title: History of English

text: This is the beginning of "The Voyages of Ohthere and Wulfstan", a prose text in Old English dated to the late 9th century. The full text can be found at .


title: History of English

text: "Ōhthere sǣde his hlāforde, Ælfrēde cyninge, ðæt hē ealra Norðmonna norþmest būde. Hē cwæð þæt hē būde on þǣm lande norþweardum wiþ þā Westsǣ. Hē sǣde þēah þæt þæt land sīe swīþe lang norþ þonan; ac hit is eal wēste, būton on fēawum stōwum styccemǣlum wīciað Finnas, on huntoðe on wintra, ond on sumera on fiscaþe be þǣre sǣ. Hē sǣde þæt hē æt sumum cirre wolde fandian hū longe þæt land norþryhte lǣge, oþþe hwæðer ǣnig mon be norðan þǣm wēstenne būde. Þā fōr hē norþryhte be þǣm lande: lēt him ealne weg þæt wēste land on ðæt stēorbord, ond þā wīdsǣ on ðæt bæcbord þrīe dagas. Þā wæs hē swā feor norþ swā þā hwælhuntan firrest faraþ. Þā fōr hē þā giet norþryhte swā feor swā hē meahte on þǣm ōþrum þrīm dagum gesiglau. Þā bēag þæt land, þǣr ēastryhte, oþþe sēo sǣ in on ðæt lond, hē nysse hwæðer, būton hē wisse ðæt hē ðǣr bād westanwindes ond hwōn norþan, ond siglde ðā ēast be lande swā swā hē meahte on fēower dagum gesiglan. Þā sceolde hē ðǣr bīdan ryhtnorþanwindes, for ðǣm þæt land bēag þǣr sūþryhte, oþþe sēo sǣ in on ðæt land, hē nysse hwæþer. Þā siglde hē þonan sūðryhte be lande swā swā hē meahte on fīf dagum gesiglan. Ðā læg þǣr ān micel ēa ūp on þæt land. Ðā cirdon hīe ūp in on ðā ēa for þǣm hīe ne dorston forþ bī þǣre ēa siglan for unfriþe; for þǣm ðæt land wæs eall gebūn on ōþre healfe þǣre ēas. Ne mētte hē ǣr nān gebūn land, siþþan hē from his āgnum hām fōr; ac him wæs ealne weg wēste land on þæt stēorbord, būtan fiscerum ond fugelerum ond huntum, ond þæt wǣron eall Finnas; ond him wæs āwīdsǣ on þæt bæcbord. Þā Boermas heafdon sīþe wel gebūd hira land: ac hīe ne dorston þǣr on cuman. Ac þāra Terfinna land wæs eal wēste, būton ðǣr huntan gewīcodon, oþþe fisceras, oþþe fugeleras."


title: History of English

text: Ohthere said to his lord, King Alfred, that he of all Norsemen lived north-most. He quoth that he lived in the land northward along the North Sea. He said though that the land was very long from there, but it is all wasteland, except that in a few places here and there Finns [i.e. Sami] encamp, hunting in winter and in summer fishing by the sea. He said that at some time he wanted to find out how long the land lay northward or whether any man lived north of the wasteland. Then he traveled north by the land. All the way he kept the waste land on his starboard and the wide sea on his port three days. Then he was as far north as whale hunters furthest travel. Then he traveled still north as far as he might sail in another three days. Then the land bowed east (or the sea into the land — he did not know which). But he knew that he waited there for west winds (and somewhat north), and sailed east by the land so as he might sail in four days. Then he had to wait for due-north winds, because the land bowed south (or the sea into the land — he did not know which). Then he sailed from there south by the land so as he might sail in five days. Then a large river lay there up into the land. Then they turned up into the river, because they dared not sail forth past the river for hostility, because the land was all settled on the other side of the river. He had not encountered earlier any settled land since he travelled from his own home, but all the way waste land was on his starboard (except fishers, fowlers and hunters, who were all Finns). And the wide sea was always on his port. The Bjarmians have cultivated their land very well, but they did not dare go in there. But the Terfinn’s land was all waste except where hunters encamped, or fishers or fowlers.


title: History of English

text: From "Ayenbite of Inwyt" ("the prick of conscience"), a translation of a French confessional prose work into the Kentish dialect of Middle English, completed in 1340:


title: History of English

text: The beginning of "The Canterbury Tales", a collection of stories in poetry and prose written in the London dialect of Middle English by Geoffrey Chaucer at the end of the 14th century:


title: History of English

text: The beginning of "Paradise Lost", an epic poem in unrhymed iambic pentameter written in Early Modern English by John Milton and first published in 1667:


title: History of English

text: A selection from the novel "Oliver Twist", written by Charles Dickens in Modern English and published in 1838:


title: History of English

text: The evening arrived: the boys took their places; the master in his cook's uniform stationed himself at the copper; his pauper assistants ranged themselves behind him; the gruel was served out, and a long grace was said over the short commons. The gruel disappeared, the boys whispered each other and winked at Oliver, while his next neighbours nudged him. Child as he was, he was desperate with hunger and reckless with misery. He rose from the table, and advancing, basin and spoon in hand, to the master, said, somewhat alarmed at his own temerity—


title: History of English

text: The master was a fat, healthy man, but he turned very pale. He gazed in stupefied astonishment on the small rebel for some seconds, and then clung for support to the copper. The assistants were paralysed with wonder, and the boys with fear.


title: History of English

text: The master aimed a blow at Oliver's head with the ladle, pinioned him in his arms, and shrieked aloud for the beadle.


title: Better Things (TV series)

text: Better Things is an American comedy-drama television series created by Pamela Adlon and Louis C.K. for FX, starring Adlon as a divorced actress who raises her three daughters on her own. FX gave a 10-episode order on August 7, 2015. The series premiered on September 8, 2016. The series was renewed for a fifth and final season which premiered on February 28, 2022. The series concluded on April 25, 2022.


title: Better Things (TV series)

text: The series and Adlon's performance have been praised, and Adlon was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series in 2017 and 2018. The show received a Peabody Award in April 2017, with the board stating: "[...] this searingly funny and beautiful show is an at-times raw examination of the vicissitudes of working motherhood, crackling with feminist verve and energy, that consistently cuts new ground".


title: Better Things (TV series)

text: The pilot was ordered by FX on January 18, 2015. It was written by Louis C.K. and Pamela Adlon, and directed by Louis C.K. The story is semi-autobiographically based on Adlon's life.


title: Better Things (TV series)

text: On September 20, 2016, FX renewed the series for a second season, which premiered on September 14, 2017. In October 2017, FX renewed the series for a third season, which premiered on February 28, 2019, and consisted of 12 episodes, all directed by Adlon. In November 2017, after Louis C.K. confirmed the against him were true, FX canceled their overall deal with C.K. and his production company, Pig Newton. It was announced that C.K. would have no involvement in future seasons of the series. That month, Adlon fired 3 Arts manager Dave Becky as her manager. Pig Newton and 3 Arts no longer co-produced the series after the Season 2 finale. For the third season, Adlon hired four new writers for the series, Sarah Gubbins, Joe Hortua, Robin Ruzan, and Ira Parker.


title: Better Things (TV series)

text: In March 2019, the series was renewed for a 10-episode fourth season that premiered on March 5, 2020. In May 2020, the series was renewed for a fifth season, which was announced to be its last in October 2021.


title: Better Things (TV series)

text: Adlon launched a podcast titled "Better Things with Pamela Adlon" during the show's final season. The goal was to give insight to the creative process behind the show. Constructed as a companion to the final season, it featured guests like Diedrich Bader, Kevin Pollak, Olivia Edward, and Celia Imrie.


title: Better Things (TV series)

text: The first season has a Metacritic score of 80 out of 100 based 31 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews". Rotten Tomatoes gave the first season a 95% "Certified Fresh" score with an average rating of 8.2 out of 10 based on 57 critic reviews, with the critical consensus "Pamela Adlon's "Better Things" abstains from traditional sitcom sendups and forges a path all its own – in this bawdy, often hilarious and bittersweet ode to the daily highs and lows of being a single mother."


title: Better Things (TV series)

text: The second season has a Metacritic score of 96 out of 100 based on 13 reviews, indicating "universal acclaim". On Rotten Tomatoes, it has a 96% approval rating with an average rating of 9.2 out of 10 based on 26 reviews, with the critical consensus ""Better Things" second season plays even more adroitly to its strengths, weaving confidently between stinging humor, caustic observation, and poignant drama." In his review for "Time", Daniel D'Addario wrote, "This is a huge leap forward for a show that was already quite strong. Adlon comes as close to a pure auteur as TV gets. That her story is one imbued with both sadness and light makes "Better Things" one of television's very best shows—in any genre." "Better Things" is ranked as the seventh best TV series of 2017, according to Metacritic's list which tallies "best of" lists from various major TV critics and publications.


title: Better Things (TV series)

text: The third season has a Metacritic score of 94 out of 100 based on 19 reviews, indicating "universal acclaim". On Rotten Tomatoes, it has a 100% approval rating with an average rating of 9.3 out of 10 based on 35 reviews with the critical consensus, "Pamela Adlon fully asserts her authorial voice over "Better Things" in a triumphant third season that examines the exhaustion of motherhood with exhilarating artistry." Matt Zoller Seitz of "Vulture" wrote, ""Better Things" is the best the show has ever been." Caroline Framke of "Variety" wrote, ""Better Things" feels a bit freer to be its most audacious self this season. Making the show under extraordinary pressure has, in the end, allowed Adlon to throw up her hands, say anything she wants, get it all out there and succeed entirely on her own terms."


title: Better Things (TV series)

text: The fourth season has a Metacritic score of 90 out of 100 based on 6 reviews, indicating "universal acclaim". On Rotten Tomatoes, it has a 100% approval rating with an average rating of 8.5 out of 10 based on 21 reviews with the critical consensus, "Sharp and singular, "Better Things" just keeps getting better." Dan Fienberg of "The Hollywood Reporter" called the series "still one of the very best things on TV". Ben Travers of "IndieWire" gave it an "A" grade and summarized that season 4 is "an experience like nothing else on television."


title: Better Things (TV series)

text: The fifth season has a Metacritic score of 94 out of 100 based on 12 reviews, indicating "universal acclaim". On Rotten Tomatoes, it has a 100% approval rating with an average rating of 9.1 out of 10 based on 12 reviews with the critical consensus, "Bittersweet, funny as ever, and brimming with wisdom, "Better Things"s final sendoff is as good as it gets." Jen Chaney of "Vulture" called it "one of the most generous, organic, and beautiful works of the past decade."


title: Liquefied petroleum gas

text: Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG or LP gas) is a fuel gas which contains a flammable mixture of hydrocarbon gases, specifically propane, propylene, butylene, isobutane and n-butane.


