title: Underground Railroad

text: Silvia Hector Webber was born enslaved in West Florida and in 1819 was sold to a slaveholder in Clark County, Arkansas. The slaveholders's son, John Cryer, illegally brought Silvia to Mexican Texas in 1828, four years after Mexico had deemed the slave trade into Mexican territory against the law. Silvia, however, with the help of John Webber secured her and her 3 children's freedom papers in 1834. Together Silvia and John lived an antislavery life and often harbored fugitives from slavery in their ranch and house. Silvia was known to transport freedom seekers, on a ferry she licensed at her ranch, onto freedom in Mexico.


title: Underground Railroad

text: John Ferdinand Webber, born in Vermont, lived along the Rio Grande with his wife, Silvia Hector Webber, and together were known to have helped enslaved people cross the Rio Grande. The Jacksons and Webbers, who both owned licensed ferry service, were well known among runaways.


title: Underground Railroad

text: Freedom seekers found that when they made it to Mexico, they lived with the knowledge that they could be illegally kidnapped by slave catchers or blackbirders. Slave hunters who tried to kidnap former slaves from Mexico could be taken to court or shot.


title: Underground Railroad

text: There was little support from their new communities and few opportunities for employment. They did not have official paperwork that stated that they were free. They were, though, able to enter into indentured servitude contracts and join military colonies.


title: Underground Railroad

text: Some people, after they settled in Mexico, returned to the United States to help family members escape and to guide them to Mexico.


title: Underground Railroad

text: There were abolitionists from the north who petitioned the Mexican government to establish colonies for free and runaway blacks. Benjamin Lundy, a Quaker, lobbied for a colony to be established in what is now Texas during the early 1830s, but he was unable to do so when Texas legalized slavery when it separated from Mexico and became the Republic of Texas (1836). Black Seminoles successfully petitioned for land and established a colony in 1852. The land is still owned by their descendants.


title: Underground Railroad

text: The Texas Runaway Slave Project, located in Nacogdoches at the Stephen F. Austin State University, has researched runaway advertisements that appeared in 19,000 editions of newspapers from the mid-19th century.


title: Underground Railroad

text: Alice L. Baumgartner has studied the prevalence of enslaved people who fled slavery from the Southern slave states to Mexico. She published "South to Freedom: Runaway Slaves to Mexico and the Road to the Civil War". Thomas Mareite completed a doctoral dissertation at Leiden University on the social and political experiences of enslaved people who escaped from bondage from the US South to Mexico titled "Conditional freedom : free soil and fugitive slaves from the US South to Mexico's Northeast, 1803-1861". Roseann Bacha-Garza, of the University of Texas Rio Grande Valley, has managed historical archeology projects and has researched the incidence of enslaved people who fled to Mexico. Maria Esther Hammack completed her doctoral dissertation titled "South of Slavery: Freedom Fighters & Black Movement across a Global Frontier, 1790-1868 " on the experiences and channels undertaken by freedom seekers, at the University of Texas at Austin.


title: Underground Railroad

text: Mekala Audain recently published a chapter titled "A Scheme to Desert: The Louisiana Purchase and Freedom Seekers in the Louisiana-Texas Borderlands, 1804-1806" in the edited volume "In Search of Liberty: African American Internationalism in the Nineteenth-Century Atlantic World." Audain discusses how a large number of freedom seekers had escaped Louisiana in 1804 and "did not associate freedom with the northern US, the Ohio River valley, or Canada; instead they looked to the US western frontier to find freedom."


title: Underground Railroad

text: Following upon legislation passed in 1990 for the National Park Service to perform a special resource study of the Underground Railroad, in 1997, the 105th Congress introduced and subsequently passed H.R. 1635 – National Underground Railroad Network to Freedom Act of 1998, which President Bill Clinton signed into law in 1998. This act authorized the United States National Park Service to establish the National Underground Railroad Network to Freedom program to identify associated sites, as well as preserve them and popularize the Underground Railroad and stories of people involved in it. The National Park Service has designated many sites within the network, posted stories about people and places, sponsors an essay contest, and holds a national conference about the Underground Railroad in May or June each year.


title: Underground Railroad

text: The Harriet Tubman Underground Railroad National Historical Park, which includes Underground Railroad routes in three counties of Maryland's Eastern Shore and Harriet Tubman's birthplace, was created by President Barack Obama under the Antiquities Act on March 25, 2013. Its sister park, the Harriet Tubman National Historical Park in Auburn, New York, was established on January 10, 2017, and focuses on the later years of Tubman's life as well as her involvement with the Underground Railroad and the abolition movement.


title: Underground Railroad

text: Underground Railroad was a company created by Tupac Shakur, Big D the Impossible, Shock G, Pee Wee, Jeremy, Raw Fusion and Live Squad with the purpose of promote and help young black women and men with records allowing them to initiate and develop their musical careers.


title: Michael Chiklis

text: Michael Charles Chiklis ( born August 30, 1963) is an American actor, television director, television producer and musician. He is best known for his role as Los Angeles Police Department (LAPD) Detective Vic Mackey on the FX police drama "The Shield" (2002-2008), for which he won the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series in 2002, and was nominated in 2003. Other starring television roles of his include Commissioner Tony Scali on the ABC police drama "The Commish" (1991-1996), Chris Woods in "Daddio" (2000), Jim Powell on the ABC science-fiction comedy-drama "No Ordinary Family" (2010-2011), Vincent Savino in the CBS crime drama "Vegas" (2012), Dell Toledo in "" (2014), and Nathaniel Barnes in "Gotham" (2015-2017). In film, he is best known for his roles as The Thing in two "Fantastic Four" films (2005-2007), George Callister in "Eagle Eye" (2008), Derrick in "When the Game Stands Tall" (2014), and Father Dave in "Hubie Halloween" (2020).


title: Michael Chiklis

text: Chiklis was born in Lowell, Massachusetts. His mother, Katherine (née Vousboukis), is a hospital administrative aide, and his father, Charlie Chiklis, runs a hair/beauty salon. Chiklis has been described as having inherited his acting ability from his mother. His father is a second-generation Greek American (his paternal ancestors came from Lesbos), and his mother is of Greek and Irish descent. Chiklis grew up in Andover, Massachusetts and began entertaining his family with celebrity imitations when he was 5 years old. As a child, Chiklis appeared in regional theater productions and became a member of the Actors' Equity Association at age 13. In the ninth grade, he portrayed Hawkeye Pierce in Andover High School's production of "M*A*S*H". He graduated from Boston University College of Fine Arts with a Bachelor of Fine Arts.


title: Michael Chiklis

text: After graduating from college, Chiklis moved to Brooklyn, New York and was cast in the role of John Belushi in the controversial biopic "Wired" (1989). The film was panned in general and flopped at the box office, though Chiklis's performance as Belushi (one of his idols) was highly praised. He also guest starred in several popular television series such as "Miami Vice", "B.L. Stryker", "Wiseguy", "L.A. Law", "Murphy Brown", and "Seinfeld", as well as in bit parts in such films as "Nixon".


title: Michael Chiklis

text: Chiklis' first successful role was in "The Commish", a police comedy/drama that ran from 1991 to 1996 on ABC. Chiklis played Anthony "Tony" J. Scali, a police commissioner in a small city in upstate New York. After "The Commish", Chiklis starred in the short-lived NBC sitcom "Daddio".


title: Michael Chiklis

text: In 1997, Chiklis replaced Rob Becker in the Broadway one-man show "Defending the Caveman", taking on the role from January 1997 to the show's closing in June 1997.


title: Michael Chiklis

text: After playing Curly Howard in the TV movie "The Three Stooges" (2000), Chiklis decided to reinvent his image. With his wife's help, he spent six months on an extensive workout regimen and shaved his head. He turned up to audition for "The Shield" looking nothing like the pudgy, friendly character of "The Commish". Chiklis won over creator Shawn Ryan and nabbed the leading role of the show's anti-hero, LAPD Detective Vic Mackey. He won the 2002 Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor In A Drama Series for the role. Chiklis received a Golden Globe Award that same year for Best Performance by an Actor in a Television Series-Drama as well. Between 2004 and 2005, he was nominated for a Golden Globe for Best Actor in a Drama Series but did not win. Chiklis later parodied his role as Vic Mackey in the "Robot Chicken" episode, "Monstourage"; the skit involved Mackey's accidentally switching places with Ben Grimm.


title: Michael Chiklis

text: Since 2000, Chiklis has taken up a number of voice roles, voicing Chihiro's father, Akio, in the English dub of Hayao Miyazaki's "Spirited Away" and Roman/King Webster in the direct-to-video feature "The Adventures of Tom Thumb and Thumbelina". He has also performed in several episodes of "Family Guy" and had a voice role in "Heavy Gear: The Animated Series".


title: Michael Chiklis

text: In 2005, he starred in "Fantastic Four" (2005) as Thing and reprised the role in its sequel, "" (2007). A fan of the comic book series, he had dreamed of playing the character if ever a Fantastic Four movie were produced. Chiklis was often praised for his performance in a film that otherwise earned mixed reviews. His wife visited him on set during the filming but was unaware that he would be in his full bodysuit and makeup as The Thing; she was totally unprepared to see him like that, found it very distressing, and had to be guided from the set in order to collect herself.


title: Michael Chiklis

text: In the wake of the Bernie Madoff scandal, Chiklis is developing a series at FX about a similar investment scheme. The project, called "House of Cards", concerns a group committing an elaborate scam similar to the Madoff fraud. Chiklis had been developing the project since February 2008 after he and his wife became victims of a Ponzi scheme themselves. "Cards" will likely center on the leader of the scheme, with Chiklis planning to executive produce but not star.


title: Michael Chiklis

text: Chiklis later starred in the ABC television series "No Ordinary Family", which premiered on September 28, 2010, as part of the 2010–11 television season and ended in April, 2011. He also co-starred in the CBS Crime drama "Vegas".


title: Michael Chiklis

text: In March 2014, it was announced that Chiklis had been cast in "", season 4 of the FX anthology series.


title: Michael Chiklis

text: In 2014, Chiklis played a small part towards the end of the FX series "Sons of Anarchy". He appears first in the episode "Rose Red", as a trucker who first encounters Gemma, who is on her way to her father, at a truck stop. He also plays a truck driver in the series finale.


title: Michael Chiklis

text: In 2015, he appeared in "Gotham" as Captain Nathaniel Barnes. In a nod to Chiklis' time on the Strike Team on "The Shield", his character established a similarly named "Strike Force".


title: Michael Chiklis

text: In September 2016, Chiklis released his first solo album, "INFLUENCE". He wrote and produced the album at his own Extravaganza Music Studio.


