title: Bachelor of Laws

text: Various universities in the United Kingdom and Australia will allow a degree that combines study with a non-law discipline. For example, some universities in the United Kingdom offer a combined study of law and history leading to a B.A. degree that is accepted by the Law Society and Inns of Court as equivalent to an LL.B.


title: Bachelor of Laws

text: The University of London External Programme in Laws (LL.B.) has been awarding its law degree via distance learning since 1858.


title: Bachelor of Laws

text: At various universities in the UK such as Oxford, Nottingham and Cambridge the principal law degree is often a B.A., in either Jurisprudence or Law. The B.C.L and LL.M are second-entry and postgraduate degrees. The University of Cambridge has recently replaced their LL.B. degree with an LL.M.


title: Bachelor of Laws

text: Some universities in the U.K. including Bournemouth University have a four-year LL.B. course, which consists of a 40-week industrial work placement. Staffordshire University also offer a two-year full-time LL.B. course.


title: Bachelor of Laws

text: A unique degree of LL.B.(Hons) Sharia and Law has been introduced by the International Islamic University, Islamabad. The distinctive feature of this course is the comparative study of both Islamic law and Common law. Similar programme can be found in Malaysia as offered by International Islamic University Malaysia and Universiti Sains Islam Malaysia.


title: Bachelor of Laws

text: The United States no longer offers the LL.B., though some universities have introduced Bachelor of Science degrees in legal studies featuring curricula that include courses in constitutional law, tort law, and criminal law. The Master of Science of Laws (M.S.L.) is also offered in some universities accredited by the American Bar Association. While the LL.B. was conferred until 1971 at Yale University, since that time, all universities in the United States have awarded the professional doctorate J.D., which then became the generally standardized degree in most states as the compulsory prerequisite to sit for the bar exam prior to practice of law. Many law schools converted their basic law degree programmes from LL.B. to J.D. in the 1960s, and permitted prior LL.B. graduates to retroactively receive the new doctorate degrees by returning their LL.B. in exchange for a J.D. degree. Yale graduates who received LL.B. degrees prior to 1971 were similarly permitted to change their degree to a J.D., though many did not take the option, choosing to retain their LL.B. degrees.


title: Bachelor of Laws

text: Before the program was phased out, notable recipients of the LL.B. include former U.S. presidents Richard Nixon and Gerald Ford; former U.S. Supreme Court Justices Earl Warren, Anthony Kennedy, William Rehnquist, Ruth Bader Ginsburg, Thurgood Marshall and Stephen Breyer; former FBI director J. Edgar Hoover; American judge and jurist Richard Allen Posner; as well as the first female commissioner of the Federal Communications Commission, Frieda B. Hennock.


title: Bachelor of Laws

text: In 2014, the University of Arizona established the Bachelor of Arts in Law (B.A. in Law), in which undergraduate students take core law classes taught by law school faculty in subjects such as property, contracts, torts, administrative law, and criminal and civil procedure. The B.A. in Law also provides the opportunity for an expedited path to law school, allowing qualified students to start pursuing a J.D. at the University of Arizona James E. Rogers College of Law after their junior year, thus earning both a Bachelor of Arts in Law and a J.D. in six years.


title: Bachelor of Laws

text: For the most part, foreign law graduates seeking admission to the bar in the United States will find their LL.B. law degree does not of itself fulfill the core admission requirements of most states, thereby not allowing them to take the bar exam.


title: Bachelor of Laws

text: The major exception to this is New York, where those foreign graduates who have fulfilled the educational requirements to practice law in another common law country through study at an approved educational institution, similar in both duration and content to the equivalent teaching at an approved U.S. law school, are permitted to sit for the bar exam. Additionally, both New York and Massachusetts permit Canadian LL.B. holders to take the bar exam. The requirements of each of the states vary, and in some states sufficient years of practice in one's home country may allow for those otherwise excluded to sit for the bar exam.


title: Bachelor of Laws

text: Most states require completion of a law degree from a law school accredited by the American Bar Association. As a result, American law schools typically offer one-year LL.M. programmes for foreign attorneys; many such law schools may have no other LL.M. programmes. Classes included in these "American Law", "Comparative Law" "inter alia" LL.M. programmes are selected to introduce foreign attorneys to American-style common law practice, such as first-year J.D. courses on civil procedure, constitutional law, criminal law, legal research and analysis, and jurisprudence.


title: Bachelor of Laws

text: European Union law permits European Union citizens with LL.B. degrees from one EU Member State, e.g., Ireland, France or Spain, who practise law and who are qualified lawyers in one of these countries for three or more years, to practise also in every other member state. The actual procedure to receive the respective national licence is regulated by the member state and therefore differs from country to country, and temporary restrictions may in certain cases exist, but every EU member has to apply the relevant EU Directives to its own national law.


title: Bachelor of Laws

text: As a consequence of the Bologna Process, recently many universities of applied sciences and a few traditional universities in Germany have introduced LL.B. programmes, replacing the degree. The LL.B. is a three- or four-year full-time law degree. As opposed to courses of study leading to the State Examination—the master's-level professional law degree in Germany—most LL.B. degree programmes concentrate on private law and can feature a component of education in business administration. Graduates of LL.B. courses can continue LL.M. studies and in some cases sit for the first State Examination after one or more years of additional law studies in order to qualify for practicing law in Germany.


title: Bachelor of Laws

text: In Malta, the Bachelor of Laws (LL.B.) degree, offered by the University of Malta, is an undergraduate degree that of itself is not sufficient for admission into any of the legal professions. Likewise, in Italy a five-year course in law ("Laurea magistrale in giurisprudenza a ciclo unico") is offered by law schools, the model being inspired to the French and German systems . The Italian diploma in law, which is the equivalent of a Bachelor of Laws (LL.B.), does not qualify to pursue directly a career in any legal profession, as graduates are required to undergo a traineeship for the duration of 18 months to sit for the Italian bar or take the exam as public notary; alternatively, this requirement can be met by undertaking two further year of studies ("Diploma di specializzazione per le professioni legali" - equivalent of a 2-year M.A.). In any case, magistrate judges and prosecutors are selected by means of a competitive examination open only to lawyers, public notaries and certain other public officials pursuant to Article 2 of D. lgs. 160/06, as well as those who have completed the "Diploma di specializzazione per le professioni legali" pursuant to Law 111/2007 of July, 30 2007"."


title: Bachelor of Laws

text: In Spain, there is no such thing comparable to an LL.B. degree, with law studies lasting 4 years in total. This is the result of a recent reform, which has turned the "Licenciadura en Derecho" into the "Grado en Derecho". Prior to that, the sole "Licenciatura en Derecho" was allowing graduates of law direct access to the legal profession without further training and masters. Currently, holders of a Spanish law degree must attend a specific LL.M. in Legal practice course (similar to the former British LPC) to gain admission to the Spanish bar.


title: Bachelor of Laws

text: In Denmark, universities now offer three-year LL.B. programmes, although this is not sufficient to practice law. Students wishing to practice law should continue with a Masters in Law programme, leading to the cand.jur degree. Alternatively, students may choose to use the LL.B. as a basis for other courses within the social sciences or humanities.


title: Bachelor of Laws

text: There are also conversion courses available for non-law graduates, available as an alternative to the full-length LL.B. degree course. One such example of a conversion course in England and Wales is the G.D.L. (Graduate Diploma in Law), which takes one year to complete.


title: Bachelor of Laws

text: In the U.K., as well as in other Common Law jurisdictions, the main approach is the Graduate Entry (undergraduate) LL.B. degree, where graduates from another discipline can complete the LL.B. as a second degree, although this may occasionally require taking qualifying law courses within the first degree to meet professional requirements in full. Therefore, it is not entirely correct to regard it as an 'accelerated' degree.


title: Bachelor of Laws

text: This 'double degree' system was, at one time, an alternative route to the former B.L. degree (now obsolete) but students were required to have independent means to complete the second degree. The current Scots LL.B. degree, a direct-entry undergraduate degree, meets all professional requirements when coupled with the Diploma in Legal Practice. The Diploma was introduced circa 1980; prior to this, all professional exams were taken within the degree itself (or as part of an earlier non-law degree), limiting the scope for academic study.


title: Bachelor of Laws

text: Therefore, the pursuit of the double degree nowadays, for school-leavers at least, is mainly to indicate that one can be adept at two disciplines. Unlike Joint Honours, a second degree is undertaken separately, within the prescribed timeframe. Rarely, the double degree principle is found in reverse; just as an arts or science degree can provide exemption from the full academic (not professional) requirements of a subsequent law degree, similarly a law degree can provide exemption from the full academic requirements of a subsequent arts or science degree. In this case, it is more likely that the second degree will be taken as a self-funding mature student, possibly on a part-time basis.


title: Carnage (character)

text: Carnage is a supervillain appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics, usually depicted as an adversary of Spider-Man and the archenemy of Venom. The character made its first appearance in "The Amazing Spider-Man" #361 (April 1992), and was created by writer David Michelinie and artist Mark Bagley, although the first published artwork of Carnage was penciled by Chris Marrinan.


title: Carnage (character)

text: Carnage belongs to a race of amorphous parasitic extraterrestrial organisms known as Symbiotes, which form a symbiotic bond with their hosts and give them super-human abilities. Originating as an offspring of Venom, Carnage is much more powerful than its parent symbiote because of the symbiotes' biology, and is in many ways a darker version of him. Like Venom, Carnage has had multiple hosts over the years, but its most infamous one remains its first - killer Cletus Kasady, whose sadistic personality perfectly matches that of the symbiote. Other notable hosts include Ben Reilly, Karl Malus, and Norman Osborn, as well as Gwen Stacy in the alternate Ultimate Marvel continuity. While the majority of Carnage's hosts are male, the symbiote itself was referred to with feminine pronouns ("she/her") by Kasady and other hosts from the early 2000s until the lats 2010s, after giving birth to its first significant offspring, Toxin, in 2004.


title: Carnage (character)

text: Since its original introduction in comics, the character has been adapted into other forms of media, such as television series and video games. Woody Harrelson voiced Carnage in its first live-action appearance in the film "" (2021), set in Sony's Spider-Man Universe (SSU), as well as portraying Cletus Kasady, reprising his cameo role from "Venom" (2018). In 2009, the Cletus Kasady version of Carnage was ranked as IGN's 90th Greatest Comic Book Villain of All Time.


