title: Californication (TV series)

text: The story picks up 72 hours after Hank is arrested at the end of season three, and revolves around Hank's thoroughly destroyed life. His secrets have come to light; the world knows that he penned "Fucking & Punching," and that he slept with the underage Mia. Karen is disgusted and Becca is disappointed, so Hank goes to live at a hotel. Season four follows his new legal troubles, such as his lawyer's attempts to get him acquitted of statutory rape charges, plus the development of a film adaptation of "Fucking & Punching" and his sexual involvement with Sasha and Abby. Other developing storylines include Charlie learning his vasectomy may have been botched, Marcy moving in with a movie producer and learning she is pregnant by Charlie, Becca joining an all-female rock band, and Karen finding a new boyfriend.


title: Californication (TV series)

text: On January 11, 2011, the season-four soundtrack was released. Exclusive tracks include Tommy Lee's solo version of "Home Sweet Home" and three rock covers from the show's on-screen band Queens of Dogtown. Other artists on the soundtrack are Shooter Jennings and Hierophant, Eagles of Death Metal, Better Than Ezra, My Life with the Thrill Kill Kult, Monster Magnet vs. Adrian Young, Cracker, The Soundtrack of Our Lives, Warren Zevon, and Gregory Alan Isakov. The soundtrack was co-produced by Nora Felder and Budd Carr, the show's music supervisors.


title: Californication (TV series)

text: The show returned to Showtime for its fifth season in January 2012. Creator Tom Kapinos stated the show needed to take a completely new direction to stay fresh. The narrative takes place 2 years and 9 months after season four, almost at the end of Hank's probation. Hank has since made New York his home, but he returns to Los Angeles for a short, business-related visit. His family issues end up extending it. Karen is married to Professor Bates, 19-year-old Becca is in college and has a new boyfriend, and Marcy is married to Stu Beggs, sharing the custody of her son Stuart with Charlie. Hank meets with rapper-turned-actor Samurai Apocalypse (RZA), who wants Hank to write a screenplay for a movie starring Samurai. Hank originally turns down the job, but eventually ends up writing "Santa Monica Cop" because he needs the money. Hank has a hard time working with Samurai, and their strained relationship leads to some unpleasant situations. Hank is disgusted with Hollywood after his book "God Hates Us All" was adapted into a movie that he hated, so is not thrilled with the prospect of working on another movie.


title: Californication (TV series)

text: Season 6 started on January 13, 2013. Its storyline revolves around Hank's relationship with Faith (played by Maggie Grace), whom he meets in a rehabilitation facility, in parallel with Hank's artistic participation in the music industry. Initially, Hank reluctantly agrees to rehab, not because of a drug dependency, but rather because of depression over his role in ex-girlfriend Carrie's suicide at the end of season five. After being dumped by him, Carrie, emotionally devastated, drugs Hank and herself, but Hank is the only one who awakes, making him lose control over his alcoholism for feeling deeply guilty. At this point, Hank's family and best friends intervene, sending him to rehab.


title: Californication (TV series)

text: Faith is a famous rockstar groupie/muse who is in rehab dealing with the recent death of a rockstar with whom she was involved, ultimately becoming Hank's muse. Faith and Hank seem to be made for each other, as they take off in a bus to follow a tour of Atticus Fetch (played by Tim Minchin), a rockstar who recruits Hank to write for him during the season, but in the end, Hank is too weak to move on from Karen, and though their relationship apparently has run its course, he leaves Faith and goes back to see Karen.


title: Californication (TV series)

text: Production for the seventh season began in 2013. In December 2013, Showtime announced that "Californication" would end its run after the seventh season. Mary Lynn Rajskub plays a neurotic writer, whom Charlie Runkle takes on as a client. Michael Imperioli plays Rath, a television producer for whom Hank begins to work.


title: Californication (TV series)

text: On June 4, 2013, actress Mercedes Masohn announced that she would have a guest role as Amy Taylor Walsh, a TV star whose plea for Hank's help ends up putting him in an uncomfortable, compromising position. Amy apparently has ties to a season-four character, Sasha Bingham. Roger Howarth plays Karen's yoga teacher.


title: Californication (TV series)

text: Oliver Cooper plays Levon, Hank's son from a previous relationship; Heather Graham plays Julia, Levon's mother. Comedian Jim Florentine plays a pimp, and Rob Lowe reprises his role as movie star Eddie Nero.


title: Californication (TV series)

text: The critical reaction for the first season of "Californication" has been generally favorable, with a rating of 70 on Metacritic. American critic Nathan Rabin, though, gave that season an "F" rating on "The A.V. Club", calling it "insufferable".


title: Californication (TV series)

text: The show and the lead actor, David Duchovny, were both nominated for Golden Globes in 2007; Duchovny won the lead actor award, but the award for best TV series in this category went to "Extras".


title: Californication (TV series)

text: The Red Hot Chili Peppers filed a lawsuit on November 19, 2007, against Showtime Networks over the name of the series, which is also the name of the band's 1999 album and hit single. They state in the lawsuit that the series "constitutes a false designation of origin, and has caused and continues to cause a likelihood of confusion, mistake, and deception as to source, sponsorship, affiliation, and/or connection in the minds of the public". Pointing to Dani California, a character who appears in both the series and three songs by the Red Hot Chili Peppers (including "Californication") as well as confusion when shopping for their album and that of the series soundtrack, the lawsuit asks for unspecified damages, and requests that a new name be found for the show.


title: Californication (TV series)

text: Showtime Networks argued that the band did not in fact create the term Californication. They point out that the term appeared in print in "Time" magazine in 1972, in an article called "The Great Wild Californicated West", while show producer Tom Kapino cites the inspiration as coming from a bumper sticker he saw in the '70s that read "Don't Californicate Oregon". Canadian art-rock band the Rheostatics released an album called "Whale Music" in 1992, with a song called "California Dreamline". In this song, the word Californication appears in the phrase "Californication, spooning in the dry sand".


title: Californication (TV series)

text: Kim Walker, head of intellectual property at Pinsent Masons, states that the band should have registered Californication as a trademark. Instead, the only application for such was filed in April 2007 in the US, by Showtime. The mark has not yet been registered. Walker has also stated:


title: Californication (TV series)

text: In the United States, character names and titles of works are only subject to trademark protection, not copyright protection.


title: Californication (TV series)

text: According to an article on Hollywood news site "TheWrap" in 2011, the lawsuit was settled out of court.


title: Californication (TV series)

text: The season-two (December 14, 2008) finale drew 615,000 viewers, with a combined total of 937,000 for the evening, retaining less than 50% of its lead-in from the season-three finale of "Dexter". Season three steadily gained viewership, and the show was quickly picked up for a fourth season by Showtime.


title: Lyle, Lyle, Crocodile (film)

text: Lyle, Lyle, Crocodile is a 2022 American musical comedy film directed by Will Speck and Josh Gordon from a screenplay by William Davies. Co-produced by Columbia Pictures, Eagle Pictures, and TSG Entertainment II, and distributed by Sony Pictures Releasing, it is an adaptation of the children's story of the same name and its prequel "The House on East 88th Street" by Bernard Waber. The film stars Shawn Mendes as the titular character alongside Javier Bardem, Constance Wu, Winslow Fegley, Scoot McNairy, and Brett Gelman.


title: Lyle, Lyle, Crocodile (film)

text: "Lyle, Lyle, Crocodile" premiered at AMC Lincoln Square 13 in New York City on October 2, 2022, and was released in the United States on October 7th by Columbia Pictures. The film received generally positive reviews from critics with praise for the visuals, Bardem's acting, and Shawn Mendes' singing performance as Lyle, and has grossed $87 million worldwide against a $50 million budget.


title: Lyle, Lyle, Crocodile (film)

text: In New York City, a charismatic magician named Hector P. Valenti wants to try out on a national talent show but is constantly rejected. One day after a failed audition, he wanders into an exotic pet store, where he finds a singing baby crocodile and names him Lyle. Seeing Lyle as an opportunity to become rich in the talent business, he places his three-story Victorian brownstone home as collateral for their performance, but Lyle experiences stage fright during the premiere and Hector loses the home. Hector is forced to move out and reluctantly leaves Lyle to fend for himself while he tries to make more money.


title: Lyle, Lyle, Crocodile (film)

text: Eighteen months later, Mr. and Mrs. Primm and their young son Josh move into the house. Josh is initially terrified of moving into his new home and struggles to make friends at school. One night, he discovers Lyle, now fully grown, living in the attic, and they become friends when Lyle saves Josh from a mugger and demonstrates his singing talent. Josh's stepmother and father eventually find out about Lyle, and though initially terrified of him, bond with Lyle over their favorite hobbies. One day, Hector returns to the house to visit Lyle, as an agreement states he can live in the house fifteen days a year. He makes another attempt to get Lyle to perform on stage, but it fails as Lyle still has stage fright, apart from when performing for the Primms.


title: Lyle, Lyle, Crocodile (film)

text: Meanwhile, Alistair Grumps, the Primms' unfriendly downstairs neighbor, becomes annoyed by the loud activity caused by Lyle, Hector, and the Primms. Determined to put an end to it, he has cameras installed to discover what is happening, but manages to achieve his goal by bribing Hector to sell out Lyle in exchange for money to pay his debts. Lyle cannot convince the authorities of his benevolent nature because of his stage fright and is locked up at the zoo. Feeling guilty for what he did to Lyle, Hector goes to break him out of the zoo with Josh's help, who was initially unwilling to help after learning Hector sold Lyle out. On Josh's insistence, Hector and Lyle reconcile with each other before Lyle escapes with Josh to the talent show, while Hector distracts the authorities. On stage, Lyle manages to overcome his stage fright with help from Josh, receiving acclaim from the audience and viewers for his singing talent.


title: Lyle, Lyle, Crocodile (film)

text: One month later, a trial is held to determine whether or not Lyle may be free. The judge ultimately decides to rule over Grumps in favor of Lyle when Hector reveals that the deed to his house was written out to his grandmother, that was hidden away under Grumps' bed, who built the house and founded the New York City Zoo where Lyle was previously kept, allowing her to keep exotic animals as pets. After the trial, the Primms celebrate Lyle's freedom, and Grumps' implied eviction, by taking him on vacation, while Hector becomes acquainted with a new talented animal: a beatboxing rattlesnake named Malfoy, owned by Josh's friend, Trudy.