title: Michael Chiklis

text: Chiklis married Michelle Epstein on June 21, 1992, and they have two daughters: Autumn, born on October 9, 1993, and Odessa, born on March 26, 1999. Autumn played Vic Mackey's daughter Cassidy on "The Shield".


title: Michael Chiklis

text: A lifelong comic book fan, Chiklis rarely turns down an autograph request from children. According to the DVD commentary for the "Fantastic Four" film, he has become hoarse from performing The Thing's voice so many times.


title: Michael Chiklis

text: Chiklis is a fan of both the Boston Red Sox and the Boston Bruins, was interviewed for the HBO documentary the "Curse of the Bambino" about the Red Sox's long struggle to win the World Series, and narrated the video introduction of the New England Patriots in Super Bowl XXXIX.


title: Michael Chiklis

text: Chiklis is also an accomplished musician, specializing in drums and vocals, but also playing guitar and bass. He is a member of several performing bands in the Boston area such as The Surgeon General, Best Kept Secret, and Double Talk. He has starred in and produced films through his own production company, Extravaganza.


title: Michael Chiklis

text: In 2011, Chiklis and his band MCB released their first single "Til I Come Home", a tribute song to the soldiers overseas. The song has been critically acclaimed worldwide and was used in his TV series "No Ordinary Family" in 2011. MCB's prior music includes another single, "Make Me High", written for the independent film "High School" (2010), starring Chiklis, Adrien Brody, Colin Hanks, and Matt Bush; the single was released in spring 2011.


title: Michael Chiklis

text: Following his stint on "American Horror Story: Freak Show", Chiklis told Larry King that he did not enjoy working on the show: "That was one of the darkest years of my career. It was, I think, it's one thing to do a horror film in the context of like two months or something like that, but to live in that for six months it just became, I don't know. Maybe it's because I'm an empathetic person, and I just sometimes start to take things on. But it was so dark, and it was so nasty."


title: Michael Chiklis

text: On the January 12, 2021 episode of "The Talk", Chiklis revealed his passion for the martial arts, and stated that he had recently attained the rank of yellow belt in karate.


title: Michael Chiklis

text: Chiklis has participated in celebrity Texas hold 'em tournaments to benefit comedian Brad Garrett's charity foundation, Maximum Hope. Chiklis has worked closely with many different charities over the years including The Children's Lifesaving Foundation, Alzheimer's Association, Autism Speaks and the Revlon Run Walk.


title: Michael Chiklis

text: The web series Jake and Amir often made reference to Chiklis in the phrase "going dickless for Michael Chiklis", which involves a person tucking their penis between their legs, ostensibly for Michael Chiklis.


title: The Dig (2021 film)

text: The Dig is a 2021 British drama film directed by Simon Stone, based on the 2007 novel of the same name by John Preston, which reimagines the events of the 1939 excavation of Sutton Hoo in Suffolk, England. It stars Carey Mulligan, Ralph Fiennes, Lily James, Johnny Flynn, Ben Chaplin, Ken Stott, Archie Barnes, and Monica Dolan.


title: The Dig (2021 film)

text: It had a limited release on 14 January 2021, followed by streaming on Netflix on 29 January 2021. The film received positive reviews from critics and received five nominations for the British Academy Film Awards, including one for Outstanding British Film.


title: The Dig (2021 film)

text: In 1939, Suffolk landowner Edith Pretty hires local self-taught archaeologist-excavator Basil Brown to tackle the large burial mounds at her rural estate in Sutton Hoo near Woodbridge. At first, she offers the same money he received from the Ipswich Museum, the agricultural wage, but he says it is inadequate; so she ups her offer by 12% to £2 a week (approximately £120 in 2020), which he accepts.


title: The Dig (2021 film)

text: His former employers try unsuccessfully to persuade Brown to work on a Roman villa they deem more important. They ignore Brown, who left school aged 12, when he suggests the mounds could be Anglo-Saxon rather than the more common Viking era.


title: The Dig (2021 film)

text: Working with assistants from Pretty's estate, Brown slowly excavates the more promising of the mounds. One day the trench collapses on him, but they dig him out in time. Meanwhile, he spends more time with Edith, a widow, and her young son Robert, finding common interest in archaeology and astronomy with them. However, he does not become unfaithful to his wife, and we see that they are an amicable couple. She supports his jobs as excavator despite them being low wage. Meanwhile, Edith struggles with her health, warned by her doctor to avoid stress.


title: The Dig (2021 film)

text: Brown is astonished to uncover iron rivets from a ship, suggesting that it is the burial site of someone of tremendous distinction, such as a king. Prominent local archaeologist James Reid Moir attempts to join the dig but is rebuffed; Edith instead hires her cousin Rory Lomax to join the project. News of the discovery soon spreads, and Cambridge archaeologist Charles Phillips arrives, declares the site to be of national importance, and takes over the dig by order of the Office of Works.


title: The Dig (2021 film)

text: As World War II approaches, Phillips brings in a large team, including Peggy Piggott, who uncovers proof that it is Anglo-Saxon in origin. Brown is demoted to only keep the site in order, but Edith intervenes and he resumes digging. Brown discovers a Merovingian Tremissis, a small gold coin of Late Antiquity, and Phillips declares the site to be of major historical significance. Phillips wants to send all the artefacts to the British Museum, but Edith, concerned about war raids in London, asserts her rights. An inquest finding confirms that she is the owner of the ship and its priceless treasure trove of grave goods, but she despairs as her health continues to decline.


title: The Dig (2021 film)

text: Peggy, neglected by her husband Stuart, begins a romance with Rory, but he is soon called up by the Royal Air Force. Edith decides to donate the Sutton Hoo treasure to the British Museum, requesting that Brown be given recognition for his work. The film ends with Brown and his co-workers replacing earth over the ship to preserve it.


title: The Dig (2021 film)

text: As the end credits begin, text explains the fate of Edith and the recovered objects. Edith died in 1942. The treasure was hidden in the London Underground during the war and first exhibitedwithout any mention of Basil Brownnine years after Edith's death. Only recently was Brown given full credit for his contribution and his name is now displayed permanently alongside Pretty's at the British Museum.


title: The Dig (2021 film)

text: The project began in 2006 when producer Ellie Wood read the manuscript of "The Dig" by John Preston, ahead of its 2007 publication, and optioned the novel in order to adapt it for the screen. It was announced in September 2018 that Nicole Kidman and Ralph Fiennes were in negotiations to star in the film. However, by August 2019, Kidman was no longer involved with the project, with Carey Mulligan cast to replace her. The rights for the film also moved from BBC Films to Netflix. Lily James entered negotiations to join the cast in September. In October 2019, Johnny Flynn, Ben Chaplin, Ken Stott and Monica Dolan joined the cast of the film.


title: The Dig (2021 film)

text: Principal photography began at Shackleford in Surrey in October 2019 – Norney Grange there being used to stand in as Pretty's house at Sutton Hoo – with location filming taking place in Suffolk near to the original discovery site. The film's production team conducted research at the British Museum in its Sutton Hoo archive and gallery. Underwater filming took place at Pinewood Studios.


title: The Dig (2021 film)

text: The film had a limited release on 15 January 2021. Netflix released the film for streaming on 29 January 2021. The film was the third-most watched title in its debut weekend, then finished seventh each of the following two weekends.


title: The Dig (2021 film)

text: Rotten Tomatoes reports that 88% of 153 critics gave the film a positive review, with an average rating of 7.20/10. The site's critics consensus reads, "Featuring beautifully matched performances from Ralph Fiennes and Carey Mulligan set against gorgeously filmed English countryside, "The Dig" yields period drama treasures." According to Metacritic, which sampled 35 critics and calculated a weighted average score of 73 out of 100, the film received "generally favorable reviews".


title: The Dig (2021 film)

text: Kevin Maher of "The Times" gave the film 5 out of 5 stars and described it as a "serious, intellectually committed, and emotionally piercing cinema. Unmissable." Katie Rife of "The A.V. Club" gave the film a B- and wrote, "for all the film's sweeping, romantic ideas, the actual experience of watching "The Dig" is a lot like sitting at a bus stop." Will Gompertz of BBC News awarded the film 4/5 stars, writing that "it is a thoroughly enjoyable film made with subtlety and sensitivity: a real tonic for these bleak winter days and nights. It lacks the emotional and intellectual heft and bite to make it an unmissable, classic movie, but I would happily watch it again, and again." In a more mixed review, Mark Kermode of "The Guardian" rated the film 3/5 stars, writing that "it's a melancholy whimsy about common purpose, new friendship and the persistence of the past, bogged down occasionally by a somewhat superfluous romantic subplot but buoyed up by Mike Eley's lush cinematography".


title: The Dig (2021 film)

text: On 4 February 2021, the film was listed for nine BAFTAs, including Best Film, Outstanding British Film, Director, Leading Actor, Cinematography and Adapted Screenplay. The nominations were announced on 9 March 2021. At the awards ceremony on 10 and 11 April, the film did not win an award in any of the nominated categories.


title: The Dig (2021 film)

text: Mark Bridge of "The Times" noted that archaeologists had taken issue with the film's portrayal of Peggy Piggott as inexperienced and only hired because her light weight would not disturb the delicate site. By 1939, Piggott was an experienced archaeologist in her own right, and had studied archaeology at the University of Cambridge and University of London. She is also presented as being married to an older, more experienced male archaeologist, whereas in reality Stuart Piggott was only two years her senior (27 and 29, respectively), and they had met while both students. In addition, Charles Phillips was in his late 30s but is played by Ken Stott in his 60s, and the landowner Edith Pretty was in her mid 50s but is played by Carey Mulligan in her mid 30s. (Pretty was originally planned to be played by the 53-year-old Nicole Kidman.)


title: The Dig (2021 film)

text: Bridge also criticised the addition of the fictional Rory Lomax as a love interest for Piggott. The character of Lomax, Pretty's cousin, is depicted as the photographer. In reality, Mercie Lack and Barbara Wagstaff (two teachers), and O. G. S. Crawford (the archaeological officer of the Ordnance Survey) separately took series of photographs. The two women who extensively photographed the site were excluded from the book and film in order to create a romantic storyline.


title: 2018 Horizon Air Q400 incident

text: On August 10, 2018, a Horizon Air Bombardier Q400 was stolen from Seattle–Tacoma International Airport (Sea–Tac) in Seattle, Washington. The perpetrator, 29-year-old Richard Russell, was a Horizon Air ground service agent with no piloting experience. After Russell performed an unauthorized takeoff, two McDonnell Douglas F-15 Eagle fighters were scrambled to intercept the aircraft. Sea–Tac air traffic control made radio contact with Russell, the sole occupant, who described himself as a "broken guy, got a few screws loose, I guess." About 1 hour and 15 minutes after takeoff, Russell died by intentionally crashing the aircraft on lightly populated Ketron Island in Puget Sound.


