title: Zeppelin

text: On 31 May Linnarz commanded LZ 38 on the first raid against London. In total some 120 bombs were dropped on a line stretching from Stoke Newington south to Stepney and then north toward Leytonstone. Seven people were killed and 35 injured. 41 fires were started, burning out seven buildings and the total damage was assessed at £18,596. Aware of the problems that the Germans were experiencing in navigation, this raid caused the government to issue a D notice prohibiting the press from reporting anything about raids that was not mentioned in official statements. Only one of the 15 defensive sorties managed to make visual contact with the enemy, and one of the pilots, Flt Lieut D. M. Barnes, was killed on attempting to land.


title: Zeppelin

text: The first naval attempt on London took place on 4 June: strong winds caused the commander of L 9 to misjudge his position, and the bombs were dropped on Gravesend. L 9 was also diverted by the weather on 6–7 June, attacking Hull instead of London and causing considerable damage. On the same night an Army raid of three Zeppelins also failed because of the weather, and as the airships returned to Evere (Brussels) they ran into a counter-raid by RNAS aircraft flying from Furnes, Belgium. LZ 38 was destroyed on the ground and LZ 37 was intercepted in the air by R. A. J. Warneford, who dropped six bombs on the airship, setting it on fire. All but one of the crew died. Warneford was awarded the Victoria Cross for his achievement. As a consequence of the RNAS raid both the Army and Navy withdrew from their bases in Belgium.


title: Zeppelin

text: After an ineffective attack by L 10 on Tyneside on 15–16 June the short summer nights discouraged further raids for some months, and the remaining Army Zeppelins were reassigned to the Eastern and Balkan fronts. The Navy resumed raids on Britain in August, when three largely ineffective raids were carried out. On 10 August the antiaircraft guns had their first success, causing L 12 to come down into the sea off Zeebrugge, and on 17–18 August L 10 became the first Navy airship to reach London. Mistaking the reservoirs of the Lea Valley for the Thames, it dropped its bombs on Walthamstow and Leytonstone. L 10 was destroyed a little over two weeks later: it was struck by lightning and caught fire off Cuxhaven, and the entire crew was killed. Three Army airships set off to bomb London on 7–8 September, of which two succeeded: SL 2 dropped bombs between Southwark and Woolwich: LZ 74 scattered 39 bombs over Cheshunt before heading on to London and dropping a single bomb on Fenchurch Street station.


title: Zeppelin

text: The Navy attempted to follow up the Army's success the following night. One Zeppelin targeted the benzole plant at Skinningrove and three set off to bomb London: two were forced to turn back but L 13, commanded by "Kapitänleutnant" Heinrich Mathy reached London. The bomb-load included a bomb, the largest yet carried. This exploded near Smithfield Market, destroying several houses and killing two men. More bombs fell on the textile warehouses north of St Paul's Cathedral, causing a fire which despite the attendance of 22 fire engines caused over half a million pounds of damage: Mathy then turned east, dropping his remaining bombs on Liverpool Street station. The Zeppelin was the target of concentrated anti-aircraft fire, but no hits were scored and the falling shrapnel caused both damage and alarm on the ground. The raid killed 22 people and injured 87. The monetary cost of the damage was over one sixth of the total damage costs inflicted by bombing raids during the war.


title: Zeppelin

text: After three more raids were scattered by the weather, a five-Zeppelin raid was launched by the Navy on 13 October, the "Theatreland Raid." Arriving over the Norfolk coast at around 18:30, the Zeppelins encountered new ground defences installed since the September raid; these had no success, although the airship commanders commented on the improved defences of the city. L 15 began bombing over Charing Cross, the first bombs striking the Lyceum Theatre and the corner of Exeter and Wellington Streets, killing 17 and injuring 20. None of the other Zeppelins reached central London: bombs fell on Woolwich, Guildford, Tonbridge, Croydon, Hertford and an army camp near Folkestone. A total of 71 people were killed and 128 injured. This was the last raid of 1915, as bad weather coincided with the new moon in both November and December 1915 and continued into January 1916.


title: Zeppelin

text: Although these raids had no significant military impact, the psychological effect was considerable. The writer D. H. Lawrence described one raid in a letter to Lady Ottoline Morrell:


title: Zeppelin

text: The raids continued in 1916. In December 1915 additional P class Zeppelins and the first of the new Q class airships, were delivered. The Q class was an enlargement of the P class with improved ceiling and bomb-load.


title: Zeppelin

text: The Army took full control of ground defences in February 1916, and a variety of sub 4-inch (less than 102 mm) calibre guns were converted to anti-aircraft use. Searchlights were introduced, initially manned by police. By mid-1916, there were 271 anti-aircraft guns and 258 searchlights across England. Aerial defences against Zeppelins were divided between the RNAS and the Royal Flying Corps (RFC), with the Navy engaging enemy airships approaching the coast while the RFC took responsibility once the enemy had crossed the coastline. Initially the War Office had believed that the Zeppelins used a layer of inert gas to protect themselves from incendiary bullets, and favoured the use of bombs or devices like the Ranken dart. However, by mid-1916 an effective mixture of explosive, tracer and incendiary rounds had been developed. There were 23 airship raids in 1916, in which 125 tons of bombs were dropped, killing 293 people and injuring 691.


title: Zeppelin

text: The first raid of 1916 was carried out by the German Navy. Nine Zeppelins were sent to Liverpool on the night of 31 January – 1 February. A combination of poor weather and mechanical problems scattered them across the Midlands and several towns were bombed. A total of 61 people were reported killed and 101 injured by the raid. Despite ground fog, 22 aircraft took off to find the Zeppelins but none succeeded, and two pilots were killed when attempting to land. One airship, the L 19, came down in the North Sea because of engine failure and damage from Dutch ground-fire. Although the wreck stayed afloat for a while and was sighted by a British fishing trawler, the boat's crew refused to rescue the Zeppelin's crew because they were outnumbered, and all 16 crew died.


title: Zeppelin

text: Further raids were delayed by an extended period of poor weather and also by the withdrawal of the majority of Naval Zeppelins in an attempt to resolve the recurrent engine failures. Three Zeppelins set off to bomb Rosyth on 5–6 March but were forced by high winds to divert to Hull, killing 18, injuring 52 and causing £25,005 damage. At the beginning of April raids were attempted on five successive nights. Ten airships set off on 31 March: most turned back and L 15, damaged by antiaircraft fire and an aircraft attacking using Ranken darts, came down in the sea near Margate. Most of the 48 killed in the raid were victims of a single bomb which fell on an Army billet in Cleethorpes. The following night two Navy Zeppelins bombed targets in the north of England, killing 22 and injuring 130. On the night of 2/3 April a six-airship raid was made, targeting the naval base at Rosyth, the Forth Bridge and London. None of the airships bombed their intended targets; 13 were killed, 24 injured and much of the £77,113 damage was caused by the destruction of a warehouse in Leith containing whisky. Raids on 4/5 April and 5/6 April had little effect, as did a five-Zeppelin raid on 25/6 April and a raid by a single Army Zeppelin the following night. On 2/3 July a nine-Zeppelin raid against Manchester and Rosyth was largely ineffective due to weather conditions, and one was forced to land in neutral Denmark, its crew being interned.


title: Zeppelin

text: On 28–29 July the first raid to include one of the new and much larger R-class Zeppelins, L 31, took place. The 10-Zeppelin raid achieved very little; four turned back early and the rest wandered over a fog-covered landscape before giving up. Adverse weather dispersed raids on 30–31 July and 2–3 August, and on 8–9 August nine airships attacked Hull with little effect. On 24–25 August 12 Navy Zeppelins were launched: eight turned back without attacking and only Heinrich Mathy's L 31 reached London; flying above low clouds, 36 bombs were dropped in 10 minutes on south east London. Nine people were killed, 40 injured and £130,203 of damage was caused.


title: Zeppelin

text: Zeppelins were very difficult to attack successfully at high altitude, although this also made accurate bombing impossible. Aeroplanes struggled to reach a typical altitude of , and firing the solid bullets usually used by aircraft Lewis guns was ineffectual: they made small holes causing inconsequential gas leaks. Britain developed new bullets, the Brock containing oxidant potassium chlorate, and the Buckingham filled with phosphorus, which reacted with the chlorate to catch fire and hence ignite the Zeppelin's hydrogen. These had become available by September 1916.


title: Zeppelin

text: The biggest raid to date was launched on 2–3 September, when twelve German Navy and four Army airships set out to bomb London. A combination of rain and snowstorms scattered the airships while they were still over the North Sea. Only one of the naval airships came within seven miles of central London, and both damage and casualties were slight. The newly commissioned Schütte-Lanz SL 11 dropped a few bombs on Hertfordshire while approaching London: it was picked up by searchlights as it bombed Ponders End and at around 02:15 it was intercepted by a B.E.2c flown by Lt. William Leefe Robinson, who fired three 40-round drums of Brocks and Buckingham ammunition into the airship. The third drum started a fire and the airship was quickly enveloped in flames. It fell to the ground near Cuffley, witnessed by the crews of several of the other Zeppelins and many on the ground; there were no survivors. The victory earned Leefe Robinson a Victoria Cross; the pieces of SL 11 were gathered up and sold as souvenirs by the Red Cross to raise money for wounded soldiers.


title: Zeppelin

text: The loss of SL 11 to the new ammunition ended the German Army's enthusiasm for raids on Britain. The German Navy remained aggressive, and another 12-Zeppelin raid was launched on 23–24 September. Eight older airships bombed targets in the Midlands and northeast, while four R-class Zeppelins attacked London. L 30 did not even cross the coast, dropping its bombs at sea. L 31 approached London from the south, dropping a few bombs on the southern suburbs before crossing the Thames and bombing Leyton, killing eight people and injuring 30.


title: Zeppelin

text: L 32 was piloted by "Oberleutnant" Werner Peterson of the Naval Airship Service, who had only taken command of L 32 in August 1916. L 32 approached from the south, crossing the English Channel close to Dungeness light house, passing Tunbridge Wells at 12:10 and dropping bombs on Sevenoaks and Swanley before crossing over Purfleet. After receiving heavy gunfire and encountering a multitude of anti-aircraft search lights over London, Peterson decided to head up the Essex coast from Tilbury and abort the mission. Water ballast was dropped to gain altitude and L 32 climbed to 13,000 feet. Shortly afterwards at 12:45 L 32 was spotted by 2nd Lieutenant Frederick Sowrey of the Royal Flying Corps, who had taken off from nearby RAF Hornchurch (known at the time as Sutton's Farm). As Sowrey approached he fired three drums of ammunition into the hull of L 32, including the latest Bock & Pomeroy incendiary rounds. L 32, according to witness accounts, violently turned and lost altitude, burning from both ends and along its back. The airship narrowly missed Billericay High Street as it passed over, one witness saying the windows to her home rattled and the Zeppelin sounded like a hissing freight train. L 32 continued down Hill side and came down at Snail's Hall Farm off Green Farm Lane in Great Burstead, crashing at 01:30 on farm land; the 650-foot-long airship struck a large oak tree.