title: Carnage (character)

text: The Carnage symbiote was derived by writer David Michelinie while Mark Bagley designed the character. The symbiote was perceived to be a darker version of Venom, and was created due to the writers not wanting a replacement for Eddie Brock as Venom. Carnage was in part created due to Venom's immense popularity with fans. The character was originally meant to be named "Chaos", and then "Ravage", before being settled as "Carnage".


title: Carnage (character)

text: When Eddie Brock's Venom symbiote soon returned to be bonded again, allowing Venom to escape prison, the symbiote left its offspring in the cell; due to its alien mindset, the symbiote felt no emotional attachment to its offspring, regarding it as insignificant, and thus never communicated its existence to Brock via their telepathic link. The new symbiote then bonded with Cletus Kasady through a cut on his hand, transforming him into Carnage. The bond between the Carnage symbiote and Kasady was stronger than the bond between Brock and the Venom symbiote. Cletus Kasady was also a serial killer and thought of as insane. As a result, Carnage is far more violent, powerful, and deadly than Venom. Kasady and the symbiote would then be a main antagonist in "Maximum Carnage" and Kasady would continually be the most recurring character to use the Carnage symbiote in many publications.


title: Carnage (character)

text: The Carnage symbiote briefly managed to escape Kasady by travelling through the plumbing in his cell. It briefly used John Jameson as its host, but eventually transferred itself to Spider-Man— Ben Reilly at the time— when Ben bonded with it in order to prevent it from hurting any innocent people, creating Spider-Carnage. Ben's willpower held out against the symbiote's murderous desires long enough for him to return it to Ravencroft. Reilly subsequently attempted to destroy the symbiote by subjecting himself to a potentially lethal blast of microwaves, but it escaped back to Kasady after the microwaves forced it to separate from Reilly.


title: Carnage (character)

text: After Kasady was lobotomized, he was broken out of prison by the Wizard and Klaw, who intend to recruit him into the Frightful Four and turn him into their own version of Venom. After a failed attempt to control Kasady, Wizard transfers the Symbiote to Dr. Karl Malus. Dr. Malus was enraged and under the influences of the Symbiote tried to kill his teammates, but he was subdued by Klaw and controlled by Wizard, who renames him "Superior Carnage" and equips him with weapons.


title: Carnage (character)

text: The trio are confronted by the Superior Spider-Man and during their battle the Wizard loses his control over Carnage and he is fatally injured once Spider-Man accidentally drops him due to the shock of finding out Wizard read his mind and knows about Otto Octavius. Carnage, now free, goes on a rampage and starts to kill anyone in front of him. Klaw tries to stop him, but due to his weapon being damaged he fails and realizes that the only way is for the Wizard to take back control. Both Carnage and Klaw make their way outside. Carnage fights the Superior Spider-Man and admits that although he liked using weapons, for him ripping and slashing the bodies is better. Klaw tries to get the Wizard to control Carnage again, but is killed by Carnage and the explosion separates the Symbiote from its host, only to bond with the injured Wizard.


title: Carnage (character)

text: Following the events of "Secret Empire", the Carnage symbiote was stolen from an old S.H.I.E.L.D. storehouse by the then-powerless Norman Osborn. He initially found himself overwhelmed by the symbiote's desire for mindless slaughter when he allowed it to merge with him, but he has been able to 'persuade' the symbiote to let him take control of Carnage's powers to show it something other than 'boring' mindless slaughter. Using this combination of powers during the "Go Down Swinging" storyline, Norman is easily able to tear through Human Torch, Clash, Silk, Miles Morales, and Agent Anti-Venom, with the combination of the symbiote and the Goblin serum rendering Carnage immune to its traditional weaknesses, eventually transferring part of the symbiote to his grandson Normie enough to turn him into a miniature version of Red Goblin. The Carnage symbiote is seemingly destroyed by Spider-Man when he hits it with an exploding gas tank, however, because the symbiote was attached to Norman when Peter destroyed it, he wonders what sort of effect that might have had on his old foe's mind. Later as Spider-Man visits Norman in Ravencroft, it's revealed that Norman's mind appears to have been completely fried and now believes that Spider-Man is actually Norman Osborn and he is Cletus Kasady. It's not clear whether or not he's faking it or if he had actually lost his mind. Meanwhile, Harry manages to remove the Carnage symbiote from Normie. Not all of it has gone.


title: Carnage (character)

text: Following the defeat of Cletus Kasady, the Carnage and Grendel symbiotes were absorbed by Eddie Brock who later is given an offer to join the Avengers, but in the middle of his big day Carnage is able to overcome Venom and takes over. Eddie leaves before things get out of hand leaving the Avengers with strange reactions. Eddie gets back home and tries to quiet the Carnage in a way he has done before with Venom, heavy medication. Eddie passes out and has a vision of Knull. This causes Eddie to take off and head towards the island where he long ago had thought he had killed Spider-Man and where he remained until the emergence of Carnage. But Carnage catches on to Eddie's thoughts and causes the plane to crash land. Separated from the Carnage symbiote, Eddie is ready to face it off, but after a narrow escape that cost him his left hand, Eddie was eventually rescued by the Avengers who promptly nuked the island to finally eradicate the symbiotes still on it. Meanwhile, in order to find his father, Dylan discovers a unique ability he has to track and control symbiotes, which he uses to find Eddie and learns a terrible truth: Eddie never left the island at all. Instead, he has been bonded against his will to Carnage. Using the Venom symbiote and taking the form of a Tyrannosaurus rex, Dylan tries to separate his father from Carnage but only allows the Carnage symbiote to take Dylan to his father's mindscape. There, Dylan is able to finally free himself and Eddie from Carnage's control, but the symbiote survives the ordeal and is able to leave the island too by bonding with a shark.


title: Carnage (character)

text: Following the confrontation with the new King in Black, a piece of the symbiote survived and chooses a fish for a host and then attacks a shark. It eventually moves up the food chain and arrives on a fishing boat and begins again a killing spree. Inspired by what Eddie had done, Carnage formulated a new plan to make a comeback using the power Knull had bequeathed it to create a rival Hive with itself as its nexus. Carnage slowly made its way back to New York - restoring itself by devouring everyone it came across en route. Once back in Manhattan, Carnage bonded to Senator Arthur Krane who was running a campaign to get Earth rid of aliens, both the good and bad type, and is working with Alchemax and the Friends of Humanity. Carnage also began to infect many of the symbiotes left behind on Earth with its will, including Phage, Lasher, Riot and Agony. However, Carnage's failed attempt to corrupt the Anti-Venom symbiote alerted Flash Thompson and Iron Man.


title: Carnage (character)

text: Though bonded to Kasady's bloodstream the symbiote found a way to abandon its host by travelling through the Ravencroft Institute's water pipes overwhelming Ravencroft's chief, John Jameson. Carnage used him to commit further murders before eventually bonding with Spider-Man (who was Ben Reilly at the time).


title: Carnage (character)

text: During a subsequent rampage, the Carnage symbiote briefly attempted to take control of the Silver Surfer, who was visiting Earth at the time to welcome the Fantastic Four after their return to life following the battle with Onslaught. As it turned out, Galactus had consumed a planet that many Symbiotes lived on, and the species had made it a race memory so that each future Symbiote could remember it, as well as the Surfer who had been Galactus's herald at the time. Upon seeing the Silver Surfer, the Carnage Symbiote abandoned Kasady and bonded with the Silver Surfer, becoming the Carnage Cosmic. Spider-Man and the Surfer managed to return the Symbiote to Kasady, who was dying from stomach cancer, and then the Silver Surfer proceeded to seal both host and Symbiote in an unbreakable prison in an attempt to force them both to reflect on their sins for eternity.


title: Carnage (character)

text: After Carnage was ripped in half by the Sentry outside the Earth atmosphere it is later discovered that, although the host was presumably killed, the symbiote survived by becoming dormant and returned to Earth, where it was discovered by Michael Hall, a competitor of Tony Stark. He brought Shriek and her doctor, Tanis Nieves, so he could use Shriek to keep the symbiote alive in order to use the properties of the symbiote, to create prosthetic limbs and exo-suits which respond in the same ways as a symbiote. One such person, Dr. Tanis Nieves, is outfitted with one of these prosthetic arms after she is caught in an attack by the Doppelganger, who tried to rescue Shriek. When near the symbiote, her arm goes wild and forces her to kill several scientists before the symbiote forcefully bonds to her, becoming the new Carnage. After the symbiote uses Tanis to break into a Hall Corporation facility, it is revealed that Kasady is alive (although both of his legs have been severed), his body preserved by the symbiote and repaired by Hall's prosthetics. Kasady reclaims the symbiote and becomes Carnage once more, attempting to avenge his captivity while Spider-Man and Iron Man struggle to stop him. It is then revealed that Carnage was once again pregnant, and the suit's spawn briefly bonds to Tanis, but she removes it from herself and the symbiote bonds to Shriek before being torn from her. Scared of Shriek's malice, the symbiote arm then rebonds to Tanis, creating a new hero, Scorn, who defeats Shriek and forces her to use her sonic shriek to weaken Carnage, but she escapes.


title: Carnage (character)

text: Ultimately, Spider-Man brings out Kasady's body to successfully draw the symbiote into it, which immediately devours Dr. Malus and then prepares to finish off the Wizard. However, Klaw's ephemeral spirit focuses his sound manipulation powers one last time for a split second to create a powerful sonic blast that disables Carnage, allowing the symbiote to be recaptured. In the epilogue it is shown that the symbiote has managed to repair the Wizard's and Kasady's brain damage.


title: Carnage (character)

text: After the symbiote had died in captivity, a sample of the symbiote was being examined by Dr. Carla Unger, until the sample entered into her body. When she went home, the symbiote formed around her and then she with the symbiote killed her abusive husband. After that, the symbiote consumed her and went to other hosts to get back to Kasady. When the symbiote arrived at an injured Kasady, a scientist, who wanted the symbiote for himself tried to kill Kasady, but the symbiote rebonded to Cletus.


title: Carnage (character)

text: Carnage bonded to a great white shark in order to escape from the Isla de Huesos, and prowled the ocean for several months as the "red king of darkness". Eventually it stumbled upon a boat full of whalers and seizing the opportunity, Carnage catches one of the whalers and bonds to him, climbs aboard and prepares to slaughter the crew, intent on taking its place as the Red Right Hand of the King in Black. At that exact moment however, Knull is killed by Eddie Brock, causing the symbiote dome encasing the Earth to shatter into countless symbiotes. Through the symbiote hive-mind, Eddie, now the new god of the symbiotes, calls out to Carnage, who snarls for her nemesis to get out of his head. As symbiotes rain from the sky onto the ship and into the ocean, they bond to the crew of the ship and state that they are Venom, leaving Carnage shocked and incredulous. Manifesting an arm-blade, Carnage snarls that she'll kill them all but is unceremoniously booted overboard. Interjecting, the Venom symbiote states that Knull is dead and that Eddie is the new King in Black, making Carnage now one of his subjects. As Carnage sinks back into the ocean, Eddie says she is not welcome in his reformed Hive and sentences her to execution. Countless symbiote-controlled sharks began swarming Carnage and devouring her in a feeding frenzy until the symbiote completely disappears in the darkness of the ocean.