title: Lyle, Lyle, Crocodile (film)

text: "Lyle, Lyle, Crocodile" is a feature film adaptation of both the children's story of the same name and its prequel "The House on East 88th Street", both of which were written by Bernard Waber. Both books were previously adapted as a 1987 animated HBO special titled "Lyle, Lyle Crocodile: The Musical – The House on East 88th Street", which was also a musical. It was announced in May 2021 with filmmaking duo Will Speck and Josh Gordon attached to direct from a screenplay by William Davies for Sony Pictures. Filming took place in New York City in September 2021. Notable filming locations include 85th Street, 86th Street, Astor Place and Bowery station, and Broadway, between 45th Street and 46th Street. Visual effects were handled by Framestore, Method, OPSIS, and Day for Nite.


title: Lyle, Lyle, Crocodile (film)

text: Original songs for the film were written by its executive producers Benj Pasek and Justin Paul along with Ari Afsar, Emily Gardner Xu Hall, Mark Sonnenblick, and Joriah Kwamé while Matthew Margeson composed the original score. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the songwriters collaborated remotely using Google Docs and Zoom. Shawn Mendes, who voices the titular crocodile, features on eight of the soundtrack album's tracks, which also contains songs by Elton John and Stevie Wonder. "Heartbeat" was released as the soundtrack's first single on September 23, 2022, and the soundtrack was released by Island Records on September 30. The score album was released by Madison Gate Records on October 7.


title: Lyle, Lyle, Crocodile (film)

text: The film was released in theaters in the United States by Sony Pictures Releasing on October 7, 2022. It was originally going to be released on July 22, 2022, but in September 2021, the film was postponed to November 18, 2022. In April 2022, the film was brought forward to its October 7 date, taking over the release date of "".


title: Lyle, Lyle, Crocodile (film)

text: The film was released on VOD on November 22, 2022, and on Blu-ray, DVD, and 4K UHD in December 13, 2022.


title: Lyle, Lyle, Crocodile (film)

text: , "Lyle, Lyle, Crocodile" has grossed $46.5 million in the United States and Canada, and $41.4 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $87.9 million, against a production budget of $50 million.


title: Lyle, Lyle, Crocodile (film)

text: In the United States and Canada, "Lyle, Lyle, Crocodile" was released alongside "Amsterdam", and was projected to gross $11–12 million from 4,350 theaters in its opening weekend. The film made $3.5 million on its first day, including $575,000 from Thursday night previews. It went on to debut to $11.5 million, finishing second behind holdover "Smile". The film made $7.4 million in its second weekend, dropping 35% and finishing in third. "Lyle, Lyle Crocodile" then made $4.3 million in its third weekend, declining 42% and finished in fifth place.


title: Lyle, Lyle, Crocodile (film)

text: Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A-" on an A+ to F scale, while those at PostTrak gave it an 80% overall positive score, with 62% saying they would definitely recommend it.


title: Lyle, Lyle, Crocodile (film)

text: Abby Olcese gave the film a score of two out of four stars, noting its inspiration by the Paddington films, and concluding the film: "good enough that it may well have staying power at sleepovers and family movie nights for years to come." Nell Minow, writing for "RogerEbert.com", was more positive in her review of the film, giving it a score of 3 out of 4 stars. She wrote: "it's not quite up to the “Paddington” level of movie adaptations of classic children's books. But it is a warm-hearted family film with great musical numbers that will make another generation of kids hopefully search the attic on the chance that they might find a singing crocodile." Cath Clarke of "The Guardian" gave the film a mixed review and wrote: "Its heart is there and it's family fun." Ryan Leston "/Film" called the film "charming and entertaining", praising the character of Hector.


title: James Remar

text: William James Remar (born December 31, 1953) is an American actor. He has played numerous roles over a 40 year career, most notably Ajax in "The Warriors" (1979), Albert Ganz in "48 Hrs." (1982), Dutch Schultz in "The Cotton Club" (1984), Jack Duff in "Miracle on 34th Street" (1994), Richard Wright in "Sex and the City" (2001–2004), and Harry Morgan, the father of the title character, in "Dexter" (2006–2013). Since 2009 he has done voice-over work in ads for Lexus luxury cars. Remar studied acting at the Neighborhood Playhouse School of the Theatre in New York City.


title: James Remar

text: Remar's more recent roles include Frank Gordon in "Gotham" from 2016 to 2019, and from 2018 to 2021, Peter Gambi in "Black Lightning".


title: James Remar

text: Remar has spent the majority of his film career playing villains. He portrayed the violent gang member Ajax in the cult film "The Warriors" (1979), and the murdering sociopath Albert Ganz in the hit "48 Hrs." (1982). Both films were directed by Walter Hill. Remar also played real-life 1930s-era gangster Dutch Schultz in "The Cotton Club" (1984).


title: James Remar

text: In contrast to these roles, Remar starred in the film "Windwalker" (1980) as the young Cheyenne Windwalker, for which he spoke his lines in the Cheyenne language. He also portrayed a gay man in the film "Cruising" (1980). That same year, Remar had a cameo in the Western "The Long Riders" (1980) in a bar fight scene with David Carradine.


title: James Remar

text: He was the star of the film "Quiet Cool" (1986) and was cast as Corporal Hicks in the science-fiction/horror film "Aliens" (1986), but because of drug related issues he was fired and replaced by Michael Biehn shortly after filming began. At least one piece of footage featuring Remar made it into the final version of the film: when the Marines enter the processing station and the camera tilts down from the Alien nest, though Remar is not seen in close-up. He is also filmed from the back as the Marines first enter the compound on LV-426 and when "Hicks" approaches the cocooned woman, again filmed from the rear so the viewer is unable to tell it is Remar and not Michael Biehn.


title: James Remar

text: He played Quill, one of the main villains in "The Phantom" (1996). He appeared in "" (1997), the sequel to the film "Mortal Kombat" (1995), taking over the role of Raiden from Christopher Lambert. He then followed this with a role in the direct-to-video science fiction movie "Robo Warriors" (1996). Other films include "Psycho" (1998), in which he played the patrolman, "Drugstore Cowboy" (1989), "" (1990), "Wedlock" (1991), "Boys on the Side" (1995), "The Quest" (1996), "Rites of Passage" (1999), "" (2000), "2 Fast 2 Furious" (2003), "Fear X" (2003), "" (2004), "The Girl Next Door" (2004). He played a brief role as General Bratt in the prologue of "Pineapple Express" (2008). He also had a role in the horror movie "The Unborn" (2009), alongside C.S. Lee, who portrays Vince Masuka in "Dexter". He also played the father of Olivia Grey in "Feed" (2017).


title: James Remar

text: Remar was featured in the film "" (2011) and voiced the Autobot Sideswipe in the film "" (2011), replacing André Sogliuzzo. He was also cast in the heist film "Setup" (2011) and starred in the film "Arena" (2011).


title: James Remar

text: Remar played two different, unrelated characters in Quentin Tarantino's film "Django Unchained" (2012): Ace Speck and Butch Pooch. He starred, alongside Emma Roberts, Lucy Boynton, and Lauren Holly, in the thriller film "The Blackcoat's Daughter" (2015).


title: James Remar

text: Remar's television appearances include the series "Miami Vice", "Hill Street Blues", "Sex and the City" (as the on-again, off-again boyfriend of Kim Cattrall's character), "Tales from the Crypt", "Jericho", "Third Watch", "Justice League Unlimited", and "Battlestar Galactica". He also appeared as a possessed mental patient in "The X-Files" ninth-season episode "Dæmonicus". He starred as Tiny Bellows on the short-lived television series "The Huntress" (2000–2001). He appeared in the miniseries "The Grid" (2004) as Hudson "Hud", the love interest of Julianna Margulies's character. He had a recurring guest role in the 2006 television series "Jericho" on CBS. Remar guest-starred in the CBS crime drama "Numbers", playing a weapons dealer who later turns good and helps the FBI.


title: James Remar

text: From 2006 to 2013, Remar co-starred in "Dexter" on Showtime. He was nominated for a Saturn Award for Best Supporting Actor for his portrayal of Dexter Morgan's adoptive father, Harry Morgan.


title: James Remar

text: In 2010, he played guest roles as Giuseppe Salvatore in The CW series "The Vampire Diaries" and as James Ermine, a general for Jericho, a black-ops military contractor, on "FlashForward".


title: James Remar

text: He also voiced Vilgax in the animated television series "" and "", replacing Steve Blum. He guest-starred in "Private Practice" in 2010, playing a physician named Gibby, who works with Doctors Without Borders. On July 23, 2017, Remar was cast as Peter Gambi on the superhero drama "Black Lightning". The series would run for four seasons from January 2018 to May 2021, Remar's Gambi a series regular for its entirety. He would then be cast in a recurring role on "The Rookie" as Tom Bradford, Tim’s father.


title: Embedded system

text: An embedded system is a computer system—a combination of a computer processor, computer memory, and input/output peripheral devices—that has a dedicated function within a larger mechanical or electronic system. It is "embedded" as part of a complete device often including electrical or electronic hardware and mechanical parts.


title: Embedded system

text: Because an embedded system typically controls physical operations of the machine that it is embedded within, it often has real-time computing constraints. Embedded systems control many devices in common use today. , it was estimated that ninety-eight percent of all microprocessors manufactured were used in embedded systems.


title: Embedded system

text: Modern embedded systems are often based on microcontrollers (i.e. microprocessors with integrated memory and peripheral interfaces), but ordinary microprocessors (using external chips for memory and peripheral interface circuits) are also common, especially in more complex systems. In either case, the processor(s) used may be types ranging from general purpose to those specialized in a certain class of computations, or even custom designed for the application at hand. A common standard class of dedicated processors is the digital signal processor (DSP).


title: Embedded system

text: Since the embedded system is dedicated to specific tasks, design engineers can optimize it to reduce the size and cost of the product and increase its reliability and performance. Some embedded systems are mass-produced, benefiting from economies of scale.


