title: Hungarians

text: Hungarian diaspora (Magyar diaspora) is a term that encompasses the total ethnic Hungarian population located outside of current-day Hungary.


title: Hungarians

text: The culture of Hungary shows distinctive elements, incorporating local European elements and minor Central Asian/Steppe derived traditions, such as Horse culture and Shamanistic remnants in Hungarian folklore.


title: Neelam Kothari

text: Neelam Kothari Soni is an Indian actress and jewellery designer from Mumbai, known mononymously as Neelam. She made her acting debut with "Jawaani" (1984) opposite debutant Karan Shah. Since then she starred in various films alongside Govinda such as "Love 86" (1986), "Ilzaam" (1986), "Sindoor" (1986), "Khudgarz" (1987), "Hatya" (1988), "Farz Ki Jung" (1989), "Taaqatwar" (1989) and "Do Qaidi" (1989). She starred opposite Chunkey Pandey in films "Aag Hi Aag" (1987), "Paap Ki Duniya" (1988), "Khatron Ke Khiladi" (1988), "Billoo Badshah" (1989), "Ghar Ka Chiraag" (1989), and "Mitti Aur Sona" (1989).


title: Neelam Kothari

text: Neelam Kothari Soni was born in Hong Kong to a Gujarati Indian father Shishir Kothari and Iranian mother Parveen Kothari.


title: Neelam Kothari

text: Kothari's performance in her debut film was noticed in film circles and she received offers. She later became famous in 1986 for her role in the film "Ilzaam" opposite another debutant, Govinda. She made a very popular pairing with Govinda and starred with him in 14 movies and some of their films include "Love 86" (1986), "Khudgarz" (1987), "Hatya" (1988) and "Taaqatwar" (1989). She had 5 hits opposite Chunkey Pandey, such as "Aag Hi Aag" (1987), "Paap Ki Duniya" (1988), "Khatron Ke Khiladi" (1988), "Mitti Aur Sona" (1989) and "Ghar Ka Chiraag" (1989), out of 8 films with him, the other 3 being "Zakham (1989 film)", "Khule-Aam" and a Bengali film, "Mandira (film)". She also worked in another Bengali film "Badnam" (1990) with Prosenjit Chatterjee.


title: Neelam Kothari

text: She was also noticed for her appearance in the 1998 film "Kuch Kuch Hota Hai", where she played herself as a VJ and in the 1999 ensemble family drama "Hum Saath Saath Hain" in which she played a supporting role. Her last film was the delayed release "Kasam" in 2001, opposite Chunky Pandey.


title: Neelam Kothari

text: In 2020, she starred alongside "Maheep Kapoor", "Bhavna Pandey" and "Seema Sajdeh" in a reality television series "Fabulous Lives of Bollywood Wives" as well as Season 2 (2022), both of which was streamed on Netflix.


title: Neelam Kothari

text: Even while pursuing her career in acting, she was interested in jewellery designing and was involved in her family business. She pursued a formal course in jewellery-designing in Mumbai and, after quitting films temporarily in 2001, started out commercially on her own under the name Neelam Jewels. She opened a showroom in Mumbai in 2004. She then launched her jewellery store in Mumbai on 25 August 2011 under the name Neelam Kothari Fine Jewels.


title: Neelam Kothari

text: Neelam featured in Bina Mistry's "Hot Hot Hot" music video, a song that is part of a compilation of dance hits in the 1995 BMG release, titled "Channel [V] Hits: The Ultimate Dance Collection". The song became a hit when it was featured as part of the soundtrack of "Bend It Like Beckham" (2002).


title: Neelam Kothari

text: In October 2000, Neelam married Rishi Sethia, the son of a businessman from the UK. They got divorced soon after. After a brief relationship with actor Samir Soni, she married him in 2011. After 2 years of marriage, in 2013, they adopted a daughter and named her Ahana.


title: Neelam Kothari

text: In 1998, Neelam was charged with the Wildlife Act and the IPC for the poaching of two blackbucks in Kankani during the filming of "Hum Saath Saath Hain", along with co-stars Salman Khan, Saif Ali Khan, Sonali Bendre and Tabu. She was acquitted by the CJM court at Jodhpur on 5 April 2018.


title: Proxima Centauri b

text: Proxima Centauri b (or Proxima b), sometimes referred to as Alpha Centauri Cb, is an exoplanet orbiting in the habitable zone of the red dwarf star Proxima Centauri, which is the closest star to the Sun and part of the triple star system Alpha Centauri. It is about from Earth in the constellation Centaurus, making it, along with the disputed Proxima c, and Proxima d the closest known exoplanets to the Solar System.


title: Proxima Centauri b

text: Proxima Centauri b orbits its parent star at a distance of roughly with an orbital period of approximately 11.2 Earth days. Its other properties are only poorly understood, but it is believed to be a potentially Earth-like planet with a minimum mass of at least . The planet orbits within the habitable zone of its star; but it is not known whether it has an atmosphere. Proxima Centauri is a flare star with intense emission of electromagnetic radiation that could strip an atmosphere off the planet. The planet's proximity to Earth offers an opportunity for robotic space exploration, for example, with the Breakthrough Starshot project.


title: Proxima Centauri b

text: Announced on 24 August 2016 by the European Southern Observatory (ESO), Proxima Centauri b was confirmed via several years of using the method of studying the radial velocity of its parent star. Furthermore, the discovery of Proxima Centauri b, a planet at habitable distances from the closest star to the Solar System, was a major discovery in planetology and has drawn interest to the Alpha Centauri star system that Proxima is a member of.


title: Proxima Centauri b

text: Proxima Centauri had become a target for exoplanet searches already before the discovery of Proxima Centauri b, but initial studies in 2008 and 2009 ruled out the existence of larger-than-Earth exoplanets in the habitable zone. Planets are very common around dwarf stars, with on average 1–2 planets per star, and about 20–40% of all red dwarfs have one in the habitable zone. Additionally, red dwarfs are by far the most common type of stars.


title: Proxima Centauri b

text: Before 2016, observations with instruments at the European Southern Observatory in Chile had identified anomalies in Proxima Centauri which could not be satisfactorily explained by flares or chromospheric activity of the star. This suggested that Proxima Centauri may be orbited by a planet. In January 2016, a team of astronomers launched the Pale Red Dot project to confirm this hypothetical planet's existence. On 24 August 2016, the team led by Anglada-Escudé proposed that a terrestrial exoplanet in the habitable zone of Proxima Centauri could explain these anomalies and announced Proxima Centauri b's discovery. In 2020, another planet named Proxima Centauri c was discovered but its existence is disputed and a third planet Proxima Centauri d was confirmed in 2022, while the existence of a dust belt around Proxima Centauri is, , unconfirmed.


title: Proxima Centauri b

text: Proxima Centauri b is the closest exoplanet to Earth, at a distance of about . It orbits Proxima Centauri every Earth days at a distance of about , over 20 times closer to Proxima Centauri than Earth is to the Sun. , it is unclear whether or not it has an eccentricity but Proxima Centauri b is unlikely to have any obliquity. The age of the planet is unknown; Proxima Centauri itself may have been captured by Alpha Centauri and thus not necessarily of the same age as the latter, which are about 5 billion years old. Proxima Centauri b is unlikely to have stable orbits for moons.


title: Proxima Centauri b

text: the estimated minimum mass of Proxima Centauri b is ; other estimates are similar, with the most recent being at least , but all estimates are dependent on the inclination of the planet's orbit and may be underestimates. This makes it similar to Earth, but the radius of the planet is poorly known and hard to determine, and its mass borders on the cutoff between Earth-type and Neptune-type planets. However, a 2020 analysis suggested a value of , which may indicate a more terrestrial-like appearance. Depending on the composition, Proxima Centauri b could either be a Mercury-like planet with a large core—which would require particular conditions early in the planet's history—to a very water-rich planet. Observations of the Fe–Si–Mg ratios of Proxima Centauri may allow a determination of the composition of the planet, since they are expected to roughly match the ratios of any planetary bodies in the Proxima Centauri system; various observations have found Solar System-like ratios of these elements.


title: Proxima Centauri b

text: Little is known about Proxima Centauri b —mainly its distance from the star and its orbital period—but a number of simulations of its properties have been done. A number of simulations and models have been created that assume Earth-like compositions and include predictions of the galactic environment, internal heat generation from radioactive decay and magnetic induction heating, planetary rotation, the effects of stellar radiation, the amount of volatile species the planet consists of and the changes of these parameters over time.


title: Proxima Centauri b

text: Proxima Centauri b likely developed under different conditions from Earth, with less water, stronger impacts and an overall faster development, assuming that it formed at its current distance from the star. Proxima Centauri b probably did not form at its current distance to Proxima Centauri, as the amount of material in the protoplanetary disk would be insufficient. Instead, it or fragments formed at larger distances and then migrated to the current orbit of Proxima Centauri b. Depending on the nature of the precursor material, it may be rich in volatiles. A number of different formation scenarios are possible, many of which depend on the existence of other planets around Proxima Centauri and which would result in different compositions.


title: Proxima Centauri b

text: Proxima Centauri b is likely to be tidally locked to the host star, which for a 1:1 orbit would mean that the same side of the planet would always face Proxima Centauri. It is unclear whether or not habitable conditions can arise under such circumstances as a 1:1 tidal lock would lead to an extreme climate with only part of the planet habitable.


title: Proxima Centauri b

text: However, the planet may not be tidally locked. If the eccentricity of Proxima Centauri b was higher than 0.1-0.06, it would tend to enter a Mercury-like 3:2 resonance or higher-order resonances such as 2:1. Additional planets around Proxima Centauri and interactions with Alpha Centauri could excite higher eccentricies. If the planet isn't symmetrical (triaxial), a capture into a non-tidally locked orbit would be possible even with low eccentricity. A non-locked orbit however would result in tidal heating of the planet's mantle, increasing volcanic activity and potentially shutting down a magnetic field-generating dynamo. The exact dynamics are strongly dependent on the internal structure of the planet and its evolution in response to tidal heating.


title: Proxima Centauri b

text: Proxima Centauri is a red dwarf with a mass equivalent to and a radius of that of the Sun. With an effective temperature of , it has a spectral type of M5.5V and a luminosity of that of the Sun. Proxima Centauri is a flare star and its luminosity varies by a factor of 100 over a timespan of hours. The magnetic field of Proxima Centauri is considerably stronger than that of the Sun, with an intensity of ; it varies in a 7-year long cycle.


