title: Christianity by country

text: Christianity in multiple forms is the state religion of the following 15 nations: Argentina (Catholic Church), Armenia (Armenian Apostolic Church), Tuvalu (Church of Tuvalu), Costa Rica (Catholic Church), Kingdom of Denmark (Danish National Church), England (Church of England), Greece (Eastern Orthodox Church), Georgia (Eastern Orthodox Church), Iceland (Church of Iceland), Liechtenstein (Catholic Church), Malta (Catholic Church), Monaco


title: Christianity by country

text: (Catholic Church), Vatican City (Catholic Church), and Zambia. Christianity used to be the state religion of the former Ethiopian Empire (adopted in 340 A.D. by the Kingdom of Aksum) prior to the government's overthrow.


title: Christianity by country

text: Note: Population data are compiled using statistical science and are subject to observational error; these numbers should therefore be considered estimates only. The total number of Christians for each country is based on the number of people who are members of a Christian denomination or who identify themselves as Christian, plus their children. The number of people who actually believe in God or who regularly attend church is not addressed. People who mix Christianity with tribal religions are counted as Christians in this article. Most of the numbers for the Christian percentage of the population for each country were taken from the US State Department's" International Religious Freedom Report", the" CIA World Factbook", Joshua Project, Open doors, Pew Forum, and Adherents.com.


title: Christianity by country

text: A list of the top ten countries by largest number of Christians according to Pew Research Center in 2010.


title: Christianity by country

text: A list of the top ten countries by highest percentage of the population that is Christian according to Pew Research Center in 2010.


title: Christianity by country

text: note: One is a generally recognized sovereign state, while the other is a state with substantial, but limited, recognition


title: Christianity by country

text: According to a 2012 Pew Research Center study, of the then 232 countries and territories, 157 had Christian majorities. 126 countries had a Christian majority, while 71 countries had a Christian minority.


title: Christianity by country

text: Countries by highest percentage of the population that is Christian with at least 10 million Christians:


title: Christianity by country

text: According to World Population Review, there were 2.4 billion Christians around the world in 2020. and according to a 2012 Pew Research Center survey, if current trends continue, Christianity will remain the world's largest religion by year 2050. According to a 2015 Pew Research Center study, Christianity is estimated to reach 3 billion adherents out of a projected population of 9.3 billion people in 2050, achieving parity with Muslim populations for the first time in history, which are predicted to be about 2.8 billion in 2050.


title: Mil Mi-28

text: The Mil Mi-28 (NATO reporting name "Havoc") is a Russian all-weather, day-night, military tandem, two-seat anti-armor attack helicopter. It is an attack helicopter with no intended secondary transport capability, better optimized than the Mil Mi-24 gunship for the role. It carries a single gun in an undernose barbette, plus external loads carried on pylons beneath stub wings.


title: Mil Mi-28

text: In 1972, following the completion of the Mil Mi-24, development began on a unique attack helicopter with transport capability. The new design had a reduced transport capability (3 troops instead of 8) and omitted the cabin to provide better overall performance and higher top speed. Improved performance was important for its intended role fighting against tanks and enemy helicopters and covering helicopter landing operations. Initially, many different designs were considered, including an unconventional project with two main rotors, placed with engines on tips of wings (in perpendicular layout); and in one similarity with the late 1960s-era American Lockheed AH-56 Cheyenne attack helicopter design, with an additional pusher propeller on the tail. In 1977, a preliminary design was chosen in a classic single-rotor layout. It lost its similarity to the Mi-24, and even the canopies were smaller, with flat surfaces.


title: Mil Mi-28

text: Design work on the Mi-28 began under Marat Tishchenko in 1980. In 1981, a design and a mock-up were accepted. The prototype (no. 012) first flew on 10 November 1982. The second prototype (no. 022) was completed in 1983. In 1984, the Mi-28 completed the first stage of state trials, but in October 1984 the Soviet Air Force chose the more advanced Kamov Ka-50 as the new anti-tank helicopter. Mi-28 development continued, but given lower priority. In December 1987, Mi-28 production at Rosvertol in Rostov-on-Don was approved.


title: Mil Mi-28

text: An early production Mi-24 was fitted with an air data boom as an early test for the Mi-28's technologies. Later, a few Mi-24Ds were fitted up with the Mi-28's radome mount to test the sighting-flight-navigational complex's abilities, and others had redesigned fuselages that closely resembled the future Mi-28, but with rounded cockpits.


title: Mil Mi-28

text: In January 1988, the first "Mi-28A" prototype (no. 032) flew. It was fitted with more powerful engines and an "X" type tail rotor instead of the three-blade version. The Mi-28A debuted at the Paris Air Show in June 1989. In 1991 the second Mi-28A (no. 042) was completed. The Mi-28A program was cancelled in 1993 because it was deemed uncompetitive with the Ka-50, in particular it was not all-weather capable.


title: Mil Mi-28

text: The "Mi-28N" was unveiled in 1995, the "N" designation meaning "night". The prototype (no. 014) first flew on 14 November 1996. Its most significant feature is a radar in a round cover above the main rotor, similar to that of the American AH-64D Apache Longbow. The Mi-28N also has improved tor vision and an aiming device under the nose, including a TV camera and FLIR. Due to funding problems, development was interrupted. A second prototype with an improved rotor design was unveiled in March 2004 at Rosvertol.


title: Mil Mi-28

text: The first serial Mi-28N was delivered to the Army on 5 June 2006. By 2015, 67 Mi-28Ns were planned to be purchased, when the Mi-24 was to be completely replaced. The Rostvertol plant delivered about 140 Mi-28N and Mi-35M helicopters in 2012–14 to domestic and foreign customers; 28 helicopters were delivered in 2015.


title: Mil Mi-28

text: Mil also developed an export variant of the Mi-28N, designated "Mi-28NE", and a simpler day helicopter variant, the "Mi-28D", based on the Mi-28N design, but without radar and FLIR.


title: Mil Mi-28

text: A fifth-generation derivative, dubbed Mi-28NM, has been in development since 2008. According to then chief executive officer at Russian Helicopters Andrey Shibitov, the criteria for the modernized helicopter include low-radar signature, extended flight range, advanced weapons control system, some capability of a fighter jet and speed up to 600 km/h.


title: Mil Mi-28

text: In 2016, Russian media reported a new, advanced helmet system designed to display visual information for aiming at targets in any field of view was under development for the MI-28N.


title: Mil Mi-28

text: The Mi-28 is a new-generation attack helicopter that functions as an air-to-air and air-to-ground partner for the Mi-24 Hind and Ka-50 Hokum. The five-blade main rotor is mounted above the body midsection, short, wide, tapered, weapon-carrying wings are mounted to the rear of the body midsection. Two turboshaft engines in pods are mounted alongside the top of the fuselage with downturned exhausts. The fuselage is slender and tapers to the tail boom and nose. It features tandem, stepped-up cockpits, a cannon mounted beneath the belly, and a non-retractable tricycle tail-wheel type landing gear. Due to the energy-absorbing landing gear and seats the crew can survive a vertical fall of up to 12 m/s. The Mi-28 has a fully armoured cabin, including the windshield, which withstands 7.62 and 12.7 mm armor piercing bullets and 20 mm shell fragments.


title: Mil Mi-28

text: The helicopter design is based on the conventional pod and boom configuration, with a tail rotor. The main rotor head has elastomeric bearings and the main rotor blades are made from composite materials. The tail rotor is designed on a biplane configuration, with independently controlled X-shaped blades. A new design of all-plastic rotor blades, which can sustain 30 mm shells, is installed on the Mi-28N night attack variant.


title: Mil Mi-28

text: It is equipped with two heavily armored cockpits, a windshield able to withstand 12.7–14.5 mm caliber bullets, in-nose electronics, and a narrow-X tail rotor (55 deg), with reduced noise characteristics. It is powered by two 2,200 hp Isotov TV-3-117VM (t/n 014) turboshaft engines.


title: Mil Mi-28

text: While the Mi-28 is not intended for use as a transport, it does have a small passenger compartment capable of carrying three people. The planned purpose of this is the rescue of downed helicopter crews.


title: Mil Mi-28

text: The Mi-28N features a helmet mounted display for the pilot. The pilot designates targets for the navigator/weapons officer, who proceeds to fire the weapons required to fulfill that particular task. The integrated surveillance and fire control system has two optical channels providing wide and narrow fields of view, a narrow-field-of-view optical television channel, and laser rangefinder. The system can move within 110 degrees in azimuth and from +13 to −40 degrees in elevation.


title: Mil Mi-28

text: The night attack variant helicopter retains most of the structural design of the original Mi-28. The main difference is the installation of an integrated electronic combat system. Other modifications include: new main gearbox for transmitting higher power to the rotor, new high-efficiency blades with swept-shaped tips, and an engine fuel injection control.


title: Mil Mi-28

text: The pilot uses a helmet-mounted target designator, which allocates the target to the navigator's surveillance and fire control system. The navigator/weapons officer is then able to employ guided weapons or guns against the target. The targeting system follows the direction of the pilot's eyes.


title: Mil Mi-28

text: Russia's military rotary-wing aircraft fleet has been fully refitted with new night vision goggles (NVG). Mil Mi-28N attack helicopters of the Russian Aerospace Forces (VKS) received GEO-ONV1-family NVGs.


title: Mil Mi-28

text: The Mi-28 is equipped with a chin-mounted NPPU-28 turret with 30 mm automatic Shipunov 2A42 autocannon. It has selective fire, and a dual-feed, which allows for a cyclic rate of fire between 200 and 800 rounds per minute. Its effective range varies from 1,500 meters for ground vehicles to 2,500 meters for airborne targets. Rounds from High Explosive Incendiary (HEI) to Armour-Piercing Discarding Sabot (APDS) can be used. Stated penetration for the 3UBR8 round is 25 mm of RHA at 1,500 meters.


title: Mil Mi-28

text: The standard missile armament of the Mi-28N is the supersonic 9M120 Ataka-V missile, which uses radio beam-riding guidance. Two racks can each carry 8 Ataka missiles, giving a total of 16 missile, although 8 Atakas is a more normal load. There are four variants of the Ataka missile for different tasks. The 9M120 Tandem High Explosive Anti-Tank (HEAT) warhead variant is used against tanks fitted with Explosive Reactive Armor (ERA), its stated penetrative ability is 800 mm Rolled Homogeneous Armour (RHA). The 9M120F thermobaric variant is used against infantry, buildings, bunkers, and caves. The 9M120O expanding rod warhead variant is used against helicopters. All the variants have a range of 6 km. The 9M120M improved version has a longer range (8 km) and better penetration (900 mm of RHA). All variants use SACLOS missile guidance.


