title: Coral reef

text: Although corals exist both in temperate and tropical waters, shallow-water reefs form only in a zone extending from approximately 30° N to 30° S of the equator. Tropical corals do not grow at depths of over . The optimum temperature for most coral reefs is , and few reefs exist in waters below . However, reefs in the Persian Gulf have adapted to temperatures of in winter and in summer. 37 species of scleractinian corals inhabit such an environment around Larak Island.


title: Coral reef

text: Deep-water coral inhabits greater depths and colder temperatures at much higher latitudes, as far north as Norway. Although deep water corals can form reefs, little is known about them.


title: Coral reef

text: Coral reefs are rare along the west coasts of the Americas and Africa, due primarily to upwelling and strong cold coastal currents that reduce water temperatures in these areas (the Peru, Benguela and Canary Currents respectively). Corals are seldom found along the coastline of South Asia—from the eastern tip of India (Chennai) to the Bangladesh and Myanmar borders—as well as along the coasts of northeastern South America and Bangladesh, due to the freshwater release from the Amazon and Ganges Rivers respectively.


title: Coral reef

text: When alive, corals are colonies of small animals embedded in calcium carbonate shells. Coral heads consist of accumulations of individual animals called polyps, arranged in diverse shapes. Polyps are usually tiny, but they can range in size from a pinhead to across.


title: Coral reef

text: Reef-building or hermatypic corals live only in the photic zone (above 70 m), the depth to which sufficient sunlight penetrates the water.


title: Coral reef

text: Coral polyps do not photosynthesize, but have a symbiotic relationship with microscopic algae (dinoflagellates) of the genus "Symbiodinium", commonly referred to as zooxanthellae. These organisms live within the polyps' tissues and provide organic nutrients that nourish the polyp in the form of glucose, glycerol and amino acids. Because of this relationship, coral reefs grow much faster in clear water, which admits more sunlight. Without their symbionts, coral growth would be too slow to form significant reef structures. Corals get up to 90% of their nutrients from their symbionts. In return, as an example of mutualism, the corals shelter the zooxanthellae, averaging one million for every cubic centimeter of coral, and provide a constant supply of the carbon dioxide they need for photosynthesis.


title: Coral reef

text: The varying pigments in different species of zooxanthellae give them an overall brown or golden-brown appearance and give brown corals their colors. Other pigments such as reds, blues, greens, etc. come from colored proteins made by the coral animals. Coral that loses a large fraction of its zooxanthellae becomes white (or sometimes pastel shades in corals that are pigmented with their own proteins) and is said to be bleached, a condition which, unless corrected, can kill the coral.


title: Coral reef

text: There are eight clades of "Symbiodinium" phylotypes. Most research has been conducted on clades A–D. Each clade contributes their own benefits as well as less compatible attributes to the survival of their coral hosts. Each photosynthetic organism has a specific level of sensitivity to photodamage to compounds needed for survival, such as proteins. Rates of regeneration and replication determine the organism's ability to survive. Phylotype A is found more in the shallow waters. It is able to produce mycosporine-like amino acids that are UV resistant, using a derivative of glycerin to absorb the UV radiation and allowing them to better adapt to warmer water temperatures. In the event of UV or thermal damage, if and when repair occurs, it will increase the likelihood of survival of the host and symbiont. This leads to the idea that, evolutionarily, clade A is more UV resistant and thermally resistant than the other clades.


title: Coral reef

text: Clades B and C are found more frequently in deeper water, which may explain their higher vulnerability to increased temperatures. Terrestrial plants that receive less sunlight because they are found in the undergrowth are analogous to clades B, C, and D. Since clades B through D are found at deeper depths, they require an elevated light absorption rate to be able to synthesize as much energy. With elevated absorption rates at UV wavelengths, these phylotypes are more prone to coral bleaching versus the shallow clade A.


title: Coral reef

text: Clade D has been observed to be high temperature-tolerant, and has a higher rate of survival than clades B and C during modern bleaching events.


title: Coral reef

text: Reefs grow as polyps and other organisms deposit calcium carbonate, the basis of coral, as a skeletal structure beneath and around themselves, pushing the coral head's top upwards and outwards. Waves, grazing fish (such as parrotfish), sea urchins, sponges and other forces and organisms act as bioeroders, breaking down coral skeletons into fragments that settle into spaces in the reef structure or form sandy bottoms in associated reef lagoons.


title: Coral reef

text: Typical shapes for coral species are named by their resemblance to terrestrial objects such as wrinkled brains, cabbages, table tops, antlers, wire strands and pillars. These shapes can depend on the life history of the coral, like light exposure and wave action, and events such as breakages.


title: Coral reef

text: Corals reproduce both sexually and asexually. An individual polyp uses both reproductive modes within its lifetime. Corals reproduce sexually by either internal or external fertilization. The reproductive cells are found on the mesenteries, membranes that radiate inward from the layer of tissue that lines the stomach cavity. Some mature adult corals are hermaphroditic; others are exclusively male or female. A few species change sex as they grow.


title: Coral reef

text: Internally fertilized eggs develop in the polyp for a period ranging from days to weeks. Subsequent development produces a tiny larva, known as a planula. Externally fertilized eggs develop during synchronized spawning. Polyps across a reef simultaneously release eggs and sperm into the water en masse. Spawn disperse over a large area. The timing of spawning depends on time of year, water temperature, and tidal and lunar cycles. Spawning is most successful given little variation between high and low tide. The less water movement, the better the chance for fertilization. Ideal timing occurs in the spring. The release of eggs or planula usually occurs at night and is sometimes in phase with the lunar cycle (three to six days after a full moon). The period from release to settlement lasts only a few days, but some planulae can survive afloat for several weeks. During this process, the larvae may use several different cues to find a suitable location for settlement. At long distances sounds from existing reefs are likely important, while at short distances chemical compounds become important. The larvae are vulnerable to predation and environmental conditions. The lucky few planulae that successfully attach to substrate then compete for food and space.


title: Coral reef

text: Corals are the most prodigious reef-builders. However many other organisms living in the reef community contribute skeletal calcium carbonate in the same manner as corals. These include coralline algae, some sponges and bivalves. Reefs are always built by the combined efforts of these different phyla, with different organisms leading reef-building in different geological periods.


title: Coral reef

text: Coralline algae are important contributors to reef structure. Although their mineral deposition rates are much slower than corals, they are more tolerant of rough wave-action, and so help to create a protective crust over those parts of the reef subjected to the greatest forces by waves, such as the reef front facing the open ocean. They also strengthen the reef structure by depositing limestone in sheets over the reef surface.


title: Coral reef

text: "Sclerosponge" is the descriptive name for all "Porifera" that build reefs. In the early Cambrian period, "Archaeocyatha" sponges were the world's first reef-building organisms, and sponges were the only reef-builders until the Ordovician. Sclerosponges still assist corals building modern reefs, but like coralline algae are much slower-growing than corals and their contribution is (usually) minor.


title: Coral reef

text: In the northern Pacific Ocean cloud sponges still create deep-water mineral-structures without corals, although the structures are not recognizable from the surface like tropical reefs. They are the only extant organisms known to build reef-like structures in cold water.


title: Coral reef

text: Oyster reefs are dense aggregations of oysters living in colonial communities. Other regionally-specific names for these structures include oyster beds and oyster banks. Oyster larvae require a hard substrate or surface to attach on, which includes the shells of old or dead oysters. Thus reefs can build up over time as new larvae settle on older individuals. "Crassostrea virginica" were once abundant in Chesapeake Bay and shorelines bordering the Atlantic coastal plain until the late nineteenth century. "Ostrea angasi" is a species of flat oyster that had also formed large reefs in South Australia.


title: Coral reef

text: Hippuritida, an extinct order of bivalves known as rudists, were major reef-building organisms during the Cretaceous. By the mid-Cretaceous, rudists became the dominant tropical reef-builders, becoming more numerous than scleractinian corals. During this period, ocean temperatures and saline levels—which corals are sensitive to—were higher than it is today, which may have contributed to the success of rudist reefs.


title: Coral reef

text: In "The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs", published in 1842, Darwin described how coral reefs were found in some tropical areas but not others, with no obvious cause. The largest and strongest corals grew in parts of the reef exposed to the most violent surf and corals were weakened or absent where loose sediment accumulated.


title: Coral reef

text: Tropical waters contain few nutrients yet a coral reef can flourish like an "oasis in the desert". This has given rise to the ecosystem conundrum, sometimes called "Darwin's paradox": "How can such high production flourish in such nutrient poor conditions?"


title: Coral reef

text: Coral reefs support over one-quarter of all marine species. This diversity results in complex food webs, with large predator fish eating smaller forage fish that eat yet smaller zooplankton and so on. However, all food webs eventually depend on plants, which are the primary producers. Coral reefs typically produce 5–10 grams of carbon per square meter per day (gC·m·day) biomass.


title: Coral reef

text: One reason for the unusual clarity of tropical waters is their nutrient deficiency and drifting plankton. Further, the sun shines year-round in the tropics, warming the surface layer, making it less dense than subsurface layers. The warmer water is separated from deeper, cooler water by a stable thermocline, where the temperature makes a rapid change. This keeps the warm surface waters floating above the cooler deeper waters. In most parts of the ocean, there is little exchange between these layers. Organisms that die in aquatic environments generally sink to the bottom, where they decompose, which releases nutrients in the form of nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and potassium (K). These nutrients are necessary for plant growth, but in the tropics, they do not directly return to the surface.


title: Coral reef

text: Plants form the base of the food chain and need sunlight and nutrients to grow. In the ocean, these plants are mainly microscopic phytoplankton which drift in the water column. They need sunlight for photosynthesis, which powers carbon fixation, so they are found only relatively near the surface, but they also need nutrients. Phytoplankton rapidly use nutrients in the surface waters, and in the tropics, these nutrients are not usually replaced because of the thermocline.


title: Coral reef

text: Around coral reefs, lagoons fill in with material eroded from the reef and the island. They become havens for marine life, providing protection from waves and storms.


title: Coral reef

text: Most importantly, reefs recycle nutrients, which happens much less in the open ocean. In coral reefs and lagoons, producers include phytoplankton, as well as seaweed and coralline algae, especially small types called turf algae, which pass nutrients to corals. The phytoplankton form the base of the food chain and are eaten by fish and crustaceans. Recycling reduces the nutrient inputs needed overall to support the community.