title: Proxima Centauri b

text: It is the closest star to the Sun, with a distance of . Proxima Centauri is part of a multiple star system, whose other members are Alpha Centauri A and Alpha Centauri B which form a binary star subsystem. The dynamics of the multiple star system could have caused Proxima Centauri b to move closer to its host star over its history. The detection of a planet around Alpha Centauri in 2012 is considered questionable. Despite its proximity to Earth, Proxima Centauri is too faint to be visible to the naked eye with the exception of an instance where a flare made it visible to the naked eye.


title: Proxima Centauri b

text: Proxima Centauri b is located within the classical habitable zone of its star and receives about 65% of Earth's irradiation. Its equilibrium temperature is about . Various factors, such as the orbital properties of Proxima Centauri b, the spectrum of radiation emitted by Proxima Centauri and the behaviour of clouds and hazes influence the climate of an atmosphere-bearing Proxima Centauri b.


title: Proxima Centauri b

text: There are two likely scenarios for an atmosphere of Proxima Centauri b: in one case, the planet's water could have condensed and the hydrogen would have been lost to space, which would have only left oxygen and/or carbon dioxide in the atmosphere after the planet's early history. However, it is also possible that Proxima Centauri b had a primordial hydrogen atmosphere or formed farther away from its star, which would have reduced the escape of water. Thus, Proxima Centauri b may have kept its water beyond its early history. If an atmosphere exists, it is likely to contain oxygen-bearing gases such as oxygen and carbon dioxide. Together with the star's magnetic activity, they would give rise to aurorae that could be observed from Earth if the planet has a magnetic field.


title: Proxima Centauri b

text: Climate models including general circulation models used for Earth climate have been used to simulate the properties of Proxima Centauri b's atmosphere. Depending on its properties such as whether it is tidally locked, the amount of water and carbon dioxide a number of scenarios are possible: A planet partially or wholly covered with ice, planet-wide or small oceans or only dry land, combinations between these or scenarios with one or two "eyeballs" or lobster-shaped areas with liquid water. Additional factors are:


title: Proxima Centauri b

text: Even if Proxima Centauri b lost its original atmosphere, volcanic activity could rebuild it after some time. A second atmosphere would likely contain carbon dioxide, which would form a more stable atmosphere than an Earth-like atmosphere. In the case of Earth, the amount of water contained within the mantle might approach that of one Earth ocean. Additionally, impacts of exocomets could resupply water to Proxima Centauri b, if they are present.


title: Proxima Centauri b

text: A number of mechanisms can deliver water to a developing planet; how much water Proxima Centauri b received is unknown. Modelling by Ribas "et al." 2016 indicates that Proxima Centauri b would have lost no more than one Earth ocean equivalent of water but later research suggested that the amount of water lost could be considerably larger and Airapetian "et al." 2017 concluded that an atmosphere would be lost within ten million years. The estimates are strongly dependent on the initial mass of the atmosphere, however, and are thus highly uncertain.


title: Proxima Centauri b

text: In the context of exoplanet research, "habitability" is usually defined as the possibility that liquid water exists on the surface of a planet. As normally understood in the context of exoplanet life, liquid water on the surface and an atmosphere are prerequisites for habitability—any life limited to the sub-surface of a planet, such as in a subsurface ocean like in Europa in the Solar System, would be difficult to detect from afar although it may constitute a model for life in a cold ocean-covered Proxima Centauri b.


title: Proxima Centauri b

text: On the other hand, red dwarfs like Proxima Centauri have a lifespan much longer than the Sun, up to many times the estimated age of the Universe, and thus give life plenty of time to develop. The radiation emitted by Proxima Centauri is ill-suited for oxygen-generating photosynthesis but sufficient for anoxygenic photosynthesis although it is unclear how life depending on anoxygenic photosynthesis could be detected. One study in 2017 estimated that the productivity of a Proxima Centauri b ecosystem based on photosynthesis may be about 20% that of Earth's.


title: Proxima Centauri b

text: , Proxima Centauri b has not yet been directly imaged, as its separation from Proxima Centauri is too small for that. It is unlikely to transit Proxima Centauri from Earth's perspective; all surveys have failed to find evidence for any transits of Proxima Centauri b. The star is monitored for the possible emission of technology-related radio signals by the Breakthrough Listen project which in April-May 2019 detected the BLC1 signal; later investigations however indicated it is probably of human origin.


title: Proxima Centauri b

text: Future large ground-based telescopes and space-based observatories such as the James Webb Space Telescope and the Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope could directly observe Proxima Centauri b, given its proximity to Earth, but disentangling the planet from its star would be difficult. Possible traits observable from Earth are the reflection of starlight from an ocean, the radiative patterns of atmospheric gases and hazes and of atmospheric heat transport. Efforts have been done to determine what Proxima Centauri b would look like to Earth if it has particular properties such as atmospheres of a particular composition.


title: Proxima Centauri b

text: Even the fastest spacecraft built by humans would take a long time to travel interstellar distances; Voyager 2 would take about 75,000 years to reach Proxima Centauri. Among the proposed technologies to reach Proxima Centauri b in human lifespans are solar sails that could reach speeds of 20% the speed of light; problems would be how to decelerate a probe when it arrives in the Proxima Centauri system and collisions of the high-speed probes with interstellar particles. Among the projects of travelling to Proxima Centauri b are the Breakthrough Starshot project, which aims to develop instruments and power systems that can reach Proxima Centauri in the 21st century.


title: Proxima Centauri b

text: From Proxima Centauri b, the binary stars Alpha Centauri would be considerably brighter than Venus is from Earth. The Sun would appear as a bright star with an apparent magnitude of 0.40 in the constellation of Cassiopeia. The brightness of the Sun would be similar to that of Achernar or Procyon from Earth.


title: Tom Riley (actor)

text: Tom Riley (born 5 April 1981) is an English actor, producer and director. Riley was born in Maidstone, Kent. He became involved in drama in his hometown at the age of four, and spent his school years writing and directing plays. He attended Maidstone Grammar School. He studied English literature and drama at the University of Birmingham, graduating in 2002 with first class honours.


title: Tom Riley (actor)

text: Riley was born in Maidstone, Kent, England. He graduated from the University of Birmingham in Birmingham, England in 2002 and the London Academy of Music and Dramatic Art (LAMDA) in 2005. After his undergraduate studies, he formed the theater company Article 19, and while attending the LAMDA began working with the Royal Court Theatre company, appearing in the play "The Woman".


title: Tom Riley (actor)

text: In May 2016, Riley became engaged to American actress Lizzy Caplan. They had met in January 2015 while Caplan was filming in London, and made their red carpet debut as a couple at the Prague Opera Ball in February 2016. They were married in September 2017. They had a son in 2021.


title: The Lone Ranger (2013 film)

text: The Lone Ranger is a 2013 American Western film directed by Gore Verbinski and written by Justin Haythe, Ted Elliott and Terry Rossio. Based on the title character of the same name, the film stars Johnny Depp as Tonto, the narrator of the events and Armie Hammer as John Reid, the Lone Ranger. The story tells through Tonto's memories of the duo's earliest efforts to subdue local villainy and bring justice to the American Old West. William Fichtner, Barry Pepper, Ruth Wilson, James Badge Dale, Tom Wilkinson, Helena Bonham Carter and Curtis Cregan are featured in supporting roles. This was the first theatrical film featuring the Lone Ranger and Tonto characters since William A. Fraker's 1981 film, "The Legend of the Lone Ranger".


title: The Lone Ranger (2013 film)

text: Produced by Walt Disney Pictures, Jerry Bruckheimer Films and Depp's Infinitum Nihil, production was plagued with problems and budgetary concerns, which at one point almost led to the film's premature cancellation. The film then premiered at the Hyperion Theater on June 22, 2013, and was released theatrically in the United States on July 3, 2013. The film received generally negative reviews from critics and grossed only $260.5 million worldwide against an estimated $225–250 million production budget and an additional $150 million in marketing costs, making it one of the biggest box-office bombs of all time, losing Disney over $160–190 million. It was nominated at the 86th Academy Awards in two categories for Best Visual Effects and Best Makeup and Hairstyling.


title: The Lone Ranger (2013 film)

text: In 1933, at a San Francisco funfair, a boy named Will who idolizes the legendary Lone Ranger encounters the elderly Comanche Tonto, who proceeds to recount his experiences with the Old West adventurer.


title: The Lone Ranger (2013 film)

text: In 1869, lawyer John Reid returns home to Colby, Texas via the uncompleted Transcontinental Railroad, managed by railroad tycoon Latham Cole. Unknown to Reid, the train is also carrying Tonto and outlaw Butch Cavendish, who is being transported for his hanging after being captured by Dan Reid, John's Texas Ranger brother. Cavendish's gang rescues Butch and derails the train. Tonto is subsequently jailed. Dan deputizes John as a Texas Ranger, giving him a silver star badge that had belonged to their late father, and with six others they go after the Cavendish gang. Cavendish's men ambush and kill their pursuers while Cavendish slays Dan with his dagger and devours his heart as revenge for his imprisonment. Tonto, who has escaped from jail, comes across the dead men and buries them. However, a white spirit horse awakens John as a "spirit walker", and Tonto explains John cannot be killed in battle. Tonto also tells him Collins, one of the Rangers, betrayed Dan and is working with Cavendish. As John is thought to be dead, he wears a mask to protect his identity from enemies. Tonto gives John a silver bullet made from the fallen Rangers' badges and tells him to use it on Cavendish, whom he believes to be a mystical beast called a wendigo.


title: The Lone Ranger (2013 film)

text: At a Hell on Wheels brothel Collins recently visited, Red Harrington informs the two about Dan and Collins' fight over a cursed silver rock. Meanwhile, Cavendish's men, disguised as Comanches, raid frontier settlements. John and Tonto arrive after raiders abduct Dan's widow and son, Rebecca and Danny. Regretting his earlier actions, Collins attempts to help the mother and child escape, but is shot dead by Cole, who rescues them. Claiming the raiders are hostile Comanches, Cole announces the continued construction of the railroad and dispatches US Cavalry Captain Jay Fuller to wipe out the Comanches. A Comanche tribe captures John and Tonto after the pair finds railroad tracks in Native territory. The leader tells John of Tonto's past: As a boy, Tonto had rescued Cavendish and another man from near-death and later showed them a mountain full of silver ore in exchange for a pocket watch. The men murdered the tribe to keep the location a secret, leaving Tonto with great guilt which led to him believing the two were wendigos.


title: The Lone Ranger (2013 film)

text: Tonto and John escape as the cavalry attack the Comanche. At the silver mine, the duo captures Cavendish. Tonto demands John use the silver bullet to kill Cavendish, but John refuses. Upon returning Cavendish to Cole and Fuller's custody, Cole is revealed to be Cavendish's partner and brother. Fuller, fearful of being labeled a war criminal for slaughtering the tribe unprovoked, sides with Cole. Rebecca is held hostage, and John is returned to the mine to be executed. Tonto rescues him and the two flee. Realizing Cole is too powerful to be taken down lawfully and regretful since his arrogance in ignoring Tonto led to the mass slaughter of the Comanches and the kidnapping of his loved ones, John dons the mask again.


