title: Nuclear winter

text: There is some doubt as to when the Soviet Union began modelling fires and the atmospheric effects of nuclear war. Former Soviet intelligence officer Sergei Tretyakov claimed that, under the directions of Yuri Andropov, the KGB invented the concept of "nuclear winter" in order to stop the deployment of NATO Pershing II missiles. They are said to have distributed to peace groups, the environmental movement and the journal "Ambio" disinformation based on a faked "doomsday report" by the Soviet Academy of Sciences by Georgii Golitsyn, Nikita Moiseyev and Vladimir Alexandrov concerning the climatic effects of nuclear war. Although it is accepted that the Soviet Union exploited the nuclear winter hypothesis for propaganda purposes, Tretyakov's inherent claim that the KGB funnelled disinformation to "Ambio", the journal in which Paul Crutzen and John Birks published the 1982 paper "Twilight at Noon", has not been corroborated . In an interview in 2009 conducted by the National Security Archive, Vitalii Nikolaevich Tsygichko (a Senior Analyst at the Soviet Academy of Sciences and military mathematical modeler) stated that Soviet military analysts were discussing the idea of "nuclear winter" years before U.S. scientists, although they did not use that exact term.


title: Nuclear winter

text: A number of solutions have been proposed to mitigate the potential harm of a nuclear winter if one appears inevitable. The problem has been attacked at both ends; some solutions focus on preventing the growth of fires and therefore limiting the amount of smoke that reaches the stratosphere in the first place, and others focus on food production with reduced sunlight, with the assumption that the very worst-case analysis results of the nuclear winter models prove accurate and no other mitigation strategies are fielded.


title: Nuclear winter

text: In a report from 1967, techniques included various methods of applying liquid nitrogen, dry ice, and water to nuclear-caused fires. The report considered attempting to stop the spread of fires by creating firebreaks by blasting combustible material out of an area, possibly even using nuclear weapons, along with the use of preventative Hazard Reduction Burns. According to the report, one of the most promising techniques investigated was initiation of rain from seeding of mass-fire thunderheads and other clouds passing over the developing, and then stable, firestorm.


title: Nuclear winter

text: In the book "Feeding Everyone No Matter What", under the worst-case scenario predictions of nuclear winter, the authors present various unconventional food possibilities. These include natural-gas-digesting bacteria, the most well known being Methylococcus capsulatus, that is presently used as a feed in fish farming; bark bread, a long-standing famine food utilizing the edible inner bark of trees and part of Scandinavian history during the Little Ice Age; increased fungiculture or mushrooms such as the honey fungi that grow directly on moist wood without sunlight; and variations of wood or cellulosic biofuel production, which typically already creates edible sugars/xylitol from inedible cellulose, as an intermediate product before the final step of alcohol generation. One of the book's authors, mechanical engineer David Denkenberger, states that mushrooms could theoretically feed everyone for three years. Seaweed, like mushrooms, can also grow in low-light conditions. Dandelions and tree needles could provide Vitamin C, and bacteria could provide Vitamin E. More conventional cold-weather crops such as potatoes might get sufficient sunlight at the equator to remain feasible.


title: Nuclear winter

text: To feed portions of civilization through a nuclear winter, large stockpiles of food storage prior to the event would have to be accomplished. Such stockpiles should be placed underground, at higher elevations and near the equator to mitigate high altitude UV and radioactive isotopes. Stockpiles should also be placed near populations most likely to survive the initial catastrophe. One consideration is who would sponsor the stockpiling. "There may be a mismatch between those most able to sponsor the stockpiles (i.e., the pre-catastrophe wealthy) and those most able to use the stockpiles (the pre-catastrophe rural poor)." The minimum annual global wheat storage is approximately 2 months.


title: Nuclear winter

text: Despite the name "nuclear winter", nuclear events are not necessary to produce the modeled climatic effect. In an effort to find a quick and cheap solution to the global warming projection of at least 2 ˚C of surface warming as a result of the doubling in CO levels within the atmosphere, through solar radiation management (a form of climate engineering) the underlying nuclear winter effect has been looked at as perhaps holding potential. Besides the more common suggestion to inject sulfur compounds into the stratosphere to approximate the effects of a volcanic winter, the injection of other chemical species such as the release of a particular type of soot particle to create minor "nuclear winter" conditions, has been proposed by Paul Crutzen and others. According to the threshold "nuclear winter" computer models, if one to five teragrams of firestorm-generated soot is injected into the low stratosphere, it is modeled, through the anti-greenhouse effect, to heat the stratosphere but cool the lower troposphere and produce 1.25 °C cooling for two to three years; and after 10 years, average global temperatures would still be 0.5 °C lower than before the soot injection.


title: Nuclear winter

text: Similar climatic effects to "nuclear winter" followed historical supervolcano eruptions, which plumed sulfate aerosols high into the stratosphere, with this being known as a volcanic winter. The effects of smoke in the atmosphere (short wave absorption) are sometimes termed an "antigreenhouse" effect, and a strong analog is the hazy atmosphere of Titan. Pollack, Toon and others were involved in developing models of Titan's climate in the late 1980s, at the same time as their early nuclear winter studies.


title: Nuclear winter

text: Similarly, extinction-level comet and asteroid impacts are also believed to have generated impact winters by the pulverization of massive amounts of fine rock dust. This pulverized rock can also produce "volcanic winter" effects, if sulfate-bearing rock is hit in the impact and lofted high into the air, and "nuclear winter" effects, with the heat of the heavier rock ejecta igniting regional and possibly even global forest firestorms.


title: Nuclear winter

text: This global "impact firestorms" hypothesis, initially supported by Wendy Wolbach, H. Jay Melosh and Owen Toon, suggests that as a result of massive impact events, the small sand-grain-sized ejecta fragments created can meteorically re-enter the atmosphere forming a hot blanket of global debris high in the air, potentially turning the entire sky red-hot for minutes to hours, and with that, burning the complete global inventory of above-ground carbonaceous material, including rain forests. This hypothesis is suggested as a means to explain the severity of the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event, as the earth impact of an asteroid about 10 km wide which precipitated the extinction is not regarded as sufficiently energetic to have caused the level of extinction from the initial impact's energy release alone.


title: Nuclear winter

text: The global firestorm winter, however, has been questioned in more recent years (2003–2013) by Claire Belcher, Tamara Goldin and Melosh, who had initially supported the hypothesis, with this re-evaluation being dubbed the "Cretaceous-Palaeogene firestorm debate" by Belcher.


title: Nuclear winter

text: The issues raised by these scientists in the debate are the perceived low quantity of soot in the sediment beside the fine-grained iridium-rich asteroid dust layer, if the quantity of re-entering ejecta was perfectly global in blanketing the atmosphere, and if so, the duration and profile of the re-entry heating, whether it was a high thermal pulse of heat or the more prolonged and therefore more incendiary "oven" heating, and finally, how much the "self-shielding effect" from the first wave of now-cooled meteors in dark flight contributed to diminishing the total heat experienced on the ground from later waves of meteors.


title: Nuclear winter

text: In part due to the Cretaceous period being a high-atmospheric-oxygen era, with concentrations above that of the present day, Owen Toon et al. in 2013 were critical of the re-evaluations the hypothesis is undergoing.


title: Nuclear winter

text: It is difficult to successfully ascertain the percentage contribution of the soot in this period's geological sediment record from living plants and fossil fuels present at the time, in much the same manner that the fraction of the material ignited directly by the meteor impact is difficult to determine.


title: Social contract

text: In moral and political philosophy, the social contract is a theory or model that originated during the Age of Enlightenment and usually, although not always, concerns the legitimacy of the authority of the state over the individual.


title: Social contract

text: Social contract arguments typically are that individuals have consented, either explicitly or tacitly, to surrender some of their freedoms and submit to the authority (of the ruler, or to the decision of a majority) in exchange for protection of their remaining rights or maintenance of the social order.<ref name="https://www.iep.utm.edu/soc-cont/"></ref> The relation between natural and legal rights is often a topic of social contract theory. The term takes its name from "The Social Contract" (French: "Du contrat social ou Principes du droit politique"), a 1762 book by Jean-Jacques Rousseau that discussed this concept. Although the antecedents of social contract theory are found in antiquity, in Greek and Stoic philosophy and Roman and Canon Law, the heyday of the social contract was the mid-17th to early 19th centuries, when it emerged as the leading doctrine of political legitimacy.


title: Social contract

text: The starting point for most social contract theories is an examination of the human condition absent of any political order (termed the "state of nature" by Thomas Hobbes). In this condition, individuals' actions are bound only by their personal power and conscience. From this shared starting point, social contract theorists seek to demonstrate why rational individuals would voluntarily consent to give up their natural freedom to obtain the benefits of political order.


title: Social contract

text: Prominent 17th- and 18th-century theorists of the social contract and natural rights included Hugo de Groot (1625), Thomas Hobbes (1651), Samuel von Pufendorf (1673), John Locke (1689), Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1762) and Immanuel Kant (1797), each approaching the concept of political authority differently. Grotius posited that individual humans had natural rights.


title: Social contract

text: Thomas Hobbes famously said that in a "state of nature", human life would be "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short". In the absence of political order and law, everyone would have unlimited natural freedoms, including the "right to all things" and thus the freedom to plunder, rape and murder; there would be an endless "war of all against all" ("bellum omnium contra omnes"). To avoid this, free men contract with each other to establish political community (civil society) through a social contract in which they all gain security in return for subjecting themselves to an absolute sovereign, one man or an assembly of men. Though the sovereign's edicts may well be arbitrary and tyrannical, Hobbes saw absolute government as the only alternative to the terrifying anarchy of a state of nature. Hobbes asserted that humans consent to abdicate their rights in favor of the absolute authority of government (whether monarchical or parliamentary).


title: Social contract

text: Alternatively, Locke and Rousseau argued that we gain civil rights in return for accepting the obligation to respect and defend the rights of others, giving up some freedoms to do so.


title: Social contract

text: The central assertion that social contract theory approaches is that law and political order are not natural, but human creations. The social contract and the political order it creates are simply the means towards an end—the benefit of the individuals involved—and legitimate only to the extent that they fulfill their part of the agreement. Hobbes argued that government is not a party to the original contract and citizens are not obligated to submit to the government when it is too weak to act effectively to suppress factionalism and civil unrest.


