title: JID

text: "DiCaprio 2" was released on November 26, 2018, to positive reviews and critical acclaim. JID announced the first leg of his headlining Catch Me If You Can tour, which included 34 dates, beginning in January 2019. The supporting acts were revealed to be Reason, Hardo, and Lou The Human. On February 9, JID's show in Ithaca, New York was shut down by the police due to a visible crack forming in the ceiling underneath the venue where the concert was held. On February 12, 2019, JID announced the second leg of his Catch Me If You Can tour. The tour includes 26 dates starting in May, and features supporting acts Saba, Deante' Hitchcock, and Mereba.


title: JID

text: In 2019, JID was part of the Dreamville compilation album "Revenge of the Dreamers III". The singles "Down Bad" and "Costa Rica" were certified gold by the RIAA. In 2020, as part of Spillage Village, he was featured on the singles "End of Daze" and "Baptize", for their fourth collective album "Spilligion".


title: JID

text: JID was featured on Doja Cat's song "Options", included on her Grammy-nominated third album, "Planet Her". He later collaborated with Imagine Dragons on the mega-hit "Enemy"; it peaked at number five on the "Billboard" Hot 100, becoming his highest charting song.


title: JID

text: JID teased his third album, "The Forever Story", throughout 2021. The first and lead single from the album, "Surround Sound" featuring 21 Savage and Baby Tate, was released on January 14, 2022. On March 31, he appeared on the Dreamville compilation "", on the songs "Stick" and "Barry From Simpson". On August 9, JID released the second single from "The Forever Story", titled "Dance Now", featuring Kenny Mason.


title: JID

text: "The Forever Story" was released on August 26, 2022, including guest appearances from Kenny Mason, EarthGang, 21 Savage, Baby Tate, Lil Durk, Ari Lennox, Yasiin Bey, Lil Wayne, Johntá Austin, Ravyn Lenae and Eryn Allen Kane.


title: JID

text: Growing up, JID's first connection with music was through his parents' collection of classic funk and soul LPs. He names Sly and the Family Stone, D'Angelo, Wu-Tang Clan, Little Dragon, boom bap, New York hip hop (i.e. Nas, Jay-Z) and Arctic Monkeys as his biggest influences. He also cited fellow Atlanta artists OutKast, T.I., Goodie Mob and Gucci Mane as influences.


title: Adobe Illustrator

text: Adobe Illustrator is a vector graphics editor and design program developed and marketed by Adobe Inc. Originally designed for the Apple Macintosh, development of Adobe Illustrator began in 1985. Along with Creative Cloud (Adobe's shift to monthly or annual subscription service delivered over the Internet), Illustrator CC was released. The latest version, Illustrator 2022, was released on October 26, 2021, and is the 25th generation in the product line. Adobe Illustrator was reviewed as the best vector graphics editing program in 2021 by "PC Magazine".


title: Adobe Illustrator

text: Development of Adobe Illustrator for the Apple Macintosh began in 1985 (shipping in January 1987) as a commercialization of Adobe's in-house font development software and PostScript file format. Adobe Illustrator is the companion product of Adobe Photoshop. Photoshop is primarily geared toward digital photo manipulation and photorealistic styles of computer illustration, while Illustrator provides results in the typesetting and logo graphic areas of design. Early magazine advertisements (featured in graphic design trade magazines such as "Communication Arts") referred to the product as "the Adobe Illustrator". Illustrator 88, the product name for version 1.7, was released in 1988 and introduced many new tools and features.


title: Adobe Illustrator

text: "Byte" in 1989 listed Illustrator 88 as among the "Distinction" winners of the Byte Awards, stating that with it Adobe had "pulled ahead" of previously industry-dominant competitor Aldus FreeHand.


title: Adobe Illustrator

text: Early versions of the software did not support working in preview mode and users needed to have two windows open on their desktop in order to have a live preview of their work. One window would show the work in progress and the other window would show a preview of the work in progress.


title: Adobe Illustrator

text: Although during its first decade Adobe developed Illustrator primarily for Macintosh, it sporadically supported other platforms. In the early 1990s, Adobe released versions of Illustrator for Display PostScript licensees NeXT, Digital Equipment Corporation Ultrix, Silicon Graphics IRIX, and Sun Solaris platforms, but they were discontinued due to poor market acceptance. The first version of Illustrator for Windows, version 2.0, was released in early 1989 and flopped. The next Windows version, version 4.0, was widely criticized as being too similar to Illustrator 1.1 instead of the Macintosh 3.0 version, and certainly not the equal of Windows' most popular illustration package CorelDRAW. (Note that there were no versions 2.0 or 4.0 for the Macintosh—although, the second release for the Mac was titled Illustrator 88—the year of its release. And there was no version 6 for Windows.) Version 4 was, however, the first version of Illustrator to support editing in preview mode, which did not appear in a Macintosh version until 5.0 in 1993. Version 6 was the last truly Macintosh version of Illustrator. The interface changed radically with the following version to bring consistency between Mac and Windows computer platforms. The changes remained until CS6 when some small steps were taken to restore the app to a slightly more Mac-like interface.


title: Adobe Illustrator

text: With the introduction of Illustrator 7 in 1997, Adobe made critical changes in the user interface with regard to path editing (and also to converge on the same user interface as Adobe Photoshop), and many users opted not to upgrade. Illustrator also began to support TrueType, effectively ending the "font wars" between PostScript Type 1 and TrueType. Like Photoshop, Illustrator also began supporting plug-ins, greatly and quickly extending its abilities.


title: Adobe Illustrator

text: With true user interface parity between Macintosh and Windows versions starting with 7.0, designers could finally standardize on Illustrator. Corel did port CorelDRAW FreeHand still not available in Illustrator (higher scaling percentages, advanced find-and-replace feature, selective round-corner editing, export/print selected objects only, etc.). Famously, Aldus made a matrix comparing its own FreeHand to Illustrator and Draw in which Draw's one "win" was that it came with three different clip art views of the human pancreas.


title: Adobe Illustrator

text: Adobe bought Aldus in 1994 for Page Maker. As part of the transaction, the Federal Trade Commission issued a complaint of Adobe Systems on October 18, 1994, ordering a divestiture of FreeHand to "remedy the lessening of competition resulting from the acquisition" because of Adobe's Illustrator software. As a result, Macromedia acquired Free Hand in 1995 from its original developer, Altsys, and continued its development through 2004.


title: Adobe Illustrator

text: The difference in strengths between Photoshop and Illustrator became clear with the rise of the Internet, Illustrator was enhanced to support Web publishing, rasterization previewing, PDF, and SVG (Scalable Vector Graphics.) Adobe was an early developer of SVG for the web and Illustrator exported SVG files via the SVG File Format plugin. Using the Adobe SVG Viewer (ASV), introduced in 2000, allowed users to view SVG images in most major browsers until it was discontinued in 2009. Native support for SVG was not complete in all major browsers until Internet Explorer 9 in 2011.


title: Adobe Illustrator

text: Illustrator Version 9 included a tracing feature, similar to that within Adobe's discontinued product Streamline.


title: Adobe Illustrator

text: Illustrator CS (aka version 11), released by Adobe for Mac and Windows in October 2003, was the first version to include 3-dimensional capabilities allowing users to extrude or revolve shapes to create simple 3D objects.


title: Adobe Illustrator

text: Illustrator CS2 (version 12), released by Adobe in April 2005, was available for both the Mac OS X and Microsoft Windows operating systems. It was the last version for the Mac which did not run natively on Intel processors. Among the new features included in Illustrator CS2 were Live Trace, Live Paint, a control palette and custom workspace. Live Trace allows for the conversion of bitmap imagery into vector art and improved upon the previous tracing abilities. Live Paint allows users more flexibility in applying color to objects, specifically those that overlap. In the same year as the CS2 release, Adobe Systems announced an agreement to acquire Macromedia in a stock swap valued at about $3.4 billion and it integrated the companies' operations, networks, and customer-care organizations shortly thereafter. Adobe now owned Freehand along with the entire Macromedia product line and in 2007, Adobe announced that it would discontinue development and updates to the Freehand program. Instead, Adobe would provide tools and support to ease the transition to Illustrator.


title: Adobe Illustrator

text: Illustrator CS3 included interface updates to the Control Bar, the ability to align individual points, multiple Crop Areas, the Color Guide panel and the Live Color feature among others. CS3 was released on March 27, 2007.


title: Adobe Illustrator

text: CS4 was released in October 2008. It features a variety of improvements to old tools along with the introduction of a few brand-new tools acquired from FreeHand. The ability to create multiple artboards is one of CS4's main additions from Freehand. The artboards allow you to create multiple versions of a piece of work within a single document. Other tools include the Blob Brush, which allows multiple overlapping vector brush strokes to easily merge or join, and a revamped gradient tool allowing for more in-depth color manipulation as well as transparency in gradients.


title: Adobe Illustrator

text: CS5 was released in April 2010. Along with a number of enhancements to existing functionality, Illustrator CS5's new features include a Perspective Grid tool taken from FreeHand, a Bristle Brush (for more natural and painterly looking strokes) and a comprehensive update to strokes, referred to by Adobe as "Beautiful Strokes".


title: Adobe Illustrator

text: In 2011 the Adobe Illustrator team developed a vector drawing app for iPad and iPhone, called Adobe Ideas. The app had many of the features of Adobe Illustrator, yet it was a free download. This allowed professionals to sketch and ideate "on the go" and allowed anyone to access world-class vector drawing capabilities. As a result, Facebook and social media posts appeared from all over the world with vector drawings from Adobe Ideas from pros and novices alike.


title: Adobe Illustrator

text: Version CS6 was the 16th generation of Adobe Illustrator. Adobe added many more features and several bug fixes such as a new user interface, layer panels, RGB codes, and color ramp to increase performance. CS6 was released on April 23, 2012.


title: Adobe Illustrator

text: Along with Creative Cloud (the result of Adobe's shift on its release strategy), Illustrator CC was released. This version (the 17th) was the first to be only sold in a subscription-based service model, in line with the other software in the formerly called Creative Suite. As part of Creative Cloud, this version brought improvements in that subject such as color, font and program settings syncing, saving documents to the cloud, and integration with Behance (a creative collaborative network), as well as other features such as a new touch-compatible type tool, images in brushes, CSS extraction, and files packaging.


