title: Dragon Ball Super: Broly

text: The film is produced by Toei Animation. It was originally announced under the tentative title of "Dragon Ball Super - The Movie" on December 17, 2017, during Jump Festa with the general theme being "The Strongest Warrior Race in the Universe, The Saiyans". A poster was released on March 13, 2018, 11 days before the airing of the final episode of "Dragon Ball Super", featuring an entirely new traditional animation design by Toei animator Naohiro Shintani, as opposed to veteran "Dragon Ball" character designer Tadayoshi Yamamuro. One week later, the first trailer for the film was released publicly through Toei Animation featuring the all–new character designs and an enigmatic new villain. Akira Toriyama wrote the story, screenplay and designed the characters, Tatsuya Nagamine is film director, Naohiro Shintani is animation director, Kazuo Ogura is serving as art director, Rumiko Nagai as color designer, Naotake Oota is in charge of special effects, and Kai Makino is the CG director. The film includes elements of the 2014 "Dragon Ball −(Minus): The Departure of the Fated Child" story written by Toriyama.


title: Dragon Ball Super: Broly

text: On July 9, 2018, the film's title was revealed to be "Dragon Ball Super: Broly", revealing the unknown villain to be the titular character Broly who first appeared in the 1993 film "". Toriyama stated the character and his origin is reworked, but with his classic image in mind. With this film portrayal, the character would become part of the "Dragon Ball Super" official continuity. Other new characters introduced in the film are Goku's mother Gine, Kikono, Berryblue, Cheelai, and Lemo serving in the Frieza's army, and the Saiyan Beets.


title: Dragon Ball Super: Broly

text: The film score was composed by Norihito Sumitomo. The original soundtrack, containing 34 tracks, was released on 12 December, by Avex Trax. In August 2018, was reported a rumor that the "Dragon Ball Z" iconic theme song "Cha-La Head-Cha-La" would be also featured in a new arrangement. In October 2018, it was announced that Daichi Miura would perform the film's theme song "Blizzard", which was released as a single on 19 December, by Sonic Groove. Three versions of the single "" were released (CD+DVD Edition, Single CD Edition and CD "Dragon Ball Super: Broly" Cover Edition). In its first week of release the CD single sold 22,826 copies. In his sixth week in the Charts, "Blizzard" reached number 2 on the "Billboard" Japan Hot 100 and achieved the number 1 on the "Billboard" Hot Animation.


title: Dragon Ball Super: Broly

text: On July 19, 2018, theatrical trailers for both the subtitled and dubbed versions were released online after being shown at San Diego Comic-Con. On October 5, 2018, the second trailer for both the subtitled and dubbed versions were released online after being shown at New York Comic Con during the "Dragon Ball Super: Broly" panel at the Hulu Theater at Madison Square Garden. The third trailer was released on November 7, 2018, but only subtitled, while dubbed version on 20 December. The fourth which was a music trailer featuring the theme song "Blizzard" was released on November 24, 2018. The fifth and final trailer was released on 29 November 2018, with a dubbed version, also of the theme song, on 4 December 2018. Each trailer covered a different aspect of the film; the first introduced Broly and his fights against Vegeta, Goku and Frieza, the second their origin stories, the third more scenes from the fights, the fourth recapped previous scenes, and fifth which was the shortest introduced Gogeta's battle against Broly.


title: Dragon Ball Super: Broly

text: Beginning July 20, the first 50,000 pre-order ticket holders in Japan received a char of Goku or Vegeta. A promotional one-hour television special aired on Fuji TV in Japan on December 2, 2018, entitled ""Just before the Dragon Ball Super debut! TV version climax recap"".


title: Dragon Ball Super: Broly

text: In North America, anime distributor Funimation hosted the "Dragon Ball North America Tour 2018 with Bandai Collectibles" to promote the film. The tour was held in seven cities in the United States and Canada, starting with a San Diego Comic-Con International panel on July 19, and ending at Dallas Fan Days on October 21, 2018. Fathom Events and Toei Animation also held two limited North American theatrical screenings of past "Dragon Ball" films that featured characters from "Dragon Ball Super: Broly". A screening of "" (1993) was held in September 2018, while "" (1990) and "" (1995), billed together as "Dragon Ball Z: Saiyan Double Feature", were screened the following November. To promote the North American release of the film, a Goku balloon was flown during the 92nd Macy's Thanksgiving Day Parade in 2018.


title: Dragon Ball Super: Broly

text: The film's versions of Gogeta and Broly appear as playable characters via downloadable content (DLC) in the video games "Dragon Ball Xenoverse 2" and "Dragon Ball FighterZ". "Xenoverse 2" also features Super Saiyan God Vegeta as DLC.


title: Dragon Ball Super: Broly

text: A novelization of the film, written by Masatoshi Kusakabe, was released on December 14, 2018. The novel adds additional details not present in the film, such as the names of two Saiyans, Leek and Taro, who appeared early in the film. It was one of the twenty top-selling light novels of January 2019, selling 10,466 copies in Japan. The film was also adapted into an anime comic on May 2, 2019, featuring cover art by the film's animation supervisor Naohiro Shintani.


title: Dragon Ball Super: Broly

text: The world premiere of "Dragon Ball Super: Broly" was held at the Nippon Budokan in Chiyoda, Tokyo on November 14, 2018. This event was limited to only 1,000 guests that were selected via lottery through "Weekly Shōnen Jump" No.47 and the December "V Jump". "Broly" was open nationwide in Japan on December 14, 2018, while Funimation's English dub had its world premiere at TCL Chinese Theatre in Los Angeles on December 13 followed by its United States and Canada release a month later on January 16, 2019, by Funimation Films. The film was screened in Bangladesh by Star Cineplex on January 18, 2019, making it the first anime as well as Dragon Ball film to release in the country's theater. In the United Kingdom and Ireland, Manga Entertainment screened the film theatrically from January 23, 2019. In Australia and New Zealand, Madman Entertainment screened the film theatrically from January 24, 2019, and also screened the IMAX and 4DX versions of the film in select cinemas. 20th Century Fox released the film theatrically in the Philippines on January 30, 2019. On February 28, 2019, both Hong Kong and Italy projected the film theatrically through distributors Neofilms and Anime Factory respectively. In the France, Viz Media Europe screened the film theatrically from March 13, 2019. PVR Cinemas released the film in India on March 29, 2019, making it the second film of its franchise to be theatrically released in India. In China, the film premiered theatrically on May 24, 2019.


title: Dragon Ball Super: Broly

text: The film was distributed in Japan by Toei Company in cooperation with the Japanese branch of 20th Century Fox, who also handled distribution in some international territories making his last film in the franchise co-distributed by Fox due the dissolution of his japanese branch absorbed by Disney Japan in September 2020. On July 7, 2018, Funimation bought the film's international rights in the United States and Canada. In addition to regular screenings, it is also screened in IMAX, MX4D, and 4DX. The film is the first anime to be screened in IMAX in the United States, with a limited projection beginning January 16, 2019.


title: Dragon Ball Super: Broly

text: On April 16, 2019, Funimation released to the North American market the package of Blu-ray discs, DVD and digital combo of the film. The Blu-ray of the film debuted at number 1 selling 298,048 copies, while the DVD debuted at number 9 selling 30,216 copies and therefore, together they raised more than in retail stores of the United States in its first week of launching. The Blu-ray release contains bonus interviews with the English voice cast; Vic Mignogna was initially advertised as featuring, but his material was omitted following sexual assault accusations made against him and his removal from future Funimation projects in response. Some viewers criticized the picture quality of Funimation's releases for adding a "green tint" to the color, which Funimation defended as being "identical" to the theatrical release.


title: Dragon Ball Super: Broly

text: In United Kingdom, Manga Entertainment released the DVD and Blu-ray on May 27, 2019; this version did not include the interviews featured on the American release and was not affected by the green color issues. Selecta Visión launched in Spain the regular Blu-ray / DVD editions and the Collector's Edition of the film on May 29, 2019.


title: Dragon Ball Super: Broly

text: The film was released in Japan in regular and limited edition DVD and Blu-ray formats on June 5, 2019. The Limited editions for both formats include an bonus DVD featuring TV spot, promotional clips, world premiere event at Nippon Budokan and an event held on December 15, 2018. Also includes tin badges featuring Saiyan, 32 postcards, an original card folder and a 60-page booklet. The home video of "Dragon Ball Super: Broly" debuted at number 1 in the Japan's Animation DVD and Blu-ray Ranking and sold approximately 64,259 copies in its first week. For the second consecutive week, "Dragon Ball Super: Broly" continued to occupy the number 1 spot, adding another 10,291 copies. In its third week, it sold 4,540 copies approximately.


title: Dragon Ball Super: Broly

text: In Australia and New Zealand, Madman Entertainment released the film on DVD and Blu-ray on June 19, 2019. Koch Media released the film in Italy on DVD and Blu-ray on June 20, 2019. On July 17, 2019, Wild Side Video released the DVD and Blu-ray of the film in France. KAZÉ Anime released the film's DVD and Blu-ray in Germany on December 5, 2019.


title: Dragon Ball Super: Broly

text: In its opening weekend between 14 and 16 December 2018, the film was shown on 467 screens in Japan, and surpassed "" to set a new opening weekend record for the franchise. It opened at number-one at Japanese box office by dominating the weekend from December 14 to 16, selling more than 820,000 tickets and earning more than () in its first three days. In its first six days it sold more than 1 million tickets and earned (). The "Mainichi Shimbun" newspaper reported that the film has earned more than ¥2 billion (US$18.1 million) after 11 days at the box office, being the fastest film in the franchise to hit that mark. It has also sold more than 1.5 million tickets. After three weekends, on 31 December it earned $23.6 million in Japan, and roughly $24.4 million internationally.


title: Dragon Ball Super: Broly

text: According to "Crunchyroll", after 24 days the film earned on 2,604,870 tickets in Japan. After 32 days of release (14 December 2018 to 14 January 2019), the film had earned (), with 2,823,215 tickets having been sold. After 38 days of release, the film's earnings had increased to () to become the highest-grossing film in the series. On seventh weekend, the film dropped from sixth to ninth place. As of 3 February 2019, the film has sold 3,009,730 tickets and grossed ¥3,895,569,200 () in Japan.