title: Embedded system

text: Embedded systems range in size from portable personal devices such as digital watches and MP3 players to bigger machines like home appliances, industrial assembly lines, robots, transport vehicles, traffic light controllers, and medical imaging systems. Often they constitute subsystems of other machines like avionics in aircraft and astrionics in spacecraft. Large installations like factories, pipelines and electrical grids rely on multiple embedded systems networked together. Generalized through software customization, embedded systems such as programmable logic controllers frequently comprise their functional units.


title: Embedded system

text: Embedded systems range from those low in complexity, with a single microcontroller chip, to very high with multiple units, peripherals and networks, which may reside in equipment racks or across large geographical areas connected via long-distance communications lines.


title: Embedded system

text: The origins of the microprocessor and the microcontroller can be traced back to the MOS integrated circuit, which is an integrated circuit chip fabricated from MOSFETs (metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistors) and was developed in the early 1960s. By 1964, MOS chips had reached higher transistor density and lower manufacturing costs than bipolar chips. MOS chips further increased in complexity at a rate predicted by Moore's law, leading to large-scale integration (LSI) with hundreds of transistors on a single MOS chip by the late 1960s. The application of MOS LSI chips to computing was the basis for the first microprocessors, as engineers began recognizing that a complete computer processor system could be contained on several MOS LSI chips.


title: Embedded system

text: The first multi-chip microprocessors, the Four-Phase Systems AL1 in 1969 and the Garrett AiResearch MP944 in 1970, were developed with multiple MOS LSI chips. The first single-chip microprocessor was the Intel 4004, released in 1971. It was developed by Federico Faggin, using his silicon-gate MOS technology, along with Intel engineers Marcian Hoff and Stan Mazor, and Busicom engineer Masatoshi Shima.


title: Embedded system

text: One of the first recognizably modern embedded systems was the Apollo Guidance Computer, developed ca. 1965 by Charles Stark Draper at the MIT Instrumentation Laboratory. At the project's inception, the Apollo guidance computer was considered the riskiest item in the Apollo project as it employed the then newly developed monolithic integrated circuits to reduce the computer's size and weight.


title: Embedded system

text: An early mass-produced embedded system was the Autonetics D-17 guidance computer for the Minuteman missile, released in 1961. When the Minuteman II went into production in 1966, the D-17 was replaced with a new computer that represented the first high-volume use of integrated circuits.


title: Embedded system

text: Since these early applications in the 1960s, embedded systems have come down in price and there has been a dramatic rise in processing power and functionality. An early microprocessor, the Intel 4004 (released in 1971), was designed for calculators and other small systems but still required external memory and support chips. By the early 1980s, memory, input and output system components had been integrated into the same chip as the processor forming a microcontroller. Microcontrollers find applications where a general-purpose computer would be too costly. As the cost of microprocessors and microcontrollers fell, the prevalence of embedded systems increased.


title: Embedded system

text: Today, a comparatively low-cost microcontroller may be programmed to fulfill the same role as a large number of separate components. With microcontrollers, it became feasible to replace, even in consumer products, expensive knob-based analog components such as potentiometers and variable capacitors with up/down buttons or knobs read out by a microprocessor. Although in this context an embedded system is usually more complex than a traditional solution, most of the complexity is contained within the microcontroller itself. Very few additional components may be needed and most of the design effort is in the software. Software prototype and test can be quicker compared with the design and construction of a new circuit not using an embedded processor.


title: Embedded system

text: Embedded systems are commonly found in consumer, industrial, automotive, home appliances, medical, telecommunication, commercial, aerospace and military applications.


title: Embedded system

text: Telecommunications systems employ numerous embedded systems from telephone switches for the network to cell phones at the end user. Computer networking uses dedicated routers and network bridges to route data.


title: Embedded system

text: Consumer electronics include MP3 players, television sets, mobile phones, video game consoles, digital cameras, GPS receivers, and printers. Household appliances, such as microwave ovens, washing machines and dishwashers, include embedded systems to provide flexibility, efficiency and features. Advanced heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems use networked thermostats to more accurately and efficiently control temperature that can change by time of day and season. Home automation uses wired- and wireless-networking that can be used to control lights, climate, security, audio/visual, surveillance, etc., all of which use embedded devices for sensing and controlling.


title: Embedded system

text: Transportation systems from flight to automobiles increasingly use embedded systems. New airplanes contain advanced avionics such as inertial guidance systems and GPS receivers that also have considerable safety requirements. Spacecraft rely on astrionics systems for trajectory correction. Various electric motors — brushless DC motors, induction motors and DC motors — use electronic motor controllers. Automobiles, electric vehicles, and hybrid vehicles increasingly use embedded systems to maximize efficiency and reduce pollution. Other automotive safety systems using embedded systems include anti-lock braking system (ABS), electronic stability control (ESC/ESP), traction control (TCS) and automatic four-wheel drive.


title: Embedded system

text: Medical equipment uses embedded systems for monitoring, and various medical imaging (positron emission tomography (PET), single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT), computed tomography (CT), and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) for non-invasive internal inspections. Embedded systems within medical equipment are often powered by industrial computers.


title: Embedded system

text: Embedded systems are used for safety-critical systems in aerospace and defense industries. Unless connected to wired or wireless networks via on-chip 3G cellular or other methods for IoT monitoring and control purposes, these systems can be isolated from hacking and thus be more secure. For fire safety, the systems can be designed to have a greater ability to handle higher temperatures and continue to operate. In dealing with security, the embedded systems can be self-sufficient and be able to deal with cut electrical and communication systems.


title: Embedded system

text: Miniature wireless devices called motes are networked wireless sensors. Wireless sensor networking makes use of miniaturization made possible by advanced integrated circuit (IC) design to couple full wireless subsystems to sophisticated sensors, enabling people and companies to measure a myriad of things in the physical world and act on this information through monitoring and control systems. These motes are completely self-contained and will typically run off a battery source for years before the batteries need to be changed or charged.


title: Embedded system

text: Embedded systems are designed to do some specific task, rather than be a general-purpose computer for multiple tasks. Some also have real-time performance constraints that must be met, for reasons such as safety and usability; others may have low or no performance requirements, allowing the system hardware to be simplified to reduce costs.


title: Embedded system

text: Embedded systems are not always standalone devices. Many embedded systems consist of small parts within a larger device that serves a more general purpose. For example, the Gibson Robot Guitar features an embedded system for tuning the strings, but the overall purpose of the Robot Guitar is, of course, to play music. Similarly, an embedded system in an automobile provides a specific function as a subsystem of the car itself.


title: Embedded system

text: The program instructions written for embedded systems are referred to as firmware, and are stored in read-only memory or flash memory chips. They run with limited computer hardware resources: little memory, small or non-existent keyboard or screen.


title: Embedded system

text: Embedded systems range from no user interface at all, in systems dedicated only to one task, to complex graphical user interfaces that resemble modern computer desktop operating systems. Simple embedded devices use buttons, light-emitting diodes (LED), graphic or character liquid-crystal displays (LCD) with a simple menu system. More sophisticated devices that use a graphical screen with touch sensing or screen-edge soft keys provide flexibility while minimizing space used: the meaning of the buttons can change with the screen, and selection involves the natural behavior of pointing at what is desired.


title: Embedded system

text: Some systems provide user interface remotely with the help of a serial (e.g. RS-232) or network (e.g. Ethernet) connection. This approach extends the capabilities of the embedded system, avoids the cost of a display, simplifies the board support package (BSP) and allows designers to build a rich user interface on the PC. A good example of this is the combination of an embedded HTTP server running on an embedded device (such as an IP camera or a network router). The user interface is displayed in a web browser on a PC connected to the device.


title: Embedded system

text: Examples of properties of typical embedded computers when compared with general-purpose counterparts, are low power consumption, small size, rugged operating ranges, and low per-unit cost. This comes at the price of limited processing resources.


title: Embedded system

text: Numerous microcontrollers have been developed for embedded systems use. General-purpose microprocessors are also used in embedded systems, but generally, require more support circuitry than microcontrollers.


title: Embedded system

text: PC/104 and PC/104+ are examples of standards for "ready-made" computer boards intended for small, low-volume embedded and ruggedized systems. These are mostly x86-based and often physically small compared to a standard PC, although still quite large compared to most simple (8/16-bit) embedded systems. They may use DOS, Linux, NetBSD, or an embedded real-time operating system (RTOS) such as MicroC/OS-II, QNX or VxWorks.


title: Embedded system

text: In certain applications, where small size or power efficiency are not primary concerns, the components used may be compatible with those used in general-purpose x86 personal computers. Boards such as the VIA EPIA range help to bridge the gap by being PC-compatible but highly integrated, physically smaller or have other attributes making them attractive to embedded engineers. The advantage of this approach is that low-cost commodity components may be used along with the same software development tools used for general software development. Systems built in this way are still regarded as embedded since they are integrated into larger devices and fulfill a single role. Examples of devices that may adopt this approach are automated teller machines (ATM) and arcade machines, which contain code specific to the application.


title: Embedded system

text: However, most ready-made embedded systems boards are not PC-centered and do not use the ISA or PCI busses. When a system-on-a-chip processor is involved, there may be little benefit to having a standardized bus connecting discrete components, and the environment for both hardware and software tools may be very different.


title: Embedded system

text: One common design style uses a small system module, perhaps the size of a business card, holding high density BGA chips such as an ARM-based system-on-a-chip processor and peripherals, external flash memory for storage, and DRAM for runtime memory. The module vendor will usually provide boot software and make sure there is a selection of operating systems, usually including Linux and some real-time choices. These modules can be manufactured in high volume, by organizations familiar with their specialized testing issues, and combined with much lower volume custom mainboards with application-specific external peripherals. Prominent examples of this approach include Arduino and Raspberry Pi.


title: Embedded system

text: A system on a chip (SoC) contains a complete system - consisting of multiple processors, multipliers, caches, even different types of memory and commonly various peripherals like interfaces for wired or wireless communication on a single chip. Often graphics processing units (GPU) and DSPs are included such chips. SoCs can be implemented as an application-specific integrated circuit (ASIC) or using a field-programmable gate array (FPGA) which typically can be reconfigured.