title: Adobe Illustrator

text: Starting with version 1.0, Adobe chose to license an image of Sandro Botticelli's "The Birth of Venus" from the Bettmann Archive and use the portion containing Venus' face as Illustrator's branding image. John Warnock desired a Renaissance image to evoke his vision of PostScript as a new Renaissance in publishing, and Adobe employee Luanne Seymour Cohen, who was responsible for the early marketing material, found Venus' flowing tresses a perfect vehicle for demonstrating Illustrator's strength in tracing smooth curves over bitmap source images. Over the years the rendition of this image on Illustrator's splash screen and packaging became more stylized to reflect features added in each version.


title: Adobe Illustrator

text: The image of Venus was replaced (albeit still accessible via easter egg) in Illustrator CS (11.0) and CS2 (12.0) by a stylized flower to conform to the Creative Suite's nature imagery. In CS3, Adobe changed the suite branding once again, to simple colored blocks with two-letter abbreviations, resembling a periodic table of elements. Illustrator was represented by the letters Ai in white against an orange background (oranges and yellows were prominent color schemes in Illustrator branding going back as far as version 4.0). The CS4 icon is almost identical, except for a slight alteration to the font and the color which is dark gray. The CS5 icon is also virtually the same, except that this time the logo is like a box, along with all the other CS5 product logos, with the "Ai" bright yellow. CS6 changed it a bit to a brown square with a yellow border and yellow lettering, and in CC 2014 the colors were upgraded to a sharper tone and thinner borders.


title: Adobe Illustrator

text: Compatibility with Inkscape: Inkscape's native format is SVG (Scalable Vector Graphics), which is supported by Adobe Illustrator, but the two implementations are not fully compatible. Inkscape also exports to PS, EPS and PDF, formats which Illustrator can recognize.


title: Adobe Illustrator

text: A sidebar that appears at the left of the screen with a variety of tools to select, create, and manipulate objects or artworks in Illustrator. These tools can be selected as following: drawing, typing, painting, reshaping, slicing and cutting, symbolism, moving and zooming, and graph. Some tools have a small triangle at the bottom right of the toolbox icon. A small triangle has the option to view or expand some hidden tools by holding down the mouse button on the triangle.


title: Adobe Illustrator

text: Some examples of basic tools in Illustrator are selection tools, paintbrush tools, pen tools, pencil tools e.g. Selection tools are used to the layout, adjust, and organize the artwork by selecting, positioning, and stacking objects accurately. Moreover, selection tools can group, lock or hide, and measure objects. Paintbrush tools can be used to modify the appearance of the artwork. There are different types of brushes: calligraphic, scatter, art, pattern, and bristle. Pen tools create straight and curved lines for the artwork and they can add anchor points to paths and delete from paths. Pencil tools allow the user to draw and edit freehand lines.


title: Adobe Illustrator

text: Illustrator Draw is a free-form vector drawing app for Android and iOS users. Along with Illustrator, it is currently marketed by Adobe through Creative Cloud. Drawings made with the Illustrator Draw app can be exported to the desktop programs of Adobe Illustrator.


title: Probability distribution

text: In probability theory and statistics, a probability distribution is the mathematical function that gives the probabilities of occurrence of different possible outcomes for an experiment. It is a mathematical description of a random phenomenon in terms of its sample space and the probabilities of events (subsets of the sample space).


title: Probability distribution

text: For instance, if is used to denote the outcome of a coin toss ("the experiment"), then the probability distribution of would take the value 0.5 (1 in 2 or 1/2) for , and 0.5 for (assuming that the coin is fair). Examples of random phenomena include the weather conditions at some future date, the height of a randomly selected person, the fraction of male students in a school, the results of a survey to be conducted, etc.


title: Probability distribution

text: A probability distribution is a mathematical description of the probabilities of events, subsets of the sample space. The sample space, often denoted by formula_1, is the set of all possible outcomes of a random phenomenon being observed; it may be any set: a set of real numbers, a set of vectors, a set of arbitrary non-numerical values, etc. For example, the sample space of a coin flip would be .


title: Probability distribution

text: To define probability distributions for the specific case of random variables (so the sample space can be seen as a numeric set), it is common to distinguish between discrete and absolutely continuous random variables. In the discrete case, it is sufficient to specify a probability mass function formula_2 assigning a probability to each possible outcome: for example, when throwing a fair die, each of the six values 1 to 6 has the probability 1/6. The probability of an event is then defined to be the sum of the probabilities of the outcomes that satisfy the event; for example, the probability of the event "the die rolls an even value" is


title: Probability distribution

text: In contrast, when a random variable takes values from a continuum then typically, any individual outcome has probability zero and only events that include infinitely many outcomes, such as intervals, can have positive probability. For example, consider measuring the weight of a piece of ham in the supermarket, and assume the scale has many digits of precision. The probability that it weighs "exactly" 500 g is zero, as it will most likely have some non-zero decimal digits. Nevertheless, one might demand, in quality control, that a package of "500 g" of ham must weigh between 490 g and 510 g with at least 98% probability, and this demand is less sensitive to the accuracy of measurement instruments.


title: Probability distribution

text: Absolutely continuous probability distributions can be described in several ways. The probability density function describes the infinitesimal probability of any given value, and the probability that the outcome lies in a given interval can be computed by integrating the probability density function over that interval. An alternative description of the distribution is by means of the cumulative distribution function, which describes the probability that the random variable is no larger than a given value (i.e., formula_4 for some formula_5). The cumulative distribution function is the area under the probability density function from formula_6 to formula_5, as described by the picture to the right.


title: Probability distribution

text: A probability distribution can be described in various forms, such as by a probability mass function or a cumulative distribution function. One of the most general descriptions, which applies for absolutely continuous and discrete variables, is by means of a probability function formula_8 whose input space formula_9 is related to the sample space, and gives a real number probability as its output.


title: Probability distribution

text: The probability function formula_10 can take as argument subsets of the sample space itself, as in the coin toss example, where the function formula_10 was defined so that and . However, because of the widespread use of random variables, which transform the sample space into a set of numbers (e.g., formula_12, formula_13), it is more common to study probability distributions whose argument are subsets of these particular kinds of sets (number sets), and all probability distributions discussed in this article are of this type. It is common to denote as formula_14 the probability that a certain value of the variable formula_15 belongs to a certain event formula_16.


title: Probability distribution

text: The above probability function only characterizes a probability distribution if it satisfies all the Kolmogorov axioms, that is:


title: Probability distribution

text: The concept of probability function is made more rigorous by defining it as the element of a probability space formula_22, where formula_15 is the set of possible outcomes, formula_9 is the set of all subsets formula_25 whose probability can be measured, and formula_10 is the probability function, or probability measure, that assigns a probability to each of these measurable subsets formula_27.


title: Probability distribution

text: Probability distributions usually belong to one of two classes. A discrete probability distribution is applicable to the scenarios where the set of possible outcomes is discrete (e.g. a coin toss, a roll of a die) and the probabilities are encoded by a discrete list of the probabilities of the outcomes; in this case the discrete probability distribution is known as probability mass function. On the other hand, absolutely continuous probability distributions are applicable to scenarios where the set of possible outcomes can take on values in a continuous range (e.g. real numbers), such as the temperature on a given day. In the absolutely continuous case, probabilities are described by a probability density function, and the probability distribution is by definition the integral of the probability density function. The normal distribution is a commonly encountered absolutely continuous probability distribution. More complex experiments, such as those involving stochastic processes defined in continuous time, may demand the use of more general probability measures.


title: Probability distribution

text: A probability distribution whose sample space is one-dimensional (for example real numbers, list of labels, ordered labels or binary) is called univariate, while a distribution whose sample space is a vector space of dimension 2 or more is called multivariate. A univariate distribution gives the probabilities of a single random variable taking on various different values; a multivariate distribution (a joint probability distribution) gives the probabilities of a random vector – a list of two or more random variables – taking on various combinations of values. Important and commonly encountered univariate probability distributions include the binomial distribution, the hypergeometric distribution, and the normal distribution. A commonly encountered multivariate distribution is the multivariate normal distribution.


title: Probability distribution

text: Besides the probability function, the cumulative distribution function, the probability mass function and the probability density function, the moment generating function and the characteristic function also serve to identify a probability distribution, as they uniquely determine an underlying cumulative distribution function.


title: Probability distribution

text: Some key concepts and terms, widely used in the literature on the topic of probability distributions, are listed below.


title: Probability distribution

text: In the special case of a real-valued random variable, the probability distribution can equivalently be represented by a cumulative distribution function instead of a probability measure. The cumulative distribution function of a random variable formula_15 with regard to a probability distribution formula_2 is defined as


title: Probability distribution

text: Conversely, any function formula_46 that satisfies the first four of the properties above is the cumulative distribution function of some probability distribution on the real numbers.


title: Probability distribution

text: Any probability distribution can be decomposed as the sum of a discrete, an absolutely continuous and a singular continuous distribution, and thus any cumulative distribution function admits a decomposition as the sum of the three according cumulative distribution functions.


title: Probability distribution

text: A discrete probability distribution is the probability distribution of a random variable that can take on only a countable number of values (almost surely) which means that the probability of any event formula_16 can be expressed as a (finite or countably infinite) sum:


title: Probability distribution

text: where formula_49 is a countable set. Thus the discrete random variables are exactly those with a probability mass function formula_50. In the case where the range of values is countably infinite, these values have to decline to zero fast enough for the probabilities to add up to 1. For example, if formula_51 for formula_52, the sum of probabilities would be formula_53.


title: Probability distribution

text: Well-known discrete probability distributions used in statistical modeling include the Poisson distribution, the Bernoulli distribution, the binomial distribution, the geometric distribution, the negative binomial distribution and categorical distribution. When a sample (a set of observations) is drawn from a larger population, the sample points have an empirical distribution that is discrete, and which provides information about the population distribution. Additionally, the discrete uniform distribution is commonly used in computer programs that make equal-probability random selections between a number of choices.


title: Probability distribution

text: A real-valued discrete random variable can equivalently be defined as a random variable whose cumulative distribution function increases only by jump discontinuities—that is, its cdf increases only where it "jumps" to a higher value, and is constant in intervals without jumps. The points where jumps occur are precisely the values which the random variable may take.


title: Probability distribution

text: Note that the points where the cdf jumps always form a countable set; this may be any countable set and thus may even be dense in the real numbers.