title: 2018 Horizon Air Q400 incident

text: The incident aircraft was a Bombardier Q400, owned by Horizon Air (and operating for Alaska Airlines) with the registration N449QX and serial number 4410. It had first flown in 2012 and was delivered new to Horizon Air in the same year. It landed at Seattle–Tacoma International Airport at 13:35 local time the afternoon of the incident, after an in-service flight from Victoria, British Columbia. It was not scheduled to fly again that day.


title: 2018 Horizon Air Q400 incident

text: The aircraft was stolen from Plane Cargo 1 at the north end of Sea–Tac Airport and maneuvered to runway 16C via taxiways. Seattle Tower tried several times to get the pilot of the aircraft to identify himself on frequency, but received no response. A nearby Alaska Airlines jet on the ground reported that the aircraft began a takeoff roll with its wheels smoking, and an unauthorized take-off was made at 19:32 local time (02:32 UTC, August 11). In response, two McDonnell Douglas F-15C Eagles of the Oregon Air National Guard's 142nd Fighter Wing under the command of NORAD were scrambled at around 20:15 local time from Portland Air National Guard Base to intercept it. Both were armed with AIM-9 Sidewinder and AIM-120 AMRAAM air-to-air missiles and went supersonic, generating sonic booms on the way to the Puget Sound area. A KC-135R Stratotanker refueling tanker was also scrambled from Fairchild Air Force Base to support the F-15 flight. Flights in and out of Sea–Tac Airport were temporarily suspended.


title: 2018 Horizon Air Q400 incident

text: Seattle–Tacoma air traffic control (ATC) maintained radio contact with the occupant. The transmissions were quickly recorded and posted on social media websites. He said he was a "broken guy, got a few screws loose I guess. Never really knew it until now." When ATC suggested that the plane be landed at Joint Base Lewis–McChord, the occupant refused: "Those guys will rough me up if I try and land there. I think I might mess something up there, too. I wouldn't want to do that." He asked ATC if he could get a job as a pilot with Alaska Airlines if he successfully landed the aircraft. ATC said, "they would give you a job doing anything if you could pull this off", to which he replied, "Yeah right! Nah, I'm a white guy."


title: 2018 Horizon Air Q400 incident

text: He spoke of wanting to do "a couple maneuvers to see what it [the aircraft] can do", and requested the coordinates of an orca that had been brought to national attention, saying, "I want to go see that guy." He stated that he did not want to hurt anyone, and in the final minutes of the communication apologized to his friends and family. Near the end of the flight, the aircraft was seen performing a barrel roll over Puget Sound, recovering a mere ten feet (three meters) over the water. A veteran pilot said the maneuver "seemed pretty well executed, without either stalling or pulling the wings off." When an air traffic controller requested he land the plane after this maneuver, he said "I don't know. I don't want to. I was kind of hoping that was gonna be it, you know?" He added that he "wasn't really planning on landing it."


title: 2018 Horizon Air Q400 incident

text: The two F-15s attempted to direct the aircraft toward the Pacific Ocean, and did not fire at it. The Q400 ultimately crashed at 20:43 local time on Ketron Island in Puget Sound, Pierce County, Washington, killing the occupant and destroying the aircraft. A tow boat crew was the first to respond. Delayed by the Steilacoom–Anderson Island ferry, firefighters from West Pierce Fire and Rescue and other nearby departments arrived on the island about an hour and a half after the crash, where they then contended with the island's thick brush. The fire burned a area, but was extinguished by the following morning. No injuries were reported to residents of the sparsely populated island despite the crash site being in close proximity to at least one cabin, which was occupied at the time of the incident.


title: 2018 Horizon Air Q400 incident

text: The Pierce County Sheriff's Office both thanked the public for its accurate information, and acknowledged on August 11 that federal agencies would be leading the investigation, primarily the Seattle office of the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI). It described the perpetrator, identified as 29-year-old Richard Russell, as suicidal and said his actions did not constitute a "terrorist incident". Alaska Air Group CEO Brad Tilden announced on the same day that the airline was coordinating with the Federal Aviation Administration, the FBI, and the National Transportation Safety Board, and was "working to find out everything we possibly can about what happened". On August 12, the FBI said that it had recovered the flight data recorder along with components of the cockpit voice recorder. The equipment was sent to the National Transportation Safety Board for processing.


title: 2018 Horizon Air Q400 incident

text: On November 9, the FBI stated that it had completed its investigation. Terrorism was ruled out, and Russell was found to have acted alone. The final descent at Ketron Island was determined to be intentional, and suicide was listed as the manner of death. The FBI stated, "Interviews with work colleagues, friends, and family—and review of text messages exchanged with Russell during the incident—did not identify any information that would suggest the theft of the aircraft was related to wider criminal activity or terrorist ideology. Although investigators received information regarding Russell's background, possible stressors, and personal life, no element provided a clear motivation for Russell's actions."


title: 2018 Horizon Air Q400 incident

text: Richard Russell was a Horizon Air ground service agent from Sumner, Washington. He had been part of a tow team, which repositions aircraft on the airport apron, for about four years. An operational supervisor for Horizon Air described Russell as "a quiet guy" who was "well liked by the other workers". During his communication with air traffic control, Russell made a complaint about wages, stating: "Minimum wage, we'll chalk it up to that. Maybe that will grease some gears a little bit with the higher-ups."


title: 2018 Horizon Air Q400 incident

text: Russell was born in Key West, Florida, and moved to Wasilla, Alaska, at the age of seven. From early childhood he was known as "Beebo" to his friends and family. He attended Wasilla High School, where he wrestled and competed in track and field. He was a hard-hitting football fullback in high school, scoring six touchdowns in his senior year, after which he moved to North Dakota to join the football team at Valley City State University. His performance there was a disappointment; he left for Southwestern Oregon Community College, where he met his wife at a Campus Crusade for Christ meeting. They married in 2012. Together, they started a bakery in North Bend, Oregon. They sold the bakery in 2015 so his wife could be closer to her family; they settled in Sumner, Washington, and Russell found employment with Horizon Air. He was an avid traveler and attended Washington State University Global Campus, majoring in social science. He had planned to seek a management position at Horizon Air or become a military officer after receiving his degree. He was active in his church and a leader in the local Christian youth ministry Young Life.


title: 2018 Horizon Air Q400 incident

text: Horizon Air CEO Gary Beck stated that, as far as the company knew, Russell did not have a pilot's license. Beck said the aerial maneuvers were "incredible" and that he "did not know how [Russell] achieved the experience that he did." During his conversation with air traffic control, Russell said he "[knew] what [he was] doing a little bit" because he had experience playing video games. After the incident, Joel Monteith, a pilot for SkyWest Airlines, relayed to an emergency dispatcher that in 2017, he saw Russell and another man "pointing and flipping switches" in the cockpit of a SkyWest aircraft parked at Sea–Tac Airport. Monteith stated the men told him they were training to use the aircraft's auxiliary power unit so they could tow it, but said it was "suspicious" that they left when he confronted them. Monteith also recalled that Russell had been in the cockpit of an Embraer 175 with him, and that Russell asked him about his "flows, which is the preflight preparation I do for takeoff." Some co-workers said that Russell had probably trained himself to fly using amateur flight simulation software.


title: 2018 Horizon Air Q400 incident

text: Russell's family released a statement on August 11, stating they were "stunned and heartbroken" and "devastated by the events".


title: 2018 Horizon Air Q400 incident

text: In the days after the crash, clean up and recovery crews contracted by Alaska Airlines and their insurers were present on the island to remove debris. , this clean up effort was still ongoing, with pieces of aircraft wreckage still being located on the island after the first anniversary of the incident. Residents of the island bore some of the cost for cleaning up, and negotiations were initiated for their reimbursement by Alaska Airlines' insurers. The aircraft was worth $30 million, all of which was paid under the company's insurance policy "with no deductibles."


title: 2018 Horizon Air Q400 incident

text: "Rolling Stone" magazine investigated the incident and reported in 2021 that some of Russell's friends and family believe he may have suffered brain injuries during his football years in high school and college. A football teammate suggested his mental instability had been caused by undiagnosed chronic traumatic encephalopathy that may have come from repeated concussions.


title: 2018 Horizon Air Q400 incident

text: Videos and radio transmissions of the event were followed online, immediately sparking a meme dubbing Russell the "Sky King". People expressed an emotional connection with him through postings on social media, T-shirts, and tribute songs.


title: 2018 Horizon Air Q400 incident

text: On April 14, 2022, the FBI released 500 pages of previously classified documents related to the investigation.


title: Metal Gear Solid (1998 video game)

text: Players control Solid Snake, a soldier who infiltrates a nuclear weapons facility to neutralize the terrorist threat from FOXHOUND, a renegade special forces unit. Snake must liberate hostages and stop the terrorists from launching a nuclear strike. Cinematic cutscenes were rendered using the in-game engine and graphics, and voice acting is used throughout.


title: Metal Gear Solid (1998 video game)

text: "Metal Gear Solid" sold more than copies worldwide and shipped 12million demos. It scored an average of 94/100 on the aggregate website Metacritic. It is regarded as one of the greatest and most important video games of all time and helped popularize the stealth genre and in-engine cinematic cutscenes. It was followed by an expanded version for PlayStation and Windows, "Metal Gear Solid: Integral" (1999)"," and a GameCube remake, "" (2004). It produced numerous sequels, starting with "" (2001), and media adaptations including a radio drama, comics, and novels.


title: Metal Gear Solid (1998 video game)

text: The player must navigate the protagonist, Solid Snake, through a nuclear weapons facility without being detected by enemies. When Snake moves into an enemy's field of vision, he sets off an "alert mode" that draws enemies. The player must then hide until "evasion mode" begins; when the counter reaches zero, the game returns to "infiltration mode", where enemies are no longer suspicious. The radar cannot be used in alert or evasion mode. In addition to the stealth gameplay, set-piece sequences entail firefights between the player and enemies.


title: Metal Gear Solid (1998 video game)

text: To remain undetected, the player can perform techniques which make use of Snake's abilities and the environment, such as crawling under objects, using boxes as cover, ducking or hiding around walls, and making noise to distract enemies. An on-screen radar provides the player with the location of nearby enemies and their field of vision. Snake can also make use of many items and gadgets, such as infra-red goggles and a cardboard box disguise. The emphasis on stealth promotes a less violent form of gameplay, as fights against large groups of enemies will often result in severe damage to Snake.