title: Coral reef

text: Corals also absorb nutrients, including inorganic nitrogen and phosphorus, directly from water. Many corals extend their tentacles at night to catch zooplankton that pass near. Zooplankton provide the polyp with nitrogen, and the polyp shares some of the nitrogen with the zooxanthellae, which also require this element.


title: Coral reef

text: Sponges live in crevices in the reefs. They are efficient filter feeders, and in the Red Sea they consume about 60% of the phytoplankton that drifts by. Sponges eventually excrete nutrients in a form that corals can use.


title: Coral reef

text: The roughness of coral surfaces is key to coral survival in agitated waters. Normally, a boundary layer of still water surrounds a submerged object, which acts as a barrier. Waves breaking on the extremely rough edges of corals disrupt the boundary layer, allowing the corals access to passing nutrients. Turbulent water thereby promotes reef growth. Without the access to nutrients brought by rough coral surfaces, even the most effective recycling would not suffice.


title: Coral reef

text: Deep nutrient-rich water entering coral reefs through isolated events may have significant effects on temperature and nutrient systems. This water movement disrupts the relatively stable thermocline that usually exists between warm shallow water and deeper colder water. Temperature regimes on coral reefs in the Bahamas and Florida are highly variable with temporal scales of minutes to seasons and spatial scales across depths.


title: Coral reef

text: Water can pass through coral reefs in various ways, including current rings, surface waves, internal waves and tidal changes. Movement is generally created by tides and wind. As tides interact with varying bathymetry and wind mixes with surface water, internal waves are created. An internal wave is a gravity wave that moves along density stratification within the ocean. When a water parcel encounters a different density it oscillates and creates internal waves. While internal waves generally have a lower frequency than surface waves, they often form as a single wave that breaks into multiple waves as it hits a slope and moves upward. This vertical breakup of internal waves causes significant diapycnal mixing and turbulence. Internal waves can act as nutrient pumps, bringing plankton and cool nutrient-rich water to the surface.


title: Coral reef

text: The irregular structure characteristic of coral reef bathymetry may enhance mixing and produce pockets of cooler water and variable nutrient content. Arrival of cool, nutrient-rich water from depths due to internal waves and tidal bores has been linked to growth rates of suspension feeders and benthic algae as well as plankton and larval organisms. The seaweed "Codium isthmocladum" reacts to deep water nutrient sources because their tissues have different concentrations of nutrients dependent upon depth. Aggregations of eggs, larval organisms and plankton on reefs respond to deep water intrusions. Similarly, as internal waves and bores move vertically, surface-dwelling larval organisms are carried toward the shore. This has significant biological importance to cascading effects of food chains in coral reef ecosystems and may provide yet another key to unlocking the paradox.


title: Coral reef

text: Coral reefs often depend on surrounding habitats, such as seagrass meadows and mangrove forests, for nutrients. Seagrass and mangroves supply dead plants and animals that are rich in nitrogen and serve to feed fish and animals from the reef by supplying wood and vegetation. Reefs, in turn, protect mangroves and seagrass from waves and produce sediment in which the mangroves and seagrass can root.


title: Coral reef

text: Coral reefs form some of the world's most productive ecosystems, providing complex and varied marine habitats that support a wide range of other organisms. Fringing reefs just below low tide level have a mutually beneficial relationship with mangrove forests at high tide level and sea grass meadows in between: the reefs protect the mangroves and seagrass from strong currents and waves that would damage them or erode the sediments in which they are rooted, while the mangroves and sea grass protect the coral from large influxes of silt, fresh water and pollutants. This level of variety in the environment benefits many coral reef animals, which, for example, may feed in the sea grass and use the reefs for protection or breeding.


title: Coral reef

text: Reefs are home to a variety of animals, including fish, seabirds, sponges, cnidarians (which includes some types of corals and jellyfish), worms, crustaceans (including shrimp, cleaner shrimp, spiny lobsters and crabs), mollusks (including cephalopods), echinoderms (including starfish, sea urchins and sea cucumbers), sea squirts, sea turtles and sea snakes. Aside from humans, mammals are rare on coral reefs, with visiting cetaceans such as dolphins the main exception. A few species feed directly on corals, while others graze on algae on the reef. Reef biomass is positively related to species diversity.


title: Coral reef

text: The same hideouts in a reef may be regularly inhabited by different species at different times of day. Nighttime predators such as cardinalfish and squirrelfish hide during the day, while damselfish, surgeonfish, triggerfish, wrasses and parrotfish hide from eels and sharks.


title: Coral reef

text: The great number and diversity of hiding places in coral reefs, i.e. refuges, are the most important factor causing the great diversity and high biomass of the organisms in coral reefs.


title: Coral reef

text: Reefs are chronically at risk of algal encroachment. Overfishing and excess nutrient supply from onshore can enable algae to outcompete and kill the coral. Increased nutrient levels can be a result of sewage or chemical fertilizer runoff. Runoff can carry nitrogen and phosphorus which promote excess algae growth. Algae can sometimes out-compete the coral for space. The algae can then smother the coral by decreasing the oxygen supply available to the reef. Decreased oxygen levels can slow down calcification rates, weakening the coral and leaving it more susceptible to disease and degradation. Algae inhabit a large percentage of surveyed coral locations. The algal population consists of turf algae, coralline algae and macro algae. Some sea urchins (such as "Diadema antillarum") eat these algae and could thus decrease the risk of algal encroachment.


title: Coral reef

text: Sponges are essential for the functioning of the coral reef that system. Algae and corals in coral reefs produce organic material. This is filtered through sponges which convert this organic material into small particles which in turn are absorbed by algae and corals. Sponges are essential to the coral reef system however, they are quite different from corals. While corals are complex and many celled while sponges are very simple organisms with no tissue. They are alike in that they are both immobile aquatic vertebrates but otherwise are completely different.


title: Coral reef

text: There are several different species of sea sponge. They come in multiple shapes and sizes and all have unique characteristics. Some types of sea sponges include; the tube sponge, vase sponge, yellow sponge, bright red tree sponge, painted tunicate sponge, and the sea squirt sponge.


title: Coral reef

text: Sea sponges have provided the base for many life saving medications. Scientists began to study them in the 1940's and after a few years, discovered that sea sponges contain properties that can stop viral infections. The first drug developed from sea sponges was released in 1969.


title: Coral reef

text: Over 4,000 species of fish inhabit coral reefs. The reasons for this diversity remain unclear. Hypotheses include the "lottery", in which the first (lucky winner) recruit to a territory is typically able to defend it against latecomers, "competition", in which adults compete for territory, and less-competitive species must be able to survive in poorer habitat, and "predation", in which population size is a function of postsettlement piscivore mortality. Healthy reefs can produce up to 35 tons of fish per square kilometer each year, but damaged reefs produce much less.


title: Coral reef

text: Sea urchins, "Dotidae" and sea slugs eat seaweed. Some species of sea urchins, such as "Diadema antillarum", can play a pivotal part in preventing algae from overrunning reefs. Researchers are investigating the use of native collector urchins, "Tripneustes gratilla", for their potential as biocontrol agents to mitigate the spread of invasive algae species on coral reefs. "Nudibranchia" and sea anemones eat sponges.


title: Coral reef

text: A number of invertebrates, collectively called "cryptofauna," inhabit the coral skeletal substrate itself, either boring into the skeletons (through the process of bioerosion) or living in pre-existing voids and crevices. Animals boring into the rock include sponges, bivalve mollusks, and sipunculans. Those settling on the reef include many other species, particularly crustaceans and polychaete worms.


title: Coral reef

text: Coral reef systems provide important habitats for seabird species, some endangered. For example, Midway Atoll in Hawaii supports nearly three million seabirds, including two-thirds (1.5 million) of the global population of Laysan albatross, and one-third of the global population of black-footed albatross. Each seabird species has specific sites on the atoll where they nest. Altogether, 17 species of seabirds live on Midway. The short-tailed albatross is the rarest, with fewer than 2,200 surviving after excessive feather hunting in the late 19th century.


title: Coral reef

text: Sea snakes feed exclusively on fish and their eggs. Marine birds, such as herons, gannets, pelicans and boobies, feed on reef fish. Some land-based reptiles intermittently associate with reefs, such as monitor lizards, the marine crocodile and semiaquatic snakes, such as "Laticauda colubrina". Sea turtles, particularly hawksbill sea turtles, feed on sponges.


title: Coral reef

text: Coral reefs deliver ecosystem services to tourism, fisheries and coastline protection. The global economic value of coral reefs has been estimated to be between US$29.8 billion and $375 billion per year. About 500 million people benefit from ecosystem services provided by coral reefs.


title: Coral reef

text: The economic cost over a 25-year period of destroying one square kilometer of coral reef has been estimated to be somewhere between $137,000 and $1,200,000.


title: Coral reef

text: To improve the management of coastal coral reefs, the World Resources Institute (WRI) developed and published tools for calculating the value of coral reef-related tourism, shoreline protection and fisheries, partnering with five Caribbean countries. As of April 2011, published working papers covered St. Lucia, Tobago, Belize, and the Dominican Republic. The WRI was "making sure that the study results support improved coastal policies and management planning". The Belize study estimated the value of reef and mangrove services at $395–559 million annually.


title: Coral reef

text: Bermuda's coral reefs provide economic benefits to the Island worth on average $722 million per year, based on six key ecosystem services, according to Sarkis "et al" (2010).


title: Coral reef

text: Coral reefs protect shorelines by absorbing wave energy, and many small islands would not exist without reefs. Coral reefs can reduce wave energy by 97%, helping to prevent loss of life and property damage. Coastlines protected by coral reefs are also more stable in terms of erosion than those without. Reefs can attenuate waves as well as or better than artificial structures designed for coastal defence such as breakwaters. An estimated 197 million people who live both below 10 m elevation and within 50 km of a reef consequently may receive risk reduction benefits from reefs. Restoring reefs is significantly cheaper than building artificial breakwaters in tropical environments. Expected damages from flooding would double, and costs from frequent storms would triple without the topmost meter of reefs. For 100-year storm events, flood damages would increase by 91% to $US 272 billion without the top meter.


title: Coral reef

text: About six million tons of fish are taken each year from coral reefs. Well-managed reefs have an average annual yield of 15 tons of seafood per square kilometer. Southeast Asia's coral reef fisheries alone yield about $2.4 billion annually from seafood.


title: Coral reef

text: Since their emergence 485 million years ago, coral reefs have faced many threats, including disease, predation, invasive species, bioerosion by grazing fish, algal blooms, and geologic hazards. Recent human activities present new threats. From 2009 to 2018, coral reefs worldwide declined 14%.