title: Social contract

text: According to other social contract theorists, when the government fails to secure their natural rights (Locke) or satisfy the best interests of society (called the "general will" by Rousseau), citizens can withdraw their obligation to obey or change the leadership through elections or other means including, when necessary, violence. Locke believed that natural rights were inalienable, and therefore the rule of God superseded government authority, while Rousseau believed that democracy (majority-rule) was the best way to ensure welfare while maintaining individual freedom under the rule of law. The Lockean concept of the social contract was invoked in the United States Declaration of Independence.


title: Social contract

text: Social contract theories were eclipsed in the 19thcentury in favor of utilitarianism, Hegelianism and Marxism; they were revived in the 20thcentury, notably in the form of a thought experiment by John Rawls.


title: Social contract

text: There is a general form of social contract theories, which is: "I" chooses "R" in "M" and this gives "I*" reason to endorse and comply with "R" in the real world insofar as the reasons "I" has for choosing "R" in "M" are (or can be) shared by "I*."With "M" being the deliberative setting; "R" rules, principles or institutions; "I" the (hypothetical) people in original position or state of nature making the social contract; and "I*" being the individuals in the real world following the social contract.


title: Social contract

text: The concept of the social contract was originally posed by Glaucon, as described by Plato in "The Republic", BookII.


title: Social contract

text: The social contract theory also appears in "Crito", another dialogue from Plato. Over time, the social contract theory became more widespread after Epicurus (341-270 BC), the first philosopher who saw justice as a social contract, and not as existing in Nature due to divine intervention (see below and also Epicurean ethics), decided to bring the theory to the forefront of his society. As time went on, philosophers of traditional political and social thought, such as Locke, Hobbes, and Rousseau put forward their opinions on social contract, which then caused the topic to become much more mainstream.


title: Social contract

text: Social contract formulations are preserved in many of the world's oldest records. The Indian Buddhist text of the second century BCE, Mahāvastu, recounts the legend of Mahasammata. The story goes as follows:


title: Social contract

text: In his rock edicts, the Indian Buddhist king Asoka was said to have argued for a broad and far-reaching social contract. The Buddhist "vinaya" also reflects social contracts expected of the monks; one such instance is when the people of a certain town complained about monks felling saka trees, the Buddha tells his monks that they must stop and give way to social norms.


title: Social contract

text: Epicurus in the fourth century BCE seemed to have had a strong sense of social contract, with justice and law being rooted in mutual agreement and advantage, as evidenced by these lines, among others, from his "Principal Doctrines" (see also Epicurean ethics):


title: Social contract

text: Quentin Skinner has argued that several critical modern innovations in contract theory are found in the writings from French Calvinists and Huguenots, whose work in turn was invoked by writers in the Low Countries who objected to their subjection to Spain and, later still, by Catholics in England. Francisco Suárez (1548–1617), from the School of Salamanca, might be considered an early theorist of the social contract, theorizing natural law in an attempt to limit the divine right of absolute monarchy. All of these groups were led to articulate notions of popular sovereignty by means of a social covenant or contract, and all of these arguments began with proto-"state of nature" arguments, to the effect that the basis of politics is that everyone is by nature free of subjection to any government.


title: Social contract

text: These arguments, however, relied on a corporatist theory found in Roman law, according to which "a populus" can exist as a distinct legal entity. Thus, these arguments held that a group of people can join a government because it has the capacity to exercise a single will and make decisions with a single voice in the absence of sovereign authority—a notion rejected by Hobbes and later contract theorists.


title: Social contract

text: The first modern philosopher to articulate a detailed contract theory was Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679). According to Hobbes, the lives of individuals in the state of nature were "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short", a state in which self-interest and the absence of rights and contracts prevented the "social", or society. Life was "anarchic" (without leadership or the concept of sovereignty). Individuals in the state of nature were apolitical and asocial. This state of nature is followed by the social contract.


title: Social contract

text: The social contract was seen as an "occurrence" during which individuals came together and ceded some of their individual rights so that others would cede theirs. This resulted in the establishment of the state, a sovereign entity like the individuals now under its rule used to be, which would create laws to regulate social interactions. Human life was thus no longer "a war of all against all".


title: Social contract

text: The state system, which grew out of the social contract, was, however, also anarchic (without leadership). Just as the individuals in the state of nature had been sovereigns and thus guided by self-interest and the absence of rights, so states now acted in their self-interest in competition with each other. Just like the state of nature, states were thus bound to be in conflict because there was no sovereign over and above the state (more powerful) capable of imposing some system such as social-contract laws on everyone by force. Indeed, Hobbes' work helped to serve as a basis for the realism theories of international relations, advanced by E. H. Carr and Hans Morgenthau. Hobbes wrote in "Leviathan" that humans ("we") need the "terrour of some Power" otherwise humans will not heed the law of reciprocity, "(in summe) doing to others, as wee would be done to".


title: Social contract

text: John Locke's conception of the social contract differed from Hobbes' in several fundamental ways, retaining only the central notion that persons in a state of nature would willingly come together to form a state. Locke believed that individuals in a state of nature would be bound morally, by the Law of Nature, in which man has the "power... to preserve his property; that is, his life, liberty and estate against the injuries and attempts of other men". Without government to defend them against those seeking to injure or enslave them, Locke further believed people would have no security in their rights and would live in fear. Individuals, to Locke, would only agree to form a state that would provide, in part, a "neutral judge", acting to protect the lives, liberty, and property of those who lived within it.


title: Social contract

text: While Hobbes argued for near-absolute authority, Locke argued for inviolate freedom under law in his "Second Treatise of Government". Locke argued that a government's legitimacy comes from the citizens' delegation to the government of their absolute right of violence (reserving the inalienable right of self-defense or "self-preservation"), along with elements of other rights (e.g. property will be liable to taxation) as necessary to achieve the goal of security through granting the state a monopoly of violence, whereby the government, as an impartial judge, may use the collective force of the populace to administer and enforce the law, rather than each man acting as his own judge, jury, and executioner—the condition in the state of nature.


title: Social contract

text: Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778), in his influential 1762 treatise The Social Contract, outlined a different version of social-contract theory, as the foundations of society based on the sovereignty of the ‘general will’.


title: Social contract

text: Rousseau's political theory differs in important ways from that of Locke and Hobbes. Rousseau's collectivist conception is most evident in his development of the "luminous conception" (which he credited to Denis Diderot) of the ‘general will’. Summarised, the ‘general will’ is the power of all the citizens' collective interest - not to be confused with their individual interests.


title: Social contract

text: Although Rousseau wrote that the British were perhaps at the time the freest people on earth, he did not approve of their representative government, nor any form of representative government. Rousseau believed that society was only legitimate when the sovereign (i.e. the ‘general will’) were the sole legislators. He also stated that the individual must accept “the total alienation to the whole community of each associate with all his rights”. In short, Rousseau meant that in order for the social contract to work, individuals "must" forfeit their rights to the whole so that such conditions were “equal for all".


title: Social contract

text: Rousseau's striking phrase that man must "be forced to be free" should be understood this way: since the indivisible and inalienable popular sovereignty decides what is good for the whole, if an individual rejects this "civil liberty" in place of "natural liberty" and self interest, disobeying the law, he will be forced to listen to what was decided when the people acted as a collective (as citizens). Thus the law, inasmuch as it is created by the people acting as a body, is not a limitation of individual freedom, but rather its expression. The individual, as a citizen, explicitly agreed to be constrained if, as a private individual, he did not respect his own will as formulated in the general will.


title: Social contract

text: Because laws represent the restraint of "natural liberty", they represent the leap made from humans in the state of nature into civil society. In this sense, the law is a civilizing force. Therefore Rousseau believed that the laws that govern a people help to mould their character.


title: Social contract

text: While Rousseau's social contract is based on popular sovereignty and not on individual sovereignty, there are other theories espoused by individualists, libertarians, and anarchists that do not involve agreeing to anything more than negative rights and creates only a limited state, if any.


title: Social contract

text: Pierre-Joseph Proudhon (1809–1865) advocated a conception of social contract that did not involve an individual surrendering sovereignty to others. According to him, the social contract was not between individuals and the state, but rather among individuals who refrain from coercing or governing each other, each one maintaining complete sovereignty upon him- or herself:


title: Social contract

text: Building on the work of Immanuel Kant with its presumption of limits on the state, John Rawls (1921–2002), in "A Theory of Justice" (1971), proposed a contractarian approach whereby rational people in a hypothetical "original position" would set aside their individual preferences and capacities under a "veil of ignorance" and agree to certain general principles of justice and legal organization. This idea is also used as a game-theoretical formalization of the notion of fairness.


title: Social contract

text: David Gauthier "neo-Hobbesian" theory argues that cooperation between two independent and self-interested parties is indeed possible, especially when it comes to understanding morality and politics. Gauthier notably points out the advantages of cooperation between two parties when it comes to the challenge of the prisoner's dilemma. He proposes that, if two parties were to stick to the original agreed-upon arrangement and morals outlined by the contract, they would both experience an optimal result. In his model for the social contract, factors including trust, rationality, and self-interest keep each party honest and dissuade them from breaking the rules.


title: Social contract

text: Philip Pettit (b. 1945) has argued, in "Republicanism: A Theory of Freedom and Government" (1997), that the theory of social contract, classically based on the consent of the governed, should be modified. Instead of arguing for explicit consent, which can always be manufactured, Pettit argues that the absence of an effective rebellion against it is a contract's only legitimacy.


title: Social contract

text: An early critic of social contract theory was Rousseau's friend, the philosopher David Hume, who in 1742 published an essay "Of Civil Liberty". The second part of this essay, entitled "Of the Original Contract", stresses that the concept of a "social contract" is a convenient fiction:


title: Social contract

text: Hume argued that consent of the governed was the ideal foundation on which a government should rest, but that it had not actually occurred this way in general.