title: Mil Mi-28

text: Unguided weapons such as rockets can be carried on four pylons under the stub wings. Typical rockets carried are the S-13, fired from five-round B-13 rocket pods, and the S-8, fired from 20-round B8V-20 pods. The S-8 and S-13 rockets used by the Mi-28 are usually unguided. In the most common configuration, one can expect 40 S-8 rockets or 10 S-13 rockets. Both rockets have their variants, from HEAT warheads to thermobaric warheads. The S-8 has a shorter range and smaller warhead than the S-13, but compensates with numbers. Currently, the Russian Air Force are upgrading their S-8 and S-13 rockets to laser guided missiles with the proposed "Ugroza" ("Menace") system. Rockets upgraded under Ugroza received the designations S-8Kor and S-13Kor, respectively.


title: Mil Mi-28

text: The Mi-28 can also carry the IR guided R-73 air-to-air missiles, the Kh-25 air-to-surface missiles as well as up to 500 kg aerial bombs.


title: Mil Mi-28

text: The first production examples of the Mi-28N completed factory flight and armament tests in late May 2006, and were received by the Russian Air Force on 5 June 2006. The Mi-28N was officially accepted three years later, in October 2009. It was assumed the Mi-28N would fully replace the older Mi-24 variant in the Russian Armed Forces by 2015.


title: Mil Mi-28

text: In September 2011, six Mi-28Ns of the Russian Air Force took part in the 2011 Union Shield joint Russian-Belarusian military exercise at the Ashuluk training ground in Astrakhan Oblast, Russia.


title: Mil Mi-28

text: To improve the training of pilots for the Mi-28N, the Russian Defense Ministry announced the procurement of up to 60 Mi-28UB training-and-combat versions by 2020. Four to six Mi-28UBs would be purchased for every unit that operates the Mi-28N. An initial batch of 24 Mi-28UB training-and-combat helicopters was ordered in April 2016, and the first two serial Mi-28UBs arrived at the Torzhok Air Base on 16 November 2017.


title: Mil Mi-28

text: During the Russian military intervention of the Syrian civil war, the Mi-28N had its combat debut during the 2016 Battle of Palmyra when several Mi-28Ns of the Russian Air Force supported the Syrian Arab Army (SAA) in their advance towards the city. During their support to SAA, Russia's Mi-28Ns targeted several Islamic State positions with S-8 unguided rockets and 9M120 Ataka anti-tank guided missiles.


title: Mil Mi-28

text: In October 2016, a prototype of an upgraded Mi-28NM helicopter performed its maiden flight. The Russian Defence Ministry ordered the first batch of Mi-28NM helicopters in December 2017, not disclosing the number of helicopters ordered. In March 2019, a Mi-28NM prototype was seen accompanied by a Mi-24/Mi-35M during a combat sortie over rebel-held territory in the northern Hama. It was reported the helicopter was sent to Syria to undergo testing in difficult weather and climate conditions. The Russian Air Force received the first two serial Mi-28NMs on 23 June 2019. A month later, during the International Military-Technical Forum ARMY-2019, the Russian Defence Ministry and Rostec signed a long-term contract for the supply of 98 Mi-28NMs by 2027. A new contract was signed in August 2022.


title: Mil Mi-28

text: The Mi-28N was deployed by Russia during the 2022 invasion of Ukraine. "The Times" reported that Ukrainian forces had successfully used a UK-made Starstreak system to shoot down a Russian Mi-28N attack helicopter in early April. On 26 April, the wreck of a Mi-28 was found by Ukrainian forces outside the town of Hostomel in Kyiv region. The craft was likely destroyed during the battle for Hostomel airport. On 9 May, one Mi-28 was destroyed in north of Kharkiv, the attack helicopter with registration number "RF-13654" was the third visually reported loss of that type. On 16 May, another Mi-28N with registration number "RF-13628" was destroyed in Kharkiv. On 12 June, a Mi-28H was destroyed and its wreck recorded in video by Ukrainian troops, the crew of the aircraft died at the crash site.


title: Mil Mi-28

text: In October 2012, it was reported that Russia and Iraq may sign a US$4.2–$5.0 billion weapons contract, including purchase of 30 Mi-28NE helicopters. The deal was confirmed on 9 October. The deal was reportedly cancelled due to Iraqi concerns of corruption, but that concern was addressed, and the Iraqi defence minister stated that "the deal is going ahead." Despite early complications, all parts of the $4.2 billion contracts were signed, and are being inducted. The deliveries of 10 Mi-28NE helicopters for Iraq began in September 2013. Another batch of 13 Mi-28NE helicopters was delivered in January 2014.


title: Mil Mi-28

text: In June 2010, Algeria was expected to place an order for 42 Mi-28NE helicopters. On 30 August 2016, Algeria displayed its first batch of Mi-28NE helicopters on television.


title: Mil Mi-28

text: In late December 2021, it was reported that Bangladesh is finalizing a government-to-government (G2G) deal to buy eight Mi-28NEs for the Bangladesh Air Force with necessary equipment, along with operation and maintenance training.


title: Mil Mi-28

text: The Indian Military asked for a modified prototype of Mi-28 fitted with French and Belgian avionics. Russian manufacturers were discussing how to meet these requirements. In late October 2011, it was reported that the American AH-64D had emerged as the front-runner ahead of the Mi-28N to fill a requirement for 22 attack helicopters.


title: Mil Mi-28

text: In late 2011, Kenya began the process of acquiring 16 Mi-28 ground attack helicopters for its Embakasi based 50th Air Cavalry Division. The helicopters were set to be delivered to the 50th Air Cavalry Division in Kenya on 3 January 2012, from the Russian state owned corporation Rosoboronexport, which is an intermediary for all imports and exports of military related hardware. However, in 2013, Oboronprom denied reports that the type had been accepted for service with the Kenyan military.


title: Mil Mi-28

text: In April 2010, Venezuela agreed to order 10 Mi-28s for the Venezuelan Army. However, no deal was signed after this.


title: Mil Mi-28

text: The Mil Mi-40 was a projected utility version of the Mi-28, first initiated in 1983, announced in 1992 and shown at the Moscow Airshow in 1993. It was primarily intended for the "Aerial Infantry Fighting Vehicle" category as a successor to the Mil Mi-24 and Mi-8 assault helicopters. It was planned to use two 1,863 kW Klimov TV3-117 turboshaft engines, four-blade main rotor, four-blade Delta H tail rotor (both from the Mi-28), and retractable tricycle-type landing gear. It was expected to weigh 11–12,000 kg and estimated to attain a 3300 m ceiling, a 314 km/h maximum speed and a 260 km/h cruise speed.


title: Mil Mi-28

text: Specifications required the functioning in day, night and poor weather as well as carrying eight soldiers (the design achieved seven in practice), eight stretchers or large external loads. An emphasis was placed on survivability with a focus on redundancy, IR suppression and special shock absorbers for the crew to increase the maximum "safe" crash velocity. The design incorporated a 23 mm rotary cannon (most likely GSh-23L) for defense in the forward hemisphere and a 12.7 mm heavy machine gun (most likely Yak-B) for defense in the rear. Fuselage fairings containing fuel replaced stub wings with missiles mounted above on special hardpoints.


title: Mil Mi-28

text: Its design borrowed much from the Mil Mi-36 developed over the previous two years, and was itself replaced after a year by the Mil Mi-42 project. Although the Mi-40 design was resurrected for a short period in the 1990s, with optimization studies being completed, it did not reach the prototype stage.


title: Mil Mi-28

text: On 2 August 2015, an Mi-28 of the Berkut squadron crashed while performing in an aerobatics display with other helicopters in Ryazan. Of the crew, the pilot Lieutenant Colonel Igor Butenko died as a result of the crash while the co-pilot Senior Lieutenant Alexander Kletnov survived. While the specific cause of the crash remains undetermined, the co-pilot indicated in his report that the aircraft suffered a hydraulics failure. As a result, the Russian military grounded all Mi-28s during the investigation.


title: Jack Dylan Grazer

text: Jack Dylan Grazer (born September 3, 2003) is an American actor. He began his acting career by playing guest roles in film and on television and had his breakthrough playing the role of Eddie Kaspbrak in the 2017 and 2019 film adaptations of the Stephen King novel "It". He also starred on the CBS series "Me, Myself, and I", portrayed Freddy Freeman in the 2019 DC Extended Universe film "Shazam!" and will reprise the role in its 2023 sequel. Grazer had the lead roles of Frazer Wilson in Luca Guadagnino's coming-of-age drama television series "We Are Who We Are" and Joey in the thriller film "Don't Tell a Soul", both in 2020. He voiced Alberto in the 2021 Pixar film "Luca" and voiced Barney in the 2021 20th Century Studios film "Ron's Gone Wrong". In 2018, "The Hollywood Reporter" named him one of the top 30 stars under age 18.


title: Jack Dylan Grazer

text: Grazer was born in Los Angeles, California, the son of Angela Lafever and Gavin Grazer, an actor. His uncle is producer Brian Grazer. Grazer sponsors a scholarship at the Adderley School for Performing Arts in Pacific Palisades, where he is an alumnus, for two students annually.


title: Jack Dylan Grazer

text: In July 2021, Grazer came out as bisexual during an Instagram livestream and declared "he/they" as his pronouns.


title: BMW 3 Series (E30)

text: The BMW E30 is the second generation of BMW 3 Series, which was produced from 1982 to 1994 and replaced the E21 3 Series. The model range included 2-door coupe and convertible body styles, as well as being the first 3 Series to be produced in 4-door sedan and wagon/estate body styles. It was powered by four-cylinder petrol, six-cylinder petrol and six-cylinder diesel engines, the latter a first for the 3 Series. The E30 325iX model was the first BMW to have all-wheel drive.


title: BMW 3 Series (E30)

text: The first BMW M3 model was built on the E30 platform and was powered by the high-revving BMW S14 four-cylinder petrol engine, which produced in its final iteration. The BMW Z1 roadster was also based on the E30 platform. Following the launch of the E36 3 Series in 1990, the E30 began to be phased out.


title: BMW 3 Series (E30)

text: Development of the E30 3 Series began in July 1976, with styling being developed under chief designer Claus Luthe with exterior styling led by Boyke Boyer. In 1978, the final design was approved, with design freeze (cubing process) being completed in 1979. BMW's launch film for the E30 shows the design process including Computer-aided design (CAD), crash testing and wind-tunnel testing. The car was released at the end of November 1982.


title: BMW 3 Series (E30)

text: Externally, the E30's appearance is very similar to twin headlight versions of its E21 predecessor, however there are various detail changes in styling to the E30. Major differences to the E21 include the interior and a revised suspension, the latter to reduce the oversteer for which the E21 was criticised.


title: BMW 3 Series (E30)

text: In 1985 the exterior and interior trim were updated. The 323i model was replaced with the 325i at this time and the diesel-engined 324d was introduced. A factory convertible entered the model range. However, the Baur remained on sale, alongside the factory convertible. The M3 convertible was only offered for the European market.