title: Liquefied petroleum gas

text: LPG is used as a fuel gas in heating appliances, cooking equipment, and vehicles. It is increasingly used as an aerosol propellant and a refrigerant, replacing chlorofluorocarbons in an effort to reduce damage to the ozone layer. When specifically used as a vehicle fuel, it is often referred to as autogas or even just as gas.


title: Liquefied petroleum gas

text: Varieties of LPG that are bought and sold include mixes that are mostly propane (), mostly butane (), and, most commonly, mixes including both propane and butane. In the northern hemisphere winter, the mixes contain more propane, while in summer, they contain more butane. In the United States, mainly two grades of LPG are sold: commercial propane and HD-5. These specifications are published by the Gas Processors Association (GPA) and the American Society of Testing and Materials. Propane/butane blends are also listed in these specifications.


title: Liquefied petroleum gas

text: Propylene, butylenes and various other hydrocarbons are usually also present in small concentrations such as , , and . HD-5 limits the amount of propylene that can be placed in LPG to 5% and is utilized as an autogas specification. A powerful odorant, ethanethiol, is added so that leaks can be detected easily. The internationally recognized European Standard is EN 589. In the United States, tetrahydrothiophene (thiophane) or amyl mercaptan are also approved odorants, although neither is currently being utilized.


title: Liquefied petroleum gas

text: LPG is prepared by refining petroleum or "wet" natural gas, and is almost entirely derived from fossil fuel sources, being manufactured during the refining of petroleum (crude oil), or extracted from petroleum or natural gas streams as they emerge from the ground. It was first produced in 1910 by Walter O. Snelling, and the first commercial products appeared in 1912. It currently provides about 3% of all energy consumed, and burns relatively cleanly with no soot and very few sulfur emissions. As it is a gas, it does not pose ground or water pollution hazards, but it can cause air pollution. LPG has a typical specific calorific value of 46.1 MJ/kg compared with 42.5 MJ/kg for fuel oil and 43.5 MJ/kg for premium grade petrol (gasoline). However, its energy density per volume unit of 26 MJ/L is lower than either that of petrol or fuel oil, as its relative density is lower (about 0.5–0.58 kg/L, compared to 0.71–0.77 kg/L for gasoline). As the density and vapor pressure of LPG (or its components) change significantly with temperature, this fact must be considered every time when the application is connected with safety or custody transfer operations, e.g. typical cuttoff level option for LPG reservoir is 85%.


title: Liquefied petroleum gas

text: Besides its use as an energy carrier, LPG is also a promising feedstock in the chemical industry for the synthesis of olefins such as ethylene, propylene, butene as well as acrylic acid.


title: Liquefied petroleum gas

text: As its boiling point is below room temperature, LPG will evaporate quickly at normal temperatures and pressures and is usually supplied in pressurized steel vessels. They are typically filled to 80–85% of their capacity to allow for thermal expansion of the contained liquid. The ratio between the volumes of the vaporized gas and the liquefied gas varies depending on composition, pressure, and temperature, but is typically around 250:1. The pressure at which LPG becomes liquid, called its vapour pressure, likewise varies depending on composition and temperature; for example, it is approximately for pure butane at , and approximately for pure propane at . LPG is heavier than air, unlike natural gas, and thus will flow along floors and tend to settle in low spots, such as basements. There are two main dangers to this. The first is a possible explosion if the mixture of LPG and air is within the explosive limits and there is an ignition source. The second is suffocation due to LPG displacing air, causing a decrease in oxygen concentration.


title: Liquefied petroleum gas

text: A full LPG cylinder contains 86% liquid; the ullage volume will contain vapour at a pressure that varies with temperature.


title: Liquefied petroleum gas

text: LPG has a wide variety of uses in many different markets as an efficient fuel container in the agricultural, recreation, hospitality, industrial, construction, sailing and fishing sectors. It can serve as fuel for cooking, central heating and water heating and is a particularly cost-effective and efficient way to heat off-grid homes.


title: Liquefied petroleum gas

text: LPG is used for cooking in many countries for economic reasons, for convenience or because it is the preferred fuel source.


title: Liquefied petroleum gas

text: In India, nearly 8.9 million tons of LPG were consumed in the six months between April and September 2016 in the domestic sector, mainly for cooking. The number of domestic connections are 215 million (i.e., one connection for every six people) with a circulation of more than 350 million LPG cylinders. Most of the LPG requirement is imported. Piped city gas supply in India is not yet developed on a major scale. LPG is subsidised by the Indian government for domestic users. An increase in LPG prices has been a politically sensitive matter in India as it potentially affects the middle class voting pattern.


title: Liquefied petroleum gas

text: LPG was once a standard cooking fuel in Hong Kong; however, the continued expansion of "town gas" to newer buildings has reduced LPG usage to less than 24% of residential units. However, other than electric, induction, or infrared stoves, LPG-fueled stoves are the only type available in most suburban villages and many public housing estates.


title: Liquefied petroleum gas

text: LPG is the most common cooking fuel in Brazilian urban areas, being used in virtually all households, with the exception of the cities of Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo, which have a natural gas pipeline infrastructure. Since 2001, poor families receive a government grant ("Vale Gás") used exclusively for the acquisition of LPG. Since 2003, this grant is part of the government's main social welfare program ("Bolsa Família"). Also, since 2005, the national oil company Petrobras differentiates between LPG destined for cooking and LPG destined for other uses, establishing a lower price for the former. This is a result of a directive from the Brazilian federal government, but its discontinuation is currently being debated.


title: Liquefied petroleum gas

text: Predominantly in Europe and rural parts of many countries, LPG can provide an alternative to electric heating, heating oil, or kerosene. LPG is most often used in areas that do not have direct access to piped natural gas.


title: Liquefied petroleum gas

text: LPG can be used as a power source for combined heat and power technologies (CHP). CHP is the process of generating both electrical power and useful heat from a single fuel source. This technology has allowed LPG to be used not just as fuel for heating and cooking, but also for decentralized generation of electricity.


title: Liquefied petroleum gas

text: LPG can be stored in a variety of manners. LPG, as with other fossil fuels, can be combined with renewable power sources to provide greater reliability while still achieving some reduction in CO emissions. However, as opposed to wind and solar renewable energy sources, LPG can be used as a standalone energy source without the prohibitive expense of electrical energy storage. In many climates renewable sources such as solar and wind power would still require the construction, installation and maintenance of reliable baseload power sources such as LPG fueled generation to provide electrical power during the entire year. 100% wind/solar is possible, the caveat being that the expense of the additional generation capacity necessary to charge batteries plus the cost of battery electrical storage makes this option economically feasible in only a minority of situations.


title: Liquefied petroleum gas

text: When LPG is used to fuel internal combustion engines, it is often referred to as autogas or auto propane. In some countries, it has been used since the 1940s as a petrol alternative for spark ignition engines. In some countries, there are additives in the liquid that extend engine life and the ratio of butane to propane is kept quite precise in fuel LPG. Two recent studies have examined LPG-fuel-oil fuel mixes and found that smoke emissions and fuel consumption are reduced but hydrocarbon emissions are increased. The studies were split on CO emissions, with one finding significant increases, and the other finding slight increases at low engine load but a considerable decrease at high engine load. Its advantage is that it is non-toxic, non-corrosive and free of tetraethyllead or any additives, and has a high octane rating (102–108 RON depending on local specifications). It burns more cleanly than petrol or fuel-oil and is especially free of the particulates present in the latter.


title: Liquefied petroleum gas

text: LPG has a lower energy density per liter than either petrol or fuel-oil, so the equivalent fuel consumption is higher. Many governments impose less tax on LPG than on petrol or fuel-oil, which helps offset the greater consumption of LPG than of petrol or fuel-oil. However, in many European countries, this tax break is often compensated by a much higher annual tax on cars using LPG than on cars using petrol or fuel-oil. Propane is the third most widely used motor fuel in the world. 2013 estimates are that over 24.9 million vehicles are fueled by propane gas worldwide. Over 25 million tonnes (over 9 billion US gallons) are used annually as a vehicle fuel.


title: Liquefied petroleum gas

text: Not all automobile engines are suitable for use with LPG as a fuel. LPG provides less upper cylinder lubrication than petrol or diesel, so LPG-fueled engines are more prone to valve wear if they are not suitably modified. Many modern common rail diesel engines respond well to LPG use as a supplementary fuel. This is where LPG is used as fuel as well as diesel. Systems are now available that integrate with OEM engine management systems.


title: Liquefied petroleum gas

text: Conversion kits can switch a vehicle dedicated to gasoline to using a dual system, in which both gasoline and LPG are used in the same vehicle.


title: Liquefied petroleum gas

text: LPG can be converted into alkylate which is a premium gasoline blending stock because it has exceptional anti-knock properties and gives clean burning.


title: Liquefied petroleum gas

text: LPG is instrumental in providing off-the-grid refrigeration, usually by means of a gas absorption refrigerator.


title: Liquefied petroleum gas

text: Blended of pure, dry propane (refrigerant designator R-290) and isobutane (R-600a) the blend "R-290a" has negligible ozone depletion potential and very low global warming potential and can serve as a functional replacement for R-12, R-22, R-134a and other chlorofluorocarbon or hydrofluorocarbon refrigerants in conventional stationary refrigeration and air conditioning systems.


title: Liquefied petroleum gas

text: Such substitution is widely prohibited or discouraged in motor vehicle air conditioning systems, on the grounds that using flammable hydrocarbons in systems originally designed to carry non-flammable refrigerant presents a significant risk of fire or explosion.


title: Liquefied petroleum gas

text: Vendors and advocates of hydrocarbon refrigerants argue against such bans on the grounds that there have been very few such incidents relative to the number of vehicle air conditioning systems filled with hydrocarbons. One particular test, conducted by a professor at the University of New South Wales, unintentionally tested the worst-case scenario of a sudden and complete refrigerant expulsion into the passenger compartment followed by subsequent ignition. He and several others in the car sustained minor burns to their face, ears, and hands, and several observers received lacerations from the burst glass of the front passenger window. No one was seriously injured.


title: Liquefied petroleum gas

text: Global LPG production reached over 292 million metric tons per year (Mt/a) in 2015, while global LPG consumption to over 284 Mt/a. 62% of LPG is extracted from natural gas while the rest is produced by petroleum refineries from crude oil. 44% of global consumption is in the domestic sector. The U.S. is the leading producer and exporter of LPG.


title: Liquefied petroleum gas

text: Because of the natural gas and the oil-refining industry, Europe is almost self-sufficient in LPG. Europe's security of supply is further safeguarded by:


title: Liquefied petroleum gas

text: According to 2010–12 estimates, proven world reserves of natural gas, from which most LPG is derived, stand at 300 trillion cubic meters (10,600 trillion cubic feet). Production continues to grow at an average annual rate of 2.2%.