title: Coral reef

text: Human activities that threaten coral include coral mining, bottom trawling, and the digging of canals and accesses into islands and bays, all of which can damage marine ecosystems if not done sustainably. Other localized threats include blast fishing, overfishing, coral overmining, and marine pollution, including use of the banned anti-fouling biocide tributyltin; although absent in developed countries, these activities continue in places with few environmental protections or poor regulatory enforcement. Chemicals in sunscreens may awaken latent viral infections in zooxanthellae and impact reproduction. However, concentrating tourism activities via offshore platforms has been shown to limit the spread of coral disease by tourists.


title: Coral reef

text: Greenhouse gas emissions present a broader threat through sea temperature rise and sea level rise, though corals adapt their calcifying fluids to changes in seawater pH and carbonate levels and are not directly threatened by ocean acidification. Volcanic and manmade aerosol pollution can modulate regional sea surface temperatures.


title: Coral reef

text: In 2011, two researchers suggested that "extant marine invertebrates face the same synergistic effects of multiple stressors" that occurred during the end-Permian extinction, and that genera "with poorly buffered respiratory physiology and calcareous shells", such as corals, were particularly vulnerable.


title: Coral reef

text: Corals respond to stress by "bleaching," or expelling their colorful zooxanthellate endosymbionts. Corals with Clade C zooxanthellae are generally vulnerable to heat-induced bleaching, whereas corals with the hardier Clade A or D are generally resistant, as are tougher coral genera like Porites and Montipora.


title: Coral reef

text: Every 4–7 years, an El Niño event causes some reefs with heat-sensitive corals to bleach, with especially widespread bleachings in 1998 and 2010. However, reefs that experience a severe bleaching event become resistant to future heat-induced bleaching, due to rapid directional selection. Similar rapid adaption may protect coral reefs from global warming.


title: Coral reef

text: A large-scale systematic study of the Jarvis Island coral community, which experienced ten El Niño-coincident coral bleaching events from 1960 to 2016, found that the reef recovered from almost complete death after severe events.


title: Coral reef

text: Marine protected areas (MPAs) are areas designated because they provide various kinds of protection to ocean and/or estuarine areas. They are intended to promote responsible fishery management and habitat protection. MPAs can also encompass social and biological objectives, including reef restoration, aesthetics, biodiversity and economic benefits.


title: Coral reef

text: The effectiveness of MPAs is still debated. For example, a study investigating the success of a small number of MPAs in Indonesia, the Philippines and Papua New Guinea found no significant differences between the MPAs and unprotected sites. Furthermore, in some cases they can generate local conflict, due to a lack of community participation, clashing views of the government and fisheries, effectiveness of the area and funding. In some situations, as in the Phoenix Islands Protected Area, MPAs provide revenue to locals. The level of income provided is similar to the income they would have generated without controls. Overall, it appears the MPA's can provide protection to local coral reefs, but that clear management and sufficient funds are required.


title: Coral reef

text: The Caribbean Coral Reefs - Status Report 1970–2012, states that coral decline may be reduced or even reversed. For this overfishing needs to be stopped, especially fishing on species key to coral reefs, such as parrotfish. Direct human pressure on coral reefs should also be reduced and the inflow of sewage should be minimised. Measures to achieve this could include restricting coastal settlement, development and tourism. The report shows that healthier reefs in the Caribbean are those with large, healthy populations of parrotfish. These occur in countries that protect parrotfish and other species, like sea urchins. They also often ban fish trapping and spearfishing. Together these measures help creating "resilient reefs".


title: Coral reef

text: Protecting networks of diverse and healthy reefs, not only climate refugia, helps ensure the greatest chance of genetic diversity, which is critical for coral to adapt to new climates. A variety of conservation methods applied across marine and terrestrial threatened ecosystems makes coral adaption more likely and effective.


title: Coral reef

text: Designating a reef as a biosphere reserve, marine park, national monument or world heritage site can offer protections. For example, Belize's barrier reef, Sian Ka'an, the Galapagos islands, Great Barrier Reef, Henderson Island, Palau and Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument are world heritage sites.


title: Coral reef

text: In Australia, the Great Barrier Reef is protected by the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority, and is the subject of much legislation, including a biodiversity action plan. Australia compiled a Coral Reef Resilience Action Plan. This plan consists of adaptive management strategies, including reducing carbon footprint. A public awareness plan provides education on the "rainforests of the sea" and how people can reduce carbon emissions.


title: Coral reef

text: Inhabitants of Ahus Island, Manus Province, Papua New Guinea, have followed a generations-old practice of restricting fishing in six areas of their reef lagoon. Their cultural traditions allow line fishing, but no net or spear fishing. Both biomass and individual fish sizes are significantly larger than in places where fishing is unrestricted.


title: Coral reef

text: Increased levels of atmospheric CO contribute to ocean acidification, which in turn damages coral reefs. To help combat ocean acidification, several countries have put laws in place to reduce greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide. Many land use laws aim to reduce CO emissions by limiting deforestation. Deforestation can release significant amounts of CO absent sequestration via active follow-up forestry programs. Deforestation can also cause erosion, which flows into the ocean, contributing to ocean acidification. Incentives are used to reduce miles traveled by vehicles, which reduces carbon emissions into the atmosphere, thereby reducing the amount of dissolved CO in the ocean. State and federal governments also regulate land activities that affect coastal erosion. High-end satellite technology can monitor reef conditions.


title: Coral reef

text: The United States Clean Water Act puts pressure on state governments to monitor and limit run-off of polluted water.


title: Coral reef

text: Coral reef restoration has grown in prominence over the past several decades because of the unprecedented reef die-offs around the planet. Coral stressors can include pollution, warming ocean temperatures, extreme weather events, and overfishing. With the deterioration of global reefs, fish nurseries, biodiversity, coastal development and livelihood, and natural beauty are under threat. Fortunately, researchers have taken it upon themselves to develop a new field, coral restoration, in the 1970s-1980s


title: Coral reef

text: Coral aquaculture, also known as coral farming or coral gardening, is showing promise as a potentially effective tool for restoring coral reefs. The "gardening" process bypasses the early growth stages of corals when they are most at risk of dying. Coral seeds are grown in nurseries, then replanted on the reef. Coral is farmed by coral farmers whose interests range from reef conservation to increased income. Due to its straight forward process and substantial evidence of the technique having a significant effect on coral reef growth, coral nurseries became the most widespread and arguably the most effective method for coral restoration.


title: Coral reef

text: Coral gardens take advantage of a coral's natural ability to fragment and continuing to grow if the fragments are able to anchor themselves onto new substrates. This method was first tested by Baruch Rinkevich in 1995 which found success at the time. By today's standards, coral farming has grown into a variety of different forms, but still has the same goals of cultivating corals. Consequently, coral farming quickly replaced previously used transplantation methods or the act of physically moving sections or whole colonies of corals into a new area. Transplantation has seen success in the past and decades of experiments have led to a high success and survival rate. However, this method still requires the removal of corals from existing reefs. With the current state of reefs, this kind of method should generally be avoided if possible. Saving healthy corals from eroding substrates or reefs that are doomed to collapse could be a major advantage of utilizing transplantation.


title: Coral reef

text: Coral gardens generally take on the safe forms no matter where you go. It begins with the establishment of a nursery where operators can observe and care for coral fragments. It goes without saying that nurseries should be established in areas that are going to maximize growth and minimize mortality. Floating offshore coral trees or even aquariums are possible locations where corals can grow. After a location has been determined, collection and cultivation can occur.


title: Coral reef

text: The major benefit of using coral farms is it lowers polyp and juvenile mortality rates. By removing predators and recruitment obstacles, corals are able to mature without much hindrance. However, nurseries cannot stop climate stressors. Warming temperatures or hurricanes can still disrupt or even kill nursery corals.


title: Coral reef

text: Efforts to expand the size and number of coral reefs generally involve supplying substrate to allow more corals to find a home. Substrate materials include discarded vehicle tires, scuttled ships, subway cars and formed concrete, such as reef balls. Reefs grow unaided on marine structures such as oil rigs. In large restoration projects, propagated hermatypic coral on substrate can be secured with metal pins, superglue or milliput. Needle and thread can also attach A-hermatype coral to substrate.


title: Coral reef

text: Biorock is a substrate produced by a patented process that runs low voltage electrical currents through seawater to cause dissolved minerals to precipitate onto steel structures. The resultant white carbonate (aragonite) is the same mineral that makes up natural coral reefs. Corals rapidly colonize and grow at accelerated rates on these coated structures. The electrical currents also accelerate the formation and growth of both chemical limestone rock and the skeletons of corals and other shell-bearing organisms, such as oysters. The vicinity of the anode and cathode provides a high-pH environment which inhibits the growth of competitive filamentous and fleshy algae. The increased growth rates fully depend on the accretion activity. Under the influence of the electric field, corals display an increased growth rate, size and density.


title: Coral reef

text: Simply having many structures on the ocean floor is not enough to form coral reefs. Restoration projects must consider the complexity of the substrates they are creating for future reefs. Researchers conducted an experiment near Ticao Island in the Philippines in 2013 where several substrates in varying complexities were laid in the nearby degraded reefs. Large complexity consisted of plots that had both a man-made substrates of both smooth and rough rocks with a surrounding fence, medium consisted of only the man-made substrates, and small had neither the fence or substrates. After one month, researchers found that there was a positive correlation between structure complexity and recruitment rates of larvae. The medium complexity performed the best with larvae favoring rough rocks over smooth rocks. Following one year of their study, researchers visited the site and found that many of the sites were able to support local fisheries. They came to the conclusion that reef restoration could be done cost-effectively and will yield long term benefits given they are protected and maintained.


title: Coral reef

text: One case study with coral reef restoration was conducted on the island of Oahu in Hawaii. The University of Hawaii operates a Coral Reef Assessment and Monitoring Program to help relocate and restore coral reefs in Hawaii. A boat channel from the island of Oahu to the Hawaii Institute of Marine Biology on Coconut Island was overcrowded with coral reefs. Many areas of coral reef patches in the channel had been damaged from past dredging in the channel.


title: Coral reef

text: Dredging covers corals with sand. Coral larvae cannot settle on sand; they can only build on existing reefs or compatible hard surfaces, such as rock or concrete. Because of this, the University decided to relocate some of the coral. They transplanted them with the help of United States Army divers, to a site relatively close to the channel. They observed little if any damage to any of the colonies during transport and no mortality of coral reefs was observed on the transplant site. While attaching the coral to the transplant site, they found that coral placed on hard rock grew well, including on the wires that attached the corals to the site.