title: BMW 3 Series (E30)

text: At the Frankfurt Motor Show in September 1987, BMW introduced a major update to the E30 (often called Series 2). The changes to the lineup were the addition of the Touring (station wagon) variant and removal of the 325e model. The 1987 update models remained largely unchanged until the end of production, with the addition of the 318is model in 1989.


title: BMW 3 Series (E30)

text: External styling changes included redesigned rear lights, front bumper and a reduction in the amount of chrome trim. The four-cylinder engine was upgraded from the BMW M10 to the BMW M40 and various other mechanical changes were made. Rust protection was improved with the update.


title: BMW 3 Series (E30)

text: In addition to the two-door sedan and Baur convertible body styles of its E21 predecessors, the E30 later also became available as a four-door sedan and five-door station wagon (marketed as "Touring").


title: BMW 3 Series (E30)

text: The Touring body style began life as a prototype built by BMW engineer Max Reisböck in his friend's garage in 1984 and began production in 1987. The factory convertible version began production in 1985, with the Baur convertible conversions remaining available alongside it.


title: BMW 3 Series (E30)

text: Initially, the E30 used carryover four-cylinder (M10) and six-cylinder (M20) petrol engines from its E21 predecessor. Over the production run, new families of four-cylinder petrol engines were introduced and the six-cylinder engine received various upgrades. A six-cylinder diesel engine was introduced, in both naturally aspirated and turbocharged forms.


title: BMW 3 Series (E30)

text: At the launch of the E30 range in 1982, the 316 used a 1766 cc version of the M10 fed by a carburetor and producing . The 318i had the same M10 engine, but with Bosch L-Jetronic fuel-injection, increasing power to while also improving fuel economy.


title: BMW 3 Series (E30)

text: The 1987 Series 2 update introduced a new four-cylinder engine: the M40, which used Bosch Motronic fuel-injection. In the 318i, a version of the M40 was used. The 316i model replaced the 316, using a version of the M40.


title: BMW 3 Series (E30)

text: The 318iS was released in 1989, using the new M42 engine and only being available with two doors. This is the most modern engine available in the E30 range, incorporating DOHC, the updated Bosch Motronic 1.7, hydraulic valve adjusters and coil-on-plug ignition. In some markets, the M42 engine was used in the 318i/318iC models, instead of the M40.


title: BMW 3 Series (E30)

text: At the launch of the E30 range, the six-cylinder models consisted of the 320i, which had a version of the M20 producing , and the 323i, with a M20 producing , both using Bosch L-Jetronic fuel injection. These models were not sold in North America, presumably for emissions reasons. In 1985, the 2.3 L engine was replaced with a 2.5 L version of the M20, which produced and used Bosch Motronic fuel injection. This engine was available in the 325i variants, including the all-wheel drive 325iX.


title: BMW 3 Series (E30)

text: An economy version called the 325e was released with a lower revving, more fuel efficient engine. The "e" is an abbreviation for eta, which is used to represent the thermal efficiency of a heat engine. To maximise low-rev torque, the 325e engine was the largest available in an E30 (aside from the 333i model, which was only sold in South Africa). The 325e engine had a longer stroke than the 325i version, with a more restrictive head, four cam bearings instead of seven, and single valve springs (instead of the dual valve springs used by the 325i version). For versions without a catalytic converter, the 325e engine produced at 4250 rpm and at 3250 rpm. By comparison, peak torque for the 325i engine was at 4000 rpm.


title: BMW 3 Series (E30)

text: In 1983 the M21 engine was unveiled in the new 524td at the IAA, Germany. The M21 engine used a Garrett turbocharger (without an intercooler). The engine has a capacity of and uses mechanical fuel injection.


title: BMW 3 Series (E30)

text: In 1985 BMW introduced the 324d, a naturally aspirated version of the same M21 engine, which was popular in countries with a high motor vehicle tax.


title: BMW 3 Series (E30)

text: In 1987 an electronically controlled fuel pump was used which increased the torque output by . The updated engine has a smaller turbocharger, decreasing turbo lag.


title: BMW 3 Series (E30)

text: In total, six transmissions were available for the various models of the E30: four manuals, and two automatics. The E30 was offered with rear-wheel drive, or permanent all-wheel drive (325iX saloons and estates only).


title: BMW 3 Series (E30)

text: One of the features that added to the roominess of the E30 was the suspension. The front MacPherson struts and rear semi-trailing arm suspension were a compact arrangement that left a lot of cabin and boot space for the car's overall size. The semi-trailing arms have been criticized for the dynamic toe and camber changes inherent to the suspension geometry, causing bump steer in hard cornering situations (such as racing and autocross). Nonetheless, reviewers praised the handling of the E30.


title: BMW 3 Series (E30)

text: A widened version of the E30 front suspension and the drivetrain from the E30 325i were used in the BMW Z1 roadster. The BMW Z3 and BMW Compact (E36/5) rear suspensions are also very similar to the E30, but utilizing five-lug hubs. The Z3-based BMW M Coupé uses a widened version of the same rear semi-trailing arm suspension along with stronger hubs.


title: BMW 3 Series (E30)

text: For the front wheels, all models use disc brakes. Early 316/318 models have solid discs, while all subsequent models have vented discs. For the rear wheels, most models use solid disc brakes, except for some early models: 4cylinder & 6cylinder models which use drum brakes. Anti-lock braking system (ABS) became available in 1986.


title: BMW 3 Series (E30)

text: The primary distinctive feature of the BMW E30 models produced for the North American market in 1984–1987 is the protruding front and rear aluminum bumpers. These bumpers are commonly known as "diving boards." In 1987, the anodized aluminum bumpers for the North American market were shortened by revising the cover/fillers and shortening the shock absorbers on which they were mounted. In mid-1988 (for model year 1989), shorter body-coloured plastic bumpers replaced the aluminium ones altogether.


title: BMW 3 Series (E30)

text: In South Africa, only the two-door and four-door sedans were built, four cylinder gasoline (petrol) models production continued there until 1992.


title: BMW 3 Series (E30)

text: Despite the introduction of the M40 engine, the old M10-powered 316 continued to be sold in South Africa until 1991, gaining the new bumpers when the range was updated.


title: BMW 3 Series (E30)

text: The 333i is a South Africa-only model, and the South African 325iS models were a different specification from 325iS models sold in other countries.


title: BMW 3 Series (E30)

text: The BMW M3 utilised a widened and heavily redesigned variation of the two-door body style, therefore the M3 shares few body parts with other E30 models. The M3 suspension is also significantly different from regular E30 models, including five-lug wheel bolts.


title: BMW 3 Series (E30)

text: For Portugal and Italy only, due to considerably higher taxes for cars with engines exceeding 2000 cc, a special model was created: the 320is. The four-door version appeared in the dealers' showrooms in September 1987 while the two-door followed in March 1988. Production of the 320is continued until 1991.


title: BMW 3 Series (E30)

text: This model was equipped with a version of the S14 engine from the M3, with stroke reduced to . This engine produced at 6900 rpm and at 4,900 rpm. The 320is shared the same dogleg Getrag 265 gearbox of the non-US M3 while it had a limited slip differential with the same 25% lock up rate but with a shorter differential ratio of 3.46:1. All the 320is models were left hand drive and without a catalytic converter. Sports suspension was fitted to all two-door models, and to four-doors produced from September 1989.


title: BMW 3 Series (E30)

text: The interior of the 320is was identical to that of other 3 Series models, except an M3 instrument cluster (which features an oil temperature gauge instead of a fuel economy gauge) was used. The 320is was sold for three years, with 1,206 four-doors and 2,542 two-doors produced.


title: BMW 3 Series (E30)

text: In New Zealand, where the M3 was never sold by BMW, the local importer created a sporting version of the sedan called M325i. About 100 such cars were imported beginning in late 1986 until at least 1990. Fitted with the standard non-catalyzed 2.5 litre engine they benefited from a Motorsport tuned suspension, the M-Technic body package, 15-inch BBS cross-spoke wheels with wide, low profile (225/50) tyres, and a limited-slip differential. The M325i is quite similar to the British market 325i Sport, also developed as a response to the absence of a right-hand-drive M3.


title: BMW 3 Series (E30)

text: BMW South Africa's Motorsport division created the 333i in 1985 by fitting the 3.2 L M30 "big six" engine to a two-door E30. The resulting 333i was a success in South African saloon car racing. These cars were built with help from Alpina in Buchloe, Germany. Due to the space constraints caused by the large M30 engine, the buyer was forced to choose between air conditioning (highly desirable in South Africa) and power steering. Cars with power steering are distinguished by having foglights, cars with air-conditioning instead had ducts providing fresh air for the air-conditioning. The 333i was produced from 1985 to 1987 and only 204 cars were produced.


title: BMW 3 Series (E30)

text: The 333i engine produces at 5500 rpm and at 4300 rpm. BMW's official performance claims are in 7.4 seconds, and a top speed of .


title: BMW 3 Series (E30)

text: The 325iS was created by BMW South Africa to replace the 2.5 litre 126 kW 325i in Group N production car racing, as a response to the introduction of the Opel Kadett 2 litre 16V to the Class A category. Early 325iS cars had a 2.5 litre motor, and various weight lightning interventions including alloy doors and drilled out sections in boot hinges and other steel pressings. The 2.7 litre 325iS, commonly called Evo 2, replaced the 'Evo 1' cars, Evo 2 cars had standard doors. It was launched in the first half of 1990 and was powered by an Alpina-fettled, 2.7 litre M20 engine which produced . Following the introduction of the upgraded Opel Kadett 16V SuperBoss, in 1991 BMW South Africa introduced the 325iS Evolution HP, commonly referred to as the Evo 2. The motor was upgraded to produce .


title: BMW 3 Series (E30)

text: The Evolution HP won the Group N Class A title in 1993, winning 20 of the 24 races in the process. The Robbi Smith and Geoff Goddard Evolution HP won the season-ending 9hr race.


title: BMW 3 Series (E30)

text: The John Player Special Edition is an Australian-only limited edition special offered by BMW Australia as a tribute to the M3 race cars competing in local touring car racing. JPS refers to the BMW race team sponsor, John Player Special cigarettes. The cars are based on a 323i manual "coupés", painted in black with gold pinstripes and gold BBS wheels. They also had Recaro sports seats, JPS badging, a limited slip differential, sports suspension, a sunroof (optional) and a body kit. The cars were ordered from the factory as a base 323i in black with a fixed selection of options - all of which were otherwise available to order but priced at a substantial discount as an Edition package. The pinstripes were added in Australia and the wheels were also gold anodised in Australia. The production run was 70 cars.