title: Zeppelin

text: The entire 22 crew were killed. Two crew members jumped rather than be burned (one was said to be Werner Peterson). The crew's bodies were kept in a barn nearby until the 27th September when the Royal Flying Corps transported them to nearby Great Burstead Church. They were interred there until 1966, when they were reinterred at the German Military Cemetery in Cannock Chase. Attending the scene of the crash site were the Royal Naval Intelligence, who recovered the latest secret code book which was found within the gondola of the crashed L32.


title: Zeppelin

text: L 33 dropped a few incendiaries over Upminster and Bromley-by-Bow, where it was hit by an anti-aircraft shell, despite being at an altitude of . As it headed towards Chelmsford it began to lose height and came down close to Little Wigborough.


title: Zeppelin

text: The airship was set alight by its crew, but inspection of the wreckage provided the British with much information about the construction of Zeppelins, which was used in the design of the British R33-class airships.


title: Zeppelin

text: The next raid came on 1 October 1916. Eleven Zeppelins were launched at targets in the Midlands and at London. Only L 31, commanded by the experienced Heinrich Mathy making his 15th raid, reached London. As the airship neared Cheshunt at about 23:20 it was picked up by searchlights and attacked by three aircraft from No. 39 Squadron. 2nd lieutenant Wulstan Tempest succeeded in setting fire to the airship, which came down near Potters Bar. All 19 crew died, many jumping from the burning airship.


title: Zeppelin

text: For the next raid, on 27–28 November, the Zeppelins avoided London for targets in the Midlands. Again the defending aircraft were successful: L 34 was shot down over the mouth of the Tees and L 21 was attacked by two aircraft and crashed into the sea off Lowestoft. There were no further raids in 1916 although the Navy lost three more craft, all on 28 December: SL 12 was destroyed at Ahlhorn by strong winds after sustaining damage in a poor landing, and at Tondern L 24 crashed into the shed while landing: the resulting fire destroyed both L 24 and the adjacent L 17.


title: Zeppelin

text: To counter the increasingly effective defences new Zeppelins were introduced which had an increased operating altitude of and a ceiling of . The first of these S-class Zeppelins, LZ 91 (L 42) entered service in February 1917. They were basically a modification of the R-class, sacrificing strength and power for improved altitude. The surviving R-class Zeppelins were adapted by removing one of the engines. The improved safety was offset by the extra strain on the airship crews caused by altitude sickness and exposure to extreme cold and operating difficulties caused by cold and unpredictable high winds encountered at altitude.


title: Zeppelin

text: The first raid of 1917 did not occur until 16–17 March: the five Zeppelins encountered very strong winds and none reached their targets. This experience was repeated on 23–24 May. Two days later 21 Gotha bombers attempted a daylight raid on London. They were frustrated by heavy clouds but the effort led the Kaiser to announce that airship raids on London were to stop; under pressure he later relented to allow the Zeppelins to attack under "favorable circumstances".


title: Zeppelin

text: On 16–17 June, another raid was attempted. Six Zeppelins were to take part, but two were kept in their shed by high winds and another two were forced to return by engine failure. L 42 bombed Ramsgate, hitting a munitions store. The month-old L 48, the first U class Zeppelin, was forced to drop to where it was caught by four aircraft and destroyed, crashing near Theberton, Suffolk.


title: Zeppelin

text: After ineffective raids on the Midlands and the north of England on 21–22 August and 24–25 September, the last major Zeppelin raid of the war was launched on 19–20 October, with 13 airships heading for Sheffield, Manchester and Liverpool. All were hindered by an unexpected strong headwind at altitude. L 45 was trying to reach Sheffield, but instead it dropped bombs on Northampton and London: most fell in the north-west suburbs but three 300 kg (660 lb) bombs fell in Piccadilly, Camberwell and Hither Green, causing most of the casualties that night. L 45 then reduced altitude to try to escape the winds but was forced back into the higher air currents by a B.E.2e. The airship then had mechanical failure in three engines and was blown over France, eventually coming down near Sisteron; it was set on fire and the crew surrendered. L 44 was brought down by ground fire over France: L 49 and L 50 were also lost to engine failure and the weather over France. L 55 was badly damaged on landing and later scrapped.


title: Zeppelin

text: There were no more raids in 1917, although the airships were not abandoned but refitted with new, more powerful, engines.


title: Zeppelin

text: There were only four raids in 1918, all against targets in the Midlands and northern England. Five Zeppelins attempted to bomb the Midlands on 12–13 March to little effect. The following night three Zeppelins set off, but two turned back because of the weather: the third bombed Hartlepool, killing eight and injuring 29. A five-Zeppelin raid on 12–13 April was also largely ineffective, with thick clouds making accurate navigation impossible. However some alarm was caused by the other two, one of which reached the east coast and bombed Wigan, believing it was Sheffield: the other bombed Coventry in the belief that it was Birmingham. The final raid on 5 August 1918 involved four airships and resulted in the loss of "L.70" and the death of its entire crew under the command of "Fregattenkapitän" Peter Strasser, head of the Imperial German Naval Airship Service and the "Führer der Luftschiffe". Crossing the North Sea during daylight, the airship was intercepted by a Royal Air Force DH.4 biplane piloted by Major Egbert Cadbury, and shot down in flames.


title: Zeppelin

text: Zeppelin technology improved considerably as a result of the increasing demands of warfare. The company came under government control, and new personnel were recruited to cope with the increased demand, including the aerodynamicist Paul Jaray and the stress engineer Karl Arnstein. Many of these technological advances originated from Zeppelin's only serious competitor, the Mannheim-based Schütte-Lanz company. While their dirigibles were never as successful, Professor Schütte's more scientific approach to airship design led to important innovations including the streamlined hull shape, the simpler cruciform fins (replacing the more complicated box-like arrangements of older Zeppelins), individual direct-drive engine cars, anti-aircraft machine-gun positions, and gas ventilation shafts which transferred vented hydrogen to the top of the airship. New production facilities were set up to assemble Zeppelins from components fabricated in Friedrichshafen.


title: Zeppelin

text: The pre-war M-class designs were quickly enlarged, to produce the long duralumin P-class, which increased gas capacity from to , introduced a fully enclosed gondola and had an extra engine. These modifications added to the maximum ceiling, around 9 km/h (6 mph) to the top speed, and greatly increased crew comfort and hence endurance. Twenty-two P-class airships were built; the first, LZ 38, was delivered to the Army on 3 April 1915. The P class was followed by a lengthened version, the Q class.


title: Zeppelin

text: In July 1916 Luftschiffbau Zeppelin introduced the R-class, 199.49 m (644 ft 8 in) long, and with a volume of . These could carry loads of three to four tons of bombs and reach speeds of up to , powered by six Maybach engines.


title: Zeppelin

text: In 1917, following losses to the air defences over Britain, new designs were produced which were capable of flying at much higher altitudes, typically operating at around . This was achieved by reducing the weight of the airship by reducing the weight of the structure, halving the bomb load, removing the defensive armament and by reducing the number of engines to five. However these were not successful as bombers: the greater height at which they operated greatly hindered navigation, and their reduced power made them vulnerable to unfavorable weather conditions.


title: Zeppelin

text: At the beginning of the war Captain Ernst A. Lehmann and Baron Gemmingen, Count Zeppelin's nephew, developed an observation car for use by dirigibles. This was equipped with a wicker chair, chart table, electric lamp and compass, with telephone line and lightning conductor part of the suspension cable. The car's observer would relay navigation and bomb dropping orders to the Zeppelin flying within or above the clouds, so remaining invisible from the ground. Although used by Army airships, they were not used by the Navy, since Strasser considered that their weight meant an unacceptable reduction in bomb load.


title: Zeppelin

text: The German defeat also marked the end of German military dirigibles, as the victorious Allies demanded a complete abolition of German air forces and surrender of the remaining airships as reparations. Specifically, the Treaty of Versailles contained the following articles dealing explicitly with dirigibles:


title: Zeppelin

text: On 23 June 1919, a week before the treaty was signed, many Zeppelin crews destroyed their airships in their halls in order to prevent delivery, following the example of the Scuttling of the German fleet at Scapa Flow two days earlier. The remaining dirigibles were transferred to France, Italy, Britain, and Belgium in 1920.


title: Zeppelin

text: A total of 84 Zeppelins were built during the war. Over 60 were lost, roughly evenly divided between accident and enemy action. 51 raids had been made on England alone, in which 5,806 bombs were dropped, killing 557 people and injuring 1,358 while causing damage estimated at £1.5 million. It has been argued the raids were effective far beyond material damage in diverting and hampering wartime production: one estimate is that the due to the 1915–16 raids "one sixth of the total normal output of munitions was entirely lost."


title: Zeppelin

text: Count von Zeppelin had died in 1917, before the end of the war. Dr. Hugo Eckener, who had long envisioned dirigibles as vessels of peace rather than of war, took command of the Zeppelin business, hoping to quickly resume civilian flights. Despite considerable difficulties, they completed two small passenger airships; LZ 120 "Bodensee" (scrapped in July 1928), which first flew in August 1919 and in the following months transported passengers between Friedrichshafen and Berlin, and a sister-ship "LZ 121 Nordstern", {Scrapped September 1926} which was intended for use on a regular route to Stockholm.


title: Zeppelin

text: However, in 1921 the Allied Powers demanded that these should be handed over as war reparations as compensation for the dirigibles destroyed by their crews in 1919. Germany was not allowed to construct military aircraft and only airships of less than were permitted. This brought a halt to Zeppelin's plans for airship development, and the company temporarily had to resort to manufacturing aluminium cooking utensils.


title: Zeppelin

text: Eckener and his co-workers refused to give up and kept looking for investors and a way to circumvent Allied restrictions. Their opportunity came in 1924. The United States had started to experiment with rigid airships, constructing one of their own, the ZR-1 USS "Shenandoah", and buying the R38 (based on the Zeppelin L 70) when the British airship programme was cancelled. However, this broke apart and caught fire during a test flight above the Humber on 23 August 1921, killing 44 crewmen.


title: Zeppelin

text: Under these circumstances, Eckener managed to obtain an order for the next American dirigible. Germany had to pay for this airship itself, as the cost was set against the war reparation accounts, but for the Zeppelin company this was unimportant. LZ 126 made its first flight on 27 August 1924.


title: Zeppelin

text: On 12 October at 07:30 local time the Zeppelin took off for the US under the command of Hugo Eckener. The ship completed its voyage without any difficulties in 80 hours 45 minutes. American crowds enthusiastically celebrated the arrival, and President Calvin Coolidge invited Eckener and his crew to the White House, calling the new Zeppelin an "angel of peace".


title: Zeppelin

text: Given the designation ZR-3 USS "Los Angeles" and refilled with helium (partly sourced from the "Shenandoah") after its Atlantic crossing, the airship became the most successful American airship. It operated reliably for eight years until it was retired in 1932 for economic reasons. It was dismantled in August 1940.


