Jewels include two sceptres made for Mary of Modena, the wife of James II, in 1685: a gold sceptre with a cross known as the Queen Consort's Sceptre with Cross, and another made of ivory topped by a dove known as the Queen Consort's Ivory Rod with Dove. Unlike the sovereign's dove, this one has folded wings and is relatively small. It was last used by Queen Elizabeth, later known as the Queen Mother, at her husband George VI's coronation in 1937. For the coronation of Mary II, the wife and joint sovereign of William III, a more elaborate gold sceptre with dove was commissioned in 1689. It has not been used since, and went missing for several decades, only to be found in 1814 at the back of a cupboard in the Tower of London.


title: Crown Jewels of the United Kingdom

text: In the Jewel House there is a collection of chalices, patens, flagons, candlesticks, and dishes – all silver-gilt except five gold communion vessels – that are displayed on the high altar or in front of the royal box at Westminster Abbey during coronations. Some are also used at other times. Although not regalia, such items are considered to be Crown Jewels by virtue of their long association with the Jewel House.


title: Crown Jewels of the United Kingdom

text: One of the most striking pieces is a large dish across and weighing , in the centre of which is a relief depiction of the Last Supper. Around the edge are four engravings of biblical scenes: the Washing of the Feet, the Walk to Emmaus, the Coming of the Holy Ghost, and Christ's Commission to the Apostles. Made in 1664 for James, Duke of York, and later acquired by Charles II, it stands on the high altar during a coronation ceremony. At each end of the altar stands a tall candlestick made in the 17th century, which is engraved all over with scrolls, leaves and flowers.


title: Crown Jewels of the United Kingdom

text: An altar dish and flagon were made in 1691 for the royal Church of St Peter ad Vincula at the Tower of London. The dish measures across and depicts the Last Supper above the coat of arms of co-regents William III and Mary II. The flagon stands tall. Both pieces are still used in the chapel on Easter, Whitsun and Christmas, and they were first displayed at a coronation in 1821. Another dish still in regular use is the Maundy Dish – one of six used by the King at Royal Maundy for handing out alms to elderly people in recognition of their service to the church and local community. The ceremony, which takes place in a different cathedral every year, entirely replaced the ancient custom of washing the feet of the poor in 1730, and the dish, though it bears the royal cypher of William and Mary, dates from the reign of Charles II. Two purses containing specially minted coins are taken from the dish and presented to each recipient.


title: Crown Jewels of the United Kingdom

text: The last coronation banquet held at Westminster Hall took place in 1821 for George IV. Silverware used at those banquets include the Plymouth Fountain, a wine fountain made around 1640 by a German goldsmith and presented to Charles II by the city of Plymouth. Gilded for George II in 1726, it is tall and decorated with flowers, fruit, dolphins, mermaids and sea monsters. The nautical theme is continued in the silver-gilt Wine Cistern, also known as the Grand Punch Bowl, which is cast as a giant oyster shell. It weighs , is tall, long and wide, and can hold 144 bottles of wine on ice. It was commissioned in 1829 by George IV but not completed until after his death. It is the heaviest surviving piece of English banqueting plate. In 1841, the cistern was re-purposed as a punch bowl, with the addition of a large ivory-stemmed ladle, which has a silver-gilt bowl in the form of a nautilus shell.


title: Crown Jewels of the United Kingdom

text: The Exeter Salt is a tall salt cellar in the form of a castle on a rocky outcrop. Each of its four main compartments held about of salt, while smaller ones held pepper and other spices. It was made 1630 in Germany and is set with 73 gems probably added later. The Salt was originally bought in Hamburg in 1657 by the city's British Resident as a peace offering to the Russian court, which had cut all ties with Britain during the Interregnum. He was turned away at the Russian border and eventually took it home to London. In 1660, it was acquired from a private dealer for £700 by the city of Exeter and presented to Charles II.


title: Crown Jewels of the United Kingdom

text: Eleven smaller salts named after St George were originally made for a St George's Day banquet of the Knights of the Garter in the late 17th century. A twelfth, the Queen Elizabeth Salt, was made in 1572 during the reign of Elizabeth I for a member of the aristocracy; it was later acquired by Charles II. Twelve spoons made for George IV in 1820 complement these salts.


title: Crown Jewels of the United Kingdom

text: Three silver-gilt objects (comprising a total of six parts) associated with royal christenings are displayed in the Jewel House. Charles II's tall font was created in 1661 and stood on a basin to catch any spills. Surmounting the font's domed lid is a figure of Philip the Evangelist baptising the Ethiopian eunuch. While Charles's marriage to Catherine of Braganza produced no heir, the font may have been used to secretly baptise some of his 13 illegitimate children. In 1688, James Francis Edward Stuart, son of James II and Mary of Modena, was the first royal baby to be christened using this object.


title: Crown Jewels of the United Kingdom

text: A ewer and basin of French design made in 1735 were only used at two christenings. The tall ewer's handle is topped by a figure of Hercules slaying the Hydra, an unlikely motif for baptismal plate, suggesting it originally had an alternate purpose. Indeed, it was first used in 1738 at the impromptu christening of a "very ill" future George III only hours after his birth. His father, Frederick, Prince of Wales, was also banished from the royal court and forbidden to use the Charles II font. An inscription on the ewer records its presence at the 1780 christening of George III's youngest son, Prince Alfred.