title: Coral reef

text: No environmental effects were seen from the transplantation process, recreational activities were not decreased, and no scenic areas were affected.


title: Coral reef

text: As an alternative to transplanting coral themselves, juvenile fish can also be encouraged to relocate to existing coral reefs by auditory simulation. In damaged sections of the Great Barrier Reef, loudspeakers playing recordings of healthy reef environments were found to attract fish twice as often as equivalent patches where no sound was played, and also increased species biodiversity by 50%.


title: Coral reef

text: Another possibility for coral restoration is gene therapy: inoculating coral with genetically modified bacteria, or naturally-occurring heat-tolerant varieties of coral symbiotes, may make it possible to grow corals that are more resistant to climate change and other threats. Warming oceans are forcing corals to adapt to unprecedented temperatures. Those that do not have a tolerance for the elevated temperatures experience coral bleaching and eventually mortality. There is already research that looks to create genetically modified corals that can withstand a warming ocean. Madeleine J. H. van Oppen, James K. Oliver, Hollie M. Putnam, and Ruth D. Gates described four different ways that gradually increase in human intervention to genetically modify corals. These methods focus on altering the genetics of the zooxanthellae within coral rather than the alternative.


title: Coral reef

text: The first method is to induce acclimatization of the first generation of corals. The idea is that when adult and offspring corals are exposed to stressors, the zooxanthellae will gain a mutation. This method is based mostly on the chance that the zooxanthellae will acquire the specific trait that will allow it to better survive in warmer waters. The second method focuses on identifying what different kinds of zooxanthellae are within the coral and configuring how much of each zooxanthella lives within the coral at a given age. Use of zooxanthellae from the previous method would only boost success rates for this method. However, this method would only be applicable to younger corals, for now, because previous experiments of manipulation zooxanthellae communities at later life stages have all failed. The third method focuses on selective breeding tactics. Once selected, corals would be reared and exposed to simulated stressors in a laboratory. The last method is to genetically modify the zooxanthellae itself. When preferred mutations are acquired, the genetically modified zooxanthellae will be introduced to an aposymbiotic poly and a new coral will be produced. This method is the most laborious of the fourth, but researchers believe this method should be utilized more and holds the most promise in genetic engineering for coral restoration.


title: Coral reef

text: Hawaiian coral reefs smothered by the spread of invasive algae were managed with a two-prong approach: divers manually removed invasive algae, with the support of super-sucker barges. Grazing pressure on invasive algae needed to be increased to prevent the regrowth of the algae. Researchers found that native collector urchins were reasonable candidate grazers for algae biocontrol, to extirpate the remaining invasive algae from the reef.


title: Coral reef

text: Macroalgae, or better known as seaweed, has to potential to cause reef collapse because they can outcompete many coral species. Macroalgae can overgrow on corals, shade, block recruitment, release biochemicals that can hinder spawning, and potentially form bacteria harmful to corals. Historically, algae growth was controlled by herbivorous fish and sea urchins. Parrotfish are a prime example of reef caretakers. Consequently, these two species can be considered as keystone species for reef environments because of their role in protecting reefs.


title: Coral reef

text: Before the 1980s, Jamaica's reefs were thriving and well cared for, however, this all changed after Hurricane Allen occurred in 1980 and an unknown disease spread across the Caribbean. In the wake of these events, massive damage was caused to both the reefs and sea urchin population across Jamaican's reefs and into the Caribbean Sea. As little as 2% of the original sea urchin population survived the disease. Primary macroalgae succeeded the destroyed reefs and eventually larger, more resilient macroalgae soon took its place as the dominant organism. Parrotfish and other herbivorous fish were few in numbers because of decades of overfishing and bycatch at the time. Historically, the Jamaican coast had 90% coral cover and was reduced to 5% in the 1990s. Eventually, corals were able to recover in areas where sea urchin populations were increasing. Sea urchins were able to feed and multiply and clear off substrates, leaving areas for coral polyps to anchor and mature. However, sea urchin populations are still not recovering as fast as researchers predicted, despite being highly fecundate. It is unknown whether or not the mysterious disease is still present and preventing sea urchin populations from rebounding. Regardless, these areas are slowly recovering with the aid of sea urchin grazing. This event supports an early restoration idea of cultivating and releasing sea urchins into reefs to prevent algal overgrowth.


title: Coral reef

text: In 2014, Christopher Page, Erinn Muller, and David Vaughan from the International Center for Coral Reef Research & Restoration at Mote Marine Laboratory in Summerland Key, Florida developed a new technology called "microfragmentation," in which they use a specialized diamond band saw to cut corals into 1 cm fragments instead of 6 cm to advance the growth of brain, boulder, and star corals. Corals "Orbicella faveolata" and "Montastraea cavernosa" were outplanted off the Florida's shores in several microfragment arrays. After two years, "O. faveolata" had grown 6.5x its original size while "M. cavernosa" had grown nearly twice its size. Under conventional means, both corals would have required decades to reach the same size. It is suspected that if predation events had not occurred near the beginning of the experiment "O. faveolata" would have grown at least ten times its original size. By using this method, Mote Marine Laboratory produced 25,000 corals and planted 10,000 in the Florida Keys in only one year. Shortly after, they discovered that these microfragments fused with other microfragments from the same parent coral. Typically, corals that are not from the same parent fight and kill nearby corals in an attempt to survive and expand. This new technology is known as "fusion" and has been shown to grow coral heads in just two years instead of the typical 25–75 years. After fusion occurs, the reef will act as a single organism rather than several independent reefs. Currently, there has been no published research into this method.


title: Coral reef

text: The times of maximum reef development were in the Middle Cambrian (513–501 Ma), Devonian (416–359 Ma) and Carboniferous (359–299 Ma), owing to order Rugosa extinct corals and Late Cretaceous (100–66 Ma) and all Neogene (23 Ma–present), owing to order Scleractinia corals.


title: Coral reef

text: Not all reefs in the past were formed by corals: those in the Early Cambrian (542–513 Ma) resulted from calcareous algae and archaeocyathids (small animals with conical shape, probably related to sponges) and in the Late Cretaceous (100–66 Ma), when reefs formed by a group of bivalves called rudists existed; one of the valves formed the main conical structure and the other, much smaller valve acted as a cap.


title: Coral reef

text: Measurements of the oxygen isotopic composition of the aragonitic skeleton of coral reefs, such as "Porites", can indicate changes in sea surface temperature and sea surface salinity conditions during the growth of the coral. This technique is often used by climate scientists to infer a region's paleoclimate.


title: I Care a Lot

text: I Care a Lot is a 2020 American satirical black comedy thriller film written and directed by J Blakeson. The film stars Rosamund Pike, Peter Dinklage, Eiza González, Chris Messina, Macon Blair, Alicia Witt, and Damian Young, with Isiah Whitlock Jr. and Dianne Wiest. The film follows a con woman who makes a living as a court-appointed guardian, seizing the assets of vulnerable elderly people, including the mother of a dangerous gangster.


title: I Care a Lot

text: "I Care a Lot" had its world premiere at the 45th Toronto International Film Festival on September 12, 2020, and was released via streaming on February 19, 2021, through Netflix and Amazon Prime Video, depending on the region. The film received positive reviews from critics, with Pike winning Best Actress in a Motion Picture – Comedy or Musical at the 78th Golden Globe Awards.


title: I Care a Lot

text: Marla Grayson is a con artist who makes a living by convincing the legal system to grant her guardianship over elders that she pretends cannot take care of themselves. She places them in an assisted living facility, where they are sedated and lose contact with the outside world. She sells off their homes and assets, pocketing the proceeds. She and the court deny a man, Mr. Feldstrom, access to his mother after he attempts to force his way in to the assisted living facility. He later threatens her outside the courthouse, saying that he hopes she is killed.


title: I Care a Lot

text: Dr. Karen Amos informs Marla about a potential case, a wealthy retiree with no apparent partner or close family named Jennifer Peterson. A judge appoints Marla guardian after she and Dr. Amos falsely testify that Jennifer suffers from dementia, confusion and loss of mobility. Marla moves Jennifer into assisted living and immediately gets to work selling Jennifer's furniture, car and home. While rooting through Jennifer's possessions, Marla discovers the key to a safe deposit box, and finds that it contains a watch, gold bars, bank notes, and hidden, loose diamonds, which she takes and stashes away.


title: I Care a Lot

text: As Marla's girlfriend and business partner, Fran, helps paint and renovate the house, a cab arrives driven by Alexi Ignatyev, who says he is there for a regular pick up of Jennifer. Fran says that Jennifer has moved. Alexi returns to his employer, Roman Lunyov, greatly distressed. Roman, a crime lord, is revealed to be Jennifer's son. He threatens Alexi and orders him to find his mother and report back. Mafia lawyer Dean Ericson offers to pay Marla $150,000 in cash to release Jennifer but she refuses, willing to do it only if she is paid $5 million. He threatens Marla and takes her to court. The judge dismisses the case as Ericson cannot prove Jennifer hired him.


title: I Care a Lot

text: Fran discovers "Jennifer Peterson" is an identity stolen from an infant who died of polio. When Jennifer refuses to tell Marla her real identity, Marla teams up with property manager Sam Rice and withdraws filling many of Jennifer's basic needs. Finding his mother's safe deposit box rifled, Roman sends three thugs to Jennifer's facility to take her. This violent effort fails, and Marla helps police apprehend Alexi, who is one of the men. Fran's police contact tells them that Alexi is the sibling of two other mafia bosses who supposedly died in a fire. Having failed to rescue his mother, Roman has Dr. Amos killed at her office. After hearing this news, Marla and Fran move into an unsold property of a previous victim. Jennifer attacks Marla when she visits the facility and is moved to a psychiatric ward.


title: I Care a Lot

text: Marla is kidnapped while Fran is attacked in their home. Marla is taken to Roman, where she demands $10 million to arrange Jennifer's release. He refuses, and his associates knock her out with chloroform and send her in a car into a lake. She escapes and returns home to find Fran beaten unconscious as gas fills the house. They narrowly escape an explosion and flee to another unsold property. Marla shows Fran the diamonds she has hidden there. She offers Fran a choice: they can use the diamonds to start a new life elsewhere, or they can get revenge.


