title: Hollow Earth

text: William Fairfield Warren, in his book "Paradise Found–The Cradle of the Human Race at the North Pole," (1885) presented his belief that humanity originated on a continent in the Arctic called Hyperborea. This influenced some early Hollow Earth proponents. According to Marshall Gardner, both the Eskimo and Mongolian peoples had come from the interior of the Earth through an entrance at the North pole.


title: Hollow Earth

text: "NEQUA or The Problem of the Ages", first serialized in a newspaper printed in Topeka, Kansas in 1900 and considered an early feminist utopian novel, mentions John Cleves Symmes' theory to explain its setting in a hollow Earth.


title: Hollow Earth

text: An early 20th-century proponent of hollow Earth, William Reed, wrote "Phantom of the Poles" in 1906. He supported the idea of a hollow Earth, but without interior shells or inner sun.


title: Hollow Earth

text: The spiritualist writer Walburga, Lady Paget in her book "Colloquies with an unseen friend" (1907) was an early writer to mention the hollow Earth hypothesis. She claimed that cities exist beneath a desert, which is where the people of Atlantis moved. She said an entrance to the subterranean kingdom will be discovered in the 21st century.


title: Hollow Earth

text: Marshall Gardner wrote "A Journey to the Earth's Interior" in 1913 and published an expanded edition in 1920. He placed an interior sun in the Earth and built a working model of the Hollow Earth which he patented (). Gardner made no mention of Reed, but did criticize Symmes for his ideas. Around the same time, Vladimir Obruchev wrote a novel titled "Plutonia", in which the Hollow Earth possessed an inner Sun and was inhabited by prehistoric species. The interior was connected with the surface by an opening in the Arctic.


title: Hollow Earth

text: The explorer Ferdynand Ossendowski wrote a book in 1922 titled "Beasts, Men and Gods". Ossendowski said he was told about a subterranean kingdom that exists inside the Earth. It was known to Buddhists as Agharti.


title: Hollow Earth

text: George Papashvily in his "Anything Can Happen" (1940) claimed the discovery in the Caucasus mountains of a cavern containing human skeletons "with heads as big as bushel baskets" and an ancient tunnel leading to the center of the Earth. One man entered the tunnel and never returned.


title: Hollow Earth

text: Novelist Lobsang Rampa in his book "The Cave of the Ancients" said an underground chamber system exists beneath the Himalayas of Tibet, filled with ancient machinery, records and treasure. Michael Grumley, a cryptozoologist, has linked Bigfoot and other hominid cryptids to ancient tunnel systems underground.


title: Hollow Earth

text: According to the ancient astronaut writer Peter Kolosimo a robot was seen entering a tunnel below a monastery in Mongolia. Kolosimo also claimed a light was seen from underground in Azerbaijan. Kolosimo and other ancient astronaut writers such as Robert Charroux linked these activities to UFOs.


title: Hollow Earth

text: A book by a "Dr. Raymond Bernard" which appeared in 1964, "The Hollow Earth", exemplifies the idea of UFOs coming from inside the Earth, and adds the idea that the Ring Nebula proves the existence of hollow worlds, as well as speculation on the fate of Atlantis and the origin of flying saucers. An article by Martin Gardner revealed that Walter Siegmeister used the pseudonym "Bernard", but not until the 1989 publishing of Walter Kafton-Minkel's "Subterranean Worlds: 100,000 Years of Dragons, Dwarfs, the Dead, Lost Races & UFOs from Inside the Earth" did the full story of Bernard/Siegmeister become well-known.


title: Hollow Earth

text: The science fiction pulp magazine "Amazing Stories" promoted one such idea from 1945 to 1949 as "The Shaver Mystery". The magazine's editor, Ray Palmer, ran a series of stories by Richard Sharpe Shaver, claiming that a superior pre-historic race had built a honeycomb of caves in the Earth, and that their degenerate descendants, known as "Dero", live there still, using the fantastic machines abandoned by the ancient races to torment those of us living on the surface. As one characteristic of this torment, Shaver described "voices" that purportedly came from no explainable source. Thousands of readers wrote to affirm that they, too, had heard the fiendish voices from inside the Earth. The writer David Hatcher Childress authored "Lost Continents and the Hollow Earth" (1998) in which he reprinted the stories of Palmer and defended the Hollow Earth idea based on alleged tunnel systems beneath South America and Central Asia.


title: Hollow Earth

text: Hollow Earth proponents have claimed a number of different locations for the entrances which lead inside the Earth. Other than the North and South poles, entrances in locations which have been cited include: Paris in France, Staffordshire in England, Montreal in Canada, Hangchow in China, and the Amazon Rainforest.


title: Hollow Earth

text: Instead of saying that humans live on the outside surface of a hollow planet—sometimes called a "convex" Hollow Earth hypothesis—some have claimed humans live on the "inside" surface of a hollow spherical world, so that our universe itself lies in that world's interior. This has been called the "concave" Hollow Earth hypothesis or skycentrism.


title: Hollow Earth

text: Cyrus Teed, a doctor from upstate New York, proposed such a concave Hollow Earth in 1869, calling his scheme "Cellular Cosmogony". Teed founded a group called the Koreshan Unity based on this notion, which he called Koreshanity. The main colony survives as a preserved Florida state historic site, at Estero, Florida, but all of Teed's followers have now died. Teed's followers claimed to have experimentally verified the concavity of the Earth's curvature, through surveys of the Florida coastline making use of "rectilineator" equipment.


title: Hollow Earth

text: Several 20th-century German writers, including Peter Bender, Johannes Lang, Karl Neupert, and Fritz Braut, published works advocating the Hollow Earth hypothesis, or "Hohlweltlehre". It has even been reported, although apparently without historical documentation, that Adolf Hitler was influenced by concave Hollow Earth ideas and sent an expedition in an unsuccessful attempt to spy on the British fleet by pointing infrared cameras up at the sky.


title: Hollow Earth

text: The Egyptian mathematician Mostafa Abdelkader wrote several scholarly papers working out a detailed mapping of the Concave Earth model.


title: Hollow Earth

text: In one chapter of his book "On the Wild Side" (1992), Martin Gardner discusses the Hollow Earth model articulated by Abdelkader. According to Gardner, this hypothesis posits that light rays travel in circular paths, and slow as they approach the center of the spherical star-filled cavern. No energy can reach the center of the cavern, which corresponds to no point a finite distance away from Earth in the widely accepted scientific cosmology. A drill, Gardner says, would lengthen as it traveled away from the cavern and eventually pass through the "point at infinity" corresponding to the center of the Earth in the widely accepted scientific cosmology. Supposedly no experiment can distinguish between the two cosmologies.


title: Hollow Earth

text: Gardner notes that "most mathematicians believe that an inside-out universe, with properly adjusted physical laws, is empirically irrefutable". Gardner rejects the concave Hollow Earth hypothesis on the basis of Occam's razor.


title: Hollow Earth

text: Purportedly verifiable hypotheses of a Concave Hollow Earth need to be distinguished from a thought experiment which defines a coordinate transformation such that the interior of the Earth becomes "exterior" and the exterior becomes "interior". (For example, in spherical coordinates, let radius "r" go to "R"/"r" where "R" is the Earth's radius; see inversive geometry.) The transformation entails corresponding changes to the forms of physical laws. This is not a hypothesis but an illustration of the fact that any description of the physical world can be equivalently expressed in more than one way.


title: Hollow Earth

text: In 1735, Pierre Bouguer and Charles Marie de La Condamine chartered an expedition from France to the Chimborazo volcano in Ecuador. Arriving and climbing the volcano in 1738, they conducted a vertical deflection experiment at two different altitudes to determine how local mass anomalies affected gravitational pull. In a paper written a little over ten years later, Bouguer commented that his results had at least falsified the Hollow Earth Theory. In 1772, Nevil Maskelyne proposed to repeat the same experiment to the Royal Society. Within the same year, the Committee of Attraction was formed and they sent Charles Mason to find the perfect candidate for the vertical deflection experiment. Mason found the Schiehallion mountain, where the experiment took place and not only supported the earlier Chimborazo Experiment but yielded far greater results.


title: Hollow Earth

text: The picture of the structure of the Earth that has been arrived at through the study of seismic waves is quite different from a fully hollow Earth. The time it takes for seismic waves to travel through and around the Earth directly contradicts a fully hollow sphere. The evidence indicates the Earth is mostly filled with solid rock (mantle and crust), liquid nickel-iron alloy (outer core), and solid nickel-iron (inner core).


title: Hollow Earth

text: Another set of scientific arguments against a Hollow Earth or any hollow planet comes from gravity. Massive objects tend to clump together gravitationally, creating non-hollow spherical objects such as stars and planets. The solid spheroid is the best way in which to minimize the gravitational potential energy of a rotating physical object; having hollowness is unfavorable in the energetic sense. In addition, ordinary matter is not strong enough to support a hollow shape of planetary size against the force of gravity; a planet-sized hollow shell with the known, observed thickness of the Earth's crust would not be able to achieve hydrostatic equilibrium with its own mass and would collapse.


title: Hollow Earth

text: Based upon the size of the Earth and the force of gravity on its surface, the average density of the planet Earth is 5.515 g/cm, and typical densities of surface rocks are only half that (about 2.75 g/cm). If any significant portion of the Earth were hollow, the average density would be much lower than that of surface rocks. The only way for Earth to have the force of gravity that it does is for much more dense material to make up a large part of the interior. Nickel-iron alloy under the conditions expected in a non-hollow Earth would have densities ranging from about 10 to 13 g/cm, which brings the average density of Earth to its observed value.


title: Hollow Earth

text: Drilling holes does not provide direct evidence against the hypothesis. The deepest hole drilled to date is the Kola Superdeep Borehole, with a true vertical drill-depth of more than 7.5 miles (12 kilometers). However, the distance to the center of the Earth is nearly 4,000 miles (6,400 kilometers).


title: Hollow Earth

text: The idea of a hollow Earth is a common element of fiction, appearing as early as Ludvig Holberg's 1741 novel "Nicolai Klimii iter subterraneum" (Niels Klim's Underground Travels), in which Nicolai Klim falls through a cave while spelunking and spends several years living on a smaller globe both within and the inside of the outer shell.


title: Hollow Earth

text: Other notable early examples include Giacomo Casanova's 1788 "Icosaméron", a 5-volume, 1,800-page story of a brother and sister who fall into the Earth and discover the subterranean utopia of the Mégamicres, a race of multicolored, hermaphroditic dwarves; "Vril" published anonymously in 1819; "" by a "Captain Adam Seaborn" (1820) which reflected the ideas of John Cleves Symmes, Jr.; Edgar Allan Poe's 1838 novel "The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym of Nantucket;" Jules Verne's 1864 novel "Journey to the Center of the Earth," which showed a subterranean world teeming with prehistoric life; George Sand's 1864 novel "Laura, Voyage dans le Cristal" where giant crystals could be found in the interior of the Earth; "Etidorhpa", an 1895 science-fiction allegory with major subterranean themes; and "The Smoky God", a 1908 novel that included the idea that the North Pole was the entrance to the hollow planet.