title: The Lone Ranger (2013 film)

text: At Promontory Summit, during the railroad's union ceremony, Cole reveals his true plan: to take control of the railroad company and use the mined silver to gain more power. John and Tonto steal nitroglycerin and use it to destroy a railroad bridge. With Red's help, Tonto steals the train with the silver, and Cole, Cavendish and Fuller pursue him in a second train on which Rebecca and Dan Jr. are being held captive. On horseback, John pursues both trains. After a furious chase and fights on both trains, John kills Cavendish and Fuller, and rescues Rebecca and Dan Jr.. Tonto hands back Cole the pocket watch he kept for all those past years, before the train drives off the destroyed bridge, drowning Cole underneath all the silver.


title: The Lone Ranger (2013 film)

text: The town recognizes John as a hero and offers him a law-enforcement position, but John declines and rides off with Tonto. Back in 1933, Will questions the truth of the story, to which Tonto gives him a silver bullet, tells him to decide for himself and leaves in the form of a crow. Inspired, Will puts a mask over his face.


title: The Lone Ranger (2013 film)

text: In March 2002, Columbia Pictures announced their intention to make a "Lone Ranger" film with Classic Media, who owned the film rights at the time. Husband and wife producers Douglas Wick and Lucy Fisher joined the project. The tone was to be similar to "The Mask of Zorro", and Columbia suggested that Tonto be re-written as a female love interest. The projected budget was set at $70 million. David and Janet Peoples were hired to write the script the following year, which was rewritten by Laeta Kalogridis. Jonathan Mostow was attached to direct by early 2005, but Columbia placed the film in turnaround. The Weinstein Company was interested in purchasing the film rights from Classic Media in 2007 but the deal fell apart when Entertainment Rights eventually optioned the property. They teamed with producer Jerry Bruckheimer and brought "The Lone Ranger" to Walt Disney Pictures. Ted Elliott and Terry Rossio, who worked with Bruckheimer and Disney on the "Pirates of the Caribbean" film series, were being courted to write the script. In late March 2008, Elliott and Rossio were in final negotiations.


title: The Lone Ranger (2013 film)

text: Disney then announced in September 2008 that Johnny Depp would be portraying Tonto while the Elliot-Rossio script was rewritten by Justin Haythe. The Elliot and Rossio script reportedly had a supernatural plot element involving coyotes. In May 2009, Mike Newell, who was then directing "" for Bruckheimer and Disney, entered negotiations to direct "Lone Ranger". Bruckheimer explained the following June that he wanted to wait before hiring a director, until Newell completed "Prince of Persia," and until Depp finished filming "." "The priority is most definitely "Pirates 4,"" Bruckheimer commented. "They are going to cast the title role once they get a director and Disney greenlights. We don't have a director yet." In September 2010, Gore Verbinski was hired to direct. Verbinski had suggested giving the role of Tonto to Depp while filming the film. Filming was slated to begin after Depp finished work on "Dark Shadows". Actor Armie Hammer was selected to play the Lone Ranger, a role that Bruckheimer described as being written for "a young Jimmy Stewart character".


title: The Lone Ranger (2013 film)

text: On August 12, 2011, Disney announced that production on "The Lone Ranger" would be delayed due to budget concerns expressed by CEO Bob Iger and then Walt Disney Studios chairman Rich Ross. The studio and production team constrained the film's allocated budget, with Verbinski, Bruckheimer, Depp, and Hammer, equally deferring 20% of their salaries to minimize the overall cost. After addressing the project's production problems in October 2011, Disney confirmed that the film was back on track after the budget was reworked to give the studio a chance to recoup its costs. Initially, filming was reported to begin on February 6, 2012, for a projected release date of May 31, 2013, which subsequently was moved to the Fourth of July weekend of that same year.


title: The Lone Ranger (2013 film)

text: After Alan F. Horn replaced Rich Ross as chairman of the Walt Disney Studios in 2012, he began working right away on the film, and insisted on trimming most of the scene where Cavendish eats Dan Reid's heart. Horn later explained: "I like heart in my movies... but not "that" much heart."


title: The Lone Ranger (2013 film)

text: Principal photography began on March 8, 2012, and, soon after, the first photograph of Depp as Tonto and Hammer as the Lone Ranger was released. Filming locations extended throughout six states: Utah, Colorado, New Mexico, Arizona, Texas, and California. Some filming occurred specifically near Creede, Colorado, in June 2012; Moab, Utah, in July 2012; and Cimarron Canyon State Park, New Mexico in August. Second unit (stunt and blue screen) work commenced in late September 2012 in the parking lot of Santa Anita Racetrack, Arcadia, California.


title: The Lone Ranger (2013 film)

text: The film was shot in the anamorphic format, with cinematographer Bojan Bazelli using Panavision C- and G-Series lenses. Daytime exteriors—about 70 percent of the film—were shot on Kodak Vision3 50D 5203 35mm film with Panavision Panaflex Platinum and Arriflex 435 cameras; interiors and nighttime exteriors were shot digitally with Arri Alexa Studio cameras.


title: The Lone Ranger (2013 film)

text: The shoot met with several problems including inclement weather, wildfires, a chickenpox outbreak and the death of crew member Michael Andrew Bridger on September 21, 2012. Bridger, a water safety expert, died while working inside a large water tank. Several cast members had to receive formal training on horseback riding, gunslinging and lassoing.


title: The Lone Ranger (2013 film)

text: Industrial Light & Magic created the visual effects for "The Lone Ranger", including a CGI-rendering of the Golden Gate Bridge as it looked while under construction during 1936 – although the film's opening is set in 1933.


title: The Lone Ranger (2013 film)

text: Beginning in November 2013, the Autry National Center exhibited the costumes Hammer and Depp wore in the film through a loan from the Walt Disney Archives.


title: The Lone Ranger (2013 film)

text: In April 2012, it was announced that Jack White was hired to compose the score for the film. White later declined to work on the film's music, citing scheduling conflicts, and he was replaced with Hans Zimmer in December 2012. In March 2013, Michael Einziger tweeted that he was working with Zimmer on the score. The film's soundtrack was issued by Walt Disney Records in two releases: Zimmer's film score and the "inspired by" concept album on July 2, 2013.


title: The Lone Ranger (2013 film)

text: As a result of the production setbacks, "The Lone Ranger" faced numerous release date changes. Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures initially scheduled the film for a mid-2011 release date, but "" replaced it because the latter was considered a priority for the studio and that "The Lone Ranger" did not have a director. After Gore Verbinski signed for director, "The Lone Ranger"'s release date was moved to December 21, 2012. Budget concerns and negotiations resulted in a production delay so the release date was pushed to May 31, 2013. By mid-2012, DreamWorks Pictures' "Robopocalypse" was facing its own production delays and could not meet its July 3, 2013 release date; therefore Disney had "The Lone Ranger" assume its place for the Fourth of July holiday weekend.


title: The Lone Ranger (2013 film)

text: The first trailer debuted at San Diego Comic-Con before being released theatrically on October 3, 2012. Television promotions for the film aired during Super Bowl XLVII. Disney used the film's production connection to the "Pirates of the Caribbean" series as the main tagline in the film's marketing, as well as featuring the film's two main characters in promotional materials for "Disney Infinity".


title: The Lone Ranger (2013 film)

text: "The Lone Ranger" was selected as the closing film for the Taormina Film Festival. Its world premiere was held on June 22 at the Hyperion Theater in the Hollywood Land district of Disney California Adventure, with proceeds being donated to the American Indian College Fund.


title: The Lone Ranger (2013 film)

text: The film was remastered and released in IMAX theaters on August 7, 2013, in several international territories including the United Kingdom and Japan.


title: The Lone Ranger (2013 film)

text: "The Lone Ranger" was released by Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment on Blu-ray and DVD on December 17, 2013. It was released in Australia on October 30, 2013.


title: The Lone Ranger (2013 film)

text: "The Lone Ranger" grossed $89,302,115 in the United States and $171,200,000 in other countries for a worldwide total of $260,502,115.


title: The Lone Ranger (2013 film)

text: Preliminary reports had the film tracking for a $60–$70 million debut in North America. The film earned $2 million from late showings on Tuesday, July 2, 2013, and $9.67 million on its opening day, July 4. During its opening weekend, the film debuted in second place with $29.3 million over three days and $48.9 million over the five-day frame.


title: The Lone Ranger (2013 film)

text: After under-performing during its opening weekend, the film was characterized by numerous media sources as a box office bomb with many observers comparing it unfavorably to "John Carter", another big-budget Disney film that failed commercially the year before. "The New York Times" estimated that the film cost $375 million to produce and market, and would need to earn an estimated $650 million worldwide to break even, after accounting for revenue splits with theater owners. "The Hollywood Reporter" noted that the losses from the film could surpass $150 million, with Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures vice-president Dave Hollis calling these results "very disappointing".


title: The Lone Ranger (2013 film)

text: Compared to "Despicable Me 2", a film that opened the same weekend to $142.1 million on a $76 million budget, "The Wall Street Journal" noted that "The Lone Ranger" made just under a third of that ($48.9 million) and had more than three times the budget ($215 million). Nearly 68% of ticket buyers were over 25 years old and nearly 25% over 50 years old, a much higher percentage than is typical for the studio. Disney viewed the film's international performance ($24.3 million from 24 markets), including that of Russia and Australia, as "softer than we would have liked."


title: The Lone Ranger (2013 film)

text: "The New York Times" and "USA Today" reported that "The Lone Ranger" joined a string of high-concept western films that failed at the box office, such as "Wild Wild West" (1999), which cost $170 million but grossed $222.1 million; "Jonah Hex" (2010), which cost $47 million but grossed less than $11 million; and "Cowboys & Aliens" (2011), which cost $160 million but grossed $174 million. Chief analyst for "Boxoffice" Phil Contrino described the film's box office performance as "the kind of bomb that people discuss for years to come" due to its use of otherwise successful director, producer and stars. Alan Horn, current Walt Disney Studios chairman, admitted the financial risk the studio faced with the film. Jay Rasulo, Disney CFO, expects to attribute a loss of $160–190 million in the company's Studio Entertainment division during the fourth fiscal quarter.


title: The Lone Ranger (2013 film)

text: In September 2014, studio president Alan Bergman was asked at a conference if Disney had been able to partially recoup its losses on "The Lone Ranger" and "John Carter" through subsequent release windows or other monetization methods, and he responded: "I'm going to answer that question honestly and tell you no, it didn't get that much better. We did lose that much money on those movies."