title: Liquefied petroleum gas

text: LPG is composed mainly of propane and butane, while natural gas is composed of the lighter methane and ethane. LPG, vaporised and at atmospheric pressure, has a higher calorific value (46 MJ/m equivalent to 12.8 kWh/m) than natural gas (methane) (38 MJ/m equivalent to 10.6 kWh/m), which means that LPG cannot simply be substituted for natural gas. In order to allow the use of the same burner controls and to provide for similar combustion characteristics, LPG can be mixed with air to produce a synthetic natural gas (SNG) that can be easily substituted. LPG/air mixing ratios average 60/40, though this is widely variable based on the gases making up the LPG. The method for determining the mixing ratios is by calculating the Wobbe index of the mix. Gases having the same Wobbe index are held to be interchangeable.


title: Liquefied petroleum gas

text: LPG-based SNG is used in emergency backup systems for many public, industrial and military installations, and many utilities use LPG peak shaving plants in times of high demand to make up shortages in natural gas supplied to their distributions systems. LPG-SNG installations are also used during initial gas system introductions when the distribution infrastructure is in place before gas supplies can be connected. Developing markets in India and China (among others) use LPG-SNG systems to build up customer bases prior to expanding existing natural gas systems.


title: Liquefied petroleum gas

text: LPG-based SNG or natural gas with localized storage and piping distribution network to the households for catering to each cluster of 5000 domestic consumers can be planned under the initial phase of the city gas network system. This would eliminate the last mile LPG cylinders road transport which is a cause of traffic and safety hurdles in Indian cities. These localized natural gas networks are successfully operating in Japan with feasibility to get connected to wider networks in both villages and cities.


title: Liquefied petroleum gas

text: Commercially available LPG is currently derived mainly from fossil fuels. Burning LPG releases carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas. The reaction also produces some carbon monoxide. LPG does, however, release less per unit of energy than does coal or oil, but more than natural gas. It emits 81% of the per kWh produced by oil, 70% of that of coal, and less than 50% of that emitted by coal-generated electricity distributed via the grid. Being a mix of propane and butane, LPG emits less carbon per joule than butane but more carbon per joule than propane.


title: Liquefied petroleum gas

text: LPG burns more cleanly than higher molecular weight hydrocarbons because it releases fewer particulates.


title: Liquefied petroleum gas

text: As it is much less polluting than most traditional solid-fuel stoves, replacing cookstoves used in developing countries with LPG is one of the key strategies adopted to reduce household air pollution in the developing world.


title: Liquefied petroleum gas

text: In a refinery or gas plant, LPG must be stored in pressure vessels. These containers are either cylindrical and horizontal or spherical. Typically, these vessels are designed and manufactured according to some code. In the United States, this code is governed by the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME).


title: Liquefied petroleum gas

text: LPG containers have pressure relief valves, such that when subjected to exterior heating sources, they will vent LPGs to the atmosphere or a flare stack.


title: Liquefied petroleum gas

text: If a tank is subjected to a fire of sufficient duration and intensity, it can undergo a boiling liquid expanding vapor explosion (BLEVE). This is typically a concern for large refineries and petrochemical plants that maintain very large containers. In general, tanks are designed so that the product will vent faster than pressure can build to dangerous levels.


title: Liquefied petroleum gas

text: One remedy that is utilized in industrial settings is to equip such containers with a measure to provide a fire-resistance rating. Large, spherical LPG containers may have up to a 15 cm steel wall thickness. They are equipped with an approved pressure relief valve. A large fire in the vicinity of the vessel will increase its temperature and pressure. The relief valve on the top is designed to vent off excess pressure in order to prevent the rupture of the container itself. Given a fire of sufficient duration and intensity, the pressure being generated by the boiling and expanding gas can exceed the ability of the valve to vent the excess. Alternatively,


title: Liquefied petroleum gas

text: if, due to continued venting, the liquid level drops below the area being heated, the tank structure can be overheated and subsequently weakened in that area. If either occurs, the container may rupture violently, launching pieces of the vessel at high velocity, while the released products can ignite as well, potentially causing catastrophic damage to anything nearby, including other containers.


title: Liquefied petroleum gas

text: People can be exposed to LPG in the workplace by breathing it in, skin contact, and eye contact. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has set the legal limit (Permissible exposure limit) for LPG exposure in the workplace as 1000 ppm (1800 mg/m) over an 8-hour workday. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has set a recommended exposure limit (REL) of 1000 ppm (1800 mg/m) over an 8-hour workday. At levels of 2000 ppm, 10% of the lower explosive limit, LPG is considered immediately dangerous to life and health (due solely to safety considerations pertaining to risk of explosion).


title: Patrick Beverley

text: Patrick Beverley (born July 12, 1988) is an American professional basketball player for the Los Angeles Lakers of the National Basketball Association (NBA). He played college basketball for the Arkansas Razorbacks before spending three and a half seasons overseas in Ukraine, Greece, and Russia. In January 2013, he joined the Houston Rockets. In June 2017, he was traded to the Los Angeles Clippers.


title: Patrick Beverley

text: The Clippers traded him to the Memphis Grizzlies in 2021, and then he was traded to the Minnesota Timberwolves nine days later. In July 2022, The Timberwolves traded him to the Utah Jazz, and then he was traded to the Lakers in August 2022.


title: Patrick Beverley

text: Beverley is a three-time NBA All-Defensive Team member, known for his physicality. His intense style of play has led to Beverley being involved in several publicized on-court incidents.


title: Patrick Beverley

text: Beverley was born on July 12, 1988. He attended Waubonsie Valley High School in a suburb of Chicago, Illinois, as a freshman before transferring to John Marshall Metropolitan High School on Chicago's West Side. As a senior at John Marshall, he led the state in scoring with 37.3 points per game and was named Co-Player of the Year. Beverley was also selected to play in the Roundball Classic on April 8, 2006, a national high school All-Star Game held at Chicago's United Center.


title: Patrick Beverley

text: As a freshman playing for the Arkansas Razorbacks in 2006–07, Beverley recorded averages of 13.9 points, 4.5 rebounds, 3.1 assists, and 1.7 steals per contest. He was named the Southeastern Conference Newcomer of the Year by the Associated Press and the SEC Freshman of the Year by the league's coaches. He earned SEC All-Freshman Team honors and second-team All-SEC honors.


title: Patrick Beverley

text: As a sophomore in 2007–08, Beverley started in 33 of 35 contests and led the Razorbacks in rebounds (6.6 rpg), steals (1.3 spg), and 3-point percentage (.378), and was second in points (12.1 ppg) and third in assists (2.4 apg). For his performance in the 2007–08 campaign, Beverley was a candidate for the Wooden Award as well as Naismith Trophy.


title: Patrick Beverley

text: In August 2008, Beverley was deemed ineligible to play in the 2008–09 season due to academic issues. Dispelling speculation that insufficient grades were to blame, Beverley admitted that he had been suspended because of an academic integrity issue on a class paper. Instead of waiting out his suspension, Beverley hired an agent and decided to hone his skills for the NBA in Europe. Although originally denying it he eventually owned up to it saying "Someone did a paper for me. I turned in a paper that wasn't mine. I accepted full punishment for it. That's over. I served my punishment"


title: Patrick Beverley

text: In October 2008, at the age of 19, Beverley had a child and signed a one-year contract for "just over six figures" with the Ukrainian team Dnipro; the contract had no buyout, and Beverley was free to leave at season's end without penalty. He participated in the Ukrainian Basketball League (UBL) All-Star Game and won the league's Slam Dunk Contest. In 46 games for Dnipro, Beverley averaged 16.7 points, 7 rebounds, 3.6 assists, 2.2 steals and 1.3 blocks.


title: Patrick Beverley

text: Beverley was automatically entered into the 2009 NBA draft, where he was selected with the 42nd overall pick by the Los Angeles Lakers. On June 26, 2009, a day after the draft, the Miami Heat announced that they had acquired the draft rights to Beverley from the Lakers in exchange for a 2011 second-round draft pick and cash considerations. He was later cut as a part of the final roster cuts.


title: Patrick Beverley

text: On August 26, 2009, Beverley signed with the Greek team Olympiacos Piraeus. He helped Olympiacos win the 2010 Greek Cup title and reach the finals of both the EuroLeague and the Greek League. In 19 EuroLeague games, he averaged 2.7 points and 1.9 rebounds. He also appeared in 22 Greek League games and averaged 4.9 points, 2.8 rebounds, and 1.6 assists.


title: Patrick Beverley

text: On January 9, 2011, Beverley signed with Spartak St. Petersburg for the rest of the 2010–11 season. On November 10, 2011, he signed a contract extension with Spartak. The new deal locked Beverley in with the team through 2014 and included an option for the 2014–15 season. On January 28, 2012, Beverley scored a professional career-high 38 points to go along with 7 rebounds and 5 assists in a 2OT loss to the Spartak Primorye.


title: Patrick Beverley

text: On April 6, 2012, Beverley was selected as the EuroCup MVP for the 2011–12 season. He dominated throughout the season as he led his team to a spot in the EuroCup semifinals. He was a team leader in scoring, steals, and performance index rating, and placed second in rebounds, assists and three-pointers made; the team led the competition in defense and lost only 3 games, with a 13–3 record. His 1.9 steals per game led the EuroCup, he was second in index rating, and at just 1.85 meters, Beverley was the shortest player in the competition to average more than 4 rebounds per game.


title: Patrick Beverley

text: On July 19, 2012, Beverley announced that he would not be returning to Spartak for the 2012–13 season, but Spartak insisted that he honor his contract—he could only void his contract if he received an NBA offer. He continued on with Spartak in 2012–13, but left the team on December 23 after reaching an agreement with the Houston Rockets.


title: Patrick Beverley

text: On January 7, 2013, Beverley signed a multi-year deal with the Rockets and was immediately assigned to the Rio Grande Valley Vipers of the NBA Development League. He spent a week with the Vipers before making his NBA debut on January 15, 2013, in a 117–109 loss to the Los Angeles Clippers. In just under two minutes off the bench, he recorded three points, one assist and one steal. On February 23, 2013, he made three 3-pointers and scored a career-high 15 points in a 105–103 loss to the Washington Wizards. In his first season with Houston, he averaged 5.6 points, 2.7 rebounds, 2.9 assists and 0.90 steals in 41 games. In Game 2 of the Rockets' first-round playoff series against the Oklahoma City Thunder, Beverley had his first career start and recorded 16 points, 12 rebounds, six assists, two steals and one block. He had another 16-point effort in Game 4 to help the Rockets avoid elimination with a 105–103 win, but they lost the series in six games.