title: Metal Gear Solid (1998 video game)

text: Despite the switch to 3D, the game is still played primarily from an overhead perspective similar to the original 2D "Metal Gear" games. However, the camera angle will change during certain situations, such as a corner view when Snake flattens himself to a wall next to an open space, or into first-person when crawling under tight spaces or when equipping certain items such as the binoculars or a sniper rifle. The player can also use the first-person view while remaining idle to look around Snake's surroundings and see what's ahead of him.


title: Metal Gear Solid (1998 video game)

text: Progress is punctuated by cutscenes and codec, as well as encounters with bosses. To progress, players must discover the weaknesses of each boss and defeat them. Play controls and strategies can also be accessed via the Codec radio, where advice is delivered from Snake's support team; for example, the support team may chastise Snake for not saving his progress often enough, or explain his combat moves in terms of which buttons to press on the gamepad. The Codec is also used to provide exposition on the game's backstory.


title: Metal Gear Solid (1998 video game)

text: In addition to the main story, there is also a VR training mode in which the player can test out their sneaking skills in a series of artificially constructed environments. This mode is divided into three main categories (practice, time attack, and gun shooting), each consisting of ten stages. After completing all 30 stages, a survival mission is unlocked in which the player must sneak their way through ten consecutive stages under a seven-minute limit.


title: Metal Gear Solid (1998 video game)

text: "Metal Gear Solid" takes place in an alternate history in which the Cold War continued into the 1990s, ending at some point near the end of the 20th century. The game's events take place six years after those in , and form the third chapter in an overarching plot concerning the character of Solid Snake.


title: Metal Gear Solid (1998 video game)

text: The protagonist is Solid Snake, a legendary infiltrator and saboteur. During the mission, Snake receives support and advice via codec radio. Colonel Roy Campbell, Solid Snake's former commanding officer, supports Snake with information and tactics. While he initially keeps some secrets from Snake, he gradually reveals them. He is joined by Naomi Hunter, who gives medical advice; Nastasha Romanenko, who provides item and weapon tips; Master Miller, a former drill instructor and survival coach; and Mei Ling, who invented the soliton radar system used in the mission and is also in charge of mission data; the player can call her to save the game.


title: Metal Gear Solid (1998 video game)

text: The main antagonist of the game is Liquid Snake, leader of a now-terrorist splinter cell of the organization FOXHOUND, and genetic counterpart to Solid Snake. An elite special forces unit, FOXHOUND contains experts specializing in different tasks. Members are Revolver Ocelot, a Western-style gunslinger and expert interrogator whose weapon of choice is the Colt Single Action Army; Sniper Wolf, a preternatural sniper; Vulcan Raven, a hulking Alaskan shaman armed with an M61 Vulcan torn from a downed F-16; Psycho Mantis, a psychic profiler and psychokinesis expert; and Decoy Octopus, a master of disguise.


title: Metal Gear Solid (1998 video game)

text: Other characters include Meryl Silverburgh, Colonel Campbell's niece and a rookie soldier stationed in Shadow Moses who did not join the revolt; Dr. Hal Emmerich, the lead developer of Metal Gear REX; and the "Ninja", a mysterious cybernetically enhanced agent who is neither an ally nor an enemy of Snake but does oppose FOXHOUND.


title: Metal Gear Solid (1998 video game)

text: In 2005, renegade genetically enhanced special forces unit FOXHOUND seizes control of a remote island in Alaska's Fox Archipelago codenamed "Shadow Moses", which houses a nuclear weapons disposal facility. FOXHOUND threatens to use the nuclear-capable mecha Metal Gear REX, being secretly tested at the facility, against the US government, if they do not receive the remains of Big Boss and a ransom of $1 billion within 24 hours. Solid Snake is forced out of retirement by Colonel Roy Campbell to infiltrate the island and neutralize the threat.


title: Metal Gear Solid (1998 video game)

text: Snake enters the facility via an air vent and locates the first hostage, DARPA Chief Donald Anderson. Anderson reveals that Metal Gear REX can be deactivated with a secret detonation override code, but dies of a heart attack. Colonel Campbell's niece Meryl Silverburgh, held hostage in a neighboring cell, helps Snake escape. Snake locates another hostage, ArmsTech president Kenneth Baker, but is confronted by FOXHOUND member Revolver Ocelot. Their gunfight is interrupted by a mysterious cyborg ninja who cuts off Ocelot's right hand. Baker briefs Snake on the Metal Gear project and advises him to contact Meryl, whom he gave a PAL card that might prevent the launch, but he too dies of a sudden heart attack.


title: Metal Gear Solid (1998 video game)

text: Over Codec, Meryl agrees to meet in the warhead disposal area on the condition that Snake contacts Metal Gear's designer, Dr. Hal "Otacon" Emmerich. En route, Snake receives an anonymous codec call calling themselves "Deepthroat", warning him of a tank ambush. Snake fends off the attack from Vulcan Raven and proceeds to the rendezvous, where he locates Otacon. The ninja reappears, and Snake realizes it is his former ally Gray Fox, believed dead. Devastated over learning REX's true intentions, Otacon agrees to aid Snake remotely using special camouflage to procure information and supplies.


title: Metal Gear Solid (1998 video game)

text: Snake meets Meryl and receives the PAL card. As they head for the underground base, Meryl is possessed by psychic Psycho Mantis and pulls her gun on Snake. He disarms her and defeats Mantis, who informs Snake that he has "a large place" in her heart. After they reach the underground passageway, Sniper Wolf ambushes them, wounds Meryl, and captures Snake. Liquid confirms Snake's suspicion that they are twin brothers. After being tortured by Ocelot, Snake is confused to discover Anderson's body in his cell, seemingly dead for days. He escapes with the help of Otacon, makes his way up the communications tower, and fends off a Hind D helicopter attack from Liquid. As he emerges onto a snowfield, he is confronted again by Sniper Wolf. He kills her, devastating Otacon, who was infatuated with her.


title: Metal Gear Solid (1998 video game)

text: Snake continues to REX's hangar and is ambushed again by Raven. After Snake defeats him, Raven tells Snake that the "Anderson" he conversed with was, in fact, FOXHOUND disguise artist Decoy Octopus. Infiltrating Metal Gear's hangar, Snake overhears Liquid and Ocelot preparing the REX launch sequence and uses the PAL card, but this unexpectedly activates REX. Liquid reveals that he has been impersonating Snake's advisor Master Miller and that FOXHOUND has used Snake to facilitate REX's launch. He and Snake are the product of the "Les Enfants Terribles" project, a 1970s government program to clone Big Boss. He also reveals to Snake the government's true reason for sending him: Snake is unknowingly carrying a weaponized "FOXDIE" virus that causes cardiac arrest in FOXHOUND members on contact, allowing the government to retrieve REX undamaged.


title: Metal Gear Solid (1998 video game)

text: As Liquid, in REX, battles Snake, Gray Fox appears. He reveals to Snake that he was Deepthroat, destroys REX's radome, and is crushed to death by REX. Snake destroys REX and defeats Liquid, then escapes with Meryl or Otacon via a tunnel, pursued by Liquid in a Jeep. After their vehicles crash, Liquid pulls a gun on Snake but dies from FOXDIE. Colonel Campbell, briefly ousted from command, calls off a nuclear strike to destroy evidence of the operation and has Snake registered as killed in action to stop the US government searching for him. Naomi Hunter, who injected Snake with the FOXDIE virus, tells him that he has an indeterminate amount of time before it kills him. Ocelot calls the US President; he was a double agent whose mission was to steal Baker's disk of Metal Gear specifications.


title: Metal Gear Solid (1998 video game)

text: Kojima originally planned his third "Metal Gear" game in 1994 for the 3DO Interactive Multiplayer. Kojima was initially planning "Metal Gear Solid" while "Policenauts" (1994) was still in development. Conceptual artwork by Yoji Shinkawa of the characters Solid Snake, Meryl Silverburgh, who was also a character in the adventure game "Policenauts", and the FOXHOUND team, were included in the "Policenauts: Pilot Disk" preceding the release of the full version of the 3DO game in 1995. After the 3DO was discontinued, development shifted to the PlayStation after "Policenauts" was released.


title: Metal Gear Solid (1998 video game)

text: The game was titled "Metal Gear Solid", rather than "Metal Gear 3", as Kojima felt that the previous MSX2 games that he worked on were not widely known, due to the fact that they were not released in North America and only the first one was released in Europe (an NES version of the first "Metal Gear" was released in North America, but Kojima had no involvement with it or its sequel "Snake's Revenge"). The word "Solid," derived from the codename of series's protagonist Solid Snake (as well as the title of the second MSX2 game), was chosen not only to represent the fact that it was the third entry of the series, but also the transition from 2D to 3D computer graphics.


title: Metal Gear Solid (1998 video game)

text: Considering first person games difficult to control, the team opted to give the gameplay a 2D style by having it predominantly played from an overhead angle, while using 3D graphics and the ability to switch to first person on the fly to make it feel as though the game were taking place in a real 3D world.


title: Metal Gear Solid (1998 video game)

text: Development for "Metal Gear Solid" began in mid-1995. Developers aimed for accuracy and realism while making the game enjoyable and tense. In the early stages of development, the Huntington Beach SWAT team educated the creators with a demonstration of vehicles, weapons, and explosives. Weapons expert Motosada Mori was also tapped as a technical adviser in the research, which included visits to Fort Irwin and firing sessions at Stembridge Gun Rentals. Kojima stated that "if the player isn't tricked into believing that the world is real, then there's no point in making the game." To fulfill this, adjustments were made to every detail, such as individually designed desks.


title: Metal Gear Solid (1998 video game)

text: The characters and mecha designs were made by artist Yoji Shinkawa based on Kojima's concepts. According to Shinkawa, Solid Snake's physique in this particular installment was based on Jean-Claude Van Damme, while his facial appearance was based on Christopher Walken. The characters were completed by polygonal artists using brush drawings and clay models by Shinkawa. According to Kojima, "the ninja's cloaking effect is the result of a bug. Of course, it wasn't totally coincidence since we wanted that effect anyway, but we did get a somewhat unexpected result." Kojima wanted greater interaction with objects and the environment, such as allowing the player to hide bodies in a storage compartment. Additionally, he wanted "a full orchestra right next to the player"; a system which made modifications such as tempo and texture to the currently playing track, instead of switching to another pre-recorded track. Although these features could not be achieved, they were implemented in "".


