title: The Smurfs

text: In honour of their 50th anniversary in 2008, the Smurfs began a year-long "Happy Smurfday Euro Tour" in connection with UNICEF. The Smurfs visited fifteen European countries on the day of their 50th "Smurfday" in the form of publicly distributed white figurines. The recipients could decorate and submit them to a competition. The results of this contest were auctioned off and raised a total amount of 124,700 euros for benefit of UNICEF.


title: The Smurfs

text: The 50th anniversary of the Smurfs and the 80th anniversary of the birth of its creator Peyo, were celebrated by issuing a high-value collectors' coin: the Belgian 5 euro 50th anniversary of The Smurfs commemorative coin, minted in 2008.


title: The Smurfs

text: In 1998, writer Marc Schmidt wrote a parody article citing the Smurfs as an example of the impact of socialism in continental European culture. In 2011, Schmidt's essay was scrutinised in a response essay by Kate Krake, who examined the nature of cultural theory built on textual observation and warned against creating false allegories out of texts like The Smurfs.


title: The Smurfs

text: French sociologist Antoine Buéno described them in a 2011 book as a totalitarian and racist utopia. Studio Peyo head Thierry Culliford, the son of Peyo, dismissed Buéno's accusations as "grotesque and frivolous".


title: Patronymic

text: A patronymic, or patronym, is a component of a personal name based on the given name of one's father, grandfather (avonymic), or an earlier male ancestor.


title: Patronymic

text: Patronymics are still in use, including mandatory use, in many countries worldwide, although their use has largely been replaced by or transformed into patronymic surnames. Examples of such transformations include common English surnames such as Johnson (son of John).


title: Patronymic

text: The usual noun and adjective in English is "patronymic", but as a noun this exists in free variation alongside "patronym". The first part of the word "patronym" comes from Greek πατήρ "patēr" "father" ( πατρός "patros" whence the combining form πατρο- "patro"-); the second part comes from Greek ὄνυμα "onyma", a variant form of ὄνομα "onoma" "name". In the form "patronymic", this stands with the addition of the suffix -ικός ("-ikos"), which was originally used to form adjectives with the sense ‘pertaining to’ (thus 'pertaining to the father's name'). These forms are attested in Hellenistic Greek as πατρώνυμος ("patrōnymos") and πατρωνυμικός ("patrōnymikos"). The form "patronym", first attested in English in 1834, was borrowed into English from French "patronyme", which had previously borrowed the word directly from Greek. "Patronymic", first attested in English in 1612, has a more complex history. Both Greek words had entered Latin, and, from Latin, French. The English form "patronymic" was borrowed through the mutual influence of French and Latin on English.


title: Patronymic

text: In many areas around the world, patronyms predate the use of family names. Family names in many Celtic, Germanic, Iberian, Scandinavian, Georgian, Armenian and Slavic languages originate from patronyms, e.g. Wilson (son of William), FitzGerald (son of Gerald), Powell (from "ap Hywel"), Fernández (son of Fernando), Rodríguez (son of Rodrigo), Andersson or Andersen (son of Anders, Scandinavian form of Andrew), Carlsen (son of Carl), Ilyin (of Ilya), Petrov (of Peter), Grigorovich (son of Grigory, Russian form of Gregory), Stefanović (son of Stefan, little Stefan), MacAllister (from "mac Alistair", meaning son of Alistair, anglicized Scottish form of Alexander) and O'Conor (from "Ó Conchobhair", meaning grandson/descendant of Conchobhar). Other cultures which formerly used patronyms have switched to the more widespread style of passing the father's last name to the children (and wife) as their own.


title: Patronymic

text: In Iceland, family names are unusual; Icelandic law favours the use of patronyms (and more recently, matronyms) over family names.


title: Patronymic

text: Traditionally Muslim and non-Arabic speaking African people, such as Hausa and Fulani people, usually (with some exceptions) follow the Arab naming pattern. The word or phrase meaning "son of" is, however, omitted. So Mohamed son of Ibrahim son of Ahmed is "Mohamed Ibrahim Ahmed", and Mohamed Ibrahim Ahmed's son Ali is "Ali Mohamed Ibrahim".


title: Patronymic

text: Ethiopians and Eritreans have no concept of family name and surname. If one is to refer to a person, it's with a single name and they will always use the person's given name. Ethiopians and Eritreans use a naming pattern very similar to the Arab naming pattern, but with one exception: no suffix or prefix. The full name of a person is usually two but officially registered with three names. The person's given name comes first, followed by their father's given name and (optionally, for official purposes) their grandfather's name last. For example, a person named Lemlem Mengesha Abraha has Lemlem as her given name, Mengesha (from her father's name) Abraha (grandfather's name). The grandfather's name is usually only added in official documents and not used in everyday life. The father's name is not considered a middle name but a last name, without it being a family name or surname. Women do not take their husband's last name. They continue to go independently by their given name, followed by their father's name, and then their grandfather's name, even after marriage. In both Ethiopia and Eritrea, a person is always addressed by their first name; for example Mrs. Lemlem or Dr. Lemlem.


title: Patronymic

text: Some Kenyan communities used patronyms. As of 2010, the practice has largely dropped off with the use of just the father's last name as a surname.


title: Patronymic

text: Kikuyu used 'wa' meaning 'of'. Because of polygamy, matronyms were also used and 'wa' used to identify which wife the child was born of;


title: Patronymic

text: Patronymic naming is very common in parts of Mozambique. Although the practice is not universal, patronymic naming has been documented in the Zambezia province.


title: Patronymic

text: Now not as prominent as before, many people of southern Nigeria took their father's given name as their last name. It could also be the father's prominent nickname, which takes the place of a first name. An example would be a man named Kolade Fabiyi, who had a son named Dele. The son's name would now be Dele Kolade, not Dele Fabiyi. This is used to distinguish between the extended family who would otherwise have the same last name, for example between cousins. This custom has dropped to the modern English one, because of an increase in British-style education.


title: Patronymic

text: Somalis use their paternal grandfather's given name as their legal surname for documentation purposes. They also use the term "ina" or "iña" meaning "the son of" or "the daughter of," which is similar to other African and Arab naming patterns. For example, the name "Ahmed Mohamed Ali Farah" means "Ahmed son of Mohamed son of Ali son of Farah." When stating one's lineage, one will say "Ahmed ina Mohamed" (meaning Ahmed, the son of Mohamed). To identify themselves and the sub-clan they belong to, Somalis memorize their long lineage back to a common ancestor. Women never adopt their husband’s patronym but keep their own for life.


title: Patronymic

text: Among the Zulu, patronymics were used in the pre-colonial era. The prefix "ka" was attached to the father's name, for example Shaka kaSenzangakhona means Shaka son of Senzangakhona. The practice disappeared from everyday use with the introduction of the modern European-style surname system but still remains part of traditional cultural practices, particularly in the case of chieftains and royalty where reciting lineages forms a part of many ceremonial occasions.


title: Patronymic

text: Many indigenous ethnic groups in Yunnan, such as Yi, Hani, Jingpo, Jino, Derung, Nu, Wa, Hmong and Yao, use a son-father patronymic naming system (). Historically, Naxi and Bai have also used the patronymic system. The last one or two syllables of the father's name transfers to become the first one or two syllables of the son's name. The last one or two syllables of the son's name is then used as the first one or two syllables of the grandson's name. The naming tradition is closely tied to Tibeto-Burman traditions.


title: Patronymic

text: Nanzhao kings: Xinuluo (細奴邏)－"Luo"sheng (邏盛)－"Sheng"luopi (盛邏皮)－"Pi"luoge (皮邏閣)－"Ge"luofeng (閣邏鳳)－"Feng"jiayi (鳳迦異)－"Yi"mouxun (異牟尋)－"Xun"gequan (尋閣勸)－"Quan"longsheng (勸龍晟)


title: Patronymic

text: Regents of Dali Kingdom: Gao Shengtai (高升泰)－Gao "Tai"ming (高泰明)－Gao "Ming"shun (高明順)－Gao "Shun"zhen (高順貞)－Gao "Zhen"shou (高貞壽)－Gao "Shou"chang (高壽昌)


title: Patronymic

text: Lijiang chiefs: A-ts'ung A-liang (阿琮阿良)－"A-liang" A-hu (阿良阿胡)－"A-hu" A-lieh (阿胡阿烈)－"A-lieh" A-chia (阿烈阿甲)－"A-chia" A-te (阿甲阿得)－"A-te" A-ch'u (阿得阿初)－"A-ch'u" A-t'u (阿初阿土)－"A-t'u" A-ti (阿土阿地)－"A-ti" A-hsi (阿地阿習)－"A-hsi" A-ya (阿習阿牙)－"A-ya" A-ch'iu (阿牙阿秋)－"A-ch'iu" A-kung (阿秋阿公)－"A-kung" A-mu (阿公阿目)－"A-mu" A-tu (阿目阿都)－"A-tu" A-sheng (阿都阿勝)－"A-sheng" A-chai (阿勝阿宅)－"A-chai" A-ssu (阿宅阿寺)－"A-ssu" A-ch'un (阿寺阿春)－"A-ch'un" A-su (阿春阿俗)－"A-su" A-wei (阿俗阿胃)－"A-wei" A-hui (阿胃阿揮)－"A-hui" A-chu (阿揮阿住)


title: Patronymic

text: Atayal people's given names are followed by the name of their father; both son and daughter use patronymics.


title: Patronymic

text: Amis people's sons’ given names are also followed by their father's name, while daughters’ given names are followed by their mother's name. By contrast, the Seediqs often get to choose which parent’s name goes after their own.


title: Patronymic

text: Mongol people's names are preceded by the name of their father and possessive marker; both son and daughter are patronymics.


title: Patronymic

text: A patronymic is common in parts of India. For example, if a father is named Abram Sachin (a masculine name), he might name his son Ismail Abram, who in turn might name his son Patrick Ismail. As a result, unlike surnames, patronymics will not pass down through many generations.


title: Patronymic

text: In Tamil Nadu and some parts of Kerala and South Karnataka, patronymy is predominant. This is a significant departure from the rest of the country where caste names are mostly employed as surnames. This came into common use during the 1950s and 1960s when the Dravidian movement campaigned against the use of one's caste as part of the name.


title: Patronymic

text: However, rather than using the father's full name, only the first letter – popularly known as the initial – is prefixed to the given name. For example, if a person's given name is "Nikhilesh" and his father's "Rajaraman", then the full name is "R. Nikhilesh" and is seldom expanded, even in official records. Only where it is forced by stipulation – such as when applying for an Indian passport which does not usually allow initials – is the initial expanded and the name rendered as "Nikhilesh Rajaraman". Some families follow the tradition of retaining the name of the hometown, the grandfather's name, or both as initials. The celebrated Indian English novelist R. K. Narayan's name at birth was Rasipuram Krishnaswami Ayyar Narayanaswami, which was shortened at the behest of his writer friend Graham Greene. Rasipuram is a toponym and Krishnaswami Ayyar is a patronym.