title: I Care a Lot

text: Marla and Fran track down Roman and kidnap him. They force drugs into his body, burn his car, and leave him on a forest trail. He will be discovered high on drugs and with no identification. Roman is discovered by a jogger, and is rescued. With no identity, Roman is designated a "John Doe" by a judge, who appoints Marla as Roman's legal guardian. Marla visits Roman and offers to release him and Jennifer from her guardianship for $10 million.


title: I Care a Lot

text: Instead, Roman offers her a partnership in a global business based on her scam. She accepts and, using his money and connections, quickly becomes a powerful, extremely wealthy CEO. Roman is reunited with Jennifer, while Marla marries Fran.


title: I Care a Lot

text: While leaving a TV interview, Marla is shot by Feldstrom. He says that his mother died alone in the assisted living facility because no one would let him see her. As Feldstrom is arrested, Fran cries out for help and Marla dies in her arms.


title: I Care a Lot

text: It was announced in May 2019 that Rosamund Pike had been cast to star in the film, which would be written and directed by J Blakeson. Peter Dinklage and Eiza González were added in June. In July 2019, Chris Messina and Dianne Wiest joined the cast, and filming began the same month. Scenes were shot in Dedham, Massachusetts, including at the Norfolk County Registry of Deeds.


title: I Care a Lot

text: The film had its world premiere at the Toronto International Film Festival on September 12, 2020. Shortly after, Netflix acquired distribution rights to the film in select countries and regions, including the United States, France, Germany, Latin America, South Africa, the Middle East, and India. Amazon Studios acquired the rights to release it on Amazon Prime Video in Australia, Canada, Ireland, Italy, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom through Black Bear's international distributor STX. It was released on both services on February 19, 2021. Over its first weekend of release, the film was the most-watched on Netflix, then second-most in its sophomore frame. On April 20, 2021, Netflix revealed that the film had been watched by 56 million households.


title: I Care a Lot

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 78% based on 226 critics' reviews, with an average rating of . The site's critics consensus reads: "A searing swipe at late-stage capitalism, "I Care a Lot" is an exhilarating, pitch-black comedy with a wicked performance from Rosamund Pike." However, in stark contrast to critics, audiences only rated it at 34% with 2500+ reviews. On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 66 out of 100, based on reviews from 39 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".


title: I Care a Lot

text: Owen Glieberman, writing for "Variety", praised writer and director J Blakeson, whom he compared to Alfred Hitchcock, stating that "when he finally gets around to staging an action sequence, it's a doozy [...] because he takes his time and has you hanging on every moment". For "Empire", Terri White wrote that Blakeson "doesn't always remain in full control of the story and tone, [but] the ride is so wild and entertaining that it doesn't particularly matter", and gave the film four stars out of five. Kate Erbland from IndieWire gave "I Care a Lot" a "B−" and said that "Blakeson's script piles on the complications fast and furious [...] but at least they keep his growing cadre of characters on their toes." "Slant Magazine"'s Chuck Bowen gave the film two stars and a half out of four, and wrote that "Blakeson means for us to champion Marla as a feminist icon for a while, though he deflates this potential moral idiocy with an ironic ending."


title: I Care a Lot

text: Various critics praised Pike for her performance as con artist Marla Grayson. While the Associated Press said "Pike pulls something off that few else could as a protagonist," "Entertainment Weekly" wrote that she delivered her best performance as a villain since "Gone Girl" in 2014. Noel Murray from "The A.V. Club", who gave the film a "B+", also said that "Pike is an absolute delight as Marla". Meanwhile, "The Hollywood Reporter" said "Pike brings crisp efficiency and dead-eyed amorality to a legal conservator", and ABC News journalist Peter Travers wrote that "Pike makes a feast of the role".


title: I Care a Lot

text: Writing for "Out", Mey Rude said that "I Care a Lot" was "almost a perfect lesbian movie", praising the "sinister glee" Pike brings to what "could've been an all-time great lesbian sex symbol" role and the "great chemistry" that she and Gonzalez have as the story "keeps escalating and twisting and turning". However, she strongly criticised the "undignified and blunt" ending. "The New York Times" said that the film was an "unexpectedly gripping thriller that seesaws between comedy and horror", praising it for being "cleverly written and wonderfully cast", and for its "ice-pick dialogue" and introduction of Peter Dinklage as Roman Lunyov. Jeannette Catsoulis wrote that "an overlong, somewhat mushy middle section made me fear Blakeson was losing his nerve. I was wrong."


title: I Care a Lot

text: Conversely, Adam Graham of "The Detroit News" gave the film a "D" and said that "I Care a Lot" was a "misguided black comedy", as viewers didn't have a way to relate to the character of Marla Grayson. The "Chicago Tribune" s, Michael Phillips gave the film two stars and wrote that while "the acting's uniformly strong [...] the script is distressingly weak." Mae Abdulbaki from "Screen Rant" gave a mixed review, lauding the performances from the ensemble cast, but writing that "there is something completely missing from "I Care a Lot" that makes it a hard pill to swallow." Brian Tallerico of "RogerEbert.com" wrote that along with "Pieces of a Woman" (2020), it was "another film that struggles with tone", and that Rosamund Pike was "clearly a tempting choice [...] but she and Blakeson never figured this character out."


title: Margaret Hamilton (actress)

text: Margaret Brainard Hamilton (December 9, 1902 – May 16, 1985) was an American actress. She was best known for her portrayal of the Wicked Witch of the West, and her Kansas counterpart Almira Gulch, in Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer's film "The Wizard of Oz" (1939).


title: Margaret Hamilton (actress)

text: A former schoolteacher, she worked as a character actress in films for seven years before she was offered the role that defined her public image. In later years, Hamilton appeared in films and made frequent cameo appearances on television sitcoms and commercials. She also gained recognition for her work as an advocate of causes designed to benefit children and animals and retained a lifelong commitment to public education.


title: Margaret Hamilton (actress)

text: Hamilton was born in Cleveland, Ohio and practiced her craft doing children's theater while she was a Junior League of Cleveland member. Hamilton made her debut as a "professional entertainer" on December 9, 1929, in a "program of 'heart rending songs'" in the Charles S. Brooks Theater at the Cleveland Play House. Before she turned to acting exclusively, her parents insisted she attend Wheelock College in Boston, which she did, later becoming a kindergarten teacher.


title: Margaret Hamilton (actress)

text: Hamilton made her screen debut in 1933 in "Another Language". She went on to appear in "These Three" (1936), "Saratoga", "You Only Live Once", "When's Your Birthday?", "Nothing Sacred" (all 1937), "The Adventures of Tom Sawyer" (1938), "My Little Chickadee" (with W. C. Fields, 1940), and "The Sin of Harold Diddlebock" (with Harold Lloyd, 1947). She strove to work as much as possible to support herself and her son; she never put herself under contract to any one studio and priced her services at $1,000 ($ with inflation) a week.


title: Margaret Hamilton (actress)

text: Hamilton costarred opposite Buster Keaton and Richard Cromwell in a 1940s spoof of the long-running local melodrama "The Drunkard", titled "The Villain Still Pursued Her". Later in the decade, she was in a little-known film noir, titled "Bungalow 13" (1948), in which she again costarred opposite Cromwell. Her crisp voice with rapid but clear enunciation was another trademark. She appeared regularly in supporting roles in films until the early 1950s and sporadically thereafter. Opposite Bud Abbott and Lou Costello, she played a heavily made-up witch in "Comin' Round the Mountain", where her character and Costello go toe-to-toe with voodoo dolls made of each other. She appeared, uncredited, in Joseph L. Mankiewicz's "People Will Talk" (1951) as Sarah Pickett. In 1960, producer/director William Castle cast Hamilton as a housekeeper in his "13 Ghosts" horror film, in which 12-year-old lead Charles Herbert's character taunts her about being a witch, including the final scene, in which she is holding a broom in her hand.


title: Margaret Hamilton (actress)

text: In 1939, Hamilton played the role of the Wicked Witch of the West, opposite Judy Garland's Dorothy Gale in "The Wizard of Oz", creating not only her most famous role, but also one of the screen's most memorable villains. Hamilton was cast after Gale Sondergaard, who was first considered for the role, albeit as a more glamorous witch with a musical scene, declined the role when the decision was made that the witch should appear ugly.


title: Margaret Hamilton (actress)

text: On December 23, 1938, Hamilton suffered a second-degree burn on her face and a third-degree burn on her hand during a second take of her fiery exit from Munchkinland in which the trap door's drop was delayed to eliminate the brief glimpse of it seen in the final edit. Hamilton had to recuperate in a hospital and at home for six weeks after the accident before returning to the set to complete her work on the film and refused to have anything further to do with fire for the rest of the filming. After she recuperated, she said, "I won't sue, because I know how this business works, and I would never work again. I will return to work on one condition – no more fireworks!" Garland visited Hamilton while the latter recuperated at home looking after her son. Studio executives cut some of Hamilton's more frightening scenes, worrying they would frighten children too much. Later in life, she would comment on the role of the witch in a light-hearted fashion. During one interview, she joked:


title: Margaret Hamilton (actress)

text: I was in need of money at the time, I had done about six pictures for MGM at the time, and my agent called. I said, 'Yes?' and he said 'Maggie, they want you to play a part on the Wizard.' I said to myself, 'Oh, boy, "The Wizard of Oz"! That has been my favorite book since I was four.' And I asked him what part, and he said, 'The Witch,' and I said, 'The Witch?!' and he said, 'What else?'


title: Margaret Hamilton (actress)

text: Hamilton's stand-in and stunt double for the Witch, Betty Danko, also suffered an on-set accident on February 11, 1939. Danko made the fiery entrance to Munchkinland, not Hamilton. She was severely burned during the "Surrender Dorothy!" skywriting sequence at the Emerald City. Danko sat on a smoking pipe configured to look like the Witch's broomstick. The pipe exploded on the third take of the scene. She spent 11 days in hospital and her legs were permanently scarred. The studio hired a new stunt double, Aline Goodwin, to finish the broomstick-riding scene for Danko.


