title: Ampere

text: As of the 2019 redefinition of the SI base units, the ampere is defined by fixing the elementary charge to be exactly C (coulomb), which means an ampere is an electrical current equivalent to elementary charges moving every seconds or elementary charges moving in a second. Prior to the redefinition the ampere was defined as the current that would need to be passed through 2 parallel wires 1 metre apart to produce a magnetic force of newtons per metre.


title: Ampere

text: The earlier CGS system had two definitions of current, one essentially the same as the SI's and the other using electric charge as the base unit, with the unit of charge defined by measuring the force between two charged metal plates. The ampere was then defined as one coulomb of charge per second. In SI, the unit of charge, the coulomb, is defined as the charge carried by one ampere during one second.


title: Ampere

text: The ampere is named for French physicist and mathematician André-Marie Ampère (1775–1836), who studied electromagnetism and laid the foundation of electrodynamics. In recognition of Ampère's contributions to the creation of modern electrical science, an international convention, signed at the 1881 International Exposition of Electricity, established the ampere as a standard unit of electrical measurement for electric current.


title: Ampere

text: The ampere was originally defined as one tenth of the unit of electric current in the centimetre–gram–second system of units. That unit, now known as the abampere, was defined as the amount of current that generates a force of two dynes per centimetre of length between two wires one centimetre apart. The size of the unit was chosen so that the units derived from it in the MKSA system would be conveniently sized.


title: Ampere

text: The "international ampere" was an early realization of the ampere, defined as the current that would deposit of silver per second from a silver nitrate solution. Later, more accurate measurements revealed that this current is .


title: Ampere

text: Since power is defined as the product of current and voltage, the ampere can alternatively be expressed in terms of the other units using the relationship , and thus 1 A = 1 W/V. Current can be measured by a multimeter, a device that can measure electrical voltage, current, and resistance.


title: Ampere

text: The ampere is that constant current which, if maintained in two straight parallel conductors of infinite length, of negligible circular cross-section, and placed one metre apart in vacuum, would produce between these conductors a force equal to newtons per metre of length.


title: Ampere

text: Ampère's force law states that there is an attractive or repulsive force between two parallel wires carrying an electric current. This force is used in the formal definition of the ampere.


title: Ampere

text: The SI unit of charge, the coulomb, was then defined as "the quantity of electricity carried in 1 second by a current of 1 ampere". Conversely, a current of one ampere is one coulomb of charge going past a given point per second:


title: Ampere

text: This definition of the ampere was most accurately realised using a Kibble balance, but is in practice the unit was maintained via Ohm's law from the units of electromotive force and resistance, the volt and the ohm, since the latter two could be tied to physical phenomena that are relatively easy to reproduce, the Josephson effect and the quantum Hall effect, respectively.


title: Ampere

text: Techniques to establish the realisation of an ampere had a relative uncertainty of approximately a few parts in 10, and involved realisations of the watt, the ohm and the volt.


title: Ampere

text: The 2019 redefinition of the SI base units defined the ampere by taking the fixed numerical value of the elementary charge to be 1.602 176 634 × 10 when expressed in the unit C, which is equal to A⋅s, where the second is defined in terms of , the unperturbed ground state hyperfine transition frequency of the caesium-133 atom.


title: Ampere

text: The SI unit of charge, the coulomb, "is the quantity of electricity carried in 1 second by a current of 1 ampere". Conversely, a current of one ampere is one coulomb of charge going past a given point per second:


title: Ampere

text: Constant, instantaneous and average current are expressed in amperes (as in "the charging current is 1.2 A") and the charge accumulated (or passed through a circuit) over a period of time is expressed in coulombs (as in "the battery charge is "). The relation of the ampere (C/s) to the coulomb is the same as that of the watt (J/s) to the joule.


title: Ampere

text: The international system of units (SI) is based on 7 SI base units the second, metre, kilogram, kelvin, ampere, mole, and candela representing 7 fundamental types of physical quantity, or "dimensions", (time, length, mass, temperature, electrical current, amount of substance, and luminous intensity respectively) with all other SI units being defined using these. These SI derived units can either be given special names e.g. watt, volt, lux, etc. or defined in terms of others, e.g. metre per second. The units with special names derived from the ampere are:


title: Ampere

text: There are also some SI units that are frequently used in the context of electrical engineering and electrical appliances, but can be defined independently of the ampere, notably the hertz, joule, watt, candela, lumen, and lux.


title: Ampere

text: Like other SI units, the ampere can be modified by adding a prefix that multiplies it by a power of 10.


title: Camille Rowe

text: Camille Chrystal Pourcheresse, known professionally as Camille Rowe, is a French-American model and actress who appeared on the cover of "Playboy" in 2016.


title: Camille Rowe

text: Rowe was born in Paris to an American mother, who was a model and dancer at Le Lido club, and a French father, whose family is in the restaurant business. Her childhood was split between France, New York and California.


title: Camille Rowe

text: Rowe was spotted in 2008 at a café in Le Marais, Paris, while studying at university, and became the face of Chloé. She has appeared in magazines such as "Vogue Paris, Marie Claire Italia, Madame Figaro, Vogue Italia, Vogue España, and Elle France". She has also modeled for Louis Vuitton, Opening Ceremony, Gap Inc., Abercrombie & Fitch, Tommy Hilfiger, Seafolly, Rag & Bone, H&M, Tory Burch, Ralph Lauren, and Adidas Originals. In 2016, Rowe appeared on the cover of "Playboy" and walked for the Victoria's Secret Fashion Show.


title: Camille Rowe

text: Rowe was in a relationship with Harry Styles from 2017 to 2018. She inspired his 2019 album "Fine Line".


title: Norman Mailer

text: Nachem Malech Mailer (January 31, 1923 – November 10, 2007), known by his pen name Norman Kingsley Mailer, was an American novelist, journalist, essayist, playwright, activist, filmmaker and actor. In a career spanning over six decades, Mailer had 11 best-selling books, at least one in each of the seven decades after World War II—more than any other post-war American writer.


title: Norman Mailer

text: His novel "The Naked and the Dead" was published in 1948 and brought him early renown. His 1968 nonfiction novel "Armies of the Night" won the Pulitzer Prize for non-fiction as well as the National Book Award. Among his best-known works is "The Executioner's Song", the 1979 winner of the Pulitzer Prize for fiction.


title: Norman Mailer

text: Mailer is considered an innovator of "creative non-fiction" or "New Journalism", along with Truman Capote, Joan Didion, Hunter S. Thompson, and Tom Wolfe, a genre which uses the style and devices of literary fiction in factual journalism. He was a cultural commentator and critic, expressing his views through his novels, journalism, frequent press appearances and essays, the most famous and reprinted of which is "The White Negro". In 1955, he and three others founded "The Village Voice", an arts and politics-oriented weekly newspaper distributed in Greenwich Village.


title: Norman Mailer

text: In 1960, Mailer was convicted of assault and served a three-year probation after he stabbed his wife Adele Morales with a penknife, nearly killing her. In 1969, he ran an unsuccessful campaign to become the mayor of New York. Mailer was married six times and had nine children.


title: Norman Mailer

text: Nachem "Norman" Malech ("King") Mailer was born to a Jewish family in Long Branch, New Jersey, on January 31, 1923. His father, Isaac Barnett Mailer, popularly known as "Barney", was an accountant born in South Africa, and his mother, Fanny ("née" Schneider), ran a housekeeping and nursing agency. Mailer's sister, Barbara, was born in 1927.


title: Norman Mailer

text: Mailer was raised in Brooklyn, first in Flatbush on Cortelyou Road and later in Crown Heights at the corner of Albany and Crown Streets. He graduated from Boys High School and entered Harvard College in 1939, when he was 16 years old. As an undergraduate, he was a member of the Signet Society. At Harvard, he majored in engineering sciences, but took writing courses as electives. He published his first story, "The Greatest Thing in the World", at the age of 18, winning "Story" magazine's college contest in 1941.


title: Norman Mailer

text: After graduating in 1943, Mailer married his first wife Beatrice "Bea" Silverman in January 1944, just before being drafted into the U.S. Army. Hoping to gain a deferment from service, Mailer argued that he was writing an "important literary work" which pertained to the war. This deferral was denied, and Mailer was forced to enter the Army. After training at Fort Bragg, he was stationed in the Philippines with the 112th Cavalry.


title: Norman Mailer

text: During his time in the Philippines Mailer was first assigned to regimental headquarters as a typist, then assigned as a wire lineman. In early 1945, after volunteering for a reconnaissance platoon, he completed more than two dozen patrols in contested territory, and engaged in several firefights and skirmishes. After the Japanese surrender, he was sent to Japan as part of the army of occupation, was promoted to sergeant, and became a first cook.


title: Norman Mailer

text: When asked about his war experiences, he said that the army was "the worst experience of my life, and also the most important". While in Japan and the Philippines, Mailer wrote to his wife Bea almost daily, and these approximately 400 letters became the foundation of "The Naked and the Dead". He drew on his experience as a reconnaissance rifleman for the central action of the novel: a long patrol behind enemy lines.


title: Norman Mailer

text: Mailer wrote 12 novels in 59 years. After completing courses in French language and culture at the University of Paris in 1947–48, he returned to the U.S. shortly after "The Naked and the Dead" was published in May 1948. A "New York Times" best seller for 62 weeks, it was the only one of Mailer's novels to reach the number one position. It was hailed by many as one of the best American wartime novels and included in a list of the hundred best English-language novels of the twentieth century by the Modern Library. The book that made his reputation sold over a million copies in its first year, (three million by 1981) and has never gone out of print. It is still considered to be one of the finest depictions of Americans in combat during World War II.


title: Norman Mailer

text: "Barbary Shore" (1951) was not well received by the critics. It was a surreal parable of Cold War leftist politics set in a Brooklyn rooming-house, and Mailer's most autobiographical novel. His 1955 novel, "The Deer Park" drew on his experiences working as a screenwriter in Hollywood from 1949 to 1950. It was initially rejected by seven publishers due to its purportedly sexual content before being published by Putnam's. It was not a critical success, but it made the best-seller list, sold over 50,000 copies its first year, and is considered by some critics to be the best Hollywood novel since Nathanael West's "The Day of the Locust".


title: Norman Mailer

text: Mailer wrote his fourth novel, "An American Dream", as a serial in "Esquire" magazine over eight months (January to August 1964), publishing the first chapter two months after he wrote it. In March 1965, Dial Press published a revised version. The novel generally received mixed reviews, but was a best seller. Joan Didion praised it in a review in "National Review" (April 20, 1965) and John W. Aldridge did the same in "Life " (March 19, 1965), while Elizabeth Hardwick panned it in "Partisan Review" (spring 1965).