title: Dragon Ball Super: Broly

text: After four weekends, on 6 January 2019, it was estimated to have earned $32.3 million worldwide, with $29.7 million coming from Japan and $3.3 million from five other countries, including the highest-grossing opening by a Japanese film in Brazil with $1.7 million, and by a Japanese animation film in Malaysia with $232,000. During its release on 10 January in Latin America, in Peru the film had the second best premiere in history reaching 257,420 spectators on its first day of release, only surpassed by the "" with 291,629 in 2018, as well best premiere for an animation film in Bolivia. In Argentina, Bolivia, Paraguay, Puerto Rico and Uruguay the film also debuted at number-one at the box office. In its first Latin America weekend it grossed reportedly over $6.1 million in Mexico alone, while according to "Deadline Hollywood", "Peru ($2.5 million) and Argentina ($1.55 million) gave Fox its biggest opening weekend ever, followed by Chile ($1.7 million) with the industry's 3rd biggest animation opening of all time. In Colombia it was Fox's 4th biggest opening weekend ever at $1.5 million and in Ecuador, the Toei anime fantasy is Fox's top launch ever, and the 3rd best superhero bow, behind "Avengers: Infinity War" and """ with $1.3 million. In its fifth weekend ending 13 January 2019, the film grossed $19.2 million from 17 territories, becoming the weekend's third top-grossing film in international markets, behind only "Bumblebee" and "Aquaman", which brought the film's worldwide gross to $53.5 million ahead of its United States release. On the weekend ending 20 January, the international cume had increased to $65.9 million, holding onto the number 1 spot in Chile ($3 million), Peru ($3.8 million) and Ecuador. The film's gross increased to $9.5 million in Mexico, $4.3 million in Brazil, $2.6 million in Argentina and $2.4 million in Colombia. Alongside its domestic total, the worldwide gross increased to $88.7 million.


title: Dragon Ball Super: Broly

text: Despite limited release In the United States the film earned $7.03 million on its opening day, which was a new series record, besting "Resurrection 'F"'s $1.97 million. It again topped the United States box office on its second day of release with $3.3 million, for a two-day total of $10.4 million. It earned $2.39 million on Friday (18 January), earning $12.8 million total in its first three days. The film ended up grossing $9.8 million across the three-day opening weekend (and $11.94 million across the four-day MLK Weekend) to bring its domestic total up to in six days, far surpassing the original estimates of $11 million. In its second weekend it fell 63% to $3.6 million, finishing 10th. It became the 3rd highest grossing anime film in the United States of all time.


title: Dragon Ball Super: Broly

text: , "Dragon Ball Super: Broly" has grossed over in the United States and Canada, and internationally from Fox distributed markets, for a worldwide total of over . It is the 11th highest grossing anime film internationally of all time.


title: Dragon Ball Super: Broly

text: Among non Fox distributed markets, in the United Kingdom and Ireland, it became the third highest-grossing anime film ever, earning £850,000 () on its first weekend. It eventually became the second highest-grossing upon surpassing £1 million ($1.3 million).


title: Dragon Ball Super: Broly

text: It debuted at number 7 in Australia and number 1 in New Zealand, raising AUS$1,322,182 and $309,209 respectively. In the Netherlands, it raised €377,570 () in its first week of release, entering at number 4. About 73,000 people saw the film on its premier on 29 January in Germany where it grossed €854,000 ($970,000). It debuted at number 3 in Spain and earned $1.82 million after its fourth weekend. It debuted at number 1 in Italy earning €1.7 million ($1.9 million) in its opening week. By its second weekend the gross had increased to €2.31 million ($2.6 million).


title: Dragon Ball Super: Broly

text: On 3 March 2019, the film was reported by the official "Dragon Ball" news site to have earned over ¥12 billion ($107 million) at the worldwide box office. , the film was reported in Toei Animations's fiscal report to have grossed over ¥13 billion ($118 million) at the worldwide box office. In China, where it released on 24 May 2019, the film debuted with a opening weekend. , the film has grossed $30,712,119 in the United States and Canada, and $92,411,000 in other territories, for a worldwide total of .


title: Dragon Ball Super: Broly

text: On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of based on reviews, with an average rating of . The website's critical consensus reads, ""Dragon Ball Super: Broly" may seem like colorful chaos to newcomers, but for longtime fans, it represents this long-running franchise near its action-packed apogee." On Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating to reviews, the film has a weighted average score of 59 out of 100 based on 6 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". According to Pia's first-day satisfaction survey of Japanese audiences, it ranked as No 1. with an audience approval rating of 92.7%, while American audiences gave the film five out of five stars on PostTrak, including a 91% positive score and 78% "definite recommend."


title: Dragon Ball Super: Broly

text: It received critical acclaim from the initial critical reviews by Anime News Network, IGN, and Comic Book praising the story, animation style, humour, as well Broly for making the film a "meaningful character piece about a broken man haunted by his abuse-filled past—twisted into something he was never destined to become". In a 5 out of 5 stars review by "Stuff", it was considered as the "best "Dragon Ball" film" with the only prominent critical point that "there are certain scenes where it transitions between 2D animation and 3D ... which can disrupt the flow of it all". Ollie Barder writing for "Forbes", stated that the "only real criticism at this point is that after this solid narrative starting setup, we have a pretty hefty time jump to where we are post-"Dragon Ball Super". Considering the depth and breadth of the story between these points of time, it would have been nice to have a bit more exposition to help with the pacing. However, that said, this is already a long film and we all know that we have a massive fight to look forward to". Allegra Frank of "Polygon" concluded that the film "gets the fundamentals of "Dragon Ball" extremely right, no matter where you're coming in from", with "no grand statements to be made in "Dragon Ball Super: Broly", and more amusement than anxiety".


title: Dragon Ball Super: Broly

text: "Dragon Ball Super: Broly" has been adapted into an anime comic, using shots from the film put into manga format. Featuring a cover illustration by Naohiro Shintani, the single volume was released in Japan on May 2, 2019.


title: D'Arcy Carden

text: D'Arcy Beth Carden (born Darcy Beth Erokan, January 4, 1980) is an American actress and comedian. She is best known for her starring roles as Janet in the NBC sitcom "The Good Place" (2016–2020) and Greta Gill in the Prime series "A League Of Their Own" (2022-present). She earned a nomination for a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series for her role in "The Good Place". She has held recurring roles as Gemma in "Broad City" (2014–2019) and as Natalie Greer in the HBO dark comedy series "Barry" (2018–present).


title: D'Arcy Carden

text: Carden began her career performing improvisational comedy at the Upright Citizens Brigade Theatre. She went on to make appearances in several television series, including "Inside Amy Schumer" (2015), "Crazy Ex-Girlfriend" (2016), and "Veep" (2017). She also appeared in numerous films, such as "Other People" (2016), "Let It Snow" (2019), and "Bombshell" (2019).


title: D'Arcy Carden

text: Darcy Beth Erokan was born and raised in Danville, California. Her father, Dennis William Mustafa Erokan, is a native of Istanbul, Turkey, who immigrated to California when he was a child; he acted in local community theater and founded "MicroTimes" and the Bay Area music magazine "BAM". She has two sisters, Miranda and Laney, and one brother, Will. She added an apostrophe to the spelling of her name when she was in junior high to emulate D'arcy Wretzky of the band The Smashing Pumpkins.


title: D'Arcy Carden

text: In 1998, she graduated from San Ramon Valley High School and later received a Bachelor of Fine Arts in Theater from Southern Oregon University.


title: D'Arcy Carden

text: After graduating from college, Carden moved to New York City. She joined Venus Rising, a musical-comedy company, and in 2001 she appeared in "Seven Hearts", a musical about friends living in San Francisco. The following year, she starred in a holiday show in which the main character is upset that her family is obsessed with her selfish sister's wedding rather than keeping up their Christmas spirit. She also served as director and producer. Early on while pursuing her acting career, Carden also worked as a nanny for Bill Hader.


title: D'Arcy Carden

text: A friend invited Carden to an improvisational sketch comedy show at the Upright Citizens Brigade Theatre (UCB). Carden enjoyed the show so much, she signed on for classes and kept progressing with the group. She started with UCB in 2004 and later toured with the UCB Touring company. By 2010, she was using her married surname Carden professionally when she was a cast member for "The Ride", an interactive show performed on New York City tour buses. In 2013, Carden co-created and co-starred in "Terrible Babysitters", a Web original about two parents who want to find a babysitter.


title: D'Arcy Carden

text: Carden had a recurring role as Gemma in the Comedy Central comedy series "Broad City" (2014–2019), a series created by fellow UCB alumnae Ilana Glazer and Abbi Jacobson. Carden also appeared in guest roles in the comedy series "Inside Amy Schumer" (2015), "Crazy Ex-Girlfriend" (2016), and "Veep" (2017). Following small roles in the parody film "iSteve" (2013) and the romantic comedy "The To Do List" (2013), she appeared as Jessica in the acclaimed comedy-drama film "Other People" (2016).


title: D'Arcy Carden

text: In 2016, Carden began starring as Janet, a live virtual assistant, in the NBC comedy series "The Good Place", which also stars Kristen Bell and Ted Danson. For her performance in the series, she received critical acclaim and earned nominations for the Critics' Choice Television Award for Best Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series and the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series.


title: D'Arcy Carden

text: Since 2018, Carden has had a recurring role as Natalie Greer in the HBO dark comedy-crime series "Barry", starring Hader. Along with her fellow cast members, she was nominated for the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series in 2018 and 2019.


title: D'Arcy Carden

text: In 2019, she appeared in the dark comedy film "Greener Grass", the romantic comedy film "Let It Snow", and the drama film "Bombshell". She also appeared in the Netflix comedy series "Bonding" and the Adult Swim animated comedy series "Robot Chicken".


title: D'Arcy Carden

text: Carden met producer Jason Grant Carden on a trip to Disneyland with mutual friends. They married on July 31, 2010. In 2013, the couple moved from New York City to Los Angeles.


title: D'Arcy Carden

text: Carden used to be a full-time nanny for Bill Hader and Maggie Carey. She still maintains a close relationship with their three daughters.


title: Siegfried Sassoon

text: Siegfried Loraine Sassoon (8 September 1886 – 1 September 1967) was an English war poet, writer, and soldier. Decorated for bravery on the Western Front, he became one of the leading poets of the First World War. His poetry both described the horrors of the trenches and satirised the patriotic pretensions of those who, in Sassoon's view, were responsible for a jingoism-fuelled war. Sassoon became a focal point for dissent within the armed forces when he made a lone protest against the continuation of the war in his "Soldier's Declaration" of 1917, culminating in his admission to a military psychiatric hospital; this resulted in his forming a friendship with Wilfred Owen, who was greatly influenced by him. Sassoon later won acclaim for his prose work, notably his three-volume fictionalised autobiography, collectively known as the "Sherston trilogy".