title: BMW 3 Series (E30)

text: The E30 was produced in Munich, Germany; Regensburg, Germany; and Rosslyn, South Africa. Series production began in October 1982.


title: BMW 3 Series (E30)

text: Models sold in Indonesia and Thailand used complete knock-down kits produced in Germany, which were assembled in Jakarta and Bangkok respectively.


title: BMW 3 Series (E30)

text: Production of the E30 began to wind down in 1990, due to the introduction of the E36 3 Series coupé models. Sedan production concluded on April 30, 1991, at Regensburg. Other variants were phased out gradually, until the final E30 model, a Touring, was produced in 1994, and sold as a 1995 model year.


title: BMW 3 Series (E30)

text: The E30 remains a popular car for racing and E30-specific racing series such as the National Auto Sport Association's Spec E30 class are run in the United States, Australia and New Zealand.


title: Sarah Gadon

text: Sarah Lynn Gadon (born April 4, 1987) is a Canadian actress. She began her acting career guest-starring in a number of television series, such as "Are You Afraid of the Dark?" (1999), "Mutant X" (2002), and "Dark Oracle" (2004). She also worked as a voice actress on various television productions. Gadon gained recognition for her roles in David Cronenberg's films "A Dangerous Method" (2011), "Cosmopolis" (2012), and "Maps to the Stars" (2014). She also starred in Denis Villeneuve's thriller "Enemy" (2013), the period drama "Belle" (2013), and the action horror film "Dracula Untold" (2014).


title: Sarah Gadon

text: In 2015, Gadon co-starred in the supernatural thriller "The 9th Life of Louis Drax" and portrayed a young Elizabeth II in the comedy "A Royal Night Out". The following year, she starred as Sadie Dunhill in the Hulu miniseries "11.22.63", an adaptation of Stephen King's novel "11/22/63". In 2017, Gadon played the lead role of Grace Marks in the CBC miniseries "Alias Grace", which is based on the Margaret Atwood novel of the same name, and joined the cast of the Crave sitcom "Letterkenny" in its third season. The following year, she had a leading role in the period drama "The Great Darkened Days". In 2019, Gadon starred in the third season of the HBO anthology series "True Detective."


title: Sarah Gadon

text: Gadon has received numerous accolades, including three Canadian Screen Awards for "Alias Grace", "Enemy", and "The Great Darkened Days". In 2016, she earned the Award of Excellence by the Alliance of Canadian Cinema, Television, and Radio Artists (ACTRA).


title: Sarah Gadon

text: Gadon was born in Toronto, Ontario, to a psychologist father and teacher mother. She has an older brother named James. Gadon has English and Italian ancestry. She spent much of her childhood and adolescence training and performing as a dancer, with time spent as a Junior Associate at The National Ballet School of Canada and as a student at the Claude Watson School for the Performing Arts. She graduated high school as an Ontario Scholar from Vaughan Road Academy in 2005. By 2014, she had completed her studies in the University of Toronto's Cinema Studies Institute at Innis College.


title: Sarah Gadon

text: Gadon started acting at the age of 11 with her first acting role as Julia in an episode of "La Femme Nikita" (1998). For the next few years, she took episodic roles in various television series, including Monica in "Are You Afraid of the Dark?" (1999), Young Laura Burnham in "Twice in a Lifetime" (2000), Catherine Hartman in "Mutant X" (2002), Claudia in "Dark Oracle" in 2004, Vicki in "Life with Derek" (2005), and Tasha Redford in "Flashpoint" (2008).


title: Sarah Gadon

text: She also has a number of television films to her credit. She was nominated for the Young Artist Award for Best Ensemble in a TV movie for her first film, "The Other Me" (2000), portraying Heather. Other roles include Sarah in "Phantom of the Megaplex" (2000), Samantha in "What Girls Learn" (2001), Amanda in "Cadet Kelly" (2002), Julia Norton in "Code Breakers" (2005) and Celeste Mercier in "" (2008). Gadon had recurring roles in many television series: Zoe Kessler in "The Border" (2008–2009), Katie Atkins in "Being Erica" (2009), Georgia Bravin in "Happy Town" (2010) and Ruby Odgen in "Murdoch Mysteries" (2009–2011). She is also behind the voice of the title character in the animated series "Ruby Gloom" (2006–2007), Beth in "Total Drama" (2007–2011) and Portia in "Friends and Heroes" (2007–2009). Gadon was nominated for a Gemini Award in 2008 for Best Individual or Ensemble Performance in an Animated Program or Series for her work in "Ruby Gloom" (2008).


title: Sarah Gadon

text: Her filmography includes both feature length and short films. Her first feature film was "Fast Food High" (2003) where she portrayed Zoe. She portrayed Margaret in the dark comedy "Siblings", Priscilla in "Charlie Bartlett" (2007) and Laura in "Leslie, My Name is Evil" (2009).


title: Sarah Gadon

text: Her short film work includes Haley in "Burgeon and Fade" (2007), Julia in "Grange Avenue" (2008) and Gabrielle in "Spoliation" (2008). "Burgeon and Fade" won the Special Jury Award at the WorldFest Houston Festival for original dramatic short film. She also starred in the short indie film, "The Origin of Teddy Bears," as Madison.


title: Sarah Gadon

text: In 2011, Gadon starred in David Cronenberg's "Cosmopolis", alongside Robert Pattinson, as his on-screen wife of 22 days, Elise Shifirin. She played Phillippa in the television adaptation of Ken Follett’s bestseller "World Without End", an eight-hour event series. She featured in Brandon Cronenberg's debut feature, "Antiviral" as Hannah Geist, a mega-star in a sci-fi world where fans pay to be infected with the diseases of the rich and famous.


title: Sarah Gadon

text: In 2012, she appeared as Carl Jung's wife Emma in the David Cronenberg film "A Dangerous Method" and in a Canadian short film, "Yellow Fish," alongside J. Adam Brown. On May 23, 2012 in Cannes, Birks presented the first Birks Canadian Diamond award to Gadon and Emily Hampshire during Telefilm Canada's inaugural Tribute To Canadian Talent press event and reception.


title: Sarah Gadon

text: She played Miss Elizabeth Murray in the 2013 release of the film "Belle". She co-starred in Denis Villeneuve's "Enemy" (2013), based on the José Saramago book, "The Double" (2002), and in David Cronenberg's "Maps to the Stars" (2014), a dark comic look at Hollywood excess.


title: Sarah Gadon

text: She participated in the CBC "Canada Reads" competition in March 2014. In September 2014, it was announced that she was cast in Miramax's supernatural thriller "The 9th Life of Louis Drax", along with Jamie Dornan and Aaron Paul. The film was released in September 2016. Gadon played Dracula's wife Mirena (and briefly the modern-day Mina) in the historical action film "Dracula Untold", released in October 2014.


title: Sarah Gadon

text: Gadon made her directorial debut with an episode of "Reelside", a documentary series, which focused on her collaborative relationship with photographer Caitlin Cronenberg; the episode premiered on The Movie Network in Canada June 4, 2015. In 2015, Gadon appeared as Princess Elizabeth in "A Royal Night Out", a deeply fictionalized account of the future Queen's incognito night on the town, along with her sister Princess Margaret, on the evening of VE Day.


title: Sarah Gadon

text: In 2016, Gadon starred opposite Logan Lerman in "Indignation", an adaptation of Philip Roth's 2008 novel of the same title, and opposite James Franco in "11.22.63", a television mini-series version of Stephen King's novel of the same title. In 2017, Gadon played the lead role in the CBC miniseries "Alias Grace", which is based on the Margaret Atwood novel of the same name. For her performance, she won her second Canadian Screen Award.


title: Sarah Gadon

text: In 2019, she starred in the third season of the HBO anthology series "True Detective." She also co-starred with Hong Chau in the film "American Woman" directed by Semi Chellas.


title: Sarah Gadon

text: In 2021, she starred in the film "All My Puny Sorrows" with Alison Pill, as two Mennonite sisters who leave their religious lives behind. Gadon won Best Supporting Actress in a Canadian Film from the Vancouver Film Critics Circle Awards for her role in the movie.


title: Sarah Gadon

text: In September 2022, it was announced that Gadon has signed to direct her first feature film, an adaptation of Heather O'Neill's 2006 novel "Lullabies for Little Criminals".


title: Sarah Gadon

text: Gadon was in a relationship with film editor and director Matthew Hannam. In a January 2019 joint interview, the pair explained that their shared experience of temporary stays in foreign cities was part of the trigger for the short film "Paseo", the first film in which Hannam directed Gadon.


title: Kingdom of Sardinia

text: The Kingdom of Sardinia, also referred to as the Kingdom of Savoy-Sardinia, Piedmont-Sardinia, or Savoy-Piedmont-Sardinia during the Savoyard period, was a state in Southern Europe from the early 14th until the mid-19th century.


title: Kingdom of Sardinia

text: The Kingdom was a member of the Council of Aragon and initially consisted of the islands of Corsica and Sardinia, sovereignty over both of which was claimed by the Papacy, which granted them as a fief, the ("kingdom of Sardinia and Corsica"), to King James II of Aragon in 1297. Beginning in 1324, James and his successors conquered the island of Sardinia and established "de facto" their "de jure" authority. In 1420, after the Sardinian–Aragonese war, the last competing claim to the island was bought out. After the union of the crowns of Aragon and Castile, Sardinia became a part of the burgeoning Spanish Empire.


title: Kingdom of Sardinia

text: In 1720, the island was ceded by the Habsburg and Bourbon claimants to the Spanish throne to the Duke of Savoy, Victor Amadeus II. The Savoyards united it with their historical possessions on the Italian mainland, and the Kingdom came to be progressively identified with the Mainland states, which included, besides Savoy and Aosta, dynastic possessions like the Principality of Piedmont and the County of Nice, over both of which the Savoyards had been exercising their control since the 13th century and 1388, respectively.


title: Kingdom of Sardinia

text: The formal name of this composite state was the "States of His Majesty the King of Sardinia", and is referred to as either Savoy-Sardinia, Piedmont-Sardinia, or erroneously the Kingdom of Piedmont, since the island of Sardinia had always been of secondary importance to the monarchy. Under Savoyard rule, the Kingdom's government, ruling class, cultural models and center of population were entirely situated in the mainland. Therefore, while the capital of the island of Sardinia and the seat of its viceroys had always been "de jure" Cagliari, it was the Piedmontese city of Turin, the capital of Savoy since the mid 16th century, which was the "de facto" seat of power. This situation would be conferred official status with the Perfect Fusion of 1847, when all the Kingdom's governmental institutions would be centralized in Turin.