title: Norman Mailer

text: Mailer's fifth novel, "Why Are We in Vietnam?" was even more experimental in its prose than "An American Dream". Published in 1967, the critical reception of WWVN was mostly positive with many critics, like John Aldridge in Harper's, calling the novel a masterpiece and comparing it to Joyce. Mailer's obscene language was criticized by critics such as Granville Hicks writing in the Saturday Review and the anonymous reviewer in Time. Eliot Fremont-Smith calls WWVN "the most original, courageous and provocative novel so far this year" that's likely to be "mistakenly reviled". Other critics, such as Denis Donoghue from the New York Review of Books praised Mailer for his verisimilitude "for the sensory event". Donoghue recalls Josephine Miles' study of the American Sublime, reasoning WWVN's voice and style as the drive behind Mailer's impact.


title: Norman Mailer

text: In 1972, Joyce Carol Oates called "Vietnam" "Mailer's most important work"; it's "an outrageous little masterpiece" that "contains some of Mailer's finest writing" and thematically echoes John Milton's "Paradise Lost".


title: Norman Mailer

text: In 1980, "The Executioner's Song", Mailer's "real-life novel" of the life and death of murderer Gary Gilmore, won the Pulitzer Prize for fiction. Joan Didion reflected the views of many readers when she called the novel "an absolutely astonishing book" at the end of her front-page review in the "New York Times Book Review".


title: Norman Mailer

text: Mailer spent a longer time writing "Ancient Evenings", his novel of Egypt in the Twentieth Dynasty (about 1100 BC), than any of his other books. He worked on it for periods from 1972 until 1983. It was also a bestseller, although reviews were generally negative. Harold Bloom, in his review said the book "gives every sign of truncation", and "could be half again as long, but no reader will wish so", while Richard Poirier called it Mailer's "most audacious book".


title: Norman Mailer

text: "Harlot's Ghost", Mailer's longest novel (1310 pages), appeared in 1991 and received his best reviews since "The Executioner's Song". It is an exploration of the untold dramas of the CIA from the end of World War II to 1965. He undertook a huge amount of research for the novel, which is still on CIA reading lists. He ended the novel with the words "To be continued" and planned to write a sequel, titled "Harlot's Grave", but other projects intervened and he never wrote it. "Harlot's Ghost" sold well.


title: Norman Mailer

text: His final novel, "The Castle in the Forest", which focused on Hitler's childhood, reached number five on the "Times" best-seller list after publication in January 2007. It received reviews that were more positive than any of his books since "The Executioner's Song." "Castle" was intended to be the first volume of a trilogy, but Mailer died several months after it was completed. "The Castle in the Forest" received a laudatory 6,200-word front-page review by Lee Siegel in the "New York Times Book Review", as well as a Bad Sex in Fiction Award by the "Literary Review" magazine.


title: Norman Mailer

text: From the mid-1950s, Mailer became known for his countercultural essays. In 1955, he co-founded "The Village Voice" and was initially an investor and silent partner, but later he wrote a column called "Quickly: A Column for Slow Readers" from January to April 1956. His articles published in this column, 17 in total, were important in his development of a philosophy of hip, or "American existentialism," and allowed him to discover his penchant for journalism.


title: Norman Mailer

text: Mailer's famous essay "The White Negro" (1957) fleshes out the hipster figure who stands in opposition to forces that seek debilitating conformity in American society.


title: Norman Mailer

text: It is believed to be among the most anthologized, and controversial, essays of the postwar period. Mailer republished it in 1959 in his miscellany "Advertisements for Myself", which he described as "The first work I wrote with a style I could call my own." The reviews were positive, and most commentators referred to it as his breakthrough work.


title: Norman Mailer

text: In 1960, Mailer wrote "Superman Comes to the Supermarket" for "Esquire" magazine, an account of the emergence of John F. Kennedy during the Democratic Party convention. The essay was an important breakthrough for the New Journalism of the 1960s, but when the magazine's editors changed the title to "Superman Comes to the Supermart", Mailer was enraged, and would not write for "Esquire" for years. (The magazine later apologized. Subsequent references are to the original title.)


title: Norman Mailer

text: Mailer took part in the October 1967 march on the Pentagon, but initially had no intention of writing a book about it. After conversations with his friend, Willie Morris, editor of "Harper's" magazine, he agreed to produce a long essay describing the march. In a concentrated effort, he produced a 90,000-word piece in two months, and it appeared in "Harper"'s March issue. It was the longest nonfiction piece to be published by an American magazine. As one commentator states, "Mailer disarmed the literary world with "Armies". The combination of detached, ironic self-presentation [he described himself in the third person], deft portraiture of literary figures (especially Robert Lowell, Dwight Macdonald, and Paul Goodman), a reported flawless account of the March itself, and a passionate argument addressed to a divided nation, resulted in a sui generis narrative praised by even some of his most inveterate revilers." Alfred Kazin, writing in the "New York Times Book Review", said, "Mailer's intuition is that the times demand a new form. He has found it." He later expanded the article to a book, "The Armies of the Night" (1968), awarded a National Book Award and a Pulitzer Prize.


title: Norman Mailer

text: Mailer's major new journalism, or creative nonfiction, books also include "Miami and the Siege of Chicago" (1968), an account of the 1968 political conventions; "Of a Fire on the Moon" (1971), a long report on the Apollo 11 mission to the moon; "The Prisoner of Sex" (1971), his response to Kate Millett's critique of the patriarchal myths in the works of Mailer, Jean Genet, Henry Miller and D.H. Lawrence; and "The Fight" (1975), an account of Muhammad Ali's 1974 defeat in Zaire of George Foreman for the heavyweight boxing championship. "Miami", "Fire" and "Prisoner" were all finalists for the National Book Award. The hallmark of his five New Journalism works is his use of illeism, or referring to oneself in the third person, rather than the first. Mailer said he got the idea from reading "The Education of Henry Adams" (1918) when he was a Harvard freshman. Mailer also employs many of the most common techniques of fiction in his creative nonfiction.


title: Norman Mailer

text: In addition to his experimental fiction and nonfiction novels, Mailer produced a play version of "The Deer Park" (staged at the Theatre De Lys in Greenwich Village in 1967), which had a four-month run and generally good reviews. In 2007, months before he died, he re-wrote the script, and asked his son Michael, a film producer, to film a staged production in Provincetown, but had to cancel because of his declining health. Mailer obsessed over "The Deer Park" more than he did over any other work.


title: Norman Mailer

text: In the late 1960s, Mailer directed three improvisational avant-garde films: "Wild 90" (1968), "Beyond the Law" (1968), and "Maidstone" (1970). The latter includes a spontaneous and brutal brawl between Norman T. Kingsley, played by Mailer, and Kingsley's half-brother Raoul, played by Rip Torn. Mailer received a head injury when Torn struck him with a hammer, and Torn's ear became infected when Mailer bit it. In 2012, the Criterion Collection released Mailer's experimental films in a box set, "Maidstone and Other Films by Norman Mailer".


title: Norman Mailer

text: In 1987, he adapted and directed a film version of his novel "Tough Guys Don't Dance" starring Ryan O'Neal and Isabella Rossellini, which has become a minor camp classic.


title: Norman Mailer

text: Mailer took on an acting role in the 1981 Miloš Forman film version of E.L. Doctorow's novel "Ragtime", playing Stanford White. In 1999, he played Harry Houdini in Matthew Barney's "Cremaster 2", which was inspired by the events surrounding the life of Gary Gilmore.


title: Norman Mailer

text: In 1976, Mailer went to Italy for several weeks to collaborate with Italian Spaghetti Western filmmaker Sergio Leone on an adaptation of the Harry Grey novel "The Hoods".


title: Norman Mailer

text: Although Leone would pursue other writers shortly thereafter, elements of Mailer's first two drafts of the commissioned screenplay would appear in the Italian filmmaker's final magnum opus, "Once Upon a Time in America" (1984), starring Robert DeNiro.


title: Norman Mailer

text: Mailer starred alongside writer/feminist Germaine Greer in D.A. Pennebaker's "Town Bloody Hall", which was shot in 1971 but not released until 1979.


title: Norman Mailer

text: In 1982, Mailer and Lawrence Schiller would collaborate on a television adaptation of "The Executioner's Song", starring Tommy Lee Jones, Roseanna Arquette, and Eli Wallach. Airing on November 28 and 29, "The Executioner's Song" received strong critical reviews and four Emmy nominations, including one for Mailer's screenplay. It won two: for sound production and for Jones as best actor.


title: Norman Mailer

text: In 1987, Mailer was to appear in Jean-Luc Godard's experimental film version of Shakespeare's "King Lear", to be shot in Switzerland. Originally, Mailer was to play the lead character, Don Learo, in Godard's unscripted film alongside his daughter, Kate Mailer. The film also featured Woody Allen and Peter Sellars. However, tensions surfaced between Mailer and Godard early in the production when Godard insisted that Mailer play a character who had a carnal relationship with his own daughter. Mailer left Switzerland after just one day of shooting.


title: Norman Mailer

text: In 1997, Mailer was set to direct the boxing drama "Ringside," based on an original script by his son Michael and two others. The male lead role, an Irish-American streetfighter who finds redemption in the ring, was to be Brendan Fraser, and it was also to star Halle Berry, Anthony Quinn, and Paul Sorvino.


title: Norman Mailer

text: In 2005, Mailer served as a technical consultant on the Ron Howard boxing movie "Cinderella Man", about legendary boxer Jim Braddock.


title: Norman Mailer

text: Mailer's approach to biography came from his interest in the ego of the artist as an "exemplary type". His own biographer, J. Michael Lennon, explains that Mailer would use "himself as a species of divining rod to explore the psychic depths" of disparate personalities, like Pablo Picasso, Muhammad Ali, Gary Gilmore, Lee Harvey Oswald, and Marilyn Monroe. "Ego," states Lennon, "can be seen as the beginning of a major phase in his writing career: Mailer as biographer."


title: Norman Mailer

text: Beginning as an assignment from Lawrence Schiller to write a short preface to a collection of photographs, Mailer's 1973 biography of Monroe (usually designated "") was not approached as a traditional biography. Mailer read the available biographies, watched Monroe's films, and looked at photographs of Monroe; for the rest of it, Mailer stated, "I speculated." Since Mailer did not have the time to thoroughly research the facts surrounding her death, his speculation led to the biography's controversy. The book's final chapter theorizes that Monroe was murdered by rogue agents of the FBI and CIA who resented her supposed affair with Robert F. Kennedy. Mailer later admitted that he embellished the book with speculations about Monroe's sex life and death that he did not himself believe to ensure its commercial success. In his own autobiography, Monroe's former husband Arthur Miller wrote that Mailer saw himself as Monroe "in drag, acting out his own Hollywood fantasies of fame and sex unlimited and power."


title: Norman Mailer

text: The book was enormously successful; it sold more copies than did any of Mailer's works except "The Naked and the Dead", and it is Mailer's most widely reviewed book. It was the inspiration for the Emmy-nominated TV movie "", which aired in 1980. Two later works co-written by Mailer presented imagined words and thoughts in Monroe's voice: the 1980 book "Of Women and Their Elegance" and the 1986 play "Strawhead", which was produced off Broadway starring his daughter Kate Mailer.


title: Norman Mailer

text: In the wake of the "Marilyn" controversy, Mailer attempted to explain his unique approach to biography. He suggests that his biography must be seen as a ""species" of novel ready to play by the rules of biography." Exemplary egos, he explains, are best explained by other exemplary egos, and personalities like Monroe's are best left in the hands of a novelist.


title: Norman Mailer

text: A number of Mailer's nonfiction works, such as "The Armies of the Night" and "The Presidential Papers", are political. He covered the Republican and Democratic National Conventions in 1960, 1964, 1968, 1972, 1992, and 1996, although his account of the 1996 Democratic convention has never been published. In the early 1960s he was fixated on the figure of President John F. Kennedy, whom he regarded as an "existential hero". In the late 1950s and throughout the 1960s and 1970s, his work mingled autobiography, social commentary, history, fiction, and poetry in a formally original way that influenced the development of New Journalism.


title: Norman Mailer

text: Mailer held the position that the Cold War was not a positive ideal for America. It allowed the state to become strong and invested in the daily lives of the people. He critiqued conservative politics as they, specifically those of Barry Goldwater, supported the Cold War and an increase in government spending and oversight. This, Mailer argued, stood in opposition with conservative principles such as lower taxes and smaller government. He believed that conservatives were pro-Cold War because that was politically relevant to them and would therefore help them win.


title: Norman Mailer

text: Indeed, Mailer was outspoken about his mistrust of politics in general as a way of meaningful change in America. In "Miami and the Siege of Chicago" (1968), he explained his view of "politics-as-property", likening a politician to a property holder who is "never ambivalent about his land, he does not mock it or see other adjacent estates as more deserving than his own." Thus politics is just people trading their influence as capital in an attempt to serve their own interests. This cynical view of politicians serving only themselves perhaps explains his views on Watergate. Mailer saw politics as a sporting event: "If you played for a team, you did your best to play very well, but there was something obscene ... in starting to think there was more moral worth to Michigan than Ohio State." Mailer thought that Nixon lost and was demonized only because he played for the wrong team. President Johnson, Mailer thought, was just as bad as Nixon had been, but he had good charisma so all was forgiven.


title: Norman Mailer

text: In September 1961, Mailer was one of 29 original prominent American sponsors of the Fair Play for Cuba Committee organization with which John F. Kennedy assassin Lee Harvey Oswald was associated in 1963. In December 1963, Mailer and several of the other sponsors left the organization.


title: Norman Mailer

text: In October 1967, Mailer was arrested for his involvement in an anti–Vietnam War demonstration at the Pentagon sponsored by the National Mobilization Committee to End the War in Vietnam. In 1968, he signed the Writers and Editors War Tax Protest pledge, vowing to refuse tax payments in protest against the war.


title: Norman Mailer

text: In 1980, Mailer spearheaded convicted killer Jack Abbott's successful bid for parole. In 1977, Abbott had read about Mailer's work on "The Executioner's Song" and wrote to Mailer, offering to enlighten the author about Abbott's time behind bars and the conditions he was experiencing. Mailer, impressed, helped to publish "In the Belly of the Beast", a book on life in the prison system consisting of Abbott's letters to Mailer. Once paroled, Abbott committed a murder in New York City six weeks after his release, stabbing 22-year-old Richard Adan to death. Consequently, Mailer was subject to criticism for his role. In a 1992 interview with the "Buffalo News", he conceded that his involvement was "another episode in my life in which I can find nothing to cheer about or nothing to take pride in."


title: Norman Mailer

text: The 1986 meeting of P.E.N. in New York City featured key speeches by Secretary of State George P. Shultz and Mailer. The appearance of a government official was derided by many, and as Shultz ended his speech, the crowd seethed, with some calling to "read the protest" that had been circulated to criticize Shultz's appearance. Mailer, who was next to speak, responded by shouting to the crowd: "Up yours!"


title: Norman Mailer

text: In 1989, Mailer joined with a number of other prominent authors in publicly expressing support for colleague Salman Rushdie, whose "The Satanic Verses" led to a "fatwa" issued by Iran's Islamic government calling for Rushdie's assassination.


title: Norman Mailer

text: In 2003, in a speech to the Commonwealth Club in San Francisco, just before the Iraq War, Mailer said: "Fascism is more of a natural state than democracy. To assume blithely that we can export democracy into any country we choose can serve paradoxically to encourage more fascism at home and abroad. Democracy is a state of grace that is attained only by those countries who have a host of individuals not only ready to enjoy freedom but to undergo the heavy labor of maintaining it."


title: Norman Mailer

text: From 1980 until his death in 2007, Mailer contributed to Democratic Party candidates for political office.


title: Norman Mailer

text: In 1969, at the suggestion of feminist Gloria Steinem, his friend the political essayist Noel Parmentel and others, Mailer ran unsuccessfully in the Democratic Party primary for mayor of New York City, allied with columnist Jimmy Breslin (who ran for city council president), proposing the creation of a 51st state through New York City secession. Although Mailer took stands on a wide range of issues, from opposing "compulsory fluoridation of the water supply" to advocating the release of Black Panther Party leader Huey Newton, decentralization was the overriding issue of the campaign. Mailer "foresaw the city, its independence secured, splintering into townships and neighborhoods, with their own school systems, police departments, housing programs, and governing philosophies." Their slogan was "throw the rascals in." Mailer was endorsed by libertarian economist Murray Rothbard, who "believed that 'smashing the urban government apparatus and fragmenting it into a myriad of constituent fragments' offered the only answer to the ills plaguing American cities," and called Mailer's campaign "the most refreshing libertarian political campaign in decades." Mailer finished fourth in a field of five. Looking back on the campaign, journalist and historian Theodore H. White called it "one of the most serious campaigns run in the United States in the last five years. . . . [H]is campaign was considered and thoughtful, the beginning of an attempt to apply ideas to a political situation." Characterizing his campaign, Mailer said: "The difference between me and the other candidates is that I'm no good and I can prove it."


title: Norman Mailer

text: Mailer enjoyed drawing and drew prolifically, particularly toward the end of his life. While his work is not widely known, his drawings, which were inspired by Picasso's style, were exhibited at the Berta Walker Gallery in Provincetown in 2007, and are now displayed on the online arts community POBA - Where the Arts Live.


title: Norman Mailer

text: Bodily urges are fundamental to Mailer's approach to novels and short works. These urges are in tension with the themes of "apocalypse" and morality. Stemming from his Freudian philosophical basis, bodily urges are integral to Mailer's work. The "psychopath" presented in "The White Negro" continues to occupy the central narrative of much of Mailer's work throughout his career. The drama of this psychopath for Mailer is that he or she seeks love—but love as the search for an orgasm more "apocalyptic" than the ones that preceded it. These views on sex were not light vices for Mailer. In "Armies of the Night" he postulates at length on "earned manhood," "onanism and sexuality," and "psychic profit derived from the existential assertion of yourself". The Mailer–reader relationship is also integral to Mailer's literary body trope. Mailer uses frequent allusion and direct use of body-oriented language to describe power structures in "Miami and the Siege of Chicago" in the form of the "military spine of the liberal party" and in the "knifelike entrance into culture" of jazz in "The White Negro". Power over bodies, societies, political entities, etc. is a constant presence in Mailer's work. In addition - and notable for such a prominent mainstream American writer of his generation - Mailer, throughout his work and personal communications, repeatedly expresses interest in, includes episodes of or makes references to bisexuality or homosexuality. He even directly addresses the subject publicly in his essay "The Homosexual Villain", for "One" magazine.


title: Norman Mailer

text: Moments of physical and sexual power or powerlessness are the climax of "The Naked and the Dead", "The Time of Her Time", and "The Armies of the Night." His prose presentation of an existential struggle is frequently conveyed to the reader via references to the body. The body is an entity to be poked, prodded, broken, even snuffed into non-existence. By filling his work with graphic depictions of sex, violence, and even rock and roll, Mailer elevates the experience of the reader. Mailer invokes a particularly poignant, violent portrayal of the body, authority, and sexuality in "The Time of Her Time". Consistent use of bodily reference or allusion is clearly integral to his depiction of human existence. Mailer elevates the reader experience, and wrestles the reader for domination while allowing room for interpretation. Critiques of Mailer based on sexuality, race, and gender, have been levied by authors such as Kate Millett and bell hooks, among others. Kate Millett, in her "Sexual Politics," critiques Mailer: "His considerable insights into the practice of sexuality as a power game never seem to affect his vivid personal enthusiasm for the fight nor his sturdy conviction that it's kill or be killed."


title: Norman Mailer

text: Throughout his writing, Mailer never presents a very clear perspective on race. His works range from a profound understanding of the African American condition in America to extremely stereotypical depictions of race. For the majority of Mailer's career he does not delve directly into race, but chooses to pursue the matter only as a side note to the larger currents of the 1960s and 1970s. Mailer does, however, spend some time working through the issue in "The White Negro", "Of a Fire on the Moon", and in his work "The Fight" about the heavyweight title bout between Muhammad Ali and George Foreman.


title: Norman Mailer

text: In "Of a Fire on the Moon" Mailer represents the space flight as an exclusive action on the part of white Americans, as they have left African Americans behind on Earth. African Americans can only look on as whites move even farther past them in not just society, but their earthly constraints. Mailer uses African Americans to criticize the moon landing, as he reflects on the fact that many problems still exist on Earth, and within America.


title: Norman Mailer

text: Mailer often directly engaged with racial issues in his works, but some have seen his writings on the subject of race to be problematic. Mailer focused on Jazz as the ultimate expression of African-American bravado, and figures like Miles Davis would become represented in works like "An American Dream". For Mailer, African-American men reflected a challenge to his own notions of masculinity.


title: Norman Mailer

text: While in Paris in 1956, Mailer met the famous African-American author James Baldwin. Mailer became even more fascinated with African-Americans after meeting Baldwin, and this friendship inspired Mailer to write "The White Negro". To Mailer, Baldwin was a natural point of intrigue as Baldwin was both gay and an African-American author, similar to Mailer's stature. Their relationship was never a close friendship nor contemptuous, but one of mutual intrigue and a sense of competition existed between the two writers. Mailer often commented on Baldwin's work, and Baldwin did the same to Mailer. These comments became increasingly critical as their careers progressed despite their respect for one another. Baldwin wrote a letter disapproving of Mailer's comments on race and sexuality in "The White Negro". He stated the reason for the decline in his relationship with Mailer was "that myth of the sexuality of Negroes which Norman, like so many others, refused to give up". Baldwin said a white American writer "affords too many opportunities to avoid reality". He believed that Mailer did not fully recognize the benefits from his status as a heterosexual male.


title: Norman Mailer

text: The subject of masculinity shows up frequently throughout Mailer's works. Critics have argued that while Mailer says he supports feminism, he unconsciously intertwines his own masculine biases.


title: Norman Mailer

text: In "The Prisoner of Sex", Mailer questions the Women's Liberation Movement and the role of women in the society around him. He viewed women as questioning societal roles that posed a risk to interfering with masculine roles that had already been established. In Mailer's eyes, he does not fully comprehend what women were fighting for.


title: Norman Mailer

text: Mailer was married six times and had nine children. He fathered eight children by his various wives and informally adopted his sixth wife's son from another marriage.


title: Norman Mailer

text: Mailer's first marriage was to Beatrice Silverman. They eloped in January 1944 because neither family would likely have approved. They had one child, Susan, and divorced in 1952 because of Mailer's infidelities with Adele Morales.


title: Norman Mailer

text: Morales moved in with Mailer during 1951 into an apartment on First Avenue near Second Street in the East Village, and they married in 1954. They had two daughters, Danielle and Elizabeth. After hosting a party on Saturday, November 19, 1960, Mailer stabbed Adele twice with a two-and-a-half inch blade that he used to clean his nails, nearly killing her by puncturing her pericardium. He stabbed her once in the chest and once in the back. Adele required emergency surgery but made a quick recovery. Mailer claimed he had stabbed Adele "to relieve her of cancer". He was involuntarily committed to Bellevue Hospital for 17 days. While Adele did not press charges, saying she wanted to protect their daughters, Mailer later pleaded guilty to a reduced charge of assault saying, "I feel I did a lousy, dirty, cowardly thing", and received a suspended sentence of three years' probation. In 1962, the two divorced. In 1997, Adele published a memoir of their marriage entitled "The Last Party", which recounted her husband stabbing her at a party and the aftermath. This incident has been a focal point for feminist critics of Mailer, who point to themes of sexual violence in his work.


title: Norman Mailer

text: His third wife, whom he married in 1962, and divorced in 1963, was the British heiress and journalist Lady Jeanne Campbell (1929–2007). She was the only daughter of Ian Campbell, 11th Duke of Argyll, a Scottish aristocrat and clan chief with a notorious private life, and his first wife Janet Gladys Aitken, who was a daughter of the press baron Max Aitken, 1st Baron Beaverbrook. The couple had a daughter, actress Kate Mailer.


title: Norman Mailer

text: His fourth marriage, in 1963, was to Beverly Bentley, a former model turned actress. She was the mother of two of his sons, producer Michael Mailer and actor Stephen Mailer. They divorced in 1980.


title: Norman Mailer

text: His fifth wife was Carol Stevens, a jazz singer whom he married on November 7, 1980, and divorced in Haiti on November 8, 1980, thereby legitimating their daughter Maggie, born in 1971.


title: Norman Mailer

text: His sixth and last wife, whom he married in 1980, was Norris Church Mailer (born Barbara Jean Davis, 1949–2010), an art teacher. They had one son together, John Buffalo Mailer, a writer and actor. Mailer raised and informally adopted Matthew Norris, Church's son by her first husband, Larry Norris. Living in Brooklyn, New York and Provincetown, Massachusetts with Mailer, Church worked as a model, wrote and painted.


title: Norman Mailer

text: In 2005, Mailer co-wrote a book with his youngest child, John Buffalo Mailer, titled "The Big Empty". Mailer appeared in a 2004 episode of "Gilmore Girls" titled "Norman Mailer, I'm Pregnant!" with his son Stephen Mailer.


title: Norman Mailer

text: Over the course of his life, Mailer was connected with several women other than his wives, including Carole Mallory, who wrote a "tell all" biography, "Loving Mailer," after his death.


title: Norman Mailer

text: In a chance meeting in an Upper East Side New York restaurant in 1982, Gloria Leonard first met Mailer. He struck up a conversation with Leonard after recognizing her. The meeting was rumored to have led to a brief affair between the two. Later, Leonard was approached by a group of movie distributors from the Midwest to finance what was described as "the world's first million-dollar pornographic movie". She invited Mailer to lunch and made her pitch for his services as a writer. In an interview Leonard said that the author "sat straight up in his chair and said, 'I always knew I'd one day make a porny. Leonard then asked what his fee would be and Mailer responded with "Two-hundred fifty thousand". Leonard then asked if he'd be interested in adapting his novel-biography of Marilyn Monroe, but Mailer replied that he wanted to do something original. The project later ended due to scheduling conflicts between the two.


title: Norman Mailer

text: At the December 15, 1971, taping of "The Dick Cavett Show", with Janet Flanner and Gore Vidal, Mailer, annoyed with a less-than-stellar review by Vidal of "Prisoner of Sex", apparently insulted then head-butted Vidal backstage. As the show began taping, a visibly belligerent Mailer, who admitted he had been drinking, goaded Vidal and Cavett into trading insults with him on-air and referred to his own "greater intellect". He openly taunted and mocked Vidal (who responded in kind), finally earning the ire of Flanner, who announced during the discussion that she was "becoming very, very bored", telling Mailer and Vidal "you act as if you're the only people here." As Cavett made jokes comparing Mailer's intellect to his ego, Mailer stated "Why don't you look at your question sheet and ask your question?", to which Cavett responded "Why don't you fold it five ways and put it where the moon don't shine?" A long laugh ensued, after which Mailer asked Cavett if he had come up with that line, and Cavett replied "I have to tell you a quote from Tolstoy?". The head-butting and later on-air altercation was described by Mailer himself in his essay "Of a Small and Modest Malignancy, Wicked and Bristling with Dots".


title: Norman Mailer

text: According to his obituary in "The Independent", his "relentless machismo seemed out of place in a man who was actually quite small – though perhaps that was where the aggression originated."


title: Norman Mailer

text: Alan Dershowitz, in his book, "Taking the Stand", recounts when Claus von Bülow had a dinner party after he was found not guilty at his trial. Dershowitz countered that he would not attend if it was a "victory party", and von Bülow assured him that it was only a dinner for "several interesting friends". Norman Mailer attended the dinner where, among other things, Dershowitz explained why the evidence pointed to von Bülow's innocence. As Dershowitz recounted, Mailer grabbed his wife's arm, and said: "Let's get out of here. I think this guy is innocent. I thought we were going to be having dinner with a man who actually tried to kill his wife. This is boring."


title: Norman Mailer

text: Mailer died of acute renal failure on November 10, 2007, a month after undergoing lung surgery at Mount Sinai Hospital in Manhattan, New York. He is buried in Provincetown Cemetery, Provincetown, Massachusetts.


title: Norman Mailer

text: More than a thousand boxes of papers from the two-time Pulitzer Prize author may be found at the Harry Ransom Center at the University of Texas, Austin.


title: Norman Mailer

text: In 2008, Carole Mallory, a former mistress, sold seven boxes of documents and photographs to Harvard University, Norman Mailer's alma mater. They contain extracts of her letters, books and journals.


title: Norman Mailer

text: In 2003, the Norman Mailer Society was founded to help ensure the legacy of Mailer's work. In 2008, The Norman Mailer Center and The Norman Mailer Writers Colony, a non-profit organization for educational purposes, was established to honor Norman Mailer.


title: Norman Mailer

text: Throughout his lifetime, Mailer wrote over 45,000 letters. In 2014, Mailer's biographer J. Michael Lennon chose 712 of those letters and published them in "Selected Letters of Norman Mailer", which covers the period between the 1940s and the early 2000s.


title: Norman Mailer

text: In March 2018, the Library of America published a two-volume collection of Mailer's works from the sixties: "Four Books of the 1960s" and "Collected Essays of the 1960s". Critic David Denby suggests that based on Mailer's observations about the fractured political atmosphere in America that led to the 1967 march on the Pentagon, Mailer's work seems to be as relevant today as it was fifty years ago and that "Mailer may be due for reappraisal and revival."


title: Norman Mailer

text: In May 2018, the Norman Mailer Society and the city of Long Branch, New Jersey co-sponsored the installation of a bronze plaque where the Mailer family's Queen-Anne style hotel, the Scarboro, used to stand on the city's beachfront.


title: Norman Mailer

text: In October 2019, Wilkes University's Farley Library opened a replica of Mailer's last study in Provincetown, MA, replete with "some of his private library, manuscripts and revisions dating from 1984 as well as his studio furniture". The archive also houses "Mailer's entire 4,000-volume library from his home in Brooklyn, N.Y." and an original portrait of Mailer by painter Nancy Ellen Craig donated by Mailer's daughter Danielle. The room opened with an event on October 10, 2019, to coincide with the annual conference of the Norman Mailer Society and was attended by several members of Mailer's family.


title: Norman Mailer

text: In 2019, Susan Mailer, Norman's eldest daughter, published a memoir about her relationship with her father. "In Another Place: With and Without My Father Norman Mailer" explores her "intense and complex" relationship with her father and the extended Mailer family. Reviewer Nicole DePolo writes that Susan Mailer, a psychoanalyst, provides sharp insights about her father in "crisp, vibrant prose that captures the essence of moments that are both remarkable and universally resonant".


title: Norman Mailer

text: Contains important books and articles about Mailer and his works, many of which are cited in this article. See Works above for a list of Mailer's first editions and Mailer's individual works for reviews.