title: Margaret Hamilton (actress)

text: When asked about her experiences on the set of "The Wizard of Oz", Hamilton said her biggest fear was that her monstrous film role would give children the wrong idea of who she really was. In reality, she cared deeply about children, frequently giving to charitable organizations. She often remarked about children coming up to her and asking her why she had been so mean to Dorothy. She appeared on an episode of "Mister Rogers' Neighborhood" in 1975 where she explained to children she was only playing a role and showed how putting on a costume "transformed" her into the witch. She also made personal appearances, and Hamilton described the children's usual reaction to her portrayal of the Witch:


title: Margaret Hamilton (actress)

text: Almost always they want me to laugh like the Witch. And sometimes when I go to schools, if we're in an auditorium, I'll do it. And there's always a funny reaction, like 'Ye gods, they wish they hadn't asked.' They're scared. They're really scared for a second. Even adolescents. I guess for a minute they get the feeling they got when they watched the picture. They like to hear it but they 'don't' like to hear it. And then they go, 'Ohhhhhhhhhh ... !' The picture made a terrible impression of some kind on them, sometimes a ghastly impression, but most of them got over it, I guess ... because when I talk like the Witch, and when I laugh, there is a hesitation and then they clap. They're clapping at hearing the sound again.


title: Margaret Hamilton (actress)

text: Hamilton played two credited roles in the famous film: Almira Gulch and the Wicked Witch of the West. Hamilton also appears as an unidentified flying witch during the tornado scene, which may have been the Wicked Witch of the West or her sister, the Wicked Witch of the East. If the latter case, this would be Hamilton's third but uncredited role. Only co-star Frank Morgan played more roles (five) in the film. Hamilton and Morgan never share any scenes in "Oz". However, in "By Your Leave" (1934), she plays his housekeeper, and in "Saratoga" (1937), she has a colloquy with Morgan regarding a cosmetic product he invented (with side glances and eye rolls by Morgan as to its effect on her "beauty"). Hamilton's line from "The Wizard of Oz" – "I'll get you, my pretty, and your little dog, too!" – was ranked 99th in the 2005 American Film Institute survey of the most memorable movie quotes. Her son, interviewed for the 2005 DVD edition of the film, commented that Hamilton enjoyed the line so much, she sometimes used it in her real life.


title: Margaret Hamilton (actress)

text: A few months after filming "Oz", she appeared in "Babes in Arms" (1939) as Jeff Steele's aunt, Martha, a society do-gooder who made it her goal to send the gang of child actors, led by Mickey Rooney and Judy Garland, to a work farm. In 1945, she played the domineering sister of "Oz" co-star Jack Haley in "George White's Scandals", comically trying to prevent him from marrying actress Joan Davis, even going so far as to throw a hatchet at her. Hamilton and Ray Bolger were cast members in the 1966 fantasy film "The Daydreamer", a collection of stories by Hans Christian Andersen. A few years later, they were reunited on Broadway for the short-lived musical "Come Summer".


title: Margaret Hamilton (actress)

text: In the 1940s and 1950s, Hamilton had a long-running role on the radio series "Ethel and Albert" (or "The Couple Next Door") in which she played the lovable, scattered Aunt Eva (name later changed to Aunt Effie). She appeared in The Phil Silvers Show episode S2E20 Bilko Enters Politics (05 February 1957). During the 1960s and 1970s, Hamilton appeared regularly on television. She did a stint as a "What's My Line?" mystery guest on the popular Sunday night CBS-TV program. She played Morticia Addams' mother, Hester Frump, in three episodes of "The Addams Family". (1965–66; Hamilton had been offered the role of Grandmama, but turned it down.)


title: Margaret Hamilton (actress)

text: In 1962, Hamilton played Leora Scofield, a suffragette who arrives in Laramie, Wyoming, to bolster feminist causes in a territory where women had already obtained the right to vote, in the episode "Beyond Justice" of NBC's "Laramie".


title: Margaret Hamilton (actress)

text: Having started on the stage in the early 1930s, she began to work extensively in the theater after leaving Los Angeles. She appeared on Broadway in the musical "Goldilocks" opposite Don Ameche and Elaine Stritch, gave a lighter touch to the domineering Parthy Anne Hawks in the 1966 revival of "Show Boat" (dancing with David Wayne), and was the tender Aunt Eller in the 1968 Lincoln Center revival of "Oklahoma!". Hamilton also toured in many plays and musicals, even repeating her role of the Wicked Witch in specially written stage productions of "The Wizard of Oz". For her last stage role, she was cast as Madame Armfeldt in the Stephen Sondheim musical "A Little Night Music", singing the song "Liaisons" for the national tour costarring with Jean Simmons as her daughter Desiree.


title: Margaret Hamilton (actress)

text: Even with her extensive film career, Hamilton took roles in whatever medium she could get if she was free, making her soap opera debut as the nasty Mrs. Sayre on "Valiant Lady", who schemed to prevent her daughter from marrying the heroine's son. In the 1960s, Hamilton was a regular on another CBS soap opera, "The Secret Storm", playing the role of Grace Tyrell's housekeeper, Katie. For ABC's short-lived radio anthology "Theatre-Five", she played a manipulative ailing Aunt Lettie to Joan Lorring as the unhappy niece Maude in "Noose of Pearls". In the early 1970s, she joined the cast of another CBS soap opera, "As the World Turns", on which she played Miss Peterson, Simon Gilbey's assistant. She had a small role in the made-for-television film "" (1973) and appeared as a befuddled neighbor on "Sigmund and the Sea Monsters", who is a friend of the very similar Mary Wickes. In "The Paul Lynde Halloween Special" (1976), she portrayed Lynde's housekeeper, reprising the Wicked Witch role, as well as introducing Lynde to the rock group Kiss. When she reprised her role as the Wicked Witch in a 1976 episode of "Sesame Street", "the show's producers were flooded with letters from parents saying it was too frightening for children." She appeared as herself in three episodes of "Mister Rogers' Neighborhood", between 1975 and 1976, because Fred Rogers wanted his viewers to recognize the Wicked Witch was just a character and not something to be afraid of. Hamilton continued acting regularly until 1982; her last roles were two guest appearances as veteran journalist Thea Taft (in 1979 and 1982) on "Lou Grant".


title: Margaret Hamilton (actress)

text: Throughout the 1970s, Hamilton lived in New York City's Gramercy Park neighborhood and appeared on local (and some national) public-service announcements for organizations promoting the welfare of pets. Her most visible appearances during this period were as general store owner, Cora, in a national series of television commercials for Maxwell House coffee. On October 30, 1975, she guest-starred on the radio revival series CBS Radio Mystery Theater. In the episode, entitled "Triptych for a Witch," Hamilton played the title role.


title: Margaret Hamilton (actress)

text: Her Gramercy Park neighbor Sybil Daneman reported that Hamilton loved children but they were often afraid to meet her because of her portrayal of the Wicked Witch of the West in "The Wizard of Oz". Daneman's nephew refused to meet Hamilton because even though he understood she was an actress, he thought it was still possible she really was like the character in the movie.


title: Margaret Hamilton (actress)

text: In 1973, Hamilton produced the stage production of "An Evening with the Bourgeoisie". Her other mid-1970s stage productions, as the producer, were "The Three Sisters" and "House Party".


title: Margaret Hamilton (actress)

text: She married Paul Boynton Meserve on June 13, 1931, and made her debut on the New York City stage the following year. While her acting career developed, her marriage began to fail; the couple divorced in 1938. They had one son, Hamilton Wadsworth Meserve, whom she raised on her own. She had three grandchildren, Christopher, Scott, and Margaret. Hamilton never remarried.


title: Margaret Hamilton (actress)

text: Hamilton remained a lifelong friend of "The Wizard of Oz" castmate Ray Bolger (the scarecrow). Hamilton was a regular parishioner of the Presbyterian church. A Republican, she supported the campaign of Dwight Eisenhower during the 1952 presidential election.


title: Margaret Hamilton (actress)

text: Hamilton's early experience as a teacher fueled a lifelong interest in educational issues. She served on the Beverly Hills Board of Education from 1948 to 1951 and was a Sunday school teacher during the 1950s. She lived in Manhattan for most of her adult life, and summered in a cottage on Cape Island, Southport, Maine. In 1979, she was a guest speaker at a University of Connecticut children's literature class. She later moved to Millbrook, New York. She subsequently developed Alzheimer's disease and died in her sleep following a heart attack on May 16, 1985 in Salisbury, Connecticut at the age of 82. Her remains were cremated at Poughkeepsie Rural Cemetery, and her ashes were scattered in Amenia, New York.


title: Marilu Henner

text: Mary Lucy Denise Henner is an American actress. She began her career appearing in the original production of the musical "Grease" in 1971, before making her screen debut in the 1977 comedy-drama film "Between the Lines". In 1977, Henner was cast in her breakthrough role as Elaine O'Connor Nardo in the ABC/NBC sitcom "Taxi", a role she played until 1983 and received five Golden Globe Award nominations. She later had co-starring roles in films such as "Hammett" (1982), "The Man Who Loved Women" (1983), "Cannonball Run II" (1984), "Johnny Dangerously" (1984), "Rustlers' Rhapsody" (1985), "Ladykillers" (1988), "L.A. Story" (1991), and "Noises Off" (1992). She returned to television with a starring role in the CBS sitcom "Evening Shade" (1990–1994), and later had leading roles in many made-for-television movies.


title: Marilu Henner

text: Henner was born in Chicago, Illinois, the daughter of Loretta Callis (born Nikoleta Kalogeropoulos), who died of arthritis at age 58 and Joseph Henner (whose surname was originally Pudlowski), who died of a heart attack at age 52.


title: Marilu Henner

text: While a student at the University of Chicago in the Hyde Park neighborhood of Chicago, Henner originated the role of "Marty" in the Kingston Mines production of "Grease" in 1971. When the show was discovered and moved to Broadway, she was asked to reprise the role; however, she chose instead to play "Marty" in the national touring company alongside John Travolta, who played "Doody". Additional Broadway credits for Henner include "Over Here!", with Travolta, revivals of "Pal Joey", "Chicago", "Social Security", and "The Tale of the Allergist's Wife". Her first film appearance was in 1977 sleeper-hit "Between the Lines", co-starring then-unknowns Jeff Goldblum, Lindsay Crouse, John Heard, and Jill Eikenberry. Her second role was opposite Richard Gere in the 1978 film "Bloodbrothers".