title: Kingdom of Sardinia

text: When the mainland domains of the House of Savoy were occupied and eventually annexed by Napoleonic France, the king of Sardinia temporarily resided on the island for the first time in Sardinia's history under Savoyard rule. The Congress of Vienna (1814–15), which restructured Europe after Napoleon's defeat, returned to Savoy its mainland possessions and augmented them with Liguria, taken from the Republic of Genoa. Following Geneva’s accession to Switzerland, the Treaty of Turin (1816) transferred Carouge and adjacent areas to the newly-created Swiss Canton of Geneva. In 1847–48, through an act of Union analogous to the one between Great Britain and Ireland, the various Savoyard states were unified under one legal system with their capital in Turin, and granted a constitution, the "Statuto Albertino".


title: Kingdom of Sardinia

text: By the time of the Crimean War in 1853, the Savoyards had built the kingdom into a strong power. There followed the annexation of Lombardy (1859), the central Italian states and the Two Sicilies (1860), Venetia (1866), and the Papal States (1870). On 17 March 1861, to more accurately reflect its new geographic, cultural and political extent, the Kingdom of Sardinia changed its name to the Kingdom of Italy, and its capital was eventually moved first to Florence and then to Rome. The Savoy-led Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia was thus the legal predecessor of the Kingdom of Italy, which in turn is the predecessor of the present-day Italian Republic.


title: Kingdom of Sardinia

text: In 238 BC Sardinia became, along with Corsica, a province of the Roman Empire. The Romans ruled the island until the middle of the 5th century when it was occupied by the Vandals, who had also settled in north Africa. In 534 AD it was reconquered by the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire. It remained a Byzantine province until the Arab conquest of Sicily in the 9th century. After that, communications with Constantinople became very difficult, and powerful families of the island assumed control of the land.


title: Kingdom of Sardinia

text: Facing Arab attempts to sack and conquer, while having almost no outside help, Sardinia used the principle of "translatio imperii" ("transfer of rule") and continued to organize itself along the ancient Roman and Byzantine model. The island was not the personal property of the ruler and of his family, as was then the dominant practice in western Europe, but rather a separate entity and during the Byzantine Empire, a monarchical republic, as it had been since Roman times.


title: Kingdom of Sardinia

text: Starting from 705–706, Saracens from north Africa (recently conquered by Arab armies) harassed the population of the coastal cities. Information about the Sardinian political situation in the following centuries is scarce. Due to Saracen attacks, in the 9th century Tharros was abandoned in favor of Oristano, after more than 1800 years of occupation; Caralis, Porto Torres and numerous other coastal centres suffered the same fate. There is a record of another massive Saracen sea attack in 1015–16 from the Balearics, commanded by Mujāhid al-ʿĀmirī (Latinized as "Museto"). The Saracen attempt to invade the island was stopped by the Judicates with the support of the fleets of the maritime republics of Pisa and Genoa. Pope Benedict VIII also requested aid from the two maritime republics in the struggle against the Arabs.


title: Kingdom of Sardinia

text: After the Great Schism, Rome made many efforts to restore Latinity to the Sardinian church, politics and society, and to finally reunify the island under one Catholic ruler, as it had been for all of southern Italy, when the Byzantines had been driven away by Catholic Normans. Even the title of "Judge" was a Byzantine reminder of the Greek church and state, in times of harsh relations between eastern and western churches (Massacre of the Latins, 1182, Siege of Constantinople (1204), Recapture of Constantinople, 1261).


title: Kingdom of Sardinia

text: Before the Kingdom of Sardinia and Corsica, the Archons (ἄρχοντες) or, in Latin, "judices", who reigned in the island from the 9th or 10th century until the beginning of the 11th century, can be considered real kings of all Sardinia (Κύριε βοήθε ιοῦ δού λού σου Tουρκοτουρίου ἅρχωντοσ Σαρδινίας καί τής δού ληςσου Γετιτ), even though nominal vassals of the Byzantine emperors. Of these sovereigns, only two names are known: Turcoturiu and Salusiu (Tουρκοτουριου βασιλικου προτοσπαθαριου και Σαλουσιου των ευγενεστατων άρχωντων), who probably ruled in the 10th century. The Archons still wrote in Greek or Latin, but one of the oldest documents left of the Judicate of Cagliari (the so-called "Carta Volgare"), issued by Torchitorio I de Lacon-Gunale in 1070, was already written in the Romance Sardinian language, albeit with the Greek alphabet.


title: Kingdom of Sardinia

text: The realm was divided into four small kingdoms, the Judicates of Cagliari, Arborea, Gallura and Logudoro, perfectly organized as was the previous realm, but was now under the influence of the Papacy, which claimed sovereignty over the entire island, and in particular of the Italian states of Genoa and Pisa, that through alliances with the "judges" (the local rulers), secured their political and economic zones of influence. While Genoa was mostly, but not always, in the north and west regions of Sardinia, that is, in the Judicates of Gallura and Logudoro; Pisa was mostly, but not always, in the south and east, in the Judicates of Cagliari and Arborea. That was the cause of conflicts leading to a long war between the Judges, who regarded themselves as kings fighting against rebellious nobles.


title: Kingdom of Sardinia

text: Later, the title of King of Sardinia was granted by the Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire to Barisone II of Arborea and Enzio of Sardinia. The first could not reunify the island under his rule, despite years of war against the other Sardinian judges, and he finally concluded a peace treaty with them in 1172. The second did not have the opportunity. Invested with the title from his father, Emperor Frederick II in 1239, he was soon recalled by his parent and appointed Imperial Vicar for Italy. He died in 1272 without direct recognized heirs after a detention of 23 years in a prison in Bologna.


title: Kingdom of Sardinia

text: The Kingdom of Sardinia and Corsica (later, just the "Kingdom of Sardinia" from 1460) was a state whose king was the King of Aragon, who started to conquer it in 1324, gained full control in 1410, and directly ruled it until 1460. In that year it was incorporated into a sort of confederation of states, each with its own institutions, called the Crown of Aragon, and united only in the person of the king. The Crown of Aragon was made by a council of representatives of the various states and grew in importance for the main purpose of separating the legacy of Ferdinand II of Aragon from that of Isabella I of Castile when they married in 1469.


title: Kingdom of Sardinia

text: The idea of the kingdom was created in 1297 by Pope Boniface VIII, as a hypothetical entity created for James II of Aragon under a secret clause in the Treaty of Anagni. This was an inducement to join in the effort to restore Sicily, then under the rule of James's brother Frederick III of Sicily, to the Angevin dynasty over the oppositions of the Sicilians. The two islands proposed for this new kingdom were occupied by other states and fiefs at the time. In Sardinia, three of the four states that had succeeded Byzantine imperial rule in the 9th century had passed through marriage and partition under the direct or indirect control of Pisa and Genoa in the 40 years preceding the Anagni treaty. Genoa had also ruled Corsica since conquering the island nearly two centuries before ("c". 1133).


title: Kingdom of Sardinia

text: There were other reasons beside this papal decision: it was the final successful result of the long fight against the Ghibelline (pro-imperial) city of Pisa and the Holy Roman Empire itself. Furthermore, Sardinia was then under the control of the very Catholic Kings of Aragon, and the last result of rapprochement of the island to Rome. The Sardinian church had never been under the control of the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople; it was an autonomous province loyal to Rome and belonging to the Latin Church, but during the Byzantine period became influenced by Byzantine liturgy and culture.


title: Kingdom of Sardinia

text: In 1297, Pope Boniface VIII, intervening between the Houses of Anjou and Aragon, established on paper a "Regnum Sardiniae et Corsicae" that would be a fief of the Papacy. Then, ignoring the indigenous states which already existed, the pope offered his newly invented fief to James II of Aragon, promising him papal support should he wish to conquer Pisan Sardinia in exchange for Sicily.


title: Kingdom of Sardinia

text: In 1323 James II formed an alliance with Hugh II of Arborea and, following a military campaign which lasted a year or so, occupied the Pisan territories of Cagliari and Gallura along with the city of Sassari, claiming the territory as the "Kingdom of Sardinia and Corsica".


title: Kingdom of Sardinia

text: In 1353, Arborea waged war on Aragon. The Crown of Aragon did not reduce the last of the judicates (indigenous kingdoms of Sardinia) until 1420.


title: Kingdom of Sardinia

text: The Kingdom of Sardinia and Corsica retained its separate character as part of the Crown of Aragon and was not merely incorporated into the Kingdom of Aragon. At the time of his struggles with Arborea, Peter IV of Aragon granted an autonomous legislature to the kingdom and its legal traditions. The kingdom was governed in the king's name by a viceroy.


title: Kingdom of Sardinia

text: In 1420, Alfonso V of Aragon, king of Sicily and heir to Aragon, bought the remaining territories for 100,000 gold florins of the Judicate of Arborea in the 1420 from the last judge, William III of Narbonne, and the "Kingdom of Sardinia" extended throughout the island, except for the city of Castelsardo (at that time called "Casteldoria" or "Castelgenovese") that was stolen from the Doria in 1448, and renamed "Castillo Aragonés" ("Aragonese Castle").


title: Kingdom of Sardinia

text: Corsica, which had never been conquered, was dropped from the formal title and Sardinia passed with the Crown of Aragon to a united Spain. The defeat of the local kingdoms, communes and signorie, the firm Aragonese (later Spanish) rule, the introduction of a sterile feudalism, as well as the discovery of the Americas, provoked an unstoppable decline of the Kingdom of Sardinia. A short period of uprisings occurred under the local noble Leonardo Alagon, marquess of Oristano, who defended his territories against Viceroy Nicolò Carroz and managed to defeat the viceroy's army in the 1470s, but was later crushed at the Battle of Macomer in 1478, ending any further revolts in the island. The unceasing attacks from north African pirates and a series of plagues (in 1582, 1652 and 1655) further worsened the situation.


title: Kingdom of Sardinia

text: Although the ""Kingdom of Sardinia and Corsica"" could be said to have started as a questionable and extraordinary "de jure" state in 1297, its "de facto" existence began in 1324 when, called by their allies of the Judicate of Arborea in the course of war with the Republic of Pisa, James II seized the Pisan territories in the former states of Cagliari and Gallura and asserted his papally-approved title. In 1347; Aragon made war on landlords of the Doria House and the Malaspina House, who were citizens of the Republic of Genoa, which controlled most of the lands of the former Logudoro state in north-western Sardinia, including the city of Alghero and the semiautonomous Republic of Sassari, and added them to its direct domains.


title: Kingdom of Sardinia

text: The Judicate of Arborea, the only Sardinian state that remained independent of foreign domination, proved far more difficult to subdue. Threatened by the Aragonese claims of suzerainty and consolidation of the rest of the island, in 1353 Arborea, under the leadership of Marianus IV, started the conquest of the remaining Sardinian territories, which formed the Kingdom of Sardinia. In 1368 an Arborean offensive succeeded in nearly driving the Aragonese from the island, reducing the "Kingdom of Sardinia and Corsica" to just the port cities of Cagliari and Alghero and incorporating everything else into their own kingdom.