title: Fern

text: A fern (Polypodiopsida or Polypodiophyta ) is a member of a group of vascular plants (plants with xylem and phloem) that reproduce via spores and have neither seeds nor flowers. The polypodiophytes include all living pteridophytes except the lycopods, and differ from mosses and other bryophytes by being vascular, i.e., having specialized tissues that conduct water and nutrients and in having life cycles in which the branched sporophyte is the dominant phase. Ferns have complex leaves called megaphylls, that are more complex than the microphylls of clubmosses. Most ferns are leptosporangiate ferns. They produce coiled fiddleheads that uncoil and expand into fronds. The group includes about 10,560 known extant species. Ferns are defined here in the broad sense, being all of the Polypodiopsida, comprising both the leptosporangiate (Polypodiidae) and eusporangiate ferns, the latter group including horsetails, whisk ferns, marattioid ferns, and ophioglossoid ferns.


title: Fern

text: Ferns first appear in the fossil record about 360 million years ago in the late Devonian period, but many of the current families and species did not appear until roughly 145 million years ago in the early Cretaceous, after flowering plants came to dominate many environments. The fern "Osmunda claytoniana" is a paramount example of evolutionary stasis; paleontological evidence indicates it has remained unchanged, even at the level of fossilized nuclei and chromosomes, for at least 180 million years.


title: Fern

text: Ferns are not of major economic importance, but some are used for food, medicine, as biofertilizer, as ornamental plants, and for remediating contaminated soil. They have been the subject of research for their ability to remove some chemical pollutants from the atmosphere. Some fern species, such as bracken ("Pteridium aquilinum") and water fern ("Azolla filiculoides") are significant weeds worldwide. Some fern genera, such as "Azolla", can fix nitrogen and make a significant input to the nitrogen nutrition of rice paddies. They also play certain roles in folklore.


title: Fern

text: Extant ferns are herbaceous perennials and most lack woody growth. Their foliage may be deciduous or evergreen, and some are semi-evergreen depending on the climate. Like the sporophytes of seed plants, those of ferns consist of stems, leaves and roots. Ferns differ from seed plants in reproducing by spores. However, they also differ from spore-producing bryophytes in that, like seed plants, they are polysporangiophytes, their sporophytes branching and producing many sporangia. Also unlike bryophytes, fern sporophytes are free-living and only briefly dependent on the maternal gametophyte.


title: Fern

text: Fern stems are often referred to as rhizomes, even though they grow underground only in some of the species. Epiphytic species and many of the terrestrial ones have above-ground creeping stolons (e.g., Polypodiaceae), and many groups have above-ground erect semi-woody trunks (e.g., Cyatheaceae). These can reach up to tall in a few species (e.g., "Cyathea brownii" on Norfolk Island and "Cyathea medullaris" in New Zealand).


title: Fern

text: The green, photosynthetic part of the plant is technically a and in ferns, it is often referred to as a "frond". New leaves typically expand by the unrolling of a tight spiral called a crozier or fiddlehead into fronds. This uncurling of the leaf is termed circinate vernation. Leaves are divided into two types: sporophylls and tropophylls. Sporophylls produce spores; tropophylls do not. Fern spores are borne in sporangia which are usually clustered to form sori. In monomorphic ferns, the fertile and sterile leaves looks morphologically the same, and are photosynthesizing in the same way. In hemidimorphic ferns, just a portion of the fertile leaf is different from the sterile leaves. And in dimorphic ferns, also called holomorphic ferns, the two types of leaves are morphologically distinct (frond dimorphism). The fertile leaves are much narrower than the sterile leaves, and may even have no green tissue at all (e.g., Blechnaceae, Lomariopsidaceae). The anatomy of fern leaves can be anywhere from simple to highly divided, or even indeterminate (e.g. Gleicheniaceae, Lygodiaceae). The divided forms are pinnate, where the leaf segments are completely separated from one other, or pinnatifid (partially pinnate), where the leaf segments are still partially connected. When the fronds are branched more than once, it can also be a combination of the pinnatifid are pinnate shapes. If the leaf blades are divided twice, the plant has bipinnate fronds, and tripinnate fronds if they branch three times, and all the way to tetra- and pentapinnate fronds. In tree ferns, the main stalk that connects the leaf to the stem (known as the stipe), often has multiple leaflets. The leafy structures that grow from the stipe are known as pinnae and are often again divided into smaller pinnules.


title: Fern

text: The underground non-photosynthetic structures that take up water and nutrients from soil. They are always fibrous and structurally are very similar to the roots of seed plants.


title: Fern

text: As in all other vascular plants, the sporophyte is the dominant phase or generation in the life cycle. The gametophytes of ferns, however, are very different from those of seed plants. They are free-living and resemble liverworts, whereas those of seed plants develop within the spore wall and are dependent on the parent sporophyte for their nutrition. A fern gametophyte typically consists of:


title: Fern

text: Carl Linnaeus (1753) originally recognized 15 genera of ferns and fern allies, classifying them in class Cryptogamia in two groups, Filices (e.g. "Polypodium") and Musci (mosses). By 1806 this had increased to 38 genera, and has progressively increased since ("see Figure 1"). Ferns were traditionally classified in the class Filices, and later in a Division of the Plant Kingdom named Pteridophyta or Filicophyta. Pteridophyta is no longer recognised as a valid taxon because it is paraphyletic. The ferns are also referred to as Polypodiophyta or, when treated as a subdivision of Tracheophyta (vascular plants), Polypodiopsida, although this name sometimes only refers to leptosporangiate ferns. Traditionally, all of the spore producing vascular plants were informally denominated the pteridophytes, rendering the term synonymous with ferns and fern allies. This can be confusing because members of the division Pteridophyta were also denominated pteridophytes ("sensu stricto").


title: Fern

text: Traditionally, three discrete groups have been denominated ferns: two groups of eusporangiate ferns, the families Ophioglossaceae (adder's tongues, moonworts, and grape ferns) and Marattiaceae; and the leptosporangiate ferns. The Marattiaceae are a primitive group of tropical ferns with large, fleshy rhizomes and are now thought to be a sibling taxon to the leptosporangiate ferns. Several other groups of species were considered fern allies: the clubmosses, spikemosses, and quillworts in Lycopodiophyta; the whisk ferns of Psilotaceae; and the horsetails of Equisetaceae. Since this grouping is polyphyletic, the term fern allies should be abandoned, except in a historical context. More recent genetic studies demonstrated that the Lycopodiophyta are more distantly related to other vascular plants, having radiated evolutionarily at the base of the vascular plant clade, while both the whisk ferns and horsetails are as closely related to leptosporangiate ferns as the ophioglossoid ferns and Marattiaceae. In fact, the whisk ferns and ophioglossoid ferns are demonstrably a clade, and the horsetails and Marattiaceae are arguably another clade.


title: Fern

text: Smith et al. (2006) carried out the first higher-level pteridophyte classification published in the molecular phylogenetic era, and considered the ferns as monilophytes, as follows:


title: Fern

text: Molecular data, which remain poorly constrained for many parts of the plants' phylogeny, have been supplemented by morphological observations supporting the inclusion of Equisetaceae in the ferns, notably relating to the construction of their sperm and peculiarities of their roots. However, there remained differences of opinion about the placement of the genus "Equisetum" (see Equisetopsida for further discussion). One possible solution was to denominate only the leptosporangiate ferns as "true ferns" while denominating the other three groups as fern allies. In practice, numerous classification schemes have been proposed for ferns and fern allies, and there has been little consensus among them.


title: Fern

text: The leptosporangiate ferns are sometimes called "true ferns". This group includes most plants familiarly known as ferns. Modern research supports older ideas based on morphology that the Osmundaceae diverged early in the evolutionary history of the leptosporangiate ferns; in certain ways this family is intermediate between the eusporangiate ferns and the leptosporangiate ferns. Rai and Graham (2010) broadly supported the primary groups, but queried their relationships, concluding that "at present perhaps the best that can be said about all relationships among the major lineages of monilophytes in current studies is that we do not understand them very well". Grewe et al. (2013) confirmed the inclusion of horsetails within ferns "sensu lato", but also suggested that uncertainties remained in their precise placement. Other classifications have raised Ophioglossales to the rank of a fifth class, separating the whisk ferns and ophioglossoid ferns.


title: Fern

text: One problem with the classification of ferns is that of cryptic species. A cryptic species is a species that is morphologically similar to another species, but differs genetically in ways that prevent fertile interbreeding. A good example of this is the currently designated species "Asplenium trichomanes" (maidenhair spleenwort). This is actually a species complex that includes distinct diploid and tetraploid races. There are minor but unclear morphological differences between the two groups, which prefer distinctly differing habitats. In many cases such as this, the species complexes have been separated into separate species, thus raising the total number of species of ferns. Many more cryptic species may be yet to be discovered and designated.


title: Fern

text: In addition they defined 11 orders and 37 families. That system was a consensus of a number of studies, and was further refined. The phylogenetic relationships are shown in the following cladogram (to the level of orders). This division into four major clades was then confirmed using morphology alone.


title: Fern

text: Subsequently, Chase and Reveal considered both lycopods and ferns as subclasses of a class Equisetopsida (Embryophyta) encompassing all land plants. This is referred to as Equisetopsida "sensu lato" to distinguish it from the narrower use to refer to horsetails alone, Equisetopsida "sensu stricto". They placed the lycopods into subclass Lycopodiidae and the ferns, keeping the term monilophytes, into five subclasses, Equisetidae, Ophioglossidae, Psilotidae, Marattiidae and Polypodiidae, by dividing Smith's Psilotopsida into its two orders and elevating them to subclass (Ophioglossidae and Psilotidae). Christenhusz et al. (2011) followed this use of subclasses but recombined Smith's Psilotopsida as Ophioglossidae, giving four subclasses of ferns again.


title: Fern

text: Christenhusz and Chase (2014) developed a new classification of ferns and lycopods. They used the term Polypodiophyta for the ferns, subdivided like Smith et al. into four groups (shown with equivalents in the Smith system), with 21 families, approximately 212 genera and 10,535 species;


title: Fern

text: This was a considerable reduction in the number of families from the 37 in the system of Smith et al., since the approach was more that of lumping rather than splitting. For instance a number of families were reduced to subfamilies. Subsequently, a consensus group was formed, the Pteridophyte Phylogeny Group (PPG), analogous to the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group, publishing their first complete classification in November 2016. They recognise ferns as a class, the Polypodiopsida, with four subclasses as described by Christenhusz and Chase, and which are phylogenetically related as in this cladogram:


title: Fern

text: In the Pteridophyte Phylogeny Group classification of 2016 (PPG I), the Polypodiopsida consist of four subclasses, 11 orders, 48 families, 319 genera, and an estimated 10,578 species. Thus Polypodiopsida in the broad sense ("sensu lato") as used by the PPG (Polypodiopsida "sensu" PPG I) needs to be distinguished from the narrower usage ("sensu stricto") of Smith et al. (Polypodiopsida "sensu" Smith et al.) Classification of ferns remains unresolved and controversial with competing viewpoints (splitting vs lumping) between the systems of the PPG on the one hand and Christenhusz and Chase on the other, respectively. In 2018, Christenhusz and Chase explicitly argued against recognizing as many genera as PPG I.