title: Patrick Beverley

text: Beverley had an injury-plagued season in 2013–14; he played 56 out of 82 games. He was placed on the inactive list for 14 games following surgery on December 23 to repair a fracture in his right hand. On February 23, he had his first career 20-point outing in a 115–112 win over the Phoenix Suns. He tied that mark in the third-last game of the season, scoring 20 points in a 111–104 win over the New Orleans Pelicans on April 12. On June 2, 2014, he was named in the NBA All-Defensive Second Team for the 2013–14 season.


title: Patrick Beverley

text: On February 14, 2015, Beverley came from behind in the semifinal and final rounds to win the Skills Challenge during NBA All-Star Weekend. On March 30, 2015, he was ruled out for the rest of the season with a left wrist injury.


title: Patrick Beverley

text: On July 9, 2015, Beverley re-signed with the Rockets on a four-year, $23 million deal. He was selected to compete in the 2016 Skills Challenge to defend his title, but an ankle injury forced him to withdraw. On March 18, 2016, he recorded a then season-high 18 points and a career-high 10 assists in a 116–111 win over the Minnesota Timberwolves. On March 31, he scored a career-high 22 points in a 103–100 loss to the Chicago Bulls.


title: Patrick Beverley

text: On October 22, 2016, Beverley was ruled out for three weeks after requiring arthroscopic surgery on his left knee. He made his season debut on November 17, 2016 after missing the first 11 games. Limited to 25 minutes, Beverley had 11 points, three assists and three blocks in a 126–109 win over the Portland Trail Blazers. On December 7, 2016, he came three rebounds shy of his first career triple-double, finishing with 10 points, seven rebounds and tying a career high with 12 assists in a 134–95 win over the Los Angeles Lakers. He came close again on December 21, recording a season-high 18 points, nine assists and nine rebounds in a 125–111 win over the Phoenix Suns. On April 2, 2017, he scored a career-high 26 points in a 123–116 win over the Phoenix Suns. On April 16, 2017, he had a playoff career-best 21 points along with 10 rebounds in a 118–87 win over the Oklahoma City Thunder in Game 1 of their first-round playoff series. At the season's end, Beverley was named to the NBA All-Defensive First Team, becoming the fourth player in franchise history to earn All-Defensive First Team honors and the first since Scottie Pippen in 1998–99. He also won the NBA Hustle Award.


title: Patrick Beverley

text: On June 28, 2017, the Los Angeles Clippers acquired Beverley, Sam Dekker, Montrezl Harrell, Darrun Hilliard, DeAndre Liggins, Lou Williams, Kyle Wiltjer and a 2018 first-round pick from the Houston Rockets in exchange for Chris Paul. In his debut for the Clippers in their season opener on October 19, 2017, Beverley scored 10 points in a 108–92 win over the Los Angeles Lakers. After dealing with right knee soreness throughout the preseason, Beverley missed five games in mid-November with a similar sore right knee. On November 22, 2017, he was ruled out for the rest of the season after undergoing an arthroscopic lateral meniscus repair, and a microfracture procedure, on his right knee.


title: Patrick Beverley

text: On January 27, 2019, Beverley had 16 points, 10 rebounds and eight assists in a 122–108 win over the Sacramento Kings. In the first round of the playoffs against the Golden State Warriors, Beverley had two 14-rebound efforts.


title: Patrick Beverley

text: On July 3, 2021, Beverley was suspended for one game for pushing Chris Paul during a game against the Phoenix Suns. Beverley's suspension made him the first player to be suspended for first game of the following season since Andrew Bynum in the 2011 NBA playoffs for shoving and elbowing J. J. Barea during the Los Angeles Lakers' four-game sweep by the eventual NBA champions, the Dallas Mavericks.


title: Patrick Beverley

text: On August 16, 2021, Beverley was traded along with Daniel Oturu and Rajon Rondo to the Memphis Grizzlies in exchange for Eric Bledsoe. Nine days later, the Grizzlies traded him to the Minnesota Timberwolves in exchange for Jarrett Culver and Juancho Hernangómez. On February 16, 2022, Beverley signed a 1-year, $13 million contract extension with the Timberwolves.


title: Patrick Beverley

text: On July 6, 2022, Beverley was traded, alongside with Malik Beasley, Jarred Vanderbilt, Leandro Bolmaro, the draft rights to Walker Kessler, four future first round picks and a pick swap, to the Utah Jazz in exchange for Rudy Gobert. On August 25, 2022, Beverley was traded to the Los Angeles Lakers in exchange for Stanley Johnson and Talen Horton-Tucker. On October 18, Beverley made his Lakers debut, putting up three points in a 123–109 loss to the Golden State Warriors. On November 24, Beverley was suspended for three games after shoving Deandre Ayton of the Phoenix Suns from behind during an on-court altercation.


title: Patrick Beverley

text: Beverley has a son and daughter. On May 7, 2017, Beverley's grandfather died hours before Game 4 of the Western Conference semifinals against the San Antonio Spurs.


title: Patrick Beverley

text: In 2007, Beverley featured in the documentary film "Hoop Reality", the unofficial sequel to 1994's "Hoop Dreams".


title: Bilirubin

text: Bilirubin (BR) (Latin for "red bile") is a red-orange compound that occurs in the normal catabolic pathway that breaks down heme in vertebrates. This catabolism is a necessary process in the body's clearance of waste products that arise from the destruction of aged or abnormal red blood cells. In the first step of bilirubin synthesis, the heme molecule is stripped from the hemoglobin molecule. Heme then passes through various processes of porphyrin catabolism, which varies according to the region of the body in which the breakdown occurs. For example, the molecules excreted in the urine differ from those in the feces. The production of biliverdin from heme is the first major step in the catabolic pathway, after which the enzyme biliverdin reductase performs the second step, producing bilirubin from biliverdin.


title: Bilirubin

text: Ultimately, bilirubin is broken down within the body, and its metabolites excreted through bile and urine; elevated levels may indicate certain diseases. It is responsible for the yellow color of healing bruises and the yellow discoloration in jaundice. Its breakdown products, such as stercobilin, cause the brown color of feces. A different breakdown product, urobilin, is the main component of the straw-yellow color in urine.


title: Bilirubin

text: Although bilirubin is usually found in animals rather than plants, at least one plant species, "Strelitzia nicolai", is known to contain the pigment.


title: Bilirubin

text: Bilirubin consists of an open chain tetrapyrrole. It is formed by oxidative cleavage of a porphyrin in heme, which affords biliverdin. Biliverdin is reduced to bilirubin. After conjugation with glucuronic acid, bilirubin is excreted.


title: Bilirubin

text: Bilirubin is structurally similar to the pigment phycobilin used by certain algae to capture light energy, and to the pigment phytochrome used by plants to sense light. All of these contain an open chain of four pyrrolic rings.


title: Bilirubin

text: Like these other pigments, some of the double-bonds in bilirubin isomerize when exposed to light. This isomerization is relevant to the phototherapy of jaundiced newborns: the E,Z-isomers of bilirubin formed upon light exposure are more soluble than the unilluminated Z,Z-isomer, as the possibility of intramolecular hydrogen bonding is removed. Increased solubility allows the excretion of unconjugated bilirubin in bile.


title: Bilirubin

text: Some textbooks and research articles show the incorrect geometric isomer of bilirubin. The naturally occurring isomer is the Z,Z-isomer.


title: Bilirubin

text: Bilirubin is created by the activity of biliverdin reductase on biliverdin, a green tetrapyrrolic bile pigment that is also a product of heme catabolism. Bilirubin, when oxidized, reverts to become biliverdin once again. This cycle, in addition to the demonstration of the potent antioxidant activity of bilirubin, has led to the hypothesis that bilirubin's main physiologic role is as a cellular antioxidant. Consistent with this, animal studies suggest that eliminating bilirubin results in endogenous oxidative stress. Bilirubin's antioxidant activity may be particularly important in the brain, where it prevents excitotoxicity and neuronal death by scavenging superoxide during N-methyl-D-aspartic acid neurotransmission.


title: Bilirubin

text: Elevation of both alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and bilirubin is more indicative of serious liver injury than is elevation in ALT alone, as postulated in Hy's law that elucidates the relation between the lab test results and drug-induced liver injury


title: Bilirubin

text: The measurement of unconjugated bilirubin (UCB) is underestimated by measurement of indirect bilirubin, as unconjugated bilirubin (without/yet glucuronidation) reacts with diazosulfanilic acid to create azobilirubin which is measured as direct bilirubin.


title: Bilirubin

text: In the liver, bilirubin is conjugated with glucuronic acid by the enzyme glucuronyltransferase, first to bilirubin glucuronide and then to bilirubin diglucuronide, making it soluble in water: the conjugated version is the main form of bilirubin present in the "direct" bilirubin fraction. Much of it goes into the bile and thus out into the small intestine. Though most bile acid is reabsorbed in the terminal ileum to participate in enterohepatic circulation, conjugated bilirubin is not absorbed and instead passes into the colon.


title: Bilirubin

text: There, colonic bacteria deconjugate and metabolize the bilirubin into colorless urobilinogen, which can be oxidized to form urobilin and stercobilin. Urobilin is excreted by the kidneys to give urine its yellow color and stercobilin is excreted in the feces giving stool its characteristic brown color. A trace (~1%) of the urobilinogen is reabsorbed into the enterohepatic circulation to be re-excreted in the bile.


title: Bilirubin

text: Although the terms direct and indirect bilirubin are used equivalently with conjugated and unconjugated bilirubin, this is not quantitatively correct, because the direct fraction includes both conjugated bilirubin and δ bilirubin.


title: Bilirubin

text: Delta bilirubin is albumin-bound conjugated bilirubin. In the other words, delta bilirubin is the kind of bilirubin covalently bound to albumin, which appears in the serum when hepatic excretion of conjugated bilirubin is impaired in patients with hepatobiliary disease. Furthermore, direct bilirubin tends to overestimate conjugated bilirubin levels due to unconjugated bilirubin that has reacted with diazosulfanilic acid, leading to increased azobilirubin levels (and increased direct bilirubin).


title: Bilirubin

text: The half-life of delta bilirubin is equivalent to that of albumin since the former is bound to the latter, yields 2–3 weeks.


title: Bilirubin

text: Under normal circumstances, only a very small amount, if any, of urobilinogen, is excreted in the urine. If the liver's function is impaired or when biliary drainage is blocked, some of the conjugated bilirubin leaks out of the hepatocytes and appears in the urine, turning it dark amber. However, in disorders involving hemolytic anemia, an increased number of red blood cells are broken down, causing an increase in the amount of unconjugated bilirubin in the blood. Because the unconjugated bilirubin is not water-soluble, one will not see an increase in bilirubin in the urine. Because there is no problem with the liver or bile systems, this excess unconjugated bilirubin will go through all of the normal processing mechanisms that occur (e.g., conjugation, excretion in bile, metabolism to urobilinogen, reabsorption) and will show up as an increase of urobilinogen in the urine. This difference between increased urine bilirubin and increased urine urobilinogen helps to distinguish between various disorders in those systems.