title: Carnage (character)

text: As Eddie Brock explained, the Carnage symbiote was born with abilities even more singular than those of its progenitor—due to the fact that it gestated in an environment alien to it—Earth. The alien symbiote endows Kasady with physical strength greater than that of Spider-Man and Venom combined and shape-shifting abilities, allows it to project a web-like substance from any part of his body including the formation of weapons, and enables it to plant thoughts into a person's head using a symbiote tendril. Much like Spider-Man, Kasady has the ability to cling to virtually any surface, and has a version of Spider-Man's spider-sense, as the symbiote can relay information to him from any angle and grants Kasady the ability to "see" in any direction, warning him of incoming threats. As a result, Kasady can rapidly crawl, walk, or run across even slick surfaces. The Carnage symbiote has abilities similar to those of Spider-Man as a direct result of the Venom symbiote bonding to Peter Parker, who transferred some of Spider-Man's power into the symbiote.


title: Carnage (character)

text: Kasady is able to regenerate damaged body tissues much faster and more extensively than that of an ordinary human. This has been shown as powerful enough to allow him to regenerate from losing any part of body, from head to feet. However, after being torn in half by the Sentry, he was fitted with artificial legs, but this occurred while he was separated from the symbiote. Kasady is also immune to the effects of all Earthly diseases and infections as long as he remains bonded with the symbiote. Like Venom, the symbiote is vulnerable to sound (to a much smaller degree than Venom) and heat (to a much larger degree than Venom), and is undetectable to Spider-Man's spider-sense. Unlike Venom, Carnage can launch parts of itself at enemies in the form of solid weapons such as darts, spears, knives, axes, etc., although they disintegrate into dust within ten seconds of leaving Carnage's body. Carnage also has the unique ability to warp its appendages into different arms, legs, and even wings. This is shown on several occasions when Carnage mutates fingers and arms into what look like large swords.


title: Carnage (character)

text: Kasady has full control over the size, shape, color (usually red and black), texture, and hardness of the symbiote (and any part thereof). Like Venom, he can make the symbiote look like normal clothing (which he has done on rare occasion), or act as "camouflage" to an extent. With the symbiote bonded to his bloodstream, he can "regenerate" his costume from scratch simply by bleeding. The symbiote has the peculiar ability to block its parent's (Venom's) ability to sense and track it. The symbiote is also able to rapidly adapt to new environments: when Kasady was taken into space by the Sentry, the symbiote was able to save his life by growing small sacks around his mouth that converted carbon dioxide into oxygen, allowing Kasady to stay alive long enough to be recovered.


title: Carnage (character)

text: In some interpretations, the Carnage symbiote is vampiric, feeding on and thus endangering its victims by only a mere touch. The symbiote has also shown the ability to call parts of itself back to the main symbiote, reintegrating them. It can also send irresistible commands to parts of itself that are in technology; these were used to break the bones of the Iron Rangers when they challenged Carnage while wearing symbiote-enhanced technological exo-suits. Using these last two abilities, Carnage absorbed the five Iron Rangers, grew to an enormous size, and became blue.


title: Carnage (character)

text: Finally, Carnage's powers have always been abnormally enhanced from the maniacal will and insane worldview that Kasady has had from the age of 8 years old. Kasady sees chaos and random, undirected violence as reality, and considers order and virtue to be illusions. He takes an almost artistic pride in his mayhem, likes to leave a trail for others to follow (usually leaving the phrase "Carnage Rules" written in his own blood), and is recklessly willing to take on the most dangerous and powerful opponents and victims. On rare occasions, however, he has deliberately spared individuals to serve as witnesses for others: for instance, Joe Robertson's wife Martha during "Savage Rebirth". Kasady is essentially taking revenge on the whole world for the torments, both real and imagined, of his childhood.


title: Carnage (character)

text: When the Carnage symbiote was joined with Norman Osborn, the resulting combination was immune to traditional symbiote weaknesses of sound and fire, although Anti-Venom's touch was still dangerous.


title: Carnage (character)

text: The Earth-15 psychotic Peter Parker and Carnage combine to become the "Spider", and becomes a member of Weapon X in "Exiles". He is killed when Firestar explodes from her powers.


title: Carnage (character)

text: In the MC2 future timeline, Carnage, also known as Specimen 297, bonds with Spider-Girl's friend Moose Mansfied, who wanted to use the symbiote to cure his father from cancer. He also infects Spider-Girl's little brother, turning him into a miniature version of himself. Spider-Girl uses the sonic blasters of the villain Reverb to destroy all traces of the symbiote.


title: Carnage (character)

text: In a later timeline, samples of the symbiote are used to create Biopreds, living weapons that the government use to try to stop "Mayhem", Spider-Girl's part-symbiote clone, who, after killing the real Spider-Girl, became a murderous vigilante, eventually killing the hero American Dream. The Biopreds run wild, however, decimating the world and its defenders. Mayhem, seeing the error of her ways, goes back in time and sacrifices herself to stop her past self from killing Spider-Girl, ensuring the events that led to the Biopreds' creation never occurred.


title: Carnage (character)

text: The Ultimate Marvel version of Carnage is a self-regenerating vampiric organism. This version is created from DNA samples of both Spider-Man (Peter Parker) and the Lizard, and combined with samples from Richard Parker's symbiotic suit research.


title: Carnage (character)

text: When first introduced, the organism was a blob of instinct, with no intelligence or self-awareness, with its only aim to feed on the DNA of others, including Gwen Stacy, to stabilize itself. After feeding on multiple people, Carnage turns into a damaged form of Richard. Carnage and Peter battle to which Peter throws Carnage into a fire factor steel chimney, killing the beast. But before its death, the organism splintered into a replica of Gwen's form.


title: Carnage (character)

text: In "Ultimate Spider-Man" #98, Gwen Stacy appears to have no memory of her "death" and believes she was in a hospital, from which she has escaped. In issue #100, after a raft of revelations, the stress of the situation enrages Gwen. She transforms into Carnage before leaping out the window. In the next issue, Richard Parker claims Gwen should not have met Peter at all, and was merely an experiment in stem cell research. This Gwen/Carnage fights with the Fantastic Four, Nick Fury, and the Spider-Slayers drones, until she is knocked unconscious by a beam of light, and taken into custody. In issue No. 113, the Green Goblin causes a massive prison break from the Triskelion. An inmate appearing to be Gwen walks out amidst the chaos, disappearing in the shadows. It has been revealed the resurrected Gwen is still the original Ultimate Carnage faced earlier in its run. After "devouring" Gwen, this incarnation of Carnage has gone on to restore her "essence", becoming Gwen Stacy.


title: Carnage (character)

text: During the "War of the Symbiotes" storyline, Gwen/Carnage's back story in the Triskelion is revealed. It is shown Gwen has been taking some form of therapy. However, when the Goblin broke out of the Triskelion, Gwen escaped and went to Peter's old house in a confused and terrified state, with Carnage's face on her body. During an exchange between Peter and Gwen, Eddie Brock attempts to attack Aunt May and retake the Venom symbiote. In a rage, Spider-Man engages Eddie on a nearby rooftop. During the fight, Gwen is shown to be able to use her symbiote to fight off Eddie, but the Venom symbiote reconstitutes itself upon contact with Carnage and absorbs the symbiote, rendering Gwen an ordinary girl once again.


title: Carnage (character)

text: On Earth-311, Canice Cassidy believed that he was bonded to a demon and formed the universe's version of Sinister Six called Sinister Sextet with Electro, Hobgoblin, Karnov (Earth-411's version of Kraven the Hunter), Magus (Earth-311's version of Mysterio), and Serpent (who is similar to Lizard) as its members. The dimension-hopping Web-Warriors who aid dimensions (who lost its Spider-Man) defeated Sinister Sextet, and as they round up their captives, they notice that Electro escaped, unbeknownst to the group, followed them to the Great Web.


title: Carnage (character)

text: In "Venomverse", when Venom and Eddie Brock from Prime Earth were recruited into a war between lethal protectors from across the multiverse and the symbiote-eating Poisons, the Venoms from the multiverse were on the ropes until Eddie had the bright idea to recruit the psychopath Carnage to their side. They summoned a Carnage that hailed from a world where he had succeeded in killing Venom, and while he was volatile at first, engaging in battle with the Resistance, when he realized he had the opportunity to fight "a buncha messed-up super-heroes" he decided to join the Venoms. For some reason, Carnage was immune to the Poisons, and he helped tip the scales in their favor as one last ditch suicide run and was left for dead alongside Poison Deadpool, and was seemingly killed when the Hive's ship was destroyed, after the heroes were sent back to their respective dimensions.


title: Carnage (character)

text: During the "Secret Wars", when Elsa Bloodstone along with a child were in a world of zombified characters, they run into a zombie Carnage. He was killed when Elsa threw Carnage's head to a zombie Sauron.


title: Carnage (character)

text: During the King in Black storyline, Mary Jane Watson is attacked by Knull's symbiotes and is forcibly bonded with them turning her into Carnage who gains its power from Mary Jane's secret hatred and envy for Gwen Stacy/Spider-Woman.


title: Carnage (character)

text: Carnage was also used in DC and Marvel's Amalgam Comics, where he was amalgamated with Bizarro into "Bizarnage", an adversary of Spider-Boy who appeared in his only issue.


title: Carnage (character)

text: Carnage appears in the 2021 Sony's Spider-Man Universe (SSU) film "", voiced by Woody Harrelson. After his future host Cletus Kasady (also portrayed by Harrelson) was introduced in a post-credits scene of "Venom" (2018). in the 2021 sequel, Carnage (voiced by Harrelson) bonds with Kasady after the latter bites Eddie Brock's hand and absorbs part of the Venom symbiote. After saving Kasady from being executed by lethal injection, Carnage introduces itself and makes Kasady a deal: in exchange for helping him liberate his lover, Frances Barrison, Kasady will kill Brock and Venom, in line with symiote tradition. After Kasady agrees, he and Carnage go on a violent rampage through San Francisco and capture Patrick Mulligan and Anne Weying to lure out Venom. As Kasady and Barrison attempt to get married at a cathedral, Venom confronts them, and after realising the bond between these versions of Kasady and Carnage is incomplete, and they had become more hostile with each other as the film went on, he tricks Barrison into attacking him with her sonic powers, which collapses the cathedral, killing Barrison and separating Brock and Kasady from their respective symbiotes. After re-bonding with Brock, Venom devours Carnage, before biting Kasady's head off.