title: Kingdom of Sardinia

text: A peace treaty returned the Aragonese their previous possessions in 1388, but tensions continued and, in 1382, the Arborean army led by Brancaleone Doria again swept the most of the island into Arborean rule. This situation lasted until 1409 when the army of the Judicate of Arborea suffered a heavy defeat by the Aragonese army in the Battle of Sanluri. After the sale of the remaining territories for 100,000 gold florins to the Judicate of Arborea in 1420, the "Kingdom of Sardinia" extended throughout the island, except for the city of Castelsardo (at that time called "Casteldoria" or "Castelgenovese"), which had been stolen from the Doria in 1448. The subduing of Sardinia having taken a century, Corsica, which had never been wrestled from the Genoese, was dropped from the formal title of the Kingdom.


title: Kingdom of Sardinia

text: During the 3rd century BC, the Allobroges settled down in the region between the Rhône and the Alps. This region, named Allobrigia and later "Sapaudia" in Latin, was integrated to the Roman Empire. In the 5th century, the region of Savoy was ceded by the Western Roman Empire to the Burgundians and became part of the Kingdom of Burgundy.


title: Kingdom of Sardinia

text: Piedmont was inhabited in early historic times by Celto-Ligurian tribes such as the Taurini and the Salassi. They later submitted to the Romans (c. 220 BC), who founded several colonies there including "Augusta Taurinorum "(Turin) and "Eporedia" (Ivrea). After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the region was repeatedly invaded by the Burgundians, the Goths (5th century), Byzantines, Lombards (6th century), and the Franks (773). At the time Piedmont, as part of the Kingdom of Italy within the Holy Roman Empire, was subdivided into several marks and counties.


title: Kingdom of Sardinia

text: In 1046, Oddo of Savoy added Piedmont to their main segment of Savoy, with a capital at Chambéry (now in France). Other areas remained independent, such as the powerful communes of Asti and Alessandria, and the marquisates of Saluzzo and Montferrat. The County of Savoy was elevated to a duchy in 1416, and Duke Emmanuel Philibert moved the seat to Turin in 1563.


title: Kingdom of Sardinia

text: The Spanish domination of Sardinia ended at the beginning of the 18th century, as a result of the War of the Spanish succession. By the Treaty of Utrecht of 1713, Spain's European empire was divided: Savoy received Sicily and parts of the Duchy of Milan, while Charles VI (the Holy Roman Emperor and Archduke of Austria), received the Spanish Netherlands, the Kingdom of Naples, Sardinia, and the bulk of the Duchy of Milan.


title: Kingdom of Sardinia

text: During the War of the Quadruple Alliance, Victor Amadeus II, Duke of Savoy and Prince of Piedmont (and now King of Sicily too), had to agree to yield Sicily to the Austrian Habsburgs and receive Sardinia in exchange. The exchange was formally ratified in the Treaty of The Hague of 17 February 1720. Because the Kingdom of Sardinia had existed since the 14th century, the exchange allowed Victor Amadeus to retain the title of king in spite of the loss of Sicily.


title: Kingdom of Sardinia

text: Victor Amadeus initially resisted the exchange, and until 1723 continued to style himself King of Sicily rather than King of Sardinia. The state took the official title of "Kingdom of Sardinia, Cyprus and Jerusalem", as the house of Savoy still claimed the thrones of Cyprus and Jerusalem, although both had long been under Ottoman rule.


title: Kingdom of Sardinia

text: In 1767–1769, Charles Emmanuel III annexed the Maddalena archipelago in the Strait of Bonifacio from the Republic of Genoa and claimed it as part of Corsica. Since then the archipelago has been a part of the Sardinian region.


title: Kingdom of Sardinia

text: In 1792, the Kingdom of Sardinia and the other states of the Savoy Crown joined the First Coalition against the French First Republic, but was beaten in 1796 by Napoleon and forced to conclude the disadvantageous Treaty of Paris (1796), giving the French army free passage through Piedmont. On 6 December 1798 Joubert occupied Turin and forced Charles Emmanuel IV to abdicate and leave for the island of Sardinia. The provisionary government voted to unite Piedmont with France. In 1799 the Austro-Russians briefly occupied the city, but with the Battle of Marengo (1800), the French regained control. The island of Sardinia stayed out of the reach of the French for the rest of the war.


title: Kingdom of Sardinia

text: In 1814, the Crown of Savoy enlarged its territories with the addition of the former Republic of Genoa, now a duchy, and it served as a buffer state against France. This was confirmed by the Congress of Vienna, which returned the region of Savoy to its borders after it had been annexed by France in 1792. By the Treaty of Stupinigi, the Kingdom of Sardinia extended its protectorate over the Principality of Monaco.


title: Kingdom of Sardinia

text: In the reaction after Napoleon, the country was ruled by conservative monarchs: Victor Emmanuel I (1802–21), Charles Felix (1821–31) and Charles Albert (1831–49), who fought at the head of a contingent of his own troops at the Battle of Trocadero, which set the reactionary Ferdinand VII on the Spanish throne. Victor Emanuel I disbanded the entire Code Napoléon and returned the lands and power to the nobility and the Church. This reactionary policy went as far as discouraging the use of roads built by the French. These changes typified Sardinia.


title: Kingdom of Sardinia

text: The Kingdom of Sardinia industrialized from 1830 onward. A constitution, the "Statuto Albertino", was enacted in the year of revolutions, 1848 under liberal pressure. In the same year the island of Sardinia, a Piedmontese dependency for more than a century, lost its own residual autonomy to the Mainland through the so-called Perfect fusion issued by Charles Albert; as a result, the Kingdom's fundamental institutions were deeply transformed, assuming the shape of a constitutional and centralized monarchy on the French model; under the same pressure, Charles Albert declared war on Austria. After initial success, the war took a turn for the worse and Charles Albert was defeated by Marshal Radetzky at the Battle of Custozza (1848).


title: Kingdom of Sardinia

text: Like all the various duchies and city-states on the Apennine peninsula and associated islands, the Kingdom of Sardinia was troubled with political instability under alternating governments. After a short and disastrous renewal of the war with Austria in 1849, Charles Albert abdicated on 23 March 1849 in favour of his son Victor Emmanuel II.


title: Kingdom of Sardinia

text: In 1852, a liberal ministry under Count Camillo Benso di Cavour was installed and the Kingdom of Sardinia became the engine driving Italian unification. The Kingdom of Sardinia took part in the Crimean War, allied with the Ottoman Empire, Britain, and France, and fighting against Russia.


title: Kingdom of Sardinia

text: In 1859, France sided with the Kingdom of Sardinia in a war against Austria, the Austro-Sardinian War. Napoleon III did not keep his promises to Cavour to fight until all of the Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia had been conquered. Following the bloody battles of Magenta and Solferino, both French victories, Napoleon thought the war too costly to continue and made a separate peace behind Cavour's back in which only Lombardy would be ceded.


title: Kingdom of Sardinia

text: Due to the Austrian government's refusal to cede any lands to the Kingdom of Sardinia, they agreed to cede Lombardy to Napoleon, who in turn then ceded the territory to the Kingdom of Sardinia to avoid "embarrassing" the defeated Austrians. Cavour angrily resigned from office when it became clear that Victor Emmanuel would accept this arrangement.


title: Kingdom of Sardinia

text: On 5 March 1860, Piacenza, Parma, Tuscany, Modena, and Romagna voted in referendums to join the Kingdom of Sardinia. This alarmed Napoleon, who feared a strong Savoyard state on his south-eastern border and he insisted that if the Kingdom of Sardinia were to keep the new acquisitions they would have to cede Savoy and Nice to France. This was done after somewhat controversial referendums showed over 99.5% majorities in both areas in favour of joining France.


title: Kingdom of Sardinia

text: In 1860, Giuseppe Garibaldi started his campaign to conquer the southern Apennines in the name of the Kingdom of Sardinia. He quickly toppled the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, which was the largest of the states in the region, stretching from Abruzzo and Naples on the mainland to Messina and Palermo on Sicily. He then marched to Gaeta in the central peninsula. Cavour was satisfied with the unification, while Garibaldi, who was too revolutionary for the king and his prime minister, wanted to conquer Rome as well.


title: Kingdom of Sardinia

text: Garibaldi was disappointed in this development, as well as in the loss of his home province, Nice, to France. He also failed to fulfill the promises that had gained him popular and military support by the Sicilians: that the new nation would be a republic, not a kingdom, and that the Sicilians would see great economic gains after unification. The former did not come to pass until 1946.


title: Kingdom of Sardinia

text: On 17 March 1861, law no. 4671 of the Sardinian Parliament proclaimed the Kingdom of Italy, so ratifying the annexations of all other Apennine states, plus Sicily, to the Kingdom of Sardinia. The institutions and laws of the Kingdom were quickly extended to all of Italy, abolishing the administrations of the other regions. Piedmont became the most dominant and wealthiest region in Italy and the capital of Piedmont, Turin, remained the Italian capital until 1865, when the capital was moved to Florence. But many revolts exploded throughout the peninsula, especially in southern Italy, and on the island of Sicily, because of the perceived unfair treatment of the south by the Piedmontese ruling class. The House of Savoy ruled Italy until 1946, when Italy was declared a republic by referendum. The result was 54.3% in favor of the Republic.


title: Kingdom of Sardinia

text: The currency in use in Savoy was the Piedmontese scudo. During the Napoleonic era, it was replaced in general circulation by the French franc. In 1816, after regaining their mainland domains, the scudo was replaced by the Sardinian lira, which in 1821 also replaced the Sardinian scudo, the coins that had been in use on the island throughout the period.


title: Kingdom of Sardinia

text: When the Duchy of Savoy acquired the Kingdom of Sicily in 1713 and the Kingdom of Sardinia in 1723, the flag of Savoy became the flag of a naval power. This posed the problem that the same flag was already in use by the Knights of Malta. Because of this, the Savoyards modified their flag for use as a naval ensign in various ways, adding the letters FERT in the four cantons, or adding a blue border, or using a blue flag with the Savoy cross in one canton.


title: Kingdom of Sardinia

text: Eventually, King Charles Albert of Savoy adopted the "revolutionary" Italian tricolor, surmounted by the Savoyard shield, as his flag. This flag would later become the flag of the Kingdom of Italy, and the tricolor without the Savoyard escutcheon remains the flag of Italy.


title: Reconstruction era

text: The Reconstruction era was a period in American history following the American Civil War (1861–1865) and lasting until approximately the Compromise of 1877. During Reconstruction, attempts were made to rebuild the country after the bloody Civil War, bring the former Confederate states back into the United States, and to redress the political, social, and economic legacies of slavery.