title: Embedded system

text: ASIC implementations are common for very-high-volume embedded systems like mobile phones and smartphones. ASIC or FPGA implementations may be used for not-so-high-volume embedded systems with special needs in kind of signal processing performance, interfaces and reliability, like in avionics.


title: Embedded system

text: As with other software, embedded system designers use compilers, assemblers, and debuggers to develop embedded system software. However, they may also use more specific tools:


title: Embedded system

text: As the complexity of embedded systems grows, higher-level tools and operating systems are migrating into machinery where it makes sense. For example, cellphones, personal digital assistants and other consumer computers often need significant software that is purchased or provided by a person other than the manufacturer of the electronics. In these systems, an open programming environment such as Linux, NetBSD, OSGi or Embedded Java is required so that the third-party software provider can sell to a large market.


title: Embedded system

text: Embedded debugging may be performed at different levels, depending on the facilities available. Considerations include: does it slow down the main application, how close is the debugged system or application to the actual system or application, how expressive are the triggers that can be set for debugging (e.g., inspecting the memory when a particular program counter value is reached), and what can be inspected in the debugging process (such as, only memory, or memory and registers, etc.).


title: Embedded system

text: From simplest to most sophisticated debugging techniques and systems be roughly grouped into the following areas:


title: Embedded system

text: Unless restricted to external debugging, the programmer can typically load and run software through the tools, view the code running in the processor, and start or stop its operation. The view of the code may be as high-level programming language, assembly code or mixture of both.


title: Embedded system

text: Real-time operating systems often support tracing of operating system events. A graphical view is presented by a host PC tool, based on a recording of the system behavior. The trace recording can be performed in software, by the RTOS, or by special tracing hardware. RTOS tracing allows developers to understand timing and performance issues of the software system and gives a good understanding of the high-level system behaviors. Trace recording in embedded systems can be achieved using hardware or software solutions. Software-based trace recording does not require specialized debugging hardware and can be used to record traces in deployed devices, but it can have an impact on CPU and RAM usage. One example of a software-based tracing method used in RTOS environments is the use of empty macros which are invoked by the operating system at strategic places in the code, and can be implemented to serve as hooks.


title: Embedded system

text: Embedded systems often reside in machines that are expected to run continuously for years without error, and in some cases recover by themselves if an error occurs. Therefore, the software is usually developed and tested more carefully than that for personal computers, and unreliable mechanical moving parts such as disk drives, switches or buttons are avoided.


title: Embedded system

text: A variety of techniques are used, sometimes in combination, to recover from errors—both software bugs such as memory leaks, and also soft errors in the hardware:


title: Embedded system

text: For high-volume systems such as mobile phones, minimizing cost is usually the primary design consideration. Engineers typically select hardware that is just good enough to implement the necessary functions.


title: Embedded system

text: For low-volume or prototype embedded systems, general-purpose computers may be adapted by limiting the programs or by replacing the operating system with an RTOS.


title: Embedded system

text: In 1978 National Electrical Manufacturers Association released ICS 3-1978, a standard for programmable microcontrollers, including almost any computer-based controllers, such as single board computers, numerical, and event-based controllers.


title: Embedded system

text: In this design, the software simply has a loop which monitors the input devices. The loop calls subroutines, each of which manages a part of the hardware or software. Hence it is called a simple control loop or programmed input-output.


title: Embedded system

text: Some embedded systems are predominantly controlled by interrupts. This means that tasks performed by the system are triggered by different kinds of events; an interrupt could be generated, for example, by a timer at a predefined interval, or by a serial port controller receiving data.


title: Embedded system

text: This architecture is used if event handlers need low latency, and the event handlers are short and simple. These systems run a simple task in a main loop also, but this task is not very sensitive to unexpected delays. Sometimes the interrupt handler will add longer tasks to a queue structure. Later, after the interrupt handler has finished, these tasks are executed by the main loop. This method brings the system close to a multitasking kernel with discrete processes.


title: Embedded system

text: Cooperative multitasking is very similar to the simple control loop scheme, except that the loop is hidden in an API. The programmer defines a series of tasks, and each task gets its own environment to run in. When a task is idle, it calls an idle routine which passes control to another task.


title: Embedded system

text: The advantages and disadvantages are similar to that of the control loop, except that adding new software is easier, by simply writing a new task, or adding to the queue.


title: Embedded system

text: In this type of system, a low-level piece of code switches between tasks or threads based on a timer (connected to an interrupt). This is the level at which the system is generally considered to have an "operating system" kernel. Depending on how much functionality is required, it introduces more or less of the complexities of managing multiple tasks running conceptually in parallel.


title: Embedded system

text: As any code can potentially damage the data of another task (except in larger systems using an MMU) programs must be carefully designed and tested, and access to shared data must be controlled by some synchronization strategy, such as message queues, semaphores or a non-blocking synchronization scheme.


title: Embedded system

text: Because of these complexities, it is common for organizations to use a RTOS, allowing the application programmers to concentrate on device functionality rather than operating system services, at least for large systems; smaller systems often cannot afford the overhead associated with a "generic" real-time system, due to limitations regarding memory size, performance, or battery life. The choice that an RTOS is required brings in its own issues, however, as the selection must be made prior to starting to the application development process. This timing forces developers to choose the embedded operating system for their device based upon current requirements and so restricts future options to a large extent. The restriction of future options becomes more of an issue as product life decreases. Additionally, the level of complexity is continuously growing as devices are required to manage variables such as serial, USB, TCP/IP, Bluetooth, Wireless LAN, trunk radio, multiple channels, data and voice, enhanced graphics, multiple states, multiple threads, numerous wait states and so on. These trends are leading to the uptake of embedded middleware in addition to a RTOS.


title: Embedded system

text: A microkernel is a logical step up from a real-time OS. The usual arrangement is that the operating system kernel allocates memory and switches the CPU to different threads of execution. User-mode processes implement major functions such as file systems, network interfaces, etc.


title: Embedded system

text: In general, microkernels succeed when task switching and intertask communication is fast and fail when they are slow.


title: Embedded system

text: Exokernels communicate efficiently by normal subroutine calls. The hardware and all the software in the system are available to and extensible by application programmers.


title: Embedded system

text: In this case, a relatively large kernel with sophisticated capabilities is adapted to suit an embedded environment. This gives programmers an environment similar to a desktop operating system like Linux or Microsoft Windows, and is therefore very productive for development; on the downside, it requires considerably more hardware resources, is often more expensive, and, because of the complexity of these kernels, can be less predictable and reliable.


title: Embedded system

text: Despite the increased cost in hardware, this type of embedded system is increasing in popularity, especially on the more powerful embedded devices such as wireless routers and GPS navigation systems. Here are some of the reasons:


title: Embedded system

text: In addition to the core operating system, many embedded systems have additional upper-layer software components. These components consist of networking protocol stacks like CAN, TCP/IP, FTP, HTTP, and HTTPS, and also included storage capabilities like FAT and flash memory management systems. If the embedded device has audio and video capabilities, then the appropriate drivers and codecs will be present in the system. In the case of the monolithic kernels, many of these software layers are included. In the RTOS category, the availability of the additional software components depends upon the commercial offering.


title: Forest

text: A forest is an area of land dominated by trees. Hundreds of definitions of forest are used throughout the world, incorporating factors such as tree density, tree height, land use, legal standing, and ecological function. The United Nations' Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) defines a forest as, "Land spanning more than 0.5 hectares with trees higher than 5 meters and a canopy cover of more than 10 percent, or trees able to reach these thresholds "in situ". It does not include land that is predominantly under agricultural or urban use." Using this definition, "Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020" (FRA 2020) found that forests covered , or approximately 31 percent of the world's land area in 2020.


title: Forest

text: Forests are the predominant terrestrial ecosystem of Earth, and are found around the globe. More than half of the world's forests are found in only five countries (Brazil, Canada, China, Russia, and the United States). The largest share of forests (45 percent) are in the tropical latitudes, followed by those in the boreal, temperate, and subtropic domains.


title: Forest

text: Forests account for 75% of the gross primary production of the Earth's biosphere, and contain 80% of the Earth's plant biomass. Net primary production is estimated at 21.9 gigatonnes of biomass per year for tropical forests, 8.1 for temperate forests, and 2.6 for boreal forests.


title: Forest

text: Forests at different latitudes and elevations, and with different precipitation and evapotranspiration form distinctly different biomes: boreal forests around the North Pole, tropical moist forests and tropical dry forests around the Equator, and temperate forests at the middle latitudes. Areas at higher elevations tend to support forests similar to those at higher latitudes, and the amount of precipitation also affects forest composition.


title: Forest

text: Almost half the forest area (49 percent) is relatively intact, while 9 percent is found in fragments with little or no connectivity. Tropical rainforests and boreal coniferous forests are the least fragmented, whereas subtropical dry forests and temperate oceanic forests are among the most fragmented. Roughly 80 percent of the world's forest area is found in patches larger than . The remaining 20 percent is located in more than 34 million patches around the world – the vast majority less than in size.


title: Forest

text: Human society and forests influence each other in both positive and negative ways. Forests provide ecosystem services to humans and serve as tourist attractions. Forests can also affect people's health. Human activities, including unsustainable use of forest resources, can negatively affect forest ecosystems.


title: Forest

text: Although the word "forest" is commonly used, there is no universally recognised precise definition, with more than 800 definitions of forest used around the world. Although a forest is usually defined by the presence of trees, under many definitions an area completely lacking trees may still be considered a forest if it grew trees in the past, will grow trees in the future, or was legally designated as a forest regardless of vegetation type.


title: Forest

text: There are three broad categories of definitions of forest in use: administrative, land use, and land cover. Administrative definitions are based primarily upon the legal designations of land, and commonly bear little relationship to its vegetation: land that is legally designated as a forest is defined as such even if no trees are growing on it. Land-use definitions are based on the primary purpose that the land serves. For example, a forest may be defined as any land that is used primarily for production of timber. Under such a land-use definition, cleared roads or infrastructure within an area used for forestry—or areas that have been cleared by harvesting, disease, or fire—are still considered forests, even if they contain no trees. Land-cover definitions define forests based upon the type and density of vegetation growing on the land. Such definitions typically define a forest as an area growing trees above some threshold. These thresholds are typically the number of trees per area (density), the area of ground under the tree canopy (canopy cover) or the section of land that is occupied by the cross-section of tree trunks (basal area). Under such land-cover definitions, an area of land can only be known as forest if it is growing trees. Areas that fail to meet the land-cover definition may be still included while immature trees are present that are expected to meet the definition at maturity.