title: Bilirubin

text: Unbound bilirubin (Bf) levels can be used to predict the risk of neurodevelopmental handicaps within infants. Unconjugated hyperbilirubinemia in a newborn can lead to accumulation of bilirubin in certain brain regions (particularly the basal nuclei) with consequent irreversible damage to these areas manifesting as various neurological deficits, seizures, abnormal reflexes and eye movements. This type of neurological injury is known as kernicterus. The spectrum of clinical effect is called bilirubin encephalopathy. The neurotoxicity of neonatal hyperbilirubinemia manifests because the blood–brain barrier has yet to develop fully, and bilirubin can freely pass into the brain interstitium, whereas more developed individuals with increased bilirubin in the blood are protected. Aside from specific chronic medical conditions that may lead to hyperbilirubinemia, neonates in general are at increased risk since they lack the intestinal bacteria that facilitate the breakdown and excretion of conjugated bilirubin in the feces (this is largely why the feces of a neonate are paler than those of an adult). Instead the conjugated bilirubin is converted back into the unconjugated form by the enzyme β-glucuronidase (in the gut, this enzyme is located in the brush border of the lining intestinal cells) and a large proportion is reabsorbed through the enterohepatic circulation. In addition, recent studies point towards high total bilirubin levels as a cause for gallstones regardless of gender or age.


title: Bilirubin

text: In the absence of liver disease, high levels of total bilirubin confers various health benefits. Studies have also revealed that levels of serum bilirubin (SBR) are inversely related to risk of certain heart diseases. While the poor solubility and potential toxicity of bilirubin limit its potential medicinal applications, current research is being done on whether bilirubin encapsulated silk fibrin nanoparticles can alleviate symptoms of disorders such as acute pancreatitis. In addition to this, there has been recent discoveries linking bilirubin and its ε-polylysine-bilirubin conjugate (PLL-BR), to more efficient insulin medication. It seems that bilirubin exhibits protective properties during the islet transplantation process when drugs are delivered throughout the bloodstream.


title: Bilirubin

text: Bilirubin is degraded by light. Blood collection tubes containing blood or (especially) serum to be used in bilirubin assays should be protected from illumination. For adults, blood is typically collected by needle from a vein in the arm. In newborns, blood is often collected from a heel stick, a technique that uses a small, sharp blade to cut the skin on the infant's heel and collect a few drops of blood into a small tube. Non-invasive technology is available in some health care facilities that will measure bilirubin by using an instrument placed on the skin (transcutaneous bilirubin meter)


title: Bilirubin

text: Note: Conjugated bilirubin is often incorrectly called "direct bilirubin" and unconjugated bilirubin is incorrectly called "indirect bilirubin". Direct and indirect refer solely to how compounds are measured or detected in solution. Direct bilirubin is any form of bilirubin which is water-soluble and is available in solution to react with assay reagents; direct bilirubin is often made up largely of conjugated bilirubin, but some unconjugated bilirubin (up to 25%) can still be part of the "direct" bilirubin fraction. Likewise, not all conjugated bilirubin is readily available in solution for reaction or detection (for example, if it is hydrogen bonding with itself) and therefore would not be included in the direct bilirubin fraction.


title: Bilirubin

text: Total bilirubin (TBIL) measures both BU and BC. Total bilirubin assays work by using surfactants and accelerators (like caffeine) to bring all of the different bilirubin forms into solution where they can react with assay reagents. Total and direct bilirubin levels can be measured from the blood, but indirect bilirubin is calculated from the total and direct bilirubin.


title: Bilirubin

text: This test is performed routinely in most medical laboratories and can be measured by a variety of methods.


title: Bilirubin

text: Total bilirubin is now often measured by the 2,5-dichlorophenyldiazonium (DPD) method, and direct bilirubin is often measured by the method of Jendrassik and Grof.


title: Bilirubin

text: The bilirubin level found in the body reflects the balance between production and excretion. Blood test results are advised to always be interpreted using the reference range provided by the laboratory that performed the test. The SI units are μmol/L. Typical ranges for adults are:


title: Bilirubin

text: Cirrhosis may cause normal, moderately high or high levels of bilirubin, depending on exact features of the cirrhosis.


title: Bilirubin

text: To further elucidate the causes of jaundice or increased bilirubin, it is usually simpler to look at other liver function tests (especially the enzymes alanine transaminase, aspartate transaminase, gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase, alkaline phosphatase), blood film examination (hemolysis, etc.) or evidence of infective hepatitis (e.g., hepatitis A, B, C, delta, E, etc.).


title: Bilirubin

text: Hemoglobin acts to transport oxygen your body receives to all body tissue via blood vessels. Over time, when red blood cells need to be replenished, the hemoglobin is broken down in the spleen; it breaks down into two parts: heme group consisting of iron and bile and protein fraction. While protein and iron are utilized to renew red blood cells, pigments that make up the red color in blood are deposited into the bile to form bilirubin. Jaundice leads to raised bilirubin levels that in turn negatively remove elastin-rich tissues. Jaundice may be noticeable in the sclera of the eyes at levels of about 2 to 3 mg/dl (34 to 51 μmol/L), and in the skin at higher levels.


title: Bilirubin

text: Jaundice is classified, depending upon whether the bilirubin is free or conjugated to glucuronic acid, into conjugated jaundice or unconjugated jaundice..


title: Bilirubin

text: Urine bilirubin may also be clinically significant. Bilirubin is not normally detectable in the urine of healthy people. If the blood level of conjugated bilirubin becomes elevated, e.g. due to liver disease, excess conjugated bilirubin is excreted in the urine, indicating a pathological process. Unconjugated bilirubin is not water-soluble and so is not excreted in the urine. Testing urine for both bilirubin and urobilinogen can help differentiate obstructive liver disease from other causes of jaundice.


title: Bilirubin

text: In ancient history, Hippocrates discussed bile pigments in two of the four humours in the context of a relationship between yellow and black biles. Hippocrates visited Democritus in Abdera who was regarded as the expert in melancholy "black bile".


title: Bilirubin

text: Relevant documentation emerged in 1827 when M. Louis Jacques Thénard examined the biliary tract of an elephant that had died at a Paris zoo. He observed dilated bile ducts were full of yellow magma, which he isolated and found to be insoluble in water. Treating the yellow pigment with hydrochloric acid produced a strong green color. Thenard suspected the green pigment was caused by impurities derived from mucus of bile.


title: Bilirubin

text: Leopold Gmelin experimented with nitric acid in 1826 to establish the redox behavior in change from bilirubin to biliverdin, although the nomenclature did not exist at the time. The term biliverdin was coined by Jöns Jacob Berzelius in 1840, although he preferred "bilifulvin" (yellow/red) over "bilirubin" (red). The term "bilirubin" was thought to have become mainstream based on the works of Staedeler in 1864 who crystallized bilirubin from cattle gallstones.


title: Bilirubin

text: Rudolf Virchow in 1847 recognized hematoidin to be identical to bilirubin. It is not always distinguished from hematoidin, which one modern dictionary defines as synonymous with it but another defines as "apparently chemically identical with bilirubin but with a different site of origin, formed locally in the tissues from hemoglobin, particularly under conditions of reduced oxygen tension." The synonymous identity of bilirubin and hematoidin was confirmed in 1923 by Fischer and Steinmetz using analytical crystallography.


title: Bilirubin

text: In the 1930s, significant advances in bilirubin isolation and synthesis were described by Hans Fischer, , and others, and pioneering work pertaining to endogenous formation of bilirubin from heme was likewise conducted in the same decade. The suffix IXα is partially based on a system developed Fischer, which means the bilin's parent compound was protoporphyrin IX cleaved at the alpha-methine bridge (see protoporphyrin IX nomenclature).


title: Bilirubin

text: Origins pertaining to the physiological activity of bilirubin were described by Ernst Stadelmann in 1891, who may have observed the biotransformation of infused hemoglobin into bilirubin possibly inspired by Ivan Tarkhanov's 1874 works. suggested the source of endogenous bilirubin to be from hemoglobin in 1932. Plieninger and Fischer demonstrated an enzymatic oxidative loss of the alpha-methine bridge of heme resulting in a bis-lactam structure in 1942. It is widely accepted that Irving London was the first to demonstrate endogenous formation of bilirubin from hemoglobin in 1950, and Sjostrand demonstrated hemoglobin catabolism produces carbon monoxide between 1949 and 1952. 14C labeled protoporphyrin biotransformation to bilirubin evidence emerged in 1966 by Cecil Watson. Rudi Schmid and Tenhunen discovered heme oxygenase, the enzyme responsible, in 1968. Earlier in 1963, Nakajima described a soluble "heme alpha-methnyl oxygeanse" which what later determined to be a non-enzymatic pathway, such as formation of a 1,2-Dioxetane intermediate at the methine bridge resulting in carbon monoxide release and biliverdin formation.


title: Chief operating officer

text: A chief operating officer or chief operations officer, also called a COO, is one of the highest-ranking executive positions in an organization, composing part of the "C-suite". The COO is usually the second-in-command at the firm, especially if the highest-ranking executive is the chairperson and CEO. The COO is responsible for the daily operation of the company and its office building and routinely reports to the highest-ranking executive—usually the chief executive officer (CEO).


title: Chief operating officer

text: Unlike other C-suite positions, which tend to be defined according to commonly designated responsibilities across most companies, a COO's job tends to be defined in relation to the specific CEO with whom they work, given the close working relationship of these two individuals.


title: Chief operating officer

text: The selection of a COO is similar in many ways to the selection of a vice president or chief of staff of the United States: power and responsibility structures vary in government and private regimes depending on the style and needs of the president or CEO. Thus, the COO role meets individual expectations and changes as leadership teams adjust.


title: Chief operating officer

text: The COO position is common in firms that are operationally intensive, such as airline and automotive industries.


title: Chief operating officer

text: In a similar vein to the COO, the title of corporate president as a separate position (as opposed to being combined with a "C-suite" designation, such as "president and CEO" or "president and COO") is also loosely defined. The president is usually the legally recognized highest rank of corporate officer, ranking above the various vice presidents (including senior vice president and executive vice president), but on its own generally considered subordinate, in practice, to the CEO.


title: Chief operating officer

text: Lloyd E. Reuss was president of General Motors from 1990 to 1992, as the right-hand man of chairman and CEO Robert C. Stempel. Stempel insisted on naming Reuss as company president in charge of North American operations, the board reluctantly agreed but showed their displeasure by not giving Reuss the title of COO.