title: Marilu Henner

text: Henner came to prominence with the role of Elaine Nardo in the situation comedy "Taxi", portraying a single mother working as a cabbie who aspired to be an artist. She was the leading lady in the 1982 film "Hammett" directed by Wim Wenders, produced by Francis Ford Coppola and starring her first husband Frederic Forrest. In 1983, Henner starred opposite Burt Reynolds in "The Man Who Loved Women", directed by Blake Edwards. Reynolds then asked Henner to join the cast of "Cannonball Run II" later that year along with Shirley MacLaine and Dom DeLuise. She was the leading lady in the 1984 film "Johnny Dangerously", playing the love interest to Michael Keaton. In 1985 she once again appeared alongside John Travolta in "Perfect". In 1991 she appeared opposite Steve Martin in "L.A. Story" as Trudi, a role for which she received a nomination for an American Comedy Award as the Funniest Supporting Female in a Motion Picture. From 1990 through 1994, she appeared opposite Burt Reynolds in the situation comedy "Evening Shade", which also starred Ossie Davis and Hal Holbrook. She also appeared in "Noises Off" (1992) and in "Man on the Moon" (1999), a film about her "Taxi" co-star Andy Kaufman. Henner played herself (as well as herself playing her "Taxi" character).


title: Marilu Henner

text: Henner guested on "Match Game" and "Hollywood Squares". She provided the voice for Gotham City socialite Veronica Vreeland in "" (1992–1999), reprising the role in the animated films "" (1993) and "" (1998). In 1994, she hosted her own daytime talk show, "Marilu", for 165 episodes.


title: Marilu Henner

text: Henner starred as the domineering mother of the bride in the Brooks & Dunn video "You Can't Take the Honky Tonk Out of the Girl" in 2003.


title: Marilu Henner

text: In 2006 and 2007, Henner was the host of the television series "America's Ballroom Challenge". Henner said on an episode of "The Ellen DeGeneres Show", in early 2008, that she has never actually danced ballroom and would like to go on a season of "Dancing with the Stars", which would later come true in 2016 for the season 23 of "Dancing with the Stars". She later hosted FitTV and The Discovery Channel's "Shape Up Your Life", which is based on her books.


title: Marilu Henner

text: Henner was a contestant on NBC's first "The Celebrity Apprentice", in 2008. She was fired by Donald Trump in the eighth episode but was brought back to help fellow contestant Trace Adkins in the final task of the show.


title: Marilu Henner

text: Henner, who has highly superior autobiographical memory, was a consultant for the CBS drama "Unforgettable", which starred Poppy Montgomery as Carrie Wells, a woman with the same ability. Henner guest-starred as Carrie's aunt.


title: Marilu Henner

text: In August 2012, Henner won $25,000 for the charity Physicians Committee for Responsible Medicine (PCRM) as a celebrity contestant on "Live! with Kelly" "Grilling with the Stars" contest for her Healthy/Easy Grilled Mushroom and Heirloom Tomato dish.Henner has written nine books on diet, health and memory, the most prominent being "Total Health Makeover", in which she explains the virtues of a non-dairy diet in conjunction with food combining and exercise. She leads monthly classes on her website, www.marilu.com, designed to help people integrate these steps into a healthier, more active lifestyle. Both of her parents died in their 50s, which prompted her to lead a healthier lifestyle. She hosted "The Art of Living", produced by United States Media Television.


title: Marilu Henner

text: Henner rejoined the cast for its 13th season on "The All-Star Celebrity Apprentice" where she was joined by fellow "Apprentice" alumni. She played for her charity The Alzheimer's Association and won over $50,000 for the cause. She returned, after being eliminated, for the final task to assist Trace Adkins. In 2013, Henner made a guest appearance on Brooklyn Nine-Nine for 5 episodes.


title: Marilu Henner

text: She hosts "The Marilu Henner Show", which airs every weekday morning on more than a dozen radio stations across the U.S. The show is distributed by Sun Broadcast Group, in conjunction with GCN radio. "The Marilu Henner Show" can also be heard live at Marilushow.com, where she features guest physicians, health experts, celebrity guests, and friends.


title: Marilu Henner

text: On August 30, 2016, she was revealed as one of the celebrities who would compete on season 23 of "Dancing with the Stars". She was partnered with professional dancer Derek Hough. Henner and Hough were eliminated on the ninth week of competition and finished in sixth place.


title: Marilu Henner

text: On July 10, 2018, she appeared as a "guestpert" on the podcast "My Brother, My Brother and Me". In 2018, Henner appeared on the first season of "The Neighborhood", a CBS series starring Cedric the Entertainer, Tichina Arnold and Beth Behrs. Henner appeared in episode 8 of the first season titled, “Welcome to Thanksgiving”.


title: Marilu Henner

text: Henner has hyperthymesia or total recall memory; she can remember specific details of virtually every day of her life since she was a child.


title: Jessica Jung

text: Jessica Jung (born Jessica Sooyoun Jung; April 18, 1989), also known by the mononym Jessica, is a South Korean-American singer, songwriter, actress, author, fashion designer and businesswoman known for her work as a former member of South Korean girl group Girls' Generation. As an actress, Jung portrayed Elle Woods in the Korean version of the musical "Legally Blonde" in 2010 and played a role in the television drama "Wild Romance" in 2012. In early 2014, she established a fashion brand, Blanc & Eclare. Later that year, she was dismissed from Girls' Generation due to conflicts between the group's schedule and her own business activities. Following the dismissal, Jessica ended her contract with SM Entertainment and signed with Coridel Entertainment in 2016, prior to the release of her debut solo album "With Love, J". In May 2018, Jessica signed a contract with United Talent Agency. Her debut best-selling novel "Shine" was released in September 2020.


title: Jessica Jung

text: Jessica Jung was born in San Francisco. While on vacation in South Korea, she and her sister, Krystal, were spotted in a shopping mall by a member of SM Entertainment; she later joined the company in 2000. She spent seven years as a trainee before debuting as part of the Korean girl group Girls' Generation. Jessica attended Korea Kent Foreign School during her teenage years.


title: Jessica Jung

text: Jessica was the first member of what would become Girls' Generation to sign with SM Entertainment in 2000. In 2007, she was chosen as a member of the nine-member girl group that debuted on August 5, 2007. In addition to her group activities, Jessica released two singles with Seohyun and Tiffany: "Love Hate" (, lit. "Bad Older Brother") and "Mabinogi (It's Fantastic!)". Jessica collaborated with 8Eight for the song "I Love You" from their second album, "Infinity", which was released on March 3, 2008. Though she was the one singing the harmony and adlibs, she is not seen in the music video. In addition, she had various duets — one with Shinee member, Onew, called "One Year Later", and one with Park Myung-soo, ""Naengmyeon"". She sang the "Seoul Song" with Super Junior's Leeteuk, Sungmin, Donghae, Siwon, Ryeowook and Kyuhyun and fellow group members Taeyeon, Sunny, Sooyoung and Seohyun. Jessica made her musical theatre debut in the South Korean production of "Legally Blonde", alongside Lee Ha-nui and Kim Ji-woo; the production opened on November 14, 2009. The same year, she took a special part on the show "Infinity Challenge" for their summer special, in which she was chosen to sing a duet entitled "Naengmyun" with Park Myung-soo, one of the MCs.


title: Jessica Jung

text: In March 2010, she had a cameo role on SBS' "Oh! My Lady". In May 2010, Jessica became a regular guest on the show "Happy Birthday" until she withdrew on June 7, 2010, due to Girls' Generation's overseas activities. She was also a regular guest on the show "Star King" with fellow member Yuri. Jessica released a digital single titled "Sweet Delight" on October 13, 2010. In 2011, Jessica participated on the soundtrack of the KBS drama "Romance Town" with the song "Because Tears Are Overflowing" (). Jessica made her acting debut in "Wild Romance" in 2012. In the same year, Jessica returned to musical theatre once again with "Legally Blonde", alongside Jung Eun-ji and Choi Woori. Her first performance was on November 28. In the same year, Jessica sang "What To Do" (featuring Kim Jin-pyo) for the drama "Wild Romance", "Butterfly" (featuring Krystal) for "To The Beautiful You", "Heart Road" for "The King's Dream", as well as "My Lifestyle", a Hyundai i30's commercial song. In 2013, she had "The One Like You" for "".


title: Jessica Jung

text: In 2014, Jessica released "Say Yes"' for the "Make Your Move" soundtrack, featuring her sister, Krystal, and Exo's former member, Kris. In August, Jung launched her own fashion line, Blanc, which was later renamed Blanc & Eclare. There are now sixty stores located around the world. Jessica and her sister Krystal starred in their own reality television show "Jessica & Krystal". It premiered on June 3 and consisted of ten episodes.


title: Jessica Jung

text: On September 30, 2014, Jessica announced on her personal Weibo account that she had been "forced out" of the group. SM Entertainment later confirmed this, stating that Jung would no longer be a member of Girls' Generation. The company also stated that Girls' Generation would continue to promote with eight members while it would still manage her solo activities. Jessica also released a statement of her own through her fashion company, Blanc Group, explaining that she had been asked to leave Girls' Generation by the agency and the other members of the group. Jessica's final song with Girls' Generation was "Divine", which was included in the repackaged version of their Japanese greatest hits album, "The Best".


title: Jessica Jung

text: In 2015, Jessica was confirmed to be the female lead in the Chinese romantic comedy film titled "I Love That Crazy Little Thing", alongside William Chan and Nicholas Tse. The film was released in August 2016, and Jessica collaborated with Chan on the theme song "Love! Love! Aloha!". On August 6, 2015, SM Entertainment released an official statement stating that the company and the former member of Girls' Generation had officially parted ways. The following year, Jessica was confirmed to be the female lead in the autobiographical film about Stephon Marbury titled "My Other Home", alongside Marbury himself. She was also cast in the short action comedy "Two Bellmen Three" alongside Ki Hong Lee. She took a part in Chinese sport's variety show "YES! Coach" as well, where she participated in a swimming competition after being trained by professional swimmer Sun Yang. Jessica then became the main host of the beauty show "Beauty Bible", alongside Kim Jae-kyung.


title: Jessica Jung

text: In February 2016, Jessica announced that her first solo album would be released under her new agency, Coridel Entertainment. In April 2016, representatives announced that Jung would release her first album in May. On April 30, Coridel Entertainment released the track list which included the title track "Fly" featuring Fabolous. Jung wrote and composed four of the six tracks. The name of the extended play was revealed to be "With Love, J", and was released on May 17, 2016, along with the lead single, "Fly". The music video for "Fly" amassed over 2 million views within 24 hours of its release. A video for the second single, "Love Me the Same," was released the following day on May 18, 2016. "With Love, J" topped eight music charts, and also ranked first on the Hanteo Weekly Chart and Gaon Weekly Album Chart. The English-language version of the EP, released on May 27, features five of the original six tracks. The same year, Jung held an Asian fan-meet tour which commenced in Seoul on June 1, continuing on to other countries such as Thailand, Taiwan, and Japan. The tour ended on November 5 in Shanghai. Further shows scheduled to take place in Singapore, Indonesia, Philippines, and Vietnam were cancelled due to health problems and concerns of overwork for Jessica before the release of her next album. In December, Jung made a comeback with a Christmas EP called "Wonderland", composed of six songs, four of which she took part in writing. The album, and its eponymous title track, was released on December 10. It also has an English-language version, with four of the six original Korean tracks.