title: Zeppelin

text: With the delivery of "LZ 126", the Zeppelin company had reasserted its lead in rigid airship construction, but it was not yet quite back in business. In 1926 restrictions on airship construction were relaxed by the Locarno treaties, but acquiring the necessary funds for the next project proved a problem in the difficult economic situation of post–World War I Germany, and it took Eckener two years of lobbying and publicity work to secure the realization of "LZ 127".


title: Zeppelin

text: Another two years passed before 18 September 1928, when the new dirigible, christened "Graf Zeppelin" in honour of the Count, flew for the first time. With a total length of and a volume of 105,000 m, it was the largest dirigible to have been built at the time.


title: Zeppelin

text: Eckener's initial purpose was to use "Graf Zeppelin" for experimental and demonstration purposes to prepare the way for regular airship traveling, carrying passengers and mail to cover the costs. In October 1928 its first long-range voyage brought it to Lakehurst, the voyage taking 112 hours and setting a new endurance record for airships. Eckener and his crew, which included his son Hans, were once more welcomed enthusiastically, with confetti parades in New York and another invitation to the White House. "Graf Zeppelin" toured Germany and visited Italy, Palestine, and Spain. A second trip to the United States was aborted in France due to engine failure in May 1929.


title: Zeppelin

text: In August 1929 "Graf Zeppelin" departed for another daring enterprise: a circumnavigation of the globe. The growing popularity of the "giant of the air" made it easy for Eckener to find sponsors. One of these was the American press tycoon William Randolph Hearst, who requested that the tour officially start in Lakehurst. As with the October 1928 flight to New York, Hearst had placed a reporter, Grace Marguerite Hay Drummond-Hay, on board: she therefore became the first woman to circumnavigate the globe by air. From there, "Graf Zeppelin" flew to Friedrichshafen, then Tokyo, Los Angeles, and back to Lakehurst, in 21 days 5 hours and 31 minutes. Including the initial and final trips between Friedrichshafen and Lakehurst and back, the dirigible had travelled .


title: Zeppelin

text: In the following year, "Graf Zeppelin" undertook trips around Europe, and following a successful tour to Recife, Brazil in May 1930, it was decided to open the first regular transatlantic airship line. This line operated between Frankfurt and Recife, and was later extended to Rio de Janeiro, with a stop in Recife. Despite the beginning of the Great Depression and growing competition from fixed-wing aircraft, "LZ 127" transported an increasing volume of passengers and mail across the ocean every year until 1936. The ship made another spectacular voyage in July 1931 when it made a seven-day research trip to the Arctic. This had already been a dream of Count von Zeppelin twenty years earlier, which could not be realized at the time due to the outbreak of war.


title: Zeppelin

text: Eckener intended to follow the successful airship with another larger Zeppelin, designated LZ 128. This was to be powered by eight engines, in length, with a capacity of . However the loss of the British passenger airship R101 on 5 October 1930 led the Zeppelin company to reconsider the safety of hydrogen-filled vessels, and the design was abandoned in favour of a new project, LZ 129. This was intended to be filled with inert helium.


title: Zeppelin

text: The coming to power of the Nazi Party in 1933 had important consequences for Zeppelin Luftschiffbau. Zeppelins became a propaganda tool for the new regime: they would now display the Nazi swastika on their fins and occasionally tour Germany to play march music and propaganda speeches to the people. In 1934 Joseph Goebbels, the Minister of Propaganda, contributed two million reichsmarks towards the construction of LZ 129 and in 1935 Hermann Göring established a new airline directed by Ernst Lehmann, the "Deutsche Zeppelin Reederei", as a subsidiary of "Lufthansa" to take over Zeppelin operations. Hugo Eckener was an outspoken anti-Nazi: complaints about the use of Zeppelins for propaganda purposes in 1936 led Goebbels to declare "Dr. Eckener has placed himself outside the pale of society. Henceforth his name is not to be mentioned in the newspapers and his photograph is not to be published".


title: Zeppelin

text: On 4 March 1936 LZ 129 "Hindenburg" (named after former President of Germany, Paul von Hindenburg) made its first flight. The "Hindenburg" was the largest airship ever built. It had been designed to use non-flammable helium, but the only supplies of the gas were controlled by the United States, which refused to allow its export. So, in what proved to be a fatal decision, the "Hindenburg" was filled with flammable hydrogen. Apart from the propaganda missions, "LZ 129" was used on the transatlantic service alongside "Graf Zeppelin".


title: Zeppelin

text: On 6 May 1937, while landing in Lakehurst after a transatlantic flight, the tail of the ship caught fire, and within seconds, the "Hindenburg" burst into flames, killing 35 of the 97 people on board and 1 member of the ground crew. The cause of the fire has not been definitively determined. The investigation into the accident concluded that static electricity had ignited hydrogen which had leaked from the gasbags, although there were allegations of sabotage. 13 passengers and 22 crew, including Ernst Lehmann, were killed.


title: Zeppelin

text: Despite the apparent danger, there remained a list of 400 people who still wanted to fly as Zeppelin passengers and had paid for the trip. Their money was refunded in 1940.


title: Zeppelin

text: "Graf Zeppelin" was retired one month after the "Hindenburg" wreck and turned into a museum. The intended new flagship Zeppelin was completed in 1938 and, inflated with hydrogen, made some test flights (the first on 14 September), but never carried passengers. Another project, "LZ 131", designed to be even larger than "Hindenburg" and "Graf Zeppelin II", never progressed beyond the production of a few ring frames.


title: Zeppelin

text: "Graf Zeppelin II" was assigned to the "Luftwaffe" and made about 30 test flights prior to the beginning of World War II. Most of those flights were carried out near the Polish border, first in the Sudeten mountains region of Silesia, then in the Baltic Sea region. During one such flight "LZ 130" crossed the Polish border near the Hel Peninsula, where it was intercepted by a Polish Lublin R-XIII aircraft from Puck naval airbase and forced to leave Polish airspace. During this time, "LZ 130" was used for electronic scouting missions, and was equipped with various measuring equipment. In August 1939, it made a flight near the coastline of Great Britain in an attempt to determine whether the 100 metre towers erected from Portsmouth to Scapa Flow were used for aircraft radio location. Photography, radio wave interception, magnetic and radio frequency analysis were unable to detect operational British Chain Home radar due to searching in the wrong frequency range. The frequencies searched were too high, an assumption based on the Germans' own radar systems. The mistaken conclusion was that the British towers were not connected with radar operations, but were for naval radio communications.


title: Zeppelin

text: After the beginning of the Second World War on 1 September, the "Luftwaffe" ordered LZ 127 and "LZ 130" moved to a large Zeppelin hangar in Frankfurt, where the skeleton of LZ 131 was also located. In March 1940 Göring ordered the scrapping of the remaining airships, and on 6 May the Frankfurt hangars were demolished.


title: Zeppelin

text: Zeppelins have been an inspiration to music, cinematography and literature. The 1930 movie Hell's Angels, directed by Howard Hughes, features an unsuccessful Zeppelin raid on London during World War I. In 1934, the calypsonian Attila the Hun recorded "Graf Zeppelin", commemorating the airship's visit to Trinidad.


title: Zeppelin

text: Zeppelins are often featured in alternate history and parallel universe fiction. They feature prominently in the popular fantasy novels of the "His Dark Materials" trilogy and "The Book of Dust" series by Philip Pullman. In the American science fiction series, "Fringe", Zeppelins are a notable historical idiosyncrasy that helps differentiate the series' two parallel universes, also used in "Doctor Who" in the episodes "The Rise of the Cybermen" and "The Age of Steel" when the TARDIS crashes in an alternate reality where Britain is a 'People's Republic' and Pete Tyler, Rose Tyler's father, is alive and is a wealthy inventor. They are also seen in the alternate reality 1939 plot line in the film "Sky Captain and the World of Tomorrow", and have an iconic association with the steampunk subcultural movement in broader terms. In 1989, Japanese animator Miyazaki released "Kiki's Delivery Service", which features a Zeppelin as a plot element. A Zeppelin was used in "Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade", when Jones and his father try to escape from Germany in a Zeppelin.


title: Zeppelin

text: In 1968, English rock band Led Zeppelin chose their name after Keith Moon, drummer of The Who, told guitarist Jimmy Page that his idea to create a band would "go down like a lead balloon." Page's manager Peter Grant suggested changing the spelling of "Lead" to "Led" to avoid mispronunciation. "Balloon" was replaced with "Zeppelin" as Jimmy Page saw it as a symbol of "the perfect combination of heavy and light, combustibility and grace." For the group's self-titled debut album, Page suggested the group use a picture of the "Hindenburg" crashing in New Jersey in 1937, much to Countess Eva von Zeppelin's disgust. Von Zeppelin tried to sue the group for using her family name, but the case was eventually dismissed.


title: Zeppelin

text: Since the 1990s Zeppelin Luftschifftechnik, a daughter enterprise of the Zeppelin conglomerate that built the original German Zeppelins, has been developing Zeppelin "New Technology" (NT) airships. These vessels are semi-rigids based partly on internal pressure, partly on a frame.


title: Zeppelin

text: The Airship Ventures company operated zeppelin passenger travel to California from October 2008 to November 2012 with one of these Zeppelin NT airships.


title: Zeppelin

text: In May 2011, Goodyear announced that they would replace their fleet of blimps with Zeppelin NTs, resurrecting their partnership that ended over 70 years ago. Goodyear placed an order for three Zeppelin NTs, which then entered service between 2014 and 2018.


title: Zeppelin

text: Modern zeppelins are held aloft by the inert gas helium, eliminating the danger of combustion illustrated by the "Hindenburg". It has been proposed that modern zeppelins could be powered by hydrogen fuel cells. Zeppelin NTs are often used for sightseeing trips; for example, D-LZZF (c/n 03) was used for Edelweiss's birthday celebration performing flights over Switzerland in an Edelweiss livery, and it is now used, weather permitting, on flights over Munich.


title: Toyota Tacoma

text: The Toyota Tacoma is a pickup truck manufactured by the Japanese automobile manufacturer Toyota since 1995. The first-generation Tacoma (model years 1995 through 2004) was classified as a compact pickup. The second generation (model years 2005 through 2015) and third generation (in production since 2015) models are classified as mid-sized pickups. The Tacoma was "Motor Trend"s Truck of the Year for 2005.


title: Toyota Tacoma

text: As of 2015, the Tacoma was sold in the United States, Canada, Mexico, Costa Rica, Bolivia, Bermuda, and the French territory of New Caledonia.


title: Toyota Tacoma

text: The name "Tacoma" was derived from the Coast Salish peoples' name for Mount Rainier in the U.S. state of Washington.


title: Toyota Tacoma

text: The Tacoma was introduced in the US in February 1995 (March 1995 market launch) as a replacement for the Hilux, which prior to this was marketed in the US under the name Toyota Pickup. Compared with the Hilux, the Tacoma is engineered with a greater priority on ride quality, handling, comfort, and safety over ruggedness and payload capacity. The design is intended to better suit the needs of the US and Canadian market, where pickup trucks are often used as personal vehicles, and less exclusively for commercial, agricultural, and off-road use.