title: Patronymic

text: In Tamil Nadu, the use of initials and/or surname is the prerogative of the person, with no strict rules. The late chief minister Karunanidhi preferred to be referred to as M. Karunanidhi where the initial M stood for Muthuvel – his father's given name. M. Karunanidhi's son prefers to be referred to as M. K. Stalin incorporating both his father's and grandfather's names. However M. K. Stalin's son prefers to be referred to as Udhayanidhi Stalin, with Udhayanidhi as his given name and Stalin, his father's given name, as his surname rather than as an initial.


title: Patronymic

text: Likewise, cricketer Ravichandran Ashwin, whose father is named Ravichandran, prefers to be referred to as R. Ashwin or Ravichandran Ashwin. This is because commentators in sports often call players by their last names only and it would be incorrect to call him by his father's name, therefore he puts his own given name in the last.


title: Patronymic

text: Another upcoming trend is to expand the initials to reflect how they would sound in the native language. For example, Karuppiah prefers to be called Pala. Karuppiah instead of P. Karuppiah and his son Palaniappan prefers Karu. Palaniappan. Cinema director Ranjith prefers Pa. Ranjith instead of P. Ranjith as Pa sounds closer to the name in Tamil rather than P which sounds like Pe unlike the first syllable Pa.


title: Patronymic

text: Celebrated scientist M. Annadurai would expand his name as Mayilsami Annadurai; however, he has to be referred to as Annadurai as referring to him as Mayilsami would be referring to him with his father's given name which could be embarrassing for him.


title: Patronymic

text: While the usage of caste names as surnames/last names is discouraged (but not banned) in Tamil Nadu, such usage by out-of-state people is greeted with indifference. So, Lakshmi Menon, Shilpa Shetty, etc. are referred by their preferred names which include their caste names. Likewise, old Tamil names with the caste in them are also fully used while referring to them such as Pasumpoan Muthuramalinga Thevar, U.Ve. Swaminatha Iyer etc.


title: Patronymic

text: In Andhra Pradesh and Telangana states, the naming pattern is a family name, given name, and caste name, in that order. But sometimes the caste name is omitted. If a name appears like Alugupally Sudhir Reddy, Alugupally is the family name, Sudhir is the given name and Reddy is the caste name. If you find a name like Gorle Sunil Kumar, Gorle is the family name, and Sunil Kumar the given name. Here, the caste name is omitted. Of late, some people are writing their names in the order of given name, caste name, and family name. Sometimes, the caste name is omitted here too. It can be seen in names like Satyanarayana Bandi, where Satyanarayana is the given name, and Bandi the family name.


title: Patronymic

text: In Maharashtra, Karnataka, and Gujarat, a very common convention among the Hindu communities is to have the patronymic as the middle name. Examples:


title: Patronymic

text: This system works for both boys and girls, except that after marriage, a woman takes her husband's given name as her middle name – her new middle name is no longer a patronymic. East Slavic naming customs are similar, except that the suffix "-yevich", "-yevna", or something similar is used in a Russian language patronymic.


title: Patronymic

text: Indians, particularly Tamils in Singapore, often continue the patronymic tradition; this entails having a single given name, followed by son/daughter of, followed by their father's name.


title: Patronymic

text: Malaysian Indians may also follow this custom with "son" or "daughter" of being replaced by "anak lelaki" or "anak perempuan", respectively.


title: Patronymic

text: Indians of the Muslim Isma'ili sect also have patronymic middle names that use the father's first name and the grandfather's first name plus a family name. Someone called "Ramazan Rahim Ali Manji" might call his son "Karim Ramazan Rahim Manji" and his granddaughter might be called "Zahra Karim Ramazan Manji".


title: Patronymic

text: In Malaysia, Singapore and Brunei, ethnic Malays and Indians generally follow the Arabic patronymic naming system of "given name" + bin/binti or SO/DO + "father's name".


title: Patronymic

text: In Brunei, the ruling family of the monarch uses "given name" + "ibni" + "father's name" instead of using bin/binti.


title: Patronymic

text: In Indonesia, there are a number of ethnic groups with different naming systems. The Batak of North Sumatra (Sumatra Utara) give every child the family's name. Sometimes the family's name is prefixed by Huta-, Batu-, etc., but most use Si-, such as Sitanggang, Sihombing, Sibutar-butar, Sinaga, or Sitohang. The family's name is given from the father's family. For example, if the father's name is Boggi Sinaga who married Moetia Siregar then all children will be given the family's name of Sinaga.


title: Patronymic

text: In Sunda, a similar cultural rule is used to that of the Batak. The family's name for Sunda is -Wijaya, but this isn't true for all Sundanese families.


title: Patronymic

text: The use of patronymics was introduced in Armenia by Russians during the times of the Russian Empire and the Soviet Union. Before that period, the use of patronymics was very limited. Patronymics are usually formed by the addition of "i" ("of", pronounced as "ee") to the father's name, e.g. if the father's name is "Armen", the corresponding patronymic would be "Armeni" (of Armen). The Russified version of the same patronymic would be "Armenovich" for males and "Armenovna" for females. After Armenia regained its independence from the Soviet Union in 1991 there was a massive decline in the use of Russified patronymics; nowadays few Armenians use patronymics outside of official contexts.


title: Patronymic

text: Many Armenian surnames were once patronymics first used by distant ancestors or clan founders. These are characterized by the suffix "-ian" in Western Armenian, often transliterated as "-yan" in Eastern Armenian. These are appended to the given name, i.e. Kardashian, Asdvadzadourian, Tankian, Hagopian, Khachadourian, Mardirosian, Bedrosian, Sarkissian, etc. Note that the suffix "-ian" was also appended to trades, as in Adakhtsakordzian (issued from the carpenter), Chalian (issued from the candlemaker), Darbinian (issued from the smith).


title: Patronymic

text: Of particular note are the surnames of the children of married priests, or . Though not as common nowadays, it was customary for a long time for these children (particularly the sons) to change their last names to the name-in-religion of their father. For example, the son of Ter (Reverend) Bartev would change his last name to Ter Bartevian.


title: Patronymic

text: In Azeri, patronymics are formed through "-oğlu" (sometimes transliterated as "ogly") for males and "qızı" (often transliterated as "gizi" or "kizi") for females. Before the late 19th–early 20th century, patronymics were used as an essential part of a person's full name, i.e. "Sardar Ilyas oğlu" ("Sardar, son of Ilyas") and "Mina Nabi qızı" ("Mina, daughter of Nabi"), since surnames were mostly non-existent before Sovietization (with the exception of the upper and some middle-class families). After surnames were commonly adopted in Azerbaijan in the 1920s, patronymics still remained parts of full names, i.e. "Sardar Ilyas oğlu Aliyev" ("Sardar Aliyev, son of Ilyas"). Nowadays in Azerbaijan, patronymics sometimes replace surnames in unofficial use. Normally in such case, they are spelled as one word (i.e. "Eldar Mammadoğlu", "Sabina Yusifqızı"). Many Azeri surnames are also derived from Persian-style patronymics ending in "-zadeh" ("Kazimzadeh", "Mehdizadeh", etc.). They are found among both Caucasian and Iranian Azeris. However, unlike the former, Azeris in Iran do not generally use patronymics in "oglu" / "qizi". Azeri patronymics are not to be confused with Turkish surnames in "-oğlu" and Greek surnames in -ογλού ("-oglou"), which do not have specific female versions and do not reflect names of fathers.


title: Patronymic

text: A common feature of historical Semitic names is use of a patronymic system. Since ancient times, men and women have been named using this system. This was not limited to any certain region or religion. It was only in the 17th and 18th centuries when laws were put in place in European nations demanded that those of Semitic descent abandoned the patronymic naming scheme in favor of consistent legal surnames. It was only after these laws were ratified that most of the Jews and Muslims in these nations received surnames.


title: Patronymic

text: In Arabic, the word "ibn" ( or : "bin", "ben" and sometimes "ibni" and "ibnu" to show the grammatical case of the noun) is the equivalent of the "-son" suffix discussed above. In addition, "" () means "daughter of". Thus, for example, "Ali ibn ʿAmr" means "Ali son of ʿAmr". In Classical Arabic, the word "ibn" is written as "bn" between two names, since the case ending of the first name then supplies a vowel. Consequently, ibn is often written as "b.", as bint is often written as "bt.," in name formulas rendered from Arabic into Roman characters. Thus Hisham ibn al-Kalbi is alternatively written as Hisham b. al-Kalbi. However, the pronunciation "bin" is dialectal and has nothing to do with either the spelling or pronunciation in Classical Arabic. The word "Abu" ("Aba" or "Abi" in different grammatical cases) means "father of", so "Abu ʿAli" is another name for "ʿAmr".


title: Patronymic

text: In medieval times, an illegitimate child of unknown parentage would sometimes be termed "ibn Abihi", "son of his father" (notably Ziyad ibn Abihi.) In the Qur'an, Jesus (Isa in Arabic) is consistently termed "ʿIsa ibn Maryam" – a matronymic (in the Qur'an, Jesus has no father; see Islamic view of Jesus). An Arabic patronymic can be extended as far back as family tree records will allow: thus, for example, Ibn Khaldun gave his own full name as "ʿAbd ar-Rahman ibn Muhammad ibn Muhammad ibn Muhammad ibn al-Hasan ibn Muhammad ibn Jabir ibn Muhammad ibn Ibrahim ibn ʿAbd ar-Rahman ibn Khaldun".


title: Patronymic

text: Patronymics are still standard in parts of the Arab world, notably Saudi Arabia and Iraq. (In the case of Iraq, with the omitted ibn or bint.) However, some of the Arab world has switched to a family name system. As in English, the new family names are sometimes based on what was formerly a patronymic. The form most used in the Arab world is the usage of both the patronymic and a family name, often using both the father's and paternal grandfathers given name in sequence after the own given name, and then the family name. In Iraq for example, full names are formed by combining the given name of an individual with the given name of their father (sometimes the father is skipped and the paternal grandfather's given name is used instead, sometimes both father and paternal grandfather are used), along with the town, village, or clan name. For instance, Hayder Muhammed al-Tikriti is the son of Muhammed named Hayder, and he is from the town of Tikrit. In Saudi Arabia, naming conventions are similar to Iraq's but family names are used much more often.


title: Patronymic

text: In Aramaic, the prefix bar- means "son" and is used as a prefix meaning "son of". In the Bible, Peter is called Bar-Jonah in and Nathanael is possibly called Bartholomew because he is the son of Tolmai (or son of Ptolemy, with "P" being reduced). The titles can also be figurative, for example in Acts 4:36–37 a man named Joseph is called Barnabas meaning "son of consolation".


title: Patronymic

text: Hebrew patronymic names have been used by the Jews following the Bar Kokhba revolt, before which the most common language was Aramaic. In the Jewish patronymic system the first name is followed by either ben- or bat- ("son of" and "daughter of", respectively), and then the father's name, mother's name, or both. In Aramaic, the first name was followed by bar- or bat- ("son of" and "daughter of", respectively).


title: Patronymic

text: There was strong cultural pressure during the period following the establishment of the State of Israel for immigrants to modern Israel to Hebraize their names.


title: Patronymic

text: This practice is especially common among Ashkenazic immigrants because most of their names were taken during the period from the end of the 18th century to the middle of the 19th century. For example, Golda Meir was born "Golda Mabovitch", took the name "Golda Meyerson" after her marriage to American Morris Meyerson, and, upon making Aliyah and at the urging of Moshe Sharett, Hebraized her last name to Meir.