title: Reconstruction era

text: During the era, Congress abolished slavery, ended the remnants of Confederate secession in the South, and passed the 13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments to the Constitution (the Reconstruction Amendments) ostensibly guaranteeing the newly freed slaves (freedmen) the same civil rights as those of whites. Following a year of violent attacks against Blacks in the South, in 1866 Congress federalized the protection of civil rights, and placed formerly secessionist states under the control of the U.S. military, requiring ex-Confederate states to adopt guarantees for the civil rights of freedmen before they could be readmitted to the Union. In nearly all ex-Confederate states, Republican coalitions set out to transform Southern society. The Freedmen's Bureau and the U.S. Army both aimed to implement a post-slavery free labor economy, protect the legal rights of freedmen, negotiate labor contracts, and helped establish networks of schools and churches. Thousands of Northerners ("Carpetbaggers") came to the South to serve in the social and economic programs of Reconstruction.


title: Reconstruction era

text: Fighting against suffrage and full rights for freedmen, and in favor of giving the returning Southern states relatively free rein over former slaves, were the white "Redeemers"; Southern Bourbon Democrats; Vice President Andrew Johnson, a Southerner who assumed the presidency after the assassination of President Abraham Lincoln; and especially the Ku Klux Klan, which intimidated, terrorized, and murdered freedmen and Republicans, including Arkansas Congressman James M. Hinds, throughout the former Confederacy.


title: Reconstruction era

text: Republican President Ulysses S. Grant (1869–1877) succeeded Johnson and supported congressional Reconstruction and the protection of African Americans in the South, but eventually support for Reconstruction declined in the North with "Liberal Republicans" joining Democrats in calling for a withdrawal of the Army from the South. In 1877, as part of a congressional compromise to elect a Republican as president after a disputed election, federal troops were withdrawn from the three Southern states where they remained.


title: Reconstruction era

text: Among the many "shortcomings and failures" of Reconstruction were the failure to protect freed blacks from Ku Klux Klan violence prior to 1871, starvation, disease and death, brutal treatment of Union soldiers, and the offering of reparations to former slaveowners but not to former slaves. However, Reconstruction did succeed in restoring the federal Union, limiting reprisals against the South directly after the war, establishing the constitutional rights to national birthright citizenship, due process, equal protection of the laws, and male suffrage regardless of race, and a framework for eventual legal equality for Black people.


title: Reconstruction era

text: In different states, Reconstruction began and ended at different times. Generally, scholars periodize federal Reconstruction as starting in the 1860s and ending in the late 19th century. The most conventional starting date is 1865, the year the Civil War ended. However, in his landmark monograph "Reconstruction", historian Eric Foner dates the beginning of the Reconstruction of the South to 1863, starting with the Emancipation Proclamation, Port Royal Experiment, and the earnest debate of Reconstruction policies during the Civil War. Some other historians follow this 1863 periodization. 1861 has also been given as a starting date, interpreting Reconstruction as beginning "as soon as the Union captured territory in the Confederacy" and had early discourse about and experimentation with Reconstruction policies. The conventional ending for Reconstruction is 1877, when the federal government withdrew the last troops stationed in the South as part of the Compromise of 1877. However, some scholars offer later dates, such as 1890, when Republicans failed to pass the Federal Elections Bill and secure black voters' rights.


title: Reconstruction era

text: As Confederate states came under control of the U.S. Army, President Abraham Lincoln set up reconstructed governments in Tennessee, Arkansas, and Louisiana during the war. A restored government of Virginia operated starting 1861 in parts of the state and also acted to create the new state of West Virginia. Lincoln experimented by giving land to black people in South Carolina. By fall 1865, new President Andrew Johnson declared the war goals of national unity and the ending of slavery achieved and Reconstruction completed. Republicans in Congress, refusing to accept Johnson's lenient terms, rejected and refused to seat new members of Congress, some of whom had been high-ranking Confederate officials a few months before. Johnson broke with the Republicans after vetoing two key bills that supported the Freedmen's Bureau and provided federal civil rights to the freedmen. The 1866 Congressional elections turned on the issue of Reconstruction, producing a sweeping Republican victory in the North and providing the Radical Republicans with sufficient control of Congress to override Johnson's vetoes and commence their own "Radical Reconstruction" in 1867. That same year, Congress removed civilian governments in the South and placed the former Confederacy under the rule of the U.S. Army (except in Tennessee, where anti-Johnson Republicans were already in control). The Army conducted new elections in which the freed slaves could vote, while Whites who had held leading positions under the Confederacy were temporarily denied the vote and were not permitted to run for office.


title: Reconstruction era

text: In 10 states, coalitions of freedmen, recent Black and White arrivals from the North, and White Southerners who supported Reconstruction cooperated to form Republican, biracial state governments. They introduced various Reconstruction programs including funding public schools, establishing charitable institutions, raising taxes, and funding public improvements such as improved railroad transportation and shipping.


title: Reconstruction era

text: In the 1860s and 1870s, the terms "Radical" and "conservative" had distinct meanings. "Conservative," used in a relativistic sense in regards to the context of the time period, was the name of a faction, often led by the planter class. Conservative opponents called the Republican regimes corrupt and instigated violence toward freedmen and Whites who supported Reconstruction. Most of the violence was carried out by members of the Ku Klux Klan (KKK), a secretive terrorist organization closely allied with the Southern Democratic Party. Klan members attacked and intimidated black people seeking to exercise their new civil rights, as well as Republican politicians in the South favoring those civil rights. One such politician murdered by the Klan on the eve of the 1868 presidential election was Republican Congressman James M. Hinds of Arkansas. Widespread violence in the South led to federal intervention by President Ulysses S. Grant in 1871, which suppressed the Klan. Nevertheless, White Democrats, calling themselves "Redeemers", regained control of the South state by state, sometimes using fraud and violence to control state elections. A deep national economic depression, which followed the Panic of 1873, led to major Democratic gains in the North, the collapse of many railroad schemes in the South, and a growing sense of frustration in the North.


title: Reconstruction era

text: The end of Reconstruction was a staggered process, and the period of Republican control ended at different times in different states. With the Compromise of 1877, military intervention in Southern politics ceased, and Republican control collapsed in the last three state governments in the South. This was followed by a period which White Southerners labeled "Redemption", during which White-dominated state legislatures enacted Jim Crow laws, disenfranchising most Black people and many poor Whites through a combination of constitutional amendments and election laws beginning in 1890. The White Southern Democrats' memory of Reconstruction played a major role in imposing the system of White supremacy and second-class citizenship for Black people using laws known as Jim Crow laws.


title: Reconstruction era

text: Reconstruction addressed how the 11 seceding rebel states in the South would regain what the Constitution calls a "republican form of government" and be re-seated in Congress, the civil status of the former leaders of the Confederacy, and the constitutional and legal status of freedmen, especially their civil rights and whether they should be given the right to vote. Intense controversy erupted throughout the South over these issues.


title: Reconstruction era

text: Passage of the 13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments is the constitutional legacy of Reconstruction. These Reconstruction Amendments established the rights that led to Supreme Court rulings in the mid-20th century that struck down school segregation. A "Second Reconstruction", sparked by the civil rights movement, led to civil-rights laws in 1964 and 1965 that ended legal segregation and re-opened the polls to Blacks.


title: Reconstruction era

text: The laws and constitutional amendments that laid the foundation for the most radical phase of Reconstruction were adopted from 1866 to 1871. By the 1870s, Reconstruction had officially provided freedmen with equal rights under the Constitution, and Blacks were voting and taking political office. Republican legislatures, coalitions of Whites and Blacks, established the first public school systems and numerous charitable institutions in the South. White paramilitary organizations, especially the Ku Klux Klan (KKK) as well as the White League and Red Shirts, formed with the political aim of driving out the Republicans. They also disrupted political organizing and terrorized Blacks to bar them from the polls. President Grant used federal power to effectively shut down the KKK in the early 1870s, though the other, smaller groups continued to operate. From 1873 to 1877, classically liberal, pro-civil service reform whites (calling themselves "Redeemers") regained power in the Southern states. They constituted the Bourbon wing of the national Democratic Party.


title: Reconstruction era

text: In the 1860s and 1870s, leaders who had been Whigs were committed to economic modernization, built around railroads, factories, banks, and cities. Most of the "Radical" Republicans in the North were men who believed in integrating African Americans by providing them civil rights as citizens, along with free enterprise; most were also modernizers and former Whigs. The "Liberal Republicans" of 1872 shared the same outlook except that they were especially opposed to the corruption they saw around President Grant, and believed that the goals of the Civil War had been achieved, and that the federal military intervention could now end.


title: Reconstruction era

text: Reconstruction played out against an economy in ruins. The Confederacy in 1861 had 297 towns and cities, with a total population of 835,000 people; of these, 162, with 681,000 people, were at some point occupied by Union forces. 11 were destroyed or severely damaged by war action, including Atlanta (with an 1860 population of 9,600), Charleston, Columbia, and Richmond (with prewar populations of 40,500, 8,100, and 37,900, respectively); the 11 contained 115,900 people according to the 1860 Census, or 14% of the urban South. The number of people who lived in the destroyed towns represented just over 1% of the Confederacy's combined urban and rural populations. The rate of damage in smaller towns was much lower—only 45 courthouses were burned out of a total of 830.


title: Reconstruction era

text: Farms were in disrepair, and the prewar stock of horses, mules, and cattle was much depleted; 40% of the South's livestock had been killed. The South's farms were not highly mechanized, but the value of farm implements and machinery according to the 1860 Census was $81 million and was reduced by 40% by 1870. The transportation infrastructure lay in ruins, with little railroad or riverboat service available to move crops and animals to market. Railroad mileage was located mostly in rural areas; over two-thirds of the South's rails, bridges, rail yards, repair shops, and rolling stock were in areas reached by Union armies, which systematically destroyed what they could. Even in untouched areas, the lack of maintenance and repair, the absence of new equipment, the heavy over-use, and the deliberate relocation of equipment by the Confederates from remote areas to the war zone ensured the system would be ruined at war's end. Restoring the infrastructure—especially the railroad system—became a high priority for Reconstruction state governments.


title: Reconstruction era

text: The enormous cost of the Confederate war effort took a high toll on the South's economic infrastructure. The direct costs to the Confederacy in human capital, government expenditures, and physical destruction from the war totaled $3.3 billion. By early 1865, high inflation made the Confederate dollar worth little. When the war ended, Confederate currency and bank deposits were worth zero, making the banking system a near-total loss. People had to resort to bartering services for goods, or else try to obtain scarce Union dollars. With the emancipation of the Southern slaves, the entire economy of the South had to be rebuilt. Having lost their enormous investment in slaves, White plantation owners had minimal capital to pay freedmen workers to bring in crops. As a result, a system of sharecropping was developed, in which landowners broke up large plantations and rented small lots to the freedmen and their families. The main feature of the Southern economy changed from an elite minority of landed gentry slaveholders into a tenant farming agriculture system.