title: Social contract

text: Legal scholar Randy Barnett has argued that, while presence in the territory of a society may be necessary for consent, this does not constitute consent to "all" rules the society might make regardless of their content. A second condition of consent is that the rules be consistent with underlying principles of justice and the protection of natural and social rights, and have procedures for effective protection of those rights (or liberties). This has also been discussed by O.A. Brownson, who argued that, in a sense, three "constitutions" are involved: first, the "constitution of nature" that includes all of what the Founders called "natural law"; second, the "constitution of society", an unwritten and commonly understood set of rules for the society formed by a social contract before it establishes a government, by which it does establish the third, a "constitution of government". To consent, a necessary condition is that the rules be "constitutional" in that sense.


title: Social contract

text: The theory of an implicit social contract holds that by remaining in the territory controlled by some society, which usually has a government, people give consent to join that society and be governed by its government if any. This consent is what gives legitimacy to such a government.


title: Social contract

text: Other writers have argued that consent to join the society is not necessarily consent to its government. For that, the government must be set up according to a constitution of government that is consistent with the superior unwritten constitutions of nature and society.


title: Social contract

text: The theory of an implicit social contract also goes under the principles of explicit consent. The main difference between tacit consent and explicit consent is that explicit consent is meant to leave no room for misinterpretation. Moreover, you should directly state what it is that you want and the person has to respond in a concise manner that either confirms or denies the proposition.


title: Social contract

text: According to the will theory of contract, a contract is not presumed valid unless all parties voluntarily agree to it, either tacitly or explicitly, without coercion. Lysander Spooner, a 19th-century lawyer who argued before the Supreme Court and staunch supporter of a right of contract between individuals, argued in his essay "No Treason" that a supposed social contract cannot be used to justify governmental actions such as taxation because government will initiate force against anyone who does not wish to enter into such a contract. As a result, he maintains that such an agreement is not voluntary and therefore cannot be considered a legitimate contract at all. An abolitionist, he made similar arguments about the unconstitutionality of slavery in the US.


title: Social contract

text: Modern Anglo-American law, like European civil law, is based on a will theory of contract, according to which all terms of a contract are binding on the parties because they chose those terms for themselves. This was less true when Hobbes wrote "Leviathan"; at that time more importance was attached to consideration, meaning a mutual exchange of benefits necessary to the formation of a valid contract, and most contracts had implicit terms that arose from the nature of the contractual relationship rather than from the choices made by the parties. Accordingly, it has been argued that social contract theory is more consistent with the contract law of the time of Hobbes and Locke than with the contract law of our time and that certain features in the social contract which seem anomalous to us, such as the belief that we are bound by a contract formulated by our distant ancestors, would not have seemed as strange to Hobbes' contemporaries as they do to us.


title: Mojito

text: Mojito (; ) is a traditional Cuban punch. The cocktail often consists of five ingredients: white rum, sugar (traditionally sugar cane juice), lime juice, soda water, and mint. Its combination of sweetness, citrus, and herbaceous mint flavors is intended to complement the rum, and has made the mojito a popular summer drink.


title: Mojito

text: When preparing a mojito, fresh lime juice is added to sugar (or to simple syrup) and mint leaves. The mixture is then gently mashed with a muddler. The mint leaves should only be bruised to release the essential oils and should not be shredded. Then rum is added and the mixture is briefly stirred to dissolve the sugar and to lift the mint leaves up from the bottom for better presentation. Finally, the drink is topped with crushed ice and sparkling soda water. Mint leaves and lime wedges are used to garnish the glass.


title: Mojito

text: In Cuba, the mint used to make mojito is most commonly Mentha × villosa (called Yerba Buena or Hierbabuena in Cuba) which has a light minty/citrus aroma, but outside of Cuba spearmint is often used which has a stronger mint aroma.


title: Mojito

text: Havana, Cuba, is the birthplace of the mojito, although its exact origin is the subject of debate. It was known that the local South American Indians had remedies for various tropical illnesses, so a small boarding party went ashore on Cuba and came back with ingredients for an effective medicine. The ingredients were "aguardiente de caña" (translated as "burning water", a crude form of rum made from sugar cane) mixed with local tropical ingredients: lime, sugarcane juice, and mint. Lime juice on its own would have significantly prevented scurvy and dysentery, and tafia/rum was soon added as it became widely available to the British (ca. 1650). Mint, lime and sugar were also helpful in hiding the harsh taste of this spirit. Another theory is that it was invented by Sir Francis Drake. The "El Draque" cocktail was prepared with brandy. While this drink was not called a mojito at this time, it was the original combination of these ingredients.


title: Mojito

text: Some historians contend that African slaves who worked in the Cuban sugar cane fields during the 19th century were instrumental in the cocktail's origin. Guarapo, the sugar cane juice often used in mojitos, was a popular drink among the slaves who named it. It never originally contained lime juice.


title: Mojito

text: There are several theories behind the origin of the name "mojito": one such theory holds that name relates to mojo, a Cuban seasoning made from lime and used to flavor dishes. Another theory is that the name Mojito is simply a derivative of "mojadito" (Spanish for "lightly wet"), the diminutive of "mojado" ("wet").


title: Mojito

text: The mojito has routinely been presented as a favorite drink of author Ernest Hemingway. It has also often been said that Hemingway made the bar called La Bodeguita del Medio famous when he became one of its regulars and wrote "My mojito in La Bodeguita, My daiquiri in El Floridita" on a wall of the bar. This epigraph, handwritten and signed in his name, persists despite doubts expressed by Hemingway biographers about such patronage and the author's taste for mojitos. La Bodeguita del Medio is better known for its food than its drink.


title: Mojito

text: A survey by an international market research company found that in 2016 the mojito was the most popular cocktail in Britain and France.


title: Mojito

text: Many hotels in Havana also add Angostura bitters to cut the sweetness of the mojito. Powdered sugar is often muddled with the mint leaves rather than granulated sugar as the former dissolves more readily, while many establishments use simple syrup instead. The "rose mojito", which is a mojito variation containing the rose-flavored spirit, Lanique, was first created at the Albert's Schloss bar in Manchester, England. A mojito without alcohol is called a "virgin mojito" or "nojito". The Cojito adds coconut flavor, often through the use of coconut-flavored rum. A dirty mojito calls for gold rum instead of white rum and to use raw sugar or demerara sugar. Demerara is a light brown, partially refined, sugar produced from the first crystallization during processing cane juice into sugar crystals. Adding this to a mojito gives it a caramel-like flavor. A dark rum mojito simply calls for a dark rum to be used instead of white.


title: Mojito

text: In Peru, there are mojito variations that are made by adding fruits like grapefruit, called "mojito de toronja", or with passionfruit, called "mojito de maracuyá". Many restaurants serve them, and these added ingredients enhance the cocktail and its original flavor. Some other fruits are found in other mojito recipes: pears, raspberries, and oranges. Purees of such fruits may also be used instead of the whole fruit itself. The strawberry mojito includes muddled strawberries; a further departure along these lines substitutes gin for the light rum and lemon juice for lime juice, and adds tonic.


title: Jacksepticeye

text: Seán William McLoughlin (born 7 February 1990), better known as Jacksepticeye, is an Irish YouTuber, best known for his vlogs and comedic Let's Play series. , his channel has over 15.7 billion views and 28.9 million subscribers, and is the most-subscribed Irish channel. He is the co-founder of the clothing brand Cloak, along with fellow YouTuber Markiplier, and the founder and owner of the Top of The Mornin' Coffee company. He has participated in fundraisers that have raised tens of millions for charity.


title: Jacksepticeye

text: Seán William McLoughlin was born on 7 February 1990 in Cloghan, County Offaly, Ireland, the youngest of five children to John ( 1936 – 27 January 2021) and Florrie McLoughlin. He was raised in Cloghan and also lived for a time in Banagher. His father worked for the ESB and his mother worked a number of jobs before becoming a carer for his grandmother. McLoughlin began playing video games at the age of seven, and as a child he spent time playing on the Nintendo Game Boy in a neighbourhood treehouse, later describing how he found a sense of belonging in the games. He was given his "Jack Septic Eye" nickname after a childhood accident during a football match in which he injured his eye.


title: Jacksepticeye

text: When he was 18, McLoughlin and his family moved to a cabin in Ballycumber. McLoughlin studied music technology and production at Limerick Institute of Technology. In the third year of the degree, McLoughlin decided to drop out and return home to Ballycumber. He then moved to an apartment in Athlone, County Westmeath in 2014, where he studied hotel management at Athlone Institute of Technology, earning a Bachelor of Arts degree. He lived in Athlone until 2017, when he moved to Brighton, England. Among the reasons for the move were the city's strong LGBTQ and vegan communities, and concerns about personal privacy after fans found his home in Athlone.


title: Jacksepticeye

text: McLoughlin started uploading videos to YouTube under the name "jacksepticeye" in December 2012, initially doing voice impressions before switching to making gameplay content. In 2013, he was mentioned in a PewDiePie video, causing him to go from 2,500 subscribers to 15,000 in four days. Due to the success of his channel, McLoughlin was able to make it his full-time job by May 2014. That July, his channel had over 57 million views, having 800,000 subscribers at the time, and by August of the same year he had hit a million subscribers. By February 2015, the channel had reached one billion views and 3.2 million subscribers. The following year he gained another six million subscribers. In January 2016, he was one of the initial YouTubers signed under PewDiePie's multi-channel network, Revelmode. That year, he co-hosted South by Southwest's annual SXSW Gaming Awards.


title: Jacksepticeye

text: McLoughlin co-starred as the antagonist in the second season of the YouTube Red show "Scare PewDiePie". Initially planned to premiere on 9 March 2017, the season was cancelled prior to release and the use of anti-semitic imagery on his channel. On 18 February 2017, McLoughlin released a video called "Let's Talk!" to his YouTube channel, which discussed PewDiePie being cut from Maker Studios as a result of the controversy. In it, he clarified that although he had tweeted in support of PewDiePie, he did not condone his actions and believed that he should have been more apologetic in response to the controversy. McLoughlin stated, "You can still be friends with someone but not agree with something they do. I don't think the world is that black-and-white." However, the next day he tweeted that he regretted focusing on criticising PewDiePie in the video, saying that he had been "naive". In a Tumblr post, he said his main regret was not commenting on the mainstream media's reporting of the controversy stating that "there were some unethical practices at play with the media, a lot of misquoting and misrepresentation." Following the controversy, it was confirmed that the Revelmode network had been shut down by Disney. Subsequently, McLoughlin was signed under the Disney Digital Network.


title: Jacksepticeye

text: In June 2017, Polaris, a division of The Walt Disney Company, announced that McLoughlin would be featured in the series "Polaris: Player Select" on the television channel Disney XD as part of a new programming block for the channel called "D | XP". Later that year, McLoughlin was featured on the RTÉ 2 two-part documentary "Ireland's Rich List" as one of the "top 30 earners under the age of 30", leading to him receiving a wide coverage in the Irish media and a greater exposure to people in the country who had not seen his YouTube content. In September, he was included in "Forbes"' list of the Top Gaming Influencers of 2017. McLoughlin toured throughout September–October 2017, in the US with his "How Did We Get Here" tour, and later in the UK and Europe with the "Game Grumps" on their "Ready Player 3" tour. In January 2018, it was announced McLoughlin would produce exclusive content for livestreaming platform Twitch as part of a multi-year deal with Disney's Digital Network. That February, McLoughlin released dates for a US and Canada run of the "How Did We Get Here" tour. In July, he performed the "How Did We Get Here" show at the Just for Laughs comedy festival in Montreal. That year, he was estimated to be the eighth highest-paid YouTuber by "Forbes", with an estimated earnings of $16 million.


title: Jacksepticeye

text: In January 2019, McLoughlin signed with the talent agency WME and later that year signed with the multi-channel network Studio71. In October 2019, McLoughlin appeared at the Metarama Gaming + Music Festival alongside acts such as Marshmello, Logic, Ninja, and Overwatch League players. He was estimated by "Forbes" to be the eighth highest-paid gamer of 2019, with estimated earnings of $11 million. He was also the third most talked about gaming personality of the year on Twitter. In 2020, McLoughlin participated in Summer Game Fest, an event that ran from May to August following the cancellation of E3 2020. That October, McLoughlin announced that he would be featured in the movie "Free Guy" starring Ryan Reynolds, which was released in August 2021. Previously, Reynolds had appeared in a video of McLoughlin's in which they played the video game "Deadpool" together. McLoughlin later revealed that he had also provided advice to the director Shawn Levy on how to make the film authentic to video game culture. McLoughlin was featured on the 2020 Forbes 30 Under 30 list.


title: Jacksepticeye

text: In July 2021, McLoughlin released a short film entitled "15 MONTHS" to his YouTube channel which "Polygon" described as "a moody and atmospheric exploration of his time during the pandemic". Later that year he signed with the talent agency CAA. According to research done by consumer electronics retailer Currys, McLoughlin was the 6th most popular gaming streamer of 2021. In February 2022, McLoughlin announced that a biographical documentary entitled "How Did We Get Here?" would premiere on 28 February on Moment House, a platform that allows creators to offer ticketed online events. The documentary covers McLoughlin's life from his childhood to his career as a YouTube personality, and includes footage from his tour of the same name. The documentary was then released in coordination with Shout! Factory to video on demand platforms such as iTunes in March 2022 where it reached 29th on the US iTunes chart and 9th on the UK iTunes chart. In July 2022 episode of the "Trash Taste" podcast, McLoughlin said that he would likely not continue streaming on Twitch because he wanted to focus more on his edited YouTube content. In September, McLoughlin was included in "Forbes"' Top Creators 2022 list at number 15.


title: Jacksepticeye

text: McLoughlin's YouTube content consists mainly of Let's Plays, as well as comedy gaming videos and vlogs. According to "TheJournal.ie", the games that McLoughlin plays on his channel are "a mixture of both conventional and weird titles". His content also commonly features collaborations with other popular YouTubers, particularly Markiplier and PewDiePie who are both close friends with McLoughlin. As well as YouTubers, McLoughlin's channel has also featured traditional celebrities, including interviews with Jack Black, Karen Gillan, Tom Holland, Dwayne Johnson, Kevin Hart, Brad Pitt, Chris Hemsworth and Margot Robbie. Other content that regularly appears on his channel includes comedy sketches, short films, charity livestreams and Q&A sessions. Each of his videos begins with an intro in which he gives a high five to the camera and says "Top of the morning to ya, laddies". He chose to use a stereotypical catchphrase for his intro to express his Irish identity to viewers of his videos, wearing a flat cap for the same reason. He has speculated that his Irish identity and accent has contributed to his success, saying that "[w]hen some young lad comes around and he starts screaming in an Irish accent and swearing, it's like people getting their own Irish drug". His videos also all end with a catchphrase encouraging his audience to "punch the 'like' button in the face, like a boss!" Another theme that is present throughout McLoughlin's content is the colour green which represents his Irish heritage and is present in his YouTube logo Septic Eye Sam.


title: Jacksepticeye

text: McLoughlin's videos are highly edited. They feature commentary in response to the games he plays which is improvised rather than being pre-planned, incorporating humour, funny voices, laughter and swearing. His commentary has been described as "genuine" and "authentic" by "TheJournal.ie", and as composed of "talking-head, stream-of-consciousness comedy" by the "Star Tribune". He calls himself the "most energetic video-game commentator on YouTube", and has described his content as an "assault on the senses" that people "either love or hate". In an interview with the "Irish Independent", he described the format of his videos as him playing and talking over video games with a lot of swearing. He has cited his use of swearing as a key aspect to his success saying, "There's lots of swearing. The more you swear the better. People react very positively to that apparently." He has also said that his success is due to "an overall package of a lot of things; energy, positivity, honesty, and consistency." McLoughlin has claimed that an inclusive community is an important part of the jacksepticeye channel, stating, "One of the main things I wanted to do on YouTube is to keep people together." McLoughlin has encouraged positivity online with the slogan "positive mental attitude", utilising the phrase in videos, campaigns and merchandising.


title: Jacksepticeye

text: Elements of Gothic storytelling have been identified in McLoughlin's Let's Plays of horror games and in the character of Antisepticeye which is played by McLoughlin as an evil presence on the channel. The character originated from the fandom of Markiplier in response to a similar character on his channel called Darkiplier. The presentation of the Antisepticeye character also utilises fan participation via direct addresses to the audience and interaction between the character and audience members on social media websites such as Twitter. McLoughlin's audience also engages with his content in the form of creating fan fiction.


title: Jacksepticeye

text: For the first five years of his career, McLoughlin uploaded two videos per day, later reducing the amount to one per day. In July 2018, McLoughlin announced in a video uploaded to his YouTube channel that he would be taking his first short break from uploading to his channel, which he had uploaded daily videos to for the previous five years, citing struggles with his mental health and burnout. The video was among a wave of videos released at the time by various online content creators that focused on creator burnout and was praised by fellow YouTuber Shane Dawson who said that he had felt similar feelings. In the following years, he continued to be vocal about overwork and burnout and took multiple more breaks from uploading to his channel. In July 2020, he took a break from uploading until August, saying that he was exhausted from his uploading schedule and that he would no longer upload daily videos when he returned to making content. His first video upon his return to YouTube was viewed over 2 million times in its first day and became the top trending clip on YouTube. In January 2021, McLoughlin took a break from recording and streaming due to personal grief following the death of his father. In July 2021, McLoughlin took another break from releasing videos to his channel which lasted over a month, saying in an interview with "Polygon" "I feel like I’ve done it so often for so long that I just burnt myself out on it. I feel like if I’m not putting the energy that I’m known for; the energy that I like to put into my content, then I’d rather just take a step back from it and do something else."


title: Jacksepticeye

text: In October 2018, McLoughlin posted a video announcing Cloak, a clothing brand aimed at gamers which he created with Markiplier. Items were available for preorder at the time of upload, and the brand officially launched the following month. In June 2020, Cloak welcomed the Twitch streamer Pokimane as a third partner and creative director for the brand. The brand has created special edition collections in collaboration with various franchises and internet personalities including Pokimane, "Minecraft Dungeons", "Five Nights at Freddy's", and Rhett & Link. The brand usually donates a percentage of its sales revenue to charities, and has raised money for the World Health Organization's COVID-19 Solidarity Response Fund and The Trevor Project in this way. In a tweet posted in May 2020, McLoughlin teased that he would be launching a coffee company. On June 15, 2020, he officially announced that he was indeed launching his own coffee company, named Top of The Mornin' Coffee, and that it would start its pre-orders on the same day. He also announced that the website had partnered with the Feya Foundation, a charity aimed at combating world hunger. In addition to his YouTube content, McLoughlin also produces short-form videos for TikTok.


title: Jacksepticeye

text: "Business Insider" has called McLoughlin "one of YouTube's most prolific philanthropists". In 2019, he was presented with a Humanitarian Stream Team award by Save the Children for his fundraising work with them. In 2021, he was named one of Junior Chamber International Ireland's "Ten Outstanding Young Persons" for raising over $6 million for charity between 2017 and 2021. In 2022, he won Best Philanthropic Streamer at The Streamer Awards.


title: Jacksepticeye

text: In December 2016, McLoughlin was a part of the Revelmode charity holiday livestream #Cringemas, with PewDiePie, Markiplier, Emma Blackery and PJ Liguori. The group raised over $1.3 million under the hashtag #EndAIDS, with matching donations from the Gates Foundation and YouTube. In December 2017, McLoughlin hosted two charity streams with Blackery and Liguori to raise money for Save The Children, raising over $260,000 for the charity.


title: Jacksepticeye

text: Throughout 2018, McLoughlin hosted various fundraiser livestreams for charities such as the American Foundation for Suicide Prevention, the Depression and Bipolar Support Alliance, GameChanger and AbleGamers, charities which support ill and disabled gamers, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, and Crisis Text Line, raising a total of over $1 million for charities that year. McLoughlin's Crisis Text Line fundraising stream was held in December and titled "Thankmas", a title that he would go on to use for subsequent annual December charity streams leading up to Christmas.