title: Jessica Jung

text: On April 14, 2017, Coridel Entertainment released a series of teaser pictures confirming that Jessica was set to make her first comeback of the year with a digital single titled "Because It's Spring", on April 18, 2017. In the same month, "Forbes" included Jessica in their 30 Under 30 Asia 2017 list which comprises 30 influential people under 30 years old who have made substantial effect in their fields. "Because It's Spring" was later included on her third EP "My Decade", released on August 9, 2017, to celebrate her 10th anniversary since debut. Jessica took part in writing five of the six songs on the album. The lead single "Summer Storm" and its music video were released on the same day. In July 2017, Jung embarked on her first mini-concert tour titled "On Cloud Nine". The tour's first show was in Taipei, taking place on July 29, 2017. Jung also held shows in Seoul, Osaka, Tokyo, and Bangkok as part of the tour. A show scheduled to take place in Hong Kong on October 15, 2017, was cancelled due to Typhoon Khanun affecting the area. The final show of "On Cloud Nine" took place in Macau on March 3, 2018.


title: Jessica Jung

text: In May 2018, it was revealed that Jessica had signed with United Talent Agency. The agency will represent her in North America for music, film, television and endorsements. In October, Jung held a second mini-concert in Taiwan titled "Golden Night". On December 14, Jessica released a Christmas single titled "One More Christmas" in collaboration with South Korean makeup brand Amuse Cosmetics.


title: Jessica Jung

text: In June 2019, Jessica and Krystal filmed their second reality show in the United States. Jessica's single, "Call Me Before You Sleep" was digitally released on September 26 and features rapper Giriboy in the Korean version. The Japanese version was physically released on October 9 and featured Sandaime J Soul Brothers' CrazyBoy. The song was produced by Cha Cha Malone. She held a fan-meet in Japan, XOXO Jessica Jung Fan Meeting, on October 2, with girl group GWSN appearing as the opening act. Further shows were held in Taiwan and Thailand, on October 19 and 27 respectively. In the same month, it was announced that Jung would publish her debut novel, "Shine", in fall 2020 as part of a two-book deal with Simon Pulse, an imprint of Simon & Schuster. Glasstown Entertainment sold the novel to eleven foreign countries, and is developing a film adaptation produced by Matthew Kaplan of ACE Entertainment. The novel was released on September 30, 2020, debuting at number five on "The New York Times" Best Seller list for Young Adult Hardcover in the issue dated October 18.


title: Jessica Jung

text: From May 20 to August 5, 2022, Jessica participated in the third season of "Sisters Who Make Waves", a Chinese survival reality television show where female celebrities over 30 years old competes to debut in a ten-member girl group. She eventually placed second in the finals and debuted in X-Sister.


title: Jessica Jung

text: Jessica has also endorsed a number of brands of various products. Besides her endorsements with Girls' Generation, she also became a model for Chinese sports brand Li-Ning and South Korean bag brand Lapalette with her sister Krystal in 2014. On April 30, 2020, Jung was announced as the new global ambassador for multinational cosmetics, skin care, fragrance, and personal care company Revlon.


title: Jessica Jung

text: Jessica's first restaurant named "Clareau" opened on January 19, 2021, at Blanc & Eclare flagship store building in Cheongdam-dong, Seoul.


title: Jessica Jung

text: During a mini concert at Taiwan in July 2017, Jung revealed that her birth name, as on her passport, is "Jessica Jung", whereas her Korean name "Soo-yeon" was only obtained on a later date due to necessity. She describes herself as "Christian curious" and goes to church.


title: Dream pop

text: Dream pop (also typeset as dreampop) is a subgenre of alternative rock and neo-psychedelia that emphasizes atmosphere and sonic texture as much as pop melody. Common characteristics include breathy vocals, dense productions, and effects such as reverb, echo, tremolo, and chorus. It often overlaps with the related genre of shoegaze, and the two genre terms have at times been used interchangeably.


title: Dream pop

text: The genre came into prominence in the 1980s through the work of groups such as Cocteau Twins and A.R. Kane. Subsequently, acts such as My Bloody Valentine, Galaxie 500, Julee Cruise, Lush, and Mazzy Star released significant albums in the style. It saw renewed popularity among millennial listeners following the late-'00s success of Beach House.


title: Dream pop

text: The term dream pop is thought to relate to the "immersion" in the music experienced by the listener. "The AllMusic Guide to Electronica" (2003) defined dream pop as "an atmospheric subgenre of alternative rock that relies on sonic textures as much as melody". According to "Paste", the genre emphasizes mood and sonics over lyrics, so that "chords and tracks blur seamlessly into one another so frequently that it can be difficult to even decipher when one song ended and another has begun." Common characteristics are breathy vocals, the use of guitar effects, and a densely produced sound, with "nebulous, distorted guitars" paired with "murmured vocals sometimes completely smudged into a wall of noise." The music tends to focus on textures rather than propulsive rock riffs. Effects such as reverb and echo are ubiquitous, with tremolo and chorus also heard on recordings.


title: Dream pop

text: Lyrics are often introspective or existential in nature, but may be difficult to hear or incomprehensible in the mix. In the view of critic Simon Reynolds, dream pop "celebrates rapturous and transcendent experiences, often using druggy and mystical imagery". In 1991, he suggested this escapist tendency might be a response to the cultural landscape of the UK during the 1980s: "After 12 years of Conservative government in Britain, any idealism or constructive political involvement seems futile to these alienated middle-class dropouts." Similarly, according to Rachel Felder, dream pop artists often resist representations of social reality in favour of ambiguous or hallucinogenic experiences.


title: Dream pop

text: Author Nathan Wiseman-Trowse writes that the "approach to the sheer physicality of sound" integral to dream pop was "arguably pioneered in popular music by figures such as Phil Spector and <nowiki>[</nowiki>Beach Boys founder] Brian Wilson." The music of the Velvet Underground in the 1960s and 1970s, which experimented with repetition, tone and texture over conventional song structure, was also an important touchstone in the genre's development. Their 1967 debut "The Velvet Underground & Nico" incorporated what music critic Marc Beamount terms "psychedelic dream pop" in addition to a variety of other styles. 1960s band The Byrds would influence the "swoony harmonies" of later British dream pop groups.


title: Dream pop

text: The Beach Boys recorded an early dream pop song, "All I Wanna Do", for their 1970 album "Sunflower". Critic Jim Allen, who cites the Beach Boys as the "godfathers" of dream pop, says that the song's unprecedented "cinematic dream sequence" production style marks the point "where the dream pop family tree starts to come into focus." However, because the group were predominantly known for hit singles such as "Kokomo" during the 1980s, critics had largely disregarded the band's 1970s recording output, and the Beach Boys' impact on the genre was not widely acknowledged until after the 2000s.


title: Dream pop

text: Music journalist John Bergstrom recognises George Harrison's 1970 track "Let It Down" as a progenitor of the genre, while stating that its Spector-produced parent album "All Things Must Pass" influenced "many guitar-driven, echo-drenched bands have come around since, mixing powerful rave-ups with moody, reflective down-tempo numbers and a spiritual bent.


title: Dream pop

text: A.J. Ramirez of "PopMatters" recognises an evolutionary line from gothic rock to dream pop. The early 1980s gothic-derived "ethereal wave" subgenre, with its effects-laden guitar sounds and female vocals, led to the dream pop and shoegaze scenes; it was represented by Cocteau Twins and labels such as 4AD and Projekt Records. "Rolling Stone" describes "modern dream pop" as originating with the early 1980s work of Cocteau Twins and their contemporaries. AllMusic's Jason Ankeny credits the Cocteau Twins' "distinctly ethereal" sound and singer Elizabeth Fraser's operatic, indecipherable vocals with defining their label, the UK-based 4AD. According to "Pitchfork", Vini Reilly of the Durutti Column "embodied the cliché of the suicidal dream-pop guitarist in the mid-1980s" with his "narcotic performances" presaging later acts such as My Bloody Valentine and Galaxie 500.


title: Dream pop

text: The 1984 album "It'll End in Tears" by 4AD's "dream-pop supergroup" This Mortal Coil was conceived by label head Ivo Watts-Russell and featured members of Cocteau Twins and Dead Can Dance. The album helped "set the template for dream pop" and associated the formerly gothic-affiliated UK label with the style. The album's 1983 single, the Tim Buckley cover "Song to the Siren", became an influential work in the genre, and saw success in the UK Indie Chart, remaining there consistently for two years. Film director David Lynch, unable to obtain the rights to This Mortal Coil's version of "Song to the Siren" for his 1986 film "Blue Velvet", enlisted composer Angelo Badalamenti and singer Julee Cruise to record a replacement track. The result was "Mysteries of Love", described by "Rolling Stone" as a significant development of the dream pop sound which "gave the genre its synthy sheen". The trio of Cruise, Lynch and Badalamenti later recorded the 1989 album "Floating into the Night", which further elaborated on the style and featured the "Twin Peaks" theme and UK top 10 single "Falling".


title: Dream pop

text: The term "dreampop" was coined in the late 1980s by Alex Ayuli of A.R. Kane to describe his band's eclectic sound, which blended ethereal dub production, effects-laden guitar, and drum machine backing, among other influences. The group signed to 4AD to release their 1987 EP "Lollita", produced by Cocteau Twins guitarist Robin Guthrie. "Pitchfork" describes their debut album "Sixty Nine" (1988) as a "crucial document" of the dream pop movement, commenting that the group "aimed to emulate an ethereality that could just as easily become nightmarish," resulting in music that feels "just out of reach, like your memory struggling to grasp the last wisp of a dream before it slips away." Their "dreampop" label was subsequently adopted by music critic Simon Reynolds to describe that group and later extended to the nascent shoegazing scene in the UK. Reynolds describes the movement as "a wave of hazy neo-psychedelic groups" characterised by a "blurry, blissful sound", and credits the influence of the "ethereal soundscapes" of Cocteau Twins as well as more distorted styles of American alternative rock.