title: Fern

text: Fern-like taxa ("Wattieza") first appear in the fossil record in the middle Devonian period, ca. 390 Mya. By the Triassic, the first evidence of ferns related to several modern families appeared. The great fern radiation occurred in the late Cretaceous, when many modern families of ferns first appeared. Ferns evolved to cope with low-light conditions present under the canopy of angiosperms.


title: Fern

text: Remarkably, the photoreceptor neochrome in the two orders Cyatheales and Polypodiales, integral to their adaptation to low-light conditions, was obtained via horizontal gene transfer from hornworts, a bryophyte lineage.


title: Fern

text: Due to the very large genome seen in most ferns, it was suspected they might had gone through whole genome duplications, but DNA sequencing has shown that their genome size is caused by the accumulation of mobile DNA like transposons and other genetic elements that infect genomes and get copied over and over again.


title: Fern

text: Ferns are widespread in their distribution, with the greatest richness in the tropics and least in arctic areas. The greatest diversity occurs in tropical rainforests. New Zealand, for which the fern is a symbol, has about 230 species, distributed throughout the country.


title: Fern

text: Fern species live in a wide variety of habitats, from remote mountain elevations, to dry desert rock faces, bodies of water or open fields. Ferns in general may be thought of as largely being specialists in marginal habitats, often succeeding in places where various environmental factors limit the success of flowering plants. Some ferns are among the world's most serious weed species, including the bracken fern growing in the Scottish highlands, or the mosquito fern ("Azolla") growing in tropical lakes, both species forming large aggressively spreading colonies. There are four particular types of habitats that ferns are found in: moist, shady forests; crevices in rock faces, especially when sheltered from the full sun; acid wetlands including bogs and swamps; and tropical trees, where many species are epiphytes (something like a quarter to a third of all fern species).


title: Fern

text: Especially the epiphytic ferns have turned out to be hosts of a huge diversity of invertebrates. It is assumed that bird's-nest ferns alone contain up to half the invertebrate biomass within a hectare of rainforest canopy.


title: Fern

text: Many ferns depend on associations with mycorrhizal fungi. Many ferns grow only within specific pH ranges; for instance, the climbing fern ("Lygodium palmatum") of eastern North America will grow only in moist, intensely acid soils, while the bulblet bladder fern ("Cystopteris bulbifera"), with an overlapping range, is found only on limestone.


title: Fern

text: The spores are rich in lipids, protein and calories, so some vertebrates eat these. The European woodmouse ("Apodemus sylvaticus") has been found to eat the spores of "Culcita macrocarpa", and the bullfinch ("Pyrrhula murina") and the New Zealand lesser short-tailed bat ("Mystacina tuberculata") also eat fern spores.


title: Fern

text: Ferns are vascular plants differing from lycophytes by having true leaves (megaphylls), which are often pinnate. They differ from seed plants (gymnosperms and angiosperms) in reproducing by means of spores and lacking flowers and seeds. Like all land plants, they have a life cycle referred to as alternation of generations, characterized by alternating diploid sporophytic and haploid gametophytic phases. The diploid sporophyte has 2"n" paired chromosomes, where "n" varies from species to species. The haploid gametophyte has "n" unpaired chromosomes, i.e. half the number of the sporophyte. The gametophyte of ferns is a free-living organism, whereas the gametophyte of the gymnosperms and angiosperms is dependent on the sporophyte.


title: Fern

text: Ferns are not as important economically as seed plants, but have considerable importance in some societies. Some ferns are used for food, including the fiddleheads of "Pteridium aquilinum" (bracken), "Matteuccia struthiopteris" (ostrich fern), and "Osmundastrum cinnamomeum" (cinnamon fern). "Diplazium esculentum" is also used in the tropics (for example in "budu pakis", a traditional dish of Brunei) as food. Tubers from the "para", "Ptisana salicina" (king fern) are a traditional food in New Zealand and the South Pacific. Fern tubers were used for food 30,000 years ago in Europe. Fern tubers were used by the Guanches to make gofio in the Canary Islands. Ferns are generally not known to be poisonous to humans. Licorice fern rhizomes were chewed by the natives of the Pacific Northwest for their flavor.


title: Fern

text: Ferns of the genus "Azolla", commonly known as water fern or mosquito ferns are very small, floating plants that do not resemble ferns. The mosquito ferns are used as a biological fertilizer in the rice paddies of southeast Asia, taking advantage of their ability to fix nitrogen from the air into compounds that can then be used by other plants.


title: Fern

text: Ferns have proved resistant to phytophagous insects. The gene that express the protein Tma12 in an edible fern, "Tectaria macrodonta", has been transferred to cotton plants, which became resistant to whitefly infestations.


title: Fern

text: Many ferns are grown in horticulture as landscape plants, for cut foliage and as houseplants, especially the Boston fern ("Nephrolepis exaltata") and other members of the genus "Nephrolepis". The bird's nest fern ("Asplenium nidus") is also popular, as are the staghorn ferns (genus "Platycerium"). Perennial (also known as hardy) ferns planted in gardens in the northern hemisphere also have a considerable following.


title: Fern

text: Several ferns, such as bracken and "Azolla" species are noxious weeds or invasive species. Further examples include Japanese climbing fern ("Lygodium japonicum"), sensitive fern ("Onoclea sensibilis") and Giant water fern ("Salvinia molesta"), one of the world's worst aquatic weeds. The important fossil fuel coal consists of the remains of primitive plants, including ferns.


title: Fern

text: Ferns have been studied and found to be useful in the removal of heavy metals, especially arsenic, from the soil. Other ferns with some economic significance include:


title: Fern

text: The study of ferns and other pteridophytes is called pteridology. A pteridologist is a specialist in the study of pteridophytes in a broader sense that includes the more distantly related lycophytes.


title: Fern

text: Pteridomania is a term for the Victorian era craze of fern collecting and fern motifs in decorative art including pottery, glass, metals, textiles, wood, printed paper, and sculpture "appearing on everything from christening presents to gravestones and memorials." The fashion for growing ferns indoors led to the development of the Wardian case, a glazed cabinet that would exclude air pollutants and maintain the necessary humidity.


title: Fern

text: The dried form of ferns was also used in other arts, being used as a stencil or directly inked for use in a design. The botanical work, "The Ferns of Great Britain and Ireland", is a notable example of this type of nature printing. The process, patented by the artist and publisher Henry Bradbury, impressed a specimen on to a soft lead plate. The first publication to demonstrate this was Alois Auer's "The Discovery of the Nature Printing-Process".


title: Fern

text: Ferns figure in folklore, for example in legends about mythical flowers or seeds. In Slavic folklore, ferns are believed to bloom once a year, during the Ivan Kupala night. Although alleged to be exceedingly difficult to find, anyone who sees a fern flower is thought to be guaranteed to be happy and rich for the rest of their life. Similarly, Finnish tradition holds that one who finds the seed of a fern in bloom on Midsummer night will, by possession of it, be guided and be able to travel invisibly to the locations where eternally blazing Will o' the wisps called aarnivalkea mark the spot of hidden treasure. These spots are protected by a spell that prevents anyone but the fern-seed holder from ever knowing their locations. In the US, ferns are thought to have magical properties such as a dried fern can be thrown into hot coals of a fire to exorcise evil spirits, or smoke from a burning fern is thought to drive away snakes and such creatures.


title: Fern

text: Ferns are the national emblem of New Zealand and feature on its passport and in the design of its national airline, Air New Zealand, and its rugby team, the All Blacks.


title: Fern

text: Several non-fern plants (and even animals) are called ferns and are sometimes confused with ferns. These include:


title: Fern

text: Some flowering plants such as palms and members of the carrot family have pinnate leaves that somewhat resemble fern fronds. However, these plants have fully developed seeds contained in fruits, rather than the microscopic spores of ferns.


title: Stade de France

text: The Stade de France (, ) is the national stadium of France, located just north of Paris in the commune of Saint-Denis. Its seating capacity of 80,698 makes it the sixth-largest stadium in Europe. The stadium is used by the France national football team and France rugby union team for international competition. It is the largest in Europe for track and field events, seating 78,338 in that configuration. Despite that, the stadium's running track is mostly hidden under the football pitch. Originally built for the 1998 FIFA World Cup, the stadium's name was recommended by Michel Platini, head of the organising committee. On 12 July 1998, France defeated Brazil 3–0 in the 1998 FIFA World Cup Final contested at the stadium. It will host the athletics events at the 2024 Summer Olympics. It will also host matches for the 2023 Rugby World Cup. After the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, it was announced that the 2022 UEFA Champions League Final would be moved from the Gazprom Arena to the Stade de France.


title: Stade de France

text: The Stade de France, listed as a Category 4 stadium by UEFA, hosted matches at the 1998 FIFA World Cup, the UEFA Champions League finals in 2000, 2006 and 2022. As well as the 1999 and 2007 Rugby World Cup, making it one of only two stadia in the world to have hosted both a Football World Cup final and a rugby union World Cup final (along with Nissan Stadium in Yokohama). It also hosted seven matches at UEFA Euro 2016, including the final, where France lost to Portugal 1-0 after extra-time. The facility also hosted the Race of Champions auto race in 2004, 2005, and 2006. The stadium hosted the 2003 World Championships in Athletics and from 1999 to 2016 it hosted the annual Meeting Areva athletics meet.


title: Stade de France

text: Domestically, the Stade de France serves as a secondary home facility of Parisian rugby clubs Stade Français and Racing 92, hosting a few of their regular-season fixtures. The stadium also hosts the main French domestic cup finals, which include the Coupe de France (both football and rugby), Coupe de la Ligue, Challenge de France, and the Coupe Gambardella, as well as the Top 14 rugby union championship match.