title: Crown Jewels of the United Kingdom

text: The Lily Font was made in 1840 for the christening of Victoria, Princess Royal, the first child of Queen Victoria, who declined to use the Charles II font because of its unseemly history. The 1661 font was recycled as a plinth ("pictured") and its basin found a new role as an altar dish. The Lily Font stands tall and weighs approximately . It is decorated with water lilies, symbolising purity and new life, and cherubs plucking lyres. The object has been used for the christenings of all of Elizabeth II's children and grandchildren (except Princess Eugenie) with holy water brought from the River Jordan.


title: Crown Jewels of the United Kingdom

text: The Crown Jewels are part of the Royal Collection. As with Royal palaces, ownership is regarded as inalienable and passes from one monarch to the next in perpetuity. However, a 17th-century ruling by Sir Edward Coke, which states "the ancient jewels of the crown are heirloomes and shall descend to the next successor and are not devisable by testament", contains an exception allowing the monarch to dispose of objects via letters patent during their lifetime under the Great Seal or Privy Seal. In 1995, Iain Sproat, then Secretary of State for National Heritage, confirmed that the disposal of the Royal Collection was "entirely a matter for the Queen". Their potential value is generally not included in estimates of the monarch's wealth because in practice it is unlikely the Crown Jewels will ever be sold, nor are they insured against loss, and are officially described as priceless. Maintenance, alteration and repair falls to the Crown Jeweller, a member of the Royal Household who cleans them after visiting hours at the Tower of London each January and accompanies the regalia and plate whenever they leave the Tower for use at royal ceremonies. Older items have been conserved by experts from the British Museum. The Royal Collection Trust keeps an inventory of the jewels, and Historic Royal Palaces is responsible for their display.


title: Operation Mockingbird

text: Operation Mockingbird is an alleged large-scale program of the United States Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) that began in the early years of the Cold War and attempted to manipulate domestic American news media organizations for propaganda purposes. According to author Deborah Davis, Operation Mockingbird recruited leading American journalists into a propaganda network and influenced the operations of front groups. CIA support of front groups was exposed when an April 1967 "Ramparts" article reported that the National Student Association received funding from the CIA. In 1975, Church Committee Congressional investigations revealed Agency connections with journalists and civic groups.


title: Operation Mockingbird

text: In 1973, a document referred to as the "Family Jewels" was published by the CIA containing a reference to "Project Mockingbird", which was the name of an operation in 1963 wiretapping two journalists believed to be disseminating classified information. The document does not contain references to "Operation Mockingbird".


title: Operation Mockingbird

text: In the early years of the Cold War, efforts were made by the United States Government to use mass media to influence public opinion internationally. After the United States Senate Watergate Committee in 1973 uncovered domestic surveillance abuses directed by the Executive branch of the United States government and "The New York Times" in 1974 published an article by Seymour Hersh claiming the CIA had violated its charter by spying on anti-war activists, former CIA officials and some lawmakers called for a congressional inquiry that became known as the Church Committee. Published in 1976, the Committee's report confirmed some earlier stories that charged that the CIA had cultivated relationships with private institutions, including the press. Without identifying individuals by name, the Church Committee stated that it found fifty journalists who had official, but secret, relationships with the CIA. In a 1977 "Rolling Stone" magazine article, "The CIA and the Media," reporter Carl Bernstein expanded upon the Church Committee's report and wrote that more than 400 US press members had secretly carried out assignments for the CIA, including "New York Times" publisher Arthur Hays Sulzberger, columnist and political analyst Stewart Alsop and "Time" magazine. Bernstein documented the way in which overseas branches of major US news agencies had for many years served as the "eyes and ears" of Operation Mockingbird, which functioned to disseminate CIA propaganda through domestic US media.


title: Operation Mockingbird

text: In "The Rising Clamor: The American Press, the Central Intelligence Agency, and the Cold War", David P. Hadley wrote that the "continued lack of specific details [provided by the Church Committee and Bernstein's exposé] proved a breeding ground for some outlandish claims regarding CIA and the press"; as an example, he offered unsourced claims by reporter Deborah Davis. Davis wrote in "Katharine the Great", her 1979 unauthorized biography of Katharine Graham, owner of "The Washington Post", that the CIA ran an "Operation Mockingbird" during this time, writing that the Prague-based International Organization of Journalists (IOJ) "received money from Moscow and controlled reporters on every major newspaper in Europe, disseminating stories that promoted the Communist cause", and that Frank Wisner, director of the Office of Policy Coordination (a covert operations unit created in 1948 by the United States National Security Council) had created Operation Mockingbird in response to the IOJ, recruiting Phil Graham from "The Washington Post" to run the project within the industry. According to Davis, "By the early 1950s, Wisner 'owned' respected members of "The New York Times," "Newsweek," CBS and other communications vehicles." Davis wrote that after Cord Meyer joined the CIA in 1951, he became Operation Mockingbird's "principal operative." Neither the Church Committee nor any of the investigations that followed it find there was such an operation as described by Davis. Hadley summarized, "Mockingbird, as described by Davis, has remained a stubbornly persistent theory"; and added, "The Davis/Mockingbird theory, that the CIA operated a deliberate and systematic program of widespread manipulation of the U.S. media, does not appear to be grounded in reality, but that should not disguise the active role the CIA played in influencing the domestic press's output."


title: Operation Mockingbird

text: QAnon supporters have used the term "Operation Mockingbird" when referring to American media that spread what the supporters consider "fake news".


title: Orc

text: An Orc (or Ork) is a fictional humanoid monster like a goblin. Orcs were brought into modern usage by the fantasy writings of J. R. R. Tolkien, especially "The Lord of the Rings". In Tolkien's works, Orcs are a brutish, aggressive, ugly, and malevolent race of monsters, contrasting with the benevolent Elves. There is a suggestion, among several somewhat contradictory origin stories, that they are a corrupted race of elves.