title: Toyota Tacoma

text: Development began in 1989, following the launch of the fifth-generation Toyota Pickup in late 1988 and concluded in 1994. Design work was done at Calty Design Research in California from 1990 to 1992, when Kevin Hunter's exterior design proposal was chosen in the autumn of 1991 and in final form, frozen for production in 1992. Patents for the production design were filed in Japan in April 1993 and October 28, 1993, in the United States.


title: Toyota Tacoma

text: The 2.4 L gave (highway cycle, 2WD), the 2.7 L gave (highway cycle, 4WD), and the 3.4 L delivered (highway cycle, 2WD).


title: Toyota Tacoma

text: Two-wheel drive (2WD) Tacomas (non-PreRunner models) had five-stud wheel-lug patterns and available with the 2.4-L or 3.4-L automatic and manual transmissions were available. Four-wheel drive (4WD) and PreRunner Tacomas had six-stud wheel-lug patterns and were available with the 2.7-L and 3.4-L engines. All PreRunner and all Double Cab models were only available with an automatic transmission for the first generation, while the regular cab and Xtracab four-wheel drive was available with either a manual transmission or automatic transmission.


title: Toyota Tacoma

text: The truck's frame is fully boxed until immediately after the rear leaf spring mount bracket, where it transitions into a c-frame section. The 3.4 V6's manual transmission was an R150F, while the automatic transmission was an A340F for 4WD (Aisin code is 30-40LE) and A340E for 2WD. The aftermarket Toyota Racing Development (TRD) supercharged 3.4-L V6 produced and . From 1997 on, the regular cabs were only available with a 2.4-L or a 2.7-L four-cylinder engine. The TRD Off-Road package was introduced in 1998. This package added a locking rear differential and was only available to PreRunner and four-wheel drive models that were equipped with a V6.


title: Toyota Tacoma

text: In its first few years of production, the Tacoma sold very well, attracting many young buyers. The first-generation Tacoma underwent a minor headlight upgrade from recessed to flush headlights in October 1996 on 2WD models and a total of two cosmetic facelifts: the first in July 1997 and the second in October 2000. The facelifts mainly entailed grilles (model year 1998 and 2001) and tailgate badging and emblems (MY1998). Mechanical changes included a switch to distributorless ignitions (coil-on-plug) in 1996 and in 1997 longer rear leaf springs. A passenger-side air bag was added in July 1997, and the driver's-side air bag (standard from 1995 launch) was "depowered". Most 4x4 models came with Toyota's Automatic Differential Disconnect system after the 2000 model year.


title: Toyota Tacoma

text: The PreRunner model was introduced for the 1998 model year. The PreRunner is a 2WD that shares the same taller suspension and lug pattern as the four-wheel drive. Along with the four-wheel drive model, it was also available with the TRD Off-Road Package that included a locking rear differential, also introduced in 1998.


title: Toyota Tacoma

text: Designed through 1998 (by Yusuke Fukushima) as part of the MY2001 facelift (patented on September 22, 1998, at Japan Patent Office under #0890798) was a new crew cab (four-door) model added to the lineup in October 2000. The crew cab, officially dubbed as the Double Cab model, featured four doors and Tokico gas shocks, while the extended cabs still opened with two doors and used Bilstein shocks. The extended cab featured a bed, while the crew cab featured a bed. Many customers were upset with small crew cab beds, but most competitors shared this shortcoming.


title: Toyota Tacoma

text: In October 2000, along with the front facelift, Toyota also unveiled an S-Runner trim package that included the 3.4-liter V6 engine. It came with alloy wheels, and a five-speed manual transmission with Tokico gas shocks. Only 800 were produced each month from September 2000 to August 2004. By 2003, the Tacoma had gained 16.5% sales from its previous years. The Tacoma's popularity only increased in the next few years. By 2004, it was ahead of the Nissan Frontier, and Dodge Dakota, but still 2.2% behind in sales to the Ford Ranger.


title: Toyota Tacoma

text: In 2008, Toyota proactively announced a 15-year, unlimited-mileage corrosion warranty for 1995–2000 model years due to inadequate rustproofing and frame corrosion issues affecting over 800,000 Tacomas. Toyota will either repair the frame or buy back the truck for 1.5 times its KBB retail value. This was later extended to include 2001–2004 model years, but in these cases when a frame was found to be rusty to the point of perforation, the frame is replaced with a new one instead of a buy back.


title: Toyota Tacoma

text: On November 21, 2012, Toyota recalled about 150,000 Tacoma midsize pickup trucks from the model years 2001 to 2004 that were sold primarily in 20 cold-weather U.S. states. The recall involves the spare tire and how it could fall off.


title: Toyota Tacoma

text: In 2000, Toyota began development of the second generation Tacoma under chief engineer Chikuo Kubota. The majority of development work was handled by Hino in Japan. Designers Shigeya Hattori and Hideo Karikomi of Hino, won the internal design competition in 2001. Final designs were frozen for production in 2002 and patents filed on July 3, 2003, with test mules being tested from early 2003. Prototypes were built later in 2003, with development ending in the second quarter of 2004.


title: Toyota Tacoma

text: On February 4, 2004, at the Chicago Auto Show, Toyota unveiled a bigger and more powerful Tacoma. Launched on October 18, 2004 as a 2005 model, this new Tacoma was available in eighteen different configurations, that included three cab configurations, four transmissions, two engines, and two bed lengths. The three cab configurations consist of regular cab, access cab, and double cab. The transmissions come in 4-speed automatic, 5-speed automatic, 5-speed manual, and 6-speed manual. Beds are: long bed, and short bed. The Tacoma's 4.0-liter "1GR-FE" V6 took the place of the original 3.4-liter "5VZ-FE" V6. The new V6 had many enhancements, such as a tow rating of , and a payload capacity of . It produces and of torque. The smaller, but all-new 2.7-liter "2TR-FE" 4-cylinder alternative in less expensive models is rated at and . of torque.


title: Toyota Tacoma

text: Toyota also introduced an X-Runner trim, which replaces the slow selling S-Runner trim from the previous generation. The X-Runner features the "1GR-FE" paired to a six-speed manual transmission, alloy wheels, is lowered two inches from the factory and included an X-Brace suspension package. Toyota also included a Down-Hill Assist Control (DAC) and Hill-Start Assist Control (HAC), with models that were equipped with the optional TRD Off-Road package. DAC automatically applies braking during downhill descents while HAC prevents the vehicle from rolling backwards on hills. A rear locking differential, or limited-slip differential were also some optional features. Every Tacoma was manufactured with a composite inner bed that includes a deck rail system with four tie down cleats, hook-pins, and storage boxes. TRD package equipped Tacomas also feature an in-bed 115 V/400 W AC power outlet. The tie down cleats are rated to hold up to .


title: Toyota Tacoma

text: The 2006 model Tacoma was a bit different from the 2005 model. The 2006 model made some options standard. Toyota also added 2 new interior colors for the 2007 model year. 2008 models are carry-ons from 2007. For 2009 safety features were added and the Tacoma no longer offers a mechanical limited slip differential rather an open differential which uses individual wheel braking to simulate a mechanical LSD or "Auto-LSD". TRD off-road models continue to come equipped with a locking rear differential. The second generation Tacomas were assembled in Tijuana, Mexico and Fremont, California while the plastic/composite beds were all built in Mexico. After the bankruptcy of GM, GM ended its joint venture with Toyota. Toyota, needing additional production volume at its Texas and Mississippi plants, ended Corolla and Tacoma production at the Fremont plant. In 2010 all Tacoma production was moved to Toyota's Texas plant in San Antonio alongside the Tundra. This brought a total of approximately 1,000 new jobs to San Antonio.


title: Toyota Tacoma

text: A minor facelift came for 2009, including a slightly revised grille on some models, new LED taillamps, and on the X-Runner, TRD off-road and TRD Sport models includes a smoked headlamp trim. Auxiliary audio input now comes standard. The Access/Double Cab trucks have two new ceiling mounted speakers and an available backup monitor. Four new exterior colors are also added to the Tacoma.


title: Toyota Tacoma

text: The 2012 model year refresh featured a restyled front bumper, headlights, grille, hood, new interior and a shark fin antenna for the SiriusXM satellite radio. The 2013 model year comes with a touch screen audio system and removes the shark fin antenna and SiriusXM radio capability unless the optional Entune package is installed. 2014 models came with a new SR trim and for 2015 models the regular cab model was discontinued.


title: Toyota Tacoma

text: In November 2016, Toyota USA settled a class action suit over frame rust, agreeing to inspect and if necessary replace rusted frames on 2005–2010 model year Tacomas, 2007–2008 MY Tundras, and 2005–2008 MY Sequoias in the US and its territories.


title: Toyota Tacoma

text: The Tacoma comes standard with anti-lock brakes, brake assist, and electronic brakeforce distribution. For 2008, a rollover sensor was added which would deploy the side curtain airbags in the event of rollover in Tacomas equipped with the optional side airbags. Beginning with the 2009 model year, all Tacomas feature Toyota's Star Safety System which added Vehicle Stability Control and traction control. Front row side torso airbags and side curtain airbags for both rows also become standard as well as active head restraints.


title: Toyota Tacoma

text: Given the smaller size of pickup trucks in the Tacoma's category, crash testing for these sized trucks lags with how well most full size trucks perform. However, in an Insurance Institute for Highway Safety (IIHS) test of the Tacoma and other small trucks, only the side airbag equipped Tacoma received the highest overall rating of "Good" in the side impact test. The Tacoma also is rated "Good" in the frontal offset crash test. In 2009 with the active head restraints the Tacoma is given the IIHS's "Top Safety Pick" award.


title: Toyota Tacoma

text: The Tacoma is offered in two TRD packages: Sport and Off-Road. The Sport is targeted more towards improved on-road performance, while the Off-Road is more geared towards the off-road enthusiast. Both are available in 2WD or 4WD, with rear electronic locking differential available only in the Off-Road model. Both variants come with TRD-specific seats, and 400-w AC power inverters mounted in the bed. A TRD supercharger for the 1GR-FE was a dealer-installed option. TRD offered a cold-air intake and cat-back exhaust system through Toyota dealerships. Also available are TRD cosmetic accessories such as aluminum front skid plate, along with shift knobs (A/T and M/T), radiator cap, oil filler cap, and exhaust tip. TRD also sold seat covers for these Tacomas, but only fit the 2005–08 models (09-15 have airbags in the seats, 2005–08 do not).


title: Toyota Tacoma

text: The TRD Sport package sells in two levels. The first level has a color-matched grille, color-matched front/rear bumpers/door handles/mirrors, and hood with nonfunctional scoop, Bilstein shocks/struts, stainless steel exhaust tip, and aluminum 17-in wheels with 265/65R17 tires. The second level includes the above and adds a towing package (oil and transmission coolers, fan clutch) and heavy-duty high output alternator and battery. The 2005–08 model years came with a mechanical limited-slip differential. The 2009–15 model years have an open differential with a brake-assisted "automatic limited slip" rear differential, similar to a VSC system.