title: Probability distribution

text: A discrete probability distribution is often represented with Dirac measures, the probability distributions of deterministic random variables. For any outcome formula_55, let formula_56 be the Dirac measure concentrated at formula_55. Given a discrete probability distribution, there is a countable set formula_49 with formula_59 and a probability mass function formula_2. If formula_16 is any event, then


title: Probability distribution

text: Similarly, discrete distributions can be represented with the Dirac delta function as a generalized probability density function formula_64, where formula_65 which means


title: Probability distribution

text: For a discrete random variable formula_15, let formula_69 be the values it can take with non-zero probability. Denote


title: Probability distribution

text: It follows that the probability that formula_15 takes any value except for formula_69 is zero, and thus one can write formula_15 as


title: Probability distribution

text: except on a set of probability zero, where formula_76 is the indicator function of formula_49. This may serve as an alternative definition of discrete random variables.


title: Probability distribution

text: A special case is the discrete distribution of a random variable that can take on only one fixed value; in other words, it is a deterministic distribution. Expressed formally, the random variable formula_15 has a one-point distribution if it has a possible outcome formula_5 such that formula_80 All other possible outcomes then have probability 0. Its cumulative distribution function jumps immediately from 0 to 1.


title: Probability distribution

text: An absolutely continuous probability distribution is a probability distribution on the real numbers with uncountably many possible values, such as a whole interval in the real line, and where the probability of any event can be expressed as an integral. More precisely, a real random variable formula_15 has an absolutely continuous probability distribution if there is a function formula_82 such that for each interval formula_83 the probability of formula_15 belonging to formula_85 is given by the integral of formula_64 over formula_87:


title: Probability distribution

text: This is the definition of a probability density function, so that absolutely continuous probability distributions are exactly those with a probability density function.


title: Probability distribution

text: In particular, the probability for formula_15 to take any single value formula_90 (that is, formula_91) is zero, because an integral with coinciding upper and lower limits is always equal to zero.


title: Probability distribution

text: If the interval formula_85 is replaced by any measurable set formula_49, the according equality still holds:


title: Probability distribution

text: An absolutely continuous random variable is a random variable whose probability distribution is absolutely continuous.


title: Probability distribution

text: There are many examples of absolutely continuous probability distributions: normal, uniform, chi-squared, and others.


title: Probability distribution

text: Absolutely continuous probability distributions as defined above are precisely those with an absolutely continuous cumulative distribution function.


title: Probability distribution

text: where formula_64 is a density of the random variable formula_15 with regard to the distribution formula_10.


title: Probability distribution

text: "Note on terminology:" Absolutely continuous distributions ought to be distinguished from continuous distributions, which are those having a continuous cumulative distribution function. Every absolutely continuous distribution is a continuous distribution but the converse is not true, there exist singular distributions, which are neither absolutely continuous nor discrete nor a mixture of those, and do not have a density. An example is given by the Cantor distribution. Some authors however use the term "continuous distribution" to denote all distributions whose cumulative distribution function is absolutely continuous, i.e. refer to absolutely continuous distributions as continuous distributions.


title: Probability distribution

text: For a more general definition of density functions and the equivalent absolutely continuous measures see absolutely continuous measure.


title: Probability distribution

text: In the measure-theoretic formalization of probability theory, a random variable is defined as a measurable function formula_15 from a probability space formula_101 to a measurable space formula_102. Given that probabilities of events of the form formula_103 satisfy Kolmogorov's probability axioms, the probability distribution of formula_15 is the image measure formula_105 of formula_15 , which is a probability measure on formula_102 satisfying formula_108.


title: Probability distribution

text: Absolutely continuous and discrete distributions with support on formula_109 or formula_110 are extremely useful to model a myriad of phenomena, since most practical distributions are supported on relatively simple subsets, such as hypercubes or balls. However, this is not always the case, and there exist phenomena with supports that are actually complicated curves formula_111 within some space formula_112 or similar. In these cases, the probability distribution is supported on the image of such curve, and is likely to be determined empirically, rather than finding a closed formula for it.


title: Probability distribution

text: One example is shown in the figure to the right, which displays the evolution of a system of differential equations (commonly known as the Rabinovich–Fabrikant equations) that can be used to model the behaviour of Langmuir waves in plasma. When this phenomenon is studied, the observed states from the subset are as indicated in red. So one could ask what is the probability of observing a state in a certain position of the red subset; if such a probability exists, it is called the probability measure of the system.


title: Probability distribution

text: This kind of complicated support appears quite frequently in dynamical systems. It is not simple to establish that the system has a probability measure, and the main problem is the following. Let formula_113 be instants in time and formula_114 a subset of the support; if the probability measure exists for the system, one would expect the frequency of observing states inside set formula_114 would be equal in interval formula_116 and formula_117, which might not happen; for example, it could oscillate similar to a sine, formula_118, whose limit when formula_119 does not converge. Formally, the measure exists only if the limit of the relative frequency converges when the system is observed into the infinite future. The branch of dynamical systems that studies the existence of a probability measure is ergodic theory.


title: Probability distribution

text: Note that even in these cases, the probability distribution, if it exists, might still be termed "absolutely continuous" or "discrete" depending on whether the support is uncountable or countable, respectively.


title: Probability distribution

text: Most algorithms are based on a pseudorandom number generator that produces numbers formula_15 that are uniformly distributed in the half-open interval . These random variates formula_15 are then transformed via some algorithm to create a new random variate having the required probability distribution. With this source of uniform pseudo-randomness, realizations of any random variable can be generated.


title: Probability distribution

text: For example, suppose formula_122 has a uniform distribution between 0 and 1. To construct a random Bernoulli variable for some formula_123, we define


title: Probability distribution

text: This random variable "X" has a Bernoulli distribution with parameter formula_2. Note that this is a transformation of discrete random variable.


title: Probability distribution

text: For a distribution function formula_95 of an absolutely continuous random variable, an absolutely continuous random variable must be constructed. formula_126, an inverse function of formula_95, relates to the uniform variable formula_122:


title: Probability distribution

text: For example, suppose a random variable that has an exponential distribution formula_130 must be constructed.


title: Probability distribution

text: so formula_132 and if formula_122 has a formula_134 distribution, then the random variable formula_15 is defined by formula_136. This has an exponential distribution of formula_137.


title: Probability distribution

text: A frequent problem in statistical simulations (the Monte Carlo method) is the generation of pseudo-random numbers that are distributed in a given way.


title: Probability distribution

text: The concept of the probability distribution and the random variables which they describe underlies the mathematical discipline of probability theory, and the science of statistics. There is spread or variability in almost any value that can be measured in a population (e.g. height of people, durability of a metal, sales growth, traffic flow, etc.); almost all measurements are made with some intrinsic error; in physics, many processes are described probabilistically, from the kinetic properties of gases to the quantum mechanical description of fundamental particles. For these and many other reasons, simple numbers are often inadequate for describing a quantity, while probability distributions are often more appropriate.


title: Probability distribution

text: The following is a list of some of the most common probability distributions, grouped by the type of process that they are related to. For a more complete list, see list of probability distributions, which groups by the nature of the outcome being considered (discrete, absolutely continuous, multivariate, etc.)


title: Probability distribution

text: All of the univariate distributions below are singly peaked; that is, it is assumed that the values cluster around a single point. In practice, actually observed quantities may cluster around multiple values. Such quantities can be modeled using a mixture distribution.


title: Savitri (actress)

text: Savitri Ganesan (born Nissankara Savitri; 6 December 1935 – 26 December 1981) was an Indian actress, playback singer, dancer, director, and producer known for her works primarily in Telugu and Tamil cinema. She had also worked in Kannada, Hindi and Malayalam films. She starred in more than 250 films over three decades. She was one of the highest-paid and most popular Indian actresses of the 1950s, 60s, and early 70s. She is known by the epithets "Mahanati" () and "Nadigaiyar Thilagam" ().


title: Savitri (actress)

text: Savitri's first significant role was in the 1952 Telugu-Tamil bilingual film "Pelli Chesi Choodu" which simultaneously made in Tamil as Kalyanam Panni Paar . She has starred in successful ventures such as "Devadasu" (1953) which received special mentions at India International Film Festival, "Donga Ramudu" (1955), "Mayabazar" (1957), and "Nartanasala" (1963), featured at the Afro-Asian film festival in Jakarta. She also starred in works such as "Missamma" (1955), "Ardhangi" (1955), "Thodi Kodallu" (1957), "Mangalya Balam" (1959), "Aradhana" (1962), "Gundamma Katha" (1962), "Doctor Chakravarty" (1964), "Sumangali" (1965), and "Devata" (1965). Savitri was also noted for her kindness, charity and generosity towards the poor. Savitri received ""A Moon Among Stars"" honor at the 30th International Film Festival of India, "Woman in Cinema" section in 1999. The 2018 biographical film "Mahanati" based on the life of Savitri won the "Equality in Cinema Award" at the 2018 Indian Film Festival of Melbourne.


title: Savitri (actress)

text: Nissankara Savitri was born on 6 December 1935 in a Telugu-speaking family in Chirravuru, Guntur district of present-day Andhra Pradesh. Her father was Nissankara Guravayya and her mother was Nissankara Subhadramma. Her father died when she was six months old, after which her mother took Savitri and an older sibling, Maruti, to live with an aunt and uncle. Her uncle, Kommareddy Venkataramaiah Chowdary, enrolled her in classes when she began to show a talent for dance.


title: Savitri (actress)

text: She was named for the expression of her eyes during dramas. She participated in many dramas, in one where she was rewarded with a garland by the famous actor Prithviraj Kapoor. She, along with her Uncle, went to the Vijaya Vauhini studio in Chennai to enroll Savitri as a character in a movie, though they refused to do so. Not giving up, they tried once again, in another cinema, where she managed to get a role, but could not stand it as she hesitated in reciting dialogues because she was in awe when talking to the hero.


title: Savitri (actress)

text: It was then that she met Ramaswamy Ganesan, also known as Gemini Ganesan, who took pictures of Savitri and instructed the duo that they come after two months.


title: Savitri (actress)

text: Defeated, Savitri went back to her village and continued playing dramas. On one specific day a man came to their home and asked Savitri to play a role for his cinema. Savitri's career thus began.


title: Savitri (actress)

text: Savitri married Tamil actor Gemini Ganesan in 1952, having first met him in 1948. The marriage led to a permanent rift with her uncle because Ganesan was already married, had four daughters, and was involved in an affair with Pushpavalli. Her marriage became public when she signed a photograph as Savitri Ganesh. Ganesan later acknowledged that he had two daughters with Pushpavalli while married to Savitri, with whom he had a daughter and a son.