title: The Lone Ranger (2013 film)

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, "The Lone Ranger" holds an approval rating of 31% based on 248 reviews with an average rating of 4.90/10. The site's consensus reads, "Armie Hammer and Johnny Depp make for an appealing pair of leads, but they're not enough to make up for "The Lone Ranger"s bland script, bloated length, and blaring action overkill." On Metacritic, the film has a score of 37 out of 100, based on reviews from 45 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B+" on an A+ to F scale. Mick LaSalle of the "San Francisco Chronicle" called film "a jumbled botch that is so confused in its purpose and so charmless in its effect that it must be seen to be believed". Lou Lumenick of the "New York Post" described it as a "bloated, misshapen mess, a stillborn franchise loaded with metaphors for its feeble attempts to amuse, excite and entertain". Charlie McCollum, a journalist for the "San Jose Mercury News", was more forgiving, calling it an entertaining mess. Tim Walker of "The Independent" gave a mixed review, praising Gore Verbinski for "employ[ing] the Old West to good effect, with gorgeous widescreen vistas that owe everything to Sergio Leone and John Ford." However, he added, "it takes a full hour for Reid to don his mask, and then there’s another 80 unremarkable minutes to go."


title: The Lone Ranger (2013 film)

text: Among some of the positive reviews, James Verniere of the "Boston Herald" wrote, "The film, part spoof, part pastiche, is chockablock with violent incident, spectacular settings, Buster Keaton-esque action and colorful characters out of spaghetti Westerns of yore." Andrew O'Hehir of Salon.com called it "an ambitious and inventive film that’s always trying to tweak formula and play with audience expectations. If anything, it’s overstuffed with imagination and ideas..." Jon Niccum of the "Kansas City Star" stated, "The movie takes a more old-fashioned approach to thrills. It appears to showcase as many stuntmen as it does digital compositors."


title: The Lone Ranger (2013 film)

text: Among British critics, the reception was more positive. Angie Errigo of the British film magazine "Empire" gave it four of five stars, finding "[r]eal storytelling, well thought-out and beautifully, at times insanely, executed, with excitement, laughs and fun to make you feel seven years old again." Robbie Collin of "The Daily Telegraph" gave the film three stars out of five, writing, "Verbinski shows more ambition here than he did in "Pirates of the Caribbean"." He added, "[I]n a sane world this would never have been made, although I’m really rather glad someone did." Frank Lovece, writing for "Film Journal International", addressed critics' concerns over the film's tone by pointing out, "[T]he movie is told in flashback from the perspective of a wizened, quite eccentric character—the working definition of the film-school trope 'the unreliable narrator.' ... Whatever really happened out on the frontier, this is the story as Tonto remembers it, animist mysticism and all."


title: The Lone Ranger (2013 film)

text: Gore Verbinski, Jerry Bruckheimer, Armie Hammer and Johnny Depp openly criticized the American critical reception of the film, arguing that the negative coverage surrounding the project was influenced by reports of production troubles, with Bruckheimer accusing critics of "reviewing the budget," instead of the film itself. Hammer added, "If you go back and read the negative reviews, most of them aren't about the content of the movie, but more what's behind it. They tried to do the same thing to "World War Z"; it didn't work, the movie was successful. Instead they decided to slit the jugular of our movie."


title: The Lone Ranger (2013 film)

text: Filmmaker Quentin Tarantino called the film one of the ten best films of 2013 through October: "The first forty-five minutes are excellent…the next forty-five minutes are a little soporific. It was a bad idea to split the bad guys in two groups; it takes hours to explain and nobody cares. Then comes the train scene—incredible! When I saw it, I kept thinking, ‘What, that’s the film that everybody says is crap? Seriously?’" Despite this, Tarantino objected to the film's depiction of Native Americans: "That being said, I still have a little problem with the film. I like Tonto’s backstory—the idea that his tribe got slaughtered because of him; that’s a real comic-book thing. But the slaughter of the tribe, by gunfire, from the cavalry, it left a bitter taste in my mouth. The Indians have really been victims of a genocide. So slaughtering them again in an entertaining movie, Buster Keaton style… That ruined the fun a bit for me. I simply found it…ugly. Making fun of this, when America really did it, it bothered me...That doesn’t stop it from being a good film but they could have done without that.”


title: The Lone Ranger (2013 film)

text: Film critic Scout Tafoya included the film in his video series "The Unloved" in 2015, likening the film's unfortunate circumstances to what the 1980 Western film "Heaven's Gate" similarly went through. Tafoya considers "The Lone Ranger" to be a masterpiece, praising the film's deconstruction of American myths which erased the tragedies experienced by Native Americans, stating: "There's a melancholy that runs through even the most frenetic, kinetic action sequence in "The Lone Ranger". No matter how big a grin it puts in your face, it's still about the deaths of thousands, not to mention our ideals, of the stain on our legacy as a united people." Film critic Matt Zoller Seitz of "RogerEbert.com" gave the film three-and-a-half out of four stars, stating that "for all its miscalculations, this is a personal picture, violent and sweet, clever and goofy. It's as obsessive and overbearing as Steven Spielberg's "1941" — and, I'll bet, as likely to be re-evaluated twenty years from now, and described as 'misunderstood.'"


title: The Lone Ranger (2013 film)

text: Despite the producers citing the presence of an adviser from the Comanche Nation, some debated the advisability of casting Depp as a Native American and whether the film would present a positive and accurate representation of the Comanche. Depp has stated he believes he has Native American ancestry, possibly from a great-grandmother. He has said that he considered the role a personal attempt "to try to right the wrongs of the past", in reference to portrayals of Native American culture in the media.


title: The Lone Ranger (2013 film)

text: Todd McDaniels, a linguist at the Comanche Nation College, commented on Depp's attempts to speak the Comanche language, which has 25 to 30 living native speakers. "The words were there, the pronunciation was shaky, but adequate."


title: The Lone Ranger (2013 film)

text: Before the film's release, on June 3, Jerry Bruckheimer said that he would like the Lone Ranger to ride again, positioning Johnny Depp as a franchise starter. However, after the film's critical and financial failure, a sequel is no longer in development.


title: M72 LAW

text: The M72 LAW (light anti-tank weapon, also referred to as the light anti-armor weapon or LAW as well as LAWS: light anti-armor weapons system) is a portable one-shot unguided anti-tank weapon. The solid rocket propulsion unit was developed in the newly-formed Rohm and Haas research laboratory at Redstone Arsenal in 1959, and the full system was designed by Paul V. Choate, Charles B. Weeks, Frank A. Spinale, et al. at the Hesse-Eastern Division of Norris Thermadore. American production of the weapon began by Hesse-Eastern in 1963, and was terminated by 1983; currently it is produced by Nammo Raufoss AS in Norway and their subsidiary, Nammo Talley, Inc. in Arizona.


title: M72 LAW

text: In early 1963, the M72 LAW was adopted by the U.S. Army and U.S. Marine Corps as their primary individual infantry anti-tank weapon, replacing the M31 HEAT rifle grenade and the M20A1 "super bazooka" in the U.S. Army. It was subsequently adopted by the U.S. Air Force to serve in an anti-emplacement and anti-armor role in airbase defense.


title: M72 LAW

text: In the early 1980s, the M72 was slated to be replaced by the FGR-17 Viper. However, the Viper program was canceled by Congress and the M136 AT4 was adopted instead. At that time, its nearest equivalents were the Swedish Pskott m/68 (Miniman) and the French SARPAC.


title: M72 LAW

text: The increased importance of tanks and other armored vehicles in World War II caused a need for portable infantry weapons to deal with them. The first to be used (with limited success) were Molotov cocktails, flamethrowers, satchel charges, jury-rigged landmines, and specially designed magnetic hollow charges. All of these had to be used within a few meters of the target, which was difficult and dangerous.


title: M72 LAW

text: The U.S. Army introduced the bazooka, the first rocket-propelled grenade launcher. Despite early problems, it was a success and was copied by other countries.


title: M72 LAW

text: However, the bazooka had its drawbacks. Large and easily damaged, it required a well-trained two-man crew. Germany developed a one-man alternative, the Panzerfaust, having single-shot launchers that were cheap and requiring no special training. As a result, they were regularly issued to Volkssturm home guard regiments. They were very efficient against tanks during the last days of World War II.


title: M72 LAW

text: The M72 LAW is a combination of the two World War II weapons. The basic principle is a miniaturized bazooka, while its light weight and cheapness rival the Panzerfaust.


title: M72 LAW

text: The weapon consists of a rocket within a launcher consisting of two tubes, one inside the other. While closed, the outer assembly serves as a watertight container for the rocket and the percussion-cap firing mechanism that activates the rocket. The outer tube contains the trigger, the arming handle, front and rear sights, and the rear cover. The inner tube contains the channel assembly, which houses the firing pin assembly, including the detent lever. When extended, the inner tube telescopes outward toward the rear, guided by the channel assembly, which rides in an alignment slot in the outer tube's trigger housing assembly. This causes the detent lever to move under the trigger assembly in the outer tube, both locking the inner tube in the extended position and cocking the weapon. Once armed, the weapon is no longer watertight, even if the launcher is collapsed into its original configuration. It is a line of sight weapon with a range around .


title: M72 LAW

text: When fired, the striker in the rear tube impacts a primer, which ignites a small amount of powder that "flashes" down a tube to the rear of the rocket and ignites the propellant in the rocket motor. The rocket motor burns completely before leaving the mouth of the launcher, producing a backblast of gases around . The rocket propels the warhead forward without significant recoil. As the warhead emerges from the launcher, six fins spring out from the base of the rocket tube, stabilizing the warhead's flight. The early LAW warhead, developed from the M31 HEAT rifle grenade warhead, uses a simple piezoelectric fuze system. On impact with the target, the front of the nose section is crushed, causing a microsecond electric current to be generated, which detonates a booster charge located in the base of the warhead, which sets off the main warhead charge. The force of the main charge forces the copper liner into a directional particle jet that, in relation to the size of the warhead, is capable of a massive penetration.


title: M72 LAW

text: A unique mechanical set-back safety on the base of the detonator grounds the circuit until the missile has accelerated out of the tube. The acceleration causes the three disks in the safety mechanism to rotate 90° in succession, ungrounding the circuit; the circuit from the nose to the base of the detonator is then completed when the piezoelectric crystal is crushed on impact.


title: M72 LAW

text: The weapon can be fired from inside buildings as long as the structure is at least in size, which is about in volume, and has sufficient ventilation. The Department of the Army previously rated the weapon as safe to fire from enclosure, but this rating was removed in 2010 after the introduction of the safer AT4 CS. However, some modern variants of the LAW are specifically designed with fire-from-enclosure (FFE) capability.