title: Toyota Tacoma

text: The basic TRD Off-Road package includes none of the color-matched body parts (black door handles/mirrors, chrome bumper/grille). Different from the off-road package, the Technology Package has color-matched body parts, aluminum 16-in wheels, Bilstein shocks, skid plates, and electronic locking rear differential but does not include the hood scoop from the Sport models. The off-road package included certain features that are useful for off-roading, such as those mentioned earlier, while the Technology Package features include A-TRAC (2009–15), Hill Descent assist (automatic transmission only) and Hill Start assist (manual transmission only). Progressive-rate springs are included, and smaller-diameter sway bars compared to the Sport package, which gives the Off-Road more wheel articulation and a smoother ride, but allows for more body roll. The towing package upgrades the battery, alternator, and fan clutch, and includes oil/transmission coolers (same as the Sport). All-terrain tires (265/70R16) and a heavy duty front tow hook complete the package.


title: Toyota Tacoma

text: From model years 2011 to 2014, the Tacoma was offered in 1500 units of the T/X Baja package. The package includes upgraded lifted suspension with Eibach springs and TRD Bilstein coil-overs at the front and TRD Bilstein reservoir shocks at the rear with an additional leaf spring. The bead-lock style wheels were wrapped in BF Goodrich All-terrain tires. The Baja model also includes a stainless steel TRD exhaust. The iconic Baja shift knob is also available for the six-speed manual transmission models.


title: Toyota Tacoma

text: The TRD Pro package was offered for 2015 models. Based on the TRD Off Road, the Pro package added a 2" front lift with Bilstein 2.5-inch front shocks and 2.0-inch rear shocks with remote reservoirs for extra wheel travel, BFGoodrich all-terrain tires on 16-inch black and silver bead-lock-style wheels, and TRD cat-back exhaust system. Cosmetic upgrades included the scooped Sport hood, black badges, blackout lighting elements, a TRD Pro matte-black grille with TOYOTA lettering, and various TRD-badged interior parts. About 1200 TRD Pro Tacomas were made.


title: Toyota Tacoma

text: In 2008, an "Ironman" edition was released, named after Ivan "Ironman" Stewart. The engine output was increased to and with the addition of the TRD Supercharger and Magnaflow exhaust.


title: Toyota Tacoma

text: The Toyota X-Runner was a limited production sport model. Although it utilizes the standard 4.0L and 6-speed manual from other Tacomas, the X-runner uses lowered double-wishbone suspension, Bilstein shocks and frame x-bracing.


title: Toyota Tacoma

text: The X-Runner is only available in three colors per year, and only five colors total. For the 2005 to 2008 model years, the X-Runner was available in Speedway Blue, Radiant Red and Black Sand Pearl. 2009 exchanged Radiant Red for Barcelona Red Metallic and Black Sand Pearl for Black. For the 2012 model year facelift, Speedway Blue became Nautical Blue Metallic and then Blue Ribbon Metallic for 2014/2015. The X-Runner was discontinued in the mainland US after the 2013 model year. The X-Runner was last offered in Canada for the 2014 model year and in Hawaii (USA) for the 2014/2015 model years.


title: Toyota Tacoma

text: Key differences between the X-Runner and the other packages include tweaks to the suspension, hood scoop, ground effects kit, driving lights, sports wheel and tires, and a 3.15 final drive ratio (3.73 for V6 PreRunner and 4X4). Toyota added a rear-mounted X-Brace to stiffen up the rear end (hence the name X-Runner). The chassis was further stiffened by adding two more support braces to the frame. An optional big brake kit by TRD is also available on the X-Runner; which consists of a 332 mm slotted rotor and 4 piston caliper. The BBK (big brake kit) was designed by StopTech. To further its track and sport appeal, TRD also offered a dealer-installed and warrantied roots-style supercharger which raised the power from and the torque was raised from .


title: Toyota Tacoma

text: A factory TRD composite spoiler was also an option but originals are rare. The X-Runner comes only with an Aisin RA60 6-speed manual transmission produced by Aisin Seiki Co.


title: Toyota Tacoma

text: The new Tacoma was officially unveiled at the January 2015 North American International Auto Show with United States sales launch following on September 10, 2015.


title: Toyota Tacoma

text: The truck has a new exterior profile taking styling cues from the 2014 model year 4Runner SUV and the 2014 model year Tundra pickup, with a larger grille and new projector-beam headlamps. The tailgate and bed were redesigned and featured a debossed Tacoma logo as well as an infused spoiler. New character lines were also observed on the truck as well as an air dam in front of the vehicle.


title: Toyota Tacoma

text: Toyota offers a 2.7-liter I4 engine paired with a 5-speed manual (MY2016-17) or 6-speed automatic transmission, and a 3.5-liter V6 engine paired with a 6-speed manual or 6-speed automatic transmission. The 3.5 V6 can run on a simulated Atkinson cycle using VVT-iW, and feature Toyota's D-4S system which allows it to switch from port injection to direct injection based on driving conditions. The 2.7-liter delivers of power at 5200 rpm and of torque at 3800 rpm, while the 3.5-liter delivers of power at 6000 rpm and of torque at 4600 rpm. EPA-estimated city/highway/combined mpg for the 4x2 automatic is 19/24/21 and 18/22/20 for the 4x4 automatic. Based on the SAE J2807 tow guidelines the Tacoma can tow up to with the added tow package. In addition to this, Toyota updated the truck's frame by adding more high-strength steel in order to increase the truck's rigidity and to drop weight. The body is also constructed using ultra-high-strength steel that was integrated using a new hot stamping process that reduces weight. Toyota also updated the suspensions, rear differentials, and rear axle to improve the truck's road manners while still keeping it off-road capable.


title: Toyota Tacoma

text: The truck is available in 6 trims: base SR, mid-level SR5, TRD Off-Road, TRD Sport, Limited, and range-topping TRD Pro. The truck is offered in Access Cab and Double Cab configurations with long or short bed sizes. The Regular Cab model was not carried over for the new generation pickup as it was discontinued in 2015. The interior of the pickup has been changed as well. Using a handlebar theme, Toyota made the interior of the Tacoma more luxurious and added a larger touchscreen display as well as a new instrument panel. Soft-touch materials also replaced the previous generation's hard plastics. A leather option was added. Toyota has also used an acoustic windshield, better insulated doors, as well as more weather stripping to reduce road and wind noise. For the first time Toyota will offer dual climate control in the Tacoma.


title: Toyota Tacoma

text: Unlike the 2nd generation models, the steering wheel controls in the 2016 and 2017 models had reduced functionality, and therefore impaired convenience when attempting to browse phone Contacts / Favorite Contacts. The steering wheel D-pad controls are no longer linked to the Entune system for the purposes of browsing and selecting contacts. Instead, the driver must rely on voice controls, or reaching over to make adjustments to the Entune system to browse and select the appropriate contact in order to place a phone call. Furthermore, D-pad controls no longer offer the ability to scroll through lists of songs during USB or Bluetooth music playback. The driver must use the touch screen to select new albums/artists/songs. These limitations were removed for the 2018 model year onward.


title: Toyota Tacoma

text: The TRD Off-Road trim models feature an all-new terrain select mode which allows the driver to choose between different types of terrain such as: loose rock, mud, and sand. Toyota also announced a new Crawl mode that will allow the driver to steer the truck in tough terrain while the truck manages braking and acceleration by itself. In addition to this the truck also features a moonroof, keyless entry, Qi Wireless phone charging capability, easy lower tailgate, blind-spot monitoring system, backup camera (standard) and a mounted GoPro holder (standard).


title: Toyota Tacoma

text: Toyota also introduced a TRD Pro version in late 2016 for the 2017 model year, which comes with FOX-patented Internal Bypass shocks, TRD Pro catback exhaust, TRD Pro skid plate, Rigid Industries LED fog lights, and heritage inspired 'TOYOTA' grille. The 2017 model year TRD Pro was only available in the double cab short bed configuration, with either a manual or automatic gearbox in Barcelona Red Metallic, Super White, or Cement. Black leather with red accents and stitching is the only available interior option. For the 2018 model year TRD Pro, Midnight Black Metallic and Cavalry Blue are new available exterior colors, with Barcelona Red Metallic and Cement discontinued.


title: Toyota Tacoma

text: The Tacoma's transition to its third generation took place while the segment is growing. In 2014, the San Antonio plant built 105,796 Tacomas and the Baja plant built 71,399 for a total of 177,195. In 2015, the San Antonio plant built 110,911 and Baja built 82,328 for a total of 193,239 built. In 2016, 191,673 Tacomas were sold in the US and Canada (along with 115,489 Tundras also built in San Antonio) and, with the mid size segment up overall, the San Antonio plant was running costlier extra Saturday shifts to keep up with demand, running at 125 percent of projected plant capacity. The 2016 and 2017 model year double-cab short-bed Tacomas are currently made in Tijuana (VINs starting in 3) and all other Tacoma configurations are made in San Antonio (VINs starting in 5). Toyota USA announced it intended to increase production at the Tijuana plant in 2018 from about 100,000 to 160,000 Tacomas.


title: Toyota Tacoma

text: In addition to the exterior facelift, there were new added technologies inside. These include Apple CarPlay, Android Auto and Amazon Alexa capability. On the SR5 model and higher, there is a power-adjustable driver's seat and on the Tacoma Limited Double Cab, there's a new Panoramic View Monitor for 360-degree bird's eye views of the truck's immediate surroundings.


title: Toyota Tacoma

text: In January 2021, the Tacoma TRD Lift Kit was made available as a dealer-installed option for 2020 and newer Tacoma models. The kit includes Bilstein shocks fitted with TRD red dust boots and "Tuned by TRD" graphics. Total frame ground clearance increases by 1.7 inches with the suspension lift kit.


title: Toyota Tacoma

text: In 1998, Toyota added a new Toyota Racing Development (TRD) off-road package. The package includes off-road tires, 16-inch alloy wheels, TRD dampers, a locking rear differential and the TRD graphics.


title: Toyota Tacoma

text: In 2001, Toyota introduced a TRD sport package on the Tundra full-size pickup. This package was introduced in 2005 for the Tacoma at the same time as the release of the newly redesigned Tacoma.


title: Toyota Tacoma

text: Toyota Racing Development offered a TRD supercharger for the FJ Cruiser and Tacoma equipped with 4.0-liter V6 engine, available through Toyota dealerships. This supercharger was co-developed with Magnuson Superchargers. When installed by a professional dealer, it would not void any warranties on a vehicle. The supercharger increases the Tacoma's power output to from the original , and the torque output to and is now out of production.


title: Toyota Tacoma

text: This all-new TRD supercharger is compatible on all 2005 through 2015 model year Tacoma trucks, and 2007 through 2009 model year FJ Cruiser SUV. This supercharger system features Eaton roots-type rotating components in a one-piece integral manifold, iridium spark plugs, and a five-rib serpentine drive belt system. It produces about of boost pressure.