title: Savitri (actress)

text: Savitri acted in dance dramas as a child, including some work with a theatre company run by Jaggayya. She made an unsuccessful speculative trip to find film work in Madras at the age of 14 when she was deemed to be too young to play heroine roles, but in 1950 was cast as the female lead in "Samsaram". That role did not become actuality because she became too excited, necessitating numerous retakes and eventually her replacement in the part. She was given a minor speaking role in the film and in the next year had two more minor roles, in "Roopavati" and "Patala Bhairavi", before getting her big break as the second heroine in "Pelli Chesi Choodu". She, later on, propelled to stardom with critically acclaimed roles in blockbusters such as "Devadasu" and "Missamma".


title: Savitri (actress)

text: Director PC Reddy who directed Savitri says, “there is none who can equal her beauty and talent. She didn’t heed anyone’s advice and got married very early. I remember she was so addicted to drinking even on the sets; she threw up on my shirt during a shoot. The next day she got a brand new shirt for me. She was a generous woman.” Savitri also worked in Bollywood films, although she did not find much success. Her only Malayalam film was "Chuzhi" (1973).


title: Savitri (actress)

text: Her performance in the 1957 film "Mayabazaar" skyrocketed her to stardom. She later went on to become the highest-paid and most sought-after South-Indian actress of her generation. Savitri was known for her hospitality, philanthropic gestures, and love of buying property and jewelry, but she kept little control of her spending. Ganesan continued to philander and she was susceptible to favoring hangers-on with her largesse. In 1960, she received the Rashtrapati Award which later became "National Award for the Best Actress" for her performance in the Telugu film "Chivaraku Migiledi". In 1968, she produced and directed the Telugu film "Chinnari Papalu", for which she received the state Nandi Award for Best Feature Film(Silver). Her career took a downturn in the late 1960s. Her properties were seized by tax officials in the 1970s and she turned to act in any film in her later years, while sycophants encouraged her to direct and produce films that were unsuccessful and financially draining. Among her few supporters during her financial troubles were Dasari Narayana Rao, who cast her in most of his films, such as "Gorintaku" (1979), and specifically made "Devadasu Malli Puttadu" (1978) as a movie for her.


title: Savitri (actress)

text: Savitri was also one of the top Tamil actresses of her era. She acted with major stalwarts, such as M.G.R, Sivaji Ganesan and her husband, Gemini Ganesan, mostly with the latter. Her notable Tamil works include "Kalathur Kannamma" (1959), "Pasamalar" (1961), "Pava Mannippu" (1961), "Paarthal Pasi Theerum" (1962), "Karpagam" (1963), "Karnan" (1963), "Kai Koduttha Dheivam", "Navarathri" (1964), and "Thiruvilaiyadal" (1965).


title: Savitri (actress)

text: Savitri died on 26 December 1981, at the age of 46, after being in a coma for 19 months. She had developed diabetes and high blood pressure.


title: Savitri (actress)

text: In 2011, The Government of India issued a postage stamp in commemoration of Savitri. Savitri's biopic, titled "Mahanati", starring Keerthy Suresh as Savitri and Dulquer Salmaan as Gemini Ganesan was released in 2018.


title: Tai chi

text: Tai chi (), short for Tai chi ch'üan (), sometimes called "shadowboxing", is an internal Chinese martial art practiced for defense training, health benefits and meditation. Tai chi has practitioners worldwide from Asia to the Americas.


title: Tai chi

text: Early practitioners such as Yang Chengfu and Sun Lutang promoted the art for its health benefits beginning in the early 20th century. Its global following may be attributed to overall benefit to personal health. Many forms are practiced, both traditional and modern. Most modern styles trace their development to the five traditional schools: Chen, Yang, Wu (Hao), Wu, and Sun. All trace their historical origins to Chen Village.


title: Tai chi

text: The concept of the "taiji" ("Supreme Ultimate"), in contrast with "wuji" ("without ultimate"), appears in both Taoist and Confucian philosophy, where it represents the fusion or mother of yin and yang into a single ultimate, represented by the "taijitu" symbol . Tai chi theory and practice evolved in agreement with Chinese philosophical principles, including those of Taoism and Confucianism. Zou Yan (鄒衍; 305 BC – 240 BC) was a Chinese philosopher best known as the representative thinker of the Yin and Yang School (or School of Naturalists) during the Hundred Schools of Thought era in Chinese philosophy.


title: Tai chi

text: Taijiquan is a complete martial art system with a full range of bare-hand movement set and weapon forms as in the Taiji sword and Taiji spear based on the dynamic relationship between "Yin" and "Yang".


title: Tai chi

text: While tai chi is typified by its slow movements, many styles (including the three most popular: Yang, Wu, and Chen) have secondary, faster-paced forms. Some traditional schools teach partner exercises known as "tuishou" ("pushing hands"), and martial applications of the postures of different forms (taolu).


title: Tai chi

text: In China, tai chi is categorized under the "Wudang" grouping of Chinese martial arts—that is, arts applied with internal power. Although the term Wudang suggests these arts originated in the Wudang Mountains, it is used only to distinguish the skills, theories and applications of "neijia" (internal arts) from those of the Shaolin grouping, or "waijia" (hard or external) styles.


title: Tai chi

text: Some martial arts require students to wear a uniform during practice. In general, tai chi does not specify a uniform, although teachers often advocate loose, comfortable clothing and flat-soled shoes. And in the "T'ai-chi classics", writings by tai chi masters, it is noted that the physiological and kinesiological aspects of the body's movements are characterized by the circular motion and rotation of the pelvis, based on the metaphors of the pelvis as the hub and the arms and feet as the spokes of a wheel. Furthermore, the respiration of breath is coordinated with the physical movements in a state of deep relaxation, rather than muscular tension, in order to guide the practitioners to a state of homeostasis.


title: Tai chi

text: Tai Chi was known as "大恒" by the Ancient Chinese. The silk version of I Ching recorded this original name. Due to the name taboo of Emperor Wen of Western Han Empire , "大恒" changed to "太極.". Sundial shadow length changes represent traditional Chinese Medicine with four elements theory instead of Confucian politician-based five elements theory. In the beginning, the color white was associated with Yin, while black was associated with Yang. Confucianism uses the reverse.


title: Tai chi

text: The term "taiji" is a Chinese cosmological concept for the flux of yin and yang. 'Quan' means technique.


title: Tai chi

text: "Tàijíquán" and "T'ai-chi ch'üan" are two different transcriptions of three Chinese characters that are the written Chinese name for the art form:


title: Tai chi

text: The English language offers two spellings, one derived from Wade–Giles and the other from the Pinyin transcription. Most Westerners often shorten this name to "t'ai chi" (often omitting the aspirate sign—thus becoming ""tai chi""). This shortened name is the same as that of the "t'ai-chi" philosophy. However, the Pinyin romanization is "taiji". The "chi" in the name of the martial art is not the same as "ch'i" ("qi" the "life force"). "Ch'i" is involved in the practice of "t'ai-chi ch'üan." Although the word is traditionally written "chi" in English, the closest pronunciation, using English sounds, to that of Standard Chinese would be "jee", with "j" pronounced as in "jump" and "ee" pronounced as in "bee". Other words exist with pronunciations in which the "ch" is pronounced as in "champ". Thus, it is important to use the "j" sound. This potential for confusion suggests preferring the pinyin spelling, "taiji". Most Chinese use the Pinyin version.


title: Tai chi

text: Tai chi's formative influences came from Taoist and Buddhist monasteries, as recounted in legend. Nevertheless, some schools claim that tai chi sprang from the theories of Song dynasty Neo-Confucianism (synthesis of Taoist, Buddhist, and Confucian traditions, especially the teachings of Mencius). These schools believe that tai chi theory and practice were formulated by Taoist monk Zhang Sanfeng in the 12th century, at about the same time that the principles of the Neo-Confucian school were rising.


title: Tai chi

text: However, modern research doubts those claims, pointing out that a 17th-century piece called "Epitaph for Wang Zhengnan" (1669), composed by Huang Zongxi (1610–1695), is the earliest reference indicating a connection between Zhang Sanfeng and martial arts. Claims of connections between tai chi and Zhang Sanfeng appeared no earlier than the 19th century.


title: Tai chi

text: Yang Luchan trained with the Chen family for 18 years before he started to teach in Beijing, which strongly suggests that his work was heavily influenced by the Chen family art. The Chen family trace their art back to Chen Wangting in the 17th century. Martial arts historian Xu Zhen claimed that the tai chi of Chen Village was influenced by the "Taizu changquan" style practiced at nearby Shaolin Monastery, while Tang Hao thought it was derived from a treatise by Ming dynasty general Qi Jiguang, "Jixiao Xinshu" ("New Treatise on Military Efficiency"), which discussed several martial arts styles including "Taizu changquan".


title: Tai chi

text: What is now known as tai chi appears to have received this appellation around the mid-19th century. Imperial Court scholar Ong Tong witnessed a demonstration by Yang Luchan before Yang had established his reputation as a teacher. Afterwards Ong wrote: "Hands holding Tai chi shakes the whole world, a chest containing ultimate skill defeats a gathering of heroes." Before this time the art may have had other names, and appears to have been generically described by outsiders as "zhan quan" (, "touch boxing"), "Mian Quan" ("soft boxing") or "shisan shi" (, "the thirteen techniques").


title: Tai chi

text: In 1956 the Chinese government sponsored the Chinese Sports Committee (CSC), which brought together four "wushu" teachers to truncate the Yang family hand form to 24 postures. This was an attempt to standardize t'ai-chi ch'üan for "wushu" tournaments as they wanted to create a routine that would be much less difficult to learn than the classical 88 to 108 posture solo hand forms.


title: Tai chi

text: Another 1950s form is the "97 movements combined t'ai-chi ch'üan form", which blends Yang, Wu, Sun, Chen, and Fu styles.


title: Tai chi

text: In 1976, they developed a slightly longer demonstration form that would not require the traditional forms' memory, balance, and coordination. This became the "Combined 48 Forms" that were created by three "wushu" coaches, headed by Men Hui Feng. The combined forms simplified and combined classical forms from the original Chen, Yang, Wu, and Sun styles. Other competitive forms were designed to be completed within a six-minute time limit.


title: Tai chi

text: In the late 1980s, CSC standardized more competition forms for the four major styles as well as combined forms. These five sets of forms were created by different teams, and later approved by a committee of "wushu" coaches in China. These forms were named after their style: the "Chen-style national competition form" is the "56 Forms". The combined forms are "The 42-Form" or simply the "Competition Form".


title: Tai chi

text: In the 11th Asian Games of 1990, "wushu" was included as an item for competition for the first time with the "42-Form" representing t'ai-chi ch'üan. The International Wushu Federation (IWUF) applied for "wushu" to be part of the Olympic games.


title: Tai chi

text: The most popular is Yang, followed by Wu, Chen, Sun and Wu/Hao. The styles share underlying theory, but their training differs.


title: Tai chi

text: Dozens of new styles, hybrid styles, and offshoots followed, although the family schools are accepted as standard by the international community. Other important styles are Zhaobao tàijíquán, a close cousin of Chen style, which is recognized by Western practitioners; Fu style, created by Fu Chen Sung, which evolved from Chen, Sun and Yang styles, and incorporates movements from Baguazhang (Pa Kua Chang); and Cheng Man-ch'ing style which simplifies Yang style.


title: Tai chi

text: Most existing styles came from Chen style, which had been passed down as a family secret for generations.


title: Tai chi

text: The designation "internal" or "neijia" martial arts is also used to broadly distinguish what are known as "external" or "waijia" styles based on "Shaolinquan" styles, although that distinction may be disputed by modern schools. In this broad sense, "all" styles of t'ai chi, as well as related arts such as Baguazhang and Xingyiquan, are, therefore, considered to be "soft" or "internal" martial arts.


title: Tai chi

text: Choy Hok Pang, a disciple of Yang Chengfu, was the first known proponent of tai chi to openly teach in the United States, beginning in 1939. His son and student Choy Kam Man emigrated to San Francisco from Hong Kong in 1949 to teach t'ai-chi ch'üan in Chinatown. Choy Kam Man taught until he died in 1994.


title: Tai chi

text: Sophia Delza, a professional dancer and student of Ma Yueliang, performed the first known public demonstration of tai chi in the United States at the New York City Museum of Modern Art in 1954. She wrote the first English language book on t'ai-chi, "T'ai-chi ch'üan: Body and Mind in Harmony", in 1961. She taught regular classes at Carnegie Hall, the Actors Studio, and the United Nations.


title: Tai chi

text: Zheng Manqing/Cheng Man-ch'ing, who opened his school Shr Jung t'ai-chi after he moved to New York from Taiwan in 1964. Unlike the older generation of practitioners, Zheng was cultured and educated in American ways, and thus was able to transcribe Yang's dictation into a written manuscript that became the de facto manual for Yang style. Zheng felt Yang's traditional 108-movement form was unnecessarily long and repetitive, which makes it difficult to learn. He thus created a shortened 37-movement version that he taught in his schools. Zheng's form became the dominant form in the eastern United States until other teachers immigrated in larger numbers in the 1990s. He taught until his death in 1975.


title: Tai chi

text: Norwegian Pytt Geddes was the first European to teach tai chi in Britain, holding classes at The Place in London in the early 1960s. She had first encountered tai chi in Shanghai in 1948, and studied with Choy Hok Pang and his son Choy Kam Man (who both also taught in the United States) while living in Hong Kong in the late 1950s.


title: Tai chi

text: The Cheng Man-ch'ing (Zheng Manqing) and Chinese Sports Commission short forms are derived from Yang family forms, but neither is recognized as Yang family tai chi by standard-bearing Yang family teachers. The Chen, Yang, and Wu families promote their own shortened demonstration forms for competitive purposes.


title: Tai chi

text: Practitioners mostly interested in tai chi's health benefits diverged from those who emphasize self-defense, and also those who attracted by its aesthetic appeal ("wushu").


title: Tai chi

text: More traditional practitioners hold that the two aspects of health and martial arts make up the art's "yin" and "yang". The "family" schools present their teachings in a martial art context, whatever the intention of their students.


title: Tai chi

text: In the 21st century, tai chi classes that purely emphasize health are popular in hospitals, clinics, community centers and senior centers. Tai chi's low-stress training method for seniors has become better known.


title: Tai chi

text: As a martial art, tai chi emphasizes defense over attack and replies to hard with soft. The ability to use tai chi as a form of combat is the test of a student's understanding of the art. This is typically demonstrated via competition with others.


title: Tai chi

text: Practitioners test their skills against students from other schools and martial arts styles in "tuishou" ("pushing hands") and "sanshou" competition.


title: Tai chi

text: "Wushu" is primarily for show. Forms taught for wushu are designed to earn points in competition and are mostly unconcerned with either health or self-defense.


title: Tai chi

text: The philosophy of "Taiji" is to keep "Yin" and "Yang" in flux. When two forces push each other with equal force, neither side moves. Motion cannot occur until one side yields. Therefore, a key principle in tai chi is to avoid using force directly against force (hardness against hardness). Lao Tzŭ provided the archetype for this in the "Tao Te Ching" when he wrote, "The soft and the pliable will defeat the hard and strong."


title: Tai chi

text: Conversely, when in possession of leverage, one may want to use hardness to force the opponent to become soft. Traditionally, tai chi uses both soft and hard. Yin is said to be the mother of Yang, using soft power to create hard power.


title: Tai chi

text: Traditional schools also emphasize that one is expected to show "wude" ("martial virtue/heroism"), to protect the defenseless, and show mercy to one's opponents.


title: Tai chi

text: Training involves two primary features: "taolu" (solo "forms"), a sequence of movements that emphasize a straight spine, abdominal breathing and a natural range of motion; and "tuishou" ("pushing hands") for training with a partner and in a more practical manner. Traditionally, Taijiquan also has Dan Shi (Single Form Practice) which practice a specific movement from Taolu.


title: Tai chi

text: "Taolu" (solo "forms") is a choreography that serves as the encyclopedia of a martial art. Tai chi is often characterized by slow movements in Taolu practice, and one of the reasons is to develop body awareness. Accurate, repeated practice of the solo routine is said to retrain posture, encourage circulation throughout students' bodies, maintain flexibility, and familiarize students with the martial sequences implied by the forms. The traditional styles of tai chi have forms that differ in aesthetics, but share many similarities that reflect their common origin.


title: Tai chi

text: Solo forms (empty-hand and weapon) are catalogues of movements that are practised individually in pushing hands and martial application scenarios to prepare students for self-defense training. In most traditional schools, variations of the solo forms can be practised: fast / slow, small-circle / large-circle, square / round (different expressions of leverage through the joints), low-sitting/high-sitting (the degree to which weight-bearing knees stay bent throughout the form).


title: Tai chi

text: Breathing exercises; "neigong" (internal skill) or, more commonly, "qigong" (life energy cultivation) are practiced to develop "qi" (life energy) in coordination with physical movement and "zhan zhuang" (standing like a post) or combinations of the two. These were formerly taught as a separate, complementary training system. In the last 60 years they have become better known to the general public.


title: Tai chi

text: "Qigong" involves coordinated movement, breath, and awareness used for health, meditation, and martial arts. While many scholars and practitioners consider tai chi to be a type of "qigong", the two are commonly seen as separate but closely related practices. "Qigong" plays an important role in training for tai chi. Many tai chi movements are part of qigong practice. The focus of qigong is typically more on health or meditation than martial applications. Internally the main difference is the flow of "qi". In qigong, the flow of "qi" is held at a gate point for a moment to aid the opening and cleansing of the channels. In tai chi, the flow of "qi" is continuous, thus allowing the development of power by the practitioner.


title: Tai chi

text: Tai chi's martial aspect relies on sensitivity to the opponent's movements and center of gravity, which dictate appropriate responses. Disrupting the opponent's center of gravity upon contact is the primary goal of the martial t'ai-chi ch'üan student. The sensitivity needed to capture the center is acquired over thousands of hours of first "yin" (slow, repetitive, meditative, low-impact) and then later adding "yang" (realistic, active, fast, high-impact) martial training through "taolu" (forms), "tuishou" (pushing hands), and "sanshou" (sparring). Tai chi trains in three basic ranges: close, medium and long. Pushes and open-hand strikes are more common than punches, and kicks are usually to the legs and lower torso, never higher than the hip, depending on style. The fingers, fists, palms, sides of the hands, wrists, forearms, elbows, shoulders, back, hips, knees, and feet are commonly used to strike. Targets are the eyes, throat, heart, groin, and other acupressure points. "Chin na", which are joint traps, locks, and breaks are also used. Most tai chi teachers expect their students to thoroughly learn defensive or neutralizing skills first, and a student must demonstrate proficiency with them before learning offensive skills.


title: Tai chi

text: Martial schools focus on how the energy of a strike affects the opponent. A palm strike that looks to have the same movement may be performed in such a way that it has a completely different effect on the opponent's body. A palm strike that could simply push the opponent backward, or instead be focused in such a way as to lift the opponent vertically off the ground, changing center of gravity; or that it could project the force of the strike into the opponent's body with the intent of causing internal damage.


title: Tai chi

text: Most development aspects are meant to be covered within the partnered practice of "tuishou", and so, "sanshou" (sparring) is not commonly used as a method of training, although more advanced students sometimes practice by "sanshou". "Sanshou" is more common to tournaments such as "wushu" tournaments.


title: Tai chi

text: Variations of tai chi (taiji) involving weapons also exist. Weapons training and fencing applications employ:


title: Tai chi

text: In practice traditionally no specific uniform is part of tai chi. Modern day practitioners usually wear comfortable, loose T-shirts and trousers made from breathable natural fabrics, that allow for free movement. Despite this, t'ai-chi ch'üan has become synonymous with "t'ai-chi uniforms" or "kung fu uniforms" that usually consist of loose-fitting traditional Chinese styled trousers and a long or short-sleeved shirt, with a Mandarin collar and buttoned with Chinese frog buttons. The long-sleeved variants are referred to as Northern-style uniforms, whilst the short-sleeved, are Southern-style uniforms.


title: Tai chi

text: The clothing may be all white, all black, black and white, or any other colour, mostly a single solid colour or a combination of two colours: one colour for the garment and another for the binding. They are normally made from natural fabrics such as cotton or silk. They are usually worn by masters and professional practitioners during demonstrations, tournaments and other public exhibitions.


title: Tai chi

text: Tai chi has no standardized ranking system, except the Chinese Wushu Duan wei exam system run by the Chinese wushu association in Beijing. Most schools do not use belt rankings. Some schools present students with belts depicting rank, similar to "dans" in Japanese martial arts. A simple uniform element of respect and allegiance to one's teacher and their methods and community, belts also mark hierarchy, skill, and accomplishment. During "wushu" tournaments, masters and grandmasters often wear ""kung fu uniforms"" which tend to have no belts. Wearing a belt signifying rank in such a situation would be unusual.


title: Tai chi

text: Traditional tai chi was developed for self-defense, but it has evolved to include a graceful form of seated exercise now used for stress reduction and other health conditions. Often described as meditation in motion, seated tai chi promotes serenity through gentle, flowing movements. Seated tai chi exercises is touted by the medical community and researchers. It is based primarily on the Yang short form, and has been adopted by the general public, medical practitioners, tai chi instructors, and the elderly. Seated forms are not a simple redesign of the yang short form. Instead, the practice attempts to preserve the integrity of the form, with its inherent logic and purpose. The synchronization of the upper body with the steps and the breathing developed over hundreds of years, and guided the transition to seated positions. Marked improvements in balance, blood pressure levels, flexibility and muscle strength, peak oxygen intake, and body fat percentages can be achieved.


title: Tai chi

text: Clinical studies exploring tai chi's effect on specific diseases and health conditions exist, though there are not sufficient studies with consistent approaches to generate a comprehensive conclusion.


title: Tai chi

text: Tai chi has been promoted for treating various ailments, and is supported by the National Parkinson Foundation and Diabetes Australia, among others. However, medical evidence of effectiveness is lacking and research has been undertaken to address this. A 2017 systematic review found that it decreased falls in older people.


title: Tai chi

text: A 2011 comprehensive overview of systematic reviews of tai chi recommended tai chi to older people for its physical and psychological benefits. No conclusive evidence showed benefit for any of the conditions researched, including Parkinson's disease, diabetes, cancer and arthritis.


title: Tai chi

text: A 2015 systematic review found that tai chi could be performed by those with chronic medical conditions such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, heart failure, and osteoarthritis without negative effects, and found favorable effects on functional exercise capacity .


title: Tai chi

text: In 2015 the Australian Government's Department of Health published the results of a review of alternative therapies that sought to identify any that were suitable for coverage by health insurance. T'ai-chi was one of 17 therapies evaluated. The study concluded that low-quality evidence suggests that tai chi may have some beneficial health effects when compared to control in a limited number of populations for a limited number of outcomes.


title: Tai chi

text: In the USA, the National Institutes of Health published an analysis of various health claims, studies and findings.


title: Mariam-uz-Zamani

text: Mariam-uz-Zamani (); ( – 19 May 1623), commonly known by the misnomer 'Jodha Bai', was the chief consort and principal Rajput empress consort as well as the favourite wife of the third Mughal emperor, Akbar. She was also the longest-serving Hindu empress of the Mughal Empire with a tenure of forty-three years (1562 –1605).


title: Mariam-uz-Zamani

text: Born a Rajput princess, she was married to Akbar by her father, Raja Bharmal of Amer due to political exigencies. Her marriage to Akbar led to a gradual shift in the latter's religious and social policies. She is widely regarded in modern Indian historiography as exemplifying both Akbar's and the Mughals' tolerance of religious differences and their inclusive policies within an expanding multi-ethnic and multi-religious empire. She was an extremely beautiful woman and was said to possess uncommon beauty, widely known for both, her grace and intellect. In the words of Akbar, she's described as 'a piece of the moon'.


title: Mariam-uz-Zamani

text: She was a senior-ranking wife of Akbar who in the words of Abu'l-Fazl ibn Mubarak, commanded a high rank in the imperial harem. She is stated as the favourite and an influential consort of Akbar, having a considerable influence in the matters of the court. Described as an intelligent, amiable, kind and liberal woman,


title: Mariam-uz-Zamani

text: she was often consulted by Akbar on important matters. She was the mother of Akbar's eldest surviving son and eventual successor, Jahangir, and grandmother of Shah Jahan.


title: Mariam-uz-Zamani

text: Mariam-uz-Zamani was born in 1542 as the daughter of Raja Bharmal of Amer by his wife Rani Champavati, daughter of Rao Ganga Solanki. Her paternal grandparents were Raja Prithviraj Singh I and Apurva Devi, a daughter of Rao Lunkaran of Bikaner.


title: Mariam-uz-Zamani

text: Her birth name is unknown. Later historical accounts give several suggestions for her birth name. In an 18th-century genealogy of her clan (the Kachwahas) for example, she is referred to as ' Harkhan Champavati '. Other names provided by various sources include Harkha Bai, Jiya Rani, Maanmati bai, Harika bai, Hira Kunwari, Heer Kunwari, Shahi-Bai and Shahi Begum.


title: Mariam-uz-Zamani

text: She was bestowed an honorific Muslim name, 'Wali Nimat Begum' ( 'Blessings of God') by Akbar, in 1564, after two years of her marriage. 'Mariam-uz-Zamani' ( 'Mary/Compassionate of the Age') was a prestigious title bestowed on her by Akbar on the occasion of their son Jahangir's birth. This was the title by which she was referred to in contemporary Mughal chronicles, including Jahangir's autobiography, the "Tuzk-e-Jahangiri". Apart from the title of Mariam-uz-Zamani, she also bore two more glorious titles of 'Mallika-e-Muezamma' ( 'Exalted Empress') and 'Mallika-e-Hindustan' ( 'Empress of Hindustan'). She was commonly referred as 'Shahi Begum' ( 'Imperial consort') throughout her reign. She would officially use the name "Wali Nimat Mariam-uz-Zamani Begum Sahiba".


title: Mariam-uz-Zamani

text: Akbar ordained that the names of women of his seraglio should not be mentioned in public as the sanctity of Mughal women was so great that even their names could not be pronounced, they should be designated by some epithet either from the place of their birth or the country or the city in which they have been first regarded by the monarch with the eye of affection, hence Mariam Zamani had been addressed as the daughter or Raja Bharmal or sister of Raja Bhagwant Das in Akbarnama. Her son, Salim referred to her by her title, Hazrat Mariam-uz-Zamani in his chronicles. This led to the confusion and freedom exercised by various historians to guess and speculate her birth name. The name by which she is most popularly known in modern times is 'Jodha Bai'. The name 'Jodha Bai' was first used in relation to Mariam-uz-Zamani in James Tod's "Annals and Antiquities of Rajasthan", a colonialist history written in the early 19th century. This naming appears to have been an error, given that it implies a relationship with the royal family of Jodhpur, rather than that with the Rajas of Amber. Instead, it is assumed that 'Jodha Bai' or 'Jodh Bai' in fact refers to the wife of Jahangir, Jagat Gosain daughter of Raja Udai Singh of Jodhpur.


title: Mariam-uz-Zamani

text: Mariam-uz-Zamani's identity has been throughout centuries falsely inferred as Christian primarily on the pretext of her title, 'Mariam' and the absence of her background details from official Mughal chronicles giving rise to speculation about her race and religion. It was presumed by various writers that since she was named Mariam, she must have been a Christian lady. However Islam revers Mary or Mariam as their own. In fact, Maryam is the only woman named in their holy book Quran and as per Muslims, she was the greatest woman to ever lived. This signifies the honour bestowed upon the empress and her distinguished rank as Akbar's wife as a title with an identical name, 'Mariam Makani' was bestowed over Akbar's mother by Akbar. According to Edmund Smith, the story of Salim's mother being of Christian origin was started by some visitors of Fatehpur Sikri who expressed the idea that the painting in Mariam's house at Fatehpur Sikri represented annunciation and therefore believed that Mariam must have been a Christian, however, the liberal historian of Akbar, Abul Fazl makes no mention of her being Christian or Akbar ever having a Christian wife. Additionally Khulasat-ut-Tawarikh, a chronicle written in the Mughal era, explicitly states Mariam-uz-Zamani as a daughter of Raja Bharmal, therefore putting end to the supposition of her being a Christian. It was not only that the painting in Sonahra Makan may have led to speculation of her as Christian but the name Maryam (Mary) has also led weight to the theory of "Christian wife" however Maryam is a common name among Muslims and Maryam-uz-Zamani (Mary of Age) was conferred upon her on the birth of her son, prince Salim. For the verification of the assertion of her association with Christianity, Edmund Smith had her crypt opened to find out whether the tomb was that of a Christian lady, but he did not find any trace of the cross.


title: Mariam-uz-Zamani

text: Mariam-uz-Zamani's marriage was the result of a conflict between her father and Akbar's brother-in-law, Sharif-ud-din Mirza, the Hakim of Mewat. Raja Bharmal had been facing harassment at Sharif-ud-din's hands, on account of his conflict with Sujamal. Bharmal agreed to pay peshkash and had given his son and Mariam-uz-Zamani's full brother, Jagannath, and two nephews, Raj Singh, son of Raja Askaran and Khangar, son of Jagmal, as hostages but Sharif-ud-din wished to destroy him. So he approached Akbar to request his intervention. The Emperor agreed to mediate on the condition of Raja Bharmal's submission, as well as the suggestion that his daughter be given to Akbar in marriage. Raja Bharmal then espoused his gentle daughter, who was veiled in chastity, in honourable wedlock to Emperor Akbar, and was enlisted in the rank of honoured consorts. Akbarnama quotes, "Raja Bharmal introduced his eldest daughter, in whose forehead shone the lights of chastity and intellect, among the attendants on the glorious pavilion."


title: Mariam-uz-Zamani

text: The marriage, thus, a political one, took place amidst proper festivity on February 6, 1562, while Akbar was on his way back to Agra from Ajmer (after offering prayers at the tomb of Moinuddin Chishti) at the imperial military camp in Sambhar, Rajasthan, instead of the bride's natal home. As per Abu'l Fazl, Akbar accepted the marriage proposal of the daughter of Raja Bharmal due to a divine vision he had at Ajmer Sharif. The Amber princess's marriage provided her family's powerful support throughout the reign.


title: Mariam-uz-Zamani

text: Akbar, at the insistence of Raja Bharmal, did not convert the princess to Islam and permitted her to perform Hindu rituals in her palace. Although the marriage was a result of a political alliance, the two however gradually developed an intimate and affectionate bond. Akbar himself is recorded to participate in the Pooja performed by the beautiful empress though he married several other Hindu princesses in his life. She gradually became his most loved wife and till his death remained his favourite and subsequently was also the only wife buried close to Akbar. She was a devotee of Lord Krishna. The palace commissioned for her by Akbar in the imperial harem was decorated with paintings of Lord Krishna, and, gems and frescoes.


title: Mariam-uz-Zamani

text: Harka bai arrived at Akbar's court resplendent in the sensuous and excessively feminine style of the Rajput nobility. She is illustrated to wear heavy, swinging, and gathered ghagra which would stop well above her ankle and a tightly fitting choli, tied at back with tasselled strings. Her head and shoulders were covered with an odhani but so translucent and fine that her bare midriff and arms were visible through that shimmering dupatta. Light would flicker against her heavy gold jewellery -swinging earrings, nose rings, clinging bracelets, and girdle of gold.


title: Mariam-uz-Zamani

text: In a few years, the culture and dressing style of this Rajput princess influenced the Mughal dresses and etiquette of the Mughal court. Cohen suggests that by including the textiles like bandhani in the royal paintings made in the region near the birthplace of Maryam Zamani, Akbar and Jahangir might be acknowledging her importance. Her roots were deeply embedded in the Rajput culture and style which was exhibited in her colourful and elaborated odhani or embroidered lehengas.


title: Mariam-uz-Zamani

text: On 19 October 1564, after two years of her marriage, Mariam-uz-Zamani gave birth to twin sons, Mirza Hassan and Mirza Hussain. Akbar arrived in Agra on 9 October 1564 for the birth of twins. Both of them died within a few days of their birth. Mirza Hussain died on 29 October 1564 and Mirza Hassan died on 5 November 1564.


title: Mariam-uz-Zamani

text: Grief struck, Akbar took Mariam-uz-Zamani along with him after their sons' demise as he set out for a war campaign, and during his return to Agra, he sought the blessings of Salim Chisti, a reputed Khawja who lived at Fatehpur Sikri. Akbar confided in Salim Chisti who assured him that he would be soon delivered of three sons who would live up to a ripe old age.


title: Mariam-uz-Zamani

text: A few years before the birth of prince Salim, Akbar and Mariam-uz-Zamani went barefoot on a pilgrimage to Ajmer Sharif Dargah to pray for a son.


title: Mariam-uz-Zamani

text: In 1569, Akbar heard the news that his chief consort was expecting a child again and hoped for the first of the three sons that had been promised to him after the death of the twins by Khawaja Salim Chisti. The expectant empress was sent to the Salim Chisti humble dwelling in Fatehpur Sikri during the latter period of her pregnancy. Akbar himself travelled often from Agra to Fatehpur Sikri during her period of pregnancy to take care of the empress for whom a royal palace named Rang Mahal was constructed in Fatehpur Sikri.


title: Mariam-uz-Zamani

text: One day while Mariam-uz-Zamani was pregnant with Salim, the baby stopped kicking in the womb abruptly. Akbar was at that time hunting cheetahs when this matter was reported to him, thinking if he could have done anything more, as that day was Friday he vowed that from that day he would never hunt cheetahs on Friday for the safety of his unborn child and as per Salim he kept his vow till throughout his life. Salim too in reverence for his father's vow never hunted cheetahs on Friday.


title: Mariam-uz-Zamani

text: On 31 August 1569, the empress gave birth to a boy who received the name, Salim, in acknowledgement of his father's faith in the efficacy of the holy man's prayer. Akbar, overjoyed with the news of his heir-apparent, ordered a great feast and festivities which were held up to seven days on the occasion of his birth and ordered the release of criminals with great offence. Throughout the empire, largesses were bestowed over common people, and he set himself ready to visit Sikri immediately. However, he was advised by his courtiers to delay his visit to Sikri on the account of the astrological belief in Hindustan of a father not seeing the face of his long-awaited son immediately after his birth. He, therefore, delayed his visit and visited Sikri to meet his wife and son after forty-one days after his birth.


title: Mariam-uz-Zamani

text: Akbar's ecstasy in having his heir-apparent born to Heer Kunwari was enormous and publicly proclaimed, "It is right for that piece of moon". The Empress was presented with jewellery worth one lakh gold coins immediately when Akbar met her for that first time in Sikri after the birth of sultan Salim and gave a 'Rajvanshi pat' on her head expressing his love. She was subsequently given the high honour of being titled 'Mariam-uz-Zamani' (Mary/Compassionate of the Age). The ranks of Raja Bhagwan Das and Man Singh I were raised by two thousand horses each, and they were presented with robes of honour graded next only to those bestowed upon members of the royal family. Akbar broke his own records of generosity by giving rich awards and extensive Jagirs to the elite of the court.


title: Mariam-uz-Zamani

text: She was purported to be the foster mother of Daniyal Mirza, as initially his care and protection were entrusted to her maternal clan.Several marriages of her eldest son Salim and her foster son, Daniyal, were held at her palace.


title: Mariam-uz-Zamani

text: Mariam-uz-Zamani's family became one of the highest-ranking nobles in the Akbar's court. The Rajas of Amber especially benefited from their close association with the Mughals and acquired immense wealth and power. Her family was held in high esteem by Akbar for their unmatchable courage, devotion, and loyalty all of which greatly endeared to the Emperor. Of twenty-seven Rajputs in Abu'l-Fazl list of mansabdars, thirteen were of the Amber clan, and some of them rose to positions as high as that of imperial princes.


title: Mariam-uz-Zamani

text: Her father Raja Bharmal, after her marriage to Akbar, was immediately made the commander of 5000 cavalry units, the highest rank that could be held by the noble in the court. Mariam-uz-Zamani's brother Bhagwant Das in the year 1585, became commander of 5000 cavalry units and bore the proud title Amir-ul-Umra (Chief Noble). His son, Man Singh I, rose even higher to become commander of 7000 forces, the first to hold that rank in Akbar's reign, and it was only later that Akbar's foster brother Mirza Aziz Koka was raised to the same rank. Akbar referred to Raja Man Singh farzand (son). Even Raja Bihari Mal was denied that eminent rank, he did not cross the five thousand mark. However, it may be of interest that of the four hundred and sixteen Mansabdars of Akbar, only forty-seven were Rajputs, and the aggregate of their quotas amounted to fifty-three thousand horses. Of these, seventeen held Mansabs of from two thousand to five thousand and thirty from one hundred to two thousand. The princes of Amber, Marwar, Bikaner, Bundi, Jaisalmer and Bundelkhand held Mansabs of above one thousand, but Amber alone held the dignity of five thousand. His equation with the Amber Raja and his nephew Man Singh was conditioned in no small measure by his tenderness, tantamounting almost to love, for Mariam Zamani.


title: Mariam-uz-Zamani

text: Akbar's respect for the family of Mariam-uz-Zamani was profound. As per historian Badani, who specializes in Rajputana history, Akbar shared an intimate relationship with the Amer clan. After the death of the fiance of one of the daughters of Raja Bharmal and younger sister of Mariam-uz-Zamani, Sukanya, in the Battle of Paronkh in October 1562, Akbar personally took the responsibility for her marriage to a Rajput clan and adopted her as her own daughter. To honour them, he visited her native town, Amer, in the year 1569 and enjoyed the largesse bestowed over him by his in-laws. During this time, Mariam-uz-Zamani was into the fourth month of her pregnancy and thereafter was shortly delivered with Salim. Abul Fazl notes that his stay in Amer was of a month and a half and Akbar was showered with several noticeable gifts.


title: Mariam-uz-Zamani

text: Mariam-uz-Zamani also arranged the marriage of the daughter of her brother, Raja Bhagwant Das, to Salim on 13 February 1585. Man bai became the first and chief consort of Prince Salim. For this marriage Akbar personally visited the town of Amer and as a token of respect for her family carried the palanquin of her daughter-in-law on his shoulders for some distance. Man Bai later became the mother to Akbar's favourite grandson, Khusrau Mirza, and received the prestigious title of 'Shah Begum'.


title: Mariam-uz-Zamani

text: The Empress held a significant influence over Akbar. Her high rank in the imperial harem provided her with substantial power and privilege, and she was designated as in charge of the Hindu harem of Akbar. Tirmizi proclaims it was her retirement as the Empress Consort of the Mughal Empire after the demise of her husband, Akbar that led to the decline of Rajput influence in the Mughal court. She is described as a charismatic and adventurous woman having a high-spirited disposition and a taste for the unusual.


title: Mariam-uz-Zamani

text: She has high praises reserved in the biography of her husband. As stated by Abu'l-Fazl ibn Mubarak in Akbarnama, she's described as both intellectual and tactful and is termed as an auspicious lady having lights of chastity and intellect shining on her forehead. Abul Fazl calls her “the choicest apple from the garden of paradise". Badayuni in his book states Akbar's affection and endearment for her with the statement ""magic the kind daughter of Raja Bharmal did on Akbar"". Another contemporary account describes her as a 'great adventurer'.


title: Mariam-uz-Zamani

text: She was a major driving force and prime inspiration for Akbar's promotion of secularism. In the words of historian Lal, "The personality and beauty of Mariam-uz-Zamani were indeed partly responsible for Akbar's religious neutrality." Nizamuddin Ahmad professes " 'daughter of Raja Bihari Mal, who was veiled in chastity, was ennobled by a marriage with His Majesty and was enlisted in the rank of honoured consorts.' " Abdul Qadir Badayuni describes her as a woman with a gentle disposition.


title: Mariam-uz-Zamani

text: She had her garden in Agra which was gifted to her by Akbar and had several palaces constructed for her by Akbar in Fatehpur Sikri, Mandu, Lahore, and Allahabad. In Agra, her palace of residence is believed to be Jahangiri Mahal, constructed by Akbar for his Hindu wives. When Akbar moved his court to Fatehpur Sikri in 1571, she resided in one of the most magnificent and beautiful palaces of Fatehpur Sikri which was built in the zenana complex. This palace was built as per Rajasthani architecture. This palace commonly known as Jodha Bai Mahal was also internally connected to the Khawabgah of Akbar. Her palace was decorated with paintings of Lord Krishna and in its time is reported to be studded with gems and frescoes. This palace also includes a temple used by the empress for her prayers and a Tulsi math. Jodha Bai’s Mahal was a masterpiece with its commotion of Indian and Persian architecture. This was the biggest residential palace in the city, and to this day it stands, though in ruins, as a monument of Akbar’s love for the Amber princess.


title: Mariam-uz-Zamani

text: Her palace in Mandu called Nilkanth temple (Mandu) or as recorded by Jahangir in his biography, Imarat-i-Dilkhusha (the heart-pleasing abode), was the favourite retreat place of Jahangir where he would celebrate his birthdays with his mother as recorded by Thomas Roe, a Christian missionary in Jahangir's court. This palace was commissioned by Akbar for her in the year 1574 and has a Lord Shiva temple inside with a Shiv Ling and is built as per Mughal architecture on a hilltop. She was also the patron of several towns during her reign and held many jagirs like Bayana, pargana of Jansath, etc.


title: Mariam-uz-Zamani

text: She would often travel to her hometown, Amber, which was just 200km away from her home. The Empress also had the privilege to accompany Akbar often during his campaigns. During his Gujarat campaign when her brother Bhopat had fallen in the battle of Sarnal, Akbar sent Mariam-uz-Zamani, who was travelling with him during this campaign, to her native town Amer to pay condolences to her parents. She is recorded to be a virtuous woman with high ideals and fidelity. She had been faithful and highly devoted to her husband throughout her life having sided with Akbar than her son Salim, during the latter's rebellion against his father.


title: Mariam-uz-Zamani

text: Jahangir paid obeisance to his mother by touching her feet. He records these instances with a sense of pride. His reference to his mother was preceded by the epithet 'Hazrat'. Jahangir referred to her as "Hazrat Mariam-uz-Zamani", "Her Majesty" or at times "my exalted mother" out of his love for her in his memoirs.


title: Mariam-uz-Zamani

text: In 1607 when Jahangir decides to visit Gardens of Babur, he decides to take his mother and a few ladies of his harem along with him and states, ""I ordered Khurram to attend upon Hazrat Maryam-Zamani and the other ladies and to escort them to me. When they reached the neighbourhood of Lahore.. I embarked on a boat and went to a village named Dahr to meet my mother, and I had the good fortune to be received by her. After the performance of obeisance and prostration (rites of Korunish, Sajda, and Taslim before my exalted mother)..."" Jahangir would greet her mother by performing Korunish, Sajda, and Taslim and after paying her homage used to pay respect to other elders and royals. The stature and reverence Jahangir held for his mother were exceptional, he used to carry her palanquin on his shoulders. During the plague of Agra when Jahangir was in Fatehpur Sikri, he says, ""On January 1618, Mallika Mariam-uz-Zamani came from Agra to meet me and I attained the happiness of waiting on her. I hope that the shadow of her protection and affection will always be over the head of this supplicant"."


title: Mariam-uz-Zamani

text: In 1595, when Mariam-uz-Zamani was travelling from a certain place for her business exigency, she was robbed of all her personal possessions and was left without the ordinary necessities of life. Jesuit Benedict Goes hearing this assisted her before prince Salim could reach her. When this news was delivered to Akbar's court, Akbar and his court attendants in astonishment praised and thanked Benedict for his services to the queen as the assistance she sought from her countrymen was delivered to her by a stranger. Salim who was at a distance of eight days from his mother came in haste to meet his mother and meeting Benedict he embraced him and ordered full repayment of the advances he lent to the queen. When Mariam-uz-Zamani reached Akbar's court safely, several people arrived there to welcome her and presented her with many gifts.


title: Mariam-uz-Zamani

text: The courtesies and largesse demonstrate by Jahangir surface the proof of the amount of respect and love he held for his mother, Mariam-uz-Zamani. In the words of Edward Terry, a foreign traveller to the Mughal court, ""Jahangir's affection for his mother Her Majesty Mariam-uz-Zamani were exceptional, and not seldom would he show many expressions of duty and display his strong affections for her"". She had played an important social role in Jahangir’s life by hosting most of his family celebrations at her own home, several royal functions and events took place in the household of Mariam-uz-Zamani like Jahangir's solar and lunar weighings, all his birthday celebrations, Jahangir's marriage to the Amer princess, daughter of Kunwar Jagat Singh, Shahzada Parviz's wedding to the daughter of Sultan Murad Mirza and the henna ceremony of Ladli Begum, daughter of Nur Jahan and Shahryar Mirza.


title: Mariam-uz-Zamani

text: The Empress held considerable freedom of speech in the political matters of court. She was one of the few wives of Akbar who had the privilege to attend and express her views on the matters of the court. One of the episodes recorded in the book of Badayuni notes that once on the execution of a Brahmin by a conservative Muslim courtier of Akbar while Akbar had ordered the investigation to be continued, the daughter of Raja Bharmal taunted Emperor Akbar publicly for failing to maintain the abidance of his order. She would exercise her influence to secure a pardon for offenders.


title: Mariam-uz-Zamani

text: The religious ulemas of Akbar's court were utterly displeased by the influence of Mariam-uz-Zamani and his Hindu wives on him in making him follow the rituals and practices of Hindu culture. Since his marriage with the daughter of Raja Bharmal, he is said to have complimented her by ordering the continuous burning of the hom in which occasionally he would join her during her prayers.


title: Mariam-uz-Zamani

text: Akbar taking note of the disapproval of Mariam-uz-Zamani and his other Hindu wives stopped eating beef as the cow was regarded as a sacred animal in their religion. His Hindu wives insisted that he must refrain from eating onions and garlic which Badayuni says he agreed to. They also exerted enough influence on him to never keep a beard and abstain from association with people who kept beards. In order to gain the love of his Hindu wives and their goodwill, Badayuni notes, he abstained entirely from everything which was a natural abhorrence to them and took it as a mark of special devotion to himself if men shaved their beards so that it became common practice.


title: Mariam-uz-Zamani

text: The influence of Mariam-uz-Zamani and his Hindu wives was highly resented by the Muslim conservatives of the court, even more, when Akbar had ordered everyone in the court to stand up during the evening prayers of his Hindu wives when they would light up the hom in their temples to honour their traditions and culture and made sure that he was no exception to it.


title: Mariam-uz-Zamani

text: Akbar's Imperial harem was re-organized into a fortress-like institution which is quite in contrast to the image of the reigns of Babur and Humayun. Harbans Mukhia attributed this change to the growing influence of Rajput cultural ethos on Akbar ever since his marriage in 1562 to Mariam-uz-Zamani. Ira Mukhoty draws parallel between Akbar's reverence for sun worship and Harka Bai's family clan emblem being Lord Surya (sun).


title: Mariam-uz-Zamani

text: One of her intercessions in the inclination of his son include in May 1603, when Akbar suggested that Salim should undertake a military expedition for chastizement of Rana Amar Singh who was making encroachments on Mughal territories in Rajasthan. Salim suspicious of his father's motives expressed his reluctance to accept the assignment however this provoked Akbar to issue a formal firman appointing Shahzada Salim to the command of the proposed expedition. The ladies of the harem, Mariam-uz-Zamani and Salima Sultan Begum requested the Emperor not to press the matter, and let Salim continue to live under his eye at the court. Akbar succumbed to their pleas and withdrew the firman. Muni Lal says that at the time when Akbar marched towards Salim to wage a war, Mariam-uz-Zamani was torn by conflicting loyalties between father and son.


title: Mariam-uz-Zamani

text: Muni Lal notes another intervention of her alongside Salima Sultan Begum to revoke the orders of house arrest for Salim by Akbar. After the death of Hamida Bano Begum, in order to cease his rebellions and put an end to his alcoholism and debauchery, Akbar ordered he should be kept in solitary confinement in ghusalkhana and ordered no serving of alcohol and opium. Salim begging for wine the entire time behaved like a madman. Akbar appointed his physician to recommend the minimum necessary alcohol for his health. Muni Lal claims, 'the taming of the temperamental Salim bristled with complications, especially when Mariam Zamani and Salima Begum took into their scheming heads to leave no design unused to win freedom for their Baba'. The pressure from the senior queens became too compelling to be resisted for long. Akbar gave in and allowed Salim to shift to his palace.


title: Mariam-uz-Zamani

text: The Empress of Hindustan was the wealthiest and most distinguished woman of her time. She was honoured by various members of the regality of prominent nations during her husband and son's reign by receiving several precious and exorbitant gifts. The Empress was the recipient of a noble gift, in the year 1601, from the Queen of England. Mariam-uz-Zamani had numerous agents, middlemen, and financial advisers in and out of the harem appointed to help her oversee her trading activities and advise her on investments, "mirroring in miniature the Emperor's own finance ministry". She had her own vakils, who supervised her jagirs and the construction of buildings on various of her properties.


title: Mariam-uz-Zamani

text: She was the only woman of her time to hold a military rank and was one of the four senior-most figures in the Mughal court and the only woman to hold the highest military rank which was at par with the rank of the emperor itself, 12,000 cavalry units. She was known to receive a jewel from every nobleman "according to his estate" each year on the occasion of the New Year's festival, an honour bestowed upon no other Mughal Empress. Jahangir accompanied by his courtiers would at the eve of the new year present her with jewels and presents at her palace.


title: Mariam-uz-Zamani

text: Mariam-uz-Zamani was the senior-most woman in the imperial harem and held a high rank since the reign of Akbar. She had the right to issue official documents and edicts in her name, called Farman (sovereign mandates). Issuing of such orders was confined to the highest ladies of the harem such as Hamida Banu Begum, Nur Jahan, Mumtaz Mahal and Jahanara Begum. Mariam-uz-Zamani used her wealth to build gardens, wells, mosques, and other developments around the countryside and was in charge of the Hajj department since Akbar's reign. Mariam-uz-Zamani's retirement after her husband's death along with the death of Jagat Gosain led to the decline of Rajput influence in the Mughal court.


title: Mariam-uz-Zamani

text: After the death of Akbar in the year 1605, she became the prime shield of Khusrau Mirza and as noted by a Christian missionary present in Mughal court, she secured a pardon for the prince along with Salima Sultan Begum, Shakr-un-Nissa Begum, and Emperor Jahangir's other sisters upon Jahangir's succession. Nur Jahan is noted to have faked tears in front of her mother-in-law, Queen Mother Mariam-uz-Zamani for the possession of the charge of Prince Khusrau who was considered a powerful contender to the throne by the ambitious empress Nur Jahan however, she did not succeed.


title: Mariam-uz-Zamani

text: Ellison Banks Findly notes a strong-worded letter of Mariam-uz-Zamani to her son, Jahangir, written by her in the year 1616 expressing her concern for the safety of Khusrao Mirza and cites that she had anticipated that if Khusrau's charge was to be entrusted to Nur Jahan junta whom she believed was eager to eliminate Khusrau they would eventually kill Khusrau and it would be disastrous for the Mughal dynasty as the future descendants would use it as a specimen to murder their brothers for the possession of the royal throne. Succumbing to the pleas of his mother, sisters, Khusrau's stepmothers and sisters, Jahangir did not transfer the control of Khusrau to Nur Jahan or prince Khurram. She was so worried about the danger to Khusrau's life at this time that she “is gone to the king with an ouerture of all the Practice". Further, Findly adds that this foretelling of her substantiated soon afterwards in the Mughal Empire when Shah Jahan's kids, Aurangzeb and Dara Shikoh had a face-off for the royal throne eventually leading to the murder of Prince Dara Shikoh by his brother.