title: Hotel Mumbai

text: Hotel Mumbai is a 2018 action thriller film directed by Anthony Maras and co-written by Maras and John Collee. An Indian-Australian-American co-production, it is inspired by the 2009 documentary "Surviving Mumbai" about the 2008 Mumbai attacks at the Taj Mahal Palace Hotel in India. The film stars Dev Patel, Armie Hammer, Nazanin Boniadi, Anupam Kher, Tilda Cobham-Hervey, Jason Isaacs, Suhail Nayyar, Nagesh Bhosle, and Natasha Liu Bordizzo.


title: Hotel Mumbai

text: The film premiered at the Toronto International Film Festival on 7 September 2018, and had its Australian premiere at the Adelaide Film Festival on 10 October 2018. The film was released in Australia and the United States on 14 and 22 March 2019, respectively, and in India on 29 November 2019.


title: Hotel Mumbai

text: On 26 November 2008, waiter Arjun reports for work at the Taj Mahal Palace Hotel in Mumbai, India, under head chef Hemant Oberoi. The day's guests include British-Iranian heiress Zahra Kashani and her American husband David, with their infant son Cameron and his nanny Sally, as well as ex-Spetznaz operative Vasili.


title: Hotel Mumbai

text: That night, terrorists from the Lashkar-e-Taiba organization, under the command of "the Bull", launch a coordinated assault against 12 locations across Mumbai, including the hotel. As the local police are not properly trained or equipped to handle the attack, they are forced to wait for reinforcements from New Delhi. In the ensuing chaos, Arjun, David, Zahra and Vasili are trapped in the hotel restaurant with several other guests while Sally remains with Cameron in their hotel room. A woman fleeing from the terrorists enters the hotel room, and Sally hides with Cameron in a closet as the terrorists shoot the woman and then leave.


title: Hotel Mumbai

text: Hearing of Sally's close encounter, David manages to sneak past the terrorists and successfully reach Sally and Cameron. Meanwhile, Arjun escorts the other guests to the Chambers Lounge, an exclusive club hidden within the hotel, where they hope to remain safe. David, Sally and Cameron attempt to regroup with the others, but David is captured and bound by the terrorists while Sally and Cameron are trapped inside a closet.


title: Hotel Mumbai

text: Meanwhile, police officer DC Vam and his partner enter the hotel in the hopes of reaching the security room so they can track the terrorists' movements. Inside, Arjun attempts to escort a mortally wounded guest to a hospital, but upon encountering the officers, she panics and flees before being killed by a terrorist. Arjun escorts the officers to the security room where they discover the terrorists about to break into the Chambers Lounge. Vam orders Arjun to stay as he goes to attack the terrorists, successfully wounding one named Imran.


title: Hotel Mumbai

text: Against Oberoi's advice, Zahra and Vasili, along with several other guests, decide to leave the lounge to escape, but Zahra and Vasili are caught and taken hostage along with David, while the others are killed in their attempt to escape.


title: Hotel Mumbai

text: While guarding the hostages, Imran contacts his family members, and reveals that the terrorists left to attack Mumbai under the guise of military training. He also discovers that while the Bull had promised to pay the families of the terrorists, they have yet to receive any money from him.


title: Hotel Mumbai

text: Eventually, the NSG arrive, and the Bull orders the terrorists to burn the hotel down. The terrorists leave Imran to guard the hostages, and the Bull orders Imran to kill them. Imran shoots both David and Vasili, but spares Zahra when she begins reciting a Muslim prayer, allowing her to untie herself and escape.


title: Hotel Mumbai

text: Arjun regroups with Oberoi and evacuates the remaining guests, encountering Sally and Cameron in the process. The NSG kill the remaining terrorists, and Zahra is evacuated by an aerial work platform before reuniting with Sally and Cameron. After the hotel is secured, Arjun returns home to his wife and daughter.


title: Hotel Mumbai

text: A closing script reveals that those responsible for the attack remain free to this day, but the hotel was repaired and parts reopened within months of the event. The final scenes show a memorial to the staff and guests, and footage of the grand reopening of the hotel.


title: Hotel Mumbai

text: On 11 February 2016, it was announced that Dev Patel and Armie Hammer had been cast in the film, along with actors Nazanin Boniadi, Teresa Palmer, and Suhail Nayyar, while Nikolaj Coster-Waldau and Anupam Kher were in negotiations; Palmer and Coster-Waldau ultimately were not involved. John Collee and Anthony Maras wrote the screenplay, which Maras directed, while Basil Iwanyk produced the film through Thunder Road Pictures along with Jomon Thomas from Xeitgeist, Arclight Films' Gary Hamilton and Mike Gabrawy, Electric Pictures' Andrew Ogilvie, and Julie Ryan.


title: Hotel Mumbai

text: In June, Tilda Cobham-Hervey joined the cast after Teresa Palmer pulled out early into her second pregnancy, and in August, Jason Isaacs was cast. On 7 September 2016, Natasha Liu Bordizzo joined the film to play Bree, a tourist caught in the attack.


title: Hotel Mumbai

text: In August 2016, principal photography on the film began in the Adelaide Film studios, run by the South Australian Film Corporation. Filming continued in India in early 2017.


title: Hotel Mumbai

text: In May 2016, the Weinstein Company acquired US and UK distribution rights to the film. However, in April 2018, it was announced that the Weinstein Company would no longer distribute the film. In August 2018, Bleecker Street and ShivHans Pictures acquired US distribution rights to the film.


title: Hotel Mumbai

text: The film had its world premiere at the Toronto International Film Festival on 7 September 2018. It was theatrically released in Australia on 14 March 2019, by Icon Film Distribution, and the United States on 22 March 2019. It was scheduled for a United Kingdom release in September 2019, by Sky Cinema and NowTV. Sky Cinema promoting it as a "Sky Cinema Original" in the United Kingdom.


title: Hotel Mumbai

text: The movie was pulled from cinemas in New Zealand due to the Christchurch mosque shootings on 15 March 2019, with showings suspended until 28 March.


title: Hotel Mumbai

text: Netflix was set to distribute the film in India and other South and Southeast Asian territories. However, Netflix later dropped the film, after a contractual dispute arose with Indian distributor Plus Holdings. The film was scheduled to be released theatrically in India on 29 November 2019 by Zee Studios and Purpose Entertainment. An official trailer of the film in Hindi was released by Zee Studios on 23 October 2019.


title: Hotel Mumbai

text: "Hotel Mumbai" has grossed $9.7 million in the United States and Canada, and $11.5 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $21.2 million.


title: Hotel Mumbai

text: The film opened in four theaters in the US, on 22 March, and expanded to 924 on 29 March, grossing $3.1 million in that second weekend.


title: Hotel Mumbai

text: Rex Reed of "The New York Observer" wrote: "There isn't a single wasted frame in this movie, which is both richly detailed and economically direct in its emotional impact-all the more astounding for a first feature film. Without exception, everyone is exemplary. The dialogue is delivered in nine languages, giving the film an even more compelling feeling of authenticity. The adrenaline flows immediately. Intense, hair-raising and deeply humane, Hotel Mumbai is a gripping, suspenseful achievement that overwhelms. You leave sated, with the rare feeling of having learned something about history and knowing you've been to one hell of a movie."


title: Hotel Mumbai

text: Katie Goh of "The Guardian" wrote: "Patel is subdued yet excellent in Anthony Maras's white knuckle retelling of the 2008 Mumbai terror attacks. ... For all its subplots, Maras keeps a tight leash on the film's narrative strands as we watch characters move in and out of each other's stories. Hotel Mumbai is an excellent, white-knuckle thriller – and an unlikely crowdpleaser."


title: Hotel Mumbai

text: Malina Saval of "Variety" wrote: "The cinematic result is a film that is as visually breathtaking as it is emotionally electrifying, an edge-of-your-seat study on the effects of tragedy and violence on a group of strangers banding together in a fight to survive the unthinkable."


title: Hotel Mumbai

text: Scott Menzel of "We Live Entertainment" wrote: "Hotel Mumbai is one of the year's best films as well as one of the most underrated and overlooked films to come out of the Toronto International Film Festival this year. Director Anthony Maras has created one of the most terrifying films that I have ever seen in my life. All of the actors and actresses involved as they did such an exceptional job. Hotel Mumbai is a near-perfect masterpiece."


title: Hotel Mumbai

text: Sujeet Rajan of the "News India Times" wrote: "Hotel Mumbai is undoubtedly the best foreign film ever made in India. Popular films by foreign and foreign-based Indian-origin directors, like Danny Boyle's 'Slumdog Millionaire' and Mira Nair's 'Salaam Bombay' showed the poverty and underbelly of the financial capital of India, but in terms of sheer production excellence, character realization and gripping story-telling, Hotel Mumbai stands head and shoulders above anything else canvassing India over the years."


title: Hotel Mumbai

text: Jordan Mintzer of "The Hollywood Reporter" wrote: "Maras does an excellent job on such an ambitious first feature, covering every corner of the hotel and making each gunshot or explosion feel like the real thing. The level of verisimilitude is so high that when Maras cuts in actual documentary footage, it's hard to tell it apart from the fiction. As close to reality as a movie can be."


title: Hotel Mumbai

text: Anne Cohen of Refinery29 wrote: "Anthony Maras' harrowing feature debut depicting the 2008 Mumbai attacks transcends those tired tropes to deliver one of most breathlessly stressful, emotional and insightful depictions of terrorism and its victims I've ever seen."


title: Hotel Mumbai

text: Jeff Sneider of "Collider" wrote: "Australian filmmaker Anthony Maras announces himself as a major director to watch with his feature debut Hotel Mumbai. It's a true ensemble piece, with a standout performance from Bollywood legend Anupam Kher, who registers strongest as the hotel's Chef and de facto leader of the hostages."