title: Metal Gear Solid (1998 video game)

text: Kojima used Lego building blocks and toy figurines to model 3D areas and see what the planned camera views would look like. The game was developed by a staff of twenty people, a small team for such a major title. Kojima preferred to have a smaller team, so that he gets to know everyone in the team, knows what they are working on, and can know if anyone is sick or unhappy. The team size did not expand to full strength until September 1996; initially, there was only a single programmer working on the game's code.


title: Metal Gear Solid (1998 video game)

text: A gameplay demo of "Metal Gear Solid" was first revealed to the public at the 1996 Tokyo Game Show and was later shown at E3 1997 as a short video. The 1997 version had several differences, including a more controllable camera and blue-colored vision cones. The demo generated significant buzz and positive reviews at the event, for its game design emphasizing stealth and strategy (like earlier "Metal Gear" games), its presentation, and the unprecedented level of real-time 3D graphical detail for the PlayStation. The enthusiastic response to the game at E3 took Kojima by surprise, and increased his expectations for the game's performance in the American market. The game's Japanese release was originally planned for late 1997, but was delayed to 1998.


title: Metal Gear Solid (1998 video game)

text: It was playable for the first time at the Tokyo Game Show in 1998 and released the same year in Japan with an extensive promotional campaign. Television and magazine advertisements, in-store samples, and demo giveaways contributed to a total of $8 million in promotional costs.


title: Metal Gear Solid (1998 video game)

text: The musical score of "Metal Gear Solid" was composed by Konami's in-house musicians, including Kazuki Muraoka, Hiroyuki Togo, Takanari Ishiyama, Lee Jeon Myung, and Maki Kirioka. Composer and lyricist Rika Muranaka provided a song called "The Best is Yet To Come" for the game's ending credits sequence. The song is performed in Irish by Aoife Ní Fhearraigh. The main theme was composed by Tappi Iwase from the Konami Kukeiha Club.


title: Metal Gear Solid (1998 video game)

text: Music played in-game has a synthetic feel with increased pace and introduction of strings during tense moments, with a looping style endemic to video games. Overtly cinematic music, with stronger orchestral and choral elements, appears in cutscenes. The soundtrack was released on September 23, 1998, under the King Records label.


title: Metal Gear Solid (1998 video game)

text: "Metal Gear Solid" was first released for the PlayStation in Japan on September 3, 1998. The game was available in a standard edition, as well as a limited "Premium Package" edition sold in a large box that also contained a t-shirt, a pair of FOXHOUND-themed dog tags, memory card stickers, an audio CD featuring the soundtracks from the MSX2 "Metal Gear" games (including a few bonus arranged tracks), and a 40-page booklet, "Metal Gear Solid Classified," featuring production notes, interviews with the developers, and a glossary of terminology in the game.


title: Metal Gear Solid (1998 video game)

text: The North American version was released a month later on October 20. Changes and additions were made to this version, such as a choice of three difficulty settings when starting a new game (with a fourth setting that is unlocked after completing the game once), an alternate tuxedo outfit for Snake (which the character wears on every third playthrough on the same save file), and a "demo theater" mode where the player views every cutscene and radio conversations relevant to the main story. Jeremy Blaustein, who previously worked on the English localization of "Snatcher" for the Sega CD, wrote the English version of the script. One change in the English script was the addition of Western sources and authors to Mei-Ling's pool of motivational quotes; originally the character only cited Chinese proverbs natively, providing an explanation afterward in Japanese, but this proved challenging to adapt during the translation. The games detected by Psycho Mantis when he reads the player's memory card were also changed, due to certain games (such as the "Tokimeki Memorial" series) not being released outside Japan. This resulted in Kojima's cameo (in which he thanks the player for supporting his work via a voiceover) being cut from the Western versions, as save data from two PlayStation games not available outside Japan, "Snatcher" and "Policenauts", needed to be present on the player's memory card for this Easter egg to appear.


title: Metal Gear Solid (1998 video game)

text: The game was launched in Europe on February 22, 1999, with versions voiced in French, Italian, and German available in addition to English. A Spanish dubbed version was later released on May 1. Like in Japan, a limited edition of the game was released, although the contents of the European limited edition differs from the Japanese counterpart. The European Premium Package comes with the game software itself and its soundtrack album CD, along with a t-shirt, dog tags, memory card stickers, a double sided movie-style poster and a set of postcards.


title: Metal Gear Solid (1998 video game)

text: The Japanese PlayStation version of "Metal Gear Solid" was reissued twice: once under "The Best" series and later under "PS one Books." Likewise, the American and European versions of "Metal Gear Solid" were reissued under the "Greatest Hits" and "Platinum" series respectively. The game is included in the Japanese "Metal Gear Solid: 20th Anniversary Collection" set and in the American "Essential Collection" set. The original "Metal Gear Solid" was released on the PlayStation Store for download on the PlayStation 3 and PlayStation Portable on March 21, 2008, in Japan and on June 18, 2009, in North America and on November 19 of the same year in Europe.


title: Metal Gear Solid (1998 video game)

text: "Metal Gear Solid" is one of the twenty PlayStation games included in the PlayStation Classic released in 2018. The game is included in both the Japanese and western models of the unit in their respective versions.


title: Metal Gear Solid (1998 video game)

text: Released on June 25, 1999, for the PlayStation in Japan, is an expanded edition of the game that features the added content from the American and European versions. It replaces the Japanese voices from the original version with the English dub, offering players a choice between Japanese and English subtitles during cutscenes and CODEC conversations (item descriptions, mission logs, and other text are still in Japanese). Further additional content to the main game include an alternate "sneaking suit" outfit for Meryl (which she wears when Snake is dressed in the tuxedo), a "Very Easy" difficulty setting where the player starts the mission armed with a suppressor-equipped MP5 submachine gun with infinite ammo (substituting the FAMAS rifle in Snake's inventory), an eighth Codec frequency featuring commentary from the development team (unvoiced and in Japanese text only) on every area and boss encounter, hidden music tracks, an alternate game mode where the player controls Snake from a first-person perspective (on Normal difficulty only), an option for alternative patrol routes for enemies, and a downloadable PocketStation minigame. The Torture Event was also made easier, reducing the number of rounds to three per session on all five difficulty settings.


title: Metal Gear Solid (1998 video game)

text: The VR training mode is now stored on a separate third disc, known as the "VR Disc", and has been expanded into 300 missions. These new set of missions are divided into four main categories: Sneaking, Weapons, Advanced, and Special. The first three categories feature standard training exercises that test the player's sneaking, shooting, and combat skills, while the fourth category contains less conventional tests involving murder mysteries, giant genome soldiers, and flying saucers. One particular set of missions has the player controlling the Cyborg Ninja, unlocked by either completing a minigame on the PocketStation and uploading the data to the VR Disc or by achieving the Fox rank on the main game. Completing all 300 missions will unlock a concept artwork of Metal Gear RAY, a mech that would later appear in "Metal Gear Solid 2: Sons of Liberty". Additional content includes preview trailers of "Metal Gear Solid" from trade events and a photoshoot mode where the player can take photographs of fully expressive polygonal models of Mei Ling and Dr. Naomi after completing the main game. "Famitsu" magazine rated "Metal Gear Solid: Integral" a 34 out of 40.


title: Metal Gear Solid (1998 video game)

text: The VR Disc from "Integral" was released by itself during the same year in other regions as "Metal Gear Solid: VR Missions" in North America on September 23 and as "Metal Gear Solid: Special Missions" in the PAL region on October 29. While the content of both, "VR Missions" and "Special Missions", are virtually identical to the VR Disc, the unlocking requirements for the Ninja missions and the photoshoot mode were changed accordingly, so that save data from the main game was no longer required. The "Special Missions" version also adds an additional requirement in which the user must also own a copy of the original "Metal Gear Solid" in PAL format in order to start the game - after booting "Special Missions" on the console, the player will be asked to switch the disc with the first disc from "Metal Gear Solid" to load data before asking the player to switch back to the "Special Missions" disc to proceed through the rest of the game. This requirement renders "Special Missions" incompatible with PlayStation 2 consoles made before the SCPH-70000 model.


title: Metal Gear Solid (1998 video game)

text: The PC version of "Metal Gear Solid" was released in North America, Europe, and Asian territories (excluding Japan) in late 2000. This version was published by Microsoft Game Studios and developed by Digital Dialect. It supports the use of a keyboard or a USB game controller with at least six buttons (with the manual recommending the Sidewinder Game Pad Pro). It also supports Direct3D-capable video cards, allowing for a high resolution of up to 1024x768. The PC version is labeled "Metal Gear Solid" on the packaging, but the actual game uses the "Metal Gear Solid: Integral" logo, although it has some differences as well from the PlayStation version of "Integral" and lacks some of its content. The most significant change was reducing the number of discs from three to two, which was done by giving each disc two separate executable files, one for the main game (mgsi.exe) and the other for the VR training portion (mgsvr.exe), thus eliminating the need for a stand-alone third disc.


title: Metal Gear Solid (1998 video game)

text: One notable omission was the removal of the cutscene before the Psycho Mantis battle in which he reads the player's memory card and activates the vibration function of the player's controller if a DualShock is being used, as this scene involved the use of PlayStation-specific peripherals. The method for defeating Mantis was also changed from using the second controller to simply using the keyboard (regardless of whether the player was using a game controller or not up to that point). Other omissions include the removal of the eighth Codec frequency (140.07), which featured written commentaries by the developers, Meryl's alternate sneaking suit outfit, and the mission logs when loading a save file. However, the PC version adds the option to toggle moving and shooting in first-person view mode at any time regardless of difficulty setting, and players can now save their progress at any point without contacting Mei-Ling through the use of quicksaves. On the VR training portion, all 300 missions, as well as the photoshoot mode, are available from the start, although the opening video and the three unlockable preview trailers from the PlayStation version have been removed.


title: Metal Gear Solid (1998 video game)

text: Scoring 83 on Metacritic's aggregate, the game was criticized for "graphic glitches," the aged nature of the port, and being virtually identical to the PlayStation version.


title: Metal Gear Solid (1998 video game)

text: A remake, "Metal Gear Solid: The Twin Snakes", was developed by Silicon Knights under the supervision of KCE Japan and released for the GameCube in North America, Japan, and Europe in March 2004. Although "Twin Snakes" was primarily developed at Silicon Knights, its cutscenes were developed in-house at Konami and directed by Japanese film director Ryuhei Kitamura, reflecting his dynamic signature style, utilizing bullet time photography and choreographed gunplay extensively. While the storyline and settings of the game were unchanged (although a select few lines of dialog were re-written more closely resembling the original Japanese version), a variety of gameplay features from "Sons of Liberty" were added such as the first-person aiming and hanging from bars on walls. Another change in the English voice acting was the reduction of Mei Ling's, Naomi's and Nastasha's accents, as well as the recasting of Gray Fox from Greg Eagles, who still reprises the role of the DARPA chief, to Rob Paulsen. The graphics were also updated to match those of "Metal Gear Solid 2".