title: Chief operating officer

text: Richard D. Parsons was number two in the company hierarchy during his tenure as president of Time Warner from 1995 to 2001, but he had no authority over the operating divisions, and instead took on assignments at the behest of chairman and CEO Gerald Levin.


title: Chief operating officer

text: Michael Capellas was appointed president of Hewlett-Packard in order to ease its acquisition and integration of Compaq, where Capellas was previously chairman and CEO. Capellas ended up serving just six months as HP president before departing. His former role of president was not filled as the executives who reported to him then reported directly to the CEO.


title: Chief operating officer

text: In 2007, the investment banking firms of Bear Stearns and Morgan Stanley each had two presidents (Warren Spector and Alan Schwartz at Bear, Robert Scully and Zoe Cruz at Morgan) reporting to one CEO (who was also chairman of the board); each president was essentially a co-COO (despite the lack of title) overseeing half of the firm's business divisions. Schwartz became sole president of Bear after Spector was ousted, and several months later assumed the position of CEO as well when James Cayne was forced to resign (Cayne remained chairman).


title: Chief operating officer

text: Tom Anselmi of Maple Leaf Sports & Entertainment was chief operating officer from 2004 until September 6, 2013. Between the departure of Richard Peddie and the hiring of Tim Leiweke for the posts of president and CEO, Anselmi added the title of president from September 4, 2012, to June 30, 2013, however he remained COO and did not receive the title of CEO.


title: Chief operating officer

text: Richard Fuld, the chairman and CEO of Lehman Brothers, had a succession of "number twos" under him, usually titled as president and chief operating officer. Chris Pettit was Fuld's second-in-command for two decades until November 26, 1996, when he resigned as president and board member. Pettit lost a power struggle with his deputies (Steve Lessing, Tom Tucker, and Joseph M. Gregory) on March 15 that year that caused him to relinquish its COO title, likely brought about after the three men found about Pettit's extramarital affairs, which violated Fuld's unwritten rules on marriage and social etiquette. Bradley Jack and Joseph M. Gregory were appointed co-COOs in 2002, but Jack was demoted to the office of the chairman in May 2004 and departed in June 2005 with a severance package of $80 million, making Gregory the sole COO. While Fuld was considered the "face" of Lehman brothers, Gregory was in charge of day-to-day operations and he influenced culture to drive the bottom line. Gregory was demoted on June 12, 2008, and replaced as president and COO by Bart McDade, who had been serving as head of Equities, and McDade would see Lehman through bankruptcy.


title: Chief operating officer

text: Thomas W. LaSorda served as president and CEO of Chrysler from January 1, 2006, to August 5, 2007, while Chrysler was owned by Daimler-Benz. When Cerberus Capital bought majority control of Chrysler, Bob Nardelli was appointed chairman and CEO of Chrysler, while LaSorda became vice chairman and president. Despite the appointment of a second vice chairman and president, Jim Press, LaSorda stayed on. LaSorda's titles as vice chairman and president officially stated that he was in charge of manufacturing, procurement and supply, employee relations, global business development and alliances. However, LaSorda's actual role was to find a new partner or buyer for Chrysler, leading to speculation that Cerberus Capital was less interested in rebuilding the auto manufacturer than it was to turning profit though a leveraged buyout.


title: Chief operating officer

text: Research in Motion's corporate structure had more than one COO, including Jim Rowan as chief operating officer for global operations, and Thorsten Heins as COO of products and sales.


title: Chief operating officer

text: The Walt Disney Company has used the president and COO titles in varied ways for their number two executive. Ron W. Miller was president from 1978 to 1984, while serving additionally as CEO for 18 months from 1983 to 1984. Frank Wells was president from 1984 to 1994, where he reported to the board of directors and not chairman and CEO Michael Eisner. When Wells died in a helicopter crash, no replacement president was named as his duties were resumed by Eisner. Michael Ovitz was president from 1995 to 1997, being hired by Eisner and then dismissed not long afterwards. Bob Iger was president and COO from 2000 to 2005, when he succeeded Eisner as CEO. Thomas O. Staggs was COO from 2015 to 2016, during that time the senior executive team had a dual reporting structure to both Staggs and Iger; Staggs resigned after the board did not give him assurances that he would succeed as CEO.


title: Chief operating officer

text: Manulife has used the president and COO titles for separate roles. From June 5 until September 30, 2017, Rocco "Roy" Gori served as president where he oversaw Manulife's global operating businesses, with his subordinates being the general managers of the Canadian, U.S., and Asia Divisions, and the chief investment officer. Gori reported to chief executive officer Donald Guloien before additionally assuming the title of CEO on October 1, 2017, upon Guloien's retirement. Linda Mantia, the chief operating officer, reported to the president on corporate strategy while continuing to report to the CEO on all other matters including corporate development, Analytics, Technology, Marketing, Innovation, human resources, regulatory and public affairs, global resourcing and procurement, and the global program office.


title: Chief operating officer

text: At the World Bank, the president outranks the other executives including the CEO and chief economist.


title: Chief operating officer

text: Most modern companies operate without a COO. For example, in 2007 almost 58% of Fortune 500 companies did not have a COO. In these instances the CEO either takes on more roles and responsibilities, or the roles traditionally assigned to the COO are carried out by sub C-suite executives. Although the number of COOs has been in decline for the past 10 years, there are reasons to anticipate an increased utilization of the position in the future, including:


title: Chief operating officer

text: The role of the COO differs from industry to industry and from organization to organization. Some organizations function without a COO. Others may have two COOs, each assigned to oversee several business lines or divisions, such as Lehman Brothers from 2002 to 2004 when Bradley Jack and Joseph M. Gregory were the co-COOs. A COO could also be brought in from other organizations as a "fixer", such as Daniel J. O'Neill who in 1999 joined Molson in that capacity.


title: Chief operating officer

text: In the manufacturing sector, the primary role of the COO is routinely one of operations management, meaning that the COO is responsible for the development, design, operation, and improvement of the systems that create and deliver the firm's products. The COO is responsible for ensuring that business operations are efficient and effective and that the proper management of resources, distribution of goods and services to customers and analysis of queue systems is conducted.


title: Chief operating officer

text: Despite the functional diversity associated with the role of COO, there are some common functions the COOs usually perform:


title: Chief operating officer

text: Routinely in large organizations the COO will be the heir apparent to the CEO. Individuals may have worked their way (internally) up the company ladder before being named COO, or may have been recruited from an outside company. Either way, the position is used as a training and testing ground for the next CEO.


title: Chief operating officer

text: A 2003 Crist Associates study revealed that only 17% of companies that promote a COO to a CEO replace the COO within the next year.


title: Chief operating officer

text: An Accenture study found that approximately one in nine COOs moved into the CEO's shoes within a year of their departure and that half of COOs see themselves as the "heir apparent." COOs transitioning into the CEO role often face similar challenges including:


title: Chief operating officer

text: According to researchers Miles and Bennett, just knowing these common pitfalls can help a COO "heir" better prepare for the transition, thereby avoiding them in totality or ensuring that at least they do not evolve into full derailers once they are in the CEO seat.


title: Chief operating officer

text: Because the COO is often responsible for serving as an information conduit to the CEO, it is essential that the relationship between COO and CEO be a positive one. Trust is the most important ingredient necessary for a CEO-COO relationship to thrive. The CEO must have full confidence that the COO is not making direct passes for their job, can get the work done, and shares their vision (rather than using their trusted spot and access to information to undermine the CEO's strategy or implement his/her own vision). When a relationship built upon trust is created between the CEO and COO, firm performance is improved and shareholder results are strengthened. Seven strategies that are key to building trust in the CEO-COO relationship include:


title: Chief operating officer

text: In addition to having a strong and trusting relationship with the CEO, the COO should also have an effective relationship with the board. A good relationship between COO and the board allows the board to better understand and independently judge a potential successor. A strong relationship between the board and the COO also offers the board an additional expert opinion on the health of the company, and status of key initiatives. It benefits the CEO to allow such a relationship to form because it reflects confidence and fosters transparency. It also reinforces that the CEO is capable of developing talent, and helps the CEO to retain the COO by further empowering the individual. A strong relationship benefits the COOs in that they are able to expand their experience as well as their professional network. Additionally, if they are looking to be the next CEO, it allows them to develop credibility with the board. Researchers advise the COO to go beyond simply presenting at board meetings, to ensure they are developing strong one-on-one relationships with each board director. Researchers also urge the COO to develop his or her own voice, independent of the CEO.


title: Chief operating officer

text: Any breakdown in trust between the CEO and COO can lead to failure. Additionally, the COO typically has to be a high-level leader who is comfortable being fully in charge. Many executives with the leadership skills necessary to be a top-level COO would prefer to be running their own organization as opposed to taking orders from a CEO. For COOs who are expecting to serve their time and be promoted to the top spot, their timelines for such a move can often be out of sync with the CEO's, causing a breakdown in the relationship. COOs can also find themselves trapped into being labeled an "operations" person or a "number two" as opposed to being seen as a strategic and top-level leader by the board of directors, which causes some executives to steer clear of the position. Harry Levinson effectively summarized the challenges of the COO position: "The relationship between the chief executive officer and the chief operating officer in any organization is fraught with many psychological complexities. Perhaps it is the most difficult of all organizational working relationships because more than others, it is a balancing act on the threshold of power.".


title: Chief operating officer

text: Nathan Bennett and Stephen A. Miles have researched the role of COOs. Their published works analyse the role and its effectiveness, classify the different types of COOs, and examine relationships between CEOs and COOs.


title: Damn (Kendrick Lamar album)

text: Damn (stylized as DAMN.) is the fourth studio album by American rapper Kendrick Lamar. It was released on April 14, 2017, through Top Dawg Entertainment, Aftermath Entertainment and Interscope Records. Lamar assembled numerous artists and producers to produce the album, including executive producer and Top Dawg Entertainment label-head Anthony "Top Dawg" Tiffith, Sounwave, DJ Dahi, Mike Will Made It, and Ricci Riera, as well as further production contributions from James Blake, Steve Lacy, BadBadNotGood, Greg Kurstin, The Alchemist, and 9th Wonder, among others. The album features guest vocals from singers Rihanna and Top Dawg singer Zacari, along with Irish rock band U2.


title: Damn (Kendrick Lamar album)

text: The album has been categorized as conscious hip hop, a genre Lamar incorporated on his previous studio album, "To Pimp a Butterfly". The album also incorporates elements of trap, contemporary R&B, and pop. Prior to the album's release, Lamar released a promotional single, "The Heart Part 4". In the months that followed, Lamar released three singles from the album; "Humble" was released in March 2017, "Loyalty" in June 2017, and "Love" in October 2017, the first of which became Lamar's first number-one single on the US "Billboard" Hot 100 as a lead artist.