title: Hollow Earth

text: In William Henry Hudson's 1887 romance, "A Crystal Age", the protagonist falls down a hill into a Utopian paradise; since he falls into this world, it is sometimes classified as a hollow Earth story; although the hero himself thinks he may have traveled forward in time by millennia.


title: Hollow Earth

text: The idea was used by Edgar Rice Burroughs in the seven-novel "Pellucidar" series, beginning with "At the Earth's Core" (1914). Using a mechanical drill, called the Iron Mole, his heroes David Innes and Professor Abner Perry discover a prehistoric world called Pellucidar, 500 miles below the surface, that is lit by a constant noonday inner sun. They find prehistoric people, dinosaurs, prehistoric mammals and the Mahar, who evolved from pterosaurs. The series ran for six more books, ending with "Savage Pellucidar" (1963). The 1915 novel "Plutonia "by Vladimir Obruchev uses the concept of the Hollow Earth to take the reader through various geological epochs.


title: Hollow Earth

text: In recent decades, the idea has become a staple of the science fiction and adventure genres across films ("Children Who Chase Lost Voices", "", "Aquaman" and the MonsterVerse), television programs ("Inside Job" ,"Slugterra", and the third and fourth seasons of "Sanctuary"), role-playing games (e.g., the Hollow World Campaign Set for "Dungeons & Dragons", "Hollow Earth Expedition"), and video games ("Torin's Passage" and "Gears of War"). The idea is also partially used in the Marvel Comics universe, where there exists a subterranean realm beneath the Earth known as Subterranea. The Super Nintendo Entertainment System (SNES) video game "Terranigma" features this concept in the opening and closing acts of the game.


title: Hollow Earth

text: In 1975, Japanese artist Tadanori Yokoo used elements of the Aghartha legend, along with other Eastern subterranean myths, to depict an advanced civilization in the cover art for jazz musician Miles Davis's album "Agharta". Tadanori said he was partly inspired by his reading of Raymond W. Bernard's 1969 book "The Hollow Earth".


title: Bari Weiss

text: Bari Weiss (born March 25, 1984) is an American journalist, writer, and editor. She was an op-ed and book review editor at "The Wall Street Journal" (2013–2017) and an op-ed staff editor and writer on culture and politics at "The New York Times" (2017–2020). Since March 1, 2021, she has worked as a regular columnist for German daily newspaper "Die Welt". Weiss edits the Substack newsletter entitled "The Free Press" (formerly "Common Sense") and hosts the podcast "Honestly".


title: Bari Weiss

text: Weiss was born in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, to Lou and Amy Weiss, former owners of Weisshouse, a Pittsburgh company founded in 1943 that sells flooring, furniture, and kitchens; they own flooring company Weisslines. She grew up in the Squirrel Hill neighborhood and graduated from Pittsburgh's Community Day School and Shady Side Academy. The eldest daughter among four sisters, she attended the Tree of Life Synagogue and had her bat mitzvah ceremony there. After high school, Weiss went to Israel on a Nativ gap year program, helping build a medical clinic for Bedouins in the Negev desert and studying at a feminist yeshiva and the Hebrew University of Jerusalem.


title: Bari Weiss

text: Weiss attended Columbia University in New York City, graduating in 2007. She founded the Columbia Coalition for Sudan in response to the War in Darfur. Weiss was the founding editor from 2005 to 2007 of "The Current", a magazine at Columbia for politics, culture, and Jewish affairs. Following graduation, Weiss was a "Wall Street Journal" Bartley Fellow in 2007 and a Dorot Fellow from 2007 to 2008 in Jerusalem.


title: Bari Weiss

text: As a student at Columbia, Weiss took an active role in the Columbia Unbecoming controversy. Following the release of the film "Columbia Unbecoming" in fall 2004, alleging classroom intimidation of pro-Israel students by pro-Palestinian professors, she co-founded Columbians for Academic Freedom (CAF) together with Aharon Horwitz, Daniella Kahane, and Ariel Beery. Weiss said she had felt intimidated by Professor Joseph Massad in his lectures, and she thought he spent too much time talking about Zionism and Israel for a course about the entire Middle East.


title: Bari Weiss

text: In response to the release of the film, Columbia put together a committee to examine the allegations. The committee criticized Massad, but emphasized a lack of civility on campus, including from pro-Israel students who heckled some of their professors. Weiss criticized the committee for its focus on individual grievances, maintaining that students were intimidated because of their views.


title: Bari Weiss

text: In her 2019 book, "How to Fight Anti-Semitism", Weiss describes the contentious atmosphere during this period as giving her "a front row seat to leftist anti-Semitism" at the university. The activism initiated by Weiss was alleged by Glenn Greenwald to be "designed to ruin the careers of Arab professors by equating their criticisms of Israel with racism, anti-Semitism, and bullying, and its central demand was that those professors (some of whom lacked tenure) be disciplined for their transgressions." Weiss has called Greenwald's characterizations "baseless", saying that she "advocated for the rights of students to express their viewpoints in the classroom", adding, "I don't know when criticizing professors became out of bounds."


title: Bari Weiss

text: In 2007, Weiss worked for "Haaretz" and "The Forward". In "Haaretz", she criticized the tenure promotion of Barnard College anthropologist Nadia Abu El-Haj over a book that Weiss alleged caricatured Israeli archaeologists. From 2011 to 2013, Weiss was senior news and politics editor at "Tablet".


title: Bari Weiss

text: Weiss was an op-ed and book review editor at "The Wall Street Journal" from 2013 until April 2017. She left following the departure of Pulitzer Prize winner and deputy editor Bret Stephens, for whom she had worked, and joined him at "The New York Times".


title: Bari Weiss

text: In 2017, as part of an effort by "The New York Times" to broaden the ideological range of its opinion staff after the inauguration of President Trump, opinion editor James Bennet hired Weiss as an op-ed staff editor and writer about culture and politics. Through her first year at the paper, she wrote opinion pieces advocating for the blending of cultural influences, something derided by what she termed the "strident left" as cultural appropriation. She criticized the organizers of the 2017 Women's March protesting the inauguration of President Trump for their "chilling ideas and associations," particularly singling out several individuals she believed to have made antisemitic or anti-Zionist statements in the past. Her article about the Chicago Dyke March, asserting that intersectionality is a "caste system, in which people are judged according to how much their particular caste has suffered throughout history," was condemned by playwright Eve Ensler, creator of the "Vagina Monologues," for misunderstanding the work of intersectional politics. Other sources condemned the article as fundamentally misunderstanding the definition of intersectionality.


title: Bari Weiss

text: In January 2018, Babe.net published an anonymous woman's allegation that comedian and actor Aziz Ansari's behavior during a date rose to the level of sexual assault. Weiss published a piece titled "Aziz Ansari Is Guilty. Of Not Being a Mind Reader", one of many responses to this incident in the context of the #MeToo movement. Weiss was one of several writers, including Caitlin Flanagan of " The Atlantic", who argued that the woman who wrote the piece ignored her own agency, not considering her own ability to speak up and leave the situation. (Flanagan's essay was one of several that year for which she was a finalist for the 2019 Pulitzer Prize for Commentary).


title: Bari Weiss

text: In March 2018, Weiss published the column "We're All Fascists Now" in which she argued that members of the left-wing are increasingly intolerant of alternate views, presenting varied examples. Shortly after publication, the piece was corrected and an editorial note was placed on it because one of the examples used was a fake antifa Twitter account. This account had been identified as fake in multiple media outlets in 2017 as a right-wing masquerade aimed at discrediting the left-wing protest movement.


title: Bari Weiss

text: In May 2018, Weiss published "Meet the Renegades of the Intellectual Dark Web". This piece profiled a collection of thinkers who share an unorthodox approach to their fields and to the media landscape. Weiss collectively described them as the Intellectual Dark Web, borrowing the term from Eric Weinstein, managing director of Thiel Capital. Outlets have commented on and critiqued the label through 2020.


title: Bari Weiss

text: On June 7, 2020, the "Times" editorial page editor, James Bennet, resigned after more than 1,000 staffers signed a letter protesting his publication of an op-ed by U.S. Senator Tom Cotton saying that since "rioters have plunged many American cities into anarchy," soldiers should be sent as backup for the police to end the violence. Bennet later stated he had not read the op-ed beforehand. Weiss characterized the internal controversy as an ongoing "civil war" between what she called young "social justice warriors" and what she identified as older "free speech advocate" staffers. This characterization was disputed by numerous other journalists and opinion writers at the "Times"; Taylor Lorenz, a technology reporter who covers internet culture, described it as a "willful misrepresentation" that ignored the numerous older staffers who had spoken out, while Jamal Jordan, the "Times"' digital storytelling editor, criticized her for not listening to her black colleagues and instead dismissing their concerns as a "woke civil war".


title: Bari Weiss

text: Weiss announced her departure from "The New York Times" on July 14, 2020, publishing a resignation letter on her website criticizing the "Times" for capitulating to criticism on Twitter and for not defending her against alleged bullying by her colleagues. Weiss accused her former employer of "unlawful discrimination, hostile work environment, and constructive discharge".


title: Bari Weiss

text: Her voluntary departure from the "Times" drew considerable news coverage after accusing the "Times" of "caving to the whims of critics on Twitter." In her letter Weiss said, "Stories are chosen and told in a way to satisfy the narrowest of audiences, rather than to allow a curious public to read about the world and then draw their own conclusions." She also wrote, "Twitter is not on the masthead of "The New York Times", but Twitter has become its ultimate editor."


title: Bari Weiss

text: Her letter was praised by U.S. Senators Ted Cruz, Marco Rubio, and Kelly Loeffler; Donald Trump Jr.; political commentator Ben Shapiro; former Democratic presidential candidates Andrew Yang and Marianne Williamson; and political commentator Bill Maher. Conversely, Weiss's resignation letter attracted substantial criticism from left-leaning media sources. Alex Shephard criticized the content of Weiss's letter in "The New Republic", calling Weiss's resignation a form of "self-cancellation" and part of a pattern in Weiss's work of "taking thin, anecdotal evidence and framing it in grandiose, culture-war terms". Writing in "The Guardian", Moira Donegan called Weiss a "professional rightwing attention seeker" and disputed her claim that social media's influence had led to a hostile media environment for conservatives.


title: Bari Weiss

text: The "Financial Times" has described Weiss as a "self-styled free speech martyr." In 2021, Weiss compared her own professional travails to Galileo Galilei, an Italian scientist who was threatened with being burnt at the stake if he did not renounce his scientific views.


title: Bari Weiss

text: On October 27, 2020, Weiss appeared on the American talk show "The View" to discuss cancel culture, which she called "wrong and deeply un-American"; she continued, "I believe that no one should be hung or have their reputation destroyed or lose their job because of a mistake or liking a bad tweet."


title: Bari Weiss

text: Beginning in 2020, Weiss occasionally wrote articles for the German newspaper "Die Welt". Since March 1, 2021, she works as Contributing editor for "Die Welt".


title: Bari Weiss

text: In January 2021, Weiss launched a Substack newsletter entitled "Common Sense". In February, she interviewed Gina Carano about her firing from "The Mandalorian". On November 8, 2021, Pano Kanelos, formerly the president of St. John's College, announced the creation of the University of Austin in Weiss's newsletter.


title: Bari Weiss

text: According to "The Washington Post", Weiss "portrays herself as a liberal uncomfortable with the excesses of left-wing culture" and has sought to "position herself as a reasonable liberal concerned that far-left critiques stifled free speech." "Vanity Fair" described Weiss as "a provocateur". The Jewish Telegraphic Agency said that her writing "doesn't lend itself easily to labels." Weiss has been described as conservative by "Haaretz", "The Times of Israel", "The Daily Dot", and "Business Insider". In an interview with Joe Rogan, she described herself as a "left-leaning centrist".


title: Bari Weiss

text: Weiss has expressed support for Israel and Zionism in her columns. When writer Andrew Sullivan described her as an "unhinged Zionist", she responded saying she "happily plead[s] guilty as charged." In 2018, she said she believed the sexual assault allegations against Supreme Court justice nominee Brett Kavanaugh, but questioned whether they should disqualify him from serving on the Supreme Court because he was 17 when he allegedly committed the assault against Christine Blasey Ford. After backlash in the press, Weiss conceded that her sound bite was glib and simplistic, and said instead that Kavanaugh's "rage-filled behavior" before the Senate Judiciary Committee should have disqualified him.


title: Bari Weiss

text: Following the Tree of Life synagogue massacre in Squirrel Hill, Pittsburgh, Weiss was a guest on "Real Time with Bill Maher" in early November 2018. She said of American Jews who support President Donald Trump: "I hope this week that American Jews have woken up to the price of that bargain: They have traded policies that they like for the values that have sustained the Jewish people—and frankly, this country—forever: Welcoming the stranger; dignity for all human beings; equality under the law; respect for dissent; love of truth." In 2019, "The Jerusalem Post" named Weiss the seventh most influential Jew in the world.


title: Bari Weiss

text: In March 2021, she published an article criticizing top independent schools for their social justice curricula.


title: Bari Weiss

text: In January 2022, Weiss received backlash for her comments on the late night talk show "Real Time with Bill Maher" criticizing COVID-19 pandemic restrictions, citing that the COVID-19 pandemic response had resulted in mental health issues and that as a result she was "done with COVID". Commenting about the incident, MSNBC host Mehdi Hasan said that "Young kids are handling COVID 'less childishly' than Bari Weiss, other 'done with COVID' elites." Dr. Jonathan Reiner in an interview with CNN responded to her comments by advising Weiss to "grow up."


title: Bari Weiss

text: Weiss prefers not to label her sexual orientation but has stated that although she had been married to a man, she is mostly attracted to women. While attending Columbia University, she had an on-and-off relationship with comedian Kate McKinnon. She also dated Ariel Beery, with whom she had co-founded Columbians for Academic Freedom. From 2013 to 2016, Weiss was married to environmental engineer Jason Kass. Since 2018, Weiss has been in a relationship with Nellie Bowles, a former tech reporter for "The New York Times". The couple have since married, according to the "National Review" and have a daughter.


title: Cush Jumbo

text: Cush Jumbo (born 23 September 1985) is a British actress and writer. She is best known for her leading role as attorney Lucca Quinn in the CBS drama series "The Good Wife" (2015–16) and the CBS All Access spin-off series "The Good Fight" (2017–21).


title: Cush Jumbo

text: Jumbo starred as DC Bethany Whelan in the ITV crime drama series "Vera" (2012, 2015–16) and as Lois Habiba in the of "Doctor Who" spin-off "Torchwood" in 2009.


title: Cush Jumbo

text: She has received acclaim for her work in theatre. Jumbo received a Laurence Olivier Award nomination for playing Mark Antony in "Julius Caesar" in 2013, and also wrote and performed in the play "Josephine and I". She was awarded an Evening Standard Theatre Award for her one-woman show, and reprised her performance Off-Broadway in 2015. Jumbo made her Broadway debut in Jez Butterworth's "The River" in 2014, and received her second Olivier nomination upon her 2021 return to the London stage as "Hamlet".


title: Cush Jumbo

text: Jumbo was born in King's College Hospital in the Denmark Hill section of London to parents Angela (née Hall) and Marx Jumbo. Her mother is British and her father is Nigerian. The second of six children, she grew up in Lewisham and Southwark. She began dance classes at the age of 3, learning tap, ballet and modern, and went on to learn street dance, contemporary, ballroom, and Latin in later years. As a child, she attended Adamsrill Primary School in Sydenham. From the age of 11 to 15, she trained at the Francis Cooper School of Dance whilst attending Cator Park School for Girls, but at 14 she left Cator Park to pursue acting more seriously at the BRIT School in Croydon. She graduated with a first from the BA (Hons) Acting course at Central School of Speech and Drama before starting her career. She considered undertaking teacher training in London before finally settling on a career as an actress.


title: Cush Jumbo

text: Jumbo's theatre credits include "Brixton Stories" at the Lyric Theatre, Hammersmith, "Liquid Gold" at the Almeida and "Love's Labour's Lost" at Shakespeare's Globe. She has also appeared in productions of "The Cherry Orchard", "The Crucible", "The Caucasian Chalk Circle", "Richard III" and "Pygmalion" at the Royal Exchange Theatre in Manchester for which she received MEN and Ian Charleson Award nominations. In 2012 she won the Ian Charleson Award for her performance as Rosalind in William Shakespeare's "As You Like It" at the Royal Exchange Theatre, Manchester. Clare Brennan of "The Guardian" spoke of Jumbo's performance in "As You Like It" saying "If these performances truly reflect her talent, Jumbo looks set to become one of the best actresses of her generation". Jumbo played Constance Neville in "She Stoops to Conquer" at the National Theatre in 2012 and Mark Antony in an all female production of "Julius Caesar" at the Donmar Warehouse for which she received a nomination for an Olivier Award. She took part again in the production when it was revived in New York in October 2013. In May 2013, she played the role of Nora in "A Doll's House" at the Royal Exchange Theatre. In October 2013 she won a UK Theatre Award for this performance.


title: Cush Jumbo

text: In July and August 2013, Jumbo performed in her own debut play "Josephine and I", a one-woman play about jazz singer Josephine Baker, which premiered at the Bush Theatre, London. She won an Emerging Talent Award at the London Evening Standard Theatre Awards in November 2013 for this performance. The show was developed for transfer and began previews on 27 February 2015 at The Public Theater in New York.


title: Cush Jumbo

text: She made her Broadway debut in the autumn of 2014 when she appeared in the transfer of the Royal Court Theatre production of "The River" by Jez Butterworth, alongside Laura Donnelly and Hugh Jackman.


title: Cush Jumbo

text: Jumbo also co-wrote the musical "Rebels and Retail", a shortlisted entrant in the Perfect Pitch West End Showcase 2008.


title: Cush Jumbo

text: On television, Jumbo has appeared in "My Family", "Harley Street", as receptionist Hannah Fellows, as Lois Habiba in all five episodes of "Torchwood": "", as Becky on BBC Three's drama series "Lip Service", "Casualty" and as Nurse Damaris in "Getting On" Series 2 and 3, written by Jo Brand, Jo Scanlon and Vicki Pepperdine in which she was directed by fellow "Torchwood" actor Peter Capaldi. She appeared as DC Bethany Whelan in series 2 of ITV's "Vera" starring Brenda Blethyn and returned to the show for series 5, broadcast in 2015, and for episode 1 of series 6 in 2016. She has also appeared several times on BBC Radio 4 in dramas and as a guest on the panel show "Dilemma". She became a regular cast member in the 2015–2016 season of the CBS series "The Good Wife" until the series ended in 2016. She reprised her role in the series' spin-off "The Good Fight". On 29 May 2020 Jumbo announced that she is departing the series after four seasons.


title: Cush Jumbo

text: In October 2021, Jumbo played the title role in a production of "Hamlet" at the Young Vic Theatre in London, directed by Greg Hersof. "The Guardian's" Arifa Akbar praised her interpretation of the character as a "clear-eyed son" in a performance of "shining clarity". In 2022, she received an Olivier Award nomination for Best Actress and Critics' Circle Theatre Award for Best Shakespearean Performance.


title: Cush Jumbo

text: Jumbo was appointed Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) in the 2019 Birthday Honours for services to drama.


title: Rising Sun Flag

text: The is a Japanese flag that consists of a red disc and sixteen red rays emanating from the disc. Like the Japanese national flag, the Rising Sun Flag symbolizes the sun.


title: Rising Sun Flag

text: The flag was originally used by feudal warlords in Japan during the Edo period (1603–1868 CE). On May 15, 1870, as a policy of the Meiji government, it was adopted as the war flag of the Imperial Japanese Army, and on October 7, 1889, it was adopted as the naval ensign of the Imperial Japanese Navy.


title: Rising Sun Flag

text: At present, the flag is flown by the Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force, and an eight-ray version is flown by the Japan Self-Defense Forces and the Japan Ground Self-Defense Force. The rising sun design is also seen in numerous scenes in daily life in Japan, such as in fishermen's banners hoisted to signify large catches of fish, flags to celebrate childbirth, and in flags for seasonal festivities.


title: Rising Sun Flag

text: The flag is controversial in Korea and China, where it is associated with Japanese militarism and imperialism.


title: Rising Sun Flag

text: The flag of Japan and the symbolism of the rising Sun has held symbolic meaning in Japan since the Asuka period (538–710 CE). The Japanese archipelago is east of the Asian mainland, and is thus where the Sun "rises". In 607 CE, an official correspondence that began with "from the Emperor of the rising sun" was sent to Chinese Emperor Yang of Sui. Japan is often referred to as "the land of the rising sun". In the 12th century work "The Tale of the Heike", it was written that different samurai carried drawings of the Sun on their fans.


title: Rising Sun Flag

text: The Japanese word for Japan is , which is pronounced or , and literally means "the origin of the sun". The character means "sun" or "day"; means "base" or "origin". The compound therefore means "origin of the sun" and is the source of the popular Western epithet "Land of the Rising Sun". The red disc symbolizes the Sun and the red lines are light rays shining from the rising sun.


title: Rising Sun Flag

text: The design of the Rising Sun Flag (Asahi) has been widely used since ancient times, and a part of it was called and used as the samurai's crest (). The flag was especially used by samurai in the Kyushu region. Examples include the "twelve sun-rays" () of the Ryūzōji clan (1186–1607 CE) in Hizen Province and the Kusano clan () in Chikugo Province, and the "eight sun-rays" () of the Kikuchi clan (1070–1554 CE) in Higo Province. There is a theory that in many parts of the Kyushu region, Hizen and Higo are related to what was called "the country of Japan ()".There have been many types of Asahi flags since ancient times, and the design in which light rays spread in all directions without clouds expresses honored day or auspicious events, and was a design that was used for celebrate a good catch, childbirth and seasonal festivities. A well-known variant of the flag of the sun disc design is the sun disc with 16 red rays in a Siemens star formation. The has been used as a traditional national symbol of Japan since at least the Edo period (1603 CE). It is featured in artwork such as prints, one example being the "Lucky Gods' visit to Enoshima" print by Utagawa Yoshiiku in 1869 and the "One Hundred Views of Osaka, Three Great Bridges" print by Utagawa Kunikazu in 1854. The Fujiyama Tea Co. used it as a wooden box label of Japanese green tea for export in the Meiji period (1880s).The Rising Sun Flag was historically used by the and Japan's military, particularly the Imperial Japanese Army and the Imperial Japanese Navy. The ensign, known in Japanese as the , was first adopted as the war flag on May 15, 1870, and was used until the end of World War II in 1945. It was re-adopted on June 30, 1954, and is now used by the Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force (JMSDF). The Japan Self-Defense Forces (JSDF) and Japan Ground Self-Defense Force (JGSDF) use a variation of the Rising Sun Flag with red, white and gold colors.


title: Rising Sun Flag

text: The design is similar to the flag of Japan, which has a red circle in the center signifying the Sun. The difference compared to the flag of Japan is that the Rising Sun Flag has extra sun rays (16 for the ensign) exemplifying the name of Japan as "The Land of the Rising Sun". The Imperial Japanese Army first adopted the Rising Sun Flag in 1870. The Imperial Japanese Army and the Imperial Japanese Navy both had a version of the flag; the naval ensign was off-set, with the red sun closer to the lanyard side, while the army's version (which was part of the regimental colors) was centered. The flags were used until Japan's surrender in World War II during August 1945. After the establishment of the Japan Self-Defense Forces in 1954, the off-set Rising Sun Flag was re-adopted for the JMSDF and a new 8-rays Rising Sun Flag with a yellow border for the JGSDF and JSDF was approved by the Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers (SCAP/GHQ). The flag with the off-set sun and 16 rays is the ensign of the Maritime Self-Defense Force, but it was modified with a different color red. The old flag is darker red (RGB #b12d3d) and the post-WW2 modified version is brighter red (RGB #bd0029).


title: Rising Sun Flag

text: The Imperial Japanese Army flag with symmetrical 16 rays and a 2:3 ratio was abolished. The Japan Self-Defense Forces and the Ground Self-Defense Force use a significantly different Rising Sun Flag with 8-rays and an 8:9 ratio. The edges of the rays are asymmetrical since they form angles 19, 21, 26 and 24 degrees. It also has indentations for the yellow (golden) irregular triangles along borders. The JSDF Rising Sun Flag was adopted by a law/order/decree published in the Official Gazette of June 30, 1954.


title: Rising Sun Flag

text: Regardless of the military flag, before the Meiji period, the design of Asahi was used for prayers, festivals, celebration events, reconstruction, logos of companies and products, big catch flags (), corporate and product logos and sports.


title: Rising Sun Flag

text: Commercially the Rising Sun Flag is used on many products, designs, clothing, posters, beer cans (Asahi Breweries), newspapers (), bands, manga, comics, anime, movies, video games (such as E. Honda's stage of "Street Fighter II", although this was removed in the 2021 re-release), as well as appearing elsewhere. The Rising Sun Flag appears on commercial product labels, such as on the cans of one variety of Asahi Breweries lager beer. Among fishermen, the represents their hope for a good catch of fish. Today it is used as a decorative flag on vessels as well as for festivals and events. The Rising Sun Flag is also used at sporting events by the supporters of Japanese teams and individual athletes.


title: Rising Sun Flag

text: Since June 30, 1954, the Rising Sun Flag has been the war flag and naval ensign of the Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force (JMSDF). JSDF Chief of Staff Katsutoshi Kawano said the Rising Sun Flag is the Maritime Self-Defense Force sailors' "pride". The Japan Self-Defense Forces (JSDF) and the Japan Ground Self-Defense Force (JGSDF) use the Rising Sun Flag with eight red rays extending outward, called . A gold border partially lines the edge.


title: Rising Sun Flag

text: The flag is also used by non-Japanese, for example, in the emblems of some U.S. military units based in Japan, and by the American blues rock band Hot Tuna, on the cover of its album "Live in Japan". It is used as an emblem of the United States Fleet Activities Sasebo, as a patch of the Strike Fighter Squadron 94, a mural at Misawa Air Base, the former insignia of Strike Fighter Squadron 192 and Joint Helmet Mounted Cueing System with patches of the 14th Fighter Squadron. Some extreme right-wing groups display it at political protests.


title: Rising Sun Flag

text: While Japan considers the rising sun flag part of its history, many people in Korea, China, and other Asian countries say the flag is associated with Japan's wartime atrocities, and is comparable to the Nazi swastika. The Japanese imperial navy used the flag in the early 20th century as Japan colonized the Korean Peninsula, and invaded and occupied parts of China and other Asian countries until its defeat in World War II in 1945.


title: Rising Sun Flag

text: South Korean campaigns against the Rising Sun Flag began in earnest in 2011. In an association football match against Japan, South Korean footballer Ki Sung-yueng was accused of making a racist gesture, sparking outrage in Japan. Ki responded that he had intended to highlight the racism he had experienced at Celtic F.C. and that his "heart shed tears" after he saw the Rising Sun Flag at the match. On the other hand, many in Japan insist that the Rising Sun Flag was not in the stadium. For this reason, there is a widespread view in Japan that Ki Sung-yueng used the excuse of having seen the Rising Sun Flag to justify his racist gesture.


title: Rising Sun Flag

text: The flag is banned by FIFA, and Japan was sanctioned by the Asian Football Confederation (AFC) after Japanese fans flew it at an AFC Champions League game in 2017.


title: Rising Sun Flag

text: In 2012, South Koreans who disapproved of the flag began to refer to it as a "war crime flag". According to political scientist Kan Kimura, in 2012, following Ki Sung-yueng's remarks, Koreans living in New York formed a political group "The Citizens Against War Criminal Symbolism" and started a campaign to equate the Rising Sun Flag with the Nazi swastika and ban it. The following year at the 2013 EAFF East Asian Cup, a banner with a slogan about historical issues with Japan appeared on the Korean cheering squad. As these events were often reported in the Korean media, an international political movement among Koreans to equate the Rising Sun Flag with that of the Nazi swastika and to prohibit it intensified.


title: Rising Sun Flag

text: According to Koichi Nakano, professor of political science at Sophia University, "no-one in Japan uses the rising sun flag for any purpose other than romanticizing and rewriting the horrible human rights abuses committed under the Japanese empire." He suggests that the American Confederate flag, where it was used in the American civil war by southern states that wanted to keep slavery, would be a better comparison than the Flag of Nazi Germany. The Confederate flag is not banned but is a symbol of racial segregation and perceived superiority, according to critics.


title: Rising Sun Flag

text: South Korea did not object to Japan's adoption of the Rising Sun Flag for the Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force in 1952, nor to the entry into South Korean ports Japanese warships flying the flag on a warship at the 1998 and 2008 navy fleet reviews held in South Korea. However, when hosting an international fleet review at Jeju Island from October 10 to 14, 2018, South Korea requested all participating countries to display only their national flags and the South Korean flag on their vessels, a request apparently aimed at preventing Japan from flying the Rising Sun Flag, which had been the ensign of the Japanese Maritime Self-Defense Force since it was established in 1954. Japan announced on October 5, 2018 that it would be withdrawing from the fleet review because it could not accept Seoul's request to remove the Rising Sun Flag. Japanese officials say the flag is mandatory for Japan’s naval ships under domestic laws and is widely recognized as identification for the Japanese military under an international maritime convention. On October 6, 2018, JSDF Chief of Staff Katsutoshi Kawano said the Rising Sun Flag was the "pride" of Maritime Self-Defense Force sailors, and that the JMSDF would absolutely not go if they had to remove the flag.


title: Rising Sun Flag

text: The South Korean parliamentary committee for sports asked the organizers of the 2020 Summer Olympics in Tokyo to ban the Rising Sun Flag, with South Korean lawmaker An Min-suk stating that the Olympics could not proceed peacefully with the flag in the stadium. In September 2019, the Chinese Civil Association for Claiming Compensation from Japan sent a letter to the International Olympic Committee (IOC) to ban the flag. According to the Associated Press, the IOC confirmed the receipt of the letter and said in a statement "sports stadiums should be free of any political demonstration. When concerns arise at games time we look at them on a case by case basis." In 2021, South Korea's Olympic committee said that in exchange for taking down banners at the Olympic village that referred to the Imjin War, which was ruled by the IOC as provocative, the IOC promised that the rising sun flag will be banned at stadiums and other Olympic venues. At the end of the Tokyo 2020 Olympics, a delegate from South Korea said that there were no diplomatic incidents between South Korea and Japan during the Olympics, adding that "it was an 'achievement of sports diplomacy' for South Korea that IOC had decided to ban Japan's Rising Sun flag." In response, the Tokyo Organising Committee of the Olympic Games announced on 9 August, "The announcement by the South Korean Olympic Committee is not true. When we contacted the IOC, we confirmed that the IOC will continue to respond to the issue on a case-by-case basis and will not impose a blanket ban. On the morning of 9 August, the IOC had sent a letter to South Korea indicating that the use of the flag will be determined on a case-by-case basis."


title: Rising Sun Flag

text: Alexis Dudden, a professor of history at the University of Connecticut, argued that the rising sun flag should be banned at the 2020 Summer Olympics because the flag "is part of a collective effort to cleanse the history of imperial Japan’s aggression during the second world war," therefore causing intentional harm to those who suffered under Japanese rule. She added that it was unsurprising that the South Korean government was the first to raise objections to the flag being waved at the 2020 Olympics, since Korea was occupied by Japan from 1910 until 1945.


title: Rising Sun Flag

text: In 2021, Capcom removed the appearances of the Rising Sun Flag from their re-release of "Street Fighter II". Capcom did not provide an official reason for the flag's removal, but it is guessed that the flag was removed in an effort not to offend any parts of the international gaming community.