title: Toyota Tacoma

text: The supercharger, when installed by an authorized Scion or Toyota dealer, has the same warranty as powertrain, five years or , or the balance of the new car warranty, whichever is greater. When not installed by an authorized dealer, the supercharger is covered by a 12-month, parts-only warranty. The manufacturer's suggested retail price of the TRD supercharger is $4500, not including installation.


title: Toyota Tacoma

text: The TRD supercharger program was discontinued for all vehicles, including Tacoma, as of June 2015 due to the expense of development.


title: Toyota Tacoma

text: On October 21, 2015, Toyota and Universal Pictures celebrated the 30th anniversary of "Back to the Future" with a Tacoma Concept that was inspired by the original Toyota Pickup that Toyota created for "Back to the Future". The 2016 Tacoma 4WD was recreated using the same features and black color paint trim, KC HiLite driving lamps (modified with LED lighting), modified headlights and taillights (matching the 1985 version), the Toyota badging to the truck's tailgate, D-4S fuel injection, and the 1985-inspired mudflaps. The only difference between the 1985 original and the 2016 concept is the tires: Goodyear was featured in the 1985 film, while BF Goodrich is used on the concept. The concept also did not have a solid front axle like the original 1985 Pickup. Toyota notes that this is a one-off concept as there are no plans to offer it as a package or level trim.


title: Antimony

text: Antimony is a chemical element with the symbol Sb (from ) and atomic number 51. A lustrous gray metalloid, it is found in nature mainly as the sulfide mineral stibnite (SbS). Antimony compounds have been known since ancient times and were powdered for use as medicine and cosmetics, often known by the Arabic name kohl. The earliest known description of the metal in the West was written in 1540 by Vannoccio Biringuccio.


title: Antimony

text: China is the largest producer of antimony and its compounds, with most production coming from the Xikuangshan Mine in Hunan. The industrial methods for refining antimony from stibnite are roasting followed by reduction with carbon, or direct reduction of stibnite with iron.


title: Antimony

text: The largest applications for metallic antimony are in alloys with lead and tin, which have improved properties for solders, bullets, and plain bearings. It improves the rigidity of lead-alloy plates in lead–acid batteries. Antimony trioxide is a prominent additive for halogen-containing flame retardants. Antimony is used as a dopant in semiconductor devices.


title: Antimony

text: Antimony is a member of group 15 of the periodic table, one of the elements called pnictogens, and has an electronegativity of 2.05. In accordance with periodic trends, it is more electronegative than tin or bismuth, and less electronegative than tellurium or arsenic. Antimony is stable in air at room temperature, but reacts with oxygen if heated to produce antimony trioxide, SbO.


title: Antimony

text: Antimony is a silvery, lustrous gray metalloid with a Mohs scale hardness of 3, which is too soft to mark hard objects. Coins of antimony were issued in China's Guizhou province in 1931; durability was poor, and minting was soon discontinued. Antimony is resistant to attack by acids.


title: Antimony

text: Four allotropes of antimony are known: a stable metallic form, and three metastable forms (explosive, black, and yellow). Elemental antimony is a brittle, silver-white, shiny metalloid. When slowly cooled, molten antimony crystallizes into a trigonal cell, isomorphic with the gray allotrope of arsenic. A rare explosive form of antimony can be formed from the electrolysis of antimony trichloride. When scratched with a sharp implement, an exothermic reaction occurs and white fumes are given off as metallic antimony forms; when rubbed with a pestle in a mortar, a strong detonation occurs. Black antimony is formed upon rapid cooling of antimony vapor. It has the same crystal structure as red phosphorus and black arsenic; it oxidizes in air and may ignite spontaneously. At 100 °C, it gradually transforms into the stable form. The yellow allotrope of antimony is the most unstable; it has been generated only by oxidation of stibine (SbH) at −90 °C. Above this temperature and in ambient light, this metastable allotrope transforms into the more stable black allotrope.


title: Antimony

text: Elemental antimony adopts a layered structure (space group Rm No. 166) whose layers consist of fused, ruffled, six-membered rings. The nearest and next-nearest neighbors form an irregular octahedral complex, with the three atoms in each double layer slightly closer than the three atoms in the next. This relatively close packing leads to a high density of 6.697 g/cm, but the weak bonding between the layers leads to the low hardness and brittleness of antimony.


title: Antimony

text: Antimony has two stable isotopes: Sb with a natural abundance of 57.36% and Sb with a natural abundance of 42.64%. It also has 35 radioisotopes, of which the longest-lived is Sb with a half-life of 2.75 years. In addition, 29 metastable states have been characterized. The most stable of these is Sb with a half-life of 5.76 days. Isotopes that are lighter than the stable Sb tend to decay by β decay, and those that are heavier tend to decay by β decay, with some exceptions.


title: Antimony

text: The abundance of antimony in the Earth's crust is estimated to be 0.2 to 0.5 parts per million, comparable to thallium at 0.5 parts per million and silver at 0.07 ppm. Even though this element is not abundant, it is found in more than 100 mineral species. Antimony is sometimes found natively (e.g. on Antimony Peak), but more frequently it is found in the sulfide stibnite (SbS) which is the predominant ore mineral.


title: Antimony

text: Antimony compounds are often classified according to their oxidation state: Sb(III) and Sb(V). The +5 oxidation state is more stable.


title: Antimony

text: Antimony trioxide is formed when antimony is burnt in air. In the gas phase, the molecule of the compound is , but it polymerizes upon condensing. Antimony pentoxide () can be formed only by oxidation with concentrated nitric acid. Antimony also forms a mixed-valence oxide, antimony tetroxide (), which features both Sb(III) and Sb(V). Unlike oxides of phosphorus and arsenic, these oxides are amphoteric, do not form well-defined oxoacids, and react with acids to form antimony salts.


title: Antimony

text: Antimonous acid is unknown, but the conjugate base sodium antimonite () forms upon fusing sodium oxide and . Transition metal antimonites are also known. Antimonic acid exists only as the hydrate , forming salts as the antimonate anion . When a solution containing this anion is dehydrated, the precipitate contains mixed oxides.


title: Antimony

text: Many antimony ores are sulfides, including stibnite (), pyrargyrite (), zinkenite, jamesonite, and boulangerite. Antimony pentasulfide is non-stoichiometric and features antimony in the +3 oxidation state and S–S bonds. Several thioantimonides are known, such as and .


title: Antimony

text: Antimony forms two series of halides: and . The trihalides , , , and are all molecular compounds having trigonal pyramidal molecular geometry.


title: Antimony

text: It is Lewis acidic and readily accepts fluoride ions to form the complex anions and . Molten is a weak electrical conductor. The trichloride is prepared by dissolving in hydrochloric acid:


title: Antimony

text: The pentahalides and have trigonal bipyramidal molecular geometry in the gas phase, but in the liquid phase, is polymeric, whereas is monomeric. is a powerful Lewis acid used to make the superacid fluoroantimonic acid ("HSbF").


title: Antimony

text: Oxyhalides are more common for antimony than for arsenic and phosphorus. Antimony trioxide dissolves in concentrated acid to form oxoantimonyl compounds such as SbOCl and .


title: Antimony

text: Compounds in this class generally are described as derivatives of Sb. Antimony forms antimonides with metals, such as indium antimonide (InSb) and silver antimonide (). The alkali metal and zinc antimonides, such as NaSb and ZnSb, are more reactive. Treating these antimonides with acid produces the highly unstable gas stibine, :


title: Antimony

text: Stibine can also be produced by treating salts with hydride reagents such as sodium borohydride. Stibine decomposes spontaneously at room temperature. Because stibine has a positive heat of formation, it is thermodynamically unstable and thus antimony does not react with hydrogen directly.


title: Antimony

text: Organoantimony compounds are typically prepared by alkylation of antimony halides with Grignard reagents. A large variety of compounds are known with both Sb(III) and Sb(V) centers, including mixed chloro-organic derivatives, anions, and cations. Examples include Sb(CH) (triphenylstibine), Sb(CH) (with an Sb-Sb bond), and cyclic [Sb(CH)]. Pentacoordinated organoantimony compounds are common, examples being Sb(CH) and several related halides.


title: Antimony

text: Antimony(III) sulfide, SbS, was recognized in predynastic Egypt as an eye cosmetic (kohl) as early as about 3100 BC, when the cosmetic palette was invented.


title: Antimony

text: An artifact, said to be part of a vase, made of antimony dating to about 3000 BC was found at Telloh, Chaldea (part of present-day Iraq), and a copper object plated with antimony dating between 2500 BC and 2200 BC has been found in Egypt. Austen, at a lecture by Herbert Gladstone in 1892, commented that "we only know of antimony at the present day as a highly brittle and crystalline metal, which could hardly be fashioned into a useful vase, and therefore this remarkable 'find' (artifact mentioned above) must represent the lost art of rendering antimony malleable."


title: Antimony

text: The British archaeologist Roger Moorey was unconvinced the artifact was indeed a vase, mentioning that Selimkhanov, after his analysis of the Tello object (published in 1975), "attempted to relate the metal to Transcaucasian natural antimony" (i.e. native metal) and that "the antimony objects from Transcaucasia are all small personal ornaments." This weakens the evidence for a lost art "of rendering antimony malleable."


title: Antimony

text: The Roman scholar Pliny the Elder described several ways of preparing antimony sulfide for medical purposes in his treatise "Natural History", around 77 AD. Pliny the Elder also made a distinction between "male" and "female" forms of antimony; the male form is probably the sulfide, while the female form, which is superior, heavier, and less friable, has been suspected to be native metallic antimony.


title: Antimony

text: The Greek naturalist Pedanius Dioscorides mentioned that antimony sulfide could be roasted by heating by a current of air. It is thought that this produced metallic antimony.


title: Antimony

text: Antimony was frequently described in alchemical manuscripts, including the "Summa Perfectionis" of Pseudo-Geber, written around the 14th century. A description of a procedure for isolating antimony is later given in the 1540 book "De la pirotechnia" by Vannoccio Biringuccio, predating the more famous 1556 book by Agricola, "De re metallica". In this context Agricola has been often incorrectly credited with the discovery of metallic antimony. The book "Currus Triumphalis Antimonii" (The Triumphal Chariot of Antimony), describing the preparation of metallic antimony, was published in Germany in 1604. It was purported to be written by a Benedictine monk, writing under the name Basilius Valentinus in the 15th century; if it were authentic, which it is not, it would predate Biringuccio.


title: Antimony

text: The metal antimony was known to German chemist Andreas Libavius in 1615 who obtained it by adding iron to a molten mixture of antimony sulfide, salt and potassium tartrate. This procedure produced antimony with a crystalline or starred surface.


title: Antimony

text: With the advent of challenges to phlogiston theory, it was recognized that antimony is an element forming sulfides, oxides, and other compounds, as do other metals.