title: Orc

text: Mythological monsters with names similar to "orc" can be found in the Old English poem "Beowulf", in Early Modern poetry, and in Northern European folk tales and fairy tales. Tolkien stated that he took the name from "Beowulf". The orc appears on lists of imaginary creatures in two of Charles Kingsley's mid-1860s novels.


title: Orc

text: Tolkien's concept of orcs has been adapted into the fantasy fiction of other authors, and into games of many different genres such as "Dungeons & Dragons", "", and "Warcraft".


title: Orc

text: The Latin word is glossed as ""Orc, þyrs, oððe hel-deofol"" ("Goblin, spectre, or hell-devil") in the 10th century Old English "Cleopatra Glossaries", about which Thomas Wright wrote, "Orcus was the name for Pluto, the god of the infernal regions, hence we can easily understand the explanation of "hel-deofol". "Orc", in Anglo-Saxon, like "thyrs", means a spectre, or goblin." The "Woordenboek der Nederlandsche Taal" defines "ork" in the closely related Old Dutch language as a "verslindend monster" ("devouring monster"), and points at a possible origin in the Old Dutch "nork" "petulant, crabbed, evil person".


title: Orc

text: The term is used just once in "Beowulf" as the plural compound "orcneas", one of the tribes alongside the elves and ettins (giants) condemned by God:


title: Orc

text: "Orcneas" is translated "evil spirits" above, but its meaning is uncertain. Frederick Klaeber suggested it consisted of "orc" < L. "orcus" "the underworld" + "neas" "corpses", to which the translation "evil spirits" failed to do justice. It is generally supposed to contain an element "-né", cognate to Gothic "naus" and Old Norse "nár", both meaning 'corpse'. The usual Old English word for corpse is "líc", but "-né" appears in "nebbed" 'corpse bed', and in "dryhtné" 'dead body of a warrior', where "dryht" is a military unit. If "*orcné" is to be glossed as "orcus" 'corpse', the meaning may be "corpse from Orcus (i.e. the underworld)", or "devil-corpse", understood as some sort of walking dead monster.


title: Orc

text: A monster called "Orcus" is mentioned in Edmund Spenser's 1590 "Faerie Queene". The "Oxford English Dictionary" records an Early Modern period "orke", meaning "ogre", in Samuel Holland's 1656 fairy tale "Don Zara del Fogo", a pastiche of Spanish romances such as "Don Quixote".


title: Orc

text: It is presumed that 'orke'/'ogre' came into English via continental fairy-tales, especially from the 17th-century French writer Charles Perrault, who borrowed most of his stories and developed his "ogre" from the 16th-century Italian writers Giovanni Francesco Straparola (credited with introducing the literary form of the fairy tale) and Giambattista Basile, who wrote in the Naples dialect, stating that he was passing on oral folktales from his region. In the tales, Basile used "huorco", "huerco" or "uerco", the Neapolitan form of Italian "orco", lit. "Ogre", to describe a large, hairy, tusked, mannish beast which could speak, lived in a dark forest or garden and might capture and eat humans.


title: Orc

text: It is possible that Tolkien was influenced by more recent sources. "Orc" appears as one of a list of imaginary creatures in Charles Kingsley's 1863 "The Water-Babies" and his 1865 "Hereward the Wake". Tolkien probably read the latter as he uses rare terms like "horse-boy" which are found in that book.


title: Orc

text: Tolkien began the modern use of the English term "orc" to denote a race of evil, humanoid creatures. His earliest Elvish dictionaries include the entry "Ork (orq-)" "monster", "ogre", "demon", together with "orqindi" and "ogresse". He sometimes used the plural form "orqui" in his early texts. He stated that the Elvish words for orc were derived from a root "ruku", "fear, horror"; in Quenya, "orco", plural "orkor"; in Sindarin "orch", plurals "yrch" and "Orchoth" (as a class). They had similar names in other Middle-earth languages: "uruk" in Black Speech; in the language of the Drúedain "gorgûn", "ork-folk"; in Khuzdul "rukhs", plural "rakhâs"; and in the language of Rohan and in the Common Speech, "orka".


title: Orc

text: Tolkien stated in a letter to the novelist Naomi Mitchison that his Orcs had been influenced by George MacDonald's "The Princess and the Goblin".


title: Orc

text: He explained that his "orc" was "derived from Old English "orc" 'demon', but only because of its phonetic suitability", and


title: Orc

text: Tolkien also observed a similarity with the Latin word "orcus", noting that "the word used in translation of Q[uenya] "urko", S[indarin] "orch" is Orc. But that is because of the similarity of the ancient English word "orc", 'evil spirit or bogey', to the Elvish words. There is possibly no connection between them."


title: Orc

text: Orcs are of human shape, and of varying size; in "The Hobbit" they are called "goblins", though Thorin Oakenshield's Elvish sword from Gondolin is named as "Orcrist, Goblin-cleaver, but the goblins called it simply Biter". They are depicted as ugly and filthy, with a taste for human flesh. They are fanged, bow-legged and long-armed. Most are small and avoid daylight.


title: Orc

text: By the Third Age, a new breed of Orc had emerged, the Uruk-hai, larger and more powerful, and no longer afraid of daylight. Orcs eat meat, including the flesh of Men, and may indulge in cannibalism: in "The Two Towers", Grishnákh, an Orc from Mordor, claims that the Isengard Orcs eat orc-flesh. Whether that is true or spoken in malice is uncertain: an Orc flings Peregrin Took stale bread and a "strip of raw dried flesh... the flesh of he dared not guess what creature".