title: Rising Sun Flag

text: The Japanese government's basic position on the Rising Sun Flag is that "claims that the flag is an expression of political assertions or a symbol of militarism are absolutely false." The , a right-wing Japanese newspaper, criticized South Korea's attitude toward the Rising Sun Flag, stating that even the United States, who had opposed Japan during World War II, had not protested formally against the Rising Sun Flag. The same newspaper argued that the history of the flag dates back much further than World War II, and that the corporate logo of the , which is praised for being conscientious in South Korea, also uses the rising sun design.


title: Rising Sun Flag

text: The Japanese Vexillological Association states that the flag was designed for the Japanese army in the early Meiji period, with a different version adopted by naval forces, stating that "Flags used by the military are domestic decisions", arguing that "the Rising Sun flag existed before Japan went to war and the nature of the issue is different from that of the swastika flag, which was created to symbolize the Nazi regime's political ideologies." Former Prime Minister Shigeru Yoshida has stated that "There is no country in the world that does not know this flag. The flag can be recognized as Japan's in any sea", with the flag having been adopted for its "recognizability" as the naval flag of the JMSDF.


title: Jack Johnson (boxer)

text: Jack Arthur Johnson (March 31, 1878 – June 10, 1946), nicknamed the "Galveston Giant", was an American boxer who, at the height of the Jim Crow era, became the first African-American world heavyweight boxing champion (1908–1915). He is widely regarded as one of the most influential boxers in history, and his 1910 fight against James J. Jeffries was dubbed the "fight of the century". According to filmmaker Ken Burns, "for more than thirteen years, Jack Johnson was the most famous and the most notorious African-American on Earth". Transcending boxing, he became part of the culture and history of racism in the United States.


title: Jack Johnson (boxer)

text: In 1912, Johnson opened a successful and luxurious "black and tan" (desegregated) restaurant and nightclub, which in part was run by his wife, a white woman. Major newspapers of the time soon claimed that Johnson was attacked by the government only after he became famous as a black man married to a white woman, and was linked to other white women. Johnson was arrested on charges of violating the Mann Act—forbidding one to transport a woman across state lines for "immoral purposes"—a racially motivated charge that embroiled him in controversy for his relationships, including marriages, with white women. Sentenced to a year in prison, Johnson fled the country and fought boxing matches abroad for seven years until 1920 when he served his sentence at the federal penitentiary at Leavenworth.


title: Jack Johnson (boxer)

text: Johnson continued taking paying fights for many years, and operated several other businesses, including lucrative endorsement deals. He died in a car crash in 1946 at the age of 68. He is buried at Graceland Cemetery in Chicago. In 2018 Johnson was formally pardoned by U.S. president Donald Trump.


title: Jack Johnson (boxer)

text: Johnson was born on March 31, 1878, the third child of nine born to Henry and Tina Johnson, former slaves who worked service jobs as a janitor and a dishwasher. His father had served as a civilian teamster of the Union's 38th Colored Infantry. He was described by his son as the "most perfect physical specimen that he had ever seen", although Henry had been left with an atrophied right leg from his service in the war.


title: Jack Johnson (boxer)

text: Growing up in Galveston, Texas, Johnson attended five years of school. As a young man, Johnson was frail, though, like all of his siblings, he was expected to work.


title: Jack Johnson (boxer)

text: Although Johnson grew up in the South, he said that segregation was not an issue in the somewhat secluded city of Galveston, as everyone living in the 12th Ward was poor and went through the same struggles. Johnson remembers growing up with a "gang" of white boys, in which he never felt victimized or excluded. Remembering his childhood, Johnson said: "As I grew up, the white boys were my friends and my pals. I ate with them, played with them and slept at their homes. Their mothers gave me cookies, and I ate at their tables. No one ever taught me that white men were superior to me."


title: Jack Johnson (boxer)

text: After Johnson quit school, he began a job working at the local docks. He made several other attempts at working other jobs around town until one day he made his way to Dallas, finding work at the race track exercising horses. Jack stuck with this job until he found a new apprenticeship with a carriage painter by the name of Walter Lewis. Lewis enjoyed watching friends spar, and Johnson began to learn how to box. Johnson later declared that it was thanks to Lewis that he became a boxer.


title: Jack Johnson (boxer)

text: At 16, Johnson moved to New York City and found living arrangements with Barbados Joe Walcott, a welterweight fighter from the West Indies. Johnson again found work exercising horses for the local stable, until he was fired for exhausting a horse. On his return to Galveston, he was hired as a janitor at a gym owned by German-born heavyweight fighter Herman Bernau. Johnson eventually put away enough money to buy boxing gloves, sparring every chance he got.


title: Jack Johnson (boxer)

text: At one point, Johnson was arrested for brawling with a man named Davie Pearson, a "grown and toughened" man who accused Johnson of turning him in to the police over a game of craps. When both of them were released from jail, they met at the docks, and Johnson beat Pearson before a large crowd. Johnson then fought in a summer boxing league against a man named John "Must Have It" Lee. Because prize fighting was illegal in Texas, the fight was broken up and moved to the beach, where Johnson won his first fight and a prize of one dollar and fifty cents.


title: Jack Johnson (boxer)

text: Johnson made his debut as a professional boxer on November 1, 1898, in Galveston, when he knocked out Charley Brooks in the second round of a 15-round bout, billed for “The Texas State Middleweight Title". In his third pro fight on May 8, 1899, he faced "Klondike" (John W. Haynes, or Haines), an African American heavyweight known as "The Black Hercules", in Chicago. Klondike (so called as he was considered a rarity, like the gold in the Klondike), who had declared himself the "Black Heavyweight Champ", won on a technical knockout (TKO) in the fifth round of a scheduled six-rounder. The two fighters met twice again in 1900, with the first rematch resulting in a draw, as both fighters were on their feet at the end of 20 rounds. Johnson won the third fight by a TKO when Klondike refused to come out for the 14th round. Johnson did not claim Klondike's unrecognized title.


title: Jack Johnson (boxer)

text: On February 25, 1901, Johnson fought Joe Choynski in Galveston. Choynski, a popular and experienced heavyweight, knocked out Johnson in the third round. Prizefighting was illegal in Texas at the time and they were both arrested. Bail was set at $5,000, which neither could afford. The sheriff permitted both fighters to go home at night so long as they agreed to spar in the jail cell. Large crowds gathered to watch the sessions. After 23 days in jail, their bail was reduced to an affordable level and a grand jury refused to indict either man. Johnson later stated that he learned his boxing skills during that jail time. The two would remain friends.


title: Jack Johnson (boxer)

text: Johnson attested that his success in boxing came from the coaching he received from Choynski. The aging Choynski saw natural talent and determination in Johnson and taught him the nuances of defense, stating: "A man who can move like you should never have to take a punch".


title: Jack Johnson (boxer)

text: Johnson beat former black heavyweight champion Frank Childs on October 21, 1902. Childs had twice won the black heavyweight title and continued to claim that he was the true black champion despite having lost his title in a bout with George Byers and then, after retaking the title from Byers, losing it again to Denver Ed Martin. He also claimed the unrecognized black heavyweight title as well. Johnson won by a TKO in the 12th round of the scheduled 20-rounder, when Childs's seconds signaled he could not go on, claiming a dislocated elbow. The defeat by Johnson forever ended Childs's pretensions to the black heavyweight crown.


title: Jack Johnson (boxer)

text: By 1903, though Johnson's official record showed him with nine wins against three losses, five draws and two no contests, he had won at least 50 fights against both white and black opponents. Johnson won his first title on February 3, 1903, beating Denver Ed Martin on points in a 20-round match for the World Colored Heavyweight Championship. Johnson held the title until it was vacated when he won the world heavyweight title from Tommy Burns in Sydney, Australia on Boxing Day 1908. His reign of 2,151 days was the third longest in the 60-year-long history of the colored heavyweight title. Only Harry Wills at 3,103 days and Peter Jackson at 3,041 days held the title longer. A three-time colored heavyweight champion, Wills held the title for a total of 3,351 days.


title: Jack Johnson (boxer)

text: Johnson defended the colored heavyweight title 17 times, which was second only to the 26 times Wills defended the title. While colored champ, he defeated colored ex-champs Denver Ed Martin and Frank Childs again and beat future colored heavyweight champs Sam McVey three times and Sam Langford once. He beat Langford on points in a 15-rounder and never gave him another shot at the title, when he was either colored champ or the world heavyweight champ.


title: Jack Johnson (boxer)

text: Johnson fought Joe Jeanette a total of seven times, all during his reign as colored champion before he became the world's heavyweight champion, winning four times and drawing twice (three of the victories and one draw were newspaper decisions). In their first match in 1905, they had fought to a draw, but in their second match on November 25, 1905, Johnson lost as he was disqualified in the second round of a scheduled six-round fight. Johnson continued to claim the title because of the disqualification.


title: Jack Johnson (boxer)

text: After Johnson became the first African-American Heavyweight Champion of the World on December 26, 1908, his World Colored Heavyweight Championship was vacated. Jeanette fought Sam McVey for the title in Paris on February 20, 1909, and was beaten, but he later took the title from McVey in a 49-round bout on April 17 of that year in Paris for a $6,000 purse. Sam Langford subsequently claimed the title during Jeanette's reign after Johnson refused to defend the World Heavyweight Championship against him. Eighteen months later, Jeanette lost the title to Langford.


title: Jack Johnson (boxer)

text: During his reign as world champion, Johnson never again fought Jeanette, despite numerous challenges, and avoided Langford, who won the colored title a record five times. In 1906 Jack Johnson fought Sam Langford. Langford took severe punishment and was knocked down 3 times; however, he lasted the 15-round distance.


title: Jack Johnson (boxer)

text: On November 27, 1945, Johnson finally stepped back into the ring with Joe Jeanette. The 67-year-old Johnson squared off against the 66-year-old Jeanette in an exhibition held at a New York City rally to sell war bonds. Fellow former colored heavyweight champ Harry Wills also participated in the exhibition.


title: Jack Johnson (boxer)

text: Johnson's efforts to win the world heavyweight title were initially thwarted, as at the time world heavyweight champion James J. Jeffries refused to face him, and retired instead. However, Johnson did fight former champion Bob Fitzsimmons in July 1907, and knocked him out in two rounds.


title: Jack Johnson (boxer)

text: Johnson finally won the world heavyweight title on December 26, 1908, a full six years after lightweight champion Joe Gans became the first African American boxing champion. Johnson's victory over the reigning world champion, Canadian Tommy Burns, at the Sydney Stadium in Australia, came after following Burns around the world for two years and taunting him in the press for a match. Burns agreed to fight Johnson only after promoters guaranteed him $30,000. The fight lasted fourteen rounds before being stopped by the police in front of over 20,000 spectators, and Johnson was named the winner.


title: Jack Johnson (boxer)

text: After Johnson's victory over Burns, racial animosity among whites ran so deep that some, including renowned American author Jack London, called for a "Great White Hope" to take the title away from Johnson. While Johnson was heavyweight champion, he was covered more in the press than all other notable black men combined. The lead-up to the bout was peppered with racist press against Johnson. Even the "New York Times" wrote of the event, "If the black man wins, thousands and thousands of his ignorant brothers will misinterpret his victory as justifying claims to much more than mere physical equality with their white neighbors." As title holder, Johnson thus had to face a series of fighters each billed by boxing promoters as a "great white hope", often in exhibition matches. In 1909, he beat Tony Ross, Al Kaufman, and the middleweight champion Stanley Ketchel.


title: Jack Johnson (boxer)

text: The match with Ketchel was originally thought to have been an exhibition, and in fact it was fought by both men that way, until the 12th round, when Ketchel threw a right to Johnson's head, knocking him down. Quickly regaining his feet, and very annoyed, Johnson immediately dashed straight at Ketchell and threw a single punch, an uppercut, a punch for which he was famous, to Ketchel's jaw, knocking him out. The punch knocked out Ketchell's front teeth; Johnson can be seen on film removing them from his glove, where they had been embedded.


title: Jack Johnson (boxer)

text: In 1910, former undefeated heavyweight champion James J. Jeffries came out of retirement to challenge Johnson, saying "I am going into this fight for the sole purpose of proving that a white man is better than a Negro". He had not fought in six years and he also had to lose well over 100 pounds in order to get back to his championship fighting weight. Efforts to persuade Jeffries to "retrieve the honor of the white race" began immediately after the Burns-Johnson fight. Initially Jeffries had no interest in the fight, being quite happy as an alfalfa farmer. On October 29, 1909, Johnson and Jeffries signed an agreement to "box for the heavyweight championship of the world" and called promoters to bid for the right to orchestrate the event.


title: Jack Johnson (boxer)

text: In early December 1909, Johnson and Jeffries selected a bid from the nation's top boxing promoters—Tex Rickard and John Gleason. The bid guaranteed a purse of $101,000 to be divided 75% to the winner and 25% to the loser, as well as two-thirds of the revenues collected from the sales of the right to film the fight (each boxer received one third of the equity rights). Although it was well understood that a victory for Jeffries was likely to be more profitable than a victory for Johnson, there were no doubts that the event would produce record profits. Legal historian Barak Orbach argues that in "an industry that promoted events through the dramatization of rivalries, a championship contest between an iconic representative of the white race and the most notorious [black fighter] was a gold mine."Jeffries mostly remained hidden from media attention until the day of the fight, while Johnson soaked up the spotlight. John L. Sullivan, who made boxing championships a popular and esteemed spectacle, stated that Johnson was in such good physical shape compared to Jeffries that he would only lose if he had a lack of skill on the day of the fight. Before the fight, Jeffries remarked, "It is my intention to go right after my opponent and knock him out as soon as possible." While his wife added, "I'm not interested in prizefighting but I am interested in my husband's welfare, I do hope this will be his last fight." Johnson's words were "May the best man win."


title: Jack Johnson (boxer)

text: Racial tension was brewing in the lead up to the fight and in order to prevent any harm from coming to either boxer, guns were prohibited within the arena along with the sale of alcohol and anyone who was under the effects of alcohol. Apples were also banned as well as any weapon whatsoever. Behind the racial attitudes which were being instigated by the media was a major investment in gambling for the fight, with 10–7 odds in favor of Jeffries.


title: Jack Johnson (boxer)

text: The fight took place on July 4, 1910, in front of 20,000 people, at a ring which was built just for the occasion in downtown Reno, Nevada. Jeffries proved unable to impose his will on the younger champion and Johnson dominated the fight. By the 15th round, after Jeffries had been knocked down twice for the first time in his career, Jeffries' corner threw in the towel to end the fight and prevent Jeffries from having a knockout on his record.


title: Jack Johnson (boxer)

text: Johnson later remarked he knew the fight was over in the 4th round when he landed an uppercut and saw the look on Jeffries face, stating, "I knew what that look meant. The old ship was sinking." Afterwards, Jeffries was humbled by the loss and what he'd seen of Johnson in their match. "I could never have whipped Johnson at my best", Jeffries said. "I couldn't have hit him. No, I couldn't have reached him in 1,000 years."


title: Jack Johnson (boxer)

text: The "Fight of the Century" earned Johnson $65,000 (over $ million in dollars) and silenced the critics, who had belittled Johnson's previous victory over Tommy Burns as "empty", claiming that Burns was a false champion since Jeffries had retired undefeated. John L. Sullivan commented after the fight that Johnson won deservedly, fairly, and convincingly:


title: Jack Johnson (boxer)

text: The outcome of the fight triggered race riots that evening—the Fourth of July—all across the United States, from Texas and Colorado to New York and Washington, D.C. Johnson's victory over Jeffries had dashed white dreams of finding a "great white hope" to defeat him. Many whites felt humiliated by the defeat of Jeffries.


title: Jack Johnson (boxer)

text: Blacks, on the other hand, were jubilant, and celebrated Johnson's great victory as a victory for racial advancement. Black poet William Waring Cuney later highlighted the black reaction to the fight in his poem "My Lord, What a Morning". Around the country, blacks held spontaneous parades and gathered in prayer meetings.


title: Jack Johnson (boxer)

text: Race riots, initiated by both whites and blacks, erupted in New York, Baltimore, Pittsburgh, Philadelphia, New Orleans, Atlanta, St. Louis, Little Rock and Houston. In all, riots occurred in more than 25 states and 50 cities. At least twenty people were killed across the US from the riots, and hundreds more were injured.


title: Jack Johnson (boxer)

text: "The Johnson–Jeffries Fight" film received more public attention in the United States than any other film to date and for the next five years, until the release of "The Birth of a Nation". In the United States, many states and cities banned the exhibition of the Johnson–Jeffries film. The movement to censor Johnson's victory took over the country within three days after the fight.


title: Jack Johnson (boxer)

text: Two weeks after the match former President Theodore Roosevelt, an avid boxer and fan, wrote an article for "The Outlook" in which he supported banning not just moving pictures of boxing matches, but a complete ban on all prize fights in the US. He cited the "crookedness" and gambling that surrounded such contests and that moving pictures have "introduced a new method of money getting and of demoralization". The controversy surrounding the film directly motivated Congress to ban distribution of all prizefight films across state lines in 1912; the ban was lifted in 1940.


title: Jack Johnson (boxer)

text: In 2005, the film of the Jeffries–Johnson "Fight of the Century" was entered into the United States National Film Registry as being worthy of preservation.


title: Jack Johnson (boxer)

text: The color bar remained in force even under Johnson. Once he was the world's heavyweight champ, Johnson did not fight a black opponent for the first five years of his reign. He denied matches to black heavyweights Joe Jeanette (one of his successors as colored heavyweight champ), Sam Langford (who beat Jeanette for the colored title), and the young Harry Wills, who was colored heavyweight champ during the last year of Johnson's reign as world's heavyweight champ.


title: Jack Johnson (boxer)

text: Blacks were not given a chance at the title allegedly because Johnson felt that he could make more money fighting white boxers. In August 1913, as Johnson neared the end of his troubled reign as world heavyweight champ, there were rumors that he had agreed to fight Langford in Paris for the title, but it came to naught. Johnson said that Langford was unable to raise $30,000 for his guarantee.


title: Jack Johnson (boxer)

text: Because black boxers with the exception of Johnson had been barred from fighting for the heavyweight championship because of racism, Johnson's refusal to fight African-Americans offended the African-American community, since the opportunity to fight top white boxers was rare. Jeanette criticized Johnson, saying, "Jack forgot about his old friends after he became champion and drew the color line against his own people."


title: Jack Johnson (boxer)

text: When Johnson finally agreed to take on a black opponent in late 1913, it was not Sam Langford, the current colored heavyweight champ, that he gave the title shot to. Instead, Johnson chose to take on Battling Jim Johnson, a lesser-known boxer who, in 1910, had lost to Langford and had a draw and loss via KO to Sam McVey, the former colored champ. Battling Jim fought former colored champ Joe Jeanette four times between July 19, 1912, and January 21, 1913, and lost all four fights. The only fighter of note who he did beat during that period was the future colored champ Big Bill Tate, whom he KO-ed in the second round of a scheduled 10-round bout. It was Tate's third pro fight.


title: Jack Johnson (boxer)

text: In November 1913, the International Boxing Union had declared the world heavyweight title held by Jack Johnson to be vacant. The fight, scheduled for 10 rounds, was held on December 19, 1913, in Paris. It was the first time in history that two blacks had fought for the world heavyweight championship.


title: Jack Johnson (boxer)

text: While the Johnson v. Johnson fight had been billed as a world heavyweight title match, in many ways, it resembled an exhibition. A sportswriter from the "Indianapolis Star" at the fight reported that the crowd became unruly when it was apparent that neither boxer was putting up a fight.


title: Jack Johnson (boxer)

text: Jack Johnson, the heavyweight champion, and Battling Jim Johnson, another colored pugilist, of Galveston, Texas, met in a 10-round contest here tonight, which ended in a draw. The spectators loudly protested throughout that the men were not fighting, and demanded their money back. Many of them left the hall. The organizers of the fight explained the fiasco by asserting that Jack Johnson's left arm was broken in the third round. There is no confirmation of a report that Jack Johnson had been stabbed and no evidence at the ringside of such an accident. During the first three rounds he was obviously playing with his opponent. After that it was observed that he was only using his right hand. When the fight was over he complained that his arm had been injured. Doctors who made an examination, certified to a slight fracture of the radius of the left arm. The general opinion is that his arm was injured in a wrestling match early in the week, and that a blow tonight caused the fracture of the bone.


title: Jack Johnson (boxer)

text: Because of the draw, Jack Johnson kept his championship. After the fight, he explained that his left arm was injured in the third round and he could not use it.


title: Jack Johnson (boxer)

text: On April 5, 1915, Johnson lost his title to Jess Willard, a working cowboy from Kansas who started boxing when he was 27 years old. With a crowd of 25,000 at Oriental Park Racetrack in Havana, Cuba, Johnson was knocked out in the 26th round of the scheduled 45 round fight. Johnson, although having won almost every round, began to tire after the 20th round, and was visibly hurt by heavy body punches from Willard in rounds preceding the 26th-round knockout.


title: Jack Johnson (boxer)

text: Johnson is said by many a year after the fight to have spread rumors that he took a dive, but Willard is widely regarded as having won the fight outright. Many people thought Johnson purposely threw the fight because Willard was white, in an effort to have his Mann Act charges dropped. Willard ironically responded, "If he was going to throw the fight, I wish he'd done it sooner. It was hotter than hell out there."


title: Jack Johnson (boxer)

text: After losing his world heavyweight championship, Johnson never again fought for the colored heavyweight crown. His popularity remained strong enough that he recorded for Ajax Records in the 1920s. Johnson continued fighting, but age was catching up with him. He fought professionally until 1938 at age 60 when he lost 7 of his last 9 bouts, losing his final fight to Walter Price by a 7th-round TKO. It is often suggested that any bouts after the age of 40—which was a very venerable age for boxing in those days—not be counted on his actual record, since he was performing in order to make a living.


title: Jack Johnson (boxer)

text: He also indulged in what was known as "cellar" fighting, where the bouts, unadvertised, were fought for private audiences, usually in cellars or other unrecognized places. There are surviving photographs of one of these fights. Johnson made his final ring appearance at age 67 on November 27, 1945, fighting three one-minute exhibition rounds against two opponents, Joe Jeanette and John Ballcort, in a benefit fight card for U.S. War Bonds.


title: Jack Johnson (boxer)

text: Throughout his career, Johnson built a unique fighting style of his own, which was not customary in boxing during this time. Though he would typically strike first, he would fight defensively, waiting for his opponents to tire out, becoming more aggressive as the rounds went on. He often fought to punish his opponents over the course of the bout rather than going for the knockout, and would continuously dodge their punches. He would then quickly strike back with a blow of his own. Johnson often made his fights look effortless, and as if he had much more to offer, but when pushed he could also display some powerful moves and punches. There are films of his fights in which he can be seen holding up his opponent, who otherwise might have fallen, until he recovered.


title: Jack Johnson (boxer)

text: Johnson earned considerable sums endorsing various products, including patent medicines, and had several expensive hobbies such as automobile racing and tailored clothing, as well as purchasing jewelry and furs for his wives. He challenged champion racer Barney Oldfield to an auto race at the Sheepshead Bay, Brooklyn dirt track. Oldfield easily defeated Johnson. Once, when he was pulled over for a $50 speeding ticket, he gave the officer a $100 bill; when the officer protested that he couldn't make change for that much, Johnson told him to keep the change as he was going to make his return trip at the same speed. In 1920, Johnson opened the Club Deluxe, a Black and Tan night club in Harlem; he sold it three years later to a gangster, Owney Madden, who renamed it the Cotton Club.


title: Jack Johnson (boxer)

text: Johnson's behavior was looked down upon by the African-American community, especially by the black scholar Booker T. Washington, who said it "is unfortunate that a man with money should use it in a way to injure his own people, in the eyes of those who are seeking to uplift his race and improve its conditions, I wish to say emphatically that Jack Johnson's actions did not meet my personal approval and I am sure they do not meet with the approval of the colored race."


title: Jack Johnson (boxer)

text: Johnson flouted conventions regarding the social and economic "place" of blacks in American society. As a black man, he broke a powerful taboo in consorting with white women and would verbally taunt men (both white and black) inside and outside the ring. When asked the secret of his staying power by a reporter who had watched a succession of women parade into, and out of, the champion's hotel room, Johnson supposedly said "Eat jellied eels and think distant thoughts".


title: Jack Johnson (boxer)

text: In 1911, Johnson, through an acquaintance, attempted to become a Freemason in Dundee. Although he was admitted as a member of the Forfar and Kincardine Lodge No 225 in the city, there was considerable opposition to his membership, principally on the grounds of his race, and the Forfarshire Lodge was suspended by the Grand Lodge of Scotland. Johnson's fees were returned to him and his admission was ruled illegal.


title: Jack Johnson (boxer)

text: Johnson wrote two memoirs of his life: "Mes combats" in 1914 and "Jack Johnson in the Ring and Out" in 1927.


title: Jack Johnson (boxer)

text: In 1943, Johnson attended at least one service at the Angelus Temple in Los Angeles, California. In a public conversion, while Detroit, Michigan, burned in race riots, he professed his faith to Christ in a service conducted by evangelist Aimee Semple McPherson. She embraced him as "he raised his hand in worship".


title: Jack Johnson (boxer)

text: Johnson engaged in various relationships, including three documented marriages. All of his documented wives were white. At the height of his career, Johnson was excoriated by the press for his flashy lifestyle and for having married white women.


title: Jack Johnson (boxer)

text: According to Johnson's 1927 autobiography, he married Mary Austin, a black woman from Galveston, Texas. No record exists of this marriage.


title: Jack Johnson (boxer)

text: While in Philadelphia in 1903, Johnson met Clara Kerr, a black prostitute. According to Johnson's autobiography, Kerr left him for Johnson's friend, a racehorse trainer named William Bryant. They stole Johnson's jewelry and clothing when they left. Johnson tracked the couple down and had Kerr arrested on burglary charges. Johnson and Kerr reconciled for a while before she left him again.


title: Jack Johnson (boxer)

text: During a three-month tour of Australia in 1907, Johnson had a brief affair with Alma "Lola" Toy, a white woman from Sydney. Johnson confirmed to an American journalist that he intended to marry Toy. When "The Referee" printed Johnson's plans to marry Toy, it caused controversy in Sydney. Toy demanded a retraction and later won a libel lawsuit from the newspaper.


title: Jack Johnson (boxer)

text: After returning from Australia, Johnson said that "the heartaches which Mary Austin and Clara Kerr caused me led me to forswear colored women and to determine that my lot henceforth would be cast only with white women."


title: Jack Johnson (boxer)

text: Johnson met Etta Terry Duryea, a Brooklyn socialite and former wife of Clarence Duryea, at a car race in 1909. In 1910, Johnson hired a private investigator to follow Duryea after suspecting she was having an affair with his chauffeur. On Christmas Day, Johnson confronted Duryea and beat her to the point of hospitalization. They reconciled and were married on January 18, 1911. Prone to depression, her condition worsened due to Johnson's abuse and infidelity in addition to the hostile reaction to their interracial relationship. Duryea attempted suicide twice before she died from a self-inflicted gunshot wound on September 11, 1912.


title: Jack Johnson (boxer)

text: In the summer of 1912, Johnson met Lucille Cameron, an 18-year-old prostitute from Minneapolis who relocated to Chicago, at his nightclub Café de Champion. Johnson hired her as his stenographer, but shortly after Duryea's funeral, they were out in public as a couple. They married on December 3, 1912 at 3:00 p.m. Cameron filed for divorce in 1924 due to his infidelity.


title: Jack Johnson (boxer)

text: Johnson met Irene Pineau at the race track in Aurora, Illinois in 1924. After she divorced her husband the following year, they were married in Waukegan in August 1925. Johnson and Pineau were together until his death in 1946. When asked by a reporter at Johnson's funeral what she had loved about him, she replied: "I loved him because of his courage. He faced the world unafraid. There wasn't anybody or anything he feared."


title: Jack Johnson (boxer)

text: On October 18, 1912, Johnson was arrested on the grounds that his relationship with Lucille Cameron violated the Mann Act against "transporting women across state lines for immoral purposes" due to her being an alleged prostitute. Her mother also swore that her daughter was insane. Cameron, soon to become his second wife, refused to cooperate and the case fell apart. Less than a month later, Johnson was arrested again on similar charges.


title: Jack Johnson (boxer)

text: This time, the woman, another alleged prostitute named Belle Schreiber, with whom he had been involved in 1909 and 1910, testified against him. In the courtroom of Kenesaw Mountain Landis, the future Commissioner of Baseball who perpetuated the baseball color line until his death, Johnson was convicted by an all-white jury in June 1913, despite the fact that the incidents used to convict him took place before passage of the Mann Act. He was sentenced to a year and a day in prison.


title: Jack Johnson (boxer)

text: Johnson skipped bail and left the country, joining Lucille in Montreal on June 25, before fleeing to France. To flee to Canada, Johnson posed as a member of a black baseball team. For the next seven years, they lived in exile in Europe, South America and Mexico. Johnson returned to the U.S. on July 20, 1920. He surrendered to federal agents at the Mexican border and was sent to the United States Penitentiary, Leavenworth to serve his sentence in September 1920. He was released on July 9, 1921.


title: Jack Johnson (boxer)

text: In 2018, President Donald Trump granted Johnson a posthumous presidential pardon after recurring proposals to grant one had been shot down by previous branches under previous administrations. A bill which requested that President George W. Bush pardon Johnson passed the House in 2008, but failed to pass in the Senate. In April 2009, Senator John McCain, along with Representative Peter King, film maker Ken Burns and Johnson's great-niece, Linda Haywood, requested a presidential pardon for Johnson from President Barack Obama. In July of that year, Congress passed a resolution calling on President Obama to issue a pardon.


title: Jack Johnson (boxer)

text: In 2016, another petition for Johnson's pardon was issued by McCain, King, Senator Harry Reid and Congressman Gregory Meeks to President Obama, marking the 70th anniversary since the boxer's death. This time, the petitioners cited a provision of the Every Student Succeeds Act, signed by the president in December 2015, in which Congress expressed that this boxing great should receive a posthumous pardon, and a vote by the United States Commission on Civil Rights passed unanimously a week earlier in June 2016 to "right this century-old wrong."


title: Jack Johnson (boxer)

text: Mike Tyson, Harry Reid and John McCain lent their support to the campaign, starting a Change.org petition asking President Obama to posthumously pardon the world's first African-American Heavyweight boxing champion for his racially motivated 1913 felony conviction.


title: Jack Johnson (boxer)

text: After various attempts by the former WBC president, Jose Sulaiman, who reached out to presidential administrations dating back to Ronald Reagan's, in April 2018, President Donald Trump announced that he was considering granting a full pardon to Johnson after speaking with a World Boxing Council committee, along with actor Sylvester Stallone. Trump pardoned Johnson on May 24, 2018, 105 years after his conviction, during a ceremony which included special guests Mauricio Sulaiman (WBC President), Hector Sulaiman (President of the Board of Advisors of Scholas Occurrentes), Sylvester Stallone (actor), Deontay Wilder (then current WBC Champion) and Lennox Lewis (WBC Former Champion).


title: Jack Johnson (boxer)

text: A persistent hoax on social media claims that Johnson invented the monkey wrench and it was named a "monkey" wrench as a racial slur. Johnson did receive a patent for improvements which he made to the monkey wrench, but the first patent for a monkey wrench was awarded in the 1840s, around 35 years before he was born.


title: Jack Johnson (boxer)

text: On June 10, 1946, Johnson was involved in a car crash on U.S. Highway 1 near Franklinton, North Carolina () after driving angrily away from a segregated diner that had refused to serve him. His friend survived the high-speed collision with a telegraph pole but an injured Johnson was taken to the nearest black hospital, St. Agnes Hospital, 25 miles away in Raleigh where he died. He was 68 years old.


title: Jack Johnson (boxer)

text: Johnson was buried next to his first wife, Etta Duryea Johnson who died of suicide in 1912, at Graceland Cemetery in Chicago. His grave was initially unmarked, but later it was marked with a large stone which only bore the name "Johnson". This marker was added to with a new marker after Ken Burns released a film about Johnson's life in 2005. Johnson's (new, smaller) gravestone reads [top] "Jack / John A. Johnson / 1878-1946" [front] "First black heavyweight / champion of the world". Johnson's signature is on the back of the stone.