title: Metal Gear Solid (1998 video game)

text: A Japanese radio drama version of "Metal Gear Solid", directed by Shuyo Murata and written by Motosada Mori, was produced shortly after the release of the original PlayStation game. 12 episodes were aired, from 1998 to 1999 on Konami's "CLUB db" program. The series was later released on CD as a two-volume series Drama CD Metal Gear Solid. Set after the events of the PlayStation game, Snake, Meryl, Campbell and Mei Ling (all portrayed by their original Japanese voice actors) pursue missions in hostile third world nations as FOXHOUND. The new characters introduced include Sgt. Allen Iishiba (voiced by Toshio Furukawa), a Delta Force operative who assists Snake and Meryl, Col. Mark Cortez (v.b. Osamu Saka), an old friend of Campbell who commands the fictional Esteria Army Special Forces, and Capt. Sergei Ivanovich (v.b. Kazuhiro Nakata), a former war buddy of Revolver Ocelot from his SVR days.


title: Metal Gear Solid (1998 video game)

text: In September 2004, IDW Publications began publishing a series of "Metal Gear Solid" comics, written by Kris Oprisko and illustrated by Ashley Wood. The comic was published bimonthly until 2006, lasting 12 issues fully covering the "Metal Gear Solid" storyline. The comic was adapted into a PlayStation Portable game, "Metal Gear Solid: Digital Graphic Novel" ("Metal Gear Solid: Bande Dessinée" in Japan). It features visual enhancements and two interactive modes designed to give further insight into the publication. Upon viewing the pages, the player can open a "scanning" interface to search for characters and items in a three-dimensional view. Discoveries are added to a database which can be traded with other players via Wi-Fi. The "mission mode" allows the player to add collected information into a library. This information must be properly connected to complete a mission. "Metal Gear Solid: Digital Graphic Novel" was released in North America on June 13, 2006, Japan on September 21 and the PAL region on September 22. In 2006, the game received IGN's award for Best Use of Sound on the PSP. A DVD-Video version is included with its sequel ("Metal Gear Solid 2: Bande Dessinée"), which was released in Japan on June 12, 2008. The DVD version features full voice acting.


title: Metal Gear Solid (1998 video game)

text: A novelization based on the original "Metal Gear Solid" was written by Raymond Benson and published by Del Rey. The American paperback edition was published on May 27, 2008, and the British Edition on June 5, 2008.


title: Metal Gear Solid (1998 video game)

text: A second novelization by Kenji Yano (written under the pen name Hitori Nojima), "Metal Gear Solid Substance I", was published by Kadokawa Shoten in Japan on August 25, 2015. This novelization is narrated through a text file written by a young man living in Manhattan in 2009 (the present year of the Plant chapter in ""). The story also acknowledges certain plot elements from "" regarding certain characters such as Liquid Snake and Psycho Mantis.


title: Metal Gear Solid (1998 video game)

text: Prior to release, the game's demonstrations at several trade shows between 1996 and 1998 had received a positive response. This had generated significant worldwide interest in the game prior to its release in 1998.


title: Metal Gear Solid (1998 video game)

text: Prior to its North American release, an estimated 12 million demos for the game were distributed in 1998. Upon release, the game was a commercial success. It became one of the most rented games in the United States, and topped sales charts in the United Kingdom and Japan. PC Data, which tracked sales in the United States, reported that "Metal Gear Solid" sold 1.06 million copies and earned in revenue during 1998 alone. This made it the country's fifth-best-selling PlayStation release of 1998, and the third highest-grossing PlayStation title that year. In the United Kingdom, it was the third best-selling video game of 1999. In Germany, it received a Platinum award from the (VUD) in June 1999 for sales above 200,000 copies within several months, and it became the year's second best-selling PlayStation game. In Europe, the game grossed €40,034,122 or in 1999, adding up to more than grossed in the United States and Europe by 1999.


title: Metal Gear Solid (1998 video game)

text: By early 2001, it had sold units worldwide, including 1million units in Japan and approximately 5million units in the United States and Europe. It went on to sell more than units worldwide by 2002. By 2004, the original release had sold and "Integral" had sold for a combined units worldwide. , the game has sold over units worldwide. In the United States, units were sold .


title: Metal Gear Solid (1998 video game)

text: Despite its high success even in sales, Kojima, during an interview with Geoff Keighley in 2014, revealed that "Metal Gear Solid" sales expectations were low and said: "Neither I nor anyone else expected "Metal Gear Solid" to sell at all. [...] I didn't think at all of how to make this game sell well, because I didn't expect it to sell."


title: Metal Gear Solid (1998 video game)

text: "PlayStation Official Magazine – UK" review called "Metal Gear Solid" "the best game ever made. Unputdownable and unforgettable". The review by IGN opined "Metal Gear Solid" came "closer to perfection than any other game in PlayStation's action genre" and called it "beautiful, engrossing, and innovative...in every conceivable category." "Computer and Video Games" compared it to "playing a big budget action blockbuster, only better." "Arcade" magazine praised it for "introducing a brand new genre: the sneak-'em-up" and said it would "herald a tidal wave" of "sneak-'em-ups." They called it a "brilliant, technically stunning, well thought through release that's sure to influence action adventure games for many years." "GMR" called it a "cinematic classic."


title: Metal Gear Solid (1998 video game)

text: "GamePro" called it "this season's top offering [game] and one game no self-respecting gamer should be without," but criticized the frame rate that "occasionally stalls the eye-catching graphics." GameSpot was critical of how easy it is for the player to avoid being seen, as well as the game's short length, calling it "more of a work of art than ... an actual game."


title: Metal Gear Solid (1998 video game)

text: "Next Generation" reviewed the PlayStation version of the game, rating it five stars out of five, and stated that "rest assured that this is a game no player should miss and the best reason yet to own a PlayStation."


title: Metal Gear Solid (1998 video game)

text: "Metal Gear Solid" received an Excellence Award for Interactive Art at the 1998 Japan Media Arts Festival. The Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences nominated "Metal Gear Solid" for its 1998 "Outstanding Achievement in Character or Story Development" award, although the game lost to "Pokémon Red" and "Blue".


title: Metal Gear Solid (1998 video game)

text: In 1999, "Next Generation" listed "Metal Gear Solid" as number 27 on their "Top 50 Games of All Time", commenting that, ""MGS" is one of the most vibrant efforts in gaming history to bring serious ideas to games."


title: Metal Gear Solid (1998 video game)

text: "Metal Gear Solid" is credited with popularizing the stealth game genre. The idea of the player being unarmed and having to avoid being seen by enemies rather than fight them has been used in many games since. It is also sometimes acclaimed as being a film as much as a game due to the lengthy cutscenes and complicated storyline. IGN called it "the founder of the stealth genre."


title: Metal Gear Solid (1998 video game)

text: The game is often considered one of the best games for the PlayStation and was featured in best video games lists by "Computer and Video Games" in 2000, by "Electronic Gaming Monthly" and "Game Informer" in 2001, by "Retro Gamer" in 2004, by GameFAQs and "GamePro" in 2005, and by "Famitsu". "Hyper" magazine in 2001 called it "Probably the single best game on the PlayStation."


title: Metal Gear Solid (1998 video game)

text: In 2002, IGN ranked it as the best PlayStation game ever, stating that just the demo for the game had "more gameplay [in it] than in most finished titles." IGN also gave it the "Best Ending" and "Best Villain" awards. In 2005, in placing it 19th on their list of "Top 100 Games", they said that it was "a game that truly felt like a movie." "Guinness World Records" awarded "Metal Gear Solid" with a record for the "Most Innovative Use of a Video Game Controller" for the boss fight with Psycho Mantis in the "Guinness World Records Gamer's Edition" 2008 edition. In 2010, "PC Magazine" ranked it as seventh in the list of most influential video games of all time, citing its influence on "such stealthy titles as "Assassin's Creed" and "Splinter Cell"." In 2012, "Time" named it one of the 100 greatest video games of all time and G4tv ranked it as the 45th top video game of all time.


title: Metal Gear Solid (1998 video game)

text: According to 1UP.com, "Metal Gear Solid"'s cinematic style continues to influence modern action games such as "Call of Duty". "Metal Gear Solid", along with its sequel, "", was featured in the Smithsonian American Art Museum's exhibition The Art of Video Games in 2012. During August 2015, Eurogamer reanalyzed the game's technical and overall impact and claimed that "Metal Gear Solid" had been nothing less than "the first modern video game." In September 2015, "Metal Gear Solid" was voted the best original PlayStation game of all time by "PlayStation.Blog's" users.


title: Teddy Pendergrass

text: Theodore DeReese Pendergrass (March 26, 1950 – January 13, 2010) was an American soul and R&B singer-songwriter. He was born in Kingstree, South Carolina. Pendergrass spent most of his life in the Philadelphia area, and initially rose to musical fame as the lead singer of Harold Melvin & the Blue Notes. After leaving the group in 1976, Pendergrass launched a successful solo career under the Philadelphia International label, releasing five consecutive platinum albums (a record at the time for an African-American R&B artist). Pendergrass's career was suspended after a March 1982 car crash left him paralyzed from the shoulders down. Pendergrass continued his successful solo career until announcing his retirement in 2007. He died from respiratory failure in January 2010.


title: Teddy Pendergrass

text: He was born Theodore DeReese Pendergrass on March 26, 1950, in Kingstree, South Carolina. He was the only child of Jesse and Ida Geraldine (née Epps) Pendergrass. Ida suffered six miscarriages before successfully giving birth to Teddy. When Pendergrass was very young, his father left the family. As he grew older, his mother promised him that she would find his father so that they could meet. She fulfilled that promise, and Teddy met his father when he was 11 years old. Not long after, Jesse was stabbed to death on June 13, 1962, during an altercation with another man. He was 47 years of age. Pendergrass grew up in the impoverished section of North Philadelphia and often sang at church. He dreamed of being a pastor and got his wish when, at age 10, he was ordained a minister (according to author Robert Ewell Greene). Pendergrass also took up drums during this time and was a junior deacon of his church.