title: Orc

text: The Orcs from Mordor speak the Black Speech, a language invented for them by Sauron, while those from Isengard speak other tongues; to understand each other, they use the Common Speech (Westron), such as Pippin overheard and understood.


title: Orc

text: Half-orcs appear in "The Lord of the Rings", created by interbreeding of Orcs and Men; they were able to go in sunlight. The "sly Southerner" in "The Fellowship of the Ring" looks "more than half like a goblin"; similar but more orc-like hybrids appear in "The Two Towers" "man-high, but with goblin-faces, sallow, leering, squint-eyed."


title: Orc

text: In Peter Jackson's "Lord of the Rings" films, the actors playing Orcs are made up with masks designed to make them look evil. After a disagreement with the "notorious" Hollywood producer Harvey Weinstein, Jackson had one of the masks made to resemble Weinstein "as a sort of fuck you."


title: Orc

text: Orcs presented Tolkien with a dilemma. He attempted to resolve this by proposing several semi-contradictory theories for their origins. In "The Tale of Tinúviel", Orcs originate as "foul broodlings of Melkor who fared abroad doing his evil work". In "The Silmarillion", Orcs are East Elves (Avari) enslaved, tortured, and bred by Morgoth (as Melkor became known); they "multiplied" like Elves and Men. Tolkien stated in a 1962 letter to a Mrs. Munsby that Orc-females must have existed. In "The Fall of Gondolin" Morgoth made them of slime by sorcery, "bred from the heats and slimes of the earth". Or, they were ""beasts" of humanized shape", possibly, Tolkien wrote, Elves mated with beasts, and later Men. Or again, Tolkien noted, they could have been fallen Maiar, perhaps a kind called "Boldog", like lesser Balrogs; or corrupted Men.


title: Orc

text: Shippey writes that the orcs in "The Lord of the Rings" were almost certainly created just to equip Middle-earth with "a continual supply of enemies over whom one need feel no ", or in Tolkien's words from "The Monsters and the Critics" "the infantry of the old war" ready to be slaughtered. Shippey states that all the same, orcs share the human concept of good and evil, with a familiar sense of morality, though he notes that, like many people, orcs are quite unable to apply their morals to themselves. In his view, Tolkien, as a Catholic, took it as a given that "evil cannot make, only mock", so orcs could not have an equal and opposite morality to that of men or elves.


title: Orc

text: In a 1954 letter, Tolkien wrote that orcs were "fundamentally a race of 'rational incarnate' creatures, though horribly corrupted, if no more so than many Men to be met today." Robert T. Tally wrote in "Mythlore" that despite the uniform presentation of orcs as "loathsome, ugly, cruel, feared, and especially terminable", "Tolkien could not resist the urge to flesh out and 'humanize' these inhuman creatures from time to time", in the process giving them their own morality.


title: Orc

text: Shippey notes that in "The Two Towers", the orc Gorbag disapproves of the "regular elvish trick"–an immoral act–of seeming to abandon a comrade, as he wrongly supposes Sam Gamgee has done with Frodo Baggins. Shippey describes the implied view of evil as Boethian, that evil is the absence of good. He notes, however, that Tolkien did not agree with that point of view; Tolkien believed that evil had to be actively fought, with war if necessary, something that Shippey describes as representing the Manichean position, that evil coexists with good and may be equally powerful.


title: Orc

text: The possibility of racism in Tolkien's descriptions of orcs has been debated. In a private letter, Tolkien describes orcs as:


title: Orc

text: O'Hehir describes orcs as "a subhuman race bred by Morgoth and/or Sauron (although not created by them) that is morally irredeemable and deserves only death. They are dark-skinned and slant-eyed, and although they possess reason, speech, social organization and, as Shippey mentions, a sort of moral sensibility, they are inherently evil." He notes Tolkien's own description of them (quoted above), saying it could scarcely be more revealing as a representation of the "Other", and states "it is also the product of his background and era, like most of our inescapable prejudices. At the level of conscious intention, he was not a racist or an anti-Semite" and mentions Tolkien's letters to this effect. The literary critic Jenny Turner, writing in the "London Review of Books", endorses Andrew O'Hehir's comment on Salon.com that orcs are "by design and intention a northern European's paranoid caricature of the races he has dimly heard about".


title: Orc

text: The scholar of English literature Robert Tally describes the orcs as a demonized enemy, despite (he writes) Tolkien's own objections to demonization of the enemy in the two World Wars. In a letter to his son, Christopher, who was serving in the RAF in the Second World War, Tolkien wrote of orcs as appearing on both sides of the conflict:


title: Orc

text: John Magoun, writing in the "J.R.R. Tolkien Encyclopedia", states that Middle-earth has a "fully expressed moral geography". Any moral bias towards a north-western geography, however, was directly denied by Tolkien in a letter to Charlotte and Denis Plimmer, who had recently interviewed him in 1967:


title: Orc

text: Scholars of English literature William N. Rogers II and Michael R. Underwood note that a widespread element of late 19th century Western culture was fear of moral decline and degeneration; this led to eugenics. In "The Two Towers", the Ent Treebeard says:


title: Orc

text: The Germanic studies scholar Sandra Ballif Straubhaar however argues against the "recurring accusations" of racism, stating that "a polycultured, polylingual world is absolutely central" to Middle-earth, and that readers and filmgoers will easily see that. The historian and Tolkien scholar Jared Lobdell likewise disagreed with any notions of racism inherent or latent in Tolkien's works, and wondered "if there were a way of writing epic fantasy about a battle against an evil spirit and his monstrous servants without its being subject to speculation of racist intent".