title: Forest

text: Under land-use definitions, there is considerable variation on where the cutoff points are between a forest, woodland, and savanna. Under some definitions, to be considered a forest requires very high levels of tree canopy cover, from 60% to 100%, which excludes woodlands and savannas, which have a lower canopy cover. Other definitions consider savannas to be a type of forest, and include all areas with tree canopies over 10%.


title: Forest

text: Some areas covered with trees are legally defined as agricultural areas, e.g. Norway spruce plantations, under Austrian forest law, when the trees are being grown as Christmas trees and are below a certain height.


title: Forest

text: The word "" derives from the Old French "forest" (also "forès"), denoting "forest, vast expanse covered by trees"; "forest" was first introduced into English as the word denoting wild land set aside for hunting without necessarily having trees on the land. Possibly a borrowing, probably via Frankish or Old High German, of the Medieval Latin , denoting "open wood", Carolingian scribes first used "foresta" in the capitularies of Charlemagne, specifically to denote the royal hunting grounds of the king. The word was not endemic to the Romance languages, e.g., native words for "forest" in the Romance languages derived from the Latin "silva", which denoted "forest" and "wood(land)" (cf. the English "sylva" and "sylvan"; the Italian, Spanish, and Portuguese "selva"; the Romanian "silvă"; the Old French "selve"). Cognates of forest in Romance languages—e.g., the Italian "foresta", Spanish and Portuguese "floresta", etc.—are all ultimately derivations of the French word.


title: Forest

text: The precise origin of Medieval Latin is obscure. Some authorities claim the word derives from the Late Latin phrase "forestam silvam", denoting "the outer wood"; others claim the word is a latinisation of the Frankish *"forhist", denoting "forest, wooded country", and was assimilated to "forestam silvam", pursuant to the common practice of Frankish scribes. The Old High German "forst" denoting "forest"; Middle Low German "vorst" denoting "forest"; Old English "fyrhþ" denoting "forest, woodland, game preserve, hunting ground" (English "frith"); and Old Norse "fýri", denoting "coniferous forest"; all of which derive from the Proto-Germanic *"furhísa-", *"furhíþija-", denoting "a fir-wood, "coniferous" forest", from the Proto-Indo-European *"perku-", denoting "a "coniferous" or mountain forest, wooded height" all attest to the Frankish *"forhist".


title: Forest

text: Uses of "forest" in English to denote any uninhabited and unenclosed area are presently considered archaic. The Norman rulers of England introduced the word as a legal term, as seen in Latin texts such as the "Magna Carta", to denote uncultivated land that was legally designated for hunting by feudal nobility (see Royal Forest).


title: Forest

text: These hunting forests did not necessarily contain any trees. Because that often included significant areas of woodland, "forest" eventually came to connote woodland in general, regardless of tree density. By the beginning of the fourteenth century, English texts used the word in all three of its senses: common, legal, and archaic. Other English words used to denote "an area with a high density of trees" are "firth", "frith", "holt", "weald", "wold", "wood", and "woodland". Unlike "forest", these are all derived from Old English and were not borrowed from another language. Some present classifications reserve "woodland" for denoting a locale with more open space between trees, and distinguish kinds of woodlands as "open forests" and "closed forests", premised on their crown covers. Finally, "sylva" (plural "sylvae" or, less classically, "sylvas") is a peculiar English spelling of the Latin "silva", denoting a "woodland", and has precedent in English, including its plural forms. While its use as a synonym of "forest", and as a Latinate word denoting a woodland, may be admitted; in a specific technical sense it is restricted to denoting the "species" of trees that comprise the woodlands of a region, as in its sense in the subject of silviculture. The resorting to "sylva" in English indicates more precisely the denotation that the use of "forest" intends.


title: Forest

text: The first known forests on Earth arose in the Late Devonian (approximately 380 million years ago), with the evolution of "Archaeopteris", which was a plant that was both tree-like and fern-like, growing to in height. It quickly spread throughout the world, from the equator to subpolar latitudes; and it formed the first forest by being the first species known to cast shade due to its fronds and by forming soil from its roots. "Archaeopteris" was deciduous, dropping its fronds onto the forest floor, the shade, soil, and forest duff from the dropped fronds creating the first forest. The shed organic matter altered the freshwater environment, slowing its flow and providing food. This promoted freshwater fish.


title: Forest

text: Forests account for 75% of the gross primary productivity of the Earth's biosphere, and contain 80% of the Earth's plant biomass.


title: Forest

text: The world's forests contain about 606 gigatonnes of living biomass (above- and below-ground) and 59 gigatonnes of dead wood. The total biomass has decreased slightly since 1990, but biomass per unit area has increased.


title: Forest

text: Forest ecosystems can be found in all regions capable of sustaining tree growth, at altitudes up to the tree line, except where natural fire frequency or other disturbance is too high, or where the environment has been altered by human activity.


title: Forest

text: The latitudes 10° north and south of the equator are mostly covered in tropical rainforest, and the latitudes between 53°N and 67°N have boreal forest. As a general rule, forests dominated by angiosperms ("broadleaf forests") are more species-rich than those dominated by gymnosperms ("conifer", "montane", or "needleleaf forests"), although exceptions exist.


title: Forest

text: Forests sometimes contain many tree species within a small area (as in tropical rainforests and temperate deciduous forests), or relatively few species over large areas (e.g., taiga and arid montane coniferous forests). Forests are often home to many animal and plant species, and biomass per unit area is high compared to other vegetation communities. Much of this biomass occurs below ground in the root systems and as partially decomposed plant detritus. The woody component of a forest contains lignin, which is relatively slow to decompose compared with other organic materials such as cellulose or carbohydrate.


title: Forest

text: The biodiversity of forests varies considerably according to factors such as forest type, geography, climate, and soils – in addition to human use. Most forest habitats in temperate regions support relatively few animal and plant species, and species that tend to have large geographical distributions, while the montane forests of Africa, South America, Southeast Asia, and lowland forests of Australia, coastal Brazil, the Caribbean islands, Central America, and insular Southeast Asia have many species with small geographical distributions. Areas with dense human populations and intense agricultural land use, such as Europe, parts of Bangladesh, China, India, and North America, are less intact in terms of their biodiversity. Northern Africa, southern Australia, coastal Brazil, Madagascar, and South Africa are also identified as areas with striking losses in biodiversity intactness.


title: Forest

text: A forest consists of many components that can be broadly divided into two categories: biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living). The living parts include trees, shrubs, vines, grasses and other herbaceous (non-woody) plants, mosses, algae, fungi, insects, mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, and microorganisms living on the plants and animals and in the soil, connected by mycorrhizal networks.


title: Forest

text: A forest is made up of many layers. The main layers of all forest types are the forest floor, the understory, and the canopy. The emergent layer, above the canopy, exists in tropical rainforests. Each layer has a different set of plants and animals, depending upon the availability of sunlight, moisture, and food.


title: Forest

text: In botany and countries like Germany and Poland, a different classification of forest vegetation is often used: tree, shrub, herb, and moss layers (see stratification (vegetation)).


title: Forest

text: Forests are classified differently and to different degrees of specificity. One such classification is in terms of the biomes in which they exist, combined with leaf longevity of the dominant species (whether they are evergreen or deciduous). Another distinction is whether the forests are composed predominantly of broadleaf trees, coniferous (needle-leaved) trees, or mixed.


title: Forest

text: The number of trees in the world, according to a 2015 estimate, is 3 trillion, of which 1.4 trillion are in the tropics or sub-tropics, 0.6 trillion in the temperate zones, and 0.7 trillion in the coniferous boreal forests. The 2015 estimate is about eight times higher than previous estimates, and is based on tree densities measured on over 400,000 plots. It remains subject to a wide margin of error, not least because the samples are mainly from Europe and North America.


title: Forest

text: Forests can also be classified according to the amount of human alteration. Old-growth forest contains mainly natural patterns of biodiversity in established seral patterns, and they contain mainly species native to the region and habitat. In contrast, secondary forest is forest regrowing following timber harvest and may contain species originally from other regions or habitats.


title: Forest

text: Different global forest classification systems have been proposed, but none has gained universal acceptance. UNEP-WCMC's forest category classification system is a simplification of other, more complex systems (e.g. UNESCO's forest and woodland 'subformations'). This system divides the world's forests into 26 major types, which reflect climatic zones as well as the principal types of trees. These 26 major types can be reclassified into 6 broader categories: temperate needleleaf, temperate broadleaf and mixed, tropical moist, tropical dry, sparse trees and parkland, and forest plantations. Each category is described in a separate section below.


title: Forest

text: Temperate needleleaf forests mostly occupy the higher latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere, as well as some warm temperate areas, especially on nutrient-poor or otherwise unfavourable soils. These forests are composed entirely, or nearly so, of coniferous species (Coniferophyta). In the Northern Hemisphere, pines "Pinus", spruces "Picea", larches "Larix", firs "Abies", Douglas firs "Pseudotsuga", and hemlocks "Tsuga" make up the canopy; but other taxa are also important. In the Southern Hemisphere, most coniferous trees (members of Araucariaceae and Podocarpaceae) occur mixed with broadleaf species, and are classed as broadleaf-and-mixed forests.


title: Forest

text: Temperate broadleaf and mixed forests include a substantial component of trees of the Anthophyta group. They are generally characteristic of the warmer temperate latitudes, but extend to cool temperate ones, particularly in the southern hemisphere. They include such forest types as the mixed deciduous forests of the United States and their counterparts in China and Japan; the broadleaf evergreen rainforests of Japan, Chile, and Tasmania; the sclerophyllous forests of Australia, central Chile, the Mediterranean, and California; and the southern beech Nothofagus forests of Chile and New Zealand.