title: Jacksepticeye

text: In January 2019, McLoughlin hosted a livestream which raised over $100,000 for the Make-A-Wish Foundation. In March 2019, McLoughlin headlined a livestream, raising over $100,000. In May 2019, McLoughlin hosted a fundraising stream for Red Nose Day 2019 raising over $110,000 in nine hours. In September 2019, McLoughlin hosted a charity livestream alongside actor Emilia Clarke, raising $260,000 for her charity SameYou which is devoted to brain injury recovery. In December 2019, McLoughlin raised over $300,000 for Child's Play for his annual Thankmas charity stream.


title: Jacksepticeye

text: In January 2020, McLoughlin hosted a livestream which raised over $200,000 in four hours for the bushfires in Australia. In April 2020, McLoughlin hosted a livestream which raised over $650,000 in 12 hours for COVID-19 relief funds. Including subsequent livestreams in collaboration with McLoughlin, the #HopeFromHome campaign raised over $1.7 million. In June 2020, McLoughlin raised over $600,000 for the Black Lives Matter organisations The Bail Project, NAACP Empowerment Programs, Color of Change, and the Advancement Project. In October 2020, McLoughlin participated in the YouTuber MrBeast's Team Trees fundraising campaign, raising over $150,000 for the Arbor Day Foundation to plant trees in combat of climate change. In December 2020, for his annual Thankmas stream, McLoughlin raised over $1.4 million in 10 hours for the Red Nose Day campaign. Including subsequent livestreams in collaboration with McLoughlin, the campaign raised over $4.6 million.


title: Jacksepticeye

text: In December 2021, McLoughlin teamed up with fundraising platform Tiltify and live events company Real Good Touring for his annual Thankmas stream in aid of the charity New Story which combats homelessness via methods such as 3D printing houses. Tiltify announced that it was making tools available for influencers on platforms such as YouTube, Twitch, Facebook, and TikTok to contribute to the event by hosting additional Thankmas charity streams. The campaign raised $7.6 million overall. In November 2022, McLoughlin announced he would once again be working with Tiltify and Real Good Touring to raise money for World Central Kitchen for his annual Thankmas stream, with a goal of raising $10 million overall. The goal of $10 million was successfully reached during the final hour of the stream.


title: Jacksepticeye

text: McLoughlin has been critical of the changing algorithms and policies at YouTube, voicing his dissatisfaction. In November 2016, McLoughlin responded to YouTube pulling ads from "unsuitable content", stating, "This is people's careers. To completely switch how you do things and not tell anybody is a shitty thing to do." Later that year, he accused the website of using "shady tactics" and "manipulating viewers" after algorithm changes starting in September had caused channels to decrease in new views and subscribers. In May 2018, he responded to a surprise algorithm test from YouTube which changed the order of videos displayed in its subscription feed by stating, "People use the subscription tab to mainly avoid this sort of algorithmic behavior. Please keep that to the home page and recommendations."


title: Jacksepticeye

text: In response to an announcement in March 2020 that enforcement of YouTube's Community Guidelines would be increasingly handled by algorithms instead of human review due to the COVID-19 pandemic, McLoughlin said "This tweet sounds ominous. To be at the mercy of a system that you admit does not work. Don’t get me wrong, I’m glad you’re letting staff stay home and isolate to keep them safe but this will scare a lot of people." In March 2022, he released a video complaining about an increased level of scams and spam comments on his videos. Similar videos were also released by Linus Sebastian and Marques Brownlee, leading to YouTube taking steps to counteract the problem. New policies were introduced which removed channels' ability to hide their subscriber counts and ability to use special characters in their channel names in order to hinder impersonation of bigger accounts. Access to enhanced comment moderation settings was also expanded to more content creators on the platform.


title: Jacksepticeye

text: He has criticised the YouTube algorithm for putting pressure on creators to be constantly creating content and has discussed the problem of creator mental health with YouTube, suggesting that the company could hide video view counts similarly to Instagram's experimentation with hiding the number of likes on posts or that it could remove the dislike button. At the same time, he said that YouTube had made him less lonely and less depressed by providing his life with "purpose". McLoughlin has attributed the success of YouTube over television to its increased sense of community, and has said that "People always seek out community, wherever they can. I think YouTube’s strongest point is that sense of coming together and watching something together." McLoughlin has also spoken positively about Twitch-competitor YouTube Gaming following policy changes at Twitch reducing the revenue share taken by streamers on the site, saying "What a mess. Owned by Amazon and acting like some amateur platform. It's no wonder so many of your partners are jumping ship to YT."


title: Jacksepticeye

text: McLoughlin has argued that video game culture should become more inclusive, and that controversies with companies like Activision Blizzard and the use of so-called "gamer words" on Twitch indicated a toxic "chad energy" in the video game industry and culture. Linking these problems to broader issues, he said "I hope whatever culture we're shifting towards is in that more accepting, open space. There's still a lot of groundwork to be doing, just like in real life and things like LGBTQ representation. But I think we're going in the right direction."


title: Jacksepticeye

text: McLoughlin dated Danish social media influencer Signe "Wiishu" Hansen between 2015 and 2018. He is currently in a relationship with Dutch YouTuber Evelien "Gab" Smolders. McLoughlin has played the drums since he was young, and was previously in a melodic death metal-influenced metalcore band called Raised to the Ground.


title: NESARA

text: National Economic Security and Recovery Act (NESARA) was a set of proposed economic reforms for the United States suggested during the 1990s by Harvey Francis Barnard. Barnard claimed that the proposals, which included replacing the income tax with a national sales tax, abolishing compound interest on secured loans, and returning to a bimetallic currency, would result in 0% inflation and a more stable economy. The proposals were never introduced before Congress.


title: NESARA

text: NESARA has since become better known as the subject of a cult-like conspiracy theory promoted by Shaini Candace Goodwin, also known as "Dove of Oneness", who claimed that the act was actually passed with additional provisions as the National Economic Security and Reformation Act, and then suppressed by the George W. Bush administration and the Supreme Court. Goodwin's conspiracy emails have been translated into several languages and have a large following online.


title: NESARA

text: Harvey Francis Barnard (1941–2005), a Louisiana State University graduate in systems philosophy, and an engineering consultant and teacher, created the NESARA proposal during the late 1980s and early 1990s. He printed 1,000 copies of his proposal, titled "Draining the Swamp: Monetary and Fiscal Policy Reform" (1996), and sent copies to members of Congress, believing it would pass quickly on its merits. Based on a theory that debt is the number one economic factor inhibiting the growth of the economy, and compound interest the number one "moral evil" and reason for debt, Barnard made several other attempts during the 1990s to draw political attention to the problems he saw in the US economy, and his suggested economic recovery proposal based on the root causes he determined. After these did not succeed, he decided in 2000 to release the proposal to the public domain and publish it on the internet. Barnard established the NESARA Institute in 2001, and published the second edition of his book in 2005, retitling it "Draining the Swamp: The NESARA Story – Monetary and Fiscal Policy Reform".


title: NESARA

text: Soon after Barnard released NESARA on the internet, a user known as "Dove of Oneness" began posting about it in internet forums. "Dove of Oneness" was later identified as Shaini Candace Goodwin, a former student of Ramtha's School of Enlightenment, referred to in the media as a "cybercult queen". According to Goodwin's website, the NESARA bill languished in Congress before finally being passed by a secret session in March 2000 and signed by President Bill Clinton. It is claimed that the new law was to be implemented at 10 a.m. on September 11, 2001, but that the computers, and data (of the beneficiaries of the trillions of dollars of "Prosperity funds") were destroyed on the second floor of one of the World Trade Center towers in New York City during the terrorist attacks. Supposedly an earlier gag order issued by the Supreme Court had prohibited any official or private source from discussing it, under penalty of death. Goodwin referred to "White Knights," most of them high-ranking military officials, who have since been struggling to have the law implemented despite opposition by President George W. Bush. Goodwin allegedly believes and purports that Bush orchestrated the September 11 attacks and the Iraq War as distractions from NESARA. Goodwin's description of NESARA goes far beyond Barnard's proposal by cancelling all personal debts, abolishing the Internal Revenue Service, declaring world peace, and requiring new presidential and congressional elections. Goodwin often claimed that Bush officials were attempting to hack into and bring down her web site to prevent her from publicizing the law.


title: NESARA

text: Goodwin began commenting on NESARA in connection with Omega Trust, a fraudulent investment scheme whose creator, Clyde Hood, was on trial at the time. According to Goodwin, Omega Trust investors would receive their returns after NESARA was announced. Goodwin repeatedly predicted that the NESARA announcement would occur in the very near future, although in later years she became more reserved in these predictions.


title: NESARA

text: After Goodwin began commenting on NESARA, other internet-based conspiracy theorists latched onto it. One supporter, Sheldan Nidle, ties the imminent NESARA announcement into his years-old prophecy of an imminent large scale UFO visitation by benevolent aliens (occasionally on his website reports, but more prominently in his videos, seminars and public appearances). Jennifer Lee, who used to publish internet NESARA status reports almost daily on her now defunct site, discussed a host of other-worldly and "interdimensional" beings who are helping behind the scenes to get NESARA announced. Late internet conspiracy theorist Sherry Shriner who operate multiple websites, saw NESARA as linked to malevolent reptiloid aliens she asserted long controlled the U.S. government.


title: NESARA

text: NESARA groups are known for certain to exist and to have attracted press attention in Utah, and the Netherlands. Members of these groups get together to discuss the status of NESARA, read the various reports, hold protests, and pass out fliers about NESARA to the public. Goodwin claims that NESARA groups exist throughout several nations and US states including California, Washington, Arizona, and Texas, and provides hundreds of pieces of photographic evidence of people in public protests holding NESARA banners, but it is not clear to what degree the people holding the banners are aware of what NESARA is, or for how long these groups were active. "The News Tribune" has traced the story behind at least some of these photos (photos of trucks driving around Washington, D.C. bearing the words "NESARA Announcement Now!"), and found that they were part of a $40,000 advertising campaign allegedly paid for by an elderly San Francisco resident who had made donations to Goodwin.


title: NESARA

text: Barnard became aware of Goodwin's description of NESARA before his death in 2005. He denied that NESARA had been enacted into law or even assigned a tracking number, and condemned Goodwin's allegations as a disinformation campaign. Goodwin, for her part, dismisses the NESARA Institute as a disinformation front for the Bush family.


title: NESARA

text: Critics consider NESARA to be a cult. Pointing to the fact that Goodwin, Lee, and Nidle frequently solicited donations from their readers, they accuse these leaders of being primarily interested in securing a steady stream of income for themselves. Goodwin, who also asked readers to donate their frequent flyer miles, claimed that she needed and had used the funds to travel to various locations around the world to secretly meet with high-level government officials about getting NESARA announced.


title: NESARA

text: Some NESARA supporters also make the claim that otherworldly beings are working to get NESARA announced. These include a "channeled" cosmic being called "Hatonn" (an android Pleiadean), and another named "Sananda". According to some proponents of Ascended Master Teachings, such as Joshua David Stone, Sheldan Nidle, and Luis Prada, "Sananda" is the "galactic name" of Ascended Master Jesus, which he uses in his role as Commander-in-Chief of the Ashtar Command flying saucer fleet. "Pallas Athena" is regarded as being the Vice-Commander of the saucer fleet. Ashtar (Ashtar Sheran) is regarded in these teachings as being third-in-command. The designation of George W. Bush as a disguised reptilian often co-occurs with this claim. Goodwin has claimed that Ascended Master Saint Germain has come down from the etheric plane to physically meet with heads of banks and world leaders regarding the NESARA announcement.


title: NESARA

text: The prominence of failed prophecy also lends support to the cult theory. NESARA supporters often tell their readers that the NESARA announcement is going to happen in a matter of days. According to the documentary "Waiting For NESARA", the claim was also made prior to March 2003 that George Bush was planning the war with Iraq only to further delay the NESARA announcement. It was prophesied that spiritual beings and UFOs would intervene with Bush's plans and prevent the war.


title: NESARA

text: A June 2006 complaint to the Washington consumer protection division accused Goodwin of using the NESARA story to defraud a 64-year-old San Francisco woman of at least $10,000. The woman's daughter said the actual amount is much larger, in the hundreds of thousands.


title: Good Times

text: Good Times is an American television sitcom that aired for six seasons on CBS, from February 8, 1974, to August 1, 1979. Created by Eric Monte and Mike Evans and developed by executive producer Norman Lear, it was television's first African American two-parent family sitcom. "Good Times" is a spin-off of "Maude," which itself is a spin-off of "All in the Family", making "Good Times" the first television spin-off from another spin-off.


title: Good Times

text: In September 2020, it was announced that the series would receive an animated sitcom revival produced with Norman Lear executive producing alongside Seth MacFarlane and Steph Curry for Netflix.


title: Good Times

text: Florida and James (renamed from Henry) Evans and their three children live at 921 North Gilbert Avenue, apartment 17C, in a public housing project in a poor, black neighborhood in inner-city Chicago. The project is unnamed on the show but is implicitly the infamous Cabrini–Green Homes, shown in the opening and closing credits. Florida and James have three children: James Jr., also known as "J.J."; Thelma; and Michael, whose passionate activism causes his father to call him "the militant midget."


title: Good Times

text: When the series begins, J.J. is 17 (portrayed by 26-year-old Jimmie Walker, who was just seven years younger than co-star John Amos), Thelma 16 and Michael 11. Their exuberant neighbor and Florida's best friend is Willona Woods, a recent divorcée who works at a boutique. Their building superintendent is Nathan Bookman (seasons 2–6), who James, Willona and later J.J. refer to as "Buffalo Butt" or, even more derisively, "Booger."


title: Good Times

text: The characters originated on the sitcom "Maude" as Florida and Henry Evans, with Florida employed as Maude Findlay's housekeeper in Tuckahoe, New York, and Henry employed as a New York City firefighter. When producers decided to feature the Florida character in her own show, they changed the characters' history to fit a new series that was well into development rather than start from scratch to create a consistent starring vehicle. Henry's name became James, he worked various odd jobs, there was no mention of Maude but it was mentioned that Florida was a maid once before in the episode 'The Checkup' and the couple lived in Chicago.


title: Good Times

text: Episodes of "Good Times" deal with the characters' attempts to overcome poverty, living in high-rise public housing in Chicago. James Evans often works at least two jobs, mostly manual labor such as dishwasher, construction laborer, etc. Though he is often unemployed, he is a proud man who will not accept charity. He sometimes hustles money playing pool, although Florida disapproves of this.


title: Good Times

text: "Good Times" was created by Eric Monte and actor Mike Evans. The series also features a character named "Michael Evans" after Evans, who portrayed Lionel Jefferson on the Lear-produced series "All in the Family" and "The Jeffersons."


title: Good Times

text: The gospel-styled theme song was composed by Dave Grusin with lyrics written by Alan and Marilyn Bergman. It was sung by Jim Gilstrap and Motown singer Blinky Williams with a gospel choir providing background vocals. The lyrics to the theme song are notorious for being hard to discern, notably the line "Hangin' in a chow line"/"Hangin' in and jivin'" (depending on the source used). Dave Chappelle used this part of the lyrics as a quiz in his "I Know Black People" skit on "Chappelle's Show" in which the former was claimed as the answer. The insert for the Season One DVD box set has the lyric as "Hangin' in a chow line." However, the Bergmans, along with Bern Nadette Stanis, confirmed that the lyric is actually "Hangin' in and jivin'." Slightly different lyrics were used for the closing credits, with the song beginning on a verse instead of the chorus.


title: Good Times

text: When Ralph Carter was cast as the youngest Evans child, Michael, he was a cast member in the Broadway musical "Raisin" and the producers of "Raisin" were initially reluctant to accept Tandem Productions' buyout offer. While Carter's contract was being negotiated, another young actor, Larry Fishburne (later Laurence) filled the role of Michael during initial rehearsals for "Good Times." Early episodes of "Good Times" contain a notice in the credits: "Ralph Carter appears courtesy of the Broadway musical "Raisin"."


title: Good Times

text: "Good Times" was intended to be a timely show in the "All in the Family" vein focused on Rolle and Amos. Both expected the show to deal with serious topics in a comedic way while providing positive characters for viewers to identify with. However, it was Walker's character of J.J. that was an immediate hit with audiences and became the breakout character of the series. J.J.'s frequent use of the expression "Dy-no-mite!" (often in the phrase "Kid Dy-no-mite!"), credited to director John Rich, became a popular catchphrase (later included in TV Land's "The 100 Greatest TV Quotes and Catch Phrases" special).


title: Good Times

text: Rich insisted Walker say it in every episode. Walker and executive producer Norman Lear were skeptical of the idea, but the phrase and the J.J. Evans character caught on with the audience. As a result of the character's popularity, the writers focused more on J.J.'s comedic antics instead of serious issues. Throughout seasons two and three, Rolle and Amos grew increasingly disillusioned with the direction of the show and especially with J.J.'s tomfoolery and stereotypically buffoonish behavior. Rolle was vocal about her hate of his character. In a 1975 interview with "Ebony" magazine she stated: Despite doing so less publicly than Rolle, Amos also was outspoken about his dissatisfaction with the J.J. character, stating: While Amos was less public with his dissatisfaction than Rolle, he was fired after season three due to disagreements with Lear. Amos' departure was initially attributed to his desire to focus on a film career, but he admitted in a 1976 interview that Lear called him and told him that his contract option with the show was not being renewed. Amos stated, "That's the same thing as being fired." The producers decided not to recast the character of James Evans, instead opting to kill off the character in the two-part season four episode, "The Big Move," with Florida finding out that James died in an automobile accident while in Mississippi.


title: Good Times

text: By the end of season four, Rolle had also become dissatisfied with the show's direction and decided to leave the series. In the two-part season finale, "Love Has a Spot On His Lung," Florida gets engaged to Carl Dixon (Moses Gunn), a man she began dating toward the end of season four. In the season five premiere episode, "The Evans Get Involved Part 1," it is revealed that Florida and Carl married off screen and moved to Arizona for the sake of Carl's health. With Amos and Rolle gone, DuBois took over as lead actor, as Willona checked in on the Evans children since they were now living alone.


title: Good Times

text: In season five, Janet Jackson joined the cast, playing Penny Gordon, an abused girl abandoned by her mother and eventually adopted by Willona. During that season, Johnny Brown's character of Nathan Bookman, the Evans' superintendent, became more prominent. At the beginning of the fifth year, Brown became a series regular and was included in the opening credits. Ratings began to decline. It was clear to the producers as well as viewers that Rolle's absence had left the series without a much-needed unifying center of attention.


title: Good Times

text: Before the taping of season six began, CBS and the show's producers decided that they had to do "something drastic" to increase viewership. According to then-vice president of CBS programming Steve Mills, "We had lost the essence of the show. Without parental guidance, the show slipped. Everything told us that: our mail, our phone calls, our research. We felt we had to go back to basics."


title: Good Times

text: Producers approached Rolle with an offer to appear in a guest role on the series. Rolle was initially hesitant, but when producers agreed to a number of her demands (including an increased salary and higher quality scripts), she agreed to return to the series on a full-time basis. Rolle also wanted producers to make the character of J.J. more responsible, as she felt the character was a poor role model for African-American youths. She also requested that producers write out the character of Carl Dixon; Rolle reportedly disliked the storyline surrounding the Carl Dixon character, as she believed Florida would not have moved on so quickly after James's death or left her children. Rolle also thought the writers had disregarded Florida's devout Christian beliefs by having her fall for and marry Carl, who was an atheist.


title: Good Times

text: In the season six premiere episode "Florida's Homecoming: Part 1," Florida returns from Arizona without Carl to attend Thelma's upcoming wedding to professional football player Keith Anderson (Ben Powers, who joined the cast for the final season). In a rare uncut version of "Florida's Homecoming: Part 2," after Florida arrives home from Arizona, Willona briefly pulls her aside and mentions Carl, to which Florida sadly smiles and shakes her head, implying that Carl had died from cancer. Florida later mentions Carl one last time when she tells Michael about a book they'd both bought him.


title: Good Times

text: Despite changes in the series at Rolle's request and her return, plus the addition of Powers to the cast, ratings continued to fall and CBS canceled the series during the 1978–79 season. In the series finale episode "The End of the Rainbow," each character finally gets a "happy ending." J.J. gets his big break as a nationally syndicated artist for a comic book company with his newly created character, DynoWoman, which is based on Thelma (much to her surprise and delight) and is moving into an apartment with some lady friends.