title: Siegfried Sassoon

text: Siegfried Sassoon was born to a Jewish father and an Anglo-Catholic mother, and grew up in the neo-gothic mansion named "Weirleigh" (after its builder, Harrison Weir), in Matfield, Kent. His father, Alfred Ezra Sassoon (1861–1895), son of Sassoon David Sassoon, was a member of the wealthy Baghdadi Jewish Sassoon merchant family. For marrying outside the faith, Alfred was disinherited. Siegfried's mother, Theresa, belonged to the Thornycroft family, sculptors responsible for many of the best-known statues in London—her brother was Sir Hamo Thornycroft. There was no German ancestry in Sassoon's family; his mother named him Siegfried because of her love of Wagner's operas. His middle name, Loraine, was the surname of a clergyman with whom she was friendly.


title: Siegfried Sassoon

text: Siegfried was the second of three sons, the others being Michael and Hamo. When he was four years old his parents separated. During his father's weekly visits to the boys, Theresa locked herself in the drawing-room. In 1895 Alfred Sassoon died of tuberculosis.


title: Siegfried Sassoon

text: Sassoon was educated at the New Beacon School, Sevenoaks, Kent; at Marlborough College, Wiltshire; and at Clare College, Cambridge, where from 1905 to 1907 he read history. He went down from Cambridge without a degree and spent the next few years hunting, playing cricket and writing verse: some he published privately. Although his father had been disinherited from the Sassoon fortune for marrying a non-Jew, Siegfried had a small private income that allowed him to live modestly without having to earn a living (however, he would later be left a generous legacy by an aunt, Rachel Beer, allowing him to buy the great estate of Heytesbury House in Wiltshire.) His first published success, "The Daffodil Murderer" (1913), was a parody of John Masefield's "The Everlasting Mercy". Robert Graves, in "Good-Bye to All That", describes it as a "parody of Masefield which, midway through, had forgotten to be a parody and turned into rather good Masefield."


title: Siegfried Sassoon

text: Sassoon expressed his opinions on the political situation before the onset of the First World War thus—"France was a lady, Russia was a bear, and performing in the county cricket team was much more important than either of them". Sassoon wanted to play for Kent County Cricket Club; the Marchant family were neighbours, and Frank Marchant was captain of the county side between 1890 and 1897. Sassoon often turned out for Bluemantles at the Nevill Ground, Tunbridge Wells, where he sometimes played alongside Arthur Conan Doyle. He had also played cricket for his house at Marlborough College, once taking 7 wickets for 18 runs. Although an enthusiast, Sassoon was not good enough to play for his county, but he played for Matfield village, and later for a Downside Abbey team called "The Ravens", continuing into his seventies.


title: Siegfried Sassoon

text: Motivated by patriotism, Sassoon joined the Army just as the threat of a new European war was recognized, and was in service with the Sussex Yeomanry on 4 August 1914, the day the United Kingdom declared war on Germany. He broke his arm badly in a riding accident and was put out of action before leaving England, spending the spring of 1915 convalescing. He was commissioned into the 3rd Battalion (Special Reserve), Royal Welch Fusiliers, as a second lieutenant on 29 May 1915. On 1 November his younger brother Hamo was killed in the Gallipoli Campaign, dying on board the ship after having had his leg amputated. In the same month Siegfried was sent to the 1st Battalion in France, where he met Robert Graves, and they became close friends. United by their poetic vocation, they often read and discussed each other's work. Though this did not have much perceptible influence on Graves' poetry, his views on what may be called 'gritty realism' profoundly affected Sassoon's concept of what constituted poetry. He soon became horrified by the realities of war, and the tone of his writing changed completely: where his early poems exhibit a Romantic, dilettantish sweetness, his war poetry moves to an increasingly discordant music, intended to convey the ugly truths of the trenches to an audience hitherto lulled by patriotic propaganda. Details such as rotting corpses, mangled limbs, filth, cowardice and suicide are all trademarks of his work at this time, and this philosophy of 'no truth unfitting' had a significant effect on the movement towards Modernist poetry.


title: Siegfried Sassoon

text: Sassoon's periods of duty on the Western Front were marked by exceptionally brave actions, including the single-handed capture of a German trench in the Hindenburg Line. Armed with grenades, he scattered sixty German soldiers:He went over with bombs in daylight, under covering fire from a couple of rifles, and scared away the occupants. A pointless feat, since instead of signalling for reinforcements, he sat down in the German trench and began reading a book of poems which he had brought with him. When he went back he did not even report. Colonel Stockwell, then in command, raged at him. The attack on Mametz Wood had been delayed for two hours because British patrols were still reported to be out. "British patrols" were Siegfried and his book of poems. "I'd have got you a DSO, if you'd only shown more sense," stormed Stockwell.Sassoon's bravery was so inspiring that soldiers of his company said that they felt confident only when they were accompanied by him. He often went out on night raids and bombing patrols, and demonstrated ruthless efficiency as a company commander. Deepening depression at the horror and misery the soldiers were forced to endure produced in Sassoon a paradoxically manic courage, and he was nicknamed "Mad Jack" by his men for his near-suicidal exploits. On 27 July 1916 he was awarded the Military Cross; the citation read:


title: Siegfried Sassoon

text: Robert Graves described Sassoon as engaging in suicidal feats of bravery. Sassoon was also later recommended for the Victoria Cross.


title: Siegfried Sassoon

text: Despite his decorations and reputation, in 1917 Sassoon decided to make a stand against the conduct of the war. One of the reasons for his violent anti-war feeling was the death of his friend David Cuthbert Thomas, who appears as "Dick Tiltwood" in the Sherston trilogy. Sassoon would spend years trying to overcome his grief.


title: Siegfried Sassoon

text: In August 1916, Sassoon arrived at Somerville College, Oxford, which was used as a hospital for convalescing officers, with a case of gastric fever. He wrote: "To be lying in a little white-walled room, looking through the window on to a College lawn, was for the first few days very much like a paradise". Graves ended up at Somerville as well. "How unlike you to crib my idea of going to the Ladies' College at Oxford", Sassoon wrote to him in 1917.


title: Siegfried Sassoon

text: At the end of a spell of convalescent leave, Sassoon declined to return to duty; instead, encouraged by pacifist friends such as Bertrand Russell and Lady Ottoline Morrell, he sent a letter to his commanding officer entitled "". Forwarded to the press and read out in the House of Commons by a sympathetic member of Parliament, the letter was seen by some as treasonous ("I am making this statement as an act of wilful defiance of military authority") or at best as condemning the war government's motives ("I believe that the war upon which I entered as a war of defence and liberation has now become a war of aggression and conquest"). Rather than court-martial Sassoon, the Under-Secretary of State for War, Ian Macpherson, decided that he was unfit for service and had him sent to Craiglockhart War Hospital near Edinburgh, where he was officially treated for neurasthenia ("shell shock").


title: Siegfried Sassoon

text: At the end of 1917, Sassoon was posted to Limerick, Ireland, where in the New Barracks he helped train new recruits. He wrote that it was a period of respite for him, and allowed him to indulge in his love of hunting. Reflecting on the period years later, he mentioned how trouble was brewing in Ireland at the time, in the few years before the Irish War of Independence. After only a short period in Limerick he was posted to Egypt, but not until he had several opportunities to hunt.


title: Siegfried Sassoon

text: For many years it had been thought that, before declining to return to active service, Sassoon had thrown his MC ribbon into the River Mersey at Formby beach. According to his description of this incident in "Memoirs of an Infantry Officer" he did not do this as a symbolic rejection of militaristic values, but simply out of the need to perform some destructive act in catharsis of the black mood which was afflicting him; his account states that one of his pre-war sporting trophies, had he had one to hand, would have served his purpose equally well. The actual decoration was rediscovered after the death of Sassoon's only son, George, and subsequently became the subject of a dispute among Sassoon's heirs.


title: Siegfried Sassoon

text: At Craiglockhart, Sassoon met Wilfred Owen, another poet. It was thanks to Sassoon that Owen persevered in his ambition to write better poetry. A manuscript copy of Owen's "Anthem for Doomed Youth" containing Sassoon's handwritten amendments survives as testimony to the extent of his influence and is currently on display at London's Imperial War Museum. Sassoon became to Owen "Keats and Christ and Elijah", according to a surviving letter which demonstrates the depth of Owen's love and admiration for him. Both men returned to active service in France, but Owen was killed in 1918, a week before Armistice. Sassoon was promoted to lieutenant, and, having spent some time out of danger in Palestine, eventually returned to the Front. On 13 July 1918, Sassoon was wounded again—by friendly fire when he was shot in the head by a fellow British soldier who had mistaken him for a German near Arras, France. As a result, he spent the remainder of the war in Britain. By this time he had been promoted to acting captain. He relinquished his commission on health grounds on 12 March 1919, but was allowed to retain the rank of captain.


title: Siegfried Sassoon

text: After the war, Sassoon was instrumental in bringing Owen's work to the attention of a wider audience. Their relationship is the subject of Stephen MacDonald's play, "Not About Heroes".


title: Siegfried Sassoon

text: Having lived for a period at Oxford, where he spent more time visiting literary friends than studying, Sassoon dabbled briefly in the politics of the Labour movement. In November 1918, he travelled to Blackburn to support the Labour candidate in the general election, Philip Snowden, who had been a pacifist during the war. Though a self-confessed political novice, Sassoon delivered campaign speeches for Snowden, later writing that he ‘felt grateful for [Snowden's] anti-war attitude in parliament, and had been angered by the abuse thrown at him. All my political sympathies were with him.’ While his commitment to politics waned after this, he remained a supporter of the Labour Party, and in 1929 ‘rejoiced that [they] had gained seats in the British general election.’ Similarly, ‘news of the massive Labour victory in 1945 pleased him, because many Tories from the class he had loathed during the First World War had gone.’


title: Siegfried Sassoon

text: In 1919 took up a post as literary editor of the socialist "Daily Herald". He lived at 54 Tufton Street, Westminster, from 1919 to 1925; the house is no longer standing, but the location of his former home is marked by a memorial plaque.


title: Siegfried Sassoon

text: During his period at the "Herald", Sassoon was responsible for employing several eminent names as reviewers, including E. M. Forster and Charlotte Mew, and commissioned original material from writers like Arnold Bennett and Osbert Sitwell. His artistic interests extended to music. While at Oxford he was introduced to the young William Walton, to whom he became a friend and patron. Walton later dedicated his "Portsmouth Point" overture to Sassoon in recognition of his financial assistance and moral support.


title: Siegfried Sassoon

text: Sassoon later embarked on a lecture tour of the US, as well as travelling in Europe and throughout Britain. He acquired a car, a gift from the publisher Frankie Schuster, and became renowned among his friends for his lack of driving skill, but this did not prevent him making full use of the mobility it gave him.


title: Siegfried Sassoon

text: Sassoon had expressed his growing sense of identification with German soldiers in poems such as "Reconciliation" (1918), and after the war, he travelled extensively in Germany, visiting the country a number of times over the next decade. In 1921 Sassoon went to Rome, where he met the Kaiser’s nephew, Prince Philipp of Hesse. The two became lovers for a while, later taking a holiday together in Munich. While they had become estranged by the mid-1920s, due in part to geographical distance and in part, as Jean Moorcroft Wilson notes, to Sassoon’s increasing discomfort over Philipp’s growing interest in right-wing politics, Sassoon would continue to visit Germany. In 1927 he travelled to Berlin and Dresden with Osbert and Sacheverell Sitwell, and in 1929 he accompanied Stephen Tennant on a trip to a sanatorium in the Bavarian countryside.


title: Siegfried Sassoon

text: Sassoon was a great admirer of the Welsh poet Henry Vaughan. On a visit to Wales in 1923, he paid a pilgrimage to Vaughan's grave at Llansantffraed, Powys, and there wrote one of his best-known peacetime poems, "At the Grave of Henry Vaughan". The deaths within a short space of time of three of his closest friends – Edmund Gosse, Thomas Hardy and Frankie Schuster – came as another serious setback to his personal happiness.


title: Siegfried Sassoon

text: At the same time, Sassoon was preparing to take a new direction. While in America, he had experimented with a novel. In 1928, he branched out into prose, with "Memoirs of a Fox-Hunting Man", the anonymously-published first volume of a fictionalised autobiography, which was almost immediately accepted as a classic, bringing its author new fame as a prose writer. The memoir, whose mild-mannered central character is content to do little more than be an idle country gentleman, playing cricket, riding and hunting foxes, is often humorous, revealing a side of Sassoon that had been little seen in his work during the war years. The book won the 1928 James Tait Black Award for fiction. Sassoon followed it with "Memoirs of an Infantry Officer" (1930) and "Sherston's Progress" (1936). In later years, he revisited his youth and early manhood with three volumes of genuine autobiography, which were also widely acclaimed. These were "The Old Century", "The Weald of Youth" and "Siegfried's Journey".


title: Siegfried Sassoon

text: Sassoon, having matured greatly as a result of his military service, continued to seek emotional fulfilment, initially in a succession of love affairs with men, including:


title: Siegfried Sassoon

text: Though Shaw remained Sassoon's close friend throughout his life, only Tennant made a permanent impression.


title: Siegfried Sassoon

text: Introduced by the Sitwells in 1927, Sassoon and Stephen Tennant fell passionately in love, beginning a relationship which would last nearly six years.


title: Siegfried Sassoon

text: Tennant, however, had recurrent tuberculosis, and the strain which that put on their relationship had started to show by the early 1930s. In May 1933, Tennant, then receiving treatment at a sanatorium in Kent, abruptly broke off the relationship, informing Sassoon via a letter written by his doctor that he never wanted to see him again. Sassoon was devastated. When he met his future wife Hester Gatty a few months later, he was still reeling from his break-up with Tennant. Sensing a sympathetic nature, Sassoon confided in Hester about their relationship and, at her suggestion, wrote Tennant a letter to put the past to rest. Whilst he and Tennant would exchange letters, telephone calls and infrequent visits in the years to come, they never resumed their previous relationship.


title: Siegfried Sassoon

text: In September 1931, Sassoon rented Fitz House, Teffont Magna, Wiltshire, and began to live there. In December 1933, he married Hester Gatty (daughter of Stephen Herbert Gatty), who was twenty years his junior, and soon afterwards they moved to Heytesbury House. The marriage led to the birth of a child, something Sassoon had purportedly craved for a long time. Siegfried's son, George Sassoon (1936–2006), became a scientist, linguist, and author, and was adored by Siegfried, who wrote several poems addressed to him. Siegfried's marriage broke down after the Second World War, with Sassoon apparently unable to find a compromise between the solitude he enjoyed and the companionship he needed. Separated from his wife in 1945, Sassoon lived in seclusion at Heytesbury in Wiltshire, although he maintained contact with a circle which included E. M. Forster and J. R. Ackerley. One of his closest friends was the cricketer Dennis Silk who later became Warden (headmaster) of Radley College. He also formed a close friendship with Vivien Hancock, then headmistress of Greenways School at Ashton Gifford, Wiltshire, where his son George was a pupil. The relationship provoked Hester to make strong accusations against Hancock, who responded with the threat of legal action.


title: Siegfried Sassoon

text: Towards the end of his life, Sassoon converted to Catholicism. He had hoped that Ronald Knox, a Catholic priest and writer whom he admired, would instruct him in the faith, but Knox was too ill to do so. The priest Sebastian Moore was chosen to instruct him instead, and Sassoon was admitted to the faith at Downside Abbey in Somerset. He also paid regular visits to the nuns at Stanbrook Abbey, and the Abbey press printed commemorative editions of some of his poems. During this time he also became interested in the supernatural, and joined the Ghost Club.


title: Siegfried Sassoon

text: Sassoon was appointed Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in the 1951 New Year Honours. He died from stomach cancer on 1 September 1967, one week before his 81st birthday. He is buried at St Andrew's Church, Mells, Somerset, not far from the grave of Father Ronald Knox, whom he so admired. His CBE, MC and campaign medals are on display at the Royal Welch Fusiliers Museum at Caernarfon Castle.


title: Siegfried Sassoon

text: On 11 November 1985, Sassoon was among sixteen Great War poets commemorated on a slate stone unveiled in Westminster Abbey's Poet's Corner. The inscription on the stone was written by friend and fellow War poet Wilfred Owen. It reads: "My subject is War, and the pity of War. The Poetry is in the pity."


title: Siegfried Sassoon

text: The year 2003 saw the publication of "Memorial Tablet", an authorised audio CD of readings by Sassoon recorded during the late 1950s. These included extracts from "Memoirs of an Infantry Officer" and "The Weald of Youth", as well as several war poems including Attack, The Dug-Out, At Carnoy and Died of Wounds, and postwar works. The CD also included comment on Sassoon by three of his Great War contemporaries: Edmund Blunden, Edgell Rickword and Henry Williamson.


title: Siegfried Sassoon

text: Siegfried Sassoon's only child, George Sassoon, died of cancer in 2006. George had three children, two of whom were killed in a car crash in 1996. His daughter by his first marriage, Kendall Sassoon, is Patron-in-Chief of the Siegfried Sassoon Fellowship, established in 2001.


title: Siegfried Sassoon

text: Sassoon's Military Cross was rediscovered by his family in May 2007 and was put up for sale. It was bought by the Royal Welch Fusiliers for display at their museum in Caernarfon. Sassoon's other service medals went unclaimed until 1985 when his son George obtained them from the Army Medal Office, then based at Droitwich. The "late claim" medals consisting of the 1914–15 Star, Victory Medal and British War Medal along with Sassoon's CBE and Warrant of Appointment were auctioned by Sotheby's in 2008.


title: Siegfried Sassoon

text: In June 2009, the University of Cambridge announced plans to purchase an archive of Sassoon's papers from his family, to be added to the university library's Sassoon collection. On 4 November 2009 it was reported that this purchase would be supported by £550,000 from the National Heritage Memorial Fund, meaning that the University still needed to raise a further £110,000 on top of the money already received to meet the full £1.25 million asking price. The funds were raised and in December 2009 it was announced that the University had received the papers. Included in the collection are war diaries kept by Sassoon while he served on the Western Front and in Palestine, a draft of "" (1917), notebooks from his schooldays and post-war journals. Other items in the collection include love letters to his wife Hester and photographs and letters from other writers. Sassoon was an undergraduate at the university, as well as being made an honorary fellow of Clare College; the collection is housed at the Cambridge University Library. As well as private individuals, funding came from the Monument Trust, the JP Getty Jr Trust and Sir Siegmund Warburg's Voluntary Settlement.


title: Siegfried Sassoon

text: In 2010, "Dream Voices: Siegfried Sassoon, Memory and War", a major exhibition of Sassoon's life and archive, was held at Cambridge University. Several of Sassoon's poems have been set to music, some during his life, by Cyril Rootham, who co-operated with the author.


title: Siegfried Sassoon

text: The discovery in 2013 of an early draft of one of Sassoon's best-known anti-war poems had biographers saying they would rewrite portions of their work about the poet. In the poem, 'Atrocities', which concerned the killing of German prisoners by their British counterparts, the early draft shows that some lines were cut and others watered down. The poet's publisher was nervous about publishing the poem and held it for publication in an expurgated version at a later date. Sassoon biographer Jean Moorcroft Wilson said "This is very exciting material. I want to rewrite my biography and I probably shall be able to get some of it in. It's a treasure trove". In early 2019, it was announced in "The Guardian" newspaper that a student from the University of Warwick, whilst looking through Glen Byam Shaw's records at the Shakespeare Birthplace Trust, had serendipitously discovered a Sassoon poem addressed to the former, which had not been published in its entirety.


title: Siegfried Sassoon

text: A 1970 instalment of The Wednesday Play entitled "Mad Jack" based around Sassoon's wartime experiences and their aftermath leading to his renunciation of his Military Cross starred Michael Jayston as Sassoon. The novel "Regeneration", by Pat Barker, is a fictionalised account of this period in Sassoon's life, and was made into a film starring James Wilby as Sassoon and Jonathan Pryce as W. H. R. Rivers, the psychiatrist responsible for Sassoon's treatment. Rivers became a kind of surrogate father to the troubled young man, and his sudden death in 1922 was a major blow to Sassoon.