title: Antimony

text: The first discovery of naturally occurring pure antimony in the Earth's crust was described by the Swedish scientist and local mine district engineer Anton von Swab in 1783; the type-sample was collected from the Sala Silver Mine in the Bergslagen mining district of Sala, Västmanland, Sweden.


title: Antimony

text: The medieval Latin form, from which the modern languages and late Byzantine Greek take their names for antimony, is "antimonium". The origin of this is uncertain; all suggestions have some difficulty either of form or interpretation. The popular etymology, from ἀντίμοναχός "anti-monachos" or French "antimoine", still has adherents; this would mean "monk-killer", and is explained by many early alchemists being monks, and antimony being poisonous. However, the low toxicity of antimony (see below) makes this unlikely.


title: Antimony

text: Another popular etymology is the hypothetical Greek word ἀντίμόνος "antimonos", "against aloneness", explained as "not found as metal", or "not found unalloyed". Lippmann conjectured a hypothetical Greek word ανθήμόνιον "anthemonion", which would mean "floret", and cites several examples of related Greek words (but not that one) which describe chemical or biological efflorescence.


title: Antimony

text: The early uses of "antimonium" include the translations, in 1050–1100, by Constantine the African of Arabic medical treatises. Several authorities believe "antimonium" is a scribal corruption of some Arabic form; Meyerhof derives it from "ithmid"; other possibilities include "athimar", the Arabic name of the metalloid, and a hypothetical "as-stimmi", derived from or parallel to the Greek.


title: Antimony

text: The standard chemical symbol for antimony (Sb) is credited to Jöns Jakob Berzelius, who derived the abbreviation from "stibium".


title: Antimony

text: The Egyptians called antimony "mśdmt"; in hieroglyphs, the vowels are uncertain, but the Coptic form of the word is ⲥⲧⲏⲙ (stēm).


title: Antimony

text: The Greek word, στίμμι (stimmi) is used by Attic tragic poets of the 5th century BC, and is possibly a loan word from Arabic or from Egyptian "stm". Later Greeks also used στἰβι "stibi", as did Celsus and Pliny, writing in Latin, in the first century AD. Pliny also gives the names "stimi", "larbaris", alabaster, and the "very common" "platyophthalmos", "wide-eye" (from the effect of the cosmetic). Later Latin authors adapted the word to Latin as "stibium".


title: Antimony

text: The Arabic word for the substance, as opposed to the cosmetic, can appear as إثمد "ithmid, athmoud, othmod", or "uthmod". Littré suggests the first form, which is the earliest, derives from "stimmida", an accusative for "stimmi".


title: Antimony

text: The extraction of antimony from ores depends on the quality and composition of the ore. Most antimony is mined as the sulfide; lower-grade ores are concentrated by froth flotation, while higher-grade ores are heated to 500–600 °C, the temperature at which stibnite melts and separates from the gangue minerals. Antimony can be isolated from the crude antimony sulfide by reduction with scrap iron:


title: Antimony

text: The sulfide is converted to an oxide; the product is then roasted, sometimes for the purpose of vaporizing the volatile antimony(III) oxide, which is recovered. This material is often used directly for the main applications, impurities being arsenic and sulfide. Antimony is isolated from the oxide by a carbothermal reduction:


title: Antimony

text: The lower-grade ores are reduced in blast furnaces while the higher-grade ores are reduced in reverberatory furnaces.


title: Antimony

text: The British Geological Survey (BGS) reported that in 2005 China was the top producer of antimony with approximately 84% of the world share, followed at a distance by South Africa, Bolivia and Tajikistan. Xikuangshan Mine in Hunan province has the largest deposits in China with an estimated deposit of 2.1 million metric tons.


title: Antimony

text: In 2016, according to the US Geological Survey, China accounted for 76.9% of total antimony production, followed in second place by Russia with 6.9% and Tajikistan with 6.2%.


title: Antimony

text: Chinese production of antimony is expected to decline in the future as mines and smelters are closed down by the government as part of pollution control. Especially due to an environmental protection law having gone into effect in January 2015 and revised "Emission Standards of Pollutants for Stanum, Antimony, and Mercury" having gone into effect, hurdles for economic production are higher. According to the National Bureau of Statistics in China, by September 2015 50% of antimony production capacity in the Hunan province (the province with biggest antimony reserves in China) had not been used.


title: Antimony

text: Reported production of antimony in China has fallen and is unlikely to increase in the coming years, according to the Roskill report. No significant antimony deposits in China have been developed for about ten years, and the remaining economic reserves are being rapidly depleted.


title: Antimony

text: For antimony-importing regions such as Europe and the U.S., antimony is considered to be a critical mineral for industrial manufacturing that is at risk of supply chain disruption. With global production coming mainly from China (74%), Tajikistan (8%), and Russia (4%), these sources are critical to supply.


title: Antimony

text: About 60% of antimony is consumed in flame retardants, and 20% is used in alloys for batteries, plain bearings, and solders.


title: Antimony

text: Antimony is mainly used as the trioxide for flame-proofing compounds, always in combination with halogenated flame retardants except in halogen-containing polymers. The flame retarding effect of antimony trioxide is produced by the formation of halogenated antimony compounds, which react with hydrogen atoms, and probably also with oxygen atoms and OH radicals, thus inhibiting fire. Markets for these flame-retardants include children's clothing, toys, aircraft, and automobile seat covers. They are also added to polyester resins in fiberglass composites for such items as light aircraft engine covers. The resin will burn in the presence of an externally generated flame, but will extinguish when the external flame is removed.


title: Antimony

text: Antimony forms a highly useful alloy with lead, increasing its hardness and mechanical strength. For most applications involving lead, varying amounts of antimony are used as alloying metal. In lead–acid batteries, this addition improves plate strength and charging characteristics. For sailboats, lead keels are used to provide righting moment, ranging from 600 lbs to over 200 tons for the largest sailing superyachts; to improve hardness and tensile strength of the lead keel, antimony is mixed with lead between 2% and 5% by volume. Antimony is used in antifriction alloys (such as Babbitt metal), in bullets and lead shot, electrical cable sheathing, type metal (for example, for linotype printing machines), solder (some "lead-free" solders contain 5% Sb), in pewter, and in hardening alloys with low tin content in the manufacturing of organ pipes.


title: Antimony

text: Three other applications consume nearly all the rest of the world's supply. One application is as a stabilizer and catalyst for the production of polyethylene terephthalate. Another is as a fining agent to remove microscopic bubbles in glass, mostly for TV screens antimony ions interact with oxygen, suppressing the tendency of the latter to form bubbles. The third application is pigments.


title: Antimony

text: In the 1990s antimony was increasingly being used in semiconductors as a dopant in n-type silicon wafers for diodes, infrared detectors, and Hall-effect devices. In the 1950s, the emitters and collectors of n-p-n alloy junction transistors were doped with tiny beads of a lead-antimony alloy. Indium antimonide is used as a material for mid-infrared detectors.


title: Antimony

text: Biology and medicine have few uses for antimony. Treatments containing antimony, known as antimonials, are used as emetics. Antimony compounds are used as antiprotozoan drugs. Potassium antimonyl tartrate, or tartar emetic, was once used as an anti-schistosomal drug from 1919 on. It was subsequently replaced by praziquantel. Antimony and its compounds are used in several veterinary preparations, such as anthiomaline and lithium antimony thiomalate, as a skin conditioner in ruminants. Antimony has a nourishing or conditioning effect on keratinized tissues in animals.


title: Antimony

text: Antimony-based drugs, such as meglumine antimoniate, are also considered the drugs of choice for treatment of leishmaniasis in domestic animals. Besides having low therapeutic indices, the drugs have minimal penetration of the bone marrow, where some of the "Leishmania" amastigotes reside, and curing the disease – especially the visceral form – is very difficult. Elemental antimony as an antimony pill was once used as a medicine. It could be reused by others after ingestion and elimination.


title: Antimony

text: Antimony(III) sulfide is used in the heads of some safety matches. Antimony sulfides help to stabilize the friction coefficient in automotive brake pad materials. Antimony is used in bullets, bullet tracers, paint, glass art, and as an opacifier in enamel. Antimony-124 is used together with beryllium in neutron sources; the gamma rays emitted by antimony-124 initiate the photodisintegration of beryllium. The emitted neutrons have an average energy of 24 keV. Natural antimony is used in startup neutron sources.


title: Antimony

text: Historically, the powder derived from crushed antimony ("kohl") has been applied to the eyes with a metal rod and with one's spittle, thought by the ancients to aid in curing eye infections. The practice is still seen in Yemen and in other Muslim countries.


title: Antimony

text: The effects of antimony and its compounds on human and environmental health differ widely. Elemental antimony metal does not affect human and environmental health. Inhalation of antimony trioxide (and similar poorly soluble Sb(III) dust particles such as antimony dust) is considered harmful and suspected of causing cancer. However, these effects are only observed with female rats and after long-term exposure to high dust concentrations. The effects are hypothesized to be attributed to inhalation of poorly soluble Sb particles leading to impaired lung clearance, lung overload, inflammation and ultimately tumour formation, not to exposure to antimony ions (OECD, 2008). Antimony chlorides are corrosive to skin. The effects of antimony are not comparable to those of arsenic; this might be caused by the significant differences of uptake, metabolism, and excretion between arsenic and antimony.


title: Antimony

text: For oral absorption, ICRP (1994) has recommended values of 10% for tartar emetic and 1% for all other antimony compounds. Dermal absorption for metals is estimated to be at most 1% (HERAG, 2007). Inhalation absorption of antimony trioxide and other poorly soluble Sb(III) substances (such as antimony dust) is estimated at 6.8% (OECD, 2008), whereas a value <1% is derived for Sb(V) substances. Antimony(V) is not quantitatively reduced to antimony(III) in the cell, and both species exist simultaneously.


title: Antimony

text: Antimony is mainly excreted from the human body via urine. Antimony and its compounds do not cause acute human health effects, with the exception of antimony potassium tartrate ("tartar emetic"), a prodrug that is intentionally used to treat leishmaniasis patients.


title: Antimony

text: Prolonged skin contact with antimony dust may cause dermatitis. However, it was agreed at the European Union level that the skin rashes observed are not substance-specific, but most probably due to a physical blocking of sweat ducts (ECHA/PR/09/09, Helsinki, 6 July 2009). Antimony dust may also be explosive when dispersed in the air; when in a bulk solid it is not combustible.


title: Antimony

text: Antimony is incompatible with strong acids, halogenated acids, and oxidizers; when exposed to newly formed hydrogen it may form stibine (SbH).


title: Antimony

text: The 8-hour time-weighted average (TWA) is set at 0.5 mg/m by the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists and by the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) as a legal permissible exposure limit (PEL) in the workplace. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has set a recommended exposure limit (REL) of 0.5 mg/m as an 8-hour TWA.