title: M72 LAW

text: In late 2021, Nammo unveiled the concept of a multi-rotor unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) equipped with a LAW. The tube is mounted facing downward, enabling the drone operator to fire on tanks and armored vehicles from a top attack position while remaining away.


title: M72 LAW

text: M72 LAWs were issued as prepackaged rounds of ammunition. Improvements to the launcher and differences in the ammunition were differentiated by a single designation. The original M72 warhead penetrated of armor.


title: M72 LAW

text: A training variant of the M72 LAW, designated "M190", also exists. This weapon is reloadable and uses the "M73" training rocket. A subcaliber training device that uses a special tracer cartridge also exists for the M72. A training variant used by the Finnish armed forces fires tracer rounds.


title: M72 LAW

text: The US Army tested other 66 mm rockets based on the "M54" rocket motor used for the M72. The "M74 TPA" (thickened pyrophoric agent) had an incendiary warhead filled with TEA (triethylaluminium); this was used in the M202A1 FLASH (fLame assault shoulder weapon) four-tube launcher. The "XM96 RCR" (riot control rocket) had a CS gas-filled warhead for crowd control and was also intended for use with the M202, though the rocket never entered service.


title: M72 LAW

text: The M72 rocket has been in Australian service since the Vietnam War. Currently, the Australian Defence Force uses the M72A6 variant, known as the "light direct fire support weapon", as an anti-structure and secondary anti-armor weapon. The weapon is used by ordinary troops at the section (squad) level and complements the heavier Carl Gustav recoilless rifle and Javelin missile, which are generally used by specialized fire support and anti-armor troops.


title: M72 LAW

text: The M72 LAW is used in the Finnish Army (some 70,000 pieces), where it is known under the designations "66 KES 75" (M72A2, no longer in service) and "66 KES 88" (M72A5). In accordance with the weapon's known limitations, a pair of "tank-buster" troops crawl to a firing position around away from the target, bringing with them four to six LAWs, which are then used in rapid succession until the target is destroyed or incapacitated. Due to its low penetration capability, it is used mostly against lightly-armored targets. The M72 is the most common anti-tank weapon in the Finnish Army. Finland has recently upgraded its stocks to the M72 EC LAW Mk.I version. It is designated "66 KES 12" Claimed penetration for the M72 EC LAW is of rolled homogeneous armor steel plate, nearly twice that of the M72A2. It also fields the bunker-buster version that contains of DPX-6 explosive, named M72 ASM RC, and locally designated "66 KES 12 RAK". The oldest version of the 66 KES 75 is now retired.


title: M72 LAW

text: In late February 2022, the Norwegian government announced that it intended to donate "up to 2,000" M72 LAW units from their reserve stocks to Ukraine, in response to the Russian invasion. On March 30, 2022, the Norwegian Defence Ministry said that 2,000 more units will be sent to Ukraine.


title: M72 LAW

text: The Turkish Army uses a locally built version by Makina ve Kimya Endustrisi Kurumu, called HAR-66 ("Hafif Antitank Roketi", 'light antitank rocket'), which has the performance and characteristics of a mix of an M72A2 and an A3. Turkey also indigenously developed an anti-personnel warhead version of HAR-66 AP and called it ""Eşek Arısı"" ('wasp').


title: M72 LAW

text: The British Army had used the NAMMO M72 under the designation "rocket 66 mm HEAT L1A1" but it was replaced by the LAW 80 during the 1980s. It was used in action during the 1982 Falklands War, mainly to suppress Argentinian defensive positions at close range; however, it was also used against an assault amphibious vehicle during the initial invasion and was one of the weapons which damaged the warship in the invasion of South Georgia. The M72 rocket was reintroduced into British service under the Urgent Operational Requirement program, with the M72A9 variant being designated the "light anti-structure munition" (LASM).


title: M72 LAW

text: During the Vietnam and post-Vietnam periods, all issued LAWs were recalled after instances of the warhead exploding in flight, sometimes injuring the operator. After safety improvements, part of the training and firing drills included the requirement to ensure that the words "w/coupler" were included in the text description stenciled on the launcher, which indicated that the launcher had the required safety modifications.


title: M72 LAW

text: With the failure of the M72's intended replacement, the Viper, in late 1982 Congress ordered the US Army to test off-the-shelf light antitank weapons and report back by the end of 1983. In partnership with Raufoss AS, Talley Defense offered the M72E5, which offered increased range, penetration and better sights; this was tested along with five other light anti-armor weapons in 1983. Despite the improvements that the M72E5 offered, the AT4 was chosen to replace the M72.


title: M72 LAW

text: Although generally thought of as a Vietnam War–era weapon that has been superseded by the more-powerful AT4, the M72 LAW found new popularity in the operations by the U.S. Army, the U.S. Marine Corps, and Canadian Army in Iraq and Afghanistan. The lower cost and lighter weight of the LAW, combined with a scarcity of modern heavy armored targets and the need for an individual assault weapon versus an individual anti-armor weapon, made it ideal for the type of urban combat seen in Iraq and mountain warfare seen in Afghanistan. In addition, a soldier can carry two LAWs on a mission as opposed to a single AT4.


title: M72 LAW

text: The U.S. Marine Corps Systems Command at Quantico, Virginia, placed a $15.5-million fixed contract order with Talley Defense for 7,750 M72A7s, with delivery to be completed in April 2011. The M72A7 LAW is an improvement on previous versions, including an improved rocket motor for a higher velocity to accurately engage targets past , an insensitive munitions warhead to reduce the likelihood of an accidental explosion, and a Picatinny rail to mount laser pointers and night sights. The LAW was useful in Afghanistan as a small and light rocket system for use against short- and medium-range targets by foot patrols in the difficult terrain and high elevations of the country. The U.S. military was still purchasing LAW rockets as of January 2015. In 2018 it was reported that an upgrade for the LAW was being developed that would improve the fire control system as well as largely eliminate the weapon's back blast, allowing the weapon to be used more safely from within a confined space.


title: M72 LAW

text: The Republic of China Army (Taiwan) uses the M72 as a secondary anti-armor weapon. It is used primarily as a backup to the Javelin and M136 (AT4) anti-tank weapons. The weapon was later reverse-engineered into the "Type 1 66 mm anti-tank rocket" but is more-popularly nicknamed as the "Type 66 rocket" due to its caliber.


title: M72 LAW

text: Several M72A1 and M72A2 LAWs captured during the Vietnam War have been put into service with the chemical force of the Vietnam People's Army. The launchers are upgraded to be able to fire multiple times and are armed with M74 incendiary rounds.


title: Alfred, Lord Tennyson

text: Alfred Tennyson, 1st Baron Tennyson (6 August 1809 – 6 October 1892) was an English poet. He was the Poet Laureate during much of Queen Victoria's reign. In 1829, Tennyson was awarded the Chancellor's Gold Medal at Cambridge for one of his first pieces, "Timbuktu". He published his first solo collection of poems, "Poems, Chiefly Lyrical", in 1830. "Claribel" and "Mariana", which remain some of Tennyson's most celebrated poems, were included in this volume. Although described by some critics as overly sentimental, his verse soon proved popular and brought Tennyson to the attention of well-known writers of the day, including Samuel Taylor Coleridge. Tennyson's early poetry, with its medievalism and powerful visual imagery, was a major influence on the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood.


title: Alfred, Lord Tennyson

text: Tennyson also excelled at short lyrics, such as "Break, Break, Break", "The Charge of the Light Brigade", "Tears, Idle Tears", and "Crossing the Bar". Much of his verse was based on classical mythological themes, such as "Ulysses". "In Memoriam A.H.H." was written to commemorate his friend Arthur Hallam, a fellow poet and student at Trinity College, Cambridge, after he died of a stroke at the age of 22. Tennyson also wrote some notable blank verse including "Idylls of the King", "Ulysses", and "Tithonus". During his career, Tennyson attempted drama, but his plays enjoyed little success.


title: Alfred, Lord Tennyson

text: A number of phrases from Tennyson's work have become commonplace in the English language, including "Nature, red in tooth and claw" ("In Memoriam A.H.H."), "'Tis better to have loved and lost / Than never to have loved at all", "Theirs not to reason why, / Theirs but to do and die", "My strength is as the strength of ten, / Because my heart is pure", "To strive, to seek, to find, and not to yield", "Knowledge comes, but Wisdom lingers", and "The old order changeth, yielding place to new". He is the ninth most frequently quoted writer in "The Oxford Dictionary of Quotations".


title: Alfred, Lord Tennyson

text: Tennyson was born on 6 August 1809 in Somersby, Lincolnshire, England. He was born into a successful middle-class family of minor landowning status distantly descended from John Savage, 2nd Earl Rivers, and Francis Leke, 1st Earl of Scarsdale. His father, George Clayton Tennyson (1778–1831), was an Anglican clergyman who served as rector of Somersby (1807–1831), also rector of Benniworth (1802–1831) and Bag Enderby, and vicar of Grimsby (1815). He raised a large family and "was a man of superior abilities and varied attainments, who tried his hand with fair success in architecture, painting, music, and poetry. He was comfortably well off for a country clergyman, and his shrewd money management enabled the family to spend summers at Mablethorpe and Skegness on the eastern coast of England". George Clayton Tennyson was elder son of attorney and MP George Tennyson (1749/50-1835), JP, DL, of Bayons Manor and Usselby Hall, who had also inherited the estates of his mother's family, the Claytons, and married Mary, daughter and heiress of John Turner, of Caistor, Lincolnshire. George Clayton Tennyson was however pushed into a career in the church and passed over as heir in favour of his younger brother, Charles Tennyson d'Eyncourt. Alfred Tennyson's mother, Elizabeth (1781–1865), was the daughter of Stephen Fytche (1734–1799), vicar of St. James Church, Louth (1764) and rector of Withcall (1780), a small village between Horncastle and Louth. Tennyson's father "carefully attended to the education and training of his children".


title: Alfred, Lord Tennyson

text: Tennyson and two of his elder brothers were writing poetry in their teens and a collection of poems by all three was published locally when Alfred was only 17. One of those brothers, Charles Tennyson Turner, later married Louisa Sellwood, the younger sister of Alfred's future wife; the other was Frederick Tennyson. Another of Tennyson's brothers, Edward Tennyson, was institutionalised at a private asylum.


title: Alfred, Lord Tennyson

text: Tennyson was a student of King Edward VI Grammar School, Louth from 1816 to 1820. He entered Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1827, where he joined a secret society called the Cambridge Apostles. A portrait of Tennyson by George Frederic Watts is in Trinity's collection.