title: Siegfried Sassoon

text: In 2014, John Hurt played the older Sassoon and Morgan Watkins the young Sassoon in "The Pity of War", a BBC docu-drama.


title: Siegfried Sassoon

text: A film named "The Burying Party" (released August 2018) depicts Wilfred Owen's final year from Craiglockhart Hospital to the Battle of the Sambre (1918), including his meeting with Sassoon at the hospital. Matthew Staite stars as Owen and Sid Phoenix as Sassoon.


title: Siegfried Sassoon

text: Stevan Rimkus portrayed Sassoon in The Young Indiana Jones Chronicles episode, "Somme, Early August 1916".


title: Federal holidays in the United States

text: Federal holidays in the United States are the eleven calendar dates that are designated by the U.S. government as holidays. On U.S. federal holidays, non-essential federal government offices are closed and federal government employees are paid for the holiday.<ref name="commerce/holidays"></ref>


title: Federal holidays in the United States

text: Federal holidays are designated by the United States Congress in Title V of the United States Code (). Congress only has authority to create holidays for federal institutions (including federally-owned properties), employees, and the District of Columbia. Although not required, as a general rule of courtesy, other institutions, such as banks, businesses, schools, and the stock market, may be closed on federal holidays. In various parts of the country, state and city holidays may be observed concurrently with federal holidays.


title: Federal holidays in the United States

text: The history of federal holidays in the United States dates back to June 28, 1870, when Congress created federal holidays "to correspond with similar laws of States around the District...and...in every State of the Union." Although at first applicable only to federal employees in the District of Columbia, Congress extended coverage in 1885 to all federal employees.


title: Federal holidays in the United States

text: George Washington's Birthday became a federal holiday in 1879. In 1888 and 1894, respectively, Decoration Day (now Memorial Day) and Labor Day were created. Armistice Day was established in 1938 to honor the end of World War I, and the scope of the holiday was expanded to honor Americans who fought in World War II and the Korean War when it was renamed Veterans Day in 1954.


title: Federal holidays in the United States

text: In 1968, the Uniform Monday Holiday Act gave several holidays "floating" dates so that they always fall on a Monday, and also established Columbus Day.


title: Federal holidays in the United States

text: In 1983, Ronald Reagan signed Martin Luther King Jr. Day into law, and it was first observed three years later, although some states resisted. It was finally celebrated by all 50 states in 2000.


title: Federal holidays in the United States

text: Christmas Day as a federal or public holiday is sometimes objected to by various sources, usually due to its ties with Christianity. In December 1999, the Western Division of the United States District Court for the Southern District of Ohio, in the case "Ganulin v. United States", denied the charge that Christmas Day's federal status violated the Establishment Clause of the Constitution, ruling that "the Christmas holiday has become largely secularized", and that "by giving federal employees a paid vacation day on Christmas, the government is doing no more than recognizing the cultural significance of the holiday".


title: Federal holidays in the United States

text: On June 17, 2021, Joe Biden signed legislation making Juneteenth a federal holiday, commemorating the emancipation of enslaved African-Americans.


title: Federal holidays in the United States

text: Most of the 11 U.S. federal holidays are also state holidays. A holiday that falls on a weekend is usually observed on the closest weekday (e.g. a holiday falling on a Saturday is observed on the preceding Friday, while a holiday falling on a Sunday is observed on the succeeding Monday). The official names come from the statute that defines holidays for federal employees.


title: Federal holidays in the United States

text: New Year's Day, Juneteenth, Independence Day, Veterans Day, and Christmas Day are observed on the same calendar date each year, irrespective of the day of the week. For floating holidays, when a holiday falls on a Saturday, federal employees who work Monday to Friday observe the holiday on the previous Friday. Federal employees who work on Saturday observe the holiday on Saturday and, for them, Friday is a regular work day. Holidays that fall on a Sunday are observed by federal workers the following Monday.


title: Federal holidays in the United States

text: Inauguration Day, held on January 20 every four years following a quadrennial presidential election, is considered a paid holiday for federal employees in the Washington, D.C., area by the Office of Personnel Management. However, it is not considered a federal holiday in the United States equivalent to the eleven holidays mentioned above.


title: Federal holidays in the United States

text: Although many states recognize most or all federal holidays as state holidays, the federal government cannot enact laws to compel them to do so. Furthermore, states can recognize other days as state holidays that are not federal holidays. For example, the State of Texas recognizes all federal holidays except Columbus Day, and in addition recognizes the Friday after Thanksgiving, Christmas Eve, and the day after Christmas as state holidays. Furthermore, Texas does not follow the federal rule of closing either the Friday before if a holiday falls on a Saturday, or the Monday after if a holiday falls on a Sunday (offices are open on those Fridays or Mondays), but does have "partial staffing holidays" (such as March 2, which is Texas Independence Day) and "optional holidays" (such as Good Friday).


title: Federal holidays in the United States

text: Private employers also are not required to observe federal or state holidays, the key exception being federally-chartered banks. Some private employers, often by a union contract, pay a differential such as time-and-a-half or double-time to employees who work on some federal holidays. Employees not specifically covered by a union contract, however, might only receive their standard pay for working on a federal holiday, depending on the company policy.


title: Federal holidays in the United States

text: Federal law also provides for the declaration of other public holidays by the President of the United States. Generally the president will provide a reasoning behind the elevation of the day, and call on the people of the United States to observe the day "with appropriate ceremonies and activities." Examples of presidentially declared holidays were the days of the funerals for former Presidents Ronald Reagan, George H. W. Bush, and Gerald Ford; federal government offices were closed and employees given a paid holiday.


title: Federal holidays in the United States

text: Many federal holidays have been proposed. As the U.S. federal government is a large employer, the holidays are expensive. If a holiday is controversial, opposition will generally prevent bills enacting them from passing. For example, Martin Luther King Jr. Day, marking King's birthday, took much effort to pass and for all states to recognize it. It was not until 2000 that this holiday was officially observed in all 50 states.


title: Federal holidays in the United States

text: The following list is an example of holidays that have been proposed and reasons why they are not observed at the federal level. Some of these holidays are observed at the state level.


title: Federal holidays in the United States

text: Protests by the Native American community support the abolition of Columbus Day, mainly due to its ideology in forcefully conquering and converting whole populations with another and encouraging imperialism and colonization. Glenn Morris of "The Denver Post" wrote that Columbus Day "... is not merely a celebration of Columbus the man; it is the celebration of a racist legal and political legacy—embedded in official legal and political pronouncements of the U.S.—such as the doctrine of discovery and manifest destiny." Alaska, Florida, Hawaii, Iowa, Louisiana, Maine, Minnesota, New Mexico, Nevada, North Carolina, Oregon, South Dakota, Washington, and Wisconsin do not recognize Columbus Day, though other states such as Hawaii and South Dakota mark the day with an alternative holiday or observance. South Dakota is the only state to recognize Native American Day as an alternate. Hawaii recognizes Discoverer's Day. Other states such as Maine, Nevada, Washington and Wisconsin instead recognize Indigenous Peoples' Day as an alternative holiday.


title: North American Free Trade Agreement

text: The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA ; , TLCAN; , ALÉNA) was an agreement signed by Canada, Mexico, and the United States that created a trilateral trade bloc in North America. The agreement came into force on January 1, 1994, and superseded the 1988 Canada–United States Free Trade Agreement between the United States and Canada. The NAFTA trade bloc formed one of the largest trade blocs in the world by gross domestic product.


title: North American Free Trade Agreement

text: The impetus for a North American free trade zone began with U.S. president Ronald Reagan, who made the idea part of his 1980 presidential campaign. After the signing of the Canada–United States Free Trade Agreement in 1988, the administrations of U.S. president George H. W. Bush, Mexican President Carlos Salinas de Gortari, and Canadian prime minister Brian Mulroney agreed to negotiate what became NAFTA. Each submitted the agreement for ratification in their respective capitals in December 1992, but NAFTA faced significant opposition in both the United States and Canada. All three countries ratified NAFTA in 1993 after the addition of two side agreements, the North American Agreement on Labor Cooperation (NAALC) and the North American Agreement on Environmental Cooperation (NAAEC).


title: North American Free Trade Agreement

text: Passage of NAFTA resulted in the elimination or reduction of barriers to trade and investment between the U.S., Canada, and Mexico. The effects of the agreement regarding issues such as employment, the environment, and economic growth have been the subject of political disputes. Most economic analyses indicated that NAFTA was beneficial to the North American economies and the average citizen, but harmed a small minority of workers in industries exposed to trade competition. Economists held that withdrawing from NAFTA or renegotiating NAFTA in a way that reestablished trade barriers would have adversely affected the U.S. economy and cost jobs. However, Mexico would have been much more severely affected by job loss and reduction of economic growth in both the short term and long term.


title: North American Free Trade Agreement

text: After U.S. President Donald Trump took office in January 2017, he sought to replace NAFTA with a new agreement, beginning negotiations with Canada and Mexico. In September 2018, the United States, Mexico, and Canada reached an agreement to replace NAFTA with the United States–Mexico–Canada Agreement (USMCA), and all three countries had ratified it by March 2020. NAFTA remained in force until USMCA was implemented. In April 2020, Canada and Mexico notified the U.S. that they were ready to implement the agreement. The USMCA took effect on July 1, 2020, replacing NAFTA. The new law involved only small changes.


title: North American Free Trade Agreement

text: The impetus for a North American free trade zone began with U.S. president Ronald Reagan, who made the idea part of his campaign when he announced his candidacy for the presidency in November 1979. Canada and the United States signed the Canada–United States Free Trade Agreement (FTA) in 1988, and shortly afterward Mexican President Carlos Salinas de Gortari decided to approach U.S. president George H. W. Bush to propose a similar agreement in an effort to bring in foreign investment following the Latin American debt crisis. As the two leaders began negotiating, the Canadian government under Prime Minister Brian Mulroney feared that the advantages Canada had gained through the Canada–US FTA would be undermined by a US–Mexican bilateral agreement, and asked to become a party to the US–Mexican talks.


title: North American Free Trade Agreement

text: Following diplomatic negotiations dating back to 1990, the leaders of the three nations signed the agreement in their respective capitals on December 17, 1992. The signed agreement then needed to be ratified by each nation's legislative or parliamentary branch.