title: Antimony

text: Antimony compounds are used as catalysts for polyethylene terephthalate (PET) production. Some studies report minor antimony leaching from PET bottles into liquids, but levels are below drinking water guidelines. Antimony concentrations in fruit juice concentrates were somewhat higher (up to 44.7 µg/L of antimony), but juices do not fall under the drinking water regulations. The drinking water guidelines are:


title: Antimony

text: The tolerable daily intake (TDI) proposed by WHO is 6 µg antimony per kilogram of body weight. The immediately dangerous to life or health (IDLH) value for antimony is 50 mg/m.


title: Antimony

text: Certain compounds of antimony appear to be toxic, particularly antimony trioxide and antimony potassium tartrate. Effects may be similar to arsenic poisoning. Occupational exposure may cause respiratory irritation, pneumoconiosis, antimony spots on the skin, gastrointestinal symptoms, and cardiac arrhythmias. In addition, antimony trioxide is potentially carcinogenic to humans.


title: Antimony

text: Adverse health effects have been observed in humans and animals following inhalation, oral, or dermal exposure to antimony and antimony compounds. Antimony toxicity typically occurs either due to occupational exposure, during therapy or from accidental ingestion. It is unclear if antimony can enter the body through the skin. The presence of low levels of antimony in saliva may also be associated with dental decay.


title: Ciro Immobile

text: Ciro Immobile (born 20 February 1990) is an Italian professional footballer who plays as a striker for Serie A club Lazio, which he captains, and the Italy national team.


title: Ciro Immobile

text: Immobile began his career at Sorrento. In 2009, he was purchased by Juventus, and was later loaned out to three Serie B clubs, including Pescara, with whom he won the league title as the top scorer, before moving to Genoa in 2012. After a season with the club, he moved to Juventus' rivals Torino. At Torino, he won the "Capocannoniere" award for the top scorer in Serie A. After his breakout season at Torino, he was sold to German club Borussia Dortmund for around €18 million in 2014, where they won the DFL-Supercup, before moving to Spanish club Sevilla in 2015. In 2016, he returned to Torino on loan, and was later sold to Lazio in July of that year. In his second season at Lazio, he won the "Capocannoniere" for a second time, with 29 goals in 33 games. The 2019–20 season was the most prolific of Immobile's career; he equalled the record for most Serie A goals in a season with 36, and won a third "Capocannoniere" title and first European Golden Shoe, given to the top scorer in Europe. Immobile has also won a Coppa Italia and two Supercoppa Italiana titles with Lazio. He is currently Lazio's all-time highest goalscorer. In 2022, he won the "Capocannoniere" for a fourth time, with 27 goals in 31 games.


title: Ciro Immobile

text: Immobile made his debut for the Italy national team in 2014, and was included in the squad for the 2014 FIFA World Cup, UEFA Euro 2016, and UEFA Euro 2020, winning the latter tournament.


title: Ciro Immobile

text: Born in Torre Annunziata, in the province of Naples, Immobile began his youth career in the football school "Torre Annunziata '88", before transferring to "Maria Rosa" and finally the youth team of Salernitana, where however, he failed to emerge. He later joined Sorrento, with whom he scored 30 goals in the under-17 during the 2007–08 season, including a brace against Torino, impressing the observers of Juventus.


title: Ciro Immobile

text: In 2008, he was signed at the age of 18 for €80,000 by Juventus under the recommendation of Ciro Ferrara. He went on to play with the "Primavera" formation.


title: Ciro Immobile

text: Immobile joined the Primavera squad in 2009, where he formed a striking partnership with Ayub Daud, that led the squad to win the 2009 Torneo di Viareggio, where he scored a total five goals; two of which came in the final.


title: Ciro Immobile

text: On 14 March 2009, Immobile made his Serie A debut in a 4–1 home win against Bologna, replacing Juventus' captain Alessandro Del Piero in the 89th minute.


title: Ciro Immobile

text: On 25 November 2009, Immobile also made his debut in a European competition, once again as a second-half substitute for Del Piero in a Champions League game against Bordeaux. In February 2010, he scored a hat-trick against Empoli in the 2010 Torneo di Viareggio final to seal the title for a second consecutive season.


title: Ciro Immobile

text: On 1 July 2010, Immobile, along with teammate Luca Marrone, were sent on loan to recently relegated Serie B side A.C. Siena. In exchange for the two loans, Juventus acquired Niccolò Giannetti, Leonardo Spinazzola, and Austrian midfielder Marcel Büchel on loan from the Tuscan club. Immobile never broke into the first team, however, and in January 2011, he left Siena, after just 4 appearances and 1 goal. Following his departure from Siena, he was immediately loaned by Juventus to Grosseto, another Serie B club for the remainder of the 2010–11 Serie B season.


title: Ciro Immobile

text: On 17 August 2011, it was announced that Immobile would join Serie B club Pescara on a season-long loan from Juventus. He scored his first goal for the club on 26 August during his debut for Pescara in the first league match against Hellas Verona. By the end of the 2011–12 Serie B "andata" (first half of the season), Immobile had already scored 14 league goals. On 30 January 2012, Genoa confirmed that they had paid €4 million for half of the player's rights from Juventus, following his mercurial form in Serie B. He completed his season with Pescara in the Italian second division, as the club won the league title and sealed promotion to Serie A. He also went on to become the Serie B season's top scorer with a total of 28 goals, seven more than the second-highest scorer, Juve Stabia's Marco Sau. Immobile was also named Serie B's Player of the Year at the 2012 AIC Gran Gala del Calcio, alongside teammates Lorenzo Insigne and Marco Verratti.


title: Ciro Immobile

text: Immobile formally became a Genoa player on 1 July 2012 after the loan with Pescara expired. On 19 June 2013, Genoa and Juventus again renewed the co-ownership agreements of Immobile and Boakye.


title: Ciro Immobile

text: On 12 July 2013 Juventus bought Genoa's half of Immobile for €2.75 million. On the same day he was sold to city-rivals Torino under a new co-ownership deal for €2.75 million.


title: Ciro Immobile

text: He made his debut for Torino during the first round of the Coppa Italia against former club Pescara, scoring his first goal of the season. He provided an assist in his Serie A debut for the club, but did not score until 7 October in a 2–2 draw against Sampdoria. Previously, Immobile had failed to score in Serie A since December 2012. The goal signalled a run of form for Immobile, with the player scoring a further 12 goals in his next 15 matches, including his first brace in Serie A during a game against Chievo Verona in December.


title: Ciro Immobile

text: On 22 March 2014, Immobile scored his first Serie A hat-trick, in a 3–1 win against Livorno. Three days later, he scored a spectacular volley with his left foot against Roma, temporarily bringing the "Granata" level at the Stadio Olimpico. On 6 April, he scored the winning goal against Catania in a 2–1 victory.


title: Ciro Immobile

text: On 13 April, Genoa were leading 1–0, when Immobile and Alessio Cerci both scored in stoppage time to give Torino a 2–1 win. He scored again in the following round in a 3–3 draw away to Lazio. On 27 April, Immobile scored for the sixth consecutive match in a 2–0 defeat of Udinese. This took him to 21 goals in the season, equaling the seasonal goal records of Paolo Pulici and Francesco Graziani at Torino.


title: Ciro Immobile

text: On 11 May, Immobile scored in the penultimate fixture of the season against Parma, but was sent off in the second half and suspended for the final match against Fiorentina. He concluded his season with 22 goals in 33 appearances, plus one goal in the Coppa Italia. He became the first Torino player to win the "Capocannoniere" since Francesco Graziani in the 1976–77 season.


title: Ciro Immobile

text: On 2 June 2014 Bundesliga club Borussia Dortmund announced the signing of Immobile, despite the co-ownership agreement between Torino and Juventus not being resolved. Urbano Cairo, the president of Torino, accused Juventus and Dortmund of violating FIFA regulation regarding transfer on 10 May 2014, which FIGC also states that such transfers must have mutual consent of the co-owners. Cairo also wanted to keep Immobile for at least a season for sports and for profit. On 18 June 2014, Juventus sold the remaining 50% registration rights of Immobile to Torino for €8.035 million. Torino later revealed in its financial filing, that the transfer fee to the German side was €17.955 million. On 13 August 2014, Immobile made his official debut for Dortmund as a striker in the starting line up for the 2014 DFL-Supercup against Bayern Munich. The match ended in Borussia lifting the cup by the score of 2–0.


title: Ciro Immobile

text: Immobile made his Bundesliga debut on 23 August in the opening match of Dortmund's 2014–15 Bundesliga campaign which saw them lose 2–0 to Bayer Leverkusen at home. On 16 September 2014, Immobile scored his first goal for the club, opening a 2–0 home win over Arsenal in the group stages of the Champions League.


title: Ciro Immobile

text: He scored four goals in six Champions League matches, in a 3–0 away win over Anderlecht, in a 4–1 home win over Galatasaray and in a 1–1 home draw vs Anderlecht, with Borussia qualifying as first from the group. On 17 December 2014, Immobile assisted the first goal and scored the second on a 2–2 home draw with Wolfsburg.


title: Ciro Immobile

text: On 12 July 2015, Immobile joined Sevilla on a season-long loan after scoring just three goals in the league in his first season at Borussia Dortmund, with a total 10 goals in 34 matches across all competitions. Sevilla also had an option to sign him outright. He made his debut for the club on 11 August 2015, coming off the bench to replace Kevin Gameiro in the 80th minute of the 2015 UEFA Super Cup final, against Barcelona, and assisting Yevhen Konoplyanka's temporary equaliser to send the match into extra-time; Barcelona went on to win the match 5–4.


title: Ciro Immobile

text: On 31 July 2015, Immobile was stretchered off the pitch wearing an oxygen mask and a neck brace after playing just five minutes in a friendly against Watford at Vicarage Road after clashing heads with an opponent. He was taken to the hospital for tests and was in recovering condition. It was later determined his nasal septum ruptured, which looked like a major injury, but turned out to be only minor. On 8 November 2015, Immobile scored his first goal for Sevilla in the 36th minute as they emerged victorious in a 3–2 La Liga home win over Real Madrid. In November, the obligation to buy clause was exercised when Immobile made his fifth appearance, buying him outright for €11 million plus the €3 million for the loan spell.


title: Ciro Immobile

text: On 14 January 2016, Immobile returned to Torino on loan until the end of 2015–16 season. Two days later on his return debut, he scored the opening goal of a 4–2 home victory over Frosinone. On 14 February, he scored a brace, in a 3–1 win away against Palermo. On 22 March, it was determined he sustained a muscular injury at the half time mark in a derby with Juventus two days prior, and would be sidelined for a month.


title: Ciro Immobile

text: On 27 July 2016, Immobile signed with Lazio for a fee of €8.75 million (plus €700,000 commission to agents). On 21 August, Immobile scored on his debut in Lazio's opening match of a 4–3 away win over Atalanta. Immobile finished the season with 23 league goals in 36 appearances plus 3 goals in the Coppa Italia, surpassing his total when he won the "Capocannoniere" with Torino in the 2013–14 season, though this time he did not win the "Capocannoniere", losing it to Bosnian striker Edin Džeko of cross-town rivals Roma, who scored 29 league goals.