title: Alfred, Lord Tennyson

text: At Cambridge, Tennyson met Arthur Hallam and William Henry Brookfield, who became his closest friends. His first publication was a collection of "his boyish rhymes and those of his elder brother Charles" entitled "Poems by Two Brothers", published in 1827.


title: Alfred, Lord Tennyson

text: In 1829, Tennyson was awarded the Chancellor's Gold Medal at Cambridge for one of his first pieces, "Timbuktu". Reportedly, "it was thought to be no slight honour for a young man of twenty to win the chancellor's gold medal". He published his first solo collection of poems, "Poems Chiefly Lyrical" in 1830. "Claribel" and "Mariana", which later took their place among Tennyson's most celebrated poems, were included in this volume. Although decried by some critics as overly sentimental, his verse soon proved popular and brought Tennyson to the attention of well-known writers of the day, including Samuel Taylor Coleridge.


title: Alfred, Lord Tennyson

text: In the spring of 1831, Tennyson's father died, requiring him to leave Cambridge before taking his degree. He returned to the rectory, where he was permitted to live for another six years and shared responsibility for his widowed mother and the family. Arthur Hallam came to stay with his family during the summer and became engaged to Tennyson's sister, Emilia Tennyson.


title: Alfred, Lord Tennyson

text: In 1833 Tennyson published his second book of poetry, which notably included the first version of "The Lady of Shalott". The volume met heavy criticism, which so discouraged Tennyson that he did not publish again for ten years, although he did continue to write. That same year, Hallam died suddenly and unexpectedly after suffering a cerebral haemorrhage while on a holiday in Vienna. Hallam's death had a profound effect on Tennyson and inspired several poems, including "In the Valley of Cauteretz" and "In Memoriam A.H.H.", a long poem detailing the "Way of the Soul".


title: Alfred, Lord Tennyson

text: Tennyson and his family were allowed to stay in the rectory for some time, but later moved to Beech Hill Park, High Beach, deep within Epping Forest, Essex, about 1837. Tennyson's son recalled: “there was a pond in the park on which in winter my father might be seen skating, sailing about on the ice in his long blue cloak. He liked the nearness of London, whither he resorted to see his friends, but he could not stay in town even for a night, his mother being in such a nervous state that he did not like to leave her...". Tennyson befriended a Dr Allen, who ran a nearby asylum whose patients then included the poet John Clare. An unwise investment in Dr Allen's ecclesiastical wood-carving enterprise soon led to the loss of much of the family fortune, and led to a bout of serious depression. According to Tennyson's grandson Sir Charles Tennyson, Tennyson met Thomas Carlyle in 1839, if not earlier. The pair began a lifelong friendship, and were famous smoking companions. Some of Tennyson's work even bears the influence of Carlyle and his ideas. Tennyson moved to London in 1840 and lived for a time at Chapel House, Twickenham.


title: Alfred, Lord Tennyson

text: On 14 May 1842, while living modestly in London, Tennyson published the two volume "Poems", of which the first included works already published and the second was made up almost entirely of new poems. They met with immediate success; poems from this collection, such as "Locksley Hall", "Break, Break, Break", and "Ulysses", and a new version of "The Lady of Shalott", have met enduring fame. "The Princess: A Medley", a satire on women's education that came out in 1847, was also popular for its lyrics. W. S. Gilbert later adapted and parodied the piece twice: in "The Princess" (1870) and in "Princess Ida" (1884).


title: Alfred, Lord Tennyson

text: It was in 1850 that Tennyson reached the pinnacle of his career, finally publishing his masterpiece, "In Memoriam A.H.H.", dedicated to Hallam. Later the same year, he was appointed Poet Laureate, succeeding William Wordsworth. In the same year (on 13 June), Tennyson married Emily Sellwood, whom he had known since childhood, in the village of Shiplake. They had two sons, Hallam Tennyson (b. 11 August 1852)—named after his friend—and Lionel (b. 16 March 1854).


title: Alfred, Lord Tennyson

text: Tennyson rented Farringford House on the Isle of Wight in 1853, eventually buying it in 1856. He eventually found that there were too many starstruck tourists who pestered him in Farringford, so he moved to Aldworth, in West Sussex in 1869. However, he retained Farringford, and regularly returned there to spend the winters.


title: Alfred, Lord Tennyson

text: In 1850, after William Wordsworth's death and Samuel Rogers' refusal, Tennyson was appointed to the position of Poet Laureate; Elizabeth Barrett Browning and Leigh Hunt had also been considered. He held the position until his own death in 1892, the longest tenure of any laureate. Tennyson fulfilled the requirements of this position, such as by authoring a poem of greeting to Princess Alexandra of Denmark when she arrived in Britain to marry the future King Edward VII. In 1855, Tennyson produced one of his best-known works, "The Charge of the Light Brigade", a dramatic tribute to the British cavalrymen involved in an ill-advised charge on 25 October 1854, during the Crimean War. Other esteemed works written in the post of Poet Laureate include "Ode on the Death of the Duke of Wellington" and "Ode Sung at the Opening of the International Exhibition".


title: Alfred, Lord Tennyson

text: Tennyson declined a baronetcy offered him by Disraeli in 1865 and 1868, finally accepting a peerage in 1883 at Gladstone's earnest solicitation. In 1884 Victoria created him Baron Tennyson, of Aldworth in the County of Sussex and of Freshwater in the Isle of Wight. He took his seat in the House of Lords on 11 March 1884.


title: Alfred, Lord Tennyson

text: Tennyson also wrote a substantial quantity of unofficial political verse, from the bellicose "Form, Riflemen, Form", on the French crisis of 1859 and the Creation of the Volunteer Force, to "Steersman, be not precipitate in thine act/of steering", deploring Gladstone's Home Rule Bill. Tennyson's family were Whigs by tradition and Tennyson's own politics fitted the Whig mould, although he would also vote for the Liberal Party after the Whigs dissolved. Tennyson believed that society should progress through gradual and steady reform, not revolution, and this attitude was reflected in his attitude toward universal suffrage, which he did not outright reject, but recommended only after the masses had been properly educated and adjusted to self-government. Upon passage of the 1832 Reform Act, Tennyson broke into a local church to ring the bells in celebration.


title: Alfred, Lord Tennyson

text: Virginia Woolf wrote a play called "Freshwater", showing Tennyson as host to his friends Julia Margaret Cameron and G. F. Watts. Colonel George Edward Gouraud, Thomas Edison's European agent, made sound recordings of Tennyson reading his own poetry, late in his life. They include recordings of "The Charge of the Light Brigade", and excerpts from "The splendour falls" (from The Princess), "Come into the garden" (from Maud), "Ask me no more", "Ode on the death of the Duke of Wellington" and "Lancelot and Elaine". The sound quality is poor, as wax cylinder recordings usually are.


title: Alfred, Lord Tennyson

text: Towards the end of his life Tennyson revealed that his "religious beliefs also defied convention, leaning towards agnosticism and pandeism": In a characteristically Victorian manner, Tennyson combines a deep interest in contemporary science with an unorthodox, even idiosyncratic, Christian belief. Famously, he wrote in "In Memoriam": "There lives more faith in honest doubt, believe me, than in half the creeds." In "Maud", 1855, he wrote: "The churches have killed their Christ". In "Locksley Hall Sixty Years After", Tennyson wrote: "Christian love among the churches look'd the twin of heathen hate." In his play, "Becket", he wrote: "We are self-uncertain creatures, and we may, Yea, even when we know not, mix our spites and private hates with our defence of Heaven". Tennyson recorded in his "Diary" (p. 127): "I believe in Pantheism of a sort". His son's biography confirms that Tennyson was an unorthodox Christian, noting that Tennyson praised Giordano Bruno and Spinoza on his deathbed, saying of Bruno, "His view of God is in some ways mine", in 1892.


title: Alfred, Lord Tennyson

text: Tennyson continued writing into his eighties. He died on 6 October 1892 at Aldworth, aged 83. He was buried at Westminster Abbey. A memorial was erected in All Saints' Church, Freshwater. His last words were, "Oh that press will have me now!". He left an estate of £57,206. Tennyson Down and the Tennyson Trail on the Isle of Wight are named after him, and a monument to him stands on top of Tennyson Down. Lake Tennyson in New Zealand's high country, named by Frederick Weld, is assumed to be named after Lord Tennyson.


title: Alfred, Lord Tennyson

text: He was succeeded as 2nd Baron Tennyson by his son, Hallam, who produced an authorised biography of his father in 1897, and was later the second Governor-General of Australia.


title: Alfred, Lord Tennyson

text: Although Albert, Prince Consort, was largely responsible for Tennyson's appointment as Laureate, Queen Victoria became an ardent admirer of Tennyson's work, writing in her diary that she was "much soothed & pleased" by reading "In Memoriam A.H.H." after Albert's death.


title: Alfred, Lord Tennyson

text: The two met twice, first in April 1862, when Victoria wrote in her diary, "very peculiar looking, tall, dark, with a fine head, long black flowing hair & a beard, oddly dressed, but there is no affectation about him."


title: Alfred, Lord Tennyson

text: Tennyson met her a second time just over two decades later, on 7 August 1883, and the Queen told him what a comfort "In Memoriam A.H.H." had been.


title: Alfred, Lord Tennyson

text: As source material for his poetry, Tennyson used a wide range of subject matter ranging from medieval legends to classical myths and from domestic situations to observations of nature. The influence of John Keats and other Romantic poets published before and during his childhood is evident from the richness of his imagery and descriptive writing. He also handled rhythm masterfully. The insistent beat of "Break, Break, Break" emphasises the relentless sadness of the subject matter. Tennyson's use of the musical qualities of words to emphasise his rhythms and meanings is sensitive. The language of "I come from haunts of coot and hern" lilts and ripples like the brook in the poem and the last two lines of "Come down O maid from yonder mountain height" illustrate his telling combination of onomatopoeia, alliteration, and assonance:


title: Alfred, Lord Tennyson

text: Tennyson was a craftsman who polished and revised his manuscripts extensively, to the point where his efforts at self-editing were described by his contemporary Robert Browning as "insane", symptomatic of "mental infirmity". His complex compositional practice and frequent redrafting also demonstrates a dynamic relationship between images and words, as can be seen in the many notebooks he worked in. Few poets have used such a variety of styles with such an exact understanding of metre; like many Victorian poets, he experimented in adapting the quantitative metres of Greek and Latin poetry to English. He reflects the Victorian period of his maturity in his feeling for order and his tendency towards moralising. He also reflects a concern common among Victorian writers in being troubled by the conflict between religious faith and expanding scientific knowledge. Tennyson possessed a strong poetic power, which his early readers often attributed to his "Englishness" and his masculinity. Well-known among his longer works are "Maud" and "Idylls of the King", the latter arguably the most famous Victorian adaptation of the legend of King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table. A common thread of grief, melancholy, and loss connects much of his poetry (including "Mariana", "The Lotos Eaters", "Tears, Idle Tears", "In Memoriam"), possibly reflecting Tennyson's own lifelong struggle with debilitating depression. T. S. Eliot famously described Tennyson as "the saddest of all English poets", whose technical mastery of verse and language provided a "surface" to his poetry's "depths, to the abyss of sorrow". Other poets such as W. H. Auden maintained a more critical stance, stating that Tennyson was the "stupidest" of all the English poets, adding that: "There was little about melancholia he didn't know; there was little else that he did."