title: Orc

text: The journalist David Ibata writes that the interpretations of orcs in Peter Jackson's "Lord of the Rings" films look much like "the worst depictions of the Japanese drawn by American and British illustrators during World War II."


title: Orc

text: As a response to the type-casting of orcs as generic evil characters or antagonists, some novels portray events from the point of view of the orcs, or make them more sympathetic characters. Mary Gentle's 1992 novel "Grunts!" presents orcs as generic infantry, used as metaphorical cannon-fodder. A series of books by Stan Nicholls, "", focuses on the conflicts between orcs and humans from the orcs' point of view. In Terry Pratchett's "Discworld" series, Orcs are close to extinction; in his "Unseen Academicals" it is said that "When the Evil Emperor wanted fighters he got some of the Igors to turn goblins into orcs" to be used as weapons in a Great War, "encouraged" by whips and beatings.


title: Orc

text: Orcs based on "The Lord of the Rings" have become a fixture of fantasy fiction and role-playing games. In the fantasy tabletop role-playing game "Dungeons & Dragons," orcs were among the earliest creatures introduced in the game, and were largely based upon those described by Tolkien. The "D&D" orcs are a tribal race of hostile and bestial humanoids with muscular frames, large canine teeth and snouts rather than human-like noses. The orc appears in the first edition "Monster Manual" (1977), where it is described as a fiercely competitive bully, a tribal creature often living underground. The mythology and attitudes of the orcs are described in detail in "Dragon" #62 (June 1982), in Roger E. Moore's article, "The Half-Orc Point of View", and the orc is further detailed in Paizo Publishing's 2008 book "Classic Monsters Revisited".


title: Orc

text: Games Workshop's "Warhammer" universe features cunning and brutal Orcs in a fantasy setting, who are driven not so much by a need to do evil as to obtain fulfilment through the act of war. In the "Warhammer 40,000," a series of science-fiction games, they are a green-skinned alien species, called 'Orks'. Orcs are an important race in the "Warcraft," a high fantasy franchise created by Blizzard Entertainment. Several Orc characters from the "Warcraft" universe are playable heroes in the crossover multiplayer game "Heroes of the Storm". In the Elder Scrolls series, many Orcs or Orsimer are skilled blacksmiths.


title: Orc

text: In Hasbro's "Heroscape" products, Orcs come from the pre-historic planet Grut. They are blue-skinned, with prominent tusks or horns. Several Orc champions ride prehistoric animals (including a "Tyrannosaurus rex", a "Velociraptor" and sabre-tooth tigers, known as Swogs). The Skylander Voodood from the first game in the series, "", is an orc. The 1993 Wizards of the Coast collectible card game "" involves numerous orc cards.


title: Orc

text: Since early in the Russo-Ukrainian War beginning in 2014, Ukrainians have used the term "orcs" (орки) to describe and demonize Russian forces and tactics. Use of the word increased when Russian forces invaded Ukraine in 2022.


title: Jeremy Sisto

text: Jeremy Merton Sisto (born October 6, 1974) is an American actor. He is known for his roles as Billy Chenowith in HBO's "Six Feet Under", NYPD Detective Cyrus Lupo in NBC's "Law & Order", George Altman in the ABC sitcom "Suburgatory", for which he was nominated for a Critics' Choice Television Award for Best Actor in a Comedy Series, & Jubal Valentine in the CBS drama series "FBI". He starred in Amy Heckerling's "Clueless" (1995), Catherine Hardwicke's "Thirteen" (2003), & Adrienne Shelly's "Waitress" (2007).


title: Jeremy Sisto

text: In 2004, he portrayed bigoted baseball player Shane Mungitt in "Take Me Out", for which he was nominated for a Los Angeles Drama Critics Circle Award for Featured Performance in a Play. In 2006, Sisto starred in "Festen" on Broadway. Sisto co-wrote the screenplay for the comedy film "Break Point" (2014), in which he also starred. In 2015, he starred in A&E's "The Returned". From 2016 to 2018, Sisto portrayed Freddy Green in the Audience Network drama series "Ice".


title: Jeremy Sisto

text: Jeremy Sisto was born in Grass Valley, California, the son of Reedy Gibbs, an actress, and Richard "Dick" Sisto, a jazz musician and educator. Sisto has an older sister, Meadow Sisto, who is an actress mostly known for playing Caroline in the 1992 film "Captain Ron". Sisto's parents divorced and his father then married fabric artist Penny Sisto. Sisto lived with his mother and sister, and has said that his father's absence made parenting his own son more difficult. He was raised in the lower Sierra Nevada Mountains, before moving to Chicago at age seven. He attended Hayfield Montessori School in Louisville, Kentucky for first grade, then Francis W. Parker School in Chicago. Sisto worked with local theater companies Cherry Street Theater and the Absolute Theater Company. He appeared in the film "Grand Canyon" while attending high school. After he was accepted into the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA), on a non-disclosure agreement, his career took off and he began acting full-time.


title: Jeremy Sisto

text: Sisto's first national acting exposure was in the 1984 music video for the Twisted Sister song "We're Not Gonna Take It". Sisto made his film debut in the 1991 drama "Grand Canyon", starring Kevin Kline and Steve Martin. He followed this with roles in the television films "" (1992) and "The Shaggy Dog" (1994). In his early film and television career, Sisto played a killer in "Hideaway" (1995); a rich teen in "Clueless" (1995); a 20-something kidnapper in "Suicide Kings" (1997); Olympic gold medalist long-distance runner Frank Shorter in "Without Limits" (1998); Jesus Christ in the CBS miniseries "Jesus" (1999); and a widowed filmmaker in "This Space Between Us" (1999). He has also starred in the films "Moonlight and Valentino" (1995), "White Squall" (1996), "Bongwater" (1997), "Some Girl" (1998), and "Playing by Heart" (1998). In 1996, Sisto screen tested for the character of Jack Dawson in the James Cameron film "Titanic" alongside Kate Winslet, but ultimately lost out on the role to Leonardo DiCaprio. In 1998, he portrayed Frederick W. Seward in the TNT television film "The Day Lincoln Was Shot".