title: Teddy Pendergrass

text: He attended Thomas Edison High School for Boys in North Philadelphia. He sang with the Edison Mastersingers. He dropped out in the 11th grade to enter the music business, recording his first song "Angel with Muddy Feet". The recording, however, was not a commercial success. Pendergrass played drums for several local Philadelphia bands, eventually becoming the drummer of The Cadillacs (not the famed Harlem-based group of the same name). In 1970, he was spotted by the Blue Notes' founder, Harold Melvin (1939–1997), who convinced Pendergrass to play drums in the group. However, during a performance, Pendergrass began singing along, and Melvin, impressed by his vocals, made him the lead singer. Before Pendergrass joined the group, the Blue Notes had struggled to find success. This all changed when they landed a recording deal with Philadelphia International Records in 1971, thus beginning Pendergrass's successful collaboration with label founders Kenny Gamble and Leon Huff.


title: Teddy Pendergrass

text: In 1972, Harold Melvin and the Blue Notes released their first single, a slow, solemn ballad entitled "I Miss You". The song was originally written for The Dells, but the group passed on it. Noting how Pendergrass sounded like Dells lead singer Marvin Junior, Kenny Gamble decided to build the song with Pendergrass, who was only 21 at the time of the recording. Pendergrass sings much of the song in a raspy baritone voice that would become his trademark. The song also featured Blue Notes member Lloyd Parks singing falsetto in the background and spotlighted Harold Melvin adding in a rap near the end of the song as Pendergrass kept singing, feigning tears. The song, one of Gamble and Huff's most creative productions, became a major rhythm and blues hit and put the Blue Notes on the map. The group's follow-up single, "If You Don't Know Me by Now", brought the group to the mainstream with the song reaching the top 10 of the "Billboard" Hot 100, while also reaching number one on the soul no. 1 singles chart. Like "I Miss You" before it, the song was originally intended for a different artist, fellow Philadelphian native Patti LaBelle and her group Labelle but the group could not record it due to scheduling conflicts. Pendergrass and LaBelle developed a close friendship that would last until Pendergrass's death.


title: Teddy Pendergrass

text: The group rode to fame with several more releases over the years including "The Love I Lost", a song that predated the upcoming disco music scene, the ballad "Hope That We Can Be Together Soon", and socially conscious singles "Wake Up Everybody" and "Bad Luck". One of the group's notable singles was their original version of the Philly soul classic "Don't Leave Me This Way", which turned into a disco smash when Motown artist Thelma Houston released her version in 1976. By 1975, Pendergrass and Harold Melvin were at odds, mainly over financial issues and personality conflicts. Despite the fact that Pendergrass sang most of the group's songs, Melvin was controlling the group's finances. At one point, Pendergrass wanted the group to be renamed "Teddy Pendergrass and the Blue Notes" because fans kept mistaking him for Melvin. Pendergrass left the group in 1975, and the Blue Notes struggled with his replacements. They eventually left Philadelphia International and toiled in relative obscurity, until Melvin's death in 1997. As of 2014, a version of the group still tours the old school circuit, performing as Harold Melvin's Blue Notes.


title: Teddy Pendergrass

text: In 1977, Pendergrass released his self-titled album, which went platinum on the strength of the disco hit "I Don't Love You Anymore". Its follow-up single, "The Whole Town's Laughing at Me", became a top 20 R&B hit. Although not released as singles, the uptempo album tracks "You Can't Hide from Yourself" and "The More I Get, The More I Want", as well as the ballad "And If I Had" were also hits. The debut album was quickly followed by "Life Is a Song Worth Singing", in 1978. That album was even more successful with its singles "Only You" and the classic million selling number 1 R&B hit "Close the Door". The latter song firmly established Pendergrass as the top male sex symbol in soul music. The album's popularity was furthered by the disco hit "Get Up, Get Down, Get Funky, Get Loose", the ballad "It Don't Hurt Now", and the mid-tempo classic "When Somebody Loves You Back". That double platinum number-one R&B triumph was followed up in 1979 by two successes, the albums "Teddy" (which stayed at number 1 on the Billboard R&B chart for eight weeks and was named the second-biggest R&B album of the year), and the live release "Live Coast to Coast". Hits off "Teddy" included the classics "Come Go with Me", the erotic ballad "Turn Off the Lights", and the uptempo album cut "Do Me". With his sex appeal at an all-time high after his 1979 tour, Pendergrass took a more mellow approach on his 1980 album "TP". It included the classic number two R&B hit "Love TKO", the Stephanie Mills duet version of "Feel the Fire" and the Ashford & Simpson composition "Is It Still Good to You". Between 1977 and 1981, Pendergrass landed five consecutive platinum albums, which was a then record-setting number for a rhythm and blues artist.


title: Teddy Pendergrass

text: Pendergrass's popularity became massive at the end of 1978. With sold-out audiences packing his shows, his manager – the renowned Shep Gordon, who was known for his innovative approaches to publicizing his artists – soon noticed that a huge number of his audience consisted of women of all races. Gordon devised a plan for Pendergrass's next tour to play to just female audiences, starting a trend that continues today called "women-only concerts". With four platinum albums and two gold albums, Pendergrass was on his way to being what the media called "the black Elvis", not only in terms of his crossover popularity but also due to him buying a mansion akin to Elvis's Graceland, located just outside his hometown of Philadelphia. By early 1982, Pendergrass was perhaps the leading R&B male artist of his day, equaling the popularity of Marvin Gaye, and surpassing Barry White and all others in the R&B field. In 1980, the Isley Brothers released "Don't Say Goodnight (It's Time for Love)" to compete with Pendergrass's "Turn Off the Lights", which sensed Pendergrass's influence on the quiet storm format of black music.


title: Teddy Pendergrass

text: On March 18, 1982, in the East Falls section of Philadelphia on Lincoln Drive near Rittenhouse Street, Pendergrass was involved in a car crash while driving his new Rolls-Royce Silver Spirit. At the time of the accident, Pendergrass was reportedly driving Tenika Watson, a transgender woman he had known since the 1970s, to his house. It appeared to Watson that the cause of the crash was a mechanical error in the car, and that possibly someone had tampered with the brakes. Watson attested to the fact that Pendergrass was sober and uncomprehending as to why the brakes did not function. The car hit a guard rail, crossed onto the oncoming lane, and hit two trees. No other cars were involved. The two were trapped in the wreckage for 45 minutes before they were freed by emergency response services. While Watson walked away from the collision with minor injuries, Pendergrass had a spinal cord injury, leaving him a tetraplegic, paralyzed from the chest down; he never walked again.


title: Teddy Pendergrass

text: Pendergrass got well-wishes from thousands of his fans during his recovery. In August 1982, Philadelphia International released "This One's for You", which failed to chart successfully, as did 1983's "Heaven Only Knows". Both albums included material Pendergrass had recorded before the crash. The albums completed his contract with Philadelphia International. By the time Pendergrass decided to return to the studio to work on new music he had struggled to find a recording deal. Eventually signing a contract with Asylum Records and completing physical therapy, he released "Love Language" in 1984. The album included the pop ballad "Hold Me", featuring a then-unknown Whitney Houston. It reached No. 38 on the Billboard album chart and was certified Gold by the RIAA.


title: Teddy Pendergrass

text: On July 13, 1985, Pendergrass made an emotional return to the stage at the historic Live Aid concert in Philadelphia in front of a live audience of over 100,000, the concert having an estimated 1.5 billion television viewers. It was the 35-year-old's first live performance following the accident. Pendergrass tearfully thanked the audience for keeping him in their well-wishes and then performed the Diana Ross song "Reach Out and Touch (Somebody's Hand)". In 1988, Pendergrass scored his first R&B number-one hit in nearly a decade when the song "Joy", from his album of the same name, was released. A video of the song enjoyed heavy rotation on BET. It was also his final Hot 100 charted single, peaking at number 77. The album was certified Gold by the RIAA that same year. Also, Pendergrass's voice was heard on the jingles of a then local Philadelphia radio station, WSNI-FM. Pendergrass kept recording through the 1990s. One of the singer's last hits was the new jack swing song, "Believe in Love", released in 1994. In 1996, he starred alongside Stephanie Mills in the touring production of the gospel musical "Your Arms Too Short to Box with God". In 1998, Pendergrass released his autobiography entitled "Truly Blessed".


title: Teddy Pendergrass

text: Pendergrass did a concert at the Wiltern Theater in Los Angeles on February 14, 2002, entitled "The Power of Love". The concert became the album "From Teddy, With Love", which was released on the Razor & Tie record label later that year. It was his second (after "Live! Coast to Coast") and final live album. Clips of the concert, in particular his performance of his comeback song "Joy" can still be seen on YouTube. In his later years, Pendergrass's "Wake Up Everybody" has been covered by a diverse range of acts from Simply Red to Patti LaBelle and was chosen as a rallying cry during the 2004 Presidential campaign by Kenneth "Babyface" Edmonds to mobilize voters. In addition, Little Brother, Kanye West, Cam'ron, Twista, Ghostface, Tyrese Gibson, 9th Wonder, DMX and DJ Green Lantern have utilized his works.


title: Teddy Pendergrass

text: In 2006, Pendergrass announced his retirement from the music business. In 2007, he briefly returned to performing to participate in "Teddy 25: A Celebration of Life, Hope & Possibilities", a 25th anniversary awards ceremony that marked Pendergrass's crash, but also raised money for his charity, The Teddy Pendergrass Alliance, and honored those who helped Pendergrass since the accident.


title: Teddy Pendergrass

text: Pendergrass's manager and girlfriend Taazmayia "Taaz" Lang was shot dead on the doorstep of her home in April 1977. The murder remains unsolved, although Philadelphia's Black Mafia have been suspected, as they allegedly resented Lang's control over Pendergrass's lucrative career.


title: Teddy Pendergrass

text: In June 1987, Pendergrass married a former Philadanco dancer named Karen Still, who had also danced in his shows. They divorced in 2002.


title: Teddy Pendergrass

text: In the spring of 2006, Pendergrass met Joan Williams. He proposed to her after four months, and they married in a private ceremony officiated by his Pastor Alyn Waller of Enon Tabernacle Baptist Church on Easter Sunday, March 23, 2008. A formal wedding was celebrated at The Ocean Cliff Resort in Newport, Rhode Island, on September 6, 2008. As members of Enon Tabernacle Baptist Church, Joan Pendergrass set up The Enon Tabernacle Baptist Church Youth Fund in the name of Pendergrass to provide assistance and a center for Philadelphia's inner city youth.


title: Teddy Pendergrass

text: On June 5, 2009, Pendergrass underwent successful surgery for colon cancer and returned home to recover. A few weeks later he returned to the hospital with respiratory issues. After seven months, he died of respiratory failure on January 13, 2010, with his wife Joan by his side, at Bryn Mawr Hospital in Bryn Mawr, Pennsylvania. He was 59. His body was interred at the West Laurel Hill Cemetery in Bala Cynwyd, Pennsylvania.


title: Teddy Pendergrass

text: There are plans to make a feature film biopic of Pendergrass's life, and Tyrese Gibson is set to star as the late singer.


title: Teddy Pendergrass

text: In 2019, BBC Film made a documentary on Pendergrass's life titled "If You Don't Know Me". It was released February 8 on Showtime.


title: Teddy Pendergrass

text: Pendergrass received several nominations for the American Music Awards between 1979 and 1981 for Favorite Soul/R&B Male Artist, Favorite Soul/R&B Album, and Favorite Disco Artist. He won the AMA for Favorite Soul/R&B Male Artist in 1979, tied with singer Lou Rawls. Pendergrass was posthumously inducted into the National Rhythm & Blues Hall of Fame class of 2021.


title: Secure Shell

text: The Secure Shell Protocol (SSH) is a cryptographic network protocol for operating network services securely over an unsecured network. Its most notable applications are remote login and command-line execution.


title: Secure Shell

text: SSH applications are based on a client–server architecture, connecting an SSH client instance with an SSH server. SSH operates as a layered protocol suite comprising three principal hierarchical components: the "transport layer" provides server authentication, confidentiality, and integrity; the "user authentication protocol" validates the user to the server; and the "connection protocol" multiplexes the encrypted tunnel into multiple logical communication channels.


title: Secure Shell

text: SSH was designed on Unix-like operating systems, as a replacement for Telnet and for unsecured remote Unix shell protocols, such as the Berkeley Remote Shell (rsh) and the related rlogin and rexec protocols, which all use insecure, plaintext transmission of authentication tokens.


title: Secure Shell

text: SSH was first designed in 1995 by Finnish computer scientist Tatu Ylönen. Subsequent development of the protocol suite proceeded in several developer groups, producing several variants of implementation. The protocol specification distinguishes two major versions, referred to as SSH-1 and SSH-2. The most commonly implemented software stack is OpenSSH, released in 1999 as open-source software by the OpenBSD developers. Implementations are distributed for all types of operating systems in common use, including embedded systems.


title: Secure Shell

text: SSH uses public-key cryptography to authenticate the remote computer and allow it to authenticate the user, if necessary.


title: Secure Shell

text: SSH may be used in several methodologies. In the simplest manner, both ends of a communication channel use automatically generated public-private key pairs to encrypt a network connection, and then use a password to authenticate the user.


title: Secure Shell

text: When the public-private key pair is generated by the user manually, the authentication is essentially performed when the key pair is created, and a session may then be opened automatically without a password prompt. In this scenario, the public key is placed on all computers that must allow access to the owner of the matching private key, which the owner keeps private. While authentication is based on the private key, the key is never transferred through the network during authentication. SSH only verifies that the same person offering the public key also owns the matching private key.


title: Secure Shell

text: In all versions of SSH it is important to verify unknown public keys, i.e. associate the public keys with identities, before accepting them as valid. Accepting an attacker's public key without validation will authorize an unauthorized attacker as a valid user.


title: Secure Shell

text: On Unix-like systems, the list of authorized public keys is typically stored in the home directory of the user that is allowed to log in remotely, in the file ~/.ssh/authorized_keys. This file is respected by SSH only if it is not writable by anything apart from the owner and root. When the public key is present on the remote end and the matching private key is present on the local end, typing in the password is no longer required. However, for additional security the private key itself can be locked with a passphrase.


title: Secure Shell

text: The private key can also be looked for in standard places, and its full path can be specified as a command line setting (the option codice_1 for ssh). The ssh-keygen utility produces the public and private keys, always in pairs.


title: Secure Shell

text: SSH also supports password-based authentication that is encrypted by automatically generated keys. In this case, the attacker could imitate the legitimate server side, ask for the password, and obtain it (man-in-the-middle attack). However, this is possible only if the two sides have never authenticated before, as SSH remembers the key that the server side previously used. The SSH client raises a warning before accepting the key of a new, previously unknown server. Password authentication can be disabled from the server side.


title: Secure Shell

text: SSH is typically used to log into a remote machine and execute commands, but it also supports tunneling, forwarding TCP ports and X11 connections; it can transfer files using the associated SSH file transfer (SFTP) or secure copy (SCP) protocols. SSH uses the client–server model.


title: Secure Shell

text: An SSH client program is typically used for establishing connections to an SSH daemon, such as sshd, accepting remote connections. Both are commonly present on most modern operating systems, including macOS, most distributions of Linux, OpenBSD, FreeBSD, NetBSD, Solaris and OpenVMS. Notably, versions of Windows prior to Windows 10 version 1709 do not include SSH by default. Proprietary, freeware and open source (e.g. PuTTY, and the version of OpenSSH which is part of Cygwin) versions of various levels of complexity and completeness exist. File managers for UNIX-like systems (e.g. Konqueror) can use the FISH protocol to provide a split-pane GUI with drag-and-drop. The open source Windows program WinSCP provides similar file management (synchronization, copy, remote delete) capability using PuTTY as a back-end. Both WinSCP and PuTTY are available packaged to run directly off a USB drive, without requiring installation on the client machine. Setting up an SSH server in Windows typically involves enabling a feature in Settings app. In Windows 10 version 1709, an official Win32 port of OpenSSH is available.


title: Secure Shell

text: SSH is important in cloud computing to solve connectivity problems, avoiding the security issues of exposing a cloud-based virtual machine directly on the Internet. An SSH tunnel can provide a secure path over the Internet, through a firewall to a virtual machine.


title: Secure Shell

text: The IANA has assigned TCP port 22, UDP port 22 and SCTP port 22 for this protocol. IANA had listed the standard TCP port 22 for SSH servers as one of the well-known ports as early as 2001. SSH can also be run using SCTP rather than TCP as the connection oriented transport layer protocol.


title: Secure Shell

text: In 1995, Tatu Ylönen, a researcher at Helsinki University of Technology, Finland, designed the first version of the protocol (now called SSH-1) prompted by a password-sniffing attack at his university network. The goal of SSH was to replace the earlier rlogin, TELNET, FTP and rsh protocols, which did not provide strong authentication nor guarantee confidentiality. Ylönen released his implementation as freeware in July 1995, and the tool quickly gained in popularity. Towards the end of 1995, the SSH user base had grown to 20,000 users in fifty countries.


title: Secure Shell

text: In December 1995, Ylönen founded SSH Communications Security to market and develop SSH. The original version of the SSH software used various pieces of free software, such as GNU libgmp, but later versions released by SSH Communications Security evolved into increasingly proprietary software.


title: Secure Shell

text: "Secsh" was the official Internet Engineering Task Force's (IETF) name for the IETF working group responsible for version 2 of the SSH protocol. In 2006, a revised version of the protocol, SSH-2, was adopted as a standard. This version is incompatible with SSH-1. SSH-2 features both security and feature improvements over SSH-1. Better security, for example, comes through Diffie–Hellman key exchange and strong integrity checking via message authentication codes. New features of SSH-2 include the ability to run any number of shell sessions over a single SSH connection. Due to SSH-2's superiority and popularity over SSH-1, some implementations such as libssh (v0.8.0+), Lsh and Dropbear support only the SSH-2 protocol.


title: Secure Shell

text: In January 2006, well after version 2.1 was established, specified that an SSH server supporting 2.0 as well as prior versions should identify its protocol version as 1.99. This version number does not reflect a historical software revision, but a method to identify backward compatibility.


title: Secure Shell

text: In 1999, developers, desiring availability of a free software version, restarted software development from the 1.2.12 release of the original SSH program, which was the last released under an open source license. This served as a code base for Björn Grönvall's OSSH software. Shortly thereafter, OpenBSD developers forked Grönvall's code and created OpenSSH, which shipped with Release 2.6 of OpenBSD. From this version, a "portability" branch was formed to port OpenSSH to other operating systems.


title: Secure Shell

text: , OpenSSH was the single most popular SSH implementation, being the default version in a large number of operating system distributions. OSSH meanwhile has become obsolete. OpenSSH continues to be maintained and supports the SSH-2 protocol, having expunged SSH-1 support from the codebase in the OpenSSH 7.6 release.


title: Secure Shell

text: SSH is a protocol that can be used for many applications across many platforms including most Unix variants (Linux, the BSDs including Apple's macOS, and Solaris), as well as Microsoft Windows. Some of the applications below may require features that are only available or compatible with specific SSH clients or servers. For example, using the SSH protocol to implement a VPN is possible, but presently only with the OpenSSH server and client implementation.


title: Secure Shell

text: This open architecture provides considerable flexibility, allowing the use of SSH for a variety of purposes beyond a secure shell. The functionality of the transport layer alone is comparable to Transport Layer Security (TLS); the user-authentication layer is highly extensible with custom authentication methods; and the connection layer provides the ability to multiplex many secondary sessions into a single SSH connection, a feature comparable to BEEP and not available in TLS.


title: Secure Shell

text: In 1998, a vulnerability was described in SSH 1.5 which allowed the unauthorized insertion of content into an encrypted SSH stream due to insufficient data integrity protection from CRC-32 used in this version of the protocol. A fix known as SSH Compensation Attack Detector was introduced into most implementations. Many of these updated implementations contained a new integer overflow vulnerability that allowed attackers to execute arbitrary code with the privileges of the SSH daemon, typically root.


title: Secure Shell

text: In January 2001 a vulnerability was discovered that allows attackers to modify the last block of an IDEA-encrypted session. The same month, another vulnerability was discovered that allowed a malicious server to forward a client authentication to another server.


title: Secure Shell

text: Since SSH-1 has inherent design flaws which make it vulnerable, it is now generally considered obsolete and should be avoided by explicitly disabling fallback to SSH-1. Most modern servers and clients support SSH-2.


title: Secure Shell

text: In November 2008, a theoretical vulnerability was discovered for all versions of SSH which allowed recovery of up to 32 bits of plaintext from a block of ciphertext that was encrypted using what was then the standard default encryption mode, CBC. The most straightforward solution is to use CTR, counter mode, instead of CBC mode, since this renders SSH resistant to the attack.


title: Secure Shell

text: On December 28, 2014 "Der Spiegel" published classified information leaked by whistleblower Edward Snowden which suggests that the National Security Agency may be able to decrypt some SSH traffic. The technical details associated with such a process were not disclosed. A 2017 analysis of the CIA hacking tools "BothanSpy" and "Gyrfalcon" suggested that the SSH protocol was not compromised.


title: Secure Shell

text: The following RFC publications by the IETF "secsh" working group document SSH-2 as a proposed Internet standard.