title: Hotel Mumbai

text: Andy Howell of "Film Threat" wrote: "The drama is white-knuckle intense and unrelenting. I'm astounded that this is director Anthony Maras' first feature length film. He's a master of building tension through a combination of building up characters that we care about and putting them in horrific jeopardy. No amount of words that can convey the sense of the film, because it is such a gutpunch of emotion. Experiencing it was so intense that I just couldn't get into the next movie I was scheduled to see. I had to process Hotel Mumbai. After the screening, much of the cast felt the same, as they had just seen it for the first time. Dev Patel struggled to answer a very basic question and apologized because he was at a loss for words after that incredibly emotional experience."


title: Hotel Mumbai

text: Peter Debruge of "Variety" magazine wrote: "As debut features go, it's a formidable achievement, delivering on the promise shown by Maras' harrowing 2011 short 'The Palace,' which earned him two Australian Academy of Cinema and Television Arts Awards. 'Hotel Mumbai' doesn't subscribe to traditional notions of heroism, providing no one even remotely action star-like to stand up to the gunmen. The puny local police squad appear clumsy and completely out of their depth, posing little threat to the terrorists. It took Indian Special Forces many hours to arrive on the scene, during which time, hotel guests and staff were repeatedly forced to decide between the most immediate impulse for survival (several employees take the opportunity to protect themselves and go home) and the far more selfless choice of risking their lives in hopes of saving others. Whatever else it may offer to audiences — vicarious thrills, emotional catharsis — 'Hotel Mumbai' serves as a testament to those remarkable individuals."


title: Hotel Mumbai

text: He went on to write, "Sitting through the harrowing events again nearly a decade later could hardly be described as entertainment, and the film plays to many of the same unseemly impulses that make disaster movies so compelling, exploiting the tragedy of the situation for spectacle's sake."


title: Hotel Mumbai

text: Matt Donnelly of "TheWrap" wrote: "Maras is confident and unflinching in this portrait of the 'mindless' terror, as one news report played in the film said. He is also masterful in delivering a range of emotions (including laughs, mostly thanks to an icy playboy portrayed by Jason Isaacs) and other small rewards for viewers stepping up for this real-life nightmare."


title: Hotel Mumbai

text: David Ehrlich of IndieWire wrote: "Dev Patel and Armie Hammer star in a lucid, humane, and almost unwatchably harrowing drama about the 2008 Mumbai terror attacks."


title: Hotel Mumbai

text: Kelle Long of the Motion Picture Association wrote: "There is not a weak performance among the ensemble cast. Director Anthony Maras gave himself the impossible task of leaving the audience uplifted under these horrific circumstances. He does this not by letting up on the agonizing details, but instead by filling the characters with bravery and dignity. There are moments of fear and distrust, but they are resolved with compassion and understanding. The extraordinary efforts they make to stay together and keep one another alive are incredible."


title: Hotel Mumbai

text: At the Toronto International Film Festival World Premiere, Patrick Frater of "Variety" wrote: "Ripples of applause broke out and then choked as the end credits rolled. Patrons of the Princess of Wales Theater greeted cast and crew on stage with a real sense of gratitude and anticipation. 'Slumdog Millionaire' star Dev Patel praised the film's grit. 'It didn't pull any punches', he said. 'It is an anthem of resistance.' That drew a roar of cheers, only to be topped by Maras' introduction of the real-life Chef Oberoi, who according to the film, did the most to maintain calm while the Indian authorities figured out what was going on inside the besieged Taj."


title: Hotel Mumbai

text: Keith Whittier of "Ottawa Life Magazine" wrote: "The most powerful film at the festival at this point. The retelling of the attacks on Mumbai is raw, realistic and extremely effective. I felt numb after seeing this film and was especially touched when I spoke with someone in the audience who said she was in Mumbai during the attacks and for the people there, it was there 9/11. Grade: A".


title: Hotel Mumbai

text: Joseph McQuade and Emily DeLuc of "The Conversation" wrote: "Few films actually take the viewer inside the experience of terror plots as they happen; this is where Hotel Mumbai ushers in a new complex path with audiences. This film paints with such gritty and meticulous attention to detail, Hotel Mumbai is ultimately not about violence as an act that is carried out upon passive victims. Instead, it is about the resistance, resilience and quiet heroism of people confronted by chaotic scenarios filled with impossible chronicles."


title: Hotel Mumbai

text: Dwight Brown wrote: "Edgy, nerve-wracking and nightmarish from beginning to end. Yet, surprisingly encouraging too. A brilliant script by John Collee and Anthony Maras with genius direction by Maras turns a true-life tragedy into a beacon of hope."


title: Hotel Mumbai

text: Kayleigh Donaldson from "Pajiba" wrote: "A tightly constructed piece of film-making that's truly human and avoids tired Hollywood pitfalls ... For such a large ensemble that has so many strings of plots to tie together, Maras is remarkably skilled at keeping everything tightly constructed. The story switches from character to character and that almost unbearable tension is sustained throughout. There is no lingering where it is not necessary, no needlessly overwrought exposition."


title: Hotel Mumbai

text: Alyssa Ayers, a senior fellow at the Council on Foreign Relations and who served as US deputy assistant secretary of state for South Asia, wrote in "Time" magazine: "The film portrays the humanity of heroism. But it also delivers a message: more than a decade on, justice for this brazen attack remains denied. The terrorist group responsible has remained at large in Pakistan. At a time when Pakistan-based terrorism has once again escalated tensions between India and Pakistan, this message could not be more timely. Hotel Mumbai brings this story - common knowledge in India, but little known in the United States - to vivid life."


title: Hotel Mumbai

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of based on reviews. The website's critical consensus reads, "Its depiction of real-life horror will strike some as exploitative, but "Hotel Mumbai" remains a well-made dramatization of tragic events." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 62 out of 100, based on 33 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews". Audiences polled by PostTrak gave the film an overall positive score of 77% and a 50% "definite recommend".


title: Ukrainian hryvnia

text: The ' or ' ( ; , : "hrn"; sign: ₴; code: UAH) has been the national currency of Ukraine since 2 September 1996. The hryvnia is divided into 100 . It is named after a measure of weight used in medieval Kievan Rus'.


title: Ukrainian hryvnia

text: The currency of Kievan Rus' in the eleventh century was called "grivna". The word is thought to derive from the Slavic "griva"; c.f. Ukrainian, Russian, Bulgarian, and Serbo-Croatian / "griva", meaning "mane". It might have indicated something valuable worn around the neck, usually made of silver or gold; c.f. Bulgarian and Serbian "grivna" (, "bracelet"). Later, the word was used to describe silver or gold ingots of a certain weight; c.f. Ukrainian "hryvenyk" ().


title: Ukrainian hryvnia

text: The nominative plural of hryvnia is "hryvni" (), while the genitive plural is "hryven’" (). In Ukrainian, the nominative plural form is used for numbers ending with 2, 3, or 4, as in "dvi hryvni" (дві гривні, "2 hryvni"), and the genitive plural is used for numbers ending with 5 to 9 and 0, for example "sto hryven’" (сто гривень, "100 hryven’"); for numbers ending with 1 the nominative singular form is used, for example "dvadciat’ odna hryvnia" (двадцять одна гривня, "21 hryvnia"). An exception for this rule is numbers ending in 11, 12, 13 and 14 for which the genitive plural is also used, for example, "dvanadciat’ hryven’" (дванадцять гривень, "12 hryven’"). The singular for the subdivision is копійка ("kopiika"), the nominative plural is копійки ("kopiiky") and the genitive is копійок ("kopiiok").


title: Ukrainian hryvnia

text: The hryvnia sign is a cursive Ukrainian letter He ("г"), with a double horizontal stroke (₴), symbolizing stability, similar to that used in other currency symbols such as the yen (¥), euro (€), Indian rupee (₹), and Chinese yuan (¥ shares symbol with yen). The sign was encoded as U+20B4 in Unicode 4.1 and released in 2005. It is now supported by most systems. In Ukraine, if the hryvnia sign is unavailable, the Cyrillic abbreviation "грн" is used (which can be transliterated as "hrn").


title: Ukrainian hryvnia

text: A currency called was used during the Kievan Rus'. In 1917, after the Ukrainian National Republic declared independence from the Russian Empire, the name of the new Ukrainian currency became "hryvnia", a revised version of the Kievan Rus' "hryvna". The designer was Heorhiy Narbut.


title: Ukrainian hryvnia

text: The hryvnia replaced the karbovanets during the period 2–16 September 1996, at a rate of 1 hryvnia to 100,000 karbovantsiv. The karbovanets was subject to hyperinflation in the early 1990s following the collapse of the USSR.


title: Ukrainian hryvnia

text: To a large extent, the introduction of the hryvnia was secretive. The hryvnia was introduced according to a Presidential Decree dated 26 August 1996 that was published on August 29. During the transition period, 2–16 September, both hryvnias and karbovanets were used, but merchants were required to give change only in hryvnias. All bank accounts were converted to hryvnias automatically. During the transition period, 97% of karbovanets were taken out of circulation, including 56% in the first five days of the currency reform. After 16 September 1996, the remaining karbovanets could be exchanged for hryvnias in banks.


title: Ukrainian hryvnia

text: The hryvnia was introduced during the period when Viktor Yushchenko was the chairman of National Bank of Ukraine. However, the first banknotes issued bore the signature of the previous National Bank chairman, Vadym Hetman, who resigned in 1993, because the first notes had been printed as early as 1992 by the Canadian Bank Note Company, but it was decided to delay their circulation until the hyperinflation in Ukraine was brought under control.


title: Ukrainian hryvnia

text: On 18 March 2014, following its occupation, the occupation administration of the occupied Republic of Crimea announced that the hryvnia was to be dropped as the region's currency in April 2014. The Russian ruble became the official currency in annexed Crimea on 21 March 2014. Until 1 June 2014, the hryvnia could also be used for cash payments only.


title: Ukrainian hryvnia

text: By contrast, the hryvnia remains the predominant currency in the conflicted raions of Donbas, i. e. in the Russian-controlled areas of Donetsk and Luhansk.


title: Ukrainian hryvnia

text: Coins were first struck in 1992 for the new currency, but were not introduced until September 1996. Initially, coins valued between 1 and 50 kopiiky were issued. In March 1997, ₴1 coins were added. Since 2004, several commemorative ₴1 coins have been struck.


title: Ukrainian hryvnia

text: In October 2012, the National Bank of Ukraine announced that it was examining the possibility of withdrawing the 1 and 2 kopiyky coins from circulation. The coins had become too expensive to produce compared to their nominal value. 1 and 2 kopiyky coins were not produced after 2013, but remained in circulation until 1 October 2019.


title: Ukrainian hryvnia

text: Also, on 26 October 2012, the National Bank of Ukraine announced it was considering the introduction of a ₴2 coin.