title: Forest

text: There are many different types of tropical moist forests, with lowland evergreen broad-leaf tropical rainforests: for example várzea and igapó forests and the terra firme forests of the Amazon Basin; the peat swamp forests; dipterocarp forests of Southeast Asia; and the high forests of the Congo Basin. Seasonal tropical forests, perhaps the best description for the colloquial term "jungle", typically range from the rainforest zone 10 degrees north or south of the equator, to the Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn. Forests located on mountains are also included in this category, divided largely into upper and lower montane formations, on the basis of the variation of physiognomy corresponding to changes in altitude.


title: Forest

text: Tropical dry forests are characteristic of areas in the tropics affected by seasonal drought. The seasonality of rainfall is usually reflected in the deciduousness of the forest canopy, with most trees being leafless for several months of the year. Under some conditions, such as less fertile soils or less predictable drought regimes, the proportion of evergreen species increases and the forests are characterised as "sclerophyllous". Thorn forest, a dense forest of low stature with a high frequency of thorny or spiny species, is found where drought is prolonged, and especially where grazing animals are plentiful. On very poor soils, and especially where fire or herbivory are recurrent phenomena, savannas develop.


title: Forest

text: Sparse trees and savanna are forests with sparse tree-canopy cover. They occur principally in areas of transition from forested to non-forested landscapes. The two major zones in which these ecosystems occur are in the boreal region and in the seasonally dry tropics. At high latitudes, north of the main zone of boreal forestland, growing conditions are not adequate to maintain a continuously closed forest cover, so tree cover is both sparse and discontinuous. This vegetation is variously called open taiga, open lichen woodland, and forest tundra. A savanna is a mixed woodland–grassland ecosystem characterized by the trees being sufficiently widely spaced so that the canopy does not close. The open canopy allows sufficient light to reach the ground to support an unbroken herbaceous layer that consists primarily of grasses. Savannas maintain an open canopy despite a high tree density.


title: Forest

text: Forest plantations are generally intended for the production of timber and pulpwood. Commonly mono-specific, planted with even spacing between the trees, and intensively managed, these forests are generally important as habitat for native biodiversity. Some are managed in ways that enhance their biodiversity protection functions and can provide ecosystem services such as nutrient capital maintenance, watershed and soil structure protection and carbon storage.


title: Forest

text: The annual net loss of forest area has decreased since 1990, but the world is not on track to meet the target of the United Nations Strategic Plan for Forests to increase forest area by 3 percent by 2030.


title: Forest

text: While deforestation is taking place in some areas, new forests are being established through natural expansion or deliberate efforts in other areas. As a result, the net loss of forest area is less than the rate of deforestation; and it, too, is decreasing: from per year in the 1990s to per year during 2010–2020. In absolute terms, the global forest area decreased by between 1990 and 2020, which is an area about the size of Libya.


title: Forest

text: Some researchers state that forests do not only provide benefits, but can in certain cases also incur costs to humans. Forests may impose an economic burden, diminish the enjoyment of natural areas, reduce the food-producing capacity of grazing land and cultivated land, reduce biodiversity, reduce available water for humans and wildlife, harbour dangerous or destructive wildlife, and act as reservoirs of human and livestock disease.


title: Forest

text: The management of forests is often referred to as forestry. Forest management has changed considerably over the last few centuries, with rapid changes from the 1980s onward, culminating in a practice now referred to as sustainable forest management. Forest ecologists concentrate on forest patterns and processes, usually with the aim of elucidating cause-and-effect relationships. Foresters who practice sustainable forest management focus on the integration of ecological, social, and economic values, often in consultation with local communities and other stakeholders.


title: Forest

text: Humans have generally decreased the amount of forest worldwide. Anthropogenic factors that can affect forests include logging, urban sprawl, human-caused forest fires, acid rain, invasive species, and the slash and burn practices of swidden agriculture or shifting cultivation. The loss and re-growth of forests lead to a distinction between two broad types of forest: primary or old-growth forest and secondary forest. There are also many natural factors that can cause changes in forests over time, including forest fires, insects, diseases, weather, competition between species, etc. In 1997, the World Resources Institute recorded that only 20% of the world's original forests remained in large intact tracts of undisturbed forest. More than 75% of these intact forests lie in three countries: the boreal forests of Russia and Canada, and the rainforest of Brazil.


title: Forest

text: According to Food and Agriculture Organization's (FAO) "Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020", an estimated of forest have been lost worldwide through deforestation since 1990, but the rate of forest loss has declined substantially. In the most recent five-year period (2015–2020), the annual rate of deforestation was estimated at , down from annually in 2010–2015.


title: Forest

text: China instituted a ban on logging, beginning in 1998, due to the erosion and flooding that it caused. In addition, ambitious tree-planting programmes in countries such as China, India, the United States, and Vietnam – combined with natural expansion of forests in some regions – have added more than of new forests annually. As a result, the net loss of forest area was reduced to per year between 2000 and 2010, down from annually in the 1990s. In 2015, a study for "Nature Climate Change" showed that the trend has recently been reversed, leading to an "overall gain" in global biomass and forests. This gain is due especially to reforestation in China and Russia. New forests are not equivalent to old growth forests in terms of species diversity, resilience, and carbon capture. On 7 September 2015, the FAO released a new study stating that over the last 25 years the global deforestation rate has decreased by 50% due to improved management of forests and greater government protection.


title: Forest

text: There is an estimated of forest in protected areas worldwide. Of the six major world regions, South America has the highest share of forests in protected areas, at 31 percent. The area of such areas globally has increased by since 1990, but the rate of annual increase slowed in 2010–2020.


title: Forest

text: Smaller areas of woodland in cities may be managed as urban forestry, sometimes within public parks. These are often created for human benefits; Attention Restoration Theory argues that spending time in nature reduces stress and improves health, while forest schools and kindergartens help young people to develop social as well as scientific skills in forests. These typically need to be close to where the children live.


title: Forest

text: Canada has about of forest land. More than 90% of forest land is publicly owned and about 50% of the total forest area is allocated for harvesting. These allocated areas are managed using the principles of sustainable forest management, which include extensive consultation with local stakeholders. About eight percent of Canada's forest is legally protected from resource development. Much more forest land—about 40 percent of the total forest land base—is subject to varying degrees of protection through processes such as integrated land use planning or defined management areas, such as certified forests.


title: Forest

text: By December 2006, over of forest land in Canada (about half the global total) had been certified as being sustainably managed. Clearcutting, first used in the latter half of the 20th century, is less expensive, but devastating to the environment; and companies are required by law to ensure that harvested areas are adequately regenerated. Most Canadian provinces have regulations limiting the size of new clear-cuts, although some older ones grew to over several years.


title: Forest

text: Latvia has about of forest land, which equates to about 50.5% of Latvia's total area of of forest land (46% of total forest land) is publicly owned and of forest land (54% of the total) is in private hands. Latvia's forests have been steadily increasing over the years, which is in contrast to many other nations, mostly due to the forestation of land not used for agriculture. In 1935, there were only of forest; today this has increased by more than 150%. Birch is the most common tree at 28.2%, followed by pine (26.9%), spruce (18.3%), grey alder (9.7%), aspen (8.0%), black alder (5.7%), oak/ash (1.2%), with other hardwood trees making up the rest (2.0%).


title: Forest

text: In the United States, most forests have historically been affected by humans to some degree, though in recent years improved forestry practices have helped regulate or moderate large-scale impacts. The United States Forest Service estimated a net loss of about between 1997 and 2020; this estimate includes conversion of forest land to other uses, including urban and suburban development, as well as afforestation and natural reversion of abandoned crop and pasture land to forest. In many areas of the United States, the area of forest is stable or increasing, particularly in many northern states. The opposite problem from flooding has plagued national forests, with loggers complaining that a lack of thinning and proper forest management has resulted in large forest fires.


title: Five Pillars of Islam

text: The Five Pillars of Islam (' ; also ' "pillars of the religion") are fundamental practices in Islam, considered to be obligatory acts of worship for all Muslims. They are summarized in the famous hadith of Gabriel. The Sunni and Shia agree on the basic details of the performance and practice of these acts, but the Shia do not refer to them by the same name (see Ancillaries of the Faith, for the Twelvers, and Seven pillars of Ismailism). They are: Muslim creed, prayer, charity to the poor, fasting in the month of Ramadan, and the pilgrimage to Mecca for those who are able.


title: Five Pillars of Islam

text: The ritual obligations of Muslims are called the Five Pillars. They are acknowledged and practiced by Muslims throughout the world, notwithstanding their disparities. They are viewed as compulsory for individuals who genuinely wish to pursue a life like that which Muhammad led, which was a prudent and mindful life. Like other religions, Islam holds certain practices to be standard; however, that does not imply that all individuals who regard themselves as Muslims necessarily observe them. Individual participation can vary depending on the individual's faith; for example, not every individual prays every day, keeps the fast, performs the Hajj, or donates extensively to charity. There are also Muslim communities such as Alevis who reject the Five Pillars but follows Four Doors system.


title: Five Pillars of Islam

text: Shortly after the Muslim Arabs conquered new terrains, they started raising mosques and castles and commissioning different commemorations and artifacts as articulations of their faith and culture. The religious practice of Islam, which signifies "submission to God", depends on fundamentals that are known as the Five Pillars. Each of the five pillars is alluded to in the Quran, though in various chapters ("suwar"). Further insights concerning these commitments are given in the Hadith.


title: Five Pillars of Islam

text: Though comparable practices were performed in pre-Islamic Arabia and by Jews and Christians at the time of Muhammad, they were changed in the Quran and Hadith, given a carefully monotheistic center, and identified with the life of the Prophet. In the Quran, in spite of the fact that the Shahada does not show up in full, urges the individuals who accept to obey God and his Messenger. Prayer is alluded to multiple times, with prayer times referenced in , and the demonstrations of bowing and prostrating in 48.29. In a few chapters, Muslims are urged both to pray and give alms (for example ), however what, when and to whom gifts ought to be made is clarified in more detail in the hadith. There is a critical entry on fasting in the Quran (), which alludes to the period of Ramadan and sets out the detail on who ought, and ought not fast, to a certain extent under specific conditions. Regarding the matter of the Hajj, the longest Quranic section () recommends the destination location of the pilgrimage, the lead and exercises of the individuals who participate, urging them to have God as a top priority consistently.