title: Jeremy Sisto

text: From 2001 to 2005, he portrayed Billy Chenowith in the HBO drama series "Six Feet Under". For that work, he was twice nominated for the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series along with his co-stars. Sisto starred in the 2001 drama film "Angel Eyes", alongside Jennifer Lopez. In 2003, Sisto starred in the drama film "Thirteen", the romantic comedy "The Movie Hero", and the horror film "Wrong Turn". That same year, he also appeared in the series finale of The WB's teen drama series "Dawson's Creek". Sisto then performed on the Los Angeles stage, playing the role of bigoted Southerner Shane Mungitt in Richard Greenberg's play "Take Me Out", about a baseball player who announces he is gay; Sisto was nominated for a Los Angeles Drama Critics Circle Award for his role.


title: Jeremy Sisto

text: In 2006, he appeared in the Broadway play "Festen" at the Music Box Theatre. In the same year, he starred in the short-lived NBC drama series "Kidnapped", top-lined the direct-to-video mystery horror film "Population 436", and starred in the crime-thriller film "Unknown". In July 2007, Sisto was featured in the Maroon 5 video for the song "Wake Up Call". He played a man who was sleeping with the girlfriend of Adam Levine. That same year, he appeared as Earl Hunterson opposite Keri Russell in the comedy-drama film "Waitress".


title: Jeremy Sisto

text: In 2008, Sisto joined the cast of the NBC crime drama series "Law & Order", as Detective Cyrus Lupo, replacing Milena Govich's Detective Nina Cassady as the partner of Jesse L. Martin's Ed Green. Sisto had already appeared on the show, as a lawyer, in the previous season's finale. Sisto stayed on for the series' final three seasons, and his character became partners with Anthony Anderson's Detective Kevin Bernard after Martin left the series near the end of season 18. Also in 2008, Sisto starred in the drama film "Gardens of the Night", and voiced the role of Batman in the direct-to-video film "". In 2009, he played a Catholic priest, alongside Kristin Chenoweth as a prostitute, in the independent drama film "Into Temptation". The following year, he starred in the Manhattan Theatre Club production of "Spirit Control" at the New York City Center, gaining rave reviews for his performance as Adam Wyatt.


title: Jeremy Sisto

text: From 2011 to 2014, Sisto starred in the ABC comedy series "Suburgatory", which premiered on September 28, 2011. He played the role of George Altman, the divorced father of the series' main character, for three seasons, after which the series was cancelled. Sisto was nominated for the 2013 Critics' Choice Television Award for Best Actor in a Comedy Series for his performance as George. In 2011, he starred in the drama film "Sironia", directed by Brandon Dickerson. In 2012, he starred as Sheriff Rowlings in the critically acclaimed science-fiction comedy-drama "Robot & Frank". The following year, Sisto co-starred as Guy Karlsburg, alongside James Marsden and Claire Danes, in the comedy-drama "As Cool as I Am".


title: Jeremy Sisto

text: In 2014, Sisto co-wrote the screenplay for the comedy film "Break Point" with Gene Hong. He also starred in the film and served as a producer. On June 5, 2014, it was announced that Sisto had joined the cast of Carlton Cuse's remake of "The Returned" for the cable channel A&E. The series lasted one season before it was cancelled by the network. He then voiced Talon in the animated direct-to-video film "Batman vs. Robin". In 2015, Sisto produced and starred as Aaron Miller in the British thriller film "Hangman", which had its premiere at South by Southwest. That same year, he joined the cast of ABC's crime drama series "Wicked City". Sisto portrayed Detective Jack Roth, an LAPD officer searching for a serial killer on the Sunset Strip. The role was originally portrayed by Adam Rothenberg, but after the series was given its premiere date, the role was recast. It was poorly received by critics and was cancelled after airing only 3 episodes due to weak ratings by ABC.


title: Jeremy Sisto

text: Sisto was then cast alongside Archie Panjabi in ABC's drama pilot "The Jury", but the project was not picked up to series. From 2016–2018, Sisto starred as Freddy Green in Antoine Fuqua's Audience Network drama series "Ice", opposite Cam Gigandet and Donald Sutherland. Sisto currently portrays Assistant Special Agent-in-Charge Jubal Valentine in Dick Wolf's CBS drama series "FBI".


title: Jeremy Sisto

text: On August 30, 1993, Sisto married actress Marisa Ryan in Las Vegas; both were 18 years old at the time. Sisto and Ryan separated two days later but remained legally married until June 21, 2002, when their divorce was finalized.


title: Jeremy Sisto

text: On June 5, 2009, Sisto and then-girlfriend Addie Lane welcomed their first child, a daughter named Charlie-Ballerina Sisto. Sisto and Lane married on October 13, 2009, at New York City Hall. On March 9, 2012, the couple welcomed their second child, a son named Sebastian Kick Sisto. The family resides in Laurel Canyon, Los Angeles. Sisto has been a practitioner of Transcendental Meditation since approximately 2001.