title: Stade de France

text: The discussion of a national stadium in France came about as a result of the country's selection to host the 1998 FIFA World Cup on 2 July 1992. As a result of the selection, the country and the French Football Federation made a commitment to construct an 80,000+ capacity all-seater stadium with every seat in the facility being covered. It was the first time in over 70 years since the construction of the Stade Olympique Yves-du-Manoir that a stadium in France was being constructed for a specific event. Due to the magnitude and importance of the facility, the Council of State was allowed first hand approach to how the stadium would be constructed and paid for. The Council sought for the stadium to be built as close as possible to the capital of France, Paris, and that the constructor and operator of the facility would receive significant financial contribution for a period of 30 months following the completion of the stadium. The stadium's design was handled by the team of architects composed of Michel Macary, Aymeric Zublena, Michel Regembal, and Claude Constantini who were associated with CR SCAU Architecture.


title: Stade de France

text: The stadium was officially ready for construction following the government's selection of manufacturers, Bouygues, Dumez, and SGE, and the signing of building permits on 30 April 1995. With only 31 months to complete the stadium, construction commenced on 2 May 1995. The laying of the first cornerstone took place five months later on 6 September. After over a year of construction, over 800,000m ² of earthworks had been created and as much as 180,000 m³ of concrete had been poured. The installation of the roof, which cost €45 million, and the mobile platform also took more than a year to complete.


title: Stade de France

text: During the developmental phase, the stadium was referred to in French as the "Grand Stade" ("large stadium" or "great stadium"). On 4 December 1995, the Ministry of Sport launched a design competition to decide on a name for the stadium. The stadium was officially named the Stade de France after the Ministry heard a proposal from French football legend Michel Platini, who recommended the name. The total cost of the stadium was €364 million.


title: Stade de France

text: The stadium was inaugurated on 28 January 1998 as it hosted a football match between France and Spain. The match was played in front of 78,368 spectators, which included President Jacques Chirac, with France winning the match 1–0 with Zinedine Zidane scoring the lone goal, and the first-ever in the Stade de France, in the 20th minute. Six months later, France returned to the stadium and defeated Brazil in the 1998 FIFA World Cup Final to earn their first World Cup title. Stade de France has hosted group, quarter-final, semi-final and the final match of 1998 FIFA World Cup. The national rugby team's first match in the facility was contested five days after its opening, on 2 February, with France earning a 24–17 win over England in front of 77,567 spectators. Philippe Bernat-Salles converted the first ever try at the stadium scoring it in the 11th minute of play.


title: Stade de France

text: On 24 May 2000, the Stade de France hosted the 2000 UEFA Champions League Final. In the match, which saw 78,759 spectators attend, Spanish club Real Madrid defeated fellow Spaniards Valencia 3–0. In 2003, the Stade de France was the primary site of the 2003 World Championships in Athletics. Three years later in 2006, the facility hosted another UEFA Champions League final with another Spanish club Barcelona defeating England's Arsenal 2–1. On 9 May 2009, the Stade de France set the national attendance record for a sporting match played in France with 80,832 showing up to watch Guingamp upset Brittany rivals Rennes 2–1 in the 2009 Coupe de France Final. On 22 May 2010, the Stade de France hosted the 2010 Heineken Cup Final. On 11 February 2012, a Six Nations international rugby game between France and Ireland had to be cancelled just before kick-off due to the pitch freezing as the stadium lacks under-soil heating.


title: Stade de France

text: On 13 November 2015, in one of a series of coordinated shootings and bombings across Paris, the Stade de France was targeted. Two explosions occurred outside the stadium during an international friendly between France and Germany, with French President François Hollande in attendance. The terrorist, however, was unable to enter the stadium. The explosion was heard inside the stadium, and many thought it was a firework going off inside the stadium. The attacker wanted to infiltrate the stadium, but was scared away when he saw security and was forced to detonate outside the park. The authorities, aware of what had occurred outside the stadium, chose to continue the match out of concerns that cancelling the match would have caused a panic. The stadium has since improved its counter-attack training and strengthened its security. There have since been new guidelines issued by the French police, with mixed reactions.


title: Stade de France

text: In 2016, the Stade de France was used as the central stadium for the 2016 Euros hosting seven matches. The stadium was used for the opening ceremony of the tournament which saw French DJ David Guetta perform at the stadium. At the end of his set, Guetta invited Swedish singer Zara Larsson on stage to perform the tournament's official song "This One's for You". Following the ceremony the stadium was used for the tournament's opening game which saw France beat Romania 2–1. Across the next month, the stadium was used for six other tournament matches including the UEFA Euro 2016 Final between France and Portugal. The match followed the closing ceremony which again saw David Guetta perform. Portugal defeated France, 1–0 in extra time, winning the tournament for the first time.


title: Stade de France

text: The 2022 UEFA Champions League Final, between Liverpool F.C. and Real Madrid CF, was delayed because of difficulties admitting fans. Gérald Darmanin, the French interior minister, blamed only Liverpool fans, claiming that Liverpool fans were out of control and trying to enter the stadium with bogus tickets. French police used tear gas and pepper spray to try to break up crowds. The chairman of the Liverpool Disabled Supporters Association told the French Senate that "Disabled fans were treated like animals." Fans attempting to leave the stadium were attacked by local residents. Supporters, journalists, and political figures have disputed French authorities' claims. UEFA has commissioned an independent report into the event.


title: Stade de France

text: The Stade de France has a movable stand which can be retracted to uncover part of the athletics track. The stadium was notably designed with the assistance of a software simulation of crowd in order to get an accurate observation of how it would look fully developed. The facility was also intended to draw interest in and develop the area of the Plaine Saint-Denis, which straddle the communes of Saint-Denis, Aubervilliers, and Saint-Ouen. The primary goal was to renovate the area by building new residential and tertiary sites.


title: Stade de France

text: The stadium was built without any undersoil heating as noted when Ireland were due to play France in the Six Nations Tournament rugby union match of 2012, in which the game had to be canceled.


title: Stade de France

text: In 2002, the International Association for Bridge and Structural Engineering (IABSE) awarded a prize recognizing the unique structure of the Stade de France commenting that the Stade de France exhibited "a construction of an attractive open architecture of the city, with an elegance and natural lightness".


title: Stade de France

text: Construction of the Stade de France's roof cost over €45 million. Its elliptical shape symbolizes the universality of sport in France. Its area of six hectares and weight, 13,000 tons, is considered a technical marvel by many. It was designed to easily protect the 80,000 spectators without covering the playing field. All lighting and sound, which include 550 lights and 36 blocks of 5 speakers, are housed inside to avoid obstructing visibility. The tinted glass in the center reduces the contrast and distributes natural light. It filters out red and infrared radiation, however, it allows blue and green lights, due to their necessity involving the health of the turf.


title: Stade de France

text: The forum is a low mobile platform of 25,000 seats. It is reached by level 1. It may fall 15 feet to reveal all of the running track and jumping pits. It then retains 22,000 seats. The movement lasts 80 hours, 40 people 20h/24h mobilized, and carried by ten distinct elements of 700 tons each.


title: Stade de France

text: Access to the gallery is through with 22 bridges and can be found at level 3 with a concentration of restaurants, entertainment areas, shops and central station security.


title: Stade de France

text: Located at 11 meters below the court, the playing area measures 9,000 square meters (120 meters long and 75 meters wide) to a grassed area of 11,000 square meters. Nearly one billion seeds were sown to produce the first pitch in 1997. Today, the grass comes in rolls of 1.20 m x 8 m. Changing the pitch calls for three days of preparation and five days of installation. The change takes place several times a year, depending on the programming stage.


title: Stade de France

text: Unlike many other stadiums, the Stade de France was built without under pitch heating, as the stadium was constructed on the site of an old gasworks, and there were concerns it could cause an explosion.


title: Stade de France

text: As part of its policy of renewing its infrastructure, the Stade de France added two new big screens in September 2006. The new displays have a surface 58% greater than the previous screens installed in 1998. The newer giant screens are each composed of 4,423,680 light emitting diodes. They have faster response time and are brighter than the previous screens.


title: Stade de France

text: Sporting events held at the Stade de France include matches (preliminary contests as well as finals) of the 1998 FIFA World Cup, 2003 FIFA Confederations Cup, 2007 Rugby World Cup and UEFA Euro 2016. The 2023 Rugby World Cup, including the final, is also planned for the venue. It also hosted the 2022 UEFA Champions League Final after being moved from the Gazprom Arena in Russia due to the Russian invasion of Ukraine.


title: Stade de France

text: The stadium is also used for music concerts. The Rolling Stones, Tina Turner, U2, Metallica, Guns N' Roses, Muse, Rihanna, AC/DC, Justin Timberlake, Céline Dion, Bruno Mars, The Black Eyed Peas, Booba, Beyoncé, Jay Z, Coldplay, Red Hot Chili Peppers, One Direction, Eminem, Lady Gaga, Paul McCartney, Roger Waters, Prince, Madonna, The Police, BTS and Depeche Mode have performed here.


title: Stade de France

text: On 12 May 2012, the French heavy metal band Gojira performed at the stadium as the opening act for Metallica during their European Black Album Tour. Gojira's concert was measured at 120 decibels in the corridors backstage, which broke the record for the loudest sound ever recorded at the Stade de France.


title: Stade de France

text: On 11 April 2015, the crowd noise produced by the 80,000 people at the Stade de France during the 2015 Coupe de la Ligue Final reached 109 decibels, which set the world record for the noisiest stadium recorded during a final match of a football tournament.


title: Stade de France

text: The Stade de France has as a regular tenant only the national football and national rugby teams. Repeated attempts to persuade a professional football or rugby team to move there have failed so far. Upon the construction of the stadium, Paris Saint-Germain declined to move there, choosing to remain at the Parc des Princes under pressure from its then-owner (pay-TV network Canal Plus) and the Paris city government.


title: Stade de France

text: However, the Paris rugby club Stade Français have now established themselves as a semi-regular tenant. They began by scheduling their Top 14 home fixture on 15 October 2005 against Toulouse at Stade de France. Stade Français's president, Max Guazzini, publicly said that the club would have to sell 25,000 to 30,000 tickets to break even. Three weeks before the match, 61,000 tickets had been sold, setting a French record for tickets sold to a league match for any sport, including football. The final attendance was 79,454, smashing the national attendance record for a league match in any sport by more than 20,000. Five minutes before the end of the Toulouse match, Guazzini announced to the crowd that Stade Français's scheduled home fixture against Biarritz in March 2006 would also be held at Stade de France. The Stade-Biarritz match broke the attendance record from earlier in the season, with 79,604 present.