title: Alfred, Lord Tennyson

text: Tennyson's early poetry, with its medievalism and powerful visual imagery, was a major influence on the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood. In 1848, Dante Gabriel Rossetti and William Holman Hunt made a list of "Immortals", artistic heroes whom they admired, especially from literature, notably including Keats and Tennyson, whose work would form subjects for PRB paintings. "The Lady of Shalott" alone was a subject for Rossetti, Hunt, John William Waterhouse (three versions), and Elizabeth Siddall.


title: Alfred, Lord Tennyson

text: A heraldic achievement of Alfred, Lord Tennyson exists in an 1884 stained-glass window in the Hall of Trinity College, Cambridge, showing arms:


title: Alfred, Lord Tennyson

text: These are a difference of the arms of Thomas Tenison (1636–1715), Archbishop of Canterbury, themselves a difference of the arms of the 13th-century Denys family of Glamorgan and Siston in Gloucestershire, themselves a difference of the arms of Thomas de Cantilupe (c. 1218–1282), Bishop of Hereford, henceforth the arms of the See of Hereford; the name "Tennyson" signifies "Denys's son", although no connection between the two families is recorded.


title: Firefly

text: The Lampyridae are a family of elateroid beetles with more than 2,000 described species, many of which are light-emitting. They are soft-bodied beetles commonly called fireflies, lightning bugs, or glowworms for their conspicuous production of light, mainly during twilight, to attract mates. Light production in the Lampyridae is thought to have originated as an honest warning signal that the larvae were distasteful; this was co-opted in evolution as a mating signal in the adults. In a further development, female fireflies of the genus "Photuris" mimic the flash pattern of "Photinus" species to trap their males as prey.


title: Firefly

text: Fireflies are found in temperate and tropical climates. Many live in marshes or in wet, wooded areas where their larvae have abundant sources of food. While all known fireflies glow as larvae, only some species produce light in their adult stage, and the location of the light organ varies among species and between sexes of the same species. Fireflies have attracted human attention since classical antiquity; their presence has been taken to signify a wide variety of conditions in different cultures and is especially appreciated aesthetically in Japan, where parks are set aside for this specific purpose.


title: Firefly

text: Fireflies are beetles and in many aspects resemble other beetles at all stages of their life-cycle, undergoing complete metamorphosis. A few days after mating, a female lays her fertilized eggs on or just below the surface of the ground. The eggs hatch three to four weeks later. In certain firefly species with aquatic larvae, such as "Aquatica leii", the female oviposits on emergent portions of aquatic plants, and the larvae descend into the water after hatching.


title: Firefly

text: The larvae feed until the end of the summer. Most fireflies hibernate as larvae. Some do this by burrowing underground, while others find places on or under the bark of trees. They emerge in the spring. At least one species, "Ellychnia corrusca", overwinters as an adult. The larvae of most species are specialized predators and feed on other larvae, terrestrial snails, and slugs. Some are so specialized that they have grooved mandibles that deliver digestive fluids directly to their prey. The larval stage lasts from several weeks up to, in certain species, two or more years. The larvae pupate for one to two and a half weeks and emerge as adults.


title: Firefly

text: Adult diet varies between firefly species: some are predatory, while others feed on plant pollen or nectar. Some adults, like the European glow-worm, have no mouth, emerging only to mate and lay eggs before dying. In most species, adults live for a few weeks in summer.


title: Firefly

text: Fireflies vary widely in their general appearance, with differences in color, shape, size, and features such as antennae. Adults differ in size depending on the species, with the largest up to long. Many species have non-flying larviform females. These can often be distinguished from the larvae only because the adult females have compound eyes, unlike the simple eyes of larvae, though the females have much smaller (and often highly regressed) eyes than those of their males. The most commonly known fireflies are nocturnal, although numerous species are diurnal and usually not luminescent; however, some species that remain in shadowy areas may produce light.


title: Firefly

text: Most fireflies are distasteful to vertebrate predators, as they contain the steroid pyrones lucibufagins, similar to the cardiotonic bufadienolides found in some poisonous toads. All fireflies glow as larvae, where bioluminescence is an honest aposematic warning signal to predators.


title: Firefly

text: Light production in fireflies is due to the chemical process of bioluminescence. This occurs in specialized light-emitting organs, usually on a female firefly's lower abdomen. The enzyme luciferase acts on the luciferin, in the presence of magnesium ions, ATP, and oxygen to produce light. Oxygen is supplied via an abdominal trachea or breathing tube. Gene coding for these substances has been inserted into many different organisms. Firefly luciferase is used in forensics, and the enzyme has medical uses – in particular, for detecting the presence of ATP or magnesium. Fireflies produce a "cold light", with no infrared or ultraviolet frequencies. The light may be yellow, green, or pale red, with wavelengths from 510 to 670 nanometers. Some species such as the dimly glowing "blue ghost" of the Eastern US may seem to emit blueish-white light from a distance and in low light conditions, but their glow is bright green when observed up close. Their perceived blue tint may be due to the Purkinje effect.


title: Firefly

text: Adults emit light primarily for mate selection. Early larval bioluminescence was adopted in the phylogeny of adult fireflies, and was repeatedly gained and lost before becoming fixed and retained as a mechanism of sexual communication in many species. Adult lampyrids have a variety of ways to communicate with mates in courtships: steady glows, flashing, and the use of chemical signals unrelated to photic systems. Chemical signals, or pheromones, are the ancestral form of sexual communication; this pre-dates the evolution of flash signaling in the lineage, and is retained today in diurnally-active species. Some species, especially lightning bugs of the genera "Photinus", "Photuris", and "Pyractomena", are distinguished by the unique courtship flash patterns emitted by flying males in search of females. In general, females of the genus "Photinus" do not fly, but do give a flash response to males of their own species. Signals, whether photic or chemical, allow fireflies to identify mates of their own species. Flash signaling characteristics include differences in duration, timing, color, number and rate of repetitions, height of flight, and direction of flight (e.g. climbing or diving) and vary interspecifically and geographically. When flash signals are not sufficiently distinguished between species in a population, sexual selection encourages divergence of signaling patterns.


title: Firefly

text: Synchronization of flashing occurs in several species; it is explained as phase synchronization and spontaneous order. Tropical fireflies routinely synchronise their flashes among large groups, particularly in Southeast Asia. At night along river banks in the Malaysian jungles, fireflies synchronize their light emissions precisely. Current hypotheses about the causes of this behavior involve diet, social interaction, and altitude. In the Philippines, thousands of fireflies can be seen all year-round in the town of Donsol. In the United States, one of the most famous sightings of fireflies blinking in unison occurs annually near Elkmont, Tennessee, in the Great Smoky Mountains during the first weeks of June. Congaree National Park in South Carolina is another host to this phenomenon.


title: Firefly

text: Female "femme fatale" "Photuris" fireflies mimic the photic signaling patterns of the smaller "Photinus", attracting males to what appears to be a suitable mate, and eating them. This provides the females with a supply of the toxic defensive lucibufagin chemicals.


title: Firefly

text: Many fireflies do not produce light. Usually these species are diurnal, or day-flying, such as those in the genus "Ellychnia". A few diurnal fireflies that inhabit primarily shadowy places, such as beneath tall plants or trees, are luminescent. One such genus is "Lucidota".


title: Firefly

text: Non-bioluminescent fireflies use pheromones to signal mates. This is supported by the fact that some basal groups do not show bioluminescence and use chemical signaling, instead. "Phosphaenus hemipterus" has photic organs, yet is a diurnal firefly and displays large antennae and small eyes. These traits strongly suggest pheromones are used for sexual selection, while photic organs are used for warning signals. In controlled experiments, males coming from downwind arrived at females first, indicating that males travel upwind along a pheromone plume. Males can find females without the use of visual cues, so sexual communication in "P. hemipterus" appears to be mediated entirely by pheromones.


title: Firefly

text: The oldest known fossil of the Lampyridae family is "Protoluciola" from the Late Cretaceous (Cenomanian ~ 99 million years ago) Burmese amber of Myanmar, which belongs to the subfamily Luciolinae. The light producing organ is clearly present. The ancestral glow colour for the last common ancestor of all living fireflies has been inferred to be green, based on genomic analysis.


title: Firefly

text: The fireflies (including the lightning bugs) are a family, Lampyridae, of some 2,000 species within the Coleoptera. The family forms a single clade, a natural phylogenetic group. The term glowworm is used for both adults and larvae of firefly species such as "Lampyris noctiluca", the common European glowworm, in which only the nonflying adult females glow brightly; the flying males glow weakly and intermittently. In the Americas, "glow worms" are the closely related Coleopteran family Phengodidae, while in New Zealand and Australia, a "glow worm" is a luminescent larva of the fungus gnat "Arachnocampa", within the true flies, Diptera.


title: Firefly

text: The phylogeny of the Lampyridae family, based on both phylogenetic and morphological evidence by Martin et al. 2019, is:


title: Firefly

text: Firefly populations are thought to be declining worldwide. While monitoring data for many regions are scarce, a growing number of anecdotal reports, coupled with several published studies from Europe and Asia, suggest that fireflies are in trouble. Recent IUCN Red List assessments for North American fireflies have identified species with heightened extinction risk in the US, with 18 taxa categorized as threatened with extinction.


title: Firefly

text: Fireflies face threats including habitat loss and degradation, light pollution, pesticide use, and climate change. Firefly tourism, a quickly growing sector of the travel and tourism industry, has also been identified as a potential threat to fireflies and their habitats when not managed appropriately. Like many other organisms, fireflies are directly affected by land-use change (e.g., loss of habitat area and connectivity), which is identified as the main driver of biodiversity changes in terrestrial ecosystems. Pesticides, including insecticides and herbicides, have also been indicated as a likely cause of firefly decline. These chemicals can not only harm fireflies directly but also potentially reduce prey populations and degrade habitat. Light pollution is an especially concerning threat to fireflies. Since the majority of firefly species utilize bioluminescent courtship signals, they are also very sensitive to environmental levels of light and consequently to light pollution. A growing number of studies investigating the effects of artificial light at night on fireflies has shown that light pollution can disrupt fireflies' courtship signals and even interfere with larval dispersal. Researchers agree that protecting and enhancing firefly habitat is necessary to conserve their populations. Recommendations include reducing or limiting artificial light at night, restoring habitats where threatened species occur, and eliminating unnecessary pesticide use, among many others.