title: Good Times

text: Michael attends college and moves into an on-campus dorm. Keith's bad knee heals due to his exercise and own physical therapy, leading to the Chicago Bears offering him a contract to play football. Keith announces that he and Thelma are moving into a luxury apartment in the city's upscale Gold Coast district. Thelma also announces that she is pregnant with the couple's first child.


title: Good Times

text: Keith offers Florida the chance to move in with them so she can help Thelma with the new baby; Florida accepts the offer. Willona becomes the head buyer of the boutique, she walks in and announces that she and Penny are also moving out of the projects. Willona then reveals that her new apartment is in the same apartment building to which Keith, Thelma and Florida are also moving; she and Penny become the Evanses' downstairs neighbors.


title: Good Times

text: Cable network TV One aired reruns of the show since its launch on January 19, 2004. "Good Times" had also aired at various times on TV Land and on the Canadian specialty cable channel DejaView. Minisodes of the show are available for free on Crackle. Additionally, digital multicast network Antenna TV also aired episodes of the show until January 1, 2018, when GetTV, operated by Sony (which distributes the show), began airing the program. "Good Times" airs on GetTV with a TV-PG rating.


title: Good Times

text: Most episodes run on TV One with a TV-G rating, with the lone exception being the season three episode "J.J. in Trouble," in which J.J. fears he may have contracted an STD. That episode airs with a TV-14 rating, as well as the "parental guidance is suggested" slide that preceded the episode when it was originally broadcast on CBS. In the past, it aired on TV Land with a TV-PG rating.


title: Good Times

text: Sony Pictures Home Entertainment released the entire series on DVD in Region 1 between February 2003 and August 2006, with a complete box set following the separate seasons on October 28, 2008. Season 1 was released on DVD in Region 4 on December 27, 2006. On August 27, 2013, it was announced that Mill Creek Entertainment had acquired the rights to various television series from the Sony Pictures library, including "Good Times." They have subsequently re-released the first four seasons on DVD. On September 1, 2015, Mill Creek Entertainment re-released "Good Times: The Complete Series" on DVD in Region 1.


title: Good Times

text: The program premiered in February 1974; high ratings led CBS to renew the program for the 1974–75 season, as it was the seventeenth-highest-rated program that year. During its first full season on the air, the show was the seventh-highest-rated program in the Nielsen ratings, with more than 25% of all American households tuning into an episode each week. Three of the top ten highest-rated programs on American TV that season centered on the lives of African-Americans: "Sanford and Son," "The Jeffersons" and "Good Times." The Nielsen ratings for the series declined over time, partly because of its many time slot changes and the departure of John Amos. The ratings went down considerably when the show entered its final two seasons:


title: Arthur, Prince of Wales

text: Arthur, Prince of Wales (19/20 September 1486 – 2 April 1502), was the eldest son of King Henry VII of England and Elizabeth of York. He was Duke of Cornwall from birth, and he was created Prince of Wales and Earl of Chester in 1489. As the heir apparent of his father, Arthur was viewed by contemporaries as the great hope of the newly established House of Tudor. His mother, Elizabeth, was the daughter of Edward IV, and his birth cemented the union between the House of Lancaster and the House of York.


title: Arthur, Prince of Wales

text: Plans for Arthur's marriage began before his third birthday; he was installed as Prince of Wales two years later. At the age of eleven, he was formally betrothed to Catherine of Aragon, a daughter of the powerful Catholic Monarchs in Spain, in an effort to forge an Anglo-Spanish alliance against France. Arthur was well educated and was in good health for the majority of his life. Soon after his marriage to Catherine in 1501, the couple took up residence at Ludlow Castle in Shropshire, where Arthur died six months later of the sweating sickness, which Catherine survived. Catherine later firmly stated that the marriage had not been consummated.


title: Arthur, Prince of Wales

text: One year after Arthur's death, Henry VII renewed his efforts to seal a marital alliance with Spain by arranging for Catherine to marry Arthur's younger brother Henry, Prince of Wales, who would ascend to the throne in 1509 as King Henry VIII. The question over whether Arthur and Catherine had consummated their marriage was much later, and in a completely different political context, exploited by Henry VIII and his court. This strategy was employed in order to cast doubt upon the validity of Catherine's union with Henry VIII, eventually leading to the separation between the Church of England and the Roman Catholic Church.


title: Arthur, Prince of Wales

text: Henry VII became King of England upon defeating Richard III at the Battle of Bosworth Field in 1485. In an effort to strengthen the Tudor claim to the throne, Henry decided on naming his firstborn son "Arthur" and having him born in Winchester – where the Legend of King Arthur originated – in order to emphasise the Welsh origin of the Tudors. On this occasion, Camelot was identified as present-day Winchester, and his wife, Elizabeth of York, was sent to Saint Swithun's Priory (today Winchester Cathedral Priory) in order to give birth there. Born at Saint Swithun's Priory on the night of 19/20 September 1486 at about 1 am, Arthur was Henry and Elizabeth's eldest child. Arthur's birth was anticipated by French and Italian humanists eager for the start of a "Virgilian golden age". Sir Francis Bacon wrote that although the Prince was born one month premature, he was "strong and able". Young Arthur was viewed as "a living symbol" of not only the union between the House of Lancaster and the House of York, to which his mother belonged as the daughter of Edward IV, but also of the end of the Wars of the Roses. In the opinion of contemporaries, Arthur was the great hope of the newly established House of Tudor.


title: Arthur, Prince of Wales

text: Arthur became Duke of Cornwall at birth. Four days after his birth, he was baptised at Winchester Cathedral by the Bishop of Worcester, John Alcock, which was immediately followed by his confirmation. John de Vere, 13th Earl of Oxford, Thomas Stanley, 1st Earl of Derby, William FitzAlan, 16th Earl of Arundel, Queen Elizabeth Woodville and Cecily of York served as godparents; the latter two, his grandmother and aunt, respectively, carried the prince during the ceremony. Initially, Arthur's nursery in Farnham was headed by Elizabeth Darcy, who had served as chief nurse for Edward IV's children, including Arthur's own mother. After Arthur was created Prince of Wales in 1490, he was awarded a household structure at the behest of his father. Over the next thirteen years, Henry VII and Elizabeth would have six more children, of whom only threeMargaret, Henry and Marywould reach adulthood. Arthur was especially close to his sister Margaret (b. 1489) and his brother Henry (b. 1491), with whom he shared a nursery.


title: Arthur, Prince of Wales

text: On 29 November 1489, after being made a Knight of the Bath, Arthur was appointed Prince of Wales and Earl of Chester, and was invested as such at the Palace of Westminster on 27 February 1490. As part of his investiture ceremony, he progressed down the River Thames in the royal barge and was met at Chelsea by the Lord Mayor of London, John Mathewe, and at Lambeth by Spanish ambassadors. On 8 May 1491, he was made a Knight of the Garter at Saint George's Chapel at Windsor Palace. It was around this time that Arthur began his formal education under John Rede, a former headmaster of Winchester College. His education was subsequently taken over by Bernard André, a blind poet, and then by Thomas Linacre, formerly Henry VII's physician. Arthur's education covered grammar, poetry, rhetoric and ethics and focused on history. Arthur was a very skilled pupil and André wrote that the Prince of Wales had either memorised or read a selection of Homer, Virgil, Ovid, Terence, a good deal of Cicero and a wide span of historical works, including those of Thucydides, Caesar, Livy and Tacitus. Arthur was also a "superb archer", and had learned to dance "right pleasant and honourably" by 1501.


title: Arthur, Prince of Wales

text: The popular belief that Arthur was sickly during his lifetime stems from a misunderstanding of a 1502 letter, but there are no reports of Arthur being ill during his lifetime. Arthur grew up to be unusually tall for his age, and was considered handsome by the Spanish court: he had reddish hair, small eyes, and a high-bridged nose, resembling his brother Henry, who was said to be "extremely handsome" by contemporaries. As described by historians Steven Gunn and Linda Monckton, Arthur had an "amiable and gentle" personality and was, overall, a "delicate lad".


title: Arthur, Prince of Wales

text: In May 1490 Arthur was created warden of all the marches towards Scotland and the Earl of Surrey was appointed as the Prince's deputy. From 1491, Arthur was named on peace commissions. In October 1492, when his father travelled to France, he was named Keeper of England and King's Lieutenant. Following the example of Edward IV, Henry VII set up the Council of Wales and the Marches for Arthur in Wales, in order to enforce royal authority there. Although the council had already been set up in 1490, it was headed by Jasper Tudor, Duke of Bedford. Arthur was first dispatched to Wales in 1501, at the age of fifteen. In March 1493, Arthur was granted the power to appoint justices of oyer and terminer and inquire into franchises, thus strengthening the council's authority. In November of that year, the Prince also received an extensive land grant in Wales, including the County of March.


title: Arthur, Prince of Wales

text: Arthur was served by sons of English, Irish and Welsh nobility, such as Gerald FitzGerald, 9th Earl of Kildare, who had been brought to the English court as a consequence of the involvement of his father, Gerald FitzGerald, 8th Earl of Kildare, in the crowning of pretender Lambert Simnel in Ireland during Henry VII's reign. Other servants were Anthony Willoughby, a son of Robert Willoughby, 1st Baron Willoughby de Broke, Robert Radcliffe, the heir of the 9th Baron FitzWalter and Maurice St John, a favourite nephew of Arthur's grandmother Lady Margaret Beaufort. He was brought up with Gruffydd ap Rhys ap Thomas, the son of powerful Welsh nobleman Rhys ap Thomas. Gruffydd grew quite close to Arthur and was buried in Worcester Cathedral upon his death in 1521, alongside the Prince's tomb.