title: Responsibility assignment matrix

text: A responsibility assignment matrix (RAM), also known as RACI matrix () or linear responsibility chart (LRC), describes the participation by various roles in completing tasks or deliverables for a project or business process. RACI is an acronym derived from the four key responsibilities most typically used: "responsible", "accountable", "consulted", and "informed". It is used for clarifying and defining roles and responsibilities in cross-functional or departmental projects and processes. There are a number of alternatives to the RACI model.


title: Responsibility assignment matrix

text: There is a distinction between a role and individually identified people: a "role" is a descriptor of an associated set of tasks; may be performed by many people; and one person can perform many roles. For example, an organization may have ten people who can perform the role of "project manager", although traditionally each project only has one project manager at any one time; and a person who is able to perform the role of "project manager" may also be able to perform the role of "business analyst" and "tester".


title: Responsibility assignment matrix

text: Very often the role that is "accountable" for a task or deliverable may also be "responsible" for completing it (indicated on the matrix by the task or deliverable having a role "accountable" for it, but no role "responsible" for its completion, i.e. it is implied). Outside of this exception, it is generally recommended that each role in the project or process for each task receive, at most, just one of the participation types. Where more than one participation type is shown, this generally implies that participation has not yet been fully resolved, which can impede the value of this technique in clarifying the participation of each role on each task.


title: Responsibility assignment matrix

text: The matrix is typically created with a vertical axis (left-hand column) of tasks (from a work breakdown structure) or deliverables (from a product breakdown structure), and a horizontal axis (top row) of roles (from an organizational chart).


title: Barry Sanders

text: Barry Sanders (born July 16, 1968) is an American former professional football player who was a running back in the National Football League (NFL), from 1989 to 1998 for the Detroit Lions. Sanders led the league in rushing yards four times and in rushing touchdowns once, establishing himself as one of the most elusive runners in the history of the NFL with his quickness and agility, despite being only 5 ft 8 in tall and weighing 203 lbs. Sanders played college football for the Oklahoma State Cowboys, where as a junior in 1988, he compiled what is widely considered among the greatest individual seasons in college football history, rushing for 2,628 yards and 37 touchdowns in 11 games. He was awarded the Heisman Trophy and was unanimously recognized as an All-American.


title: Barry Sanders

text: Sanders was selected by the Lions in 1989, and had an immediate impact in his rookie season, winning the NFL Offensive Rookie of the Year award. In 1991, Sanders helped lead the Lions to their first and only postseason win since 1958. In 1994, Sanders was awarded the NFL Offensive Player of the Year Award. In 1997, he rushed for 2,053 yards in the regular season and was awarded the NFL Most Valuable Player Award (MVP), alongside his second NFL Offensive Player of the Year Award. While still performing at a high level, Sanders unexpectedly retired from professional football after 1998, at the age of 31, and 1,457 yards short of breaking the NFL's then all-time rushing record held by Walter Payton. Sanders cited the Lions' front office and declining team production as reasons for his retirement. He finished his career with 15,269 rushing yards (fourth all-time), and 99 rushing touchdowns (tenth all-time); in each of his ten seasons he was selected to a Pro Bowl and All-Pro team. The Lions retired Sander's No. 20 jersey on November 25, 2004, and he was inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame three months prior. A year later, Sanders was inducted into the Oklahoma Sports Hall of Fame with former college teammate Thurman Thomas.


title: Barry Sanders

text: In 2007, he was ranked by NFL Networks' "NFL Top 10" series as the most elusive runner in NFL history, and was placed No. 1 on the list of the greatest players never to play in a Super Bowl. He is widely regarded as one of the greatest running backs in NFL history. Bleacher Report ranked Sanders No. 1 on their list of greatest running backs in NFL history. He averaged 1,527 rushing yards per season and just under 100 rushing yards per game (99.8). Sanders was first inducted into the Kansas Sports Hall of Fame in 1998, into the College Football Hall of Fame in 2003 and in that same year inducted into the Michigan Sports Hall of Fame. In 2000, Sanders was included in the NFL 1990s All-Decade Team, and in 2019, Sanders was named to the National Football League 100th Anniversary All-Time Team.


title: Barry Sanders

text: Sanders was born on July 16, 1968, in Wichita, Kansas, as the seventh of eleven children, to William and Shirley Sanders. His father worked as a roofer and carpenter, while his mother worked as a homemaker for the Sanders family. Sanders and two of his brothers worked as roofers assistants to his father. As a child, Sanders was known for loving to eat, being able to eat an entire loaf of bread in one sitting. Mitch Albom of the "Detroit Free Press" wrote: "All day they would labor, with the hammers, with the tar, sweating in the hot summer sun. You did not complain in the Sanders family. Not unless you wanted a good whupping."


title: Barry Sanders

text: Sanders played football at Wichita North High School. Before this, he enjoyed playing biddy football and basketball. Sanders started at tailback in his sophomore year, but his brother Byron started before him in that position during Barry's junior year. When Byron graduated and left for Northwestern University on a football scholarship, Sanders was expected to start at tailback in his senior year—but instead was started at wingback—a variant of the wide receiver position. His head coach at the time perceived that his small stature would be a liability and that he "lacked contact courage." Besides taking part in football, he played basketball as a guard.


title: Barry Sanders

text: Sanders did not become the starting running back until the fourth game of his senior year, when the original player was suspended for disciplinary reasons; he rushed for 274 yards and four touchdowns in that game. He rushed for 1,417 yards on 139 rushing attempts, averaging 10.2 yards per rushing attempt, and scored 17 touchdowns through his seven-game senior season. In the last game of the season, Wichita North's head coach, Dale Burkholder, offered Sanders more playing time in order to gain enough rushing yards to reach the state rushing title, but Sanders declined, saying it was "not important." For his season, Sanders earned all-state honors, and was named an Honorable Mention All-American. Although he was viewed as a stellar athlete, because of his short stature, Sanders received scholarship offers from only Wichita State University, Iowa State University, University of Tulsa, and Oklahoma State University-Stillwater; he accepted the offer from Oklahoma State.