title: North American Free Trade Agreement

text: The earlier Canada–United States Free Trade Agreement had been controversial and divisive in Canada, and featured as an issue in the 1988 Canadian election. In that election, more Canadians voted for anti-free trade parties (the Liberals and the New Democrats), but the split of the votes between the two parties meant that the pro-free trade Progressive Conservatives (PCs) came out of the election with the most seats and so took power. Mulroney and the PCs had a parliamentary majority and easily passed the 1987 Canada–US FTA and NAFTA bills. However, Mulroney was replaced as Conservative leader and prime minister by Kim Campbell. Campbell led the PC party into the 1993 election where they were decimated by the Liberal Party under Jean Chrétien, who campaigned on a promise to renegotiate or abrogate NAFTA. Chrétien subsequently negotiated two supplemental agreements with Bush, who had subverted the LAC advisory process and worked to "fast track" the signing prior to the end of his term, ran out of time and had to pass the required ratification and signing of the implementation law to incoming president Bill Clinton.


title: North American Free Trade Agreement

text: Before sending it to the United States Senate, Clinton added two side agreements, the North American Agreement on Labor Cooperation (NAALC) and the North American Agreement on Environmental Cooperation (NAAEC), to protect workers and the environment, and to also allay the concerns of many House members. The U.S. required its partners to adhere to environmental practices and regulations similar to its own. After much consideration and emotional discussion, the U.S. House of Representatives passed the North American Free Trade Agreement Implementation Act on November 17, 1993, 234–200. The agreement's supporters included 132 Republicans and 102 Democrats. The bill passed the Senate on November 20, 1993, 61–38. Senate supporters were 34 Republicans and 27 Democrats. Republican Representative David Dreier of California, a strong proponent of NAFTA since the Reagan Administration, played a leading role in mobilizing support for the agreement among Republicans in Congress and across the country.


title: North American Free Trade Agreement

text: Chicago Congressman Luis Gutiérrez in particular was a vocal opponent of NAFTA, ultimately voting against the measure because of what he considered its failure to sufficiently provide for displaced worker retraining, protections against American job loss, and protections of collective bargaining rights for Mexican workers. He criticized the role of Rahm Emanuel in particular for the deficiencies.


title: North American Free Trade Agreement

text: The U.S. required its partners to adhere to environmental practices and regulations similar to its own.


title: North American Free Trade Agreement

text: Clinton signed it into law on December 8, 1993; the agreement went into effect on January 1, 1994. At the signing ceremony, Clinton recognized four individuals for their efforts in accomplishing the historic trade deal: Vice President Al Gore, Chairwoman of the Council of Economic Advisers Laura Tyson, Director of the National Economic Council Robert Rubin, and Republican Congressman David Dreier. Clinton also stated that "NAFTA means jobs. American jobs, and good-paying American jobs. If I didn't believe that, I wouldn't support this agreement." NAFTA replaced the previous Canada-US FTA.


title: North American Free Trade Agreement

text: NAFTA (TLCAN in Spanish) was approved by the Mexican Senate on November 22, 1993, and was published in the Official Gazette of the Federation on December 8, 1993.


title: North American Free Trade Agreement

text: The decree implementing NAFTA and the various changes to accommodate NAFTA in Mexican law was promulgated on December 14, 1993, with entry into force on January 1, 1994.


title: North American Free Trade Agreement

text: The goal of NAFTA was to eliminate barriers to trade and investment between the U.S., Canada and Mexico. The implementation of NAFTA on January 1, 1994, brought the immediate elimination of tariffs on more than one-half of Mexico's exports to the U.S. and more than one-third of U.S. exports to Mexico. Within 10 years of the implementation of the agreement, all U.S.–Mexico tariffs were to be eliminated except for some U.S. agricultural exports to Mexico, to be phased out within 15 years. Most U.S.–Canada trade was already duty-free. NAFTA also sought to eliminate non-tariff trade barriers and to protect the intellectual property rights on traded products.


title: North American Free Trade Agreement

text: Chapter 20 provided a procedure for the international resolution of disputes over the application and interpretation of NAFTA. It was modeled after Chapter 69 of the Canada–United States Free Trade Agreement.


title: North American Free Trade Agreement

text: NAFTA is, in part, implemented by Technical Working Groups composed of government officials from each of the three partner nations.


title: North American Free Trade Agreement

text: The North American Free Trade Agreement Implementation Act made some changes to the copyright law of the United States, foreshadowing the Uruguay Round Agreements Act of 1994 by restoring copyright (within the NAFTA nations) on certain motion pictures which had entered the public domain.


title: North American Free Trade Agreement

text: The Clinton administration negotiated a side agreement on the environment with Canada and Mexico, the North American Agreement on Environmental Cooperation (NAAEC), which led to the creation of the Commission for Environmental Cooperation (CEC) in 1994. To alleviate concerns that NAFTA, the first regional trade agreement between a developing country and two developed countries, would have negative environmental impacts, the commission was mandated to conduct ongoing "ex post" environmental assessment, It created one of the first "ex post" frameworks for environmental assessment of trade liberalization, designed to produce a body of evidence with respect to the initial hypotheses about NAFTA and the environment, such as the concern that NAFTA would create a "race to the bottom" in environmental regulation among the three countries, or that NAFTA would pressure governments to increase their environmental protections. The CEC has held four symposia to evaluate the environmental impacts of NAFTA and commissioned 47 papers on the subject from leading independent experts.


title: North American Free Trade Agreement

text: Proponents of NAFTA in the United States emphasized that the pact was a free-trade, not an economic-community, agreement. The freedom of movement it establishes for goods, services and capital did not extend to labor. In proposing what no other comparable agreement had attempted—to open industrialized countries to "a major Third World country"—NAFTA eschewed the creation of common social and employment policies. The regulation of the labor market and or the workplace remained the exclusive preserve of the national governments.


title: North American Free Trade Agreement

text: A "side agreement" on enforcement of existing domestic labor law, concluded in August 1993, the North American Agreement on Labour Cooperation (NAALC), was highly circumscribed. Focused on health and safety standards and on child labor law, it excluded issues of collective bargaining, and its "so-called [enforcement] teeth" were accessible only at the end of "a long and tortuous" disputes process". Commitments to enforce existing labor law also raised issues of democratic practice. The Canadian anti-NAFTA coalition, Pro-Canada Network, suggested that guarantees of minimum standards would be "meaningless" without "broad democratic reforms in the [Mexican] courts, the unions, and the government". Later assessment, however, did suggest that NAALC's principles and complaint mechanisms did "create new space for advocates to build coalitions and take concrete action to articulate challenges to the status quo and advance workers’ interests".


title: North American Free Trade Agreement

text: From the earliest negotiation, agriculture was a controversial topic within NAFTA, as it has been with almost all free trade agreements signed within the WTO framework. Agriculture was the only section that was not negotiated trilaterally; instead, three separate agreements were signed between each pair of parties. The Canada–U.S. agreement contained significant restrictions and tariff quotas on agricultural products (mainly sugar, dairy, and poultry products), whereas the Mexico–U.S. pact allowed for a wider liberalization within a framework of phase-out periods (it was the first North–South FTA on agriculture to be signed).


title: North American Free Trade Agreement

text: NAFTA established the CANAMEX Corridor for road transport between Canada and Mexico, also proposed for use by rail, pipeline, and fiber optic telecommunications infrastructure. This became a High Priority Corridor under the U.S. Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act of 1991.


title: North American Free Trade Agreement

text: Another contentious issue was the investor-state dispute settlement obligations contained in Chapter 11 of NAFTA. Chapter 11 allowed corporations or individuals to sue Mexico, Canada or the United States for compensation when actions taken by those governments (or by those for whom they are responsible at international law, such as provincial, state, or municipal governments) violated international law.


title: North American Free Trade Agreement

text: This chapter has been criticized by groups in the United States, Mexico, and Canada for a variety of reasons, including not taking into account important social and environmental considerations. In Canada, several groups, including the Council of Canadians, challenged the constitutionality of Chapter 11. They lost at the trial level and the subsequent appeal.


title: North American Free Trade Agreement

text: Methanex Corporation, a Canadian corporation, filed a US$970 million suit against the United States. Methanex claimed that a California ban on methyl "tert"-butyl ether (MTBE), a substance that had found its way into many wells in the state, was hurtful to the corporation's sales of methanol. The claim was rejected, and the company was ordered to pay US$3 million to the U.S. government in costs, based on the following reasoning: "But as a matter of general international law, a non-discriminatory regulation for a public purpose, which is enacted in accordance with due process and, which affects, inter alios, a foreign investor or investment is not deemed expropriatory and compensable unless specific commitments had been given by the regulating government to the then putative foreign investor contemplating investment that the government would refrain from such regulation."


title: North American Free Trade Agreement

text: In another case, Metalclad, an American corporation, was awarded US$15.6 million from Mexico after a Mexican municipality refused a construction permit for the hazardous waste landfill it intended to construct in Guadalcázar, San Luis Potosí. The construction had already been approved by the federal government with various environmental requirements imposed (see paragraph 48 of the tribunal decision). The NAFTA panel found that the municipality did not have the authority to ban construction on the basis of its environmental concerns.


title: North American Free Trade Agreement

text: In Eli Lilly and Company v. Government of Canada the plaintiff presented a US$500 million claim for the way Canada requires usefulness in its drug patent legislation. Apotex sued the U.S. for US$520 million because of opportunity it says it lost in an FDA generic drug decision.


title: North American Free Trade Agreement

text: Lone Pine Resources Inc. v. Government of Canada filed a US$250 million claim against Canada, accusing it of "arbitrary, capricious and illegal" behaviour, because Quebec intends to prevent fracking exploration under the St. Lawrence Seaway.


title: North American Free Trade Agreement

text: Lone Pine Resources is incorporated in Delaware but headquartered in Calgary, and had an initial public offering on the NYSE May 25, 2011, of 15 million shares each for $13, which raised US$195 million.


title: North American Free Trade Agreement

text: Barutciski acknowledged "that NAFTA and other investor-protection treaties create an anomaly in that Canadian companies that have also seen their permits rescinded by the very same Quebec legislation, which expressly forbids the paying of compensation, do not have the right (to) pursue a NAFTA claim", and that winning "compensation in Canadian courts for domestic companies in this case would be more difficult since the Constitution puts property rights in provincial hands".