title: Patronymic

text: The Assyrians for centuries have used the patronymic bet or bit literally meaning "house" in Assyrian Neo-Aramaic; however, in the context of the name it means "from the house of [the father's name]."


title: Patronymic

text: In Persian, patronymics are formed by names ending with the suffix "-pur" for men and "-dokht" for women. For example: Shahpur (son of king) and Sinapur (son of Sina). Depending on country, some suffixes are more common than others. For example, in Iran, the suffix "-pur" is common while in Afghanistan, the suffix "-Zadah" or "-Zad" is common, although --Zadeh is common in Iran.


title: Patronymic

text: In Turkish, the suffixes used to indicate paternal ancestry are "-oğlu" and "-zade", which indicate the ancestry as coming from a certain man. Like many other patronymics in other languages, with the formalization of naming conventions by laws in the late modern contemporary age many turned into surnames. After the 'Surname revolution' in 1934, many people chose professions or habitat as surnames with or without the suffix "-oğlu", such as "Elbeyioğlu", "Bakkaloğlu" or "Giritlioğlu" and with "-zade" such as "Beyzade", "Mehmedzade", "Yusufzade".


title: Patronymic

text: In Europe, patronyms were formerly widespread but later became confined to Scandinavia, Iceland, and some Eastern Slavic cultures.


title: Patronymic

text: In England, names ending with the suffix "-son" or "-ing" were often originally patronymic. In addition, the archaic French (more specifically, Norman) prefix "fitz" (cognate with the modern French "fils", meaning "son") appears in England's aristocratic family lines dating from the Norman Conquest, and also among the Anglo-Irish. Thus there are names such as Fitzgerald and Fitzhugh. Of particular interest is the name "Fitzroy", meaning "son of [the] king", which was sometimes used by illegitimate royal children.


title: Patronymic

text: The use of "Mac" in some form was prevalent in Scottish Gaelic, Irish, and Manx, in all of which it denotes "son." "Mc" is also a frequent anglicisation in both Scotland and Ireland. In Ireland, the forms "Mag" and "M'" are encountered. The prefix "Mac" is used to form a patronym, such as "Mac Coinnich"—or the anglicized "Mackenzie"—son of Coinneach/Kenneth. The female equivalent of "Mac" is "Nic", condensed from "nighean mhic" (in Scottish Gaelic) or "iníon mhic" (in Irish), both meaning daughter. For example, the Scottish Gaelic surname, "Nic Dhòmhnaill" meaning "daughter of a son of Dòmhnall" (in English, Donald), as in "Mairi Nic Dhòmhnaill", or Mary MacDonald.


title: Patronymic

text: At the north end of the Irish Sea, in Ulster, the Isle of Man, and Galloway (indeed as far north as Argyll), "Mac" was frequently truncated in speech to /k/. This led to such anglicisations as "Qualtrough" (Son of Walter) and "Quayle" (son of Paul, cf. MacPhail), usually beginning with "C," "K," or "Q." In Ireland, this truncation resulted in surnames such as "Guinness" (son of Aonghus, cf. MacAonghusa), beginning usually in "C" or "G" for patronymics prefixed with Mac, and in "H" (e.g., "Hurley" [descendant of Iarlath, cf. Ua h-Iarfhlatha/O'Hurley]) for surnames prefixed with "O." Colloquial Scottish Gaelic also has other patronymics of a slightly different form for individuals, still in use (for more information please see: Scottish Gaelic personal naming system).


title: Patronymic

text: Before the 1536 Act of Union, the Welsh did not generally employ surnames, but instead used epithets (e.g. Selyf Sarffgadau, "Selyf the Battle-Serpent"), patronyms (e.g. Rhodri ap Merfyn, "Rhodri son of Merfyn"), and (much less often) matronyms (e.g. Rhodri map Nest, "Rhodri son of Nest") to identify people.


title: Patronymic

text: Welsh, as a P-Celtic language, originally used "map" or "mab" instead of the Q-Celtic "mac" employed in Ireland and Scotland. These were later simplified to the modern Welsh "ap" and "ab". A common practice is to use "mab"/"ab" before a father's name beginning with a vowel (e.g., Llywelyn mab Iorwerth), but the two alternative forms are also employed arbitrarily in many sources.


title: Patronymic

text: Daughters were indicated by "ferch" or "verch" (mutated from "merch", "girl, daughter"). "Angharad verch Owain" would be "Angharad, daughter of Owain".


title: Patronymic

text: After the Acts of Union, this led to many Welsh surnames being variants of their father or ancestor's personal name: "ap" or "ab Ieuan" often became "Evans"; "ap Rhys", "Price"; "ap" or "ab Owain", "Bowen"; "ap Hywel", "Powell" or "Howell". In addition to these Anglicised baptismal and official names, patronyms continued to be commonly employed in Welsh until the Industrial Revolution, particularly in the north and west of Wales. Patronyms were sometimes employed within the English names as well by using the father's personal name as the sons' middle name.


title: Patronymic

text: Perhaps because Cornwall was legally incorporated into England earlier than Wales was, patronyms (e.g.) are less common there than toponyms (e.g. Tresillian, Trevithick, Nanskeval/Nankeville) and occupational surnames (e.g. An Gof, [An] Gove, "(Blacksmith)"; Helyer (Cornish dialect – possibly a slater or huntsman ()).


title: Patronymic

text: In Dutch, patronymics were often used in place of family names or as middle names. Patronymics were composed of the father's name plus an ending "-zoon" for sons, "-dochter" for daughters. For instance, Abel Janszoon Tasman is "Abel son of Jan Tasman", and Kenau Simonsdochter Hasselaer: "Kenau, daughter of Simon Hasselaer". In written form, these endings were often abbreviated as "-sz." and "-dr." respectively e.g. Jeroen Cornelisz. "Jeroen son of Cornelis", or Dirck Jacobsz. The endings "-s", "-se" and "-sen" were also commonly used for sons and often for daughters too. In the northern provinces, "-s", as genitive case, was almost universally used for both sons and daughters. The suffix -"x" as in "Tacx" or "Hendrix" also denoted the son or daughter of... and is now integrated as a complete name.


title: Patronymic

text: Patronymics were common in the Dutch United Provinces until the French invasion in 1795 and subsequent annexation in 1810. As the Netherlands were now a province of France, a registry of births, deaths and marriages was established in 1811, whereupon emperor Napoleon forced the Dutch to register and adopt a distinct surname.


title: Patronymic

text: In France, the terms "patronyme" and "nom patronymique" had long been used interchangeably to designate the family name, meaning that it is inherited from the father.


title: Patronymic

text: The tradition of patronymic lineage is still used among some Canadian descendants of French colonists: in the oral tradition of many Acadians, for example, "Marc à Pierre à Gérard" (lit. "Marc of Pierre of Gérard"), means "Marc, son of Pierre, grandson of Gérard".


title: Patronymic

text: The Italian language used to designate patronymics in formal writing up to 1975 using the preposition "di" (English "of") for a living father and "fu" (English "late") for a deceased one. That is, "Mario di Giovanni Rossi" meant that Mario Rossi is the son of a living man named Giovanni; "Francesco fu Pietro Verdi" meant that Francesco Verdi is the son of a deceased man named Pietro. When the father's name was unknown, institutions could use the formula N.N. ("Nomen nescio", Latin for "I don't know the name") or use the mother's name or omit this part entirely.


title: Patronymic

text: In parish records written in Latin, the father's name would be written in genitive with no preposition. For a deceased father, the particle "quondam" (English "once/formerly") was added. The examples above would have been translated as "Marius Johannis Rossi" and "Franciscus quondam Petri Verdi".


title: Patronymic

text: Patronymics are not in common usage in modern Italian. However, some of them have been the source of various surnames. As an example, the individuals descended from a man named "Paolo" could have gained the patronymic surnames "Paolo", "Di Paolo", "De Paoli", "Paoli", "Polo", "Pagolo", "Pagoli", "Paolino", "Lino", etc.


title: Patronymic

text: In the past, both in Spanish and Portuguese, the endings "-ez" and "-es" tended to be conflated since pronunciation was quite similar in the two languages. Today, Portuguese has been fully standardized to "-es"; Spanish is also standardized to "-ez", but it is very common to see archaic endings in "-es". For instance, Pires/Peres and Pérez are the modern equivalents of English "Peterson" in Portuguese and Spanish.


title: Patronymic

text: In Portugal, there are some surnames that had a patronymic genesis but, while still common, no longer indicate patronymic usage. For instance, "Álvares" was the son of "Álvaro" and "Gonçalves" was the son of "Gonçalo" (it was the case of Nuno Álvares Pereira, son of Álvaro and Gonçalves Pereira, son of Gonçalo Pereira). Other cases include "Rodrigues" ("son of Rodrigo"), "Nunes" ("son of Nuno") and "Fernandes" ("son of Fernando").


title: Patronymic

text: In the same way, the surname Soares means son of Soeiro (in Latin Suarius). It comes from Latin Suaricius (son of Suarius); the Latin genitive suffix "-icius/a" was used to indicate a patronymic. Later it became Suáriz, Suárez (both Spanish), and eventually Soares (Portuguese). Another theory attributes the Iberian -ez style patronymics to Germanic (Visigothic) rather than Latin influence.


title: Patronymic

text: Spanish patronyms follow a similar pattern to the Portuguese (e.g., López: son of Lope; Fernández: son of Fernando; Martínez: son of Martín; Rodríguez: son of Rodrigo; Álvarez: son of Álvaro). Common endings include -ez, -az, -iz, -is and -oz. However, not all surnames with similar endings are necessarily patronymic. For example, Chávez is not the son of "Chavo", but comes from Galician or Portuguese "chaves", meaning "keys", with the "s" denoting the plural form of "chave", as is the case of key/keys in English.


title: Patronymic

text: However, these kinds of surnames were unusual outside the Crown of Castile. Apart from natural spelling variations (such as using Giménez or Ximénez), modern orthographic standardisation in each Iberian dialect brought a number of crossed versions. It is possible to find the Catalan language politician Jordi Sànchez (whose surname, while Spanish, has a grave accent – characteristic of Catalan – instead of the acute accent used in Spanish) or the journalist Vicenç Sanchis (who spells his surname in a way that is closer to Catalan, but with the ch digraph characteristic of Spanish).


title: Patronymic

text: Due to the letters, z and s being pronounced alike in Latin American dialects of Spanish, many non-patronymic surnames with an -es have come to be written with an -ez. In Hispano-American Spanish, the -ez spellings of Chávez (Hugo Chávez), Cortez (Alberto Cortez) and Valdez (Nelson Valdez) are not patronymic surnames, but simply variant spellings of the Iberian Spanish spelling with -es, as in the names of Manuel Chaves, Hernán Cortés and Víctor Valdés. For more on the -z surnames in Spanish see Influences on the Spanish language.