title: Damn (Kendrick Lamar album)

text: "Damn" received widespread critical acclaim, with many naming the album one of the best albums of 2017 and the decade. The album became the first non-jazz or classical work to earn a Pulitzer Prize for Music and won Best Rap Album at the 2018 Grammy Awards, as well receiving a nomination for Album of the Year at the ceremony. The album topped the US "Billboard" 200 with 603,000 album-equivalent units earned in its first week and topped the chart of Canada while reaching number two in Australia, Belgium, Denmark, Ireland, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, and the United Kingdom. It has since been certified triple platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) in May 2018 and was the "Billboard" Year-End number one album of 2017. In 2020, the album was ranked 175th on "Rolling Stone"s updated list of the 500 Greatest Albums of All Time.


title: Damn (Kendrick Lamar album)

text: The beat for "Humble" was developed by Mike Will with the intention of recording with Gucci Mane, but later showed it to Kendrick Lamar. After recording, it was initially agreed upon that it would be released on Mike Will's debut album "Ransom 2", but others convinced Lamar to keep it for his own next album.


title: Damn (Kendrick Lamar album)

text: "DNA" was the second song from the album to be recorded by Lamar and Mike Will, after "Humble". After the first verse of "DNA" was recorded with the beat that Mike Will had already prepared, Lamar started rapping the second verse a cappella, requesting that Mike Will build the beat around the rap. Lamar proposed that it sound like "chaos", and Mike Will put together the second half of the song with the intention to make it "sound like he's battling the beat".


title: Damn (Kendrick Lamar album)

text: Lamar has said in interviews that the ability to play the album in reverse tracklist order was "premeditated ... in the studio": "It plays as a full story and even a better rhythm. It's one of my favorite rhythms and tempos within the album".


title: Damn (Kendrick Lamar album)

text: On April 11, 2017, Lamar revealed the cover artwork for "Damn". The album cover was designed by Vlad Sepetov, who created the album covers for Lamar's last two projects – "To Pimp a Butterfly" and "Untitled Unmastered". Sepetov described "Damn"s cover as "loud and abrasive" and "not uber political like "To Pimp a Butterfly" but it has energy". Sepetov goes on to say the decision to put the Parental Advisory sticker in its unconventional position was so it could be a part of the design instead of an "afterthought". "Billboard" listed the cover as one of the best of 2017, dubbing it "both meme-able and memorable".


title: Damn (Kendrick Lamar album)

text: In a radio interview on June 29, 2017, Lamar revealed the original title for the album was going to be "What Happens on Earth Stays on Earth", but eventually settled on "Damn". He stated the working title "didn't read right". Lamar went on to say about its final title, "There was so many different ways you could put it in my head. Damned if I do, damned if I don't. The loudness of the record. When I think about "DNA", when I think of "Humble", when I think these records, it just felt like that."


title: Damn (Kendrick Lamar album)

text: On March 23, 2017, Lamar released a promotional single, "The Heart Part 4", which contained lyrics hinting at a possible April 7 release date for his fourth studio album. On April 7, 2017, the album was made available for pre-order and confirmed to be released on April 14. On April 11, Lamar revealed the track listing for "Damn".


title: Damn (Kendrick Lamar album)

text: On December 8, 2017, Lamar released the "Collectors Edition" of the album. The album is the same musically, but has a reversed track order and new artwork.


title: Damn (Kendrick Lamar album)

text: On March 30, 2017, Lamar released the album's lead single, "Humble", accompanied by a music video. It reached number one on the US "Billboard" Hot 100 and number two on the Canadian Hot 100 chart. "Loyalty" featuring Rihanna, was released as the album's second single on June 20, 2017, to rhythmic and urban contemporary radio. The song peaked at number 14 on the "Billboard" Hot 100. "Love" featuring Zacari, was released as the album's third single on October 2, 2017, to rhythmic contemporary radio. It was released to contemporary hit radio on November 21, 2017. The song peaked at number 11 on the "Billboard" Hot 100.


title: Damn (Kendrick Lamar album)

text: The music video for the song, "DNA", was released on April 18, 2017. The song entered at number four on the "Billboard" Hot 100, becoming Lamar's second highest-charting song as a solo artist after "Humble".


title: Damn (Kendrick Lamar album)

text: The music video for the song, "Element", was released on June 27, 2017. The song peaked at number 16 on the "Billboard" Hot 100.


title: Damn (Kendrick Lamar album)

text: "Damn" was met with widespread critical acclaim. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from professional publications, the album received an average score of 95, based on 39 reviews. Aggregator AnyDecentMusic? gave it 9.1 out of 10, based on their assessment of the critical consensus.


title: Damn (Kendrick Lamar album)

text: Andy Kellman of AllMusic stated that "it contains some of Lamar's best writing and performances, revealing his evolving complexity and versatility as a soul-baring lyricist and dynamic rapper". Christopher R. Weingarten, an author for "Rolling Stone", said, "Much like the recent A Tribe Called Quest record, "Damn". is a brilliant combination of the timeless and the modern, the old school and the next-level. The most gifted rapper of a generation stomps into the Nineties and continues to blaze a trail forward". In his review, Greg Kot of the "Chicago Tribune" states, ""Damn." strips down the rhythms to their essence, flavored with the occasional cameo (notably Rihanna and U2). Lamar's voice does most of the heavy lifting, playing multiple roles and characters. His supple singing complements a variety of rap tones and textures". Jon Caramanica of "The New York Times" gave a positive review, stating "Tart and punchy. ... Sometimes boisterous, sometimes swampy, rarely fanciful album—it's Mr. Lamar's version of the creeping paranoia that has become de rigueur for midcareer Drake. And yet this is likely Mr. Lamar's most jubilant album, the one in which his rhymes are the least tangled". Eric Renner Brown of "Entertainment Weekly" said, "After delving into the personal on 2012's "Good Kid, M.A.A.D City" and going broader on "Butterfly", Lamar has found a middle ground on "Damn." that yields some of his most emotionally resonant music yet".


title: Damn (Kendrick Lamar album)

text: Alexis Petridis of "The Guardian" wrote: "If it seems a more straightforward listen than "To Pimp a Butterfly", there's a cheering sense that this doesn't equate to a lessening of musical ambition. There's none of that album's wilfully jarring quality – its sudden, anxious musical lurches and abrupt, short-circuiting leaps between genres – but the tracks on "Damn" still feel episodic and expansive. Whether "Damn" will have the same epochal impact as "To Pimp a Butterfly" remains to be seen, but either way it sounds like the work of a supremely confident artist at the top of his game." Neil McCormick of "The Daily Telegraph" stating that "Damn" "is the work of a future all-time great in full command of his powers". Leonie Cooper of "NME" said, ""Damn." is by far his shortest release to date – but the ideas, thoughts and feelings it contains are massive, weighty things, from sexual tension to deep, dark depression". In "Pitchfork"s review of "Damn", Matthew Trammell writes "Damn" "is a widescreen masterpiece of rap, full of expensive beats, furious rhymes, and peerless storytelling about Kendrick's destiny in America". Writing for "The A.V. Club", Evan Rytlewski concluded, "Lamar trusts every idea to stand on its own. When you're making art this substantial, vital, and virtuosic, there's no need to wrap a tidy bow around it". In a mixed review, A. Harmony of "Exclaim!" wrote that "Damn" "is the first time in Lamar's career that he hasn't broken new ground, explored old themes in new ways or exhibited sonic growth".


title: Damn (Kendrick Lamar album)

text: In the United States, "Damn" debuted at number one on the "Billboard" 200 with 603,000 album-equivalent units in its first week of release, becoming his third consecutive album after "To Pimp a Butterfly" (2015) and "Untitled Unmastered" (2016) to reach the nation's summit. It sold 353,000 copies in its first week and accumulated over 340 million streams. In its second week, the album remained at the top of the US charts with 238,000 album-equivalent units of which 87,000 were traditional album sales, bringing the sales to a total of 841,000 units. In its third week, the album continued to top the charts with 173,000 album-equivalent units of which 57,000 were traditional album sales, bringing the sales to a total of 1.014 million units. As of April 2018, "Damn" had sold 1,002,000 copies and earned 3,137,000 album-equivalent units in the US.


title: Damn (Kendrick Lamar album)

text: On May 10, 2018, the album was certified triple platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) for combined sales, streaming and track-sales equivalent of three million units. The album also opened atop the Canadian Albums Chart with 35,000 consumption units and 25.4 million streams, becoming the rapper's third consecutive album to arrive at number one. In the United Kingdom, "Damn" sold 30,000 units in its first week and entered at number two on the UK Albums Chart.


title: Damn (Kendrick Lamar album)

text: According to IFPI, it was the seventh best selling album of 2017, with 1.3 million copies shipped globally. "Damn" was ranked as the number one album of the year on the "Billboard" 200 in 2017. In 2018, "Damn" was ranked as the thirteenth most popular album of the year on the "Billboard" 200.


title: Jake LaMotta

text: Giacobbe "Jake" LaMotta (July 10, 1922 – September 19, 2017) was an American professional boxer who was world middleweight champion between 1949 and 1951. Nicknamed "The Bronx Bull" or "Raging Bull", LaMotta was a rough fighter who was not a particularly big puncher, but would subject his opponents to vicious beatings in the ring. With the use of constant stalking, brawling and inside fighting, he developed a reputation for being a "bully"; he was what is often referred to today as a swarmer and a slugger.


title: Jake LaMotta

text: Due to his hard style of fighting, LaMotta often took as much as he dished out in an era of great middleweights. With a thick skull and jaw muscles, LaMotta was able to absorb incredible amounts of punishment over the course of his career, and is thought to have one of the greatest chins in boxing history. LaMotta's six-fight rivalry with Sugar Ray Robinson was one of the most notable in the sport. Although each fight was close and LaMotta dropped Robinson to the canvas multiple times, LaMotta won only one of the bouts. LaMotta, who lived a turbulent life in and out of the ring, was managed by his brother Joey. He was ranked 52nd on "Ring Magazine"s list of the "80 Best Fighters of the Last 80 Years", and also ranked amongst its list of the 10 greatest middleweights of all time. LaMotta was inducted into the International Boxing Hall of Fame in the inaugural class of 1990.


title: Jake LaMotta

text: LaMotta's autobiography was adapted into the 1980 Martin Scorsese film "Raging Bull". It went on to be nominated for eight Academy Awards, with Robert De Niro winning Best Actor for his portrayal of LaMotta.