title: Stade de France

text: Guazzini then booked the Stade de France for the same two league fixtures in 2006–07. The Biarritz match on 16 October 2006 drew 79,619, making this the third consecutive Stade Français fixture at the Stade de France to set an all-time French attendance record. The record was broken yet again at a match against Toulouse on 27 January 2007, with 79,741 filling the stands. Stade Français went on to schedule three home matches at Stade de France in the 2007–08 season. For the 2008–09 season, they booked Stade de France for three home league matches and a Heineken Cup pool match. The number of Stade Français home matches at Stade de France increased again for 2009–10, with five Top 14 fixtures already announced for the stadium.


title: Stade de France

text: Even with the lack of a regular league tenant, the stadium's revenue increased greatly in 2007, as it was used extensively during the 2007 Rugby World Cup in France, where it hosted numerous pool matches, a quarterfinal match, both of the semi finals and the final.


title: Stade de France

text: The Lille OSC football team played all its "home" games in European competition during the 2005–06 season, both in the UEFA Champions League and the UEFA Cup, at the Stade de France because its own stadium was then under renovation, and the only nearer alternative on French soil, Stade Félix-Bollaert, was not available as that ground's occupant, Lille's local rival Lens, was also participating in the UEFA Cup. The Stade de France has hosted the Champions League final on three occasions: 2000 (Real Madrid 3 Valencia 0), 2006 (Barcelona 2 Arsenal 1), and 2022 (Real Madrid 1 Liverpool 0),


title: Stade de France

text: France's governing body for rugby union, the French Rugby Federation (FFR), announced in November 2010 that it would not renew its deal to use Stade de France for international rugby matches when it expires in 2013. FFR also stated that it planned to build a new stadium of its own in the Paris region.


title: Stade de France

text: Reportedly, the FFR had become increasingly frustrated with several aspects of the deal. According to rugby journalist Ian Moriarty, "The deal with the Stade de France has been a disaster for the FFR financially over the years, forcing France's powerbrokers to look across the English channel at the RFU's Twickenham cash cow with ever increasing envy." Reports vary widely as to how much the FFR must spend to rent out the stadium, but estimates range from €3 million to €5 million per match. Although the Stade de France and Twickenham are roughly the same size, the rental expense means that the FFR reportedly makes about one-third as much from a Stade de France sellout as does the RFU from a sellout at Twickenham. In addition, the national rugby team does not enjoy primacy at the Stade de France; the national football team and major concerts take priority. FFR had to move two of its 2010–11 home Tests to Montpellier and Nantes due to fixture clashes with the national football team. Also, former FFR president Serge Blanco claimed that the 2009 Top 14 final had to be moved from May to June because of a conflict with a Johnny Hallyday rock concert.


title: Stade de France

text: In June 2012, FFR announced that it had selected the site for its new ground, tentatively known as Grand Stade FFR. The 82,000-seat stadium, featuring a retractable roof and slide-out pitch, was to be built on a former horse racing track in Évry, about south of Paris. The new stadium, estimated to cost €600 million, was originally scheduled to open in 2017, but completion was later pushed back to the 2021/2022 time frame. FFR officially abandoned the stadium project in December 2016.


title: Stade de France

text: Although located at the crossroads of auto-routes A1 and A86, it is not advisable to go there by car unless one has reserved parking. The stadium was built with a very limited number of parking spaces, which is why public transportation is considered the primary means of getting to the stadium. River shuttles are provided by the Canal Saint-Denis.


title: Stade de France

text: As part of the Grand Paris Express project and 2024 Olympic and Paralympic Games, a new station at Saint-Denis Pleyel is under construction, connected by a bridge to the Stade de France–Saint-Denis station. Initially served by Line 14 in time for the Games, the station will eventually serve 4 different Métro lines.


title: Smallpox vaccine

text: The smallpox vaccine is the first vaccine to be developed against a contagious disease. In 1796, British physician Edward Jenner demonstrated that an infection with the relatively mild cowpox virus conferred immunity against the deadly smallpox virus. Cowpox served as a natural vaccine until the modern smallpox vaccine emerged in the 20th century. From 1958 to 1977, the World Health Organization (WHO) conducted a global vaccination campaign that eradicated smallpox, making it the only human disease to be eradicated. Although routine smallpox vaccination is no longer performed on the general public, the vaccine is still being produced to guard against bioterrorism, biological warfare, and monkeypox.


title: Smallpox vaccine

text: The term "vaccine" derives from the Latin word for cow, reflecting the origins of smallpox vaccination. Edward Jenner referred to cowpox as "variolae vaccinae" (smallpox of the cow). The origins of the smallpox vaccine became murky over time, especially after Louis Pasteur developed laboratory techniques for creating vaccines in the 19th century. Allan Watt Downie demonstrated in 1939 that the modern smallpox vaccine was serologically distinct from cowpox, and "vaccinia" was subsequently recognized as a separate viral species. Whole-genome sequencing has revealed that "vaccinia" is most closely related to horsepox, and the cowpox strains found in Great Britain are the least closely related to "vaccinia".


title: Smallpox vaccine

text: As the oldest vaccine, the smallpox vaccine has gone through several generations of medical technology. From 1796 to the 1880s, the vaccine was transmitted from one person to another through arm-to-arm vaccination. Smallpox vaccine was successfully maintained in cattle starting in the 1840s, and calf lymph vaccine became the leading smallpox vaccine in the 1880s. First-generation vaccines grown on the skin of live animals were widely distributed in the 1950s–1970s to eradicate smallpox. Second-generation vaccines were grown in chorioallantoic membrane or cell cultures for greater purity, and they were used in some areas during the smallpox eradication campaign. Third-generation vaccines are based on attenuated strains of "vaccinia" and saw limited use prior to the eradication of smallpox.


title: Smallpox vaccine

text: All three generations of vaccine are available in stockpiles. First and second-generation vaccines contain live unattenuated "vaccinia" virus and can cause serious side effects in a small percentage of recipients, including death in 1–10 people per million vaccinations. Third-generation vaccines are much safer due to the milder side effects of the attenuated "vaccinia" strains. Second and third-generation vaccines are still being produced, with manufacturing capacity being built up in the 2000s due to fears of bioterrorism and biological warfare.


title: Smallpox vaccine

text: The first-generation vaccines are manufactured by growing live "vaccinia" virus in the skin of live animals. Most first-generation vaccines are calf lymph vaccines that were grown on the skin of cows, but other animals were also used, including sheep. The development of freeze-dried vaccine in the 1950s made it possible to preserve "vaccinia" virus for long periods of time without refrigeration, leading to the availability of freeze-dried vaccines such as Dryvax.


title: Smallpox vaccine

text: The vaccine is administered by multiple puncture of the skin (scarification) with a bifurcated needle that holds vaccine solution in the fork. The skin should be cleaned with water rather than alcohol, as the alcohol could inactivate the "vaccinia" virus. If alcohol is used, it must be allowed to evaporate completely before the vaccine is administered. Vaccination results in a skin lesion that fills with pus and eventually crusts over. This manifestation of localized "vaccinia" infection is known as a vaccine "take" and demonstrates immunity to smallpox. After 2–3 weeks, the scab will fall off and leave behind a vaccine scar.


title: Smallpox vaccine

text: First generation vaccines consist of live, unattenuated "vaccinia" virus. One-third of first-time vaccinees develop side effects significant enough to miss school, work, or other activities, or have difficulty sleeping. 15–20% of children receiving the vaccine for the first time develop fevers of over . The "vaccinia" lesion can transmit the virus to other people. Rare side effects include postvaccinal encephalitis and myopericarditis. Many countries have stockpiled first generation smallpox vaccines. In a 2006 predictive analysis of casualties if there were a mass vaccination of the populations of Germany and the Netherlands, it was estimated that a total of 9.8 people in the Netherlands and 46.2 people in Germany would die from uncontrolled "vaccinia" infection after being vaccinated with the New York City Board of Health strain. More deaths were predicted for vaccines based other strains: Lister (55.1 Netherlands, 268.5 Germany) and Bern (303.5 Netherlands, 1,381 Germany).


title: Smallpox vaccine

text: The second-generation vaccines consist of live "vaccinia" virus grown in the chorioallantoic membrane or cell culture. The second-generation vaccines are also administered through scarification with a bifurcated needle, and they carry the same side effects as the first-generation "vaccinia" strain that was cloned. However, the use of eggs or cell culture allows for vaccine production in a sterile environment, while first-generation vaccine contains skin bacteria from the animal that the vaccine was grown on.


title: Smallpox vaccine

text: Ernest William Goodpasture, Alice Miles Woodruff, and G. John Buddingh grew "vaccinia" virus on the chorioallantoic membrane of chicken embryos in 1932. The Texas Department of Health began producing egg-based vaccine in 1939 and started using it in vaccination campaigns in 1948. Lederle Laboratories began selling its Avianized smallpox vaccine in the United States in 1959. Egg-based vaccine was also used widely in Brazil, New Zealand, and Sweden, and on a smaller scale in many other countries. Concerns about temperature stability and avian sarcoma leukosis virus prevented it from being used more widely during the eradication campaign, although no increase in leukemia was seen in Brazil and Sweden despite the presence of ASLV in the chickens.


title: Smallpox vaccine

text: "Vaccinia" was first grown in cell culture in 1931 by Thomas Milton Rivers. The WHO funded work in the 1960s at the Dutch National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RVIM) on growing the Lister/Elstree strain in rabbit kidney cells and tested it in 45,443 Indonesian children in 1973, with comparable results to the same strain of calf lymph vaccine. Two other cell culture vaccines were developed from the Lister strain in the 2000s: Elstree-BN (Bavarian Nordic) and VV Lister CEP (Chicken Embryo Primary, Sanofi Pasteur). Lister/Elstree-RVIM was stockpiled in the Netherlands, and Elstree-BN was sold to some European countries for stockpiles. However, Sanofi dropped its own vaccine after it acquired Acambis in 2008.


title: Smallpox vaccine

text: ACAM2000 is a vaccine developed by Acambis, which was acquired by Sanofi Pasteur in 2008, before selling the smallpox vaccine to Emergent Biosolutions in 2017. Six strains of "vaccinia" were isolated from 3,000 doses of Dryvax and found to exhibit significant variation in virulence. The strain with the most similar virulence to the overall Dryvax mixture was selected and grown in MRC-5 cells to make the ACAM1000 vaccine. After a successful Phase I trial of ACAM1000, the virus was passaged three times in Vero cells to develop ACAM2000, which entered mass production at Baxter. The United States ordered over 200 million doses of ACAM2000 in 1999–2001 for its stockpile, and production is ongoing to replace expired vaccine.


title: Smallpox vaccine

text: The third-generation vaccines are based on attenuated "vaccinia" viruses that are much less virulent and carry lesser side effects. The attenuated viruses may be replicating or non-replicating.