title: Reconstruction era

text: The end of the Civil War was accompanied by a large migration of new freed people to the cities. In the cities, Black people were relegated to the lowest paying jobs such as unskilled and service labor. Men worked as rail workers, rolling and lumber mills workers, and hotel workers. The large population of slave artisans during the antebellum period had not been translated into a large number of freedmen artisans during Reconstruction. Black women were largely confined to domestic work employed as cooks, maids, and child nurses. Others worked in hotels. A large number became laundresses. The dislocations had a severe negative impact on the Black population, with a large amount of sickness and death.


title: Reconstruction era

text: Over a quarter of Southern White men of military age—the backbone of the South's White workforce—died during the war, leaving countless families destitute. Per capita income for White Southerners declined from $125 in 1857 to a low of $80 in 1879. By the end of the 19th century and well into the 20th century, the South was locked into a system of poverty. How much of this failure was caused by the war and by previous reliance on agriculture remains the subject of debate among economists and historians.


title: Reconstruction era

text: During the Civil War, the Radical Republican leaders argued that slavery and the Slave Power had to be permanently destroyed. Moderates said this could be easily accomplished as soon as the Confederate States Army surrendered and the Southern states repealed secession and accepted the Thirteenth Amendment–most of which happened by December 1865.


title: Reconstruction era

text: President Lincoln was the leader of the moderate Republicans and wanted to speed up Reconstruction and reunite the nation painlessly and quickly. Lincoln formally began Reconstruction on December 8, 1863, with his ten percent plan, which went into operation in several states but which Radical Republicans opposed.


title: Reconstruction era

text: Lincoln broke with the Radicals in 1864. The Wade–Davis Bill of 1864 passed in Congress by the Radicals was designed to permanently disfranchise the Confederate element in the South. The bill asked the government to grant African American men the right to vote and that anyone who willingly gave weapons to the fight against the United States should be denied the right to vote. The bill required voters, fifty percent of white males, to take the "ironclad oath" swearing that they had never supported the Confederacy or been one of its soldiers. This oath also entailed having them to swear a loyalty to the Constitution and the Union before they could have state constitutional meetings. Lincoln blocked it. Pursuing a policy of "malice toward none" announced in his second inaugural address, Lincoln asked voters only to support the Union in the future, regardless of the past. Lincoln pocket vetoed the Wade–Davis Bill, which was much more strict than the ten percent plan.


title: Reconstruction era

text: Following Lincoln's veto, the Radicals lost support but regained strength after Lincoln's assassination in April 1865.


title: Reconstruction era

text: On January 16, 1865, General William Tecumseh Sherman issued Special Field Orders No. 15. It gave back about 400,000 confiscated acres of land in Georgia and South Carolina in plots of forty acres each to recently freed African American families and white southern Unionists.


title: Reconstruction era

text: The war ended when General Robert E. Lee surrendered his Army of Northern Virginia to the Union Army, and six days later President Abraham Lincoln was shot.


title: Reconstruction era

text: Upon Lincoln's assassination in April 1865, vice president Andrew Johnson became president. Radicals considered Johnson to be an ally, but upon becoming president, he rejected the Radical program of Reconstruction. He was on good terms with ex-Confederates in the South and ex-Copperheads in the North. He appointed his own governors and tried to close the Reconstruction process by the end of 1865. Thaddeus Stevens vehemently opposed Johnson's plans for an abrupt end to Reconstruction, insisting that Reconstruction must "revolutionize Southern institutions, habits, and manners ... The foundations of their institutions ... must be broken up and relaid, or all our blood and treasure have been spent in vain." Johnson broke decisively with the Republicans in Congress when he vetoed the Civil Rights Act on March 27, 1866. While Democrats celebrated, the Republicans rallied, passed the bill again, and overrode Johnson's repeat veto. Full-scale political warfare now existed between Johnson (now allied with the Democrats) and the Radical Republicans.


title: Reconstruction era

text: Since the war had ended, Congress rejected Johnson's argument that he had the war power to decide what to do. Congress decided it had the primary authority to decide how Reconstruction should proceed, because the Constitution stated the United States had to guarantee each state a republican form of government. The Radicals insisted that meant Congress decided how Reconstruction should be achieved. The issues were multiple: Who should decide, Congress or the president? How should republicanism operate in the South? What was the status of the former Confederate states? What was the citizenship status of the leaders of the Confederacy? What was the citizenship and suffrage status of freedmen?


title: Reconstruction era

text: After the war ended President Andrew Johnson gave back most of the land to the former white slave owners.


title: Reconstruction era

text: By 1866, the faction of Radical Republicans led by Congressman Thaddeus Stevens and Senator Charles Sumner was convinced that Johnson's Southern appointees were disloyal to the Union, hostile to loyal Unionists, and enemies of the Freedmen. Radicals used as evidence outbreaks of mob violence against Black people, such as the Memphis riots of 1866 and the New Orleans massacre of 1866. Radical Republicans demanded a prompt and strong federal response to protect freedmen and curb Southern racism.


title: Reconstruction era

text: Stevens and his followers viewed secession as having left the states in a status like new territories. Sumner argued that secession had destroyed statehood but the Constitution still extended its authority and its protection over individuals, as in existing U.S. territories. The Republicans sought to prevent Johnson's Southern politicians from "restoring the historical subordination of Negroes". Since slavery was abolished, the Three-fifths Compromise no longer applied to counting the population of Blacks. After the 1870 Census, the South would gain numerous additional representatives in Congress, based on the full population of freedmen. One Illinois Republican expressed a common fear that if the South were allowed to simply restore its previous established powers, that the "reward of treason will be an increased representation".


title: Reconstruction era

text: The election of 1866 decisively changed the balance of power, giving the Republicans two-thirds majorities in both houses of Congress, and enough votes to overcome Johnson's vetoes. They moved to impeach Johnson because of his constant attempts to thwart Radical Reconstruction measures, by using the "Tenure of Office Act". Johnson was acquitted by one vote, but he lost the influence to shape Reconstruction policy. The Republican Congress established military districts in the South and used Army personnel to administer the region until new governments loyal to the Union—that accepted the Fourteenth Amendment and the right of freedmen to vote—could be established. Congress temporarily suspended the ability to vote of approximately 10,000 to 15,000 former Confederate officials and senior officers, while constitutional amendments gave full citizenship to all African Americans, and suffrage to the adult men.


title: Reconstruction era

text: With the power to vote, freedmen began participating in politics. While many enslaved people were illiterate, educated Blacks (including fugitive slaves) moved down from the North to aid them, and natural leaders also stepped forward. They elected White and Black men to represent them in constitutional conventions. A Republican coalition of freedmen, Southerners supportive of the Union (derisively called "scalawags" by White Democrats), and Northerners who had migrated to the South (derisively called "carpetbaggers")—some of whom were returning natives, but were mostly Union veterans—organized to create constitutional conventions. They created new state constitutions to set new directions for Southern states.


title: Reconstruction era

text: Congress had to consider how to restore to full status and representation within the Union those Southern states that had declared their independence from the United States and had withdrawn their representation. Suffrage for former Confederates was one of two main concerns. A decision needed to be made whether to allow just some or all former Confederates to vote (and to hold office). The moderates in Congress wanted virtually all of them to vote, but the Radicals resisted. They repeatedly imposed the ironclad oath, which would effectively have allowed no former Confederates to vote. Historian Harold Hyman says that in 1866 congressmen "described the oath as the last bulwark against the return of ex-rebels to power, the barrier behind which Southern Unionists and Negroes protected themselves".


title: Reconstruction era

text: Radical Republican leader Thaddeus Stevens proposed, unsuccessfully, that all former Confederates lose the right to vote for five years. The compromise that was reached disenfranchised many Confederate civil and military leaders. No one knows how many temporarily lost the vote, but one estimate placed the number as high as 10,000 to 15,000. However, Radical politicians took up the task at the state level. In Tennessee alone, over 80,000 former Confederates were disenfranchised.


title: Reconstruction era

text: Second, and closely related, was the issue of whether the 4 million freedmen were to be received as citizens: Would they be able to vote? If they were to be fully counted as citizens, some sort of representation for apportionment of seats in Congress had to be determined. Before the war, the population of slaves had been counted as three-fifths of a corresponding number of free Whites. By having 4 million freedmen counted as full citizens, the South would gain additional seats in Congress. If Blacks were denied the vote and the right to hold office, then only Whites would represent them. Many, including most white Southerners, Northern Democrats, and some Northern Republicans, opposed black voting. The small fraction of Republican voters opposed to black suffrage contributed to the defeats of several suffrage measures voted on in most Northern states. Some Northern states that had referendums on the subject limited the ability of their own small populations of Blacks to vote.


title: Reconstruction era

text: Lincoln had supported a middle position: to allow some Black men to vote, especially U.S. Army veterans. Johnson also believed that such service should be rewarded with citizenship. Lincoln proposed giving the vote to "the very intelligent, and especially those who have fought gallantly in our ranks". In 1864, Governor Johnson said: "The better class of them will go to work and sustain themselves, and that class ought to be allowed to vote, on the ground that a loyal Negro is more worthy than a disloyal white man."


title: Reconstruction era

text: As president in 1865, Johnson wrote to the man he appointed as governor of Mississippi, recommending: "If you could extend the elective franchise to all persons of color who can read the Constitution in English and write their names, and to all persons of color who own real estate valued at least two hundred and fifty dollars, and pay taxes thereon, you would completely disarm the adversary [Radicals in Congress], and set an example the other states will follow."


title: Reconstruction era

text: Charles Sumner and Thaddeus Stevens, leaders of the Radical Republicans, were initially hesitant to enfranchise the largely illiterate freedmen. Sumner preferred at first impartial requirements that would have imposed literacy restrictions on Blacks and Whites. He believed that he would not succeed in passing legislation to disenfranchise illiterate Whites who already had the vote.


title: Reconstruction era

text: In the South, many poor Whites were illiterate as there was almost no public education before the war. In 1880, for example, the White illiteracy rate was about 25% in Tennessee, Kentucky, Alabama, South Carolina, and Georgia, and as high as 33% in North Carolina. This compares with the 9% national rate, and a Black rate of illiteracy that was over 70% in the South. By 1900, however, with emphasis within the Black community on education, the majority of Blacks had achieved literacy.


title: Reconstruction era

text: Sumner soon concluded that "there was no substantial protection for the freedman except in the franchise". This was necessary, he stated, "(1) For his own protection; (2) For the protection of the white Unionist; and (3) For the peace of the country. We put the musket in his hands because it was necessary; for the same reason we must give him the franchise." The support for voting rights was a compromise between moderate and Radical Republicans.