title: Five Pillars of Islam

text: The first pillar of Islam is the "Shahada", the assertion of faith. There are two shahadas: "There is no god but God" and "Muhammad is the messenger of God". This set statement is normally recited in Arabic: "lā ʾilāha ʾillā-llāhu muḥammadun rasūlu-llāh" () "There is no god but God (and) Muhammad is the messenger of God." It is essential to utter it to become a Muslim and to convert to Islam.


title: Five Pillars of Islam

text: The first shahada promotes the essential unity of the faith, proclaiming that there is no god but God. The Tawhid, which is the prayer that states "no god but God" is a major component of the Islamic faith, for it asserts the monotheistic aspect of Islam, promoting unity of God as the source of existence. The second shahada demonstrates God’s essential mercy. This prayer proclaims Muhammad as the last prophet, and it uses Muhammad as the prime example of guidance for all Muslims. Muhammad received revelation that was distorted by earlier communities, such as Jewish and Christian societies; Muhammad was the recipient of the Quran’s guidance himself and now is bearer of this guidance for the rest of the Muslim community throughout history.


title: Five Pillars of Islam

text: The Shahada, or profession of faith is said five times a day during prayer. It is the first thing said to a newborn, and the last thing to a person on their death-bed, showing how the Muslim prayer and the pillars are instrumental from the day a person is born until the day they die.


title: Five Pillars of Islam

text: The Second Pillar of Sunni Islam is Salah, or prayer. Before a prayer is observed, ablutions are performed including washing one's hands, face and feet. A caller (Muezzin in Arabic) chants aloud from a raised place in the mosque. Verses from the Quran are recited either loudly or silently. These prayers are a very specific type of prayer and a very physical type of prayer called prostrations. These prayers are done five times a day, at set strict times, with the individual facing Mecca. The prayers are performed at dawn, noon, afternoon, evening, and night: the names are according to the prayer times: "Fajr" (dawn), "Dhuhr" (noon), "ʿAṣr" (afternoon), "Maghrib" (evening), and "ʿIshāʾ" (night). The Fajr prayer is performed before sunrise, Dhuhr is performed in the midday after the sun has surpassed its highest point, Asr is the evening prayer before sunset, Maghrib is the evening prayer after sunset and Isha is the night prayer. All of these prayers are recited while facing in the direction of the Kaaba in Mecca and form an important aspect of the Muslim Ummah. Muslims must wash before prayer; this washing is called "wudu" ("purification"). The prayer is accompanied by a series of set positions including; bowing with hands on knees, standing, prostrating and sitting in a special position (not on the heels, nor on the buttocks). At every change in position, "Allah is great" is said and it is a fixed tradition that has to be recited in each posture. A Muslim may perform their prayer anywhere, such as in offices, universities, and fields. However, the mosque is the preferable place for prayers because the mosque allows for fellowship. These prayers may also be observed individually if one is not able to go. The prayers are not required for women during their periods, prepubescent children and those with intellectual and physical disabilities inhibiting prayer. Those who are sick and unable to assume the positions of prayer are still required to pray, although they may pray in bed and even lying down. When traveling, one may observe the afternoon prayers following one another: also the sunset and late evening prayers can be combined too.


title: Five Pillars of Islam

text: The Third Pillar of Islam is Zakāt, or alms giving or charity. Zakat means purification which indicates that a payment makes the rest of one's wealth legally and religiously pure. By following this pillar, Muslims have to deduct certain amount of their wealth to support the Islamic community, and it usually about 2.5% of an individual’s wealth. This practice is not found in the Quran but rather in the hadith. The tax is used to take good care of the holy places and mosques in the individual's specific Muslim community or to give assistance to those in need or who are impoverished. The word zakāt can be defined as purification and growth because it allows an individual to achieve balance and encourages new growth. The principle of knowing that all things belong to God is essential to purification and growth. Zakāt is obligatory for all Muslims who are able to do so. It is the personal responsibility of each Muslim to ease the economic hardship of others and to strive towards eliminating inequality. Zakāt consists of spending a portion of one's wealth for the benefit of the poor or needy, such as debtors or travelers. A Muslim may also donate more as an act of voluntary charity ("sadaqah"), rather than to achieve additional divine reward. Also, Muslims are required to give back to the poor, specifically through financial support, on the streets in addition to the Zakāt. Zakāt shows how the Islam faith impacts the financial situation of a believer, drawing into all aspects of life.


title: Five Pillars of Islam

text: The Fourth Pillar of Islam is Sawm, or fasting. Fasting takes place during Ramadan, which is the holy month in the Islamic calendar. Using a lunar calendar means the month of Ramadan shifts 11 days earlier each year. Sawm is directly stated in the Quran saying: “eat and drink until the whiteness of the day becomes distinct from the blackness of the night at dawn, then complete the fast till night…”. The fast occurs from dawn to sunset each day during which time believers are expected to prohibit themselves from any food, drink, sexual intercourse, or smoking. However after sunset and before dawn, individuals can participate in any of the actions previously stated as they desire. The reason for fasting during Ramadan is to remind Muslims that all individuals are similarly needy upon the assistance of Allah and that there are less lucky individuals who need their assistance. Ramadan is a period of reflection when Muslims are called upon to recharge their faith, increment their charity, and make apology. In the Quran, the month of Ramadan was first revealed to Muhammad. Ramadan fasting ends with the “Id-ul-Fitr” (Festival of the Breaking of the Fast), which lasts for three days; of the first day of this festival, there is a meeting at the mosque for prayer celebration and each family head gives money for alms.


title: Five Pillars of Islam

text: Three types of fasting ("Siyam") are recognized by the Quran: ritual fasting, fasting as compensation for repentance (both from Quran 2), and ascetic fasting (from Quran 33).


title: Five Pillars of Islam

text: Ritual fasting is an obligatory act during the month of Ramadan. Muslims must abstain from food and drink from dawn to dusk during this month, and are to be especially mindful of other sins. Fasting is necessary for every Muslim that has reached puberty (unless he/she suffers from a medical condition which prevents him/her from doing so).


title: Five Pillars of Islam

text: The fast is meant to allow Muslims to seek nearness and to look for forgiveness from God, to express their gratitude to and dependence on him, atone for their past sins, and to remind them of the needy. During Ramadan, Muslims are also expected to put more effort into following the teachings of Islam by refraining from violence, anger, envy, greed, lust, profane language, gossip and to try to get along with fellow Muslims better. In addition, all obscene and irreligious sights and sounds are to be avoided.


title: Five Pillars of Islam

text: Fasting during Ramadan is obligatory, but is forbidden for several groups for whom it would be very dangerous and excessively problematic. These include pre-pubescent children, those with a medical condition such as diabetes, elderly people, and pregnant or breastfeeding women. Observing fasts is not permitted for menstruating women. Other individuals for whom it is considered acceptable not to fast are those who are ill or traveling. Missing fasts usually must be made up for soon afterward, although the exact requirements vary according to circumstance.


title: Five Pillars of Islam

text: The final Pillar of Islam is the Hajj, or pilgrimage. During one’s life, a Muslim is required to make the pilgrimage to Mecca during the 12th month of the lunar calendar. This ritual consists of making journey to Mecca wearing only 2 white sheets so all of the pilgrims are identical and there is no class distinction among them. Amid the hajj, every single Muslim man dresses alike in a straightforward fabric, again to emphasize their uniformity. Ladies wear a less complex type of their ordinary dress. Pilgrims put the white sheets on when they enter the sanctuary area of Mecca and enter a state of “ihram” or purity. After a Muslim makes the trip to Mecca, he/she is known as a hajj/hajja (one who made the pilgrimage to Mecca). The main rituals of the Hajj include walking seven times around the Kaaba termed "Tawaf", touching the Black Stone termed Istilam, traveling seven times between Mount Safa and Mount Marwah termed "Sa'yee", and symbolically stoning the Devil in Mina termed Ramee. When at Mecca, the pilgrims go to the Ka’aba in the mosque and walk around it in a circle. They then pray together in official ceremonies, and then they go out to perform the “standing ceremony” to remember the Farewell Sermon of Muhammad on the Arafat. On the return trip, pilgrims stop in Mina, where they throw 7 stones at stone pillars that represent Satan as to express their hatred for Shaitan (Satan). They then return to Mecca for final ceremonies by circumambulating the Ka’aba seven times and then leave Mecca to journey back home. Inability to make the Hajj, whether because of physical strength, economic conditions, or other reasons, excuse the duty of Hajj. The Quran specifically says that only those capable of making the pilgrimage are required to do so. The reason for this journey is to follow in the footsteps of the Prophet Muhammad, hoping to gain enlightenment as Muhammad did when he was in the presence of Allah. The pilgrimage of the Hajj is in the Quran.


title: Five Pillars of Islam

text: The pilgrim, or the "haji", is honoured in the Muslim community. Islamic teachers say that the Hajj should be an expression of devotion to God, not a means to gain social standing. The believer should be self-aware and examine their intentions in performing the pilgrimage. This should lead to constant striving for self-improvement. A pilgrimage made at any time other than the Hajj season is called an "Umrah", and while not mandatory is strongly recommended.


title: Five Pillars of Islam

text: Twelver Shia Islam has five Usul al-Din and ten Furu al-Din, i.e., the Shia Islamic beliefs and practices. The Twelver Shia Islam Usul al-Din, equivalent to a Shia Five Pillars, are all beliefs considered foundational to Islam, and thus classified a bit differently from those listed above. They are:


title: Five Pillars of Islam

text: In addition to these five pillars, there are ten practices that Shia Muslims must perform, called the "Ancillaries of the Faith" (Arabic: furūʿ al-dīn).


title: Five Pillars of Islam

text: One of the greatest assumptions about Islamic history is that the Five Pillars were already set and in place at the time of the Prophet’s death in 632 CE. However, most changes to these Islamic rituals came from small differences among minority Muslim groups. The major beliefs of the Pillars were already in place, taking the shape of the life and beliefs of the Prophet Muhammad. The Five Pillars are alluded to in the Quran, and some are even specifically stated in the Quran, like the Hajj to Mecca. However, the difference in practice of these traditions are accepted in Islam of the Five Pillars, but this does not mean they have all existed since the life of Muhammad. The evidence of differences shows pillars have not always been consistent to what they are today, so it has taken many years for the Pillars to get to their current and classic form.