title: Jake LaMotta

text: LaMotta was born on the Lower East Side of New York City on July 10, 1922, to Italian parents, Elizabeth (Merluzzo) and Joseph LaMotta. Many sources had reported his year of birth as 1921, but his daughter Christi said in a Facebook post immediately following his death that it was in fact 1922. His mother was born in the United States to Italian immigrants, while his father was an immigrant from Messina, Sicily, who came with family including his brother Joseph. The family lived briefly in Philadelphia before returning to New York and settling in the Bronx.


title: Jake LaMotta

text: Jake's father forced the boy to fight other boys in order to entertain neighborhood adults, who threw pocket change into the ring. LaMotta's father collected the money and used it to help pay the rent. One of LaMotta's cousins on his father's side was Richard LaMotta, who became an entrepreneur and creator of the Chipwich ice cream treat.


title: Jake LaMotta

text: LaMotta learned to box while in a reformatory in upstate New York, where he'd been sent for attempted robbery. Afterward he fought undefeated in amateur bouts, turning professional at age 19 in 1941. During World War II, he was rejected for military service due to a childhood mastoid operation on one of his ears which affected his hearing.


title: Jake LaMotta

text: As a middleweight in his first fifteen bouts, LaMotta went 14–0–1 (3 KOs) before losing a highly controversial split decision to Jimmy Reeves in Reeves' hometown of Cleveland, Ohio. Chaos erupted after the decision was announced. Fights broke out around the ring and the crowd continued to boo for 20 minutes. The arena's organist tried (but failed) to calm down the crowd by playing the "Star Spangled Banner".


title: Jake LaMotta

text: One month later, LaMotta and Reeves fought again in the same arena. LaMotta lost a much less controversial decision. A third match between the two took place on March 19, 1943, in Detroit, Michigan. The first five rounds were close, though Reeves was struggling in the fourth. In the sixth round, LaMotta floored Reeves, who was only down for a second. Once the fight resumed, LaMotta landed a left on Reeves' chin, sending him down face-first. Reeves was blinking his eyes and shaking his head as the referee counted him out.


title: Jake LaMotta

text: LaMotta fought Sugar Ray Robinson in Robinson's middleweight debut at Madison Square Garden, New York City, October 2, 1942. LaMotta knocked Robinson down in the first round of the fight. Robinson got up and took control over much of the fight, winning via a unanimous 10-round decision.


title: Jake LaMotta

text: A 10-round rematch took place February 5, 1943, at Olympia Stadium in Detroit, Michigan. The eighth round was historic. LaMotta landed a right to Robinson's head and a left to his body, sending him through the ropes. Robinson was saved by the bell at the count of nine. LaMotta, who was already leading on the scorecards before knocking Robinson out of the ring, pummeled and outpointed him for the rest of the fight. Robinson had trouble keeping LaMotta at bay. LaMotta won via unanimous decision, giving Robinson the first defeat of his career.


title: Jake LaMotta

text: The victory was short-lived, as the two met on February 26, 1943, in what was another 10-round fight, once again at Olympia Stadium in Robinson's former home of Detroit. Robinson was knocked down for a nine-count in Round 7. Robinson later stated, "He really hurt me with a left in the seventh round. I was a little dazed and decided to stay on the deck." Robinson won the close fight by unanimous decision, using a dazzling left jab and jarring uppercuts. LaMotta said the fight was given to Robinson because he would be inducted into the army the next day.


title: Jake LaMotta

text: A fourth fight, the duo's final 10 rounder, took place nearly two years after the third, on February 23, 1945, at Madison Square Garden, New York. Robinson won again by a unanimous decision.


title: Jake LaMotta

text: LaMotta and Robinson had their fifth bout at Comiskey Park, Chicago, Illinois on September 26, 1945. Robinson won by a very controversial split decision, contested over 12 rounds. The decision was severely booed by the 14,755 people in attendance. LaMotta later said in his autobiography that the decision was widely criticized by several newspapers and boxing publishers. Robinson said afterward, "This was the toughest fight I've ever had with LaMotta."


title: Jake LaMotta

text: On November 14, 1947, LaMotta was knocked out in the fourth round by Billy Fox. Suspecting the fight was fixed, the New York State Athletic Commission withheld purses for the fight and suspended LaMotta. The fight with Fox would come back to haunt him later in life, during a case with the Federal Bureau of Investigation.


title: Jake LaMotta

text: In his testimony and in his later book, LaMotta admitted to throwing the fight to gain favor with the Mafia. All involved agreed the fix was obvious and their staging inept.


title: Jake LaMotta

text: The first round, a couple of belts to his head, and I see a glassy look coming over his eyes. Jesus Christ, a couple of jabs and he's going to fall down? I began to panic a little. I was supposed to be throwing a fight to this guy, and it looked like I was going to end up holding him on his feet... By [the fourth round], if there was anybody in the Garden who didn't know what was happening, he must have been dead drunk.


title: Jake LaMotta

text: The thrown fight and a payment of $20,000 to the Mafia got LaMotta his title bout against World Middleweight Champion Marcel Cerdan.


title: Jake LaMotta

text: LaMotta won the World Middleweight title on June 16, 1949, in Detroit, Michigan, defeating Frenchman Marcel Cerdan. LaMotta won the first round (in which he knocked Cerdan down), Cerdan the second, and the third was even. At that point it became clear something was wrong. Cerdan dislocated his arm in the first round, apparently damaged in the knockdown, and gave up before the start of the 10th round. LaMotta damaged his left hand in the fifth round, but still landed 104 punches in the ninth round, whereas Cerdan hardly threw a punch. The official score had LaMotta as winner by a knockout in 10 rounds because the bell had already rung to begin that round when Cerdan announced he was quitting. A rematch was arranged, but while Cerdan was flying back to the United States to fight the rematch, his Air France Lockheed Constellation crashed in the Azores, killing everyone on board.


title: Jake LaMotta

text: LaMotta made his first title defense against Tiberio Mitri on July 7, 1950, at Madison Square Garden, New York. LaMotta retained his title via unanimous decision. LaMotta's next defense came on September 13, 1950, against Laurent Dauthuille. Dauthuille had previously beaten LaMotta by decision before LaMotta became world champion. By the fifteenth round, Dauthuille was ahead on all scorecards (72–68, 74–66, 71–69) and seemed to be about to repeat a victory against LaMotta. LaMotta hit Dauthuille with a barrage of punches that sent him down against the ropes toward the end of the round. Dauthuille was counted out with 13 seconds left in the fight. This fight was named Fight of the Year for 1950 by "The Ring" magazine.


title: Jake LaMotta

text: The sixth and final fight between LaMotta and Robinson took place at Chicago Stadium. This fight was scheduled for 15 rounds and was for the middleweight title. Held on February 14, 1951, Saint Valentine's Day, the fight became known as boxing's version of the Saint Valentine's Day Massacre. In the last few rounds, LaMotta began to take a horrible beating and was soon unable to defend himself from Robinson's powerful blows. But LaMotta refused to go down. Robinson won by a technical knockout in the 13th round, when the fight was stopped.


title: Jake LaMotta

text: LaMotta moved up to light heavyweight after losing his world middleweight title. He had poor results at first. He lost his debut against Bob Murphy, lost a split decision to Norman Hayes, and drew with Gene Hairston in his first three bouts. In his next three fights, LaMotta had rematches with Hayes, Hairston, and Murphy, and defeated all of them by unanimous decision.


title: Jake LaMotta

text: On December 31, 1952, LaMotta had his next fight against Danny Nardico. He knocked LaMotta down for the only time in his career (not counting his thrown 1947 fight) by a right hand in the seventh round. LaMotta got up and was beaten against a corner by Nardico until the bell rang. LaMotta's corner stopped the bout before the eighth round began.


title: Jake LaMotta

text: Following that fight, LaMotta took time off; when he returned, in early 1954, he knocked out his first two opponents, Johnny Pretzie (TKO 4) and Al McCoy (KO 1), but a controversial split decision loss to Billy Kilgore on April 14, 1954, convinced him to retire.


title: Jake LaMotta

text: After retiring from the ring, LaMotta owned and managed a bar at 1120 Collins Ave in Miami Beach. He also became a stage actor and comedian. In 1958 he was arrested and charged with introducing men to an underage girl at a club he owned in Miami. He was convicted and served six months on a chain gang, although he maintained his innocence.


title: Jake LaMotta

text: LaMotta appeared in more than 15 films, including "The Hustler" (1961) with Paul Newman and Jackie Gleason, in which he had a role as a bartender. He appeared in several episodes of the NBC police comedy "Car 54 Where Are You?" (1961–63). A lifelong baseball fan, he organized the Jake LaMotta All-Star Team in the Bronx. The LaMotta team played in Sterling Oval which was located between 165th and 164th Streets between Clay and Teller Avenue.


title: Jake LaMotta

text: In 1965, LaMotta appeared as "Big Jule" in the New York City Center production of "Guys and Dolls" for 15 performances alongside Alan King and Jerry Orbach.


title: Jake LaMotta

text: In 1960 LaMotta was called to testify before a U.S. Senate sub-committee that was looking into underworld influence on boxing. He testified that he had thrown his bout with Billy Fox so that the mob would arrange a title bout for him.


title: Jake LaMotta

text: LaMotta is recognized as having had one of the best chins in boxing. He rolled with punches, minimizing their force and damage when they landed, but he was also able to absorb many blows. In the Saint Valentine's Day Massacre, his sixth bout with Robinson, LaMotta suffered numerous severe blows to the head. Commentators could be heard saying "No man can take this kind of punishment!" But LaMotta did not go down. The fight was stopped by the referee in the 13th round, declaring it a TKO victory for Robinson.


title: Jake LaMotta

text: LaMotta was one of the first boxers to adopt the "bully" style of fighting, in that he always stayed close and in punching range of his opponent, by stalking him around the ring, and sacrificed taking punches himself in order to land his own shots. Due to his aggressive, unrelenting style he was known as "The Bronx Bull." He boasted "No son-of-a-bitch ever knocked me off my feet", but that claim was ended in December 1952 at the hands of Danny Nardico when Nardico caught him with a hard right in the seventh round. LaMotta fell into the ropes and went down. After regaining his footing, he was unable to come out for the next round.


title: Jake LaMotta

text: "Raging Bull: My Story" is a 1970 second edition of LaMotta's memoir. The autobiographical details include his life as a young teenage criminal; his reformation in prison; his extensive career as an amateur and professional boxer; his struggles with organized crime who kept a boxing title out of reach; and his jealous obsession with his wife, Vikki. The book details his life, from childhood until the end of his fame.


title: Jake LaMotta

text: Hollywood executives approached LaMotta with the idea of a movie about his life, based on his 1970 memoir "". The film, "Raging Bull", released in 1980, was initially only a minor box office success, but eventually received overwhelming critical acclaim for both director Martin Scorsese and actor Robert De Niro, who gained about 60 pounds during the shooting of the film to play the older LaMotta in later scenes.