title: Arthur, Prince of Wales

text: Henry VII planned to marry Arthur to a daughter of the Catholic Monarchs, Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon, in order to forge an Anglo-Spanish alliance against France. It was suggested that the choice of marrying Arthur to Ferdinand and Isabella's youngest daughter, Catherine (b. 1485), would be appropriate. Thanks to negotiations by the Spanish ambassador Rodrigo González de la Puebla, the Treaty of Medina del Campo (27 March 1489) provided that Arthur and Catherine would be married as soon as they reached canonical age; it also settled Catherine's dowry at 200,000 crowns (the equivalent of £5 million in 2007). Since Arthur, not yet 14, was below the age of consent, a papal dispensation (i.e., waiver) allowing the marriage was issued in February 1497, and the pair were betrothed by proxy on 25 August 1497. Two years later, a marriage by proxy took place at Arthur's Tickenhill Manor in Bewdley, near Worcester; Arthur said to Roderigo de Puebla, who had acted as proxy for Catherine, that "he much rejoiced to contract the marriage because of his deep and sincere love for the Princess".


title: Arthur, Prince of Wales

text: In a letter from October 1499, Arthur, referring to Catherine as "my dearest spouse", had written: "I cannot tell you what an earnest desire I feel to see your Highness, and how vexatious to me is this procrastination about your coming. Let [it] be hastened, [that] the love conceived between us and the wished-for joys may reap their proper fruit."


title: Arthur, Prince of Wales

text: The young couple exchanged letters in Latin until 20 September 1501, when Arthur, having attained the age of 15, was deemed old enough to be married. Catherine landed in England about two weeks later, on 2 October 1501, at Plymouth. The next month, on 4 November 1501, the couple met for the first time at Dogmersfield in Hampshire. Arthur wrote to Catherine's parents that he would be "a true and loving husband"; the couple soon discovered that they had mastered different pronunciations of Latin and so were unable to easily communicate. Five days later, on 9 November 1501, Catherine arrived in London.


title: Arthur, Prince of Wales

text: On 14 November 1501, the marriage ceremony finally took place at Saint Paul's Cathedral; both Arthur and Catherine wore white satin. The ceremony was conducted by Henry Deane, Archbishop of Canterbury, who was assisted by William Warham, Bishop of London. Following the ceremony, Arthur and Catherine left the Cathedral and headed for Baynard's Castle, where they were entertained by "the best voiced children of the King's chapel, who sang right sweetly with quaint harmony".


title: Arthur, Prince of Wales

text: What followed was a bedding ceremony laid down by Arthur's grandmother Lady Margaret Beaufort: the bed was sprinkled with holy water, after which Catherine was led away from the wedding feast by her ladies-in-waiting. She was undressed, veiled and "reverently" laid in bed, while Arthur, "in his shirt, with a gown cast about him," was escorted by his gentlemen into the bedchamber as viols and tabors played. The Bishop of London blessed the bed, and prayed for the marriage to be fruitful, after which the couple were left alone. This is the only public bedding of a royal couple recorded in Britain in the 16th century.


title: Arthur, Prince of Wales

text: After residing at Tickenhill Manor for a month, Arthur and Catherine headed for the Welsh Marches, where they established their household at Ludlow Castle. Arthur had been growing weaker since his wedding, and Henry VII thus seemed reluctant to allow Catherine to follow him, until ultimately ordering her to join her husband. Arthur found it easy to govern Wales, as the border had become quiet after many centuries of warfare. In March 1502, Arthur and Catherine were afflicted by an unknown illness, "a malign vapour which proceeded from the air." It has been suggested that this illness was the mysterious English sweating sickness, tuberculosis ("consumption"), plague or influenza. While Catherine recovered, Arthur died on 2 April 1502 at Ludlow, six months short of his sixteenth birthday.


title: Arthur, Prince of Wales

text: News of Arthur's death reached Henry VII's court late on 4 April. The King was awoken from his sleep by his confessor, who quoted Job by asking Henry "If we receive good things at the hands of God, why may we not endure evil things?" He then told the king that "[his] dearest son hath departed to God," and Henry burst into tears. "Grief-stricken and emotional," he then had his wife brought into his chambers, so that they might "take the painful news together"; Elizabeth reminded Henry that God had helped him become king and "had ever preserved him," adding that they had been left with "yet a fair Prince and two fair princesses and that God is where he was, and [they were] both young enough." Soon after leaving Henry's bedchamber, Elizabeth collapsed and began to cry, while the ladies sent for the King, who hurriedly came and "relieved her."


title: Arthur, Prince of Wales

text: On 8 April, a general procession took place for the salvation of Arthur's soul. That night, a dirge was sung in St Paul's Cathedral and every parish church in London. On 23 April, Arthur's body, which had previously been embalmed, sprinkled with holy water and sheltered with a canopy, was carried out of Ludlow Castle and into the Parish Church of Ludlow by various noblemen and gentlemen. On 25 April, Arthur's body was taken to Worcester Cathedral via the River Severn, in a "special wagon upholstered in black and drawn by six horses, also caparisoned in black." As was customary, Catherine did not attend the funeral. The Earl of Surrey acted as chief mourner. At the end of the ceremony, Sir William Uvedale, Sir Richard Croft and Arthur's household ushers broke their staves of office and threw them into the Prince's grave. During the funeral, Arthur's own arms were shown alongside those of Cadwaladr ap Gruffydd and Brutus of Troy. Two years later, a chantry was erected over Arthur's grave.


title: Arthur, Prince of Wales

text: Shortly after Arthur's death, the idea of betrothing the widowed Catherine to the new heir apparent, Henry, had arisen; Henry VII and Isabella I were keen on moving forward with the betrothal and the pope granted a dispensation towards that end. Henry VIII ascended the throne on 22 April 1509 and married Arthur's widow on 11 June. They had six children; three of their sons died before reaching three months of age, a daughter was stillborn, and another lived for only a week. The couple's surviving child was Mary I (b. 1516). In 1526, Henry started to pursue the affections of Anne Boleyn. At the same time, he became troubled by what became known as the King's "great matter", that is, finding an appropriate solution for his lack of male descendants. It soon became the King's wish to dissolve his marriage and marry Anne, who was more likely to bear children.


title: Arthur, Prince of Wales

text: Henry believed that his marriage was cursed and found confirmation in the Bible, in . Although in the morning following his wedding, Arthur had claimed that he was thirsty ""for I have been in the midst of Spain last night"" and that ""having a wife is a good pastime"", these claims are generally dismissed by modern historians as mere boasts of a boy who did not want others to know of his failure. Until the day she died, Catherine maintained that she had married Henry while still a virgin. After Henry's constant support of the claim that Catherine's first marriage had been consummated, an annulment was issued on 23 May 1533, while the King had already married Anne on 25 January. Anne was beheaded for high treason in 1536, after which Henry proceeded to marry four more times. At the time of his death in 1547, Henry only had three living children; the only son, Edward VI, succeeded but died six years later. His successors were Henry's daughters by Catherine and Anne, Mary I and Elizabeth I. Upon Elizabeth's death in 1603, the House of Tudor came to an end.


title: Arthur, Prince of Wales

text: In 2002, following the initiative of canon Ian MacKenzie, Arthur's funeral was reenacted with a requiem mass at Worcester Cathedral, on occasion of the quincentenary of his death. Despite his role in English history, Arthur has remained largely forgotten since his death. The only known portrait of Arthur was rediscovered by English art dealer Philip Mould. The stained-glass image of Arthur Tudor praying is in St Laurence's Church in Ludlow Shropshire where he died at the castle in 1502.


title: Arthur, Prince of Wales

text: Arthur has been featured in several historical fiction novels, such as "The King's Pleasure", by Norah Lofts, "Three Sisters, Three Queens" by Philippa Gregory and "Katherine, The Virgin Widow", by Jean Plaidy. In "The Constant Princess", by Philippa Gregory, Catherine promises Arthur to marry his brother, thus fulfilling not only her own destiny of becoming Queen of England but also the couple's plans for the future of the kingdom. "The Alteration", by Kingsley Amis, is an alternate history novel centred on the "War of the English Succession" during which Henry VIII attempts to usurp the throne of his nephew, Stephen II, Arthur and Catherine's son.


title: Arthur, Prince of Wales

text: The historical drama "The Six Wives of Henry VIII" was broadcast in 1970, with Martin Ratcliffe as "Prince Arthur". In 1972, BBC2 aired a historical miniseries titled "The Shadow of the Tower", with "Lord Arthur, Prince of Wales" played by Jason Kemp. He is portrayed by Angus Imrie in 2019 period drama "The Spanish Princess".


title: LaGuardia Airport

text: LaGuardia Airport is a civil airport in East Elmhurst, Queens, New York City. Covering , the facility was established in 1929 and began operating as a public airport in 1939. It is named after former New York City mayor Fiorello La Guardia.


title: LaGuardia Airport

text: The airport primarily accommodates airline service to domestic (and limited international) destinations. , it was the third-busiest airport in the New York metropolitan area, behind Kennedy and Newark airports, and the twenty-first busiest in the United States by passenger volume. The airport is located directly to the north of the Grand Central Parkway, the airport’s primary access highway. While the airport is a hub for both American Airlines and Delta Air Lines, commercial service is strictly governed by unique regulations including a curfew, a slot system, and a "perimeter rule" prohibiting most nonstop flights to or from destinations greater than .


title: LaGuardia Airport

text: Throughout the 2000s and 2010s, LaGuardia was notable for having obsolete and dirty facilities, inefficient air operations, and poor customer service metrics. Responding to these criticisms, the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey (PANYNJ) in 2015 announced a multibillion-dollar reconstruction of the airport's passenger infrastructure, which is expected to be complete by 2025.


title: LaGuardia Airport

text: Prior to human development, the coastlines of Bowery Bay and Flushing Bay converged at a natural point that comprised the eventual northern shoreline of Newtown, Queens. By 1857 the area partially contained the estate of Benjamin Pike Jr., which was soon purchased and consolidated with other property by William Steinway. In June 1886, Steinway opened a summer resort development known as Bowery Bay Beach on the peninsula. Originally featuring a bathing pavilion, beach, lawns, and boathouse, the resort was renamed North Beach and later expanded with the addition of Gala Amusement Park. By the turn of the century, North Beach's German-influenced development drew comparisons to Brooklyn's Coney Island. Its fortunes would soon turn, however, as Prohibition in the United States and war-related anti-German sentiment presented significant challenges to the resort's profitability. These factors, combined with increased industrialization and pollution of the Queens waterfront, made the area untenable as a leisure destination, and it was abandoned at some point in the 1920s.