title: Calypso (mythology)

text: In Greek mythology, Calypso (; , "she who conceals") was a nymph who lived on the island of Ogygia, where, according to Homer's "Odyssey", she detained Odysseus for seven years. She promised Odysseus immortality if he would stay with her, but Odysseus preferred to return home.


title: Calypso (mythology)

text: The name "Calypso" may derive from the Ancient Greek (), meaning "to cover", "to conceal", or "to hide". According to "Etymologicum Magnum", her name means "concealing the knowledge" (), which – combined with the Homeric epithet (, meaning "subtle" or "wily") – justifies the reclusive character of Calypso and her island.


title: Calypso (mythology)

text: Calypso is generally said to be the daughter of the Titan Atlas. Her mother is mostly unnamed, but Hyginus wrote that it was Pleione, mother of the Pleiades. Hesiod, and the Homeric Hymn to Demeter, mention either a different Calypso or possibly the same Calypso as one of the Oceanid daughters of Tethys and Oceanus. Apollodorus includes the name Calypso in his list of Nereids, the daughters of Nereus and Doris. John Tzetzes makes her a daughter of Helios and the Oceanid nymph Perse, the parents of Circe, perhaps due to her association with Circe; the two goddesses were sometimes confused due to their behaviour and connection to Odysseus. According to a fragment from the "Catalogue of Women", Calypso bore the Cephalonians to Hermes as suggested by Hermes' visits to her island in the "Odyssey".


title: Calypso (mythology)

text: In Homer's "Odyssey", Calypso tries to keep the fabled Greek hero Odysseus on her island to make him her immortal husband, while he also gets to enjoy her sensual pleasures forever. According to Homer, Calypso kept Odysseus prisoner by force at Ogygia for seven years. Calypso enchants Odysseus with her singing as she moves to and fro, weaving on her loom with a golden shuttle.


title: Calypso (mythology)

text: Odysseus comes to wish for circumstances to change. He can no longer bear being separated from his wife, Penelope, and wants to tell Calypso. He is seen sitting on a headland crying, and at night he is forced to sleep with her against his will. His patron goddess Athena asks Zeus to order the release of Odysseus from the island; Zeus orders the messenger Hermes to tell Calypso to set Odysseus free, for it was not Odysseus's destiny to live with her forever. She angrily comments on how the gods hate goddesses having affairs with mortals.


title: Calypso (mythology)

text: Calypso provides Odysseus with an axe, drill, and adze to build a boat. Calypso leads Odysseus to an island where he can chop down trees and make planks for his boat. Calypso also provides him with wine, bread, clothing, and more materials for his boat. The goddess then sets wind at his back when he sets sail. After seven years Odysseus has built his boat and leaves Calypso.


title: Calypso (mythology)

text: Homer does not mention any children by Calypso. By some accounts that came after the "Odyssey", Calypso bore Odysseus a son, Latinus, though Circe is usually given as Latinus' mother. In other accounts, Calypso bore Odysseus two children, Nausithous and Nausinous.


title: Calypso (mythology)

text: The story of Odysseus and Calypso has some close resemblances to the interactions between Gilgamesh and Siduri in the "Epic of Gilgamesh" in that "the lone female plies the inconsolable hero-wanderer with drink and sends him off to a place beyond the sea reserved for a special class of honoured people" and "to prepare for the voyage he has to cut down and trim timbers."


title: Calypso (mythology)

text: A fragment from the "Catalogue of Women", erroneously attributed to Hesiod, claimed that Calypso detained Odysseus for years as a favour to Poseidon, the sea-god who detested Odysseus for blinding his son Polyphemus.


title: Calypso (mythology)

text: Philosophers have written about the meaning of Calypso in the world of ancient Greece. Ryan Patrick Hanley commented on the interpretation of Calypso in Les Aventures de Télémaque written by Fénelon. Hanley says that the story of Calypso illustrates the link between Eros and pride. Theodor Adorno and Max Horkheimer brought attention to the combination of power over fate and the sensibility of "bourgeois housewives" in the depiction of Calypso.


title: Matthew Fox

text: Matthew Chandler Fox (born July 14, 1966) is an American actor. He is best known for his roles as Charlie Salinger on "Party of Five" (1994–2000) and Jack Shephard on the drama series "Lost" (2004–2010), the latter of which earned him Golden Globe Award and Primetime Emmy Award nominations. Fox has also performed in ten feature films, including "We Are Marshall" (2006), "Vantage Point" (2008), "Alex Cross" (2012), "Emperor" (2012) and "Bone Tomahawk" (2015).


title: Matthew Fox

text: Fox was born in Abington, Pennsylvania, the son of Loretta B. (née Eagono) and Francis G. Fox. One of his paternal great-great-great-grandfathers was Union General George Meade. His father was from a "very blue-blood" Pennsylvania family of mostly English descent, while his mother was of half Italian and half British ancestry. The second of three boys, Fox moved to Wyoming when he was a year old with his parents and brothers, Francis, Jr. (b. 1961) and Bayard (b. 1969). They settled in Crowheart, Wyoming, on the Wind River Indian Reservation. His mother was a teacher, and his father, who had been a consultant for an oil company, raised longhorn cattle and horses, and grew barley for Coors beer. Matthew attended Wind River High School in Pavillon, Wyoming and transferred to Deerfield Academy during his senior year and graduated in 1985. He graduated from Columbia University with a B.A. in economics in 1989.


title: Matthew Fox

text: At the age of 25, Fox made his debut on an episode of "Wings". That same year, he also starred on a short-lived dramatic series, "Freshman Dorm". Still not a familiar face on the small screen, he continued to be cast in supporting roles, including the role of Charlie in the CBS Schoolbreak Special series "If I Die Before I Wake", before he made his big-screen debut in "My Boyfriend's Back" (1993).


title: Matthew Fox

text: In 1994, Fox was cast in a starring role as Charlie Salinger, the eldest of five siblings who lose both parents in a car accident on the 1994–2000 teen drama "Party of Five", co-starring with Scott Wolf, Neve Campbell, Jennifer Love Hewitt, and Lacey Chabert. In 1996, "People Magazine" named Fox one of the 50 Most Beautiful People in the World. After "Party of Five" was canceled following its sixth season, Fox starred in another TV series, "Haunted", in 2002.


title: Matthew Fox

text: From September 2004 until May 2010, Fox played the role of the dedicated yet troubled surgeon, Dr. Jack Shephard, on "Lost". He initially auditioned for the role of James "Sawyer" Ford. However, co-creator J. J. Abrams thought he would be better for the role of Jack, a role originally slated to be for the pilot episode only.


title: Matthew Fox

text: Fox was nominated for a Golden Globe, won the 2005 Satellite Award, and shared the 2006 Screen Actors Guild Award for "Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series", for his role in "Lost".


title: Matthew Fox

text: On December 2, 2006, Fox hosted "Saturday Night Live" with musical guests Tenacious D. In 2006, he co-starred with Matthew McConaughey in the sports drama "We Are Marshall". He also played a bit part in the action film "Smokin' Aces" (along with Lost's co-star Néstor Carbonell and future cast member Kevin Durand) and starred in the 2008 thriller "Vantage Point". In May 2008, Fox starred as Racer X in the movie "Speed Racer".


title: Matthew Fox

text: In 2011, he starred in the stage play "In a Forest, Dark and Deep" with Olivia Williams in London's West End.


title: Matthew Fox

text: Fox co-starred in "Alex Cross" (2012), as the villain, Michael "The Butcher" Sullivan, nicknamed "Picasso". For the role, Fox developed an extremely muscular physique and shed most of his body fat. The film was a critical and commercial failure but Fox was praised for his transformation and credibility in a vastly different role from Lost's Jack Shephard.


title: Matthew Fox

text: He starred in the film "Extinction" released in July 2015, directed by Miguel Ángel Vivas, an adaptation of Juan de Dios Garduño's bestselling book "Y pese a todo."


title: Matthew Fox

text: That same year, Fox also co-starred in the critically acclaimed American horror Western "Bone Tomahawk". He had always wanted to act in a Western.


title: Matthew Fox

text: After six years of inactivity, Fox was cast in the lead role of a limited series "Last Light", which will be released on Peacock.


title: Matthew Fox

text: In 1992, Fox married his long-time girlfriend, Margherita Ronchi, a native of Italy. The couple met while Fox was a student at Columbia. The couple later had two children, Kyle Allison and Byron. Fox is also a photographer. A bonus disc released with The Complete First Series of "Lost" includes features "The Art of Matthew Fox", showing pictures he took of the cast and crew while on set.


title: Matthew Fox

text: Fox has a passion for flying airplanes, and owns a Bonanza G36. "To be up there by yourself, and it's all up to you whether it's gonna be an amazing flight or it's not gonna go as beautiful[ly]. I feel like I'm hyper-prepared when I fly. There is so much you don't have control over."


title: Matthew Fox

text: On August 28, 2011, Fox was accused of assaulting a female bus driver in Cleveland, Ohio. Prosecutors decided not to charge Fox. In May 2012, the bus driver withdrew a civil suit, after her lawyer withdrew and revealed that she "intentionally failed and refused to provide full and timely cooperation and information". In October 2012, Fox appeared on "The Ellen DeGeneres Show" and dismissed all accusations as false, stating he could not refute them at the time due to the ongoing trial. He proclaimed he was punched in the face by a man and retaliated, and that the bus driver tried to extort money from him through her version of events; he said the prosecutors in the criminal case determined her accusations a "hoax".


title: Matthew Fox

text: In May 2012, his "Lost" co-star Dominic Monaghan tweeted about Fox, "He beats women. Not isolated incidents. Often." Fox denied the claims, saying "the Monaghan situation -- was a pile of bullshit, and I'm not gonna waste too much breath on that." He also told "Men's Journal" in 2012, "I have never hit a woman before. Never have, never will. But I think there's still gonna be a lot of people out there who'll think it's true no matter what."