title: North American Free Trade Agreement

text: NAFTA's Chapter 19 was a trade dispute mechanism which subjects antidumping and countervailing duty (AD/CVD) determinations to binational panel review instead of, or in addition to, conventional judicial review. For example, in the United States, review of agency decisions imposing antidumping and countervailing duties are normally heard before the U.S. Court of International Trade, an Article III court. NAFTA parties, however, had the option of appealing the decisions to binational panels composed of five citizens from the two relevant NAFTA countries. The panelists were generally lawyers experienced in international trade law. Since NAFTA did not include substantive provisions concerning AD/CVD, the panel was charged with determining whether final agency determinations involving AD/CVD conformed with the country's domestic law. Chapter 19 was an anomaly in international dispute settlement since it did not apply international law, but required a panel composed of individuals from many countries to re-examine the application of one country's domestic law.


title: North American Free Trade Agreement

text: A Chapter 19 panel was expected to examine whether the agency's determination was supported by "substantial evidence". This standard assumed significant deference to the domestic agency. Some of the most controversial trade disputes in recent years, such as the U.S.–Canada softwood lumber dispute, have been litigated before Chapter 19 panels.


title: North American Free Trade Agreement

text: Decisions by Chapter 19 panels could be challenged before a NAFTA extraordinary challenge committee. However, an extraordinary challenge committee did not function as an ordinary appeal. Under NAFTA, it only vacated or remanded a decision if the decision involveed a significant and material error that threatens the integrity of the NAFTA dispute settlement system. Since January 2006, no NAFTA party had successfully challenged a Chapter 19 panel's decision before an extraordinary challenge committee.


title: North American Free Trade Agreement

text: The roster of NAFTA adjudicators included many retired judges, such as Alice Desjardins, John Maxwell Evans, Constance Hunt, John Richard, Arlin Adams, Susan Getzendanner, George C. Pratt, Charles B. Renfrew and Sandra Day O'Connor.


title: North American Free Trade Agreement

text: In 2008, Canadian exports to the United States and Mexico were at $381.3 billion, with imports at $245.1 billion. According to a 2004 article by University of Toronto economist Daniel Trefler, NAFTA produced a significant net benefit to Canada in 2003, with long-term productivity increasing by up to 15 percent in industries that experienced the deepest tariff cuts. While the contraction of low-productivity plants reduced employment (up to 12 percent of existing positions), these job losses lasted less than a decade; overall, unemployment in Canada has fallen since the passage of the act. Commenting on this trade-off, Trefler said that the critical question in trade policy is to understand "how freer trade can be implemented in an industrialized economy in a way that recognizes both the long-run gains and the short-term adjustment costs borne by workers and others".


title: North American Free Trade Agreement

text: A study in 2007 found that NAFTA had "a substantial impact on international trade volumes, but a modest effect on prices and welfare".


title: North American Free Trade Agreement

text: According to a 2012 study, with reduced NAFTA trade tariffs, trade with the United States and Mexico only increased by a modest 11% in Canada compared to an increase of 41% for the U.S. and 118% for Mexico. Moreover, the U.S. and Mexico benefited more from the tariff reductions component, with welfare increases of 0.08% and 1.31%, respectively, with Canada experiencing a decrease of 0.06%.


title: North American Free Trade Agreement

text: According to a 2017 report by the New York City based public policy think tank report, Council on Foreign Relations (CFR), bilateral trade in agricultural products tripled in size from 1994 to 2017 and is considered to be one of the largest economic effects of NAFTA on U.S.-Canada trade with Canada becoming the U.S. agricultural sectors' leading importer. Canadian fears of losing manufacturing jobs to the United States did not materialize with manufacturing employment holding "steady". However, with Canada's labour productivity levels at 72% of U.S. levels, the hopes of closing the "productivity gap" between the two countries were also not realized.


title: North American Free Trade Agreement

text: According to a 2018 Sierra Club report, Canada's commitments under NAFTA and the Paris agreement conflicted. The Paris commitments were voluntary, and NAFTA's were compulsory.


title: North American Free Trade Agreement

text: According to a 2018 report by Gordon Laxter published by the Council of Canadians, NAFTA's Article 605, energy proportionality rule ensures that Americans had "virtually unlimited first access to most of Canada's oil and natural gas" and Canada could not reduce oil, natural gas and electricity exports (74% its oil and 52% its natural gas) to the U.S., even if Canada was experiencing shortages. These provisions that seemed logical when NAFTA was signed in 1993 are no longer appropriate. The Council of Canadians promoted environmental protection and was against NAFTA's role in encouraging development of the tar sands and fracking.


title: North American Free Trade Agreement

text: US President Donald Trump, angered by Canada's dairy tax of "almost 300%", threatened to leave Canada out of the NAFTA. Since 1972, Canada has been operating on a "supply management" system, which the United States is attempting to pressure it out of, specifically focusing on the dairy industry. However, this has not yet taken place, as Quebec, which holds approximately half the country's dairy farms, still supports supply management.


title: North American Free Trade Agreement

text: Maquiladoras (Mexican assembly plants that take in imported components and produce goods for export) became the landmark of trade in Mexico. They moved to Mexico from the United States, hence the debate over the loss of American jobs. Income in the maquiladora sector had increased 15.5% since the implementation of NAFTA in 1994. Other sectors also benefited from the free trade agreement, and the share of exports to the U.S. from non-border states increased in the last five years while the share of exports from border states decreased. This allowed for rapid growth in non-border metropolitan areas such as Toluca, León, and Puebla, which were all larger in population than Tijuana, Ciudad Juárez, and Reynosa.


title: North American Free Trade Agreement

text: The overall effect of the Mexico–U.S. agricultural agreement is disputed. Mexico did not invest in the infrastructure necessary for competition, such as efficient railroads and highways. This resulted in more difficult living conditions for the country's poor. Mexico's agricultural exports increased 9.4 percent annually between 1994 and 2001, while imports increased by only 6.9 percent a year during the same period.


title: North American Free Trade Agreement

text: One of the most affected agricultural sectors was the meat industry. Mexico went from a small player in the pre-1994 U.S. export market to the second largest importer of U.S. agricultural products in 2004, and NAFTA may have been a major catalyst for this change. Free trade removed the hurdles that impeded business between the two countries, so Mexico provided a growing market for meat for the U.S., and increased sales and profits for the U.S. meat industry. A coinciding noticeable increase in the Mexican per capita GDP greatly changed meat consumption patterns as per capita meat consumption grew.


title: North American Free Trade Agreement

text: Production of corn in Mexico increased since NAFTA. However, internal demand for corn had increased beyond Mexico's supply to the point where imports became necessary, far beyond the quotas Mexico originally negotiated. Zahniser & Coyle pointed out that corn prices in Mexico, adjusted for international prices, have drastically decreased, but through a program of subsidies expanded by former president Vicente Fox, production remained stable since 2000. Reducing agricultural subsidies, especially corn subsidies, was suggested as a way to reduce harm to Mexican farmers.


title: North American Free Trade Agreement

text: A 2001 "Journal of Economic Perspectives" review of the existing literature found that NAFTA was a net benefit to Mexico. By 2003, 80% of the commerce in Mexico was executed only with the U.S. The commercial sales surplus, combined with the deficit with the rest of the world, created a dependency in Mexico's exports. These effects were evident in the 2001 recession, which resulted in either a low rate or a negative rate in Mexico's exports.


title: North American Free Trade Agreement

text: A 2015 study found that Mexico's welfare increased by 1.31% as a result of the NAFTA tariff reductions and that Mexico's intra-bloc trade increased by 118%. Inequality and poverty fell in the most globalization-affected regions of Mexico. 2013 and 2015 studies showed that Mexican small farmers benefited more from NAFTA than large-scale farmers.


title: North American Free Trade Agreement

text: NAFTA had also been credited with the rise of the Mexican middle class. A Tufts University study found that NAFTA lowered the average cost of basic necessities in Mexico by up to 50%. This price reduction increased cash-on-hand for many Mexican families, allowing Mexico to graduate more engineers than Germany each year.


title: North American Free Trade Agreement

text: Growth in new sales orders indicated an increase in demand for manufactured products, which resulted in expansion of production and a higher employment rate to satisfy the increment in the demand. The growth in the maquiladora industry and in the manufacturing industry was of 4.7% in August 2016. Three quarters of the imports and exports are with the U.S.


title: North American Free Trade Agreement

text: Tufts University political scientist Daniel W. Drezner argued that NAFTA made it easier for Mexico to transform to a real democracy and become a country that views itself as North American. This has boosted cooperation between the United States and Mexico.


title: North American Free Trade Agreement

text: Economists generally agreed that the United States economy benefited overall from NAFTA as it increased trade. In a 2012 survey of the Initiative on Global Markets' Economic Experts Panel, 95% of the participants said that, on average, U.S. citizens benefited from NAFTA while none said that NAFTA hurt US citizens, on average. A 2001 "Journal of Economic Perspectives" review found that NAFTA was a net benefit to the United States. A 2015 study found that US welfare increased by 0.08% as a result of NAFTA tariff reductions, and that US intra-bloc trade increased by 41%.


title: North American Free Trade Agreement

text: A 2014 study on the effects of NAFTA on US trade jobs and investment found that between 1993 and 2013, the US trade deficit with Mexico and Canada increased from $17.0 to $177.2 billion, displacing 851,700 US jobs.


title: North American Free Trade Agreement

text: In 2015, the Congressional Research Service concluded that the "net overall effect of NAFTA on the US economy appears to have been relatively modest, primarily because trade with Canada and Mexico accounts for a small percentage of US GDP. However, there were worker and firm adjustment costs as the three countries adjusted to more open trade and investment among their economies." The report also estimated that NAFTA added $80 billion to the US economy since its implementation, equivalent to a 0.5% increase in US GDP.


title: North American Free Trade Agreement

text: The US Chamber of Commerce credited NAFTA with increasing U.S. trade in goods and services with Canada and Mexico from $337 billion in 1993 to $1.2 trillion in 2011, while the AFL–CIO blamed the agreement for sending 700,000 American manufacturing jobs to Mexico over that time.


title: North American Free Trade Agreement

text: University of California, San Diego economics professor Gordon Hanson said that NAFTA helped the US compete against China and therefore saved US jobs. While some jobs were lost to Mexico as a result of NAFTA, considerably more would have been lost to China if not for NAFTA.