title: Ukrainian hryvnia

text: Officially, as of 1 July 2016, 12.4 billion coins, with a face value of ₴1.4 billion were in circulation.


title: Ukrainian hryvnia

text: On 1 October 2019, 1, 2 and 5 kopiyky coins ceased to be legal tender. They can be still changed at banks, but bills have to be rounded to the next 0.10-step.


title: Ukrainian hryvnia

text: In 1996, the first series of hryvnia banknotes was introduced into circulation by the National Bank of Ukraine. They were dated 1992 and were in denominations of 1, 2, 5, 10 and 20 hryvnias. The design of the banknotes was developed by Ukrainian artists Vasyl Lopata and Borys Maksymov. The one hryvnia banknotes were printed by the Canadian Bank Note Company in 1992. The two, five and ten hryvnia banknotes were printed two years later. The banknotes were stored in Canada until they were put into circulation.


title: Ukrainian hryvnia

text: Banknotes of the first series in denominations of 50 and 100 hryvnias also existed but were not introduced because these nominals were not needed in the economic crisis of the mid-1990s.


title: Ukrainian hryvnia

text: Also in 1996, the 1, 50, and 100 hryvnia notes of the second series were introduced, with 1 hryvnia dated 1994. The banknotes were designed and printed by Britain's De La Rue. Since the opening of the Mint of the National Bank of Ukraine in cooperation with De La Rue in March 1994, all banknotes have been printed in Ukraine.


title: Ukrainian hryvnia

text: Later, higher denominations were added. The 200 hryvnia notes of the second series were introduced in 2001, followed by the 500 hryvnia notes of the third series in 2006, and 1000 hryvnia notes of fourth series in 2019.


title: Ukrainian hryvnia

text: The 100 hryvnia denomination is quite common due to its moderately high value. Also common is the 200 and 500 hryvnia, as most Ukrainian ATMs dispense currency in these denominations.


title: Ukrainian hryvnia

text: In 2019, the National Bank of Ukraine introduced a 1,000 hryvnia banknote and was issued into circulation on 25 October 2019. The introduction of the new banknote was in response to the National Bank of Ukraine's efforts of streamlining the number of coins and banknotes already in circulation. The 1, 2, 5 and 10 hryvnia banknotes will continue to be legal tender alongside its equivalent coins in general circulation, while being withdrawn from circulation from repeated use in commerce.


title: Ukrainian hryvnia

text: In 2019, the National Bank of Ukraine introduced a revised 50 hryvnia banknote into circulation on 20 December 2019 and issued a revised 200 hryvnia banknote on 25 February 2020, thereby completing the family of notes which began with the issuance of the 100 hryvnia banknote in 2015.


title: Ukrainian hryvnia

text: Following the Asian financial crisis in 1998, the currency was devalued to UAH 5.6 = USD 1.00 in February 2000. Later, the exchange rate remained relatively stable at around 5.4 hryvnias for 1 US dollar and was fixed to 5.05 hryvnias for 1 US dollar from 21 April 2005 until 21 May 2008. In mid-October 2008 rapid devaluation began, in the course of a global financial crisis that hit Ukraine hard, with the hryvnia dropping 38.4% from UAH 4.85 for 1 US dollar on 23 September 2008 to UAH 7.88 for 1 US dollar on 19 December 2008. After a period of instability, a new peg of 8 hryvnias per US dollar was established, and remained for several years. In 2012, the peg was changed to a managed float (much like that of the Chinese yuan) as the euro and other European countries' currencies weakened against the dollar due to the European debt crisis, and the value in mid-2012 was about ₴8.14 per dollar.


title: Ukrainian hryvnia

text: As from 7 February 2014, following political instability in Ukraine, the National Bank of Ukraine changed the hryvnia into a fluctuating/floating currency in an attempt to meet IMF requirements and to try to enforce a stable price for the currency in the Forex market. In 2014 and 2015 the hryvnia lost about 70% of its value against the U.S. dollar, with the currency reaching a record low of ₴33 per dollar in February 2015.


title: Ukrainian hryvnia

text: On 31 July 2019, the hryvnia to U.S. dollar exchange rate in the interbank foreign exchange market strengthened to ₴24.98 — the highest level in 3 years.


title: Ukrainian hryvnia

text: Following the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, the official exchange rate of hryvnia was fixed at ₴29.25 per 1 US dollar and ₴33.17 per 1 Euro. On July 21, 2022, it was devalued to ₴36.92 per 1 US dollar.


title: Ukrainian hryvnia

text: The real exchange rate of the hryvnia to U.S. dollar is approximately ₴40.58 per 1 US dollar on black market.


title: Marmot

text: Marmots are large ground squirrels in the genus Marmota, with 15 species living in Asia, Europe, and North America. These herbivores are active during the summer, when they can often be found in groups, but are not seen during the winter, when they hibernate underground. They are the heaviest members of the squirrel family.


title: Marmot

text: Marmots are large rodents with characteristically short but robust legs, enlarged claws which are well adapted to digging, stout bodies, and large heads and incisors to quickly process a variety of vegetation. While most species are various forms of earthen-hued brown, marmots vary in fur coloration based roughly on their surroundings. Species in more open habitat are more likely to have a paler color, while those sometimes found in well-forested regions tend to be darker. Marmots are the heaviest members of the squirrel family. Total length varies typically from about and body mass averages about in spring in the smaller species and in autumn, at times exceeding , in the larger species. The largest and smallest species are not clearly known. In North America, on the basis of mean linear dimensions and body masses through the year, the smallest species appears to be the Alaska marmot and the largest is the Olympic marmot. Some species, such as the Himalayan marmot and Tarbagan marmot in Asia, appear to attain roughly similar body masses to the Olympic marmot, but are not known to reach as high a total length as the Olympic species. In the traditional definition of hibernation, the largest marmots are considered the largest "true hibernators" (since larger "hibernators" such as bears do not have the same physiological characteristics as obligate hibernating animals such as assorted rodents, bats and insectivores).


title: Marmot

text: Some species live in mountainous areas, such as the Alps, northern Apennines, Carpathians, Tatras, and Pyrenees in Europe; northwestern Asia; the Rocky Mountains, Black Hills, the Cascade and Pacific Ranges, and the Sierra Nevada in North America; and the Deosai Plateau in Pakistan and Ladakh in India. Other species prefer rough grassland and can be found widely across North America and the Eurasian Steppe. The slightly smaller and more social prairie dog is not classified in the genus "Marmota", but in the related genus "Cynomys".


title: Marmot

text: Marmots typically live in burrows (often within rockpiles, particularly in the case of the yellow-bellied marmot), and hibernate there through the winter. Most marmots are highly social and use loud whistles to communicate with one another, especially when alarmed.


title: Marmot

text: The following is a list of all "Marmota" species recognized by Thorington and Hoffman plus the recently defined "M. kastschenkoi". They divide marmots into two subgenera.


title: Marmot

text: Marmots have been known since antiquity. Research by the French ethnologist Michel Peissel claimed the story of the "Gold-digging ant" reported by the Ancient Greek historian Herodotus, who lived in the fifth century BCE, was founded on the golden Himalayan marmot of the Deosai Plateau and the habit of local tribes such as the Brokpa to collect the gold dust excavated from their burrows.


title: Marmot

text: Some historians believe that Strabo's "λέων μύρμηξ" and Agatharchides's "μυρμηκολέων", most probably are the marmot.


title: Marmot

text: An anatomically accurate image of a marmot was printed and distributed as early as 1605 by Jacopo Ligozzi, who was noted for his images of flora and fauna.


title: Marmot

text: The etymology of the term "marmot" is uncertain. It may have arisen from the Gallo-Romance prefix "marm-", meaning to mumble or murmur (an example of onomatopoeia). Another possible origin is postclassical Latin, "mus montanus", meaning "mountain mouse".


title: Marmot

text: Beginning in 2010, Alaska celebrates February 2 as "Marmot Day", a holiday intended to observe the prevalence of marmots in that state and take the place of Groundhog Day.


title: Marmot

text: A number of historians and paleogeneticists have postulated that the "Yersinia pestis" variant that caused the pandemic that struck Eurasia in the 14th century originated from a variant for which marmots in China were the natural reservoir species.


The NCAA Division I Football Bowl Subdivision (FBS), formerly known as Division I-A, is the highest level of college football in the United States. The FBS consists of the largest schools in the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA). As of 2022, there are 10 conferences and 131 schools in FBS.


title: NCAA Division I Football Bowl Subdivision

text: College football is one of the most popular spectator sports throughout much of the United States. The top schools generate tens of millions of dollars in yearly revenue. Top FBS teams draw tens of thousands of fans to games, and the ten largest American stadiums by capacity all host FBS teams or games. Since July 1, 2021, college athletes have been able to get paid for the use of their image and likeness. Prior to this date colleges were only allowed to provide players with non-monetary compensation such as athletic scholarships that provide for tuition, housing, and books.


text: Unlike other NCAA divisions and subdivisions, the NCAA does not officially award an FBS football national championship, nor does it sanction a playoff tournament to determine such a champion on the field. Instead, organizations such as the Associated Press and AFCA have historically sought to rank the teams and crown a national champion, by taking a vote of sports writers and coaches, respectively. In place of such a playoff, various cities across the United States hold their own post-season contests, called "bowl games", in which they traditionally invite teams to participate in them. Historically, these bowl games were mostly considered to be exhibition games involving a payout to participating teams. However, in the modern era they are considered the "de facto" post-season. There have been agreements in recent decades (such as the Bowl Coalition from 1992 to 1994, the Bowl Alliance from 1995 to 1997, the Bowl Championship Series from 1998 to 2013, and the College Football Playoff from 2014 to the present) by the premier FBS conferences and bowl games to organize matchups so that the FBS national championship is decided on the field.


text: The FBS is the highest level of college football in the United States, and FBS players make up the vast majority of the players picked in the NFL Draft. For every sport but football, the NCAA divides schools into three major divisions: Divisions I, II, and III. However, in football, Division I is further divided into two sub-divisions: the Bowl Subdivision, abbreviated as the FBS, and the Championship Subdivision, abbreviated as the FCS. Divisions are themselves further divided up into conferences, which are groupings of schools that play each other in contention for a conference championship. The FBS currently has ten conferences, which are often divided into the "Power Five conferences" and the less prominent "Group of Five".