title: Patronymic

text: In Norse custom, patronyms and matronyms were formed by using the ending -son (later -søn and -sen in Danish, Norwegian and German) to the genitive form of the father's name to indicate "son of", and -dóttir (Icelandic and Faroese -dóttir, Swedish and Norwegian -dotter, Danish and Norwegian -datter) for "daughter of". The resulting patronymic was generally not used as a surname; however, a third name, a so-called byname based on location or personal characteristic, was often added to differentiate people and could eventually develop into a kind of family name. Some Early Modern examples of the latter practice, where the patronymic was placed after the given name and was followed by the surname, are Norwegian Peder Claussøn Friis, the son of Nicolas Thorolfsen Friis (Claus in Claussøn being short for Nicolas) and Danish Thomas Hansen Kingo, the son of Hans Thomsen Kingo.


title: Patronymic

text: Eventually, most Nordic countries replaced or complemented this system with the prevailing "international" standard of inherited family names. In Norway, for example, the parliament passed a family name act in 1923, citing the rising population and the need to avoid the confusion of new last names in every generation. The law does allow a person to retain a patronymic as a middle name in addition to the surname, as was common in Early Modern times; this is not a common practice but does occur, a modern example being Audhild Gregoriusdotter Rotevatn. The Danish government outlawed the practice in 1856 and eased the regulations in 1904 to deal with the limited number of patronymics. In Sweden the practice of children keeping their fathers and wives taking their husband's patronymic as a surname occurred in the 18th century but was first prevalent in the late 19th century. Patronymics were normal in Sweden, at least in rural Sweden, until the 19th century. From the end of the 19th-century patronymics gradually became less common in Sweden until they were abolished in 1966. In 1982 the right to use patronyms (and matronyms) was partially restored; a person (or the parents of a child) had to apply and pay a fee. 1 July 2017 parents in Sweden are free to give their children patronyms/matronyms at birth instead of inherited family names, and any person can change her or his last name to a matronymic or patronymic.


title: Patronymic

text: Matronyms were used exceptionally if the child was born out of wedlock or if the mother was much more high-born or well known than the father, a historical example being Sweyn Estridsson.


title: Patronymic

text: In Iceland, patronymics or matronymics are still used as last names and this is in fact compulsory by law, with a handful of exceptions. The father's name (usually in the genitive case) plus the word "son" for sons, "dóttir" for daughters. For example, Jóhanna Sigurðardóttir (i.e. "Jóhanna, daughter of Sigurð[ur]").


title: Patronymic

text: In Finland, the use of patronymics was a result of relatively-recent Swedish influence and remained uncommon outside official documents. It was only in the 19th century that the use of patronymics gained any sort of popularity among the Finnish-speaking lower classes. Family names became obligatory in Finland by law in 1920.


title: Patronymic

text: Historically, patronymics were composed in Swedish fashion: the father's name and the suffix "-n’' for genitive plus the word "poika" for sons, "tytär" for daughters. For example, Tuomas Abrahaminpoika means "Tuomas, Abraham's son", and Martta Heikintytär means "Martta, Heikki's daughter".


title: Patronymic

text: In Bulgarian, the patronymics are "-ov"/"-ev" and "-ova"/"-eva" for men and women, respectively. They are identical to the endings of family names in Bulgarian and some other Slavic family names, such as those in Russian and Czech. In Bulgarian official documents, the patronymic comes before the surname, so "Ivan Marinov Yordanov" would be "Ivan", son of "Marin Yordanov".


title: Patronymic

text: In Georgian, patronymics, when used, add "s" to the end of the father's name, followed by "dze" for a man and "asuli" for a woman. For example, Joseph Stalin's original name was Ioseb Besarionis Dze Jugashvili. After the end of the Soviet Union, patronymics in Georgia have become disused as a Russian tradition.


title: Patronymic

text: Georgian family names derive mostly from patronymics, nicknames and places of origin. Two common elements, "dze" and "shvili" mean "son of" and "child" respectively.


title: Patronymic

text: Most Greek surnames are patronymics by origin albeit in various forms depending on the ancestral locality. Diminutive suffixes that denote "son of" or, more generally, "descendant of" start with the given name such as Δημήτριος "Dēmétrios" and then have the patronymic surname such as Dēmētr"ópoulos" (Peloponnese), Dēmētr"ákos" (Laconia), Dēmētr"éas" (Messenian Mani), Dēmētr"átos" (Cephalonia), Dēmētr"ákēs" (Crete), Dēmētr"iádēs"/Dēmētr"-ídēs" (Pontus, Asia Minor), Dēmētr"éllēs" (Lesbos), Dēmétr"oglou" (Asia Minor) (identical to Turkish patronym "-oğlu"), or simply "Dēmētríou" (especially common in Cyprus, with the first name in the genitive) are formed. The same principle can apply to surnames deriving from professions. For example, as from παπάς, "papás" "priest", are derived the surnames "Papadópoulos", "Papadákos", "Papadéas", "Papadátos", "Papadákēs", "Papadéllēs", "Papazoglou" etc., all of which signify a "priest's son". The same may apply in combination: "Papanikoláou, Papanikolópoulos", "the son of the priest Nikolaos". A daughter's family name is the same as the son's but is "always" declined in the genitive: "Dēmētropoúlou, Papanikoláou".


title: Patronymic

text: In addition to those surnames, actual patronymics are used in official documents as "middle names" preceding the surname. For example, the children of a "Ioánnis Papadópoulos" can be "María Ioánnou Papadopoúlou" and "Andréas Ioánnou Papadópoulos" ("Ioánnou" is the genitive of "Ioánnis"). Traditionally, a married woman would adopt her husband's family name. Now, however, women in Greece can keep their own surnames if they choose.


title: Patronymic

text: In Hungarian, patronyms were traditionally formed with the ending "-fi" (sometimes spelled as "-fy" or "-ffy"). That system is no longer in common use, but traces can still be found in some frequent current surnames such as "Pálfi" (son of Paul), "Győrfi", "Bánfi" or Sándor Petőfi (a famous poet who chose the Hungarian form instead of his Slavic birth name, "Petrovics"). In the Old Hungarian period (10th–16th century, see History of Hungarian), surnames were not in common use, and the full genitive was represented as in "Péter fia András" ("Peter's son Andrew"). Such forms are in frequent use in charters and legal documents from that time. In Hungarian, the surname precedes the given name.


title: Patronymic

text: In Romanian, the endings "-escu" and "-eanu" were used, as in "Petrescu", 'son of Petre (Peter)'; many modern Romanian family names were formed from such patronymics. Less commonly, matronymics formed with the genitive form (using the prefix "a-") were used, as in "Amariei", '(son/daughter) of Maria'.


title: Patronymic

text: In Russian the endings and "-ich" are used to form patronymics for men. It would be cognate to the Latin genitive -ici, used for marking the family line, and also as equivalent to 'little' -Vladic= 'the little Vlad'-. For women, the ending is or . For example, in Russian, a man named Ivan with a father named Nikolay would be known as Ivan Nikolayevich or "Ivan, son of Nikolay" ("Nikolayevich" being a patronymic). Likewise, a woman named Lyudmila with a father named Nikolay would be known as Lyudmila Nikolayevna or "Lyudmila, daughter of Nikolay" ("Nikolayevna" being a patronymic). For masculine names ending in a vowel, such as Ilya or Foma, when they are used as a base for the patronymic, the corresponding endings are "-ich" (for men) and (for women). Examples in titles of classical Russian literature include" The Tales of the Late Ivan Petrovich Belkin", "The Death of Ivan Ilyich" and "The Tale of How Ivan Ivanovich Quarreled with Ivan Nikiforovich".


title: Patronymic

text: In Russia, the patronymic is an official part of the name, used in all official documents, and when addressing somebody both formally and among friends. The correct written order of a full name is surname, given name, then patronymic – this order would be found on official documents, business cards, and formal addresses. For example, a woman named Mariya Iosifovna Zhukova would hand you a business card that says Zhukova Mariya Iosifovna. Use of the given name followed by the patronymic in Russian is always the neutral, correct and polite way to address any person except close friends, family members, or children – in such cases usage of the patronymic adds humor intonation. This form would be congruent to the Western use of Mr. and the surname for the polite and proper use and reference. Instead of schoolchildren calling their teacher Ms. and surname, the proper form would be given name and patronymic. For example, a teacher named Anna Borisovna Kopylova would always be called Anna Borisovna by her pupils. When addressing a much younger person, only the first name is commonly used. Individuals are addressed by their given name followed by the patronymic (e.g., "Mikhail Nikolayevich") in many situations including on formal occasions, by colleagues at work, by acquaintances, or when being addressed by someone younger in age. It is becoming more common for younger individuals (under 50) to drop the patronymic at work. In informal situations, if a person is called by a diminutive (such as Misha for Mikhail or Nastya for Anastasia), the patronymic is not used.


title: Patronymic

text: In colloquial, informal speech, it is also possible to contract the ending of a patronymic: thus Nikolayevich becomes Nikolaich, and Stepan Ivanovich becomes Stepan Ivanych or simply Ivanych as the given name may be omitted altogether. In this case, the contraction, if possible, is obligatory: Ivan Sergeyevich Sidorov may be called "Sergeich" or, more rarely, "Sergeyevich". In contrast to male names, if a woman is called by her patronymic name without a given name, the patronymic is usually not contracted: "Ivanovna" but "Mar' Ivanna"; "Sergeyevna"/"Sergevna" is one exception, where both forms are fine. Typically, a patronymic name alone is a familiar form of addressing an older female.


title: Patronymic

text: Vuk Karadžić reported in the 19th century that Serbs sometimes used their old family names, and sometimes patronymics. Vuk Karadžić himself used patronymic Stefanović (son of Steven), and sometimes Karadzić, old family name. However, nowadays, the patronymic names in Serbia are mostly used on legal documents, and have the form of the father's name that says the child is 'of so and so'... example: Marija Dragoljuba Pavlović, where Dragoljub is the father's name and 'Dragoljuba' literally means 'of Dragoljub'. There are also other forms, like to include - the father's name - in brackets: Maria (Dragoljub) Pavlović.


title: Patronymic

text: It became more common to include the name of any one of the parents in legal documents ('ime jednog roditelja') - in practice this is usually still the father's name


title: Patronymic

text: In Serbia, Croatia and Bosnia, the patronymic names do not change form between masculine and feminine. Example: Marija Dragoljuba Pavlović (Dragoljub is the father's name; Dragoljuba is the form that says she is his daughter or literally 'of Dragoljub').


title: Patronymic

text: In Ukrainian, the female patronymic always ends with -івна (-"ivna") or -ївна (-"yivna"). The male patronymic always ends with -ович (-"ovych") or -йович (-"yovych"). Exception: "Illia" (Ілля) → "Illich" (Ілліч) (e.g. Illia Illich Mechnikov), "Sava" (Сава) → "Savych" (Савич), "Yakiv" (Яків) → "Yakovych" (Якович).


title: Patronymic

text: Patronyms are part of the full name and are obligatory in formal messages. They are frequent in common speech, such as to call a person in a respectful manner (by using the name, followed by the patronym) and to accent an informal message in formal environments, as between colleagues with good relationships at work (by using the patronym with neither the name nor the family name).


title: Caesar cipher

text: In cryptography, a Caesar cipher, also known as Caesar's cipher, the shift cipher, Caesar's code or Caesar shift, is one of the simplest and most widely known encryption techniques. It is a type of substitution cipher in which each letter in the plaintext is replaced by a letter some fixed number of positions down the alphabet. For example, with a left shift of 3, would be replaced by , would become , and so on. The method is named after Julius Caesar, who used it in his private correspondence.


title: Caesar cipher

text: The encryption step performed by a Caesar cipher is often incorporated as part of more complex schemes, such as the Vigenère cipher, and still has modern application in the ROT13 system. As with all single-alphabet substitution ciphers, the Caesar cipher is easily broken and in modern practice offers essentially no communications security.


title: Caesar cipher

text: The transformation can be represented by aligning two alphabets; the cipher alphabet is the plain alphabet rotated left or right by some number of positions. For instance, here is a Caesar cipher using a left rotation of three places, equivalent to a right shift of 23 (the shift parameter is used as the key):


title: Caesar cipher

text: When encrypting, a person looks up each letter of the message in the "plain" line and writes down the corresponding letter in the "cipher" line.


title: Caesar cipher

text: The encryption can also be represented using modular arithmetic by first transforming the letters into numbers, according to the scheme, A → 0, B → 1, ..., Z → 25. Encryption of a letter "x" by a shift "n" can be described mathematically as,


title: Caesar cipher

text: The replacement remains the same throughout the message, so the cipher is classed as a type of "monoalphabetic substitution", as opposed to "polyalphabetic substitution".


title: Caesar cipher

text: The Caesar cipher is named after Julius Caesar, who, according to Suetonius, used it with a shift of three (A becoming D when encrypting, and D becoming A when decrypting) to protect messages of military significance. While Caesar's was the first recorded use of this scheme, other substitution ciphers are known to have been used earlier.


title: Caesar cipher

text: His nephew, Augustus, also used the cipher, but with a right shift of one, and it did not wrap around to the beginning of the alphabet:


title: Caesar cipher

text: Evidence exists that Julius Caesar also used more complicated systems, and one writer, Aulus Gellius, refers to a (now lost) treatise on his ciphers:


title: Caesar cipher

text: It is unknown how effective the Caesar cipher was at the time; there is no record at that time of any techniques for the solution of simple substitution ciphers. The earliest surviving records date to the 9th-century works of Al-Kindi in the Arab world with the discovery of frequency analysis.


title: Caesar cipher

text: A Caesar cipher with a shift of one is used on the back of the mezuzah to encrypt the names of God. This may be a holdover from an earlier time when Jewish people were not allowed to have mezuzot. The letters of the cryptogram themselves comprise a religiously significant "divine name" which Orthodox belief holds keeps the forces of evil in check.


title: Caesar cipher

text: In the 19th century, the personal advertisements section in newspapers would sometimes be used to exchange messages encrypted using simple cipher schemes. Kahn (1967) describes instances of lovers engaging in secret communications enciphered using the Caesar cipher in "The Times". Even as late as 1915, the Caesar cipher was in use: the Russian army employed it as a replacement for more complicated ciphers which had proved to be too difficult for their troops to master; German and Austrian cryptanalysts had little difficulty in decrypting their messages.


title: Caesar cipher

text: Caesar ciphers can be found today in children's toys such as secret decoder rings. A Caesar shift of thirteen is also performed in the ROT13 algorithm, a simple method of obfuscating text widely found on Usenet and used to obscure text (such as joke punchlines and story spoilers), but not seriously used as a method of encryption.


title: Caesar cipher

text: The Vigenère cipher uses a Caesar cipher with a different shift at each position in the text; the value of the shift is defined using a repeating keyword. If the keyword is as long as the message, is chosen at random, never becomes known to anyone else, and is never reused, this is the one-time pad cipher, proven unbreakable. The conditions are so difficult they are, in practical effect, never achieved. Keywords shorter than the message (e.g., "Complete Victory" used by the Confederacy during the American Civil War), introduce a cyclic pattern that might be detected with a statistically advanced version of frequency analysis.


title: Caesar cipher

text: In April 2006, fugitive Mafia boss Bernardo Provenzano was captured in Sicily partly because some of his messages, clumsily written in a variation of the Caesar cipher, were broken. Provenzano's cipher used numbers, so that "A" would be written as "4", "B" as "5", and so on.


title: Caesar cipher

text: In 2011, Rajib Karim was convicted in the United Kingdom of "terrorism offences" after using the Caesar cipher to communicate with Bangladeshi Islamic activists discussing plots to blow up British Airways planes or disrupt their IT networks. Although the parties had access to far better encryption techniques (Karim himself used PGP for data storage on computer disks), they chose to use their own scheme (implemented in Microsoft Excel), rejecting a more sophisticated code program called Mujahedeen Secrets "because 'kaffirs', or non-believers, know about it, so it must be less secure".


title: Caesar cipher

text: The Caesar cipher can be easily broken even in a ciphertext-only scenario. Two situations can be considered:


title: Caesar cipher

text: In the first case, the cipher can be broken using the same techniques as for a general simple substitution cipher, such as frequency analysis or pattern words. While solving, it is likely that an attacker will quickly notice the regularity in the solution and deduce that a Caesar cipher is the specific algorithm employed.


title: Caesar cipher

text: In the second instance, breaking the scheme is even more straightforward. Since there are only a limited number of possible shifts (25 in English), they can each be tested in turn in a brute force attack. One way to do this is to write out a snippet of the ciphertext in a table of all possible shifts – a technique sometimes known as "completing the plain component". The example given is for the ciphertext ""; the plaintext is instantly recognisable by eye at a shift of four. Another way of viewing this method is that, under each letter of the ciphertext, the entire alphabet is written out in reverse starting at that letter. This attack can be accelerated using a set of strips prepared with the alphabet written down in reverse order. The strips are then aligned to form the ciphertext along one row, and the plaintext should appear in one of the other rows.


title: Caesar cipher

text: Another brute force approach is to match up the frequency distribution of the letters. By graphing the frequencies of letters in the ciphertext, and by knowing the expected distribution of those letters in the original language of the plaintext, a human can easily spot the value of the shift by looking at the displacement of particular features of the graph. This is known as frequency analysis. For example, in the English language the plaintext frequencies of the letters , , (usually most frequent), and , (typically least frequent) are particularly distinctive. Computers can also do this by measuring how well the actual frequency distribution matches up with the expected distribution; for example, the chi-squared statistic can be used.


title: Caesar cipher

text: For natural language plaintext, there will typically be only one plausible decryption, although for extremely short plaintexts, multiple candidates are possible. For example, the ciphertext could, plausibly, decrypt to either "" or "" (assuming the plaintext is in English); similarly, "" to "" or ""; and "" to "" or "" (see also unicity distance).


title: Caesar cipher

text: With the Caesar cipher, encrypting a text multiple times provides no additional security. This is because two encryptions of, say, shift "A" and shift "B", will be equivalent to a single encryption with shift . In mathematical terms, the set of encryption operations under each possible key forms a group under composition.


title: P-Valley

text: P-Valley is an American drama television series created by Katori Hall. The series is an adaptation of Hall's play "Pussy Valley", and follows several people who work at a strip club in the Mississippi Delta. It stars Brandee Evans, Nicco Annan, J. Alphonse Nicholson, and Elarica Johnson. It premiered on Starz on July 12, 2020, and was renewed for a second season two weeks after its premiere. The second season premiered on June 3, 2022. In October 2022, the series was renewed for a third season.


title: P-Valley

text: "P-Valley" has received critical acclaim and garnered nominations from the GLAAD Media Awards, Independent Spirit Awards, TCA Awards, and the NAACP Image Awards.


title: P-Valley

text: The series follows the lives of employees working at a strip club called The Pynk in the fictional city of Chucalissa, Mississippi.


title: P-Valley

text: "P-Valley", a television adaptation of Katori Hall's play "Pussy Valley", first went into development at Starz in August 2016 after being shopped around to several networks. On November 26, 2018, it was announced that the network had given a series order to the adaptation with Chernin Entertainment producing the series and Karena Evans set to direct the first episode. The eight-episode first season was made using all women directors.


title: P-Valley

text: The series premiered on July 12, 2020, and was renewed for a second season on July 27, 2020. Season two had ten episodes with production starting in June 2021. On February 2, 2022, Hall announced that season two would take place a few months after the season one finale and would include the COVID-19 pandemic. The second season premiered on June 3, 2022. On October 20, 2022, Starz renewed the series for a third season.


title: P-Valley

text: On November 26, 2018, Brandee Evans, Nicco Annan, Shannon Thornton, and J. Alphonse Nicholson were cast, with Evans as Mercedes and Annan as Uncle Clifford, and Thornton and Nicholson as series regulars. On February 20, 2019, Parker Sawyers was cast as Andre Watkins, Elarica Johnson was cast as Autumn Night, and Harriett D. Foy was cast as Patrice Woodbine. On March 19, 2019, Tyler Lepley was cast as Diamond and Dan J. Johnson was cast as Corbin Kyle. On April 24, 2019, Isaiah Washington was cast in a recurring role. On June 24, 2019, Loretta Devine was cast in a recurring role and Skyler Joy was cast as Gidget. On June 25, 2019, Thomas Q. Jones was cast in a recurring role. On July 29, 2019, Josh Ventura was cast in a recurring role.


title: P-Valley

text: Psalms Salazar and Gail Bean were announced as new cast members for season 2 on February 2, 2022. Morocco Omari, Jordan M. Cox, and Dominic DeVore were promoted to series regulars. John Clarence Stewart, Shamika Cotton, and Miracle Watts were announced as recurring cast members on March 15, 2022. In 2021, Washington announced he would not return for the second season, stating that he had been fired by Lionsgate. Showrunner Katori Hall disputed that Washington was fired in an April 2022 interview with "EW". After the season 2 finale it was announced that Elarica Johnson, whose character moved away from Chucalissa, would not return to the series.


title: P-Valley

text: Jamaica Craft serves as the show's choreographer. Before becoming a professional choreographer, she started her career dancing at TLC in Atlanta. The show has several body doubles and background dancers including Tess Artiste, Ashley Fox and Judy Gray. Professional exotic dancer Spyda is the stunt double for Brandee Evans.


title: P-Valley

text: Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reported an approval rating of 100% for the first season based on 32 reviews, with an average rating of 8.7/10. The website's critics consensus reads, "A stunning, lyrical piece of neon noir, "P-Valley" explores the unseen lives of strippers in Mississippi through Katori Hall's singular gaze, celebrating the beauty of the craft without sugarcoating the challenges." On Metacritic, it has a weighted average score of 85 out of 100 based on 16 reviews, indicating "universal acclaim".


title: P-Valley

text: Referred to as a Southern Gothic by critics, season one was praised for its portrayal of the Black women strippers' lives. Hannah Giorgis of "The Atlantic" wrote, ""P-Valley" is lush, resplendent, and sometimes haunting. All of the women's strife occurs against the backdrop of sweeping southern vistas or kaleidoscopic lighting, often with eerily bouncing beats soundtracking their dances." Similarly, Tambay Obenson reviewed the show for IndieWire, "These are richly crafted characters in what is essentially a quasi-family. It's obvious Hall did her homework, talking to dozens of strippers over six years, to make the production as authentic as possible."


title: P-Valley

text: Critics also noted the portrayal of social issues. Eric Deggans stated in a review for NPR, "...between the storylines about domestic abuse and a secret casino project, we see takes on colorism, closeted gay men and the struggle to survive when you're poor, Black and outside polite society in the South."


title: P-Valley

text: Brandee Evans' acting received positive reception. Writing for The Ringer, Allison Herman stated, "Evans is more than capable of carrying the show herself, and discovery of a freshly minted actress adds to the thrill." Nicco Annan's portrayal of Uncle Clifford was named to "THR"'s list of Best TV Performances of 2020.


title: P-Valley

text: The second season received mainly positive critical reception. It holds an 90% rating on Rotten Tomatoes based on ten critic ratings with an average rating of 8.0/10.


title: 2. Bundesliga

text: The 2. Bundesliga ( ) is the second division of professional football in Germany. It was implemented 11 years after the founding of the Fußball-Bundesliga as the new second division for professional football. The 2. Bundesliga is ranked below the Bundesliga and above the 3. Liga in the German football league system. All of the 2. Bundesliga clubs qualify for the DFB-Pokal, the annual German Cup competition. A total of 127 clubs have competed in the 2. Bundesliga since its foundation.


title: 2. Bundesliga

text: The decision to establish the league as the second level of football in West Germany was made in May 1973. The league started operating in August 1974, then with two divisions of 20 clubs. It was reduced to a single division in 1981. From the 1991–92 season onwards clubs from former East Germany started participating in the league, briefly expanding it to two divisions again. It returned to a single division format again at the end of that season and has had 18 clubs as its strength since 1994. Two clubs from the 2. Bundesliga are directly promoted to the Bundesliga, while a third promoted club is determined through play-offs, from 1974 to 1991 and again since 2008. Between 1991 and 2008 the third-placed club in the league was directly promoted. The bottom clubs in the league are relegated to the third division; from 1974 to 1994 the Oberliga, from 1994 to 2008 the Regionalliga and since 2008 the 3. Liga. The number of relegated clubs has fluctuated over the years. Since 2008 two clubs are directly relegated while the third-last team has the opportunity to defend its league place in play-offs against the third placed team of the 3. Liga.


title: 2. Bundesliga

text: 1. FC Nürnberg, SC Freiburg, 1. FC Köln, Arminia Bielefeld and VfL Bochum hold the record number of championships in the league with four each. Bielefeld also holds the record for number of promotions from the 2. Bundesliga to the Bundesliga, with eight.


title: 2. Bundesliga

text: For the 2018–19 season, an average of 19,128 spectators watched 2. Bundesliga matches, making the 2. Bundesliga the world's second most-watched secondary football league, after the EFL Championship in England.


title: 2. Bundesliga

text: With the implementation of the Bundesliga in 1963, five Regionalligen were also founded as the 2nd highest playing level, South, Southwest, West, North and Berlin. The two top ranking teams from each Regionalliga at the end of a season were placed into groups to play against the relegation teams from the Bundesliga. With the transition from the former Oberliga to the newly created Bundesliga and Regionalliga, however, it became clear that the substructure of the Bundesliga was both sportingly and economically problematic and that relegation from the Bundesliga could easily ruin a club economically.


title: 2. Bundesliga

text: This situation was partly responsible for the Bundesliga scandal in 1971, in which, due to manipulations in point games in the relegation battle, Rot-Weiß Oberhausen and Arminia Bielefeld managed to remain in the Bundesliga. As a consequence of the scandal, the DFB-Bundestag in Frankfurt decided on 30 June 1973 to introduce a 2. Bundesliga, divided into a north and a south season, for the 1974/75 season, which should close the gap between professional and amateur areas.


title: 2. Bundesliga

text: According to an elaborate point system, the clubs should be able to qualify for the new divisions. Not only the placements of the previous five seasons were decisive, but also economic and structural requirements. There was also a five-year evaluation, with the first two years being single, the next two years double and the last year triple. In the event of a tie, the last year should apply.


title: 2. Bundesliga

text: With this regulation, however, the DFB had overlooked that the ten regional leagues participating in the annual promotion round to the Bundesliga had not qualified for the new 2. Bundesliga from the outset due to their placement in the 1973/74 season. In the case of 1. FC Saarbrücken, this meant that the club was accepted into the 2 Bundesliga South after failing in the promotion round and took the place of SV Alsenborn, which also came from the Regionalliga Südwest. SV Alsenborn, a "village club" sponsored by Fritz Walter, had failed three times in the Bundesliga promotion round in 1968, 1969 and 1970 and had clearly qualified for the new division. The DFB found that there were no conditions suitable for the second division in Alsenborn and that they could not be achieved in the foreseeable future and downgraded SV Alsenborn to the then third-class amateur league Southwest, although the club had a successful participation in one of the three rounds of promotion to the Bundesliga Special permission would have been allowed to play even in the top division (of course not in Alsenborn, but in Kaiserslautern or Ludwigshafen).


title: 2. Bundesliga

text: The decision to establish the 2. Bundesliga as a fully professional league below the Bundesliga was made at the annual convention of the German Football Association, the "DFB", in Frankfurt on 30 June 1973. The league replaced the five Regionalligas that were at this level from 1963 to 1974. Each Regionalliga had a set quota of clubs that could qualify for the new league with the Regionalliga Süd receiving thirteen spots, the Regionalliga West twelve, the Regionalliga Nord and Regionalliga Südwest seven and the Regionalliga Berlin one. The qualified teams were established through a ranking that took the last five seasons of the Regionalliga into account.


title: 2. Bundesliga

text: The new 2. Bundesliga was split into a northern and a southern division with 20 clubs each. Each division had its champion directly promoted to the Bundesliga while the two runners-up would contest a two-leg play-off to determine the third promoted team. The bottom four clubs in each league were relegated, however, as the number of clubs relegated from the Bundesliga to each division could vary, so could the number of clubs in the league and therefore the number of teams relegated.


title: 2. Bundesliga

text: The first-ever game of the league was played on Friday, 2 August 1974 between 1. FC Saarbrücken and Darmstadt 98 and ended in a 1–0 win for Saarbrücken, with Nikolaus Semlitsch scoring the first-ever goal of the new league in the 18th minute of the game. The inaugural champions of the league were Hannover 96 in the north and Karlsruher SC in the south, both former Bundesliga clubs. The play-offs for the third Bundesliga spot were contested by FK Pirmasens and Bayer Uerdingen, with Uerdingen winning 6–0 at home after a four-all draw in the first leg. The three promoted teams however proved uncompetitive in the Bundesliga with Hannover and Uerdingen being relegated straight away again while Karlsruhe lasted for only two seasons.


title: 2. Bundesliga

text: The second season saw league championships for Tennis Borussia Berlin and 1. FC Saarbrücken, with Tennis Borussia lasting for only one season and "1. FCS" for two. The contest for the third promotion spot pitted two far bigger names of German football against each other, with Borussia Dortmund edging out 1. FC Nürnberg with two wins, ending Dortmund's four-year second division spell. The last round of the season in the south also saw an all-time goal scoring record per round when 55 goals were scored in ten games. The northern division incidentally set the second best mark when it scored 51 goals the day before.


title: 2. Bundesliga

text: In 1976–77 the league champions were FC St. Pauli and VfB Stuttgart while the third promotion spot went to 1860 Munich, having had to play a third game after Arminia Bielefeld and TSV 1860 each won their home games 4–0, with the decider ending 2–0 in favour of the southern team. Ottmar Hitzfeld set an all-time 2. Bundesliga record in May 1977 when he scored 6 goals in a league match for VfB Stuttgart against Jahn Regensburg. Bielefeld won promotion as the champions of the northern division in the following season, as did southern champion SV Darmstadt 98, entering the Bundesliga for the first time in its history. Third place went to 1. FC Nürnberg who overcame Rot-Weiss Essen with a 1–0 home win and a two–all draw away. For Nürnberg it ended a nine-year absence from the Bundesliga. Horst Hrubesch set an all-time record that season for goals in one season, 41 scored for Rot-Weiss Essen.


title: 2. Bundesliga

text: In 1978–79 direct promotion went to 1860 Munich and Bayer Leverkusen while the play-off was won, once more, by Bayer Uerdingen, which defeated SpVgg Bayreuth 2–1 at home after a draw away. In the north, two clubs were relegated from the league for financial reasons, Westfalia Herne, which had finished fifth and former Bundesliga side FC St. Pauli, which had come sixth. The following seasons saw 1. FC Nürnberg and Arminia Bielefeld clinch another promotion from the 2. Bundesliga, as did Karlsuher SC which overcame Rot-Weiss Essen by winning 5–1 at home after losing 3–1 away. Arminia Bielefeld set an all-time 2. Bundesliga record when it defeated Arminia Hannover 11–0 in May 1980, the biggest-ever win in the league.


title: 2. Bundesliga

text: The 1980–81 season, the seventh of the league, was also its last in this format. From 1981 it played as a single division of 20 teams after a decision taken on 7 June 1980, when, at a special convention of the "DFB", the introduction of the single division 2. Bundesliga was decided upon with a majority of 84 votes to 77. The northern division was unusually strong that season, having received all three relegated teams of the 1979–80 Bundesliga season, SV Werder Bremen, Eintracht Braunschweig and Hertha BSC, and playing with 22 teams. Bremen won the league while Braunschweig came second. Hertha missed out despite scoring 123 goals. In the south, the league was won by SV Darmstadt 98 for a second time while runners-up Kickers Offenbach lost out to Braunschweig in the play-offs. The reduction of the league to a single division meant 22 teams were relegated while no team was promoted to the 2. Bundesliga that season.


title: 2. Bundesliga

text: The new single division league of 20 teams saw only a small change in modus. The top two in the league were promoted while the third placed team played the sixteenth placed Bundesliga side in a home-and-away play-off for one more spot in the Bundesliga. The bottom four in the league were relegated. The inaugural season saw FC Schalke 04 compete in the 2. Bundesliga for the first time, and win it. Second place went to Hertha BSC while third placed Kickers Offenbach missed out on promotion after losing both play-off games to Bayer Leverkusen. Fourth place went to 1860 Munich, one point behind Offenbach, but the club found itself relegated after the "DFB" refused it a license for the following season. This decision kept 17th placed SG Wattenscheid 09, the best-placed team on a relegation rank, in the league. The following season finally saw Kickers Offenbach win promotion from the 2. Bundesliga, behind champions SV Waldhof Mannheim who had never played in the Bundesliga before. Bayer Uerdingen, in third place, won promotion through the play-offs for a third time, this time overcoming the previous seasons 2. Bundesliga champions FC Schalke 04.


title: 2. Bundesliga

text: Schalke bounced back immediately, coming second behind Karlsruher SC in 1983–84. Third place went to MSV Duisburg wo were decisively beaten 0–5 by Bundesliga side Eintracht Frankfurt at home. At the other end, Rot-Weiss Essen, after having failed to win promotion to the Bundesliga through the play-offs twice from the 2. Bundesliga, was relegated to amateur football that season. 1. FC Nürnberg took out the championship of the single division 2. Bundesliga for the first time in 1985, with Hannover 96 coming second. Third placed 1. FC Saarbrücken also won promotion courtesy to a 2–0 home win over Arminia Bielefeld after a draw away. Kickers Offenbach, freshly relegated from the Bundesliga came only 19th in the 2. Bundesliga, suffered another relegation, as did another former Bundesliga side, FC St. Pauli, having returned to the league for the first time after having had its license revoked in 1979.


title: 2. Bundesliga

text: In 1985–86, three clubs from Berlin competed in the league, but none the following season, with Blau-Weiß 90 Berlin achieving its one and only promotion to the Bundesliga while Hertha BSC and Tennis Borussia were relegated to amateur football. The league champions were FC 08 Homburg, also promoted to the Bundesliga for the first time. Arguably one of the most famous play-off contests in 2. Bundesliga history however were the games between third placed Fortuna Köln and Borussia Dortmund. Köln won 2–0 at home, followed by a 3–1 for Dortmund, making a third game necessary as the away goal rule did not apply to the Bundesliga versus 2. Bundesliga play-offs at the time. This third game was won 8–0 by Borussia Dortmund in front of 50,000 in neutral Düsseldorf. In the relegation zone MSV Duisburg followed the two Berlin clubs into amateur football as a third former Bundesliga side that season.


title: 2. Bundesliga

text: Hannover 96 and Karlsruher SC won promotion once more in 1987 while third placed FC St. Pauli, freshly promoted from amateur football again, missed out by a goal in the play-offs against FC Homburg. At the bottom end Eintracht Braunschweig became another former Bundesliga side and champion to drop into the third division. FC St. Pauli ended a ten-year wait for Bundesliga return in 1988 when it finished runners-up to Stuttgarter Kickers who were promoted to the Bundesliga for the first time. Third placed SV Darmstadt 98 missed out on penalties in the deciding third game against SV Waldhof Mannheim after each side had won their home game by a goal. Arminia Bielefeld came a distant last and was relegated while 17th placed SpVgg Bayreuth was rescued when Rot-Weiß Oberhausen was refused a license.


title: 2. Bundesliga

text: Fortuna Düsseldorf won the league championship in 1988–89, with two clubs from the Saarland coming second and third, FC Homburg and 1. FC Saarbrücken. Saarbrücken however was unable to overcome Eintracht Frankfurt in the later club's second successful play-off defence of its Bundesliga place. SpVgg Bayreuth finished 17th again but was again spared from relegation when Kickers Offenbach was refused a license. Also relegated were Union Solingen after 14 consecutive seasons in the league. At the end of the season Spanish-born Joaquín Montañés retired from 2. Bundesliga football after 479 games for Alemannia Aachen in the league from 1974 to 1989, a record for any player with a single club in the league. In 1990 Hertha BSC completed its return from amateur football to the Bundesliga with a 2. Bundesliga title, followed up by SG Wattenscheid 09, who entered the Bundesliga for the first time. 1. FC Saarbrücken failed in the play-offs for a second consecutive time when it missed out to VfL Bochum, thereby ensuring a Bochum derby in the Bundesliga between VfL and Wattenscheid for the following season. In the relegation zone SpVgg Bayreuth failed to get reprieved for a third consecutive season and dropped into amateur football, as did Alemannia Aachen, a founding member of the 2. Bundesliga who had played all 16 seasons of the league until then.


title: 2. Bundesliga

text: The tenth season of the single division 2. Bundesliga was to be the last in its current format for a time as the German reunification in 1991 lead to changes to the league after this season. With FC Schalke 04 and MSV Duisburg two long-term Bundesliga teams finished at the top of the league. In third place Stuttgarter Kickers had to play FC St. Pauli three times to earn promotion, the first two contests having ended 1–1 while Stuttgart won the third 3–1. FC Schweinfurt 05 in last place became one of the worst clubs in the league history when it only won two games all season. Rot-Weiss Essen had its license revoked which allowed SV Darmstadt 98 to avoid relegation.


title: 2. Bundesliga

text: In the 1991–92 season, the league was expanded to 24 teams in two regional divisions, north and south, to accommodate six new East German clubs which joined the league that season. The East German clubs were spread very unevenly, with one going to the north and five to the south, caused by the geographic location of those clubs. Only the league champions were promoted to the Bundesliga that year, which were Bayer Uerdingen in the north and 1. FC Saarbrücken in the south. The bottom three in each division were relegated, three of which were from former East Germany. The other two were former Bundesliga clubs, Blau-Weiß 90 Berlin and 1860 Munich, with the later having played its first season back in the 2. Bundesliga after their license was revoked in 1982. At the end of this season the league returned to the single division format, but with still 24 clubs as its strength.


title: 2. Bundesliga

text: The 1992–93 season was a momentous one, with 24 teams competing in a single league and each club playing 46 games. Three clubs were promoted directly, as would be the case from then on until 2008, with the play-offs having been abolished. SC Freiburg won the league and promotion for the first time. Behind it, MSV Duisburg made a return to the Bundesliga while third placed VfB Leipzig became the first former East German club to earn promotion from the 2. Bundesliga. Seven clubs were relegated from the league to reduce its strength to 20 clubs again from the following season. Of those Eintracht Braunschweig, Fortuna Düsseldorf and SV Darmstadt 98 were former Bundesliga sides. The following season saw changes again as it was the last with 20 clubs. Promoted were VfL Bochum, Bayer Uerdingen and 1860 Munich, which had just won promotion from the third division the year before and returned to the Bundesliga for the first time since 1981. At the bottom end, five clubs were relegated, four of those former Bundesliga sides and the fifth one, Carl Zeiss Jena, from former East Germany.


title: 2. Bundesliga

text: The league level below the 2. Bundesliga was changed profoundly in 1994 with the Oberligas replaced by the new Regionalligas, which allowed for direct promotion to the 2. Bundesliga for the first time since 1980. The league itself was now reduced to 18 clubs with no play-offs, three promoted and four relegated teams, a system it would maintain until 2008, when the play-offs were re-introduced. Hansa Rostock won the 2. Bundesliga for the first time in 1995 and FC St. Pauli and Fortuna Düsseldorf followed it up to the Bundesliga. In the relegation zone FSV Frankfurt came a distant last with only three wins to its name while the two Saarland sides FC Homburg and 1. FC Saarbrücken accompanied it. The later, despite finishing seventh, had its license revoked, thereby sparing FSV Zwickau from relegation.


title: 2. Bundesliga

text: The 1995–96 season saw VfL Bochum win the league again with second placed Arminia Bielefeld winning promotion straight after having been promoted from the Regionalliga the year before. Third place went to MSV Duisburg while Hannover 96, 1. FC Nürnberg and SG Wattenscheid 09 were all former Bundesliga clubs now suffering relegation to the third division. The 1. FC Kaiserslautern and Eintracht Frankfurt had suffered their first-ever relegation from the Bundesliga in 1996. The former won the league and bounced back immediately while Frankfurt remained at this level for another season. Kaiseslautern was accompanied up by VfL Wolfsburg, who won promotion for the first time, and Hertha BSC. Kaiserslautern would also become the first and only club to win the Bundesliga as a freshly promoted side the following year. The 1. FC Kaiserslautern and SV Meppen also set a record for number of goals in a game, 13, when Kaiserslautern defeated Meppen 7–6. Eintracht Frankfurt won the league in 1998 with SC Freiburg coming second while 1. FC Nürnberg, freshly returned from the Regionalliga, came third. At the bottom end VfB Leipzig was one of three clubs from the east to be relegated, alongside SV Meppen, which dropped out of the league after eleven consecutive seasons there.


title: 2. Bundesliga

text: The 1998–99 season saw the 1. FC Köln in the league for the first time, having been relegated from the Bundesliga after 35 consecutive seasons there from the start of the league in 1963. Köln only managed to come tenth, while the league was won by Arminia Bielefeld. Behind Arminia Bielefeld, SpVgg Unterhaching and SSV Ulm 1846 entered the Bundesliga for the very first time. Last place in the league went to Fortuna Düsseldorf, which was accompanied to the Regionalliga by SG Wattenscheid 09, KFC Uerdingen 05, formerly Bayer Uerdingen, and FC Gütersloh. The first season of the new millennium saw the end of an era, with Fortuna Köln being relegated after 26 consecutive seasons in the league since the start in 1974. Local rival 1. FC Köln won the league while VfL Bochum came second and FC Energie Cottbus, in third place, moved up to the Bundesliga for the first time. Fortuna Köln was accompanied to the Regionalliga by Karlsruher SC, Kickers Offenbach and Tennis Borussia Berlin, who had their license revoked.


title: 2. Bundesliga

text: In 2000–01, the league was won by 1. FC Nürnberg once again, with Borussia Mönchengladbach earning promotion back to the Bundesliga after a two-year absence. FC St. Pauli was the third promoted team. SSV Ulm 1846, freshly relegated from the Bundesliga, finished the season in 16th place and became insolvent. Hannover 96, Arminia Bielefeld and VfL Bochum were the promoted teams in 2002, while the following season saw 1. FC Köln and Eintracht Frankfurt competing and succeeding for promotion again, behind league champions SC Freiburg.


title: 2. Bundesliga

text: In 2004, 1. FC Nürnberg and Arminia Bielefeld earned another one of their many promotions while third placed 1. FSV Mainz 05 was a newcomer to the Bundesliga. Like in 2003, 2005 saw 1. FC Köln and Eintracht Frankfurt win promotion while between them, in second place, MSV Duisburg moved up, too. At the bottom end three of the four relegated clubs shared similar names, Rot-Weiß Oberhausen, Rot-Weiss Essen and Rot-Weiß Erfurt with the fourth team relegated being Eintracht Trier.


title: 2. Bundesliga

text: VfL Bochum won the league again in 2006 while FC Energie Cottbus returned to the Bundesliga for a second three-year stint. In second place Alemannia Aachen returned to the Bundesliga for the first time since 1970. Relegated that year were Dynamo Dresden, former East German power house, after a two-year stint in the league. 2006 also saw the retirement of Willi Landgraf from 2. Bundesliga football. Landgraf had played a record 508 2. Bundesliga games from 1986 to 2006, playing in the league for Rot-Weiss Essen, FC 08 Homburg, FC Gütersloh and Alemannia Aachen. Karlsruher SC ended an absence from the Bundesliga that had lasted since 1998 when it won the league in 2007 and was followed up by Hansa Rostock and MSV Duisburg. Freshly relegated Borussia Mönchengladbach won the league the following year, with new Bundesliga club TSG 1899 Hoffenheim second and 1. FC Köln third.


title: 2. Bundesliga

text: The 2008–09 season saw the return of play-offs. The third placed team in the 2. Bundesliga now played the 16th placed team in the Bundesliga for a spot in that league. At the other end of the table, the 16th placed 2. Bundesliga side would now also play the third placed team in the new 3. Liga, which had replaced the Regionalliga as the third division. SC Freiburg and 1. FSV Mainz 05 were directly promoted that season while 1. FC Nürnberg had to enter the play-offs in which it defeated FC Energie Cottbus 5–0 on aggregate. At the relegation end, VfL Osnabrück lost its 2. Bundesliga place to SC Paderborn from the 3. Liga.


title: 2. Bundesliga

text: 1. FC Kaiserslautern ended a four-year spell in the 2. Bundesliga in 2010 with a league championship, with FC St. Pauli coming second. The FC Augsburg finished third but was unable to overcome 1. FC Nürnberg in the play-offs and lost 3–0 on aggregate. Hansa Rostock, in 16th place, dropped out of the 2. Bundesliga when it lost both play-off games to Ingolstadt 04. Hertha BSC and FC Augsburg were directly promoted to the Bundesliga in 2010, the later for the first time, while VfL Bochum in third place missed out on promotion against Borussia Mönchengladbach. VfL Osnabrück found itself unsuccessfully defending its league place again, losing to Dynamo Dresden in extra time in the second leg.


title: 2. Bundesliga

text: After 15 consecutive seasons in the 2. Bundesliga a numerous attempts at promotion Greuther Fürth finally won the league in 2012. Eintracht Frankfurt came second and Fortuna Düsseldorf returned to the Bundesliga for the first time since 1997 when it defeated Hertha BSC in the play-offs. Karlsruher SC failed to remain in the 2. Bundesliga when it was relegated on away goal rule after two drawn games against Jahn Regensburg.


title: 2. Bundesliga

text: Hertha BSC won the 2. Bundesliga for the second time in three seasons in 2012–13 and was accompanied up by Eintracht Braunschweig, who had not played in the Bundesliga since 1985. Third placed 1. FC Kaiserslautern lost both games to 1899 Hoffenheim and thereby failed to get promoted. Dynamo Dresden became the first 2. Bundesliga side in five attempts to hold onto their league place while 3. Liga side VfL Osnabrück missed out in the play-offs for a third time in three attempts. The 2013–14 season ended with 1. FC Köln winning the league, followed up by SC Paderborn who won promotion to the Bundesliga for the first time. Relegated where Energie Cottbus and Dynamo Dresden, both former Bundesliga sides. Third placed SpVgg Greuther Fürth failed to gain promotion after two draws with Bundesliga club Hamburger SV. At the bottom end two eastern clubs were relegated, Dynamo Dresden and Energie Cottbus, while Arminia Bielefeld entered the relegation round.


title: 2. Bundesliga

text: The 2014–15 season saw Ingolstadt 04 win the league and earn Bundesliga promotion for the first time while SV Darmstadt 98 finished second and returned to the Bundesliga for the first time since 1982. Third placed Karlsruher SC faced Hamburg for another Bundesliga spot while TSV 1860 Munich had to play Holstein Kiel to retain their place in the 2. Bundesliga. Both the Bundesliga and 2. Bundesliga clubs retained their league membership. The two clubs directly relegated from the league where Erzgebirge Aue and VfR Aalen. In the 2015–16 the league was won by SC Freiburg, with RB Leipzig finishing runners-up and earning its first-ever Bundesliga promotion, while 1. FC Nürnberg had to enter the promotion play-off where it lost on aggregate to Eintracht Frankfurt. At the bottom end of the table SC Paderborn suffered consecutive relegations, becoming the sixth club to drop from the Bundesliga to the third tier in consecutive seasons. FSV Frankfurt was the second team directly relegated while MSV Duisburg entered the relegation play-off where it was unsuccessful. All the clubs promoted to the 2. Bundesliga had played there before but while Dynamo Dresden and Erzgebirge Aue had only experienced a short absence the third club, Würzburger Kickers, had not played at this level for almost 40 years.


title: 2. Bundesliga

text: After their relegation, the 2018–19 season was Hamburger SV's first season outside of the German top flight in their 55-year history.


title: 2. Bundesliga

text: For the first time in 1996, the Bundesliga was given its own logo to distinguish itself. Six years later, the logo was revamped into a portrait orientation, which was used until 2010. A new logo was announced for the 2010–11 season in order to modernise the brand logo for all media platforms. To celebrate the 50th anniversary of the Bundesliga, a special logo was developed for the 2012–13 season, featuring a "50" and "1963–2013". Following the season, the 2010 logo was restored. In December 2016, it was announced that a new logo would be used for the 2017–18 season, modified slightly for digitisation requirements, featuring a matte look.


title: 2. Bundesliga

text: In December 2016, it was announced that for the first time, the 2. Bundesliga would be given its own logo, taking effect at the start of the 2017–18 season. Previously, the 2. Bundesliga had borrowed the Bundesliga logo for promotional and media purposes. The 2. Bundesliga gained its own logo to "strengthen the profile of the competition" and to better identify the league with fans, the media, and sponsors.


title: 2. Bundesliga

text: , the most consistent team in the league has been SpVgg Greuther Fürth, who have won 1680 points in 1140 games (using the three points per win scheme). In second place sits FC St. Pauli with 1578 points, and Alemannia Aachen is third with 1481 points. Last place, number 127, goes to Spandauer SV with just ten points to its name.


title: 2. Bundesliga

text: Since the 2006–07 season there is no longer a limit on non-EU players in the league. Instead clubs are required to have 8 players on the squad who have come up through the youth system of a German club, 4 of which have to come from the club's own youth system. Seven substitutes are permitted to be selected, from which three can be used in the duration of the game.


title: 2. Bundesliga

text: The list of teams that earned promotion to and from the 2. Bundesliga or were relegated from the league:


title: Ozone

text: Ozone (), or trioxygen, is an inorganic molecule with the chemical formula . It is a pale blue gas with a distinctively pungent smell. It is an allotrope of oxygen that is much less stable than the diatomic allotrope , breaking down in the lower atmosphere to (dioxygen). Ozone is formed from dioxygen by the action of ultraviolet (UV) light and electrical discharges within the Earth's atmosphere. It is present in very low concentrations throughout the latter, with its highest concentration high in the ozone layer of the stratosphere, which absorbs most of the Sun's ultraviolet (UV) radiation.


title: Ozone

text: Ozone's odour is reminiscent of chlorine, and detectable by many people at concentrations of as little as in air. Ozone's O structure was determined in 1865. The molecule was later proven to have a bent structure and to be weakly diamagnetic. In standard conditions, ozone is a pale blue gas that condenses at cryogenic temperatures to a dark blue liquid and finally a violet-black solid. Ozone's instability with regard to more common dioxygen is such that both concentrated gas and liquid ozone may decompose explosively at elevated temperatures, physical shock, or fast warming to the boiling point. It is therefore used commercially only in low concentrations.


title: Ozone

text: Ozone is a powerful oxidant (far more so than dioxygen) and has many industrial and consumer applications related to oxidation. This same high oxidizing potential, however, causes ozone to damage mucous and respiratory tissues in animals, and also tissues in plants, above concentrations of about . While this makes ozone a potent respiratory hazard and pollutant near ground level, a higher concentration in the ozone layer (from two to eight ppm) is beneficial, preventing damaging UV light from reaching the Earth's surface.


title: Ozone

text: The trivial name "ozone" is the most commonly used and preferred IUPAC name. The systematic names "2λ-trioxidiene" and "catena-trioxygen", valid IUPAC names, are constructed according to the substitutive and additive nomenclatures, respectively. The name "ozone" derives from "ozein" (ὄζειν), the Greek verb for smell, referring to ozone's distinctive smell.


title: Ozone

text: In appropriate contexts, ozone can be viewed as trioxidane with two hydrogen atoms removed, and as such, "trioxidanylidene" may be used as a systematic name, according to substitutive nomenclature. By default, these names pay no regard to the radicality of the ozone molecule. In an even more specific context, this can also name the non-radical singlet ground state, whereas the diradical state is named "trioxidanediyl".


title: Ozone

text: "Trioxidanediyl" (or "ozonide") is used, non-systematically, to refer to the substituent group (-OOO-). Care should be taken to avoid confusing the name of the group for the context-specific name for the ozone given above.


title: Ozone

text: In 1785, Dutch chemist Martinus van Marum was conducting experiments involving electrical sparking above water when he noticed an unusual smell, which he attributed to the electrical reactions, failing to realize that he had in fact created ozone.


title: Ozone

text: A half century later, Christian Friedrich Schönbein noticed the same pungent odour and recognized it as the smell often following a bolt of lightning. In 1839, he succeeded in isolating the gaseous chemical and named it "ozone", from the Greek word "" () meaning "to smell".


title: Ozone

text: For this reason, Schönbein is generally credited with the discovery of ozone. The formula for ozone, O, was not determined until 1865 by Jacques-Louis Soret and confirmed by Schönbein in 1867.


title: Ozone

text: For much of the second half of the 19th century and well into the 20th, ozone was considered a healthy component of the environment by naturalists and health-seekers. Beaumont, California had as its official slogan "Beaumont: Zone of Ozone", as evidenced on postcards and Chamber of Commerce letterhead. Naturalists working outdoors often considered the higher elevations beneficial because of their ozone content. "There is quite a different atmosphere [at higher elevation] with enough ozone to sustain the necessary energy [to work]", wrote naturalist Henry Henshaw, working in Hawaii. Seaside air was considered to be healthy because of its believed ozone content. The smell giving rise to this belief is in fact that of halogenated seaweed metabolites and dimethyl sulfide.


title: Ozone

text: Much of ozone's appeal seems to have resulted from its "fresh" smell, which evoked associations with purifying properties. Scientists noted its harmful effects. In 1873 James Dewar and John Gray McKendrick documented that frogs grew sluggish, birds gasped for breath, and rabbits' blood showed decreased levels of oxygen after exposure to "ozonized air", which "exercised a destructive action". Schönbein himself reported that chest pains, irritation of the mucous membranes and difficulty breathing occurred as a result of inhaling ozone, and small mammals died. In 1911, Leonard Hill and Martin Flack stated in the "Proceedings of the Royal Society B" that ozone's healthful effects "have, by mere iteration, become part and parcel of common belief; and yet exact physiological evidence in favour of its good effects has been hitherto almost entirely wanting ... The only thoroughly well-ascertained knowledge concerning the physiological effect of ozone, so far attained, is that it causes irritation and œdema of the lungs, and death if inhaled in relatively strong concentration for any time."


title: Ozone

text: During World War I, ozone was tested at Queen Alexandra Military Hospital in London as a possible disinfectant for wounds. The gas was applied directly to wounds for as long as 15 minutes. This resulted in damage to both bacterial cells and human tissue. Other sanitizing techniques, such as irrigation with antiseptics were found preferable.


title: Ozone

text: Until the 1920s, it was not certain whether small amounts of oxozone, , were also present in ozone samples due to the difficulty of applying analytical chemistry techniques to the explosive concentrated chemical. In 1923, Georg-Maria Schwab (working for his doctoral thesis under Ernst Hermann Riesenfeld) was the first to successfully solidify ozone and perform accurate analysis which conclusively refuted the oxozone hypothesis. Further hitherto unmeasured physical properties of pure concentrated ozone were determined by the Riesenfeld group in the 1920s.


title: Ozone

text: Ozone is a colourless or pale blue gas, slightly soluble in water and much more soluble in inert non-polar solvents such as carbon tetrachloride or fluorocarbons, in which it forms a blue solution. At , it condenses to form a dark blue liquid. It is dangerous to allow this liquid to warm to its boiling point, because both concentrated gaseous ozone and liquid ozone can detonate. At temperatures below , it forms a violet-black solid.


title: Ozone

text: Most people can detect about 0.01 μmol/mol of ozone in air where it has a very specific sharp odour somewhat resembling chlorine bleach. Exposure of 0.1 to 1 μmol/mol produces headaches, burning eyes and irritation to the respiratory passages.


title: Ozone

text: Even low concentrations of ozone in air are very destructive to organic materials such as latex, plastics and animal lung tissue.