title: North American Free Trade Agreement

text: The US had a trade surplus with NAFTA countries of $28.3 billion for services in 2009 and a trade deficit of $94.6 billion (36.4% annual increase) for goods in 2010. This trade deficit accounted for 26.8% of all US goods trade deficit. A 2018 study of global trade published by the Center for International Relations identified irregularities in the patterns of trade of NAFTA ecosystem using network theory analytical techniques. The study showed that the US trade balance was influenced by tax avoidance opportunities provided in Ireland.


title: North American Free Trade Agreement

text: A study published in the August 2008 issue of the "American Journal of Agricultural Economics", found NAFTA increased US agricultural exports to Mexico and Canada, even though most of the increase occurred a decade after its ratification. The study focused on the effects that gradual "phase-in" periods in regional trade agreements, including NAFTA, have on trade flows. Most of the increases in members' agricultural trade, which was only recently brought under the purview of the World Trade Organization, was due to very high trade barriers before NAFTA or other regional trade agreements.


title: North American Free Trade Agreement

text: The U.S. foreign direct investment (FDI) in NAFTA countries (stock) was $327.5 billion in 2009 (latest data available), up 8.8% from 2008. The US direct investment in NAFTA countries was in non-bank holding companies and the manufacturing, finance/insurance, and mining sectors. The foreign direct investment of Canada and Mexico in the United States (stock) was $237.2 billion in 2009 (the latest data available), up 16.5% from 2008.


title: North American Free Trade Agreement

text: In their May 24, 2017 report, the Congressional Research Service (CRS) wrote that the economic impacts of NAFTA on the U.S. economy were modest. In a 2015 report, the Congressional Research Service summarized multiple studies as follows: "In reality, NAFTA did not cause the huge job losses feared by the critics or the large economic gains predicted by supporters. The net overall effect of NAFTA on the U.S. economy appears to have been relatively modest, primarily because trade with Canada and Mexico accounts for a small percentage of U.S. GDP. However, there were worker and firm adjustment costs as the three countries adjusted to more open trade and investment among their economies."


title: North American Free Trade Agreement

text: Many American small businesses depended on exporting their products to Canada or Mexico under NAFTA. According to the U.S. Trade Representative, this trade supported over 140,000 small- and medium-sized businesses in the US.


title: North American Free Trade Agreement

text: According to University of California, Berkeley professor of economics Brad DeLong, NAFTA had an insignificant impact on US manufacturing. The adverse impact on manufacturing was exaggerated in US political discourse according to DeLong and Harvard economist Dani Rodrik.


title: North American Free Trade Agreement

text: According to a 2013 article by Jeff Faux published by the Economic Policy Institute, California, Texas, Michigan and other states with high concentrations of manufacturing jobs were most affected by job loss due to NAFTA. According to a 2011 article by EPI economist Robert Scott, about 682,900 U.S. jobs were "lost or displaced" as a result of the trade agreement. More recent studies agreed with reports by the Congressional Research Service that NAFTA only had a modest impact on manufacturing employment and automation explained 87% of the losses in manufacturing jobs.


title: North American Free Trade Agreement

text: According to a study in the "Journal of International Economics", NAFTA reduced pollution emitted by the US manufacturing sector: "On average, nearly two-thirds of the reductions in coarse particulate matter (PM and sulfur dioxide (SO emissions from the U.S. manufacturing sector between 1994 and 1998 can be attributed to trade liberalization following NAFTA."


title: North American Free Trade Agreement

text: According to the Sierra Club, NAFTA contributed to large-scale, export-oriented farming, which led to the increased use of fossil fuels, pesticides and GMO. NAFTA also contributed to environmentally destructive mining practices in Mexico. It prevented Canada from effectively regulating its tar sands industry, and created new legal avenues for transnational corporations to fight environmental legislation. In some cases, environmental policy was neglected in the wake of trade liberalization; in other cases, NAFTA's measures for investment protection, such as Chapter 11, and measures against non-tariff trade barriers threatened to discourage more vigorous environmental policy. The most serious overall increases in pollution due to NAFTA were found in the base metals sector, the Mexican petroleum sector, and the transportation equipment sector in the United States and Mexico, but not in Canada.


title: North American Free Trade Agreement

text: According to the Department of Homeland Security Yearbook of Immigration Statistics, during fiscal year 2006 (October 2005 – September 2006), 73,880 foreign professionals (64,633 Canadians and 9,247 Mexicans) were admitted into the United States for temporary employment under NAFTA (i.e., in the TN status). Additionally, 17,321 of their family members (13,136 Canadians, 2,904 Mexicans, as well as a number of third-country nationals married to Canadians and Mexicans) entered the U.S. in the treaty national's dependent (TD) status. Because DHS counts the number of the new I-94 arrival records filled at the border, and the TN-1 admission is valid for three years, the number of non-immigrants in TN status present in the U.S. at the end of the fiscal year is approximately equal to the number of admissions during the year. (A discrepancy may be caused by some TN entrants leaving the country or changing status before their three-year admission period has expired, while other immigrants admitted earlier may change their status "to" TN or TD, or extend TN status granted earlier).


title: North American Free Trade Agreement

text: According to the International Organization for Migration, deaths of migrants have been on the rise worldwide with 5,604 deaths in 2016. An increased number of undocumented farmworkers in California may be due to the initial passing of NAFTA.


title: North American Free Trade Agreement

text: Canadian authorities estimated that on December 1, 2006, 24,830 U.S. citizens and 15,219 Mexican citizens were in Canada as "foreign workers". These numbers include both entrants under NAFTA and those who entered under other provisions of Canadian immigration law. New entries of foreign workers in 2006 totalled 16,841 U.S. citizens and 13,933 Mexicans.


title: North American Free Trade Agreement

text: Perot ultimately lost the election, and the winner, Bill Clinton, supported NAFTA, which went into effect on January 1, 1994.


title: North American Free Trade Agreement

text: In 1996, the gasoline additive MMT was brought to Canada by Ethyl Corporation, an American company when the Canadian federal government banned imports of the additive. The American company brought a claim under NAFTA Chapter 11 seeking US$201 million, from the Canadian federal government as well as the Canadian provinces under the Agreement on Internal Trade (AIT). They argued that the additive had not been conclusively linked to any health dangers, and that the prohibition was damaging to their company. Following a finding that the ban was a violation of the AIT, the Canadian federal government repealed the ban and settled with the American company for US$13 million. Studies by Health and Welfare Canada (now Health Canada) on the health effects of MMT in fuel found no significant health effects associated with exposure to these exhaust emissions. Other Canadian researchers and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency disagreed citing studies that suggested possible nerve damage.


title: North American Free Trade Agreement

text: The United States and Canada argued for years over the United States' 27% duty on Canadian softwood lumber imports. Canada filed many motions to have the duty eliminated and the collected duties returned to Canada. After the United States lost an appeal before a NAFTA panel, spokesperson for U.S. Trade Representative Rob Portman responded by saying: "we are, of course, disappointed with the [NAFTA panel's] decision, but it will have no impact on the anti-dumping and countervailing duty orders." On July 21, 2006, the United States Court of International Trade found that imposition of the duties was contrary to U.S. law.


title: North American Free Trade Agreement

text: On October 30, 2007, American citizens Marvin and Elaine Gottlieb filed a Notice of Intent to Submit a Claim to Arbitration under NAFTA, claiming thousands of U.S. investors lost a total of $5 billion in the fall-out from the Conservative Government's decision the previous year to change the tax rate on income trusts in the energy sector. On April 29, 2009, a determination was made that this change in tax law was not expropriation.


title: North American Free Trade Agreement

text: Several studies rejected NAFTA responsibility for depressing the incomes of poor corn farmers. The trend existed more than a decade before NAFTA existed. Also, maize production increased after 1994, and there wasn't a measurable impact on the price of Mexican corn because of subsidized corn from the United States. The studies agreed that the abolition of U.S. agricultural subsidies would benefit Mexican farmers.


title: North American Free Trade Agreement

text: Preparations for NAFTA included cancellation of Article 27 of Mexico's constitution, the cornerstone of Emiliano Zapata's revolution in 1910–1919. Under the historic Article 27, indigenous communal landholdings were protected from sale or privatization. However, this barrier to investment was incompatible with NAFTA. Indigenous farmers feared the loss of their remaining land and cheap imports (substitutes) from the US. The Zapatistas labelled NAFTA a "death sentence" to indigenous communities all over Mexico and later declared war on the Mexican state on January 1, 1994, the day NAFTA came into force.


title: North American Free Trade Agreement

text: In a "60 Minutes" interview in September 2015, 2016 presidential candidate Donald Trump called NAFTA "the single worst trade deal ever approved in [the United States]", and said that if elected, he would "either renegotiate it, or we will break it". , president of the trade group Consejo Coordinador Empresarial, expressed concern about renegotiation and the willingness to focus on the car industry. A range of trade experts said that pulling out of NAFTA would have a range of unintended consequences for the United States, including reduced access to its biggest export markets, a reduction in economic growth, and higher prices for gasoline, cars, fruits, and vegetables. Members of the private initiative in Mexico noted that to eliminate NAFTA, many laws must be adapted by the U.S. Congress. The move would also eventually result in legal complaints by the World Trade Organization. The "Washington Post" noted that a Congressional Research Service review of academic literature concluded that the "net overall effect of NAFTA on the U.S. economy appears to have been relatively modest, primarily because trade with Canada and Mexico accounts for a small percentage of U.S. GDP".


title: North American Free Trade Agreement

text: Democratic candidate Bernie Sanders, opposing the Trans-Pacific Partnership trade agreement, called it "a continuation of other disastrous trade agreements, like NAFTA, CAFTA, and permanent normal trade relations with China". He believes that free trade agreements have caused a loss of American jobs and depressed American wages. Sanders said that America needs to rebuild its manufacturing base using American factories for well-paying jobs for American labor rather than outsourcing to China and elsewhere.


title: North American Free Trade Agreement

text: Shortly after his election, U.S. President Donald Trump said he would begin renegotiating the terms of NAFTA, to resolve trade issues he had campaigned on. The leaders of Canada and Mexico had indicated their willingness to work with the Trump administration. Although vague on the exact terms he sought in a renegotiated NAFTA, Trump threatened to withdraw from it if negotiations failed.


title: North American Free Trade Agreement

text: In July 2017, the Trump administration provided a detailed list of changes that it would like to see to NAFTA. The top priority was a reduction in the United States' trade deficit. The administration also called for the elimination of provisions that allowed Canada and Mexico to appeal duties imposed by the United States and limited the ability of the United States to impose import restrictions on Canada and Mexico.