title: Jack Johnson (boxer)

text: Johnson was an inaugural 1954 inductee to "The Ring" magazine's Boxing Hall of Fame (disbanded in 1987), and was inducted to the International Boxing Hall of Fame in 1993. In 2005, the United States National Film Preservation Board deemed the film of the 1910 Johnson-Jeffries fight "historically significant" and put it in the National Film Registry.


title: Jack Johnson (boxer)

text: Muhammad Ali often spoke of how he was influenced by Jack Johnson. Ali identified with Johnson because he felt America ostracized him in the same manner because of his opposition to the Vietnam War and affiliation with the Nation of Islam.


title: Jack Johnson (boxer)

text: In 2002, scholar Molefi Kete Asante listed Jack Johnson on his list of 100 Greatest African Americans.


title: Jack Johnson (boxer)

text: In 2012, the City of Galveston dedicated a park in Johnson's memory as Galveston Island's most famous native son. The park, called Jack Johnson Park, includes a life-size, bronze statue of Johnson.


title: Jack Johnson (boxer)

text: The actor Dwayne Johnson's last name is an homage to Jack Johnson; his father Rocky Johnson chose his professional wresting moniker to honor the boxer, and later made it his legal name.


title: Jack Johnson (boxer)

text: The first filmed fight of Johnson's career was his bout with Tommy Burns, which was turned into a contemporary documentary, "The Burns-Johnson Fight", in 1908.


title: Jack Johnson (boxer)

text: Folksinger and blues singer Lead Belly referenced Johnson in a song about the "Titanic": "Jack Johnson wanna get on board, Captain said I ain't hauling no coal. Fare thee, Titanic, fare thee well. When Jack Johnson heard that mighty shock, mighta seen the man do the Eagle rock. Fare thee, Titanic, fare thee well" (The Eagle Rock was a popular dance at the time). In 1969, American folk singer Jaime Brockett reworked the Lead Belly song into a satirical talking blues called "The Legend of the S.S. Titanic." There is no convincing evidence that Johnson was in fact refused passage on the "Titanic" because of his race, as these songs allege.


title: Jack Johnson (boxer)

text: Johnson's story is the basis of the play "The Great White Hope" and its 1970 film adaptation, starring James Earl Jones as "Jack Jefferson" and Jane Alexander as his love interest. Both Jones and Alexander won Tonys and were nominated for Oscars.


title: Jack Johnson (boxer)

text: Also in 1970, Jimmy Jacobs and Bill Cayton brought together much of the rare archive footage of Johnson which they had saved and restored, and made the film "Jack Johnson", with Johnson's words voiced by Brock Peters, and music by Miles Davis. Davis' score later became the 1971 album named after the boxer. It features the actor Peters (as Johnson) saying:


title: Jack Johnson (boxer)

text: In 2005, filmmaker Ken Burns produced a two-part documentary about Johnson's life, "," based on the 2004 nonfiction book of the same name by Geoffrey C. Ward, and with music by Wynton Marsalis. The book won the William Hill Sports Book of the Year (2006).


title: Jack Johnson (boxer)

text: Jack Johnson's life was the subject of a three-part series of the podcast "History on Fire" by historian Daniele Bolelli.


title: Jack Johnson (boxer)

text: Several hip hop activists have also reflected on Johnson's legacy, most notably in the album "The New Danger," by Mos Def, in which songs like "Zimzallabim" and "Blue Black Jack" are devoted to the artist's pugilistic hero. In the closing track of the album "Run the Jewels 3," "A Report to the Shareholders / Kill Your Masters," Killer Mike of the hip hop duo Run the Jewels reinvokes Jackson's image with the line: ""I'm Jack Johnson, I beat a slave catcher snaggletooth"." Additionally, both Southern punk rock band This Bike is a Pipe Bomb and alternative country performer Tom Russell have songs dedicated to Johnson. Russell's piece is both a tribute and a biting indictment of the racism Johnson faced: ""here comes Jack Johnson, like he owns the town, there's a lot of white Americans like to see a man go down ... like to see a black man drown.""


title: Jack Johnson (boxer)

text: In the trenches of World War One, Johnson's name was used by British troops to describe the impact of German 150 mm heavy artillery shells which had a black color. In his letters home to his wife, Rupert Edward Inglis (1863–1916), a former rugby international who was a Forces Chaplain, describes passing through the town of Albert:


title: Jack Johnson (boxer)

text: In Joe R. Lansdale's 1997 short story "The Big Blow," Johnson is featured fighting a white boxer brought in by Galveston, Texas's boxing fans to defeat the African American fighter during the 1900 Galveston Hurricane. The story won a Bram Stoker Award and was expanded into a 2000 novel.


title: Jack Johnson (boxer)

text: Johnson is a major character in the 2005 novel "The Killings of Stanley Ketchel" by James Carlos Blake.


title: Jack Johnson (boxer)

text: "The Royale", a play by Marco Ramirez, uses the life of Jack Johnson as inspiration for its main character, Jay Jackson. It premiered in March 2016 at Lincoln Center Theater directed by Rachel Chavkin, and was nominated for a Drama Desk Awards for Outstanding Play, Outstanding Director of a Play, and a Special Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Ensemble.


title: Jack Johnson (boxer)

text: The book "Crossing the Color Line: Stanley Ketchel's Challenge for Jack Johnson's Heavyweight Crown", released in 2021, details Johnson's fight with middleweight champion Stanley Ketchel.


title: Jack Johnson (boxer)

text: The graphic novel "Last On His Feet: Jack Johnson and the Battle of the Century" by Adrian Matejka and Youssef Daoudi, to be released in 2023, chronicles Johnson vs. Jeffries, interspersing the fight with flashbacks to Johnson's youth.


title: Jack Johnson (boxer)

text: All newspaper decisions are officially regarded as “no decision” bouts and are not counted in the win/loss/draw column.


title: Nocturnal emission

text: A nocturnal emission, informally known as a wet dream, sex dream, nightfall or sleep orgasm, is a spontaneous orgasm during sleep that includes ejaculation for a male, or vaginal wetness or an orgasm (or both) for a female. Nocturnal emissions happen after stressful dreams in REM sleep which activate sympathetic nervous system hence leading to ejaculation.Nocturnal emissions are most common during adolescence and early young adult years, but they may happen any time after puberty. It is possible for men to wake up during a wet dream or simply to sleep through it, but for women, some researchers have added the requirement that she should also awaken during the orgasm and perceive that the orgasm happened before it counts as a wet dream. Vaginal lubrication alone does not mean that the woman has had an orgasm.


title: Nocturnal emission

text: Due to the difficulty in collecting ejaculate produced during nocturnal emissions, relatively few studies have examined its composition. In the largest study, which included nocturnal emission samples from 10 men with idiopathic anejaculation, the semen concentration was equivalent to samples obtained from the same men by penile vibratory stimulation, although the proportions of sperm which were motile and which were of normal morphology were higher in the nocturnal emission specimens.


title: Nocturnal emission

text: In a detailed study, men and women reported that approximately 8% of their everyday dreams contain some form of sexual-related activity. 4% of sex dreams among both men and women resulted in orgasms.


title: Nocturnal emission

text: The frequency of nocturnal emissions is highly variable. Some reported that it is due to being sexually inactive for a period of 1–2 weeks, with no engagement in either intercourse or masturbation. Some males have experienced large numbers of nocturnal emissions as teenagers, while others have never experienced any. In the U.S., 83% of men experience nocturnal emissions at some time in their life. For males who have experienced nocturnal emissions, the mean frequency ranges from 0.36 times per week (about once every three weeks) for single 15-year-old males to 0.18 times per week (about once every five-and-a-half weeks) for 40-year-old single males. For married males, the mean ranges from 0.23 times per week (about once per month) for 19-year-old married males to 0.15 times per week (about once every two months) for 50-year-old married males. In some parts of the world, nocturnal emissions are more common. For example, in Indonesia surveys have shown that 97% of men experience nocturnal emissions by the age of 24.


title: Nocturnal emission

text: Some males have the emissions only at a certain age, while others have them throughout their lives following puberty. The frequency with which one has nocturnal emissions has not been conclusively linked to frequency of masturbation. Alfred Kinsey found there may be "some correlation between the frequencies of masturbation and the frequencies of nocturnal emissions. In general the males who have the highest frequencies of nocturnal emissions may have somewhat lower rates of masturbation."


title: Nocturnal emission

text: One factor that can affect the number of nocturnal emissions males have is whether they take testosterone-based drugs. In a 1998 study by Finkelstein "et al", the number of boys reporting nocturnal emissions drastically increased as their testosterone doses were increased, from 17% of subjects with no treatment to 90% of subjects at a high dose.


title: Nocturnal emission

text: Thirteen percent of males experience their first ejaculation as a result of a nocturnal emission. Kinsey found that males experiencing their first ejaculation through a nocturnal emission were older than those experiencing their first ejaculation by means of masturbation. The study indicates that such a first ejaculation resulting from a nocturnal emission was delayed a year or more from what would have been developmentally possible for such males through physical stimulation.


title: Nocturnal emission

text: In 1953, sex researcher Alfred Kinsey found that nearly 40% of the women he interviewed have had one or more nocturnal orgasms or wet dreams. Those who reported experiencing these said that they usually had them several times a year and that they first occurred as early as thirteen, and usually by the age of 21. Kinsey defined female nocturnal orgasm as sexual arousal during sleep that awakens one to perceive the experience of orgasm.


title: Nocturnal emission

text: Research published by Barbara L Wells in the 1986 "Journal of Sex Research" indicates that as many as 85% of women have experienced nocturnal orgasm by the age of 21. This research was based on women waking up with/during orgasm.


title: Nocturnal emission

text: Studies have found that more males have more frequent spontaneous nocturnal sexual experiences than females. Female wet dreams may be more difficult to identify with certainty than male wet dreams because ejaculation is usually associated with male orgasm while vaginal lubrication may not indicate orgasm.


title: Nocturnal emission

text: There are numerous cultural and religious views on nocturnal emissions. Below is a limited summary of some perspectives.


title: Nocturnal emission

text: In ancient Rome, nocturnal emission was recorded by Lucretius in his "De Rerum Natura" (translated here by William Ellery Leonard):


title: Nocturnal emission

text: Some examples of passages under the Mosaic law of the Hebrew Bible teach that under the law of Moses, a man who had a nocturnal emission incurred ritual defilement (as with any other instance of ejaculation):


title: Nocturnal emission

text: The first of these is part of a passage stating similar regulations about sexual intercourse and menstruation. Leviticus 12 makes similar regulations about childbirth.