title: Firefly

text: Fireflies have featured in human culture around the world for centuries. In Japan, the emergence of fireflies (Japanese: ) signifies the anticipated changing of the seasons; firefly viewing is a special aesthetic pleasure of midsummer, celebrated in parks that exist for that one purpose. The Japanese sword called Hotarumaru, made in the 14th century, is so named for a legend that one night its flaws were repaired by fireflies.


title: Firefly

text: In Italy, the firefly (Italian: ) appears in Canto XXVI of Dante's "Inferno", written in the 14th century:


title: Firefly

text: In Western culture, fireflies with their transiently appearing and disappearing lights are associated with "such distinct and even contradictory significances as childhood, crop, doom, elves, fear, habitat change, idyll, love, luck, mortality, prostitution, solstice, stars and fleetingness of words and cognition". The firefly was one of only about 12 kinds of beetle known in classical antiquity; Pliny the Elder advised sowing millet and harvesting barley at the moment when the glow-worms appeared.


title: Tales (video game series)

text: The Tales series is a franchise of fantasy role-playing video games published by Bandai Namco Entertainment (formerly Namco), and developed by its subsidiary, Namco Tales Studio until 2011 and presently by Bandai Namco Studios. First begun in 1995 with the development and release of "Tales of Phantasia" for the Super Famicom, the series currently spans seventeen main titles, multiple spin-off games and supplementary media in the form of manga series, anime series, and audio dramas.


title: Tales (video game series)

text: While entries in the series generally stand independent of each other with different characters and stories, they are commonly linked by their gameplay, themes and high fantasy settings. The series is characterized by its art style, which draws from Japanese manga and anime, and its action-based fighting system called the "Linear Motion Battle System". Multiple people have become linked with the series, including character designers Kōsuke Fujishima and Mutsumi Inomata, producers Hideo Baba and Makoto Yoshizumi, and composer Motoi Sakuraba. The series was created by Yoshiharu Gotanda.


title: Tales (video game series)

text: Most of the main "Tales" games have been localized for North America and Europe, although almost none of the spinoff titles have been released abroad. While generally seen as a niche series in English-speaking regions, "Tales" is considered to be among the most important JRPG franchises in Japan. The series has been gaining popularity in the West since the release of "Tales of Symphonia", which is still considered one of its most popular games. As of 2022, the series has shipped over 25 million units worldwide.


title: Tales (video game series)

text: Since the first installment was released in 1995, the "Tales" series has grown to include the main entries and multiple spin-offs that derive multiple gameplay and narrative elements from the main entries. Except when indicated by naming, the main "Tales" entries are separate from each other apart from gameplay mechanics and themes. While "Tales" titles are often ported to new consoles after their original release, these remakes are rarely localized. The 2006 Nintendo DS game "Tales of the Tempest" was originally seen as a main entry in the series, but in 2007 was classified as a spin-off, possibly due to poor reception of that particular title.


title: Tales (video game series)

text: The series debuted on the Super Famicom with "Tales of Phantasia" in 1995, and introduced multiple elements that would become staples of the "Tales" series. It was released in the West on the Game Boy Advance in 2006. It was also ported to the PlayStation, PlayStation Portable and iOS. The PlayStation received two original "Tales" games: "Tales of Destiny" in 1997, which was the first title to be released in North America, and "Tales of Eternia" in 2000, which was released in North America as "Tales of Destiny 2" in 2001.


title: Tales (video game series)

text: Five titles were released on the PlayStation 2. The true direct sequel to "Destiny", "Tales of Destiny 2", was released on the PlayStation 2 in 2001 across Asian territories and ported to the PlayStation Portable in Japan in 2007; both versions have yet to receive a Western release. "Tales of Symphonia" was released in Japan on the PS2 and Nintendo GameCube. The GameCube version was also released in North America and Europe. It was the first entry to feature 3D graphics for its characters and environments and the first to be released in Europe. "Tales of Rebirth" was released in 2004 and ported to the PlayStation Portable in 2008, but has not yet received a Western localization. "Tales of Legendia" and "Tales of the Abyss" were both released in Japan in 2005, with both being released in North America the following year. "Legendia" was the first and only "Tales" game developed by Namco internal development team "Project Melfes", while "Abyss" was developed by the same team that developed "Symphonia", and used its same graphics engine. "Abyss" was later ported to the Nintendo 3DS and released in Japan, North America and Europe.


title: Tales (video game series)

text: "Tales of Innocence" was released in Japan on the Nintendo DS in 2007. A remake of the game, "Innocence R" was released on the PlayStation Vita in 2012. Neither version has been released in the West. The first release on seventh-generation consoles, "Tales of Vesperia" for Xbox 360, was released in Japan and North America in 2008 and in Europe in 2009. A Japan-exclusive PlayStation 3 port with updated content was released in 2009, which became available worldwide in 2019 with the remastered "Definitive Edition" on PlayStation 4, PC, Xbox One and Nintendo Switch. "Tales of Hearts" was released on the Nintendo DS in 2008. A remake, "Hearts R", was released in 2013 in Japan and 2014 in North America and Europe.


title: Tales (video game series)

text: The twelfth entry, "Tales of Graces", released on the Wii in Japan in 2009. A PlayStation 3 port, "Graces f", was released in 2010 in Japan, and in 2012 in North America and Europe. "Tales of Xillia", the series' 15th anniversary title, was released in Japan for PlayStation 3 in 2011, and in North America and Europe in 2013. "Xillia"s direct sequel and the fourteenth main title, "Tales of Xillia 2", was released in 2012 in Japan and 2014 in North America and Europe. The series' 20th anniversary title, "Tales of Zestiria", was released in January 2015 in Japan and worldwide in October 2015, for PS3, PS4 and PC. The sixteenth main title, "Tales of Berseria", was released in Japan for PS3 and PS4 in August 2016, and worldwide for PS4 and PC in January 2017. "Tales of Arise", designed as a departure from series conventions, was originally set to release in 2020 for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 4 and Xbox One, but was delayed to September 2021 due to internal issues and the desire to launch the game on next-generation consoles.


title: Tales (video game series)

text: The series has received a small number of sequels, and a large number of spin-off titles and subseries. With the exception of "Tempest", worked on by multiple staff from the main series and treated as a precursor to "Innocence", these games are derivative rather than original works. Three direct sequels have been produced: "Destiny 2", "Xillia 2" and "". "Eternia" received an MMORPG spin-off for PC platforms titled "Tales of Eternia Online". Multiple crossover games have been made for mobile platforms, including "Tales of Link", the "Tales of Mobile" series, "Tales of Card Evolve", "Tales of Kizna" and "Tales of Asteria". Two titles for the PlayStation Portable have been released in Japan: "Tales of VS." in 2009, and "" in 2012. The main spin-off subseries is "Tales of the World", which has grown to include ten games beginning with "", released in Japan on the Game Boy Color in 2000. Only "" has been released in the West. A second subseries, "Tales of Fandom", includes two games released respectively for the PlayStation and PlayStation 2 in 2002 and 2007. On February 28, 2017, they had released another mobile Tales game called "Tales of the Rays" in Japan and worldwide on July 24, 2017. On March 28, 2018, however, "Tales of Links" ended their service, and a day after the closure, they announced the global version of "Tales of the Rays" would end their service as well on May 29, 2018. "Tales of Crestoria" another mobile game, was released on July 16, 2020.


title: Tales (video game series)

text: The "Tales" series has expanded into other media, including CD dramas, manga and anime. Multiple "Tales" games have been adapted into anime OVAs and TV series. The "Symphonia" OVA was released in three parts between 2007 and 2011, and released as a single collection in 2013. "Abyss" was adapted into a 26-episode TV series between October 2008 and March 2009. "Phantasia" and "Eternia" have also received anime adaptations. The series' first theatrical film, a prequel to "Vesperia" called "", was released in 2009 in Japan and 2012 in North America. A made-for-television anime based on the opening sections of "Zestiria", "Dawn of the Shepard", was produced as part of the 20th anniversary celebrations related to the title. It was also released on the game disc. A full series based on "Zestiria" began airing in July 2016.


title: Tales (video game series)

text: Books and audio dramas have also been made. "Phantasia" received multiple CD dramas, including four collected into anthologies in January and March 2000. and a stand-alone drama in December 2001. "Symphonia" received seven audio dramas. Two CD dramas for "Legendia" were respectively released in August and September 2005. A manga of "Phantasia" was written and serialized in 2008 and 2009, while "Abyss" received three manga adaptations in the years after its release. "Symphonia" was adapted into novelizations and a manga serial. "Destiny", "Graces" and "Xillia" also received adaptations of these kinds.


title: Tales (video game series)

text: The "Tales" series is classified as a role-playing video game series. Multiple gameplay elements carry over from entry to entry. The main unifying element is the combat system, the Linear Motion Battle System (LMBS for short). Considered one of the mainstays and building blocks for every main entry in the series, it undergoes multiple incremental changes and alterations from one installment to the next. Introduced in "Phantasia", it is a real-time fighting system similar to a brawler, as opposed to the majority of RPGs at the time of "Phantasia"s release, which primarily used turn-based battle systems.


title: Tales (video game series)

text: Some features introduced in certain games have proven popular enough to remain in future installments like "Free Running" (the ability for a character to freely roam the battlefield). Elements of turn-based combat are also present, though to a lesser degree: an example of this is "Destiny"s "Chain Capacity" feature (the number of skills a character can perform), which appears in later games in the series. The battle system for "Legendia" was deliberately designed to be similar to a brawler: the stated reason was that the team wished to combine brawler combat with the story and leveling mechanics of a "Tales" game. Characters generally use Artes, which are special attacks characters can perform in battle. Players can usually only control one character, though a multiplayer option was implemented for "Destiny" and has reappeared in later "Tales" games.


title: Tales (video game series)

text: The battle system's name for each installment is augmented with descriptive titles representative of features of that game's battle system: examples are the "Style Shift" system from "Graces" (characters shifting between two types of Artes) and the "Fusionic-Chain" system from "Zestiria" (a human character merging with a magical character for a brief period to deal greater damage, termed in-game as "Armatization"). Characters are awarded with "Titles", nicknames that sometimes grant benefits to them in battle when assigned to them. In the majority of previous "Tales" games, when navigating the overworld or environment and encountering an enemy, combat took place on a separate battle screen. From "Zestiria" onwards, combat took place in the same space as exploration.