text: Although FCS programs can draw thousands of fans per game, many FCS schools attempt to join the FBS in hopes of increased revenue, corporate sponsorship, alumni donations, prestige, and national exposure. However, FBS programs also face increased expenses in regards to staff salaries, facility improvements, and scholarships. The athletic departments of many FBS schools lose money every year, and these athletic departments must rely on subsidies from the rest of the university. In many states, the highest-paid public employee is the head coach of an FBS team. FBS schools are limited to a total of 85 football players receiving financial assistance. Nearly all FBS schools that are not on NCAA probation give 85 full scholarships.


text: In order to retain FBS membership, schools must meet several requirements. FBS schools must have an average home attendance of at least 15,000 (over a rolling two-year period). An FBS school must sponsor a minimum of 16 varsity intercollegiate teams (including football), with at least six men's or coeducational teams and at least eight all-female teams. Across all sports, each FBS school must offer at least 200 athletic scholarships (or spend at least $4 million on athletic scholarships) per year, and FBS football teams must provide at least 90% of the maximum number of football scholarships (which is currently 85).


text: The FBS season begins in late August or early September and ends in January with the College Football Playoff National Championship game. Most FBS teams play 12 regular season games per year, with eight or nine of those games coming against conference opponents. All ten FBS conferences hold a conference championship game to determine the winner of the conference. Between conference games, non-conference games, a conference championship game, and up to two bowl games if ranked among the top four college teams in the country by the College Football Playoff Committee. Only the four Playoff teams are eligible to participate in two bowl games in one post-season, and only the winners of the two playoff semifinal bowl games will play a 15th game when they meet in the College Football Playoff National Championship. The Hawaii Rainbow Warriors and teams that play at Hawaii get a special exemption and are allowed to play a thirteenth regular season game in order to defray travel costs, so an FBS team that plays 13 regular season games, a conference championship game, a semifinal bowl game, and in the national championship game "could" theoretically play 16 games in a season. No team has played a 16th game in one season, due to the unlikelihood of a team playing Hawaii at some point, finishing the season ranked in the top four, opting in to a 13th regular season game, and then winning a Playoff semifinal game. The theoretical 16th game has only been possible since the beginning of the College Football Playoff era in 2015.


text: For non-conference regular season games, FBS teams are free to schedule match-ups against any other FBS team, regardless of conference. A small number of FBS teams are independent, and have total control over their own schedule. Non-conference games are scheduled by mutual agreement and often involve "home and homes" (where teams alternate as hosts) and long-established rivalries. A 2014 study found that teams from the stronger conferences frequently play non-conference games against teams from the weaker conferences or, occasionally, against FCS teams. FBS teams are free to schedule up to forty percent of their games against FCS teams, but FBS teams can only use one win per season against an FCS team for the purposes of bowl eligibility. Additionally, the FCS opponent must have averaged at least 90% of the FCS limit of 63 scholarship equivalents over a rolling two-year period. An FBS team must schedule a total of five home games per year; for the purposes of scheduling, a "home game" must take place at a venue in which the team plays 50% of its "home games", although a team is allowed to count one neutral-site game against an FBS team toward the "home game" requirement. FBS-FCS games, known as "money games," are often home games for the FBS team, and victories by FCS teams are usually considered to be upsets. FCS teams receive hundreds of thousands of dollars for their participation in these games.


text: The Football Bowl Subdivision gets its name from the bowl games that many FBS teams play at the end of the year, although other college divisions also have their own bowl games. FBS bowl games are played at the end of the season in December or January, and collectively generate over $400 million per year as of 2012. For the 2017–18 bowl season, there were 40 bowl games. In order to be bowl eligible, an FBS team must have a winning record. In certain cases, 5–7 and 6–7 teams can also be selected to bowls, usually to fill bowl vacancies.


text: Many bowls have an established conference tie-in; for example, the Cheez-It Bowl provides a match-up between teams from ACC and the Big 12. A small number of long-established bowls played a major role in the Bowl Championship Series, which was used to select the national champion until 2015, and these bowls continue to play a major role in the College Football Playoff. Under the playoff, there are six major bowls, known as the New Year's Six, with automatic bids going to the conference champions of the Power Five conferences and the top-ranked member of the "Group of Five." Two of these bowls serve as semi-final games to the College Football Playoff National Championship game. Conferences receive millions of dollars for each school that appears in the playoff, and appearances in other bowls are also quite lucrative. In addition to the regular bowls, some post-season bowls, such as the NFLPA Collegiate Bowl, match up teams of all-stars and NFL Draft entrants.


text: College football has been played for over one hundred years, but the game and the organizational structure of college football have evolved significantly during that time. The first college football game was played in 1869, but the game continued to develop during the late 19th and early 20th century. During this period, Walter Camp pioneered the concept of a line of scrimmage, the system of downs, and the College Football All-America Team. The 1902 Rose Bowl was the first bowl game in college football history, and the event began to be held annually starting with the 1916 Rose Bowl. In the 1930s, other bowl games came into existence, including the Sugar Bowl, the Cotton Bowl Classic, and the Orange Bowl. The 1906 college football season was the first season played under the IAAUS (which would later change its name to the NCAA) and the first season in which the forward pass was legal. The IAAUS had formed after President Theodore Roosevelt, responding to several deaths that had occurred during football games, requested that colleges find ways to make football a safer sport.


text: In 1935, the Heisman Trophy was presented for the first time; the award is generally considered to be college football's most prestigious individual award. In 1965, the NCAA voted to allow the platoon system, in which different players played on offense and defense; teams had previously experimented with the concept in the 1940s. In 1968, the NCAA began allowing freshmen to compete in games; freshmen had previously been required to take a redshirt year. In 1975, after a growth of "grants-in-aid" (scholarships given for athletic rather than academic or need-based reasons), the NCAA voted to limit the number of athletic scholarships each school could offer. In 1968, the NCAA required all teams to identify as members of either the University Division (for larger schools) or the College Division (for smaller schools), and in 1973, the NCAA divided into three divisions. At the urging of several larger schools seeking increased autonomy and commonality, Division I-A was formed prior to the 1978 season; the remaining teams in Division I formed the Football Championship Subdivision or FCS (then known as Division I-AA). In 1981, members of the College Football Association attempted to create a fourth division consisting solely of the most competitive schools, but this effort was defeated. In the 1992 season, the SEC split into divisions and played the first FBS conference championship game. The Big 12 and Western Athletic Conference did the same for the 1996 season, and most conferences eventually adopted divisions and championship games.


text: The NCAA does not officially award an FBS football championship, but several teams have claimed national championships. Other organizations have also sought to rank the teams and crown a national champion. The Dickinson System and other methods were formed in the early 20th century to select the best team in the country, and the AP Poll and the Coaches Poll began rankings teams in the middle of the 20th century. In many seasons, selectors such as the AP and the Coaches Poll designated different teams as national champions. Often, more than one team would finish undefeated, as the top teams were not guaranteed to play each other during the regular season or in bowl games. In 1992, five major conferences established the Bowl Coalition in order to determine the FBS champion. In 1998, the two remaining major conferences joined with the other five conferences to form the Bowl Championship Series. The BCS used a rankings system to match up the top two teams in the BCS National Championship Game. However, even the BCS era saw split national championships, as in 2003 the AP Poll and the Coaches Poll selected different national champions. The College Football Playoff, with a four-team field, replaced the BCS starting with the 2014 season.


text: Currently as of March 2020, there is no unified system to provide FBS football players with financial compensation aside from collegiate scholarships. Leading the forefront of the movement on compensation is California governor Gavin Newsom. He stated, "Collegiate student athletes put everything on the line — their physical health, future career prospects and years of their lives to compete. Colleges reap billions from these student athletes' sacrifices and success but, in the same breath, block them from earning a single dollar," he said in a statement. "That's a bankrupt model — one that puts institutions ahead of the students they are supposed to serve. It needs to be disrupted." Newsom passed a law in California called the "Fair Play to Pay Act" making it the first state to allow student athletes to profit off their name, image and likeness. The law is scheduled to go in effect on January 1, 2023.


text: College football was first broadcast on radio in 1921, and first broadcast on television in 1939. Television became profitable for both schools and the NCAA, which tightly controlled the airing of games in the 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s. The NCAA limited each football team to six television appearances over a two-year period. The 1981 Supreme Court case "NCAA v. Board of Regents of the University of Oklahoma & University of Georgia" granted television rights to individual schools as opposed to the NCAA and allowed teams to televise all of their games. After a period during which FBS schools negotiated collectively under the College Football Association, Notre Dame's 1991 television contract ushered in an era in which schools and conferences negotiate their own television contracts. This new era of television led to several waves of conference realignment, most notably in 1996, 2005, and the early 2010s. FBS games continue to be a major draw on television, as over 26 million people watched the 2014 BCS National Championship Game.


text: National networks such as CBS, ABC, NBC, several ESPN networks, and several Fox networks have all covered the FBS, as have several regional and local networks. As conferences negotiate their own television deals, each conference is affiliated with a network that airs its home games. In the mid-2000s, college and conferences began to create their own television networks; such networks include the Big Ten Network, BYUtv, the Longhorn Network, and the Pac-12 Network. In 2012, college football games drew over 400 million viewers.


text: The Big Ten (then popularly known as the Western Conference) was founded in 1896, after which several other schools joined together to form conferences, including the Pacific Coast Conference, the MVIAA, the Southwest Conference, the Southern Conference, the Mountain States Conference (also known as the Skyline Conference), and the Border Conference. In 1928, six schools seceded from the MVIAA to form the Big Six Conference, which later expanded to the Big Eight in 1957; the remaining schools formed the Missouri Valley Conference. In 1932, several Southern schools formed the SEC after breaking away from the Southern Conference, and in 1953 several more schools seceded from the Southern Conference to form the ACC. In 1946, several Midwestern schools formed the MAC. Several elite Northeastern schools had formed the Eastern Intercollegiate Basketball League in 1901, and its members (plus Brown University, not an EIBL member at the time) signed the Ivy Group Agreement, which governed football competition between the signatories, in 1945; the Ivy League was formally founded in 1954, when the agreement was extended to cover all sports. In 1959, the Pacific Coast Conference dissolved, and most of its former members formed the new Athletic Association of Western Universities, which became the Pac-8 when more former PCC members joined. In 1962, several schools from the Mountain States Conference and the Border Conference formed the Western Athletic Conference. In 1969, the Pacific Coast Athletic Association (PCAA), later known as the Big West Conference, was formed by several Division II California schools that sought to join Division I.