title: Barry Sanders

text: Sanders later said that his choice to play at Oklahoma State caused a conflict between him and his father. When Oklahoma State's coach came to his father's house with a letter of intent the day Sanders signed with the team, his father was frustrated, saying as the coach walked out the door that Sanders was "making a big mistake" when signing with the team. His father was similarly frustrated because Oklahoma State played in the same conference as the Oklahoma Sooners, whom William was a fan of. A friend of Sanders told him that William said Sanders had chosen to play at Oklahoma State "in order to hide"; Sanders would be playing behind Heisman candidate Thurman Thomas, as opposed to playing at a school where he would be the starting running back. Eventually, his father supported Sanders at Oklahoma State, and attended all of his games when he played.


title: Barry Sanders

text: Enrolling at Oklahoma State University, Sanders played for the Oklahoma State Cowboys from 1986 to 1988 and wore the No. 21. During his first two years, he backed up Thurman Thomas at running back. In 1986, Sanders played in eight games and rushed for 325 rushing yards on 74 rushing attempts, with two rushing touchdowns. In 1987, he led the nation in yards per kickoff return (31.6), while rushing for 603 yards and scoring nine rushing touchdowns, catching four passes for 58 receiving yards and a touchdown, and scoring two touchdowns from 29 total special teams returns. He was named a second-team All-American as a return specialist. While still a backup to Thomas, he received notable attention from his opponents. Oklahoma Sooners head coach Barry Switzer in particular told his players not to injure Thomas, in fear of Sanders starting in his place, telling them: "You won't touch this kid". Sanders was not fond of this as he believed Thomas to be a good teammate. Thomas moved on to the NFL in 1988 which allowed Sanders to become the starter for his junior year.


title: Barry Sanders

text: In 1988, in what is considered one of the greatest individual seasons in college football history, Sanders became the first player to open two consecutive seasons with a 100-yard kickoff return. He led the nation by averaging 7.6 yards per attempt and over 200 yards per game, including rushing for over 300 yards in four games. Despite his massive workload of 344 attempts, Sanders was still used as the team's punt and kickoff returner, adding another 516 yards on special teams. He set college football season records with 2,628 yards rushing, 3,248 total all-purpose yards (broken by Christian McCaffrey in 2015), 234 points (broken by Montee Ball in 2011), 37 rushing touchdowns, and 39 total touchdowns, (37 rushing, two receiving, tied with Ball).


title: Barry Sanders

text: Sanders had five consecutive 200-yard games, scored at least two touchdowns in all eleven games, and eight times he scored at least three touchdowns. Sanders ran for 222 yards and scored five touchdowns in just three-quarters of action in the 1988 Holiday Bowl, a game that is not included in the official NCAA season statistics. When added to his original rushing total, Sanders recorded 2,850 rushing yards from a workload of 373 attempts, 42 rushing touchdowns, and 44 total touchdowns. Sanders learned of his Heisman Trophy win while he was with the team in Tokyo, Japan preparing to face Texas Tech in the Coca-Cola Classic, accepting the award via satellite; he garnered 559 first-place votes for 1,878 points, and was selected as a unanimous All-American. Nevertheless, he believed Rodney Peete should have been given the award. Along with his Heisman Trophy, Sanders was awarded the Maxwell Award, the Walter Camp Award, and named the Big Eight Offensive Player of the Year. Sanders initially announced that he was not going to enter the NFL Draft, but after receiving pressure from his father, he announced that he would enter the Draft.


title: Barry Sanders

text: Sanders set 34 NCAA Division I FBS records in his college career, and still holds the following records:


title: Barry Sanders

text: Sanders, a junior, was originally ineligible for the draft. However, Oklahoma State had been under investigation by the NCAA for going against recruiting rules, and later were given significant penalties for its violations. If Sanders had stayed for his senior season, his games would not have been televised, and the Cowboys would be ineligible for college bowl games. Due to these circumstances, NFL commissioner Pete Rozelle allowed Sanders to enter the draft. One year after he was selected, the NFL allowed all juniors to participate in the draft.The Detroit Lions drafted Sanders No. 3 overall in the 1989 NFL Draft, after Troy Aikman and Tony Mandarich, thanks to the endorsement of coach Wayne Fontes. Fontes was impressed with his athletic ability after Sanders lifted 225 lbs (102 kg) 21 times. Lions' management considered drafting another Sanders, cornerback Deion Sanders, but Fontes convinced them to draft Barry instead. Fontes offered Sanders jersey No. 20, which had been worn by former Lions running back Billy Sims; Sims was one of the league's top running backs in the early 1980s, and Fontes requested Sanders wear the number in tribute to Sims. Sanders had doubts about what his career would have been like if the Green Bay Packers selected him No. 2 instead of Mandarich, later saying: "I don't know what I would've done if I was drafted by Green Bay, I don't know if I would've wanted to play in Green Bay, I don't think I could've handled this weather every day."


title: Barry Sanders

text: Sanders missed the training camp of his rookie season due to a contract dispute. He eventually came to monetary terms with the Lions, signing a contract for five years, $9.5 million, including a $2.1 million signing bonus; ten percent of which ($210,000), he donated to his local church: Paradise Baptist Church. In his first Lions press conference, Sanders stated that he wanted to help "restore the roar in the dome."