text: Division I separated into Division I-A (the predecessor to the FBS) and I-AA (predecessor of the FCS) prior to the 1978 season. At that time, there were several independent I-A schools and twelve Division I-A conferences: the Southeastern Conference (SEC), Big Ten, Pacific-10 (Pac-10), Big 8, Southwest Conference (SWC), Western Athletic Conference (WAC), PCAA (which later changed its name to the Big West), Missouri Valley Conference, Southern Conference, Atlantic Coast Conference (ACC), Mid-American Conference (MAC), and the Ivy League. The Ivy League and the Southern Conference left for Division I-AA prior to the 1982 season, while the Missouri Valley Conference stopped sponsoring football prior to the 1985 season. In 1991, the Big East recruited several independents and began sponsoring football, becoming a major conference. In 1996, Conference USA (C-USA), formed the previous year by the merger of the non-football Metro and Great Midwest Conferences, also began sponsoring football. That same year, the Southwest Conference dissolved, and four of its former members joined with the Big 8 to form the Big 12 Conference. In 1999, eight schools broke away from the WAC to form the Mountain West Conference (MW). Prior to the 2000 season, the Big West stopped sponsoring football. The Sun Belt Conference began sponsoring football in 2001. After periods of conference realignment in 2005 and the early 2010s that saw the expansion of the ACC, Big Ten, SEC, and Pac-10 (which changed its name to the Pac-12), the WAC reorganized as a non-football conference and the Big East split into the American Athletic Conference and a new non-football conference that retained the Big East name.


text: Most of the 131 FBS schools are members of an FBS conference, but there are also a small number of independent schools. Since the Western Athletic Conference discontinued football sponsorship prior to the 2013 season, there have been ten conferences in the FBS. All of the FBS conferences have between ten and fourteen members, although independent Notre Dame has a scheduling agreement with the fourteen-member ACC. The ten conferences are split into two groups for the purposes of the College Football Playoff. The "Power Five conferences" consist of most of the largest and best-known college athletic programs in the country. A school from one of the Power Five conferences won every BCS National Championship Game (which operated from 1999 to 2014), and has won every College Football Playoff National Championship. The remaining five conferences are known as the "Group of Five." Any conference may split its teams into two divisions, and as of the 2022 season, the American Athletic Conference, Big 12 Conference, Pac-12 Conference, and Conference USA do not use divisions. The American, the Big 12, and C-USA all previously utilized division systems before abandoning them after losing some of their member schools to realignment: UConn left the American in July 2020, and Marshall, Old Dominion, and Southern Miss left the C-USA in July 2022, leaving both those conferences with an odd number of members, while the Big 12 has not used divisions since the early-2010s conference realignment left it with 10 members. The Pac-12, however, chose to abandon divisions entirely as a result of the NCAA Division I Council ruling that conferences would no longer be required to maintain divisions in order to hold a conference championship. It was the first conference to entirely abandon divisions due to this, with the Atlantic Coast Conference and Mountain West Conference announcing similar intentions for 2023. As of the 2018 season, all conferences hold a championship game that determines the conference champion. The Sun Belt was the last conference to launch a championship game, as well as the most recent to split into divisions for football, with both the title game and the divisional alignment debuting in 2018. That conference chose to form football divisions despite having only 10 football members.


text: † "Big Five" or "Power Five" conferences with guaranteed berths in the "access bowls" associated with the College Football Playoff


text: Georgia Southern University in Statesboro, Georgia joined the Sun Belt Conference upon transitioning to the FBS level in 2014. Prior to joining the Sun Belt, GASOU won six FCS (I-AA) national championships and have produced two Walter Payton Award winners. The Eagles first continuously fielded a football team in 1924; however, play was suspended for World War II and revived in 1981. The Eagles competed as an FCS independent from 1984 until 1992 as the Eagles' main conference at the time, the Trans America Athletic Conference (now known as the ASUN Conference), did not sponsor football, and as a member of the Southern Conference from 1993 until 2013, winning 10 SoCon championships.


text: The Georgia Southern Eagles finished their first FBS season 9–3 overall and was undefeated in Sun Belt Conference play at 8–0; winning the Sun Belt Conference championship outright in its first year as an FBS member. They were also the first team ever to go unbeaten in conference play in their first FBS season. Since the Eagles were under transitional status, the university filed for a postseason waiver to allow the Eagles to play in a bowl game; however, the NCAA denied Georgia Southern's waiver request and a subsequent appeal since enough full member FBS teams became bowl-eligible during the season.


text: Liberty University, the most recent school to complete an FBS transition, began its FBS transition process on July 1, 2017. The NCAA granted the school a waiver from its normal transition rules that require an invitation from an FBS conference before beginning the transition. The Flames played in the Big South Conference in 2017 but were not eligible for the FCS playoffs. For 2018 to 2022, the Flames became an FBS independent. The school initially intended to remain a Big South member in other sports until it received an invitation to an FBS conference, but instead joined the non-football ASUN Conference in 2018. Conference USA (C-USA) eventually announced in November 2021 Liberty's future addition to that conference, with Flames football moving to C-USA starting in the 2023 season.


text: Three schools began FBS transitions on July 1, 2022. James Madison University joined the Sun Belt after meeting the NCAA minimum of five FBS opponents at its home stadium, as required and scheduled. This happened after James Madison's FCS conference, the all-sports Colonial Athletic Association (CAA), barred the Dukes from competing in or hosting team championships in any sport for that conference during the 2021–22 season according to CAA bylaws. (The CAA football league, branded as CAA Football, is technically a separate entity from the all-sports CAA.) However, the Dukes were eligible for at-large bids to all NCAA team championships in 2021–22. By meeting FBS scheduling requirements in 2022, JMU skipped one year of the normal two-year transition process, making it eligible for bowl games in 2023. On July 1, 2023, two outgoing FCS teams Jacksonville State and Sam Houston are moving to C-USA.


text: The next school to start an FBS transition will be Kennesaw State University, which will start its transition in 2023 ahead of its move to Conference USA in 2024.


text: The FBS has experienced several realignments since its formation in 1978, with many teams changing conferences, dropping out of the FBS, or moving up from the FCS. In 1982, the size of the division was cut considerably, and the Southern Conference and the Ivy League were demoted to the FCS. In 1985, the Missouri Valley Conference stopped sponsoring football. In the 1980s and 1990s, several independents joined conferences, dropped football, or joined the FCS. In the 1996 NCAA conference realignment, the Southwest Conference dissolved, and four Texas teams from that conference joined with the Big 8 schools to form the Big 12 Conference. The Western Athletic Conference expanded to sixteen members, but half of the schools left in 1999 to form the Mountain West Conference. Conference USA (C-USA) formed from a merger of the Metro Conference and the Great Midwest Conference, two conferences which had not sponsored football. The Big West stopped sponsoring football after the 2000 season, and was essentially replaced by the Sun Belt Conference, which added former Big West members and began sponsoring football in 2001. In the mid-2000s, the Big East added former basketball-only member Connecticut, while Temple left the conference (before eventually returning in 2013). During another phase of realignment in 2005, three schools jumped from the Big East to the ACC. The Big East responded by adding schools from Conference USA.


text: College football underwent another major conference realignment in the first half of the 2010s. Members of the Big East left the conference to join the Big 12 and ACC. The Big 12 lost members to the SEC, the Pac-12, and the Big Ten, while the Big Ten also gained one former ACC member. The remaining members of the Big East split into two conferences: the American Athletic Conference ("The American") and a new conference that assumed the Big East name but does not sponsor football. The American added several schools from C-USA, but lost one school each to the ACC and Big Ten after its first season. In turn, C-USA added FCS schools and schools from the Sun Belt Conference. The Sun Belt Conference replenished its membership by adding FCS schools and schools from the Western Athletic Conference. The Mountain West lost schools to the Big 12, Pac-12, and the FBS independent ranks, and added several schools from the WAC. After several defections, leaving the conference with only two football-sponsoring schools remaining, the WAC dropped its sponsorship of football.


text: The early-2010s realignment cycle also affected the FBS independent ranks. BYU left the MW in 2011 for football independence and the non-football West Coast Conference. In 2013, Idaho and New Mexico State, the last two football-sponsoring schools in the WAC, became FBS independents, but would return to their former football home of the Sun Belt Conference as football-only members the following year. Also in 2013, Notre Dame became a full but non-football member of the ACC, entering into a scheduling agreement with that conference that calls for the Fighting Irish football team to play five games each season against ACC schools, and to play each other ACC school at least once every three years. Finally, in 2015, Navy became a football-only member of The American, ending more than a century of football independence.


text: Realignment continued at a lower level through the rest of the 2010s and into the early 2020s. Georgia Southern joined the Sun Belt Conference upon transitioning to the FBS level in 2014. The Eagles won the Sun Belt Conference championship outright in its first year as an FBS member. The 2016 season saw FCS Coastal Carolina join the Sun Belt Conference for non-football sports while beginning a transition to FBS football; the football team joined the Sun Belt in 2017. That season was also the last for Idaho and New Mexico State as Sun Belt football members. After 2017, New Mexico State returned to independent status, while Idaho downgraded to FCS football—becoming the first program ever to voluntarily do so—and added football to its all-sports membership in the Big Sky Conference. Also in 2016, UMass went independent after turning down an offer of full membership in the Mid-American Conference. Most recently, UConn went independent in 2020 when the school left The American to rejoin many of its historic basketball rivals in the current Big East Conference. Notre Dame competed under a full ACC schedule only also in 2020 in response to logistical concerns that arose from the effects of COVID-19.


text: The most recent realignment is currently ongoing, starting with the announcements by Oklahoma and Texas that they would leave the Big 12 for the SEC no later than 2025. The first actual conference changes came in 2022, with the Sun Belt gaining Marshall, returning Old Dominion, and Southern Miss from C-USA, and FCS upgrader James Madison. The following year sees C-USA add Jacksonville State, Sam Houston (both from FCS), New Mexico State and Liberty (FBS independents) but lose Charlotte, Florida Atlantic, North Texas, Rice, UAB, and UTSA to The American. In turn, The American will lose Cincinnati, Houston, and UCF to the Big 12, which will also add former football independent BYU. In 2024, UCLA and USC will leave the Pac-12 for the Big Ten and Kennesaw State will upgrade to FBS and join C-USA.


text: Several awards are given each year to players and coaches in the FBS. Although all college football players are eligible for many of these awards (such as the Heisman Trophy), FBS players usually win these awards, and other awards (such as the Walter Payton Award) exist to honor players in other divisions and the FCS. In addition to the national awards listed below, FBS conferences also have their own awards, and several organizations release a yearly College Football All-America Team. In 1951, the National Football Foundation established the College Football Hall of Fame. Notable individual awards include: