title: Soft drink

text: In 2008, Samantha K Graff published an article in the "Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science" regarding the "First Amendment Implications of Restricting Food and Beverages Marketing in Schools". The article examines a school district's policy regarding limiting the sale and marketing of soda in public schools, and how certain policies can invoke a violation of the First Amendment. Due to district budget cuts and loss in state funding, many school districts allow commercial businesses to market and advertise their product (including junk food and soda) to public school students for additional revenue. Junk food and soda companies have acquired exclusive rights to vending machines throughout many public school campuses. Opponents of corporate marketing and advertising on school grounds urge school officials to restrict or limit a corporation's power to promote, market, and sell their product to school students. In the 1970s, the Supreme Court ruled that advertising was not a form of free expression, but a form of business practices which should be regulated by the government. In the 1976 case of "Virginia State Board of Pharmacy v. Virginia Citizens Consumer Council", the Supreme Court ruled that advertising, or "commercial speech", to some degree is protected under the First Amendment. To avoid a First Amendment challenge by corporations, public schools could create contracts that restrict the sale of certain product and advertising. Public schools can also ban the selling of all food and drink products on campus, while not infringing on a corporation's right to free speech.


title: Soft drink

text: On December 13, 2010, President Obama signed the Healthy Hunger Free Kids Act of 2010 (effective in 2014) that mandates schools that receive federal funding must offer healthy snacks and drinks to students. The act bans the selling of soft drinks to students and requires schools to provide healthier options such as water, unflavored low-fat milk, 100% fruit and vegetable drinks or sugar-free carbonated drinks. The portion sizes available to students will be based on age: eight ounces for elementary schools, twelve ounces for middle and high schools. Proponents of the act predict the new mandate it will make it easier for students to make healthy drink choices while at school.


title: Soft drink

text: In 2015, Terry-McElarth and colleagues published a study in the "American Journal of Preventive Medicine" on regular soda policies and their effect on school drink availability and student consumption. The purpose of the study was to determine the effectiveness of a program beginning in the 2014–2015 school year that requires schools participating in federally reimbursable meal programs to remove all competitive venues (a la carte cafeteria sales, vending machines, and stores/snack bars/carts), on the availability of unhealthy drinks at schools and student consumption. The study analyzed state- and school district-level policies mandating soda bans and found that state bans were associated with significantly lower school soda availability but district bans showed no significant associations. In addition, no significant correlation was observed between state policies and student consumption. Among student populations, state policy was directly associated with significantly lower school soda availability and indirectly associated with lower student consumption. The same was not observed for other student populations.


title: Soft drink

text: In the United States, legislators, health experts and consumer advocates are considering levying higher taxes on the sale of soft drinks and other sweetened products to help curb the epidemic of obesity among Americans, and its harmful impact on overall health. Some speculate that higher taxes could help reduce soda consumption. Others say that taxes should help fund education to increase consumer awareness of the unhealthy effects of excessive soft drink consumption, and also help cover costs of caring for conditions resulting from overconsumption. The food and drink industry holds considerable clout in Washington, DC, as it has contributed more than $50 million to legislators since 2000.


title: Soft drink

text: In January 2013, a British lobby group called for the price of sugary fizzy drinks to be increased, with the money raised (an estimated £1 billion at 20p per litre) to be put towards a "Children's Future Fund", overseen by an independent body, which would encourage children to eat healthily in school.


title: Soft drink

text: In 2017, the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates and the Kingdom of Bahrain imposed a 50% tax on soft drinks and a 100% tax on energy drinks to curb excess consumption of the commodity and for additional revenue.


title: Soft drink

text: In March 2013, New York City's mayor Michael Bloomberg proposed to ban the sale of non-diet soft drinks larger than 16 ounces, except in convenience stores and supermarkets. A lawsuit against the ban was upheld by a state judge, who voiced concerns that the ban was "fraught with arbitrary and capricious consequences". Bloomberg announced that he would be appealing the verdict. The state appellate courts upheld the trial court decision, and the ban remains unenforceable as of 2021.


title: Indian Americans

text: Indian Americans or Indo-Americans are citizens of the United States with ancestry from India. The United States Census Bureau uses the term Asian Indian to avoid confusion with Native Americans, who have also historically been referred to as "Indians" and are known as "American Indians". With a population of more than four and a half million, Indian Americans make up 1.4% of the U.S. population and are the largest group of South Asian Americans, as well as the second largest group of Asian Americans after Chinese Americans. Indian Americans are the highest-earning ethnic group in the United States.


title: Indian Americans

text: In the Americas, the term "Indian" had historically been used to describe indigenous people since European colonization in the 15th century. Qualifying terms such as "American Indian" and "East Indian" were and still are commonly used in order to avoid ambiguity. The U.S. government has since coined the term "Native American" in reference to the indigenous people of the United States, but terms such as "American Indian" remain among indigenous as well as non-indigenous populations. Since the 1980s, Indian Americans have been categorized as "Asian Indian" (within the broader subgroup of Asian American) by the United States Census Bureau.


title: Indian Americans

text: While "East Indian" remains in use, the term "Indian" and "South Asian" is often chosen instead for academic and governmental purposes. Indian Americans are included in the census grouping of "South Asian Americans", which includes Bangladeshi Americans, Bhutanese Americans, Maldivian Americans, Nepalese Americans, Pakistani Americans, and Sri Lankan Americans.


title: Indian Americans

text: Beginning in the 17th century, members of the East India Company would bring Indian servants to the American colonies. There were also some East Indian slaves in the United States during the American colonial era. The Naturalization Act of 1790 limited citizenship to "white persons", making Asians ineligible for citizenship.


title: Indian Americans

text: In 1850, the federal census of St. Johns County, Florida, listed a 40-year-old draftsman named John Dick whose birthplace was listed as "Hindostan", living in city of St. Augustine. His race is listed as white, suggesting he was of British descent.


title: Indian Americans

text: By 1900, there were more than two thousand Indian Sikhs living in the United States, primarily in California. (At least one scholar has set the level lower, finding a total of 716 Indian immigrants to the U.S. between 1820 and 1900.) Emigration from India was driven by difficulties facing Indian farmers, including the challenges posed by the colonial land tenure system for small landowners, and by drought and food shortages, which worsened in the 1890s. At the same time, Canadian steamship companies, acting on behalf of Pacific coast employers, recruited Sikh farmers with economic opportunities in British Columbia.


title: Indian Americans

text: The presence of Indians in the U.S. also helped develop interest in Eastern religions in the US and would result in its influence on American philosophies such as Transcendentalism. Swami Vivekananda arriving in Chicago at the World's Fair led to the establishment of the Vedanta Society.


title: Indian Americans

text: Escaping racist attacks in Canada, Sikhs migrated to Pacific Coast U.S. states in the 1900s to work on the lumber mills of Bellingham and Everett, Washington. Sikh workers were later concentrated on the railroads and began migrating to California; around 2,000 Indians were employed by the major rail lines such as Southern Pacific Railroad and Western Pacific Railroad between 1907 and 1908. Some white Americans, resentful of economic competition and the arrival of people from different cultures, responded to Sikh immigration with racism and violent attacks. The Bellingham riots in Bellingham, Washington on September 5, 1907, epitomized the low tolerance in the U.S. for Indians and Sikhs, who were called "Hindoos" by locals. While anti-Asian racism was embedded in U.S. politics and culture in the early 20th century, Indians were also racialized for their anticolonialism, with U.S. officials, who pushed for Western imperial expansion abroad, casting them as a "Hindu" menace. Although labeled Hindu, the majority of Indians were Sikh.


title: Indian Americans

text: In the early 20th century, a range of state and federal laws restricted Indian immigration and the rights of Indian immigrants in the U.S. Throughout the 1910s, American nativist organizations campaigned to end immigration from India, culminating in the passage of the Barred Zone Act in 1917. In 1913, the Alien Land Act of California prevented non-citizens from owning land. However, Asian immigrants got around the system by having Anglo friends or their own U.S. born children legally own the land that they worked on. In some states, anti-miscegenation laws made it illegal for Indian men to marry white women. However, it was legal for "brown" races to mix. Many Indian men, especially Punjabi men, married Hispanic women, and Punjabi-Mexican marriages became a norm in the West.


title: Indian Americans

text: Bhicaji Balsara became the first known Indian to gain naturalized U.S. citizenship. As a Parsi, he was considered a "pure member of the Persian sect" and therefore a "free white person". In 1910, judge Emile Henry Lacombe of the Southern District of New York gave Balsara citizenship on the hope that the United States attorney would indeed challenge his decision and appeal it to create "an authoritative interpretation" of the law. The U.S. attorney adhered to Lacombe's wishes and took the matter to the Circuit Court of Appeals in 1910. The Circuit Court of Appeals agreed that Parsis are classified as white. On the same grounds, another federal court decision granted citizenship to A. K. Mozumdar. These decisions contrasted with the 1907 declaration by U.S. Attorney General Charles J. Bonaparte: "...under no construction of the law can natives of British India be regarded as white persons."


title: Indian Americans

text: After the Immigration Act of 1917, Indian immigration into the U.S. decreased. Illegal entry through the Mexican border became the way of entering the country for Punjabi immigrants. California's Imperial Valley had a large population of Punjabis who assisted these immigrants and provided support. Immigrants were able to blend in with this relatively homogenous population. The Ghadar Party, a group in California that campaigned for Indian independence, facilitated illegal crossing of the Mexican border, using funds from this migration "as a means to bolster the party's finances". The Ghadar Party charged different prices for entering the US depending on whether Punjabi immigrants were willing to shave off their beard and cut their hair. It is estimated that between 1920 and 1935, about 1,800 to 2,000 Indian immigrants entered the U.S. illegally.


title: Indian Americans

text: By 1920, the population of Americans of Indian descent was approximately 6,400. In 1923, the Supreme Court of the United States ruled in "United States v. Bhagat Singh Thind" that Indians were ineligible for citizenship because they were not "free white persons". The court also argued that the "great body of our people" would reject assimilation with Indians. Furthermore, the court ruled that based on popular understanding of race, the term "white person" referred to people of northern or western European ancestry rather than "Caucasians" in the most technical sense. Over fifty Indians had their citizenship revoked after this decision, but Sakharam Ganesh Pandit fought against denaturalization. He was a lawyer and married to a white American, and he regained his citizenship in 1927. However, no other naturalization was permitted after the ruling, which led to about 3,000 Indians leaving the U.S. between 1920 and 1940. Many other Indians had no means of returning to India.


title: Indian Americans

text: Indians started moving up the social ladder by getting higher education. For example, in 1910, Dhan Gopal Mukerji came to UC Berkeley when he was 20 years old. He was an author of many children's books and won the Newbery Medal in 1928 for his book "Gay-Neck: The Story of a Pigeon". However, he committed suicide at the age of 46 while he was suffering from depression. Another student, Yellapragada Subbarow, came to the U.S. in 1922. He became a biochemist at Harvard University, and he "discovered the function of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) as an energy source in cells, and developed methotrexate for the treatment of cancer." However, being a foreigner, he was refused tenure at Harvard. Gobind Behari Lal, who came to the University of California, Berkeley in 1912, became the science editor of the "San Francisco Examiner" and was the first Indian American to win the Pulitzer Prize for journalism.


title: Indian Americans

text: After World War II, U.S. policy re-opened the door to Indian immigration, although slowly at first. The Luce–Celler Act of 1946 permitted a quota of 100 Indians per year to immigrate to the U.S. It also allowed Indian immigrants to naturalize and become citizens of the U.S., effectively reversing the Supreme Court's 1923 ruling in "United States v. Bhagat Singh Thind". The Naturalization Act of 1952, also known as the McCarran-Walter Act, repealed the Barred Zone Act of 1917, but limited immigration from the former Barred Zone to a total of 2,000 per year. In 1910, 95% of all Indian Americans lived on the western coast of the United States. In 1920, that proportion decreased to 75%; by 1940, it was 65%, as more Indian Americans moved to the East Coast. In that year, Indian Americans were registered residents in 43 states. The majority of Indian Americans on the west coast were in rural areas, but on the east coast they became residents of urban areas. In the 1940s, the prices of the land increased, and the Bracero program brought thousands of Mexican guest workers to work on farms, which helped shift second-generation Indian American farmers into "commercial, nonagricultural occupations, from running small shops and grocery stores, to operating taxi services and becoming engineers." In Stockton and Sacramento, a new group of Indian immigrants from the state of Gujarat opened several small hotels. In 1955, 14 of 21 hotels enterprises in San Francisco were operated by Gujarati Hindus. By the 1980s, Indians owned around 15,000 motels, about 28 percent of all hotels and motels in the U.S.


title: Indian Americans

text: The Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965 dramatically opened entry to the U.S. to immigrants other than traditional Northern European groups, which would significantly alter the demographic mix in the U.S. Not all Indian Americans came directly from India; some came to the U.S. via Indian communities in other countries, including the United Kingdom, Canada, South Africa, the former British colonies of East Africa, (namely Kenya, Tanzania), and Uganda, Mauritius), the Asia-Pacific region (Malaysia, Singapore, Australia, and Fiji), and the Caribbean (Guyana, Trinidad and Tobago, Suriname, and Jamaica). From 1965 until the mid-1990s, long-term immigration from India averaged about 40,000 people per year. From 1995 onward, the flow of Indian immigration increased significantly, reaching a high of about 90,000 immigrants in the year 2000.


title: Indian Americans

text: The beginning of the 21st century marked a significant wave in the migration trend from India to the United States. The emergence of Information Technology industry in Indian cities as Bangalore, Chennai, and Hyderabad led to the large number of migrations to the US primarily from the states of Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu in South India. There are sizable populations of people from the states of Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Gujarat, Karnataka, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu in the United States. Indians comprise over 80% of all H-1B visas. Indian Americans have risen to become the richest ethnicity in America, with an average household income of $126,891, almost twice the US average of $65,316.


title: Indian Americans

text: Since 2000, a large number of students have started migrating to the United States to pursue higher education. A variety of estimates state that over 500,000 Indian American students attend higher-education institutions in any given year. As per Institute of International Education (IIE) 'Opendoors' report, 202,014 new students from India enrolled in US education institutions.


title: Indian Americans

text: On January 20, 2021, Kamala Harris, an Indian American, made history as the first female Vice President of the United States. She was elected vice president as the running mate of President Joe Biden in the presidential election the previous November. This was a major milestone in Indian American history, and in addition to Harris, another 20 Indian Americans were nominated to key positions in the administration.


title: Indian Americans

text: According to the 2010 United States Census, the Asian Indian population in the United States grew from almost 1,678,765 in 2000 (0.6% of U.S. population) to 2,843,391 in 2010 (0.9%


title: Indian Americans

text: of U.S. population), a growth rate of 69.37%, one of the fastest growing ethnic groups in the United States.


title: Indian Americans

text: The New York-Newark-Bridgeport, NY-NJ-CT-PA Combined Statistical Area, consisting of New York City, Long Island, and adjacent areas within New York, as well as nearby areas within the states of New Jersey (extending to Trenton), Connecticut (extending to Bridgeport), and including Pike County, Pennsylvania, was home to an estimated 711,174 uniracial Indian Americans as of the 2017 American Community Survey by the U.S. Census Bureau, comprising by far the largest Indian American population of any metropolitan area in the U.S.;


title: Indian Americans

text: New York City itself also contains by far the highest Indian American population of any individual city in North America, estimated at 246,454 as of 2017. Monroe Township, Middlesex County, in central New Jersey, the geographic heart of the Northeast megalopolis and ranked one of the ten safest cities in the United States, has displayed one of the fastest growth rates of its Indian population in the Western Hemisphere, increasing from 256 (0.9%) as of the 2000 Census to an estimated 5,943 (13.6%) as of 2017, representing a 2,221.5% (a multiple of 23) numerical increase over that period, including many affluent professionals and senior citizens as well as charitable benefactors to the COVID-19 relief efforts in India in official coordination with Monroe Township, as well as Bollywood actors with second homes. By 2022, the Indian population was approaching one-third of Monroe Township's population, and the nickname "Edison-South" had developed, in reference to the Little India stature of both Middlesex County, New Jersey townships. In 2014, 12,350 Indians legally immigrated to the New York-Northern New Jersey-Long Island, NY-NJ-PA core based statistical area; As of February 2022, Indian airline carrier Air India as well as United States airline carrier United Airlines were offering direct flights from the New York City Metropolitan Area to and from Delhi and Mumbai. In May 2019, Delta Air Lines announced non-stop flight service between New York JFK and Mumbai, to begin December 22, 2019. And in November 2021, American Airlines began non-stop flight dservice between New York JFK and Delhi with IndiGo Air codesharing on this flight. At least 24 Indian American enclaves characterized as a Little India have emerged in the New York City Metropolitan Area.


title: Indian Americans

text: Other metropolitan areas with large Indian American populations include Atlanta, Austin, Baltimore–Washington, Boston, Chicago, Dallas–Ft. Worth, Detroit, Houston, Los Angeles, Philadelphia, Phoenix, Raleigh, San Francisco–San Jose–Oakland, and Seattle.


title: Indian Americans

text: The three oldest Indian American communities going back to around 1910 are in lesser populated agricultural areas like Stockton, California south of Sacramento; the Central Valley of California like Yuba City; and Imperial County, California aka Imperial Valley. These were all primarily Sikh settlements.


title: Indian Americans

text: In 2006, of the 1,266,264 legal immigrants to the United States, 58,072 were from India. Between 2000 and 2006, 421,006 Indian immigrants were admitted to the U.S., up from 352,278 during the 1990–1999 period. According to the 2000 U.S. census, the overall growth rate for Indians from 1990 to 2000 was 105.87 percent. The average growth rate for the U.S. was 7.6 percent. Indians comprise 16.4 percent of the Asian-American community. In 2000, the Indian-born population in the U.S. was 1.007 million. According to the U.S. Census Bureau, between 1990 and 2000, the Indian population in the U.S. grew 130% – 10 times the national average of 13%. Indian Americans are the third largest Asian American ethnic group, following Chinese Americans and Filipino Americans.


title: Indian Americans

text: A joint Duke University – UC Berkeley study revealed that Indian immigrants have founded more engineering and technology companies from 1995 to 2005 than immigrants from the UK, China, Taiwan and Japan combined. The percentage of Silicon Valley startups founded by Indian immigrants has increased from 7% in 1999 to 15.5% in 2006, as reported in the 1999 study by AnnaLee Saxenian and her updated work in 2006 in collaboration with Vivek Wadhawa. Indian Americans are making their way to the top positions of many major companies (including IBM, PepsiCo, MasterCard, Google, Facebook, Microsoft, Cisco, Oracle, Adobe, Softbank, Cognizant, Sun microsystems) A recent study shows that 23% of Indian business school graduates take a job in United States.


title: Indian Americans

text: Indian Americans continuously outpace every other ethnic group socioeconomically per U.S. Census statistics. Thomas Friedman, in his 2005 book "The World Is Flat", explains this trend in terms of brain drain, whereby a sample of the best and brightest people in India emigrate to the United States in order to seek better financial opportunities. Indians form the second largest group of physicians after non-Hispanic Caucasian Americans (3.9%) as of the 1990 survey, and the percentage of Indian physicians rose to around 6% in 2005.


title: Indian Americans

text: According to Pew Research in 2015, of Indian Americans aged 25 and older, 72% had obtained a bachelor's degree and 40% had obtained a postgraduate degree, whereas of all Americans, 19% had obtained a bachelor's degree and 11% had obtained a postgraduate degree.


title: Indian Americans

text: The median household income for Indian immigrants in 2019 was much higher than that of the overall foreign- and native-born populations. Indians overall have much higher incomes than the total foreign and native-born populations. In 2019, households headed by an Indian immigrant had a median income of $132,000, compared to $64,000 and $66,000 for all immigrant and U.S.-born households, respectively.


title: Indian Americans

text: In 2019, Indian immigrants were less likely to be in poverty (5 percent) than immigrants overall (14 percent) or the U.S. born (12 percent).


title: Indian Americans

text: Patel Brothers is a supermarket chain serving the Indian diaspora, with 57 locations in 19 U.S. states—primarily located in the New Jersey/New York Metropolitan Area, due to its large Indian population, and with the East Windsor/Monroe Township, New Jersey location representing the world's largest and busiest Indian grocery store outside India. In DFW there is another Indian Grocery chain India Bazar with 9 locations. Chicago, IL has 4 Patel Brothers including the first ever store.


title: Indian Americans

text: Gujarati, Telugu, Marathi, Punjabi, Malayalam, and Hindi radio stations are available in areas with high Indian populations, for example, Punjabi Radio USA, Easy96.com in the New York City metropolitan area, KLOK 1170 AM in San Francisco, RBC Radio; Radio Humsafar, Desi Junction in Chicago; Radio Salaam Namaste and FunAsia Radio in Dallas; and Masala Radio, FunAsia Radio, Sangeet Radio, Radio Naya Andaz in Houston and Washington Bangla Radio on Internet from the Washington DC Metro Area. There are also some radio stations broadcasting in Tamil within these communities. Houston-based Kannada Kaaranji radio focuses on a multitude of programs for children and adults.


title: Indian Americans

text: "AVS" (Asian Variety Show) and "Namaste America" are South Asian programming available in most of the US that is free to air and can be watched with a television antenna.


title: Indian Americans

text: Several cable and satellite television providers offer Indian channels: Sony TV, Zee TV, TV Asia, Star Plus, Sahara One, Colors, Sun TV, ETV, Big Magic, regional channels, and others have offered Indian content for subscription, such as the Cricket World Cup. There is also an American cricket channel called Willow.


title: Indian Americans

text: Many metropolitan areas with large Indian American populations now have movie theaters which specialize in showing Indian movies, especially from Tollywood (Telugu), Kollywood (Tamil) and Bollywood (Hindi).


title: Indian Americans

text: In July 2005, MTV premiered a spin-off network called MTV Desi which targets Indian Americans. It has been discontinued by MTV.


title: Indian Americans

text: In 2012, the film "Not a Feather, but a Dot" directed by Teju Prasad, was released which investigates the history, perceptions and changes in the Indian American community over the last century.


title: Indian Americans

text: In popular media, several Indian American personalities have made their mark in recent years, including Kovid Gupta, Kal Penn, Hari Kondabolu, Karan Brar, Aziz Ansari, Hasan Minhaj, and Mindy Kaling.


title: Indian Americans

text: The annual New York City India Day Parade, held on or approximately every August 15 since 1981, is the world's largest Indian Independence Day parade outside of India and is hosted by The Federation of Indian Associations (FIA). According to the website of Baruch College of the City University of New York, "The FIA, which came into being in 1970 is an umbrella organization meant to represent the diverse Indian population of NYC. Its mission is to promote and further the interests of its 500,000 members and to collaborate with other Indian cultural organization. The FIA acts as a mouth piece for the diverse Indian-Asian population in United States, and is focused on furthering the interests of this diverse community. The parade begins on East 38th Street and continues down Madison Avenue in Midtown Manhattan until it reaches 28th Street. At the review stand on 28th Street, the grand marshal and various celebrities greet onlookers. Throughout the parade, participants find themselves surrounded by the saffron, white and green colors of the Indian flag. They can enjoy Indian food, merchandise booths, live dancing and music present at the Parade. After the parade is over, various cultural organizations and dance schools participate in program on 23rd Street and Madison Avenue until 6PM." The New York/New Jersey metropolitan region's second-largest India Independence Day parade takes place in Little India, Edison/Iselin in Middlesex County, New Jersey, annually in August.


title: Indian Americans

text: The world's largest Sikh Day Parade outside India celebrating Vaisakhi and the season of renewal is held in Manhattan annually in April. The parade is widely regarded as being one of the most colourful parades.


title: Indian Americans

text: Communities of Hindus, Christians, Muslims, Sikhs, irreligious people, and smaller numbers of Jains, Buddhists, Zoroastrians, and Indian Jews have established their religions in the United States. According to 2014 Pew Research Center research, 51% consider themselves Hindu, 18% as Christian (Protestant 11%, Catholic 5%, other Christian 3%), 9% as unaffiliated, 10%


title: Indian Americans

text: The first religious center of an Indian religion to be established in the US was a Sikh Gurudwara in Stockton, California in 1912. Today there are many Sikh Gurudwaras, Hindu temples, Muslim mosques, Christian churches, and Buddhist and Jain temples in all 50 states.


title: Indian Americans

text: As of 2008, the American Hindu population was around 2.2 million. Hindus form the majority religious group amongst the Indian American community. Many organizations such as ISKCON, Swaminarayan Sampraday, BAPS Swaminarayan Sanstha, Chinmaya Mission, and Swadhyay Pariwar are well-established in the U.S. and Hindu Americans have formed the Hindu American Foundation which represents American Hindus and aim to educate people about Hinduism. Swami Vivekananda brought Hinduism to the West at the 1893 Parliament of the World's Religions. The Vedanta Society has been important in subsequent Parliaments. In September 2021, the State of New Jersey aligned with the World Hindu Council to declare October as Hindu Heritage Month. Today, many Hindu temples, most of them built by Indian Americans, have emerged in different cities and towns in the United States. More than 18 million Americans are now practicing some form of Yoga. Kriya Yoga was introduced to America by Paramahansa Yogananda. A.C Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada initiated the popular ISKCON, also known as the Hare Krishna movement, while preaching Bhakti yoga.


title: Indian Americans

text: From the time of their arrival in the late 1800s, Sikh men and women have been making notable contributions to American society.


title: Indian Americans

text: In 2007, there were estimated to be between 250,000 and 500,000 Sikhs living in the United States, with largest populations living on the East and West Coasts, together with additional populations in Detroit, Chicago, and Austin. The United States also has a number of non-Punjabi converts to Sikhism.


title: Indian Americans

text: Sikh men are typically identifiable by their unshorn beards and turbans (head coverings), articles of their faith. Many organisations like World Sikh Organisation (WSO), Sikh Riders of America, SikhNet, Sikh Coalition, SALDEF, United Sikhs, National Sikh Campaign continue to educate people about Sikhism. There are many "Gurudwaras" Sikh temples present in all states of USA.


title: Indian Americans

text: Adherents of Jainism first arrived in the United States in the 20th century. The most significant time of Jain immigration was in the early 1970s. The US has since become a center of the Jain diaspora. The Federation of Jain Associations in North America is an umbrella organization of local American and Canadian Jain congregations. Unlike India and United Kingdom, the Jain community in United States doesn't find sectarian differences—both Digambara and Śvētāmbara share a common roof.


title: Indian Americans

text: Hasan Minhaj, Fareed Zakaria, Aziz Ansari, Pir Vilayat Inayat Khan are few well known Indian American Muslims.


title: Indian Americans

text: Indian Muslim Americans also congregate with other American Muslims, including those from Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Bhutan and Myanmar when there are events


title: Indian Americans

text: particularly related to their faith and religious believes as the same can be applied for any other religious community, but there are prominent organizations such as the Indian Muslim Council – USA.


title: Indian Americans

text: There are many Indian Christian churches across the US; India Pentecostal Church of God, Assemblies of God in India, Church of God (Full Gospel) in India, Church of South India, Church of North India, Christhava Tamil Koil, The Pentecostal Mission, Sharon Pentecostal Church, Independent Non Denominational Churches like Heavenly Feast, Plymouth Brethren. Saint Thomas Christians (Syro-Malabar Church, Syro-Malankara Catholic Church, Chaldean Syrian Church, Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church, Jacobite Syrian Christian Church, CSI Syrian Christians, Mar Thoma Syrian Church, Pentecostal Syrian Christians and St. Thomas Evangelical Church of India) from Kerala have established their own places of worship across the United States. The website "USIndian.org" has collected a comprehensive list of all the traditional St. Thomas Christian Churches in the US. There are also Catholic Indians hailing originally from Goa, Karnataka and Kerala, who attend the same services as other American Catholics, but may celebrate the feast of Saint Francis Xavier as a special event of their identity. The Indian Christian Americans have formed the Federation of Indian American Christian Organizations of North America (FIACONA) to represent a network of Indian Christian organizations in the US. FIACONA estimates the Indian American Christian population to be 1,050,000. The Syro-Malabar Church, an Eastern Catholic Church, native to India since the 1st century, established St. Thomas Syro-Malabar diocese of Chicago was established in the year 2001. St. Thomas day is celebrated in this church on July 3 every year.


title: Indian Americans

text: The large Parsi and Irani community is represented by the Federation of Zoroastrian Associations of North America. Indian Jews are perhaps the smallest organized religious group among Indian Americans, consisting of approximately 350 members in the US. They form the Indian Jewish Congregation of USA, with their headquarters in New York City.


title: Indian Americans

text: Momentum has been growing to recognize the Hindu holy day Deepavali (Diwali) as a holiday on school district calendars in the New York City metropolitan region. New York City announced in October 2022 that Diwali would be an official school holiday commencing in 2023.


title: Indian Americans

text: Passaic, New Jersey established Diwali as a school holiday in 2005. South Brunswick, New Jersey in 2010 became the first of the many school districts with large Indian student populations in Middlesex County in New Jersey to add Diwali to the school calendar. Glen Rock, New Jersey in February 2015 became the first municipality in Bergen County, with its own burgeoning Indian population post-2010, to recognize Diwali as an annual school holiday, while thousands in Bergen County celebrated the first U.S. county-wide Diwali Mela festival under a unified sponsorship banner in 2016, while Fair Lawn in Bergen County celebrates Holi. Diwali/Deepavali is also recognized by Monroe Township, New Jersey.


title: Indian Americans

text: Efforts have been undertaken in Millburn, Monroe Township, West Windsor-Plainsboro, Bernards Township, and North Brunswick, New Jersey, Long Island, as well as in New York City (ultimately successfully), among other school districts in the metropolitan region, to make Diwali a holiday on the school calendar. According to the "Star-Ledger", Edison, New Jersey councilman Sudhanshu Prasad has noted parents' engagement in making Deepavali a holiday there; while in Jersey City, the four schools with major Asian Indian populations mark the holiday by inviting parents to the school buildings for festivities. Mahatma Gandhi Elementary School is located in Passaic, New Jersey. Efforts are also progressing toward making Diwali and Eid official holidays at all 24 school districts in Middlesex County. At least 12 school districts on Long Island closed for Diwali in 2022, and over 20 in New Jersey.


title: Indian Americans

text: In March 2015, New York City Mayor Bill de Blasio officially declared the Muslim holy days Eid al-Fitr and Eid al-Adha holidays on the school calendar. School districts in Paterson and South Brunswick, New Jersey observe Ramadan.


title: Indian Americans

text: Like the terms "Asian American" or "South Asian American", the term "Indian American" is also an umbrella label applying to a variety of views, values, lifestyles, and appearances. Although Asian-Indian Americans retain a high ethnic identity, they are known to assimilate into American culture while at the same time keeping the culture of their ancestors.


title: Indian Americans

text: The United States is home to various associations that promote Indian languages and cultures. Some major organizations include,


title: Indian Americans

text: According to the official U.S. racial categories employed by the United States Census Bureau, Office of Management and Budget and other U.S. government agencies, American citizens or resident aliens who marked ""Asian Indian"" as their ancestry or wrote in a term that was automatically classified as an Asian Indian became classified as part of the Asian race at the 2000 US Census. As with other modern official U.S. government racial categories, the term "Asian" is in itself a broad and heterogeneous classification, encompassing all peoples with origins in the original peoples of the Far East, Southeast Asia, and the Indian subcontinent.


title: Indian Americans

text: In previous decades, Indian Americans were also variously classified as White American, the "Hindu race", and "other". Even today, where individual Indian Americans do not racially self-identify, and instead report Muslim, Jewish, and Zoroastrian as their "race" in the "some other race" section without noting their country of origin, they are automatically tallied as white. This may result in the counting of persons such as Indian Muslims, Indian Jews, and Indian Zoroastrians as white, if they solely report their religious heritage without their national origin.


title: Indian Americans

text: In the 1980s, a gang known as the Dotbusters specifically targeted Indian Americans in Jersey City, New Jersey with violence and harassment. Studies of racial discrimination, as well as stereotyping and scapegoating of Indian Americans have been conducted in recent years. In particular, racial discrimination against Indian Americans in the workplace has been correlated with Indophobia due to the rise in outsourcing/offshoring, whereby Indian Americans are blamed for US companies offshoring white-collar labor to India. According to the offices of the Congressional Caucus on India, many Indian Americans are severely concerned of a backlash, though nothing serious has taken place. Due to various socio-cultural reasons, implicit racial discrimination against Indian Americans largely go unreported by the Indian American community.


title: Indian Americans

text: Numerous cases of religious stereotyping of American Hindus (mainly of Indian origin) have also been documented.


title: Indian Americans

text: Since the September 11, 2001 attacks, there have been scattered incidents of Indian Americans becoming mistaken targets for hate crimes. In one example, a Sikh, Balbir Singh Sodhi, was murdered at a Phoenix gas station by a white supremacist. This happened after September 11, and the murderer claimed that his turban made him think that the victim was a Middle Eastern American. In another example, a pizza deliverer was mugged and beaten in Massachusetts for "being Muslim" though the victim pleaded with the assailants that he was in fact a Hindu. In December 2012, an Indian American in New York City was pushed from behind onto the tracks at the 40th Street-Lowery Street station in Sunnyside and killed. The police arrested a woman, Erika Menendez, who admitted to the act and justified it, stating that she shoved him onto the tracks because she believed he was "a Hindu or a Muslim" and she wanted to retaliate for the attacks of September 11, 2001.


title: Indian Americans

text: In 2004, New York Senator Hillary Clinton joked at a fundraising event with South Asians for Nancy Farmer that Mahatma Gandhi owned a gas station in downtown St. Louis, fueling the stereotype that gas stations are owned by Indians and other South Asians. She clarified in the speech later that she was just joking, but still received some criticism for the statement later on for which she apologized again.


title: Indian Americans

text: On April 5, 2006, the Hindu Mandir of Minnesota was vandalized allegedly on the basis of religious discrimination. The vandals damaged temple property leading to $200,000 worth of damage.


title: Indian Americans

text: On August 11, 2006, Senator George Allen allegedly referred to an opponent's political staffer of Indian ancestry as "macaca" and commenting, "Welcome to America, to the real world of Virginia". Some members of the Indian American community saw Allen's comments, and the backlash that may have contributed to Allen losing his re-election bid, as demonstrative of the power of YouTube in the 21st century.


title: Indian Americans

text: In 2006, then Delaware Senator and current U.S President Joe Biden was caught on microphone saying: "In Delaware, the largest growth in population is Indian Americans moving from India. You cannot go to a 7-Eleven or a Dunkin' Donuts unless you have a slight Indian accent. I'm not joking."


title: Indian Americans

text: On August 5, 2012, white supremacist Wade Michael Page shot eight people and killed six at a Sikh gurdwara in Oak Creek, Wisconsin.


title: Indian Americans

text: On February 22, 2017, recent immigrants Srinivas Kuchibhotla and Alok Madasani were shot at a bar in Olathe, Kansas by Adam Purinton, a white American who mistook them for persons of Middle Eastern descent, yelling "get out of my country" and "terrorist". Kuchibhotla died instantly while Madasani was injured, but later recovered.


title: Indian Americans

text: Punjabi Sikh Americans in Indianapolis suffered many losses in their community on April 15, 2021, during the Indianapolis FedEx shooting in which gunman Brandon Scott Hole, with a currently unknown motive, entered a FedEx warehouse and killed eight people, half of whom were Sikh. The Sikh victims were Jaswinder Singh, Jasvinder Kaur, Amarjit Sekhon, and Amarjeet Johal. Ninety percent of the workers at the facility were Sikh according to some accounts. Another Sikh, Taptejdeep Singh, was one of the nine people killed in the San Jose shooting on May 26.


title: Indian Americans

text: Indians are among the largest ethnic groups legally immigrating to the United States. The immigration of Indians has taken place in several waves since the first Indian came to the United States in the 1700s. A major wave of immigration to California from the region of Punjab took place in the first decade of the 20th century. Another significant wave followed in the 1950s which mainly included students and professionals. The elimination of immigration quotas in 1965 spurred successively larger waves of immigrants in the late 1970s and early 1980s. With the technology boom of the 1990s, the largest influx of Indians arrived between 1995 and 2000. This latter group has also caused surge in the application for various immigration benefits including applications for green card. This has resulted in long waiting periods for people born in India from receiving these benefits.


title: Indian Americans

text: As of 2012, over 330,000 Indians were on the visa wait list, third only to Mexico and The Philippines.


title: Indian Americans

text: In December, 2015, over 30 Indian students seeking admission in two US universities—Silicon Valley University and the Northwestern Polytechnic University—were denied entry by Customs and Border Protection and were deported to India. Conflicting reports suggested that the students were deported because of the controversies surrounding the above-mentioned two universities. However, another report suggested that the students were deported as they had provided conflicting information at the time of their arrival in US to what was mentioned in their visa application. "According to the US Government, the deported persons had presented information to the border patrol agent which was inconsistent with their visa status," read an advisory published by Ministry of External Affairs (India) which was published in the Hindustan Times.


title: Indian Americans

text: Following the incident, the Indian government asked the US government to honour the visas given by its embassies and consulates. In response, the United States embassy advised the students considering studying in the US to seek assistance from Education USA.


title: Indian Americans

text: Unlike many countries, India does not allow dual citizenship. Consequently, many Indian citizens residing in U.S., who do not want to lose their Indian nationality, do not apply for American citizenship (ex. Raghuram Rajan). However, many Indian Americans obtain Overseas Citizenship of India (OCI) status, which allows them to live and work in India indefinitely.


title: Indian Americans

text: Although Indian Americans have the highest average and median household income of any demographic group in America, there exist significant and severe income disparities among various communities of Indian Americans. In Long Island, the average family income of Indian Americans was roughly $273,000, while in Fresno, the average family income of Indian Americans was only $24,000, an eleven-fold difference.


title: Indian Americans

text: In 2009, the Department of Homeland Security estimated that there were 200,000 Indian unauthorized immigrants; they are the sixth largest nationality (tied with Koreans) of illegal immigrants behind Mexico, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and the Philippines. Indian Americans have had an increase in illegal immigration of 25% since 2000. In 2014, Pew Research Center estimated that there are 450,000 undocumented Indians in the United States.


title: Indian Americans

text: Several groups have tried to create a voice for Indian Americans in political affairs, including the United States India Political Action Committee and the Indian American Leadership Initiative, as well as panethnic groups such as South Asian Americans Leading Together and Desis Rising Up and Moving. Additionally, there are industry groups such as the Asian American Hotel Owners Association and the Association of American Physicians of Indian Origin.


title: Indian Americans

text: A majority tend to identify as moderates and have voted for Democrats in recent elections, in particular supporting Barack Obama in vast numbers. Polls before the 2004 presidential election showed Indian Americans favoring Democratic candidate John Kerry over Republican George W. Bush by a 53% to 14% margin, with 30% undecided at the time. The Republican party has tried to target this community for political support, and in 2007, Republican Congressman Bobby Jindal became the first United States Governor of Indian descent when he was elected Governor of Louisiana. Nikki Haley, also of Indian descent and a fellow Republican, became Governor of South Carolina in 2010. Republican Neel Kashkari is also of Indian descent and ran for Governor of California in 2014. Raja Krishnamoorthi who is a lawyer, engineer and community leader from Schaumburg, Illinois has been the Congressman representing Illinois's 8th congressional district since 2017. Jenifer Rajkumar is a Lower Manhattan district leader and the first Indian American woman elected to the state legislature in New York history. In 2016, Kamala Harris (the daughter of a Tamil Indian American mother, Dr. Shyamala Gopalan Harris, and an Afro-Jamaican American father, Donald Harris) became the first Indian American and second African American female to serve in the United States Senate. In 2020, she briefly ran for President of the United States and was later chosen as the Democratic Party's vice-presidential nominee, running alongside Joe Biden. Indian Americans have played a significant role in promoting better India–United States relations, turning the cold attitude of American legislators to a positive perception of India in the post-Cold War era.


title: Argentine Primera División

text: The Primera División (; ), known officialy as Liga Profesional de Fútbol, or Torneo Binance for sponsorship reasons, is a professional football league in Argentina, organised by the Argentine Football Association (AFA).


title: Argentine Primera División

text: The Primera División is the country's premier football division and is the top division of the Argentine football league system. It operates on a system of promotion and relegation with the Primera Nacional (Second Division), with the teams placed lowest at the end of the season being relegated. Since 2020, relegation has been suspended due to COVID-19 pandemic.


title: Argentine Primera División

text: With the first championship held in 1891, Argentina became the first country outside the United Kingdom (where the Football League had debuted in 1888, and the Scottish and Irish Football Leagues in 1890) to establish a football league. In the early years, only teams from Buenos Aires, Greater Buenos Aires, La Plata and Rosario were affiliated to the national association. Teams from other cities would join in later years.


title: Argentine Primera División

text: The Primera División turned professional in 1931 when 18 clubs broke away from the amateur leagues to form a professional one. Since then, the season has been contested annually in four different formats and calendars.


title: Argentine Primera División

text: The Argentine championship was ranked in the top 10 as one of the strongest leagues in the world (for 1 January 2015 – 31 December 2015 period) by the International Federation of Football History & Statistics (IFFHS). Argentina placed 4th after La Liga (Spain), Serie A (Italy), and Bundesliga (Germany).


title: Argentine Primera División

text: The 2022 season was contested by 28 teams, including the 26 teams from the previous season (so there were no relegations during in 2021) plus the two teams promoted from Primera Nacional. The season ran from June to October 2022, prior to the 2022 FIFA World Cup in Qatar.


title: Argentine Primera División

text: Participating teams played each other in a round-robin system totaling 27 rounds. The team with most points at the end of the season crowned champion. Unlike the previous two seasons, the 2021 championship brought back the relegation system, after it had been suspended due to the COVID-19 pandemic.


title: Argentine Primera División

text: Relegation is based on an averaging system. At the end of the season, the three teams with the worst three-year averages are relegated, while the winner and runner-up of Primera Nacional championship are promoted to Primera. Since 2020, the relegation has been suspended due to COVID-19


title: Argentine Primera División

text: The Primera División champion gains a place to play the Trofeo de Campeones de la Liga Profesional v. the winner of Copa de la Liga Profesional.


title: Argentine Primera División

text: A new edition of the Copa de la Liga Profesional (renamed "Copa Diego Maradona") will be held in 2021, starting on 14 February. The championship will be contested by 26 teams (24 from the previous edition plus 2 promoted from Primera B Nacional), divided into two zones of 13 teams each. The championship will run under a single round-robin format, with the first 4 teams of each zone qualifying to the next stage (quarterfinals), where they played under a single elimination format. Winning teams will advance to semifinals and the best two will play the final that will decide the champion of the season.


title: Argentine Primera División

text: The final would be held on 30 May before the beginning of 2021 Copa América. As previous editions of Argentine tournaments, none club will be relegated to Primera B Nacional. The winner of this cup will qualify to 2022 Copa Libertadores as "Argentina 2".


title: Argentine Primera División

text: As of 2018–19, five teams from Argentina are eligible to play the Copa Libertadores. The champion of Primera División automatically qualifies for the tournament. The other three teams best placed in the table at the end of the tournament (2nd to 4th) are also eligible to play the Cup (2nd and 3rd for group stage, and the 4th for second stage).


title: Argentine Primera División

text: For the Copa Sudamericana, six teams are eligible. Clubs placed 6th to 11th in the table at the end of the tournament, gain a place to play the cup.


title: Argentine Primera División

text: In 1891 the "Association Argentine Football League" was established, with Alex Lamont of St. Andrew's Scots School as one of its board members. The AAFL was the first football league outside of the British Isles., to establish a football league. The first Primera División matches were played on 12 April 1891: Buenos Aires FC vs. St. Andrew's and Old Caledonians vs. Belgrano FC.


title: Argentine Primera División

text: A single double round-robin tournament was played each year, and the team with the most points was crowned as champion, except for 1936, during that year the winners of "Copa de Honor" and the "Campeonato" played a match for the championship title. The single tournament arrangement lasted until 1966.


title: Argentine Primera División

text: During this period, the traditional "Big Five" clubs, namely, River Plate, Boca Juniors, Independiente, Racing and San Lorenzo dominated Argentine football. No other team besides them had won the league championship in these 36 years. The most serious title challenge came from Banfield in 1951, when they gained the same points with Racing Club in the league table. However, they lost 1–0 in the two-legged first place playoffs and gave the title to Racing.


title: Argentine Primera División

text: The averaging system for relegations was implemented for the first time in the 1957 championship, with Ferro Carril Oeste becoming the first team to be relegated under that system. Averaging continued until 1963, when the championship returned to its old format (with the worst placed teams being relegated). Nevertheless, there were no relegations until 1967 (with Unión (SF) and Deportivo Español being sent to Primera B after playing a relegation tournament contested by teams of First and Second divisions to define the promotions and relegations).


title: Argentine Primera División

text: In 1967, the single tournament format was abandoned and replaced by two championships in each year: the Metropolitano and the Nacional. The Metropolitano only allowed clubs competing the old tournament to participate, while the Nacional was open to teams from regional tournaments. The format of competition was also altered, with the double round-robin tournament replaced by the two-group championship Metropolitano and single round-robin Nacional in that year.


title: Argentine Primera División

text: This change brought about a revolution in Argentine football, as small teams, like Estudiantes de La Plata at first, and Vélez Sarsfield, Chacarita Juniors and others in later years, broke down the hegemony of the five clubs who had won all the championships up to that date.


title: Argentine Primera División

text: Between 1967 and 1969, the Metropolitano and Nacional had gone through several format changes. In the first three years, the Metropolitano was a two-group championship, with the best two teams from each group competing the semi-finals of the knock-out stage.


title: Argentine Primera División

text: The six best teams of each group would advance to the Nacional, with four more teams coming from regional tournaments, to compete for the Nacional championship in a single round-robin format. The seventh and eighth team of each group, alongside four teams from regional tournaments, played the Promocional tournament, which, in 1969, was replaced by the Petit tournament contested without regional teams. The ninth to twelfth teams of each group entered the Reclasificatorio tournament to determine the relegating teams.


title: Argentine Primera División

text: In 1970, the format of the Metropolitano and Nacional underwent a reform. Since that year, and until 1985, the Nacional had become a group tournament with playoffs, while the Metropolitano had been competed under a single or double round-robin system, except for the 1974, 1976 and 1979 edition, which were also contested as a group tournament with playoffs.


title: Argentine Primera División

text: Despite the format change in 1970, teams still entered the Nacional championship, Petit tournament and Reclasificatorio tournament according to their rankings in the Metropolitano in that year. However, in 1971, the tournaments were separated. Teams did not enter the Nacional by finishing at the top ranks of Metropolitano. On the other hand, the Petit tournament and Reclasificatorio tournament were abandoned. The Metropolitano and Nacional became two truly individual tournaments. Although the old system was reused in 1972, the separation was instituted again in 1973 and was adopted throughout the remaining Metropolitano and Nacional era.


title: Argentine Primera División

text: After 20 years since the last time it had been used, the average system for relegations returned in the 1983 Metropolitano championship, two years after San Lorenzo was relegated. That year, River Plate finished 18° out of 19 teams and would have been relegated under the old system, along with Racing de Córdoba. The first teams to be relegated on average were Racing and Nueva Chicago. Boca Juniors was also struggling at that time and had a dismal 1984 season. These facts have led to speculation that the averaging system was instituted to minimize the chance of big teams being relegated.


title: Argentine Primera División

text: Following the advice of Argentina national football team's then coach Carlos Salvador Bilardo, the structure of play was modified in 1985. Traditionally, like other countries in Southern Hemisphere, football season began and ended according to the calendar year. However, upon the reform, European style season was adopted for the first time among all the South American countries. Moreover, instead of holding two championships every year, only one double round-robin tournament was contested, like football leagues in Europe. The team topping the table at the end of season was crowned the champion.


title: Argentine Primera División

text: In 1985, after the Nacional was played, the Metropolitano was not held, while the new single tournament (1985/86) was played for the first time.


title: Argentine Primera División

text: In 1988–89 season, three points were given to match winners. If a draw occurred, penalty shootout was taken place and the winner of the shootout would get two points while the loser still had one. This format was waived in the following season.


title: Argentine Primera División

text: Five years later, the single championship was split into two single-round tournaments, giving birth to the Apertura and Clausura arrangement. In 1991 the two champions played winner-take-all matches. This practice was very controversial, especially since one of the biggest teams, Boca Juniors, lost the finals against Newell's Old Boys, costing them their first official championship since 1981 despite an unbeaten run in the "Clausura". In 1992 the game was held as well (this time between Newell's Old Boys and River Plate), but regardless of the result (which favored River Plate) both teams were awarded the title of "Champion". After 1992, the practice was quickly abandoned, so that two champions (on equal footing) were crowned every season and no deciding game is played.


title: Argentine Primera División

text: Originally, two points were given to match winners except in the 1989–90 season. Starting in 1995–96, the rule was changed and three points were given for a win, one for a draw and none for a loss.


title: Argentine Primera División

text: The 1999–2000 season introduced the promotion and relegation system for the first time, where the two clubs placed 1st and 2nd within the four teams with the lowest average, had to play a two-leg series with teams from Primera B Nacional to keep their place in the division.


title: Argentine Primera División

text: For the 2012–13 season, the Torneo Apertura and Clausura became "Torneo Inicial" and "Torneo Final," being disputed with the same format as before but proclaiming only one champion each season, unlike the last format that had two champions (Apertura and Clausura, respectively).


title: Argentine Primera División

text: Before those changes, a controversial project for the 2012–13 season had been proposed: it consisted in a new tournament that would contain both the Primera División and Primera B Nacional teams: the former was not going to have any relegated team in its 2011–12 season and include sixteen teams from the latter, Primera B Nacional. The tournament would also include a team from the Primera B Metropolitana and one from the Torneo Argentino A, creating a 38-team league. These changes were strongly opposed by the media and the people, and finally the tournament was called off. However, the project for the new format was successfully picked up starting from the 2015 season.


title: Argentine Primera División

text: Once Inicial and Final tournaments have finished, both winners had to play a match for the Copa Campeonato (familiarly known as "Superfinal"). The AFA had previously determined that the first edition (played in 2013) would be considered as a Primera División official title (2012–13 season), therefore Vélez Sarsfield awarded its 10th official championship after defeating Newell's.


title: Argentine Primera División

text: Nevertheless, from the 2014 edition it was determined that the "Superfinal" would not be considered as a Primera División title but an official cup.


title: Argentine Primera División

text: Due to this the 2015 and 2016 seasons were played as single tournaments with only one champion per season, the Copa Campeonato has not been held since then.


title: Argentine Primera División

text: Starting August 2014, the "Torneo de Transición" was held, with 20 teams participating (17 from the 2013–14 season and 3 promoted from the 2013–14 Primera B Nacional). No teams were relegated at the end of the championship.


title: Argentine Primera División

text: In 2015, the format switched to a tournament with 30 teams. The first five clubs of the Zonas A & B of 2014 Primera B Nacional season promoted to the Primera División. Those 10 teams, with the addition of the 20 clubs currently participating in the top division, qualified to contest the next season.


title: Argentine Primera División

text: In February 2020, President of AFA Claudio Tapia stated that the Superliga had been established to position Argentine football as a product, but it failed in that purpose. As a result, AFA would take over the organisation of Primera División championships, according with Tapia's statement. One month after those announcements, the president of the Superliga, Mariano Elizondo, resigned.


title: Argentine Primera División

text: The Superliga was replaced by a similar body, named "Liga Profesional de Fútbol", directly linked to AFA and presided by Marcelo Tinelli. It was expected that Superliga was dissolved once the 2020 edition of Copa de la Superliga Argentina finished, but due to COVID-19 pandemic the cup was cancelled, accelerating times. In May 2020, the LFP was launched by the AFA.


title: Argentine Primera División

text: As of 2022, Twenty-eight teams will compete in the league, the 26 teams that took part in the previous season as well as two promoted teams from the 2021 Primera Nacional. River Plate are the defending champions.


title: Argentine Primera División

text: Since the first championship held in 1891, 28 different clubs have won the Primera División title at least once. The most successful club is River Plate, with 37 titles. Other successful clubs are Boca Juniors with 35, Racing with 18, Independiente with 16, and San Lorenzo with 15.


title: Argentine Primera División

text: The all-time top scorer of Primera División Argentina is Paraguayan forward Arsenio Erico with 295 goals. Most players on the all-time top scorers table had their golden age before the 1970s, with all of the top five all-time scorers having retired before 1973. The only player retired after that year in the top twenty list is Martín Palermo, who played for Estudiantes (LP) and Boca Juniors in Primera División.


title: Argentine Primera División

text: In Argentina, matches are broadcast by American companies ESPN and Turner, which signed a contract for 5 years where both companies agreed to pay A$ 3,200 million per year. Local company Torneos, who was formerly the official broadcaster of the Argentine championship from 1985 until 2009, will take over the content production of the games for Fox and La Corte will handle content production for Turner while Cablevisión, DirecTV and Telecentro will be the TV operators.


title: Argentine Primera División

text: Until the agreement with Fox and Turner was signed, Argentine football matches were broadcast nationally by El Trece, Telefe, America TV, and Channel 7. Games were free in Argentina from 2009 to 2016, when the National Government and AFA decided rescind the agreement. The Government paid A$9,500 million for 7 years.


title: Argentine Primera División

text: The league attracts television audiences beyond South America, Europe, Africa and MENA. The matches are broadcast in over 80 countries. In Latin America the matches are broadcast live by ESPN (three matches per week), TyC Sports International (all the matches per week) and another streaming platforms like Prende TV, Star+ and Fanatiz (together with AFA Play). In the United States, the matches are streamed on Paramount+ since 2021. BeIN Sports broadcasts the games live in France and MENA regions. ITV showed highlights on a regional basis with the introduction of overnight broadcasting in 1988–89. Channel 5 showed highlights from 1999 to 2003, while Premier Sports showed live games across 2011 and 2012.


title: Gradient

text: In vector calculus, the gradient of a scalar-valued differentiable function of several variables is the vector field (or vector-valued function) formula_1 whose value at a point formula_2 is the "direction and rate of fastest increase". If the gradient of a function is non-zero at a point , the direction of the gradient is the direction in which the function increases most quickly from , and the magnitude of the gradient is the rate of increase in that direction, the greatest absolute directional derivative. Further, a point where the gradient is the zero vector is known as a stationary point. The gradient thus plays a fundamental role in optimization theory, where it is used to maximize a function by gradient ascent. In coordinate-free terms, the gradient of a function formula_3 may be defined by:


title: Gradient

text: where "df" is the total infinitesimal change in "f" for an infinitesimal displacement formula_5, and is seen to be maximal when formula_5 is in the direction of the gradient formula_1. The nabla symbol formula_8, written as an upside-down triangle and pronounced "del", denotes the vector differential operator.


title: Gradient

text: When a coordinate system is used in which the basis vectors are not functions of position, the gradient is given by the vector whose components are the partial derivatives of formula_9 at formula_2. That is, for formula_11, its gradient formula_12 is defined at the point formula_13 in "n-"dimensional space as the vector


title: Gradient

text: The gradient is dual to the total derivative formula_15: the value of the gradient at a point is a tangent vector – a vector at each point; while the value of the derivative at a point is a "co"tangent vector – a linear functional on vectors. They are related in that the dot product of the gradient of at a point with another tangent vector equals the directional derivative of at of the function along ; that is, formula_16.


title: Gradient

text: Consider a room where the temperature is given by a scalar field, , so at each point the temperature is , independent of time. At each point in the room, the gradient of at that point will show the direction in which the temperature rises most quickly, moving away from . The magnitude of the gradient will determine how fast the temperature rises in that direction.


title: Gradient

text: Consider a surface whose height above sea level at point is . The gradient of at a point is a plane vector pointing in the direction of the steepest slope or grade at that point. The steepness of the slope at that point is given by the magnitude of the gradient vector.


title: Gradient

text: The gradient can also be used to measure how a scalar field changes in other directions, rather than just the direction of greatest change, by taking a dot product. Suppose that the steepest slope on a hill is 40%. A road going directly uphill has slope 40%, but a road going around the hill at an angle will have a shallower slope. For example, if the road is at a 60° angle from the uphill direction (when both directions are projected onto the horizontal plane), then the slope along the road will be the dot product between the gradient vector and a unit vector along the road, namely 40% times the cosine of 60°, or 20%.


title: Gradient

text: More generally, if the hill height function is differentiable, then the gradient of dotted with a unit vector gives the slope of the hill in the direction of the vector, the directional derivative of along the unit vector.


title: Gradient

text: The gradient of a function formula_9 at point formula_18 is usually written as formula_19. It may also be denoted by any of the following:


title: Gradient

text: The gradient (or gradient vector field) of a scalar function is denoted or where (nabla) denotes the vector differential operator, del. The notation is also commonly used to represent the gradient. The gradient of is defined as the unique vector field whose dot product with any vector at each point is the directional derivative of along . That is,


title: Gradient

text: where the right-side hand is the directional derivative and there are many ways to represent it. Formally, the derivative is "dual" to the gradient; see relationship with derivative.


title: Gradient

text: When a function also depends on a parameter such as time, the gradient often refers simply to the vector of its spatial derivatives only (see Spatial gradient).


title: Gradient

text: The magnitude and direction of the gradient vector are independent of the particular coordinate representation.


title: Gradient

text: In the three-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system with a Euclidean metric, the gradient, if it exists, is given by:


title: Gradient

text: where , , are the standard unit vectors in the directions of the , and coordinates, respectively. For example, the gradient of the function


title: Gradient

text: In some applications it is customary to represent the gradient as a row vector or column vector of its components in a rectangular coordinate system; this article follows the convention of the gradient being a column vector, while the derivative is a row vector.


title: Gradient

text: where is the axial distance, is the azimuthal or azimuth angle, is the axial coordinate, and , and are unit vectors pointing along the coordinate directions.


title: Gradient

text: where is the radial distance, is the azimuthal angle and is the polar angle, and , and are again local unit vectors pointing in the coordinate directions (that is, the normalized covariant basis).


title: Gradient

text: For the gradient in other orthogonal coordinate systems, see Orthogonal coordinates (Differential operators in three dimensions).


title: Gradient

text: We consider general coordinates, which we write as , where is the number of dimensions of the domain. Here, the upper index refers to the position in the list of the coordinate or component, so refers to the second component—not the quantity squared. The index variable refers to an arbitrary element . Using Einstein notation, the gradient can then be written as:


title: Gradient

text: where formula_31 and formula_32 refer to the unnormalized local covariant and contravariant bases respectively, formula_33 is the inverse metric tensor, and the Einstein summation convention implies summation over "i" and "j".


title: Gradient

text: If the coordinates are orthogonal we can easily express the gradient (and the differential) in terms of the normalized bases, which we refer to as formula_34 and formula_35, using the scale factors (also known as Lamé coefficients) formula_36 :


title: Gradient

text: where we cannot use Einstein notation, since it is impossible to avoid the repetition of more than two indices. Despite the use of upper and lower indices, formula_39, formula_40, and formula_41 are neither contravariant nor covariant.


title: Gradient

text: The latter expression evaluates to the expressions given above for cylindrical and spherical coordinates.


title: Gradient

text: The gradient is closely related to the total derivative (total differential) formula_15: they are transpose (dual) to each other. Using the convention that vectors in formula_43 are represented by column vectors, and that covectors (linear maps formula_44) are represented by row vectors, the gradient formula_1 and the derivative formula_15 are expressed as a column and row vector, respectively, with the same components, but transpose of each other:


title: Gradient

text: While these both have the same components, they differ in what kind of mathematical object they represent: at each point, the derivative is a cotangent vector, a linear form (covector) which expresses how much the (scalar) output changes for a given infinitesimal change in (vector) input, while at each point, the gradient is a tangent vector, which represents an infinitesimal change in (vector) input. In symbols, the gradient is an element of the tangent space at a point, formula_49, while the derivative is a map from the tangent space to the real numbers, formula_50. The tangent spaces at each point of formula_43 can be "naturally" identified with the vector space formula_43 itself, and similarly the cotangent space at each point can be naturally identified with the dual vector space formula_53 of covectors; thus the value of the gradient at a point can be thought of a vector in the original formula_43, not just as a tangent vector.


title: Gradient

text: Computationally, given a tangent vector, the vector can be "multiplied" by the derivative (as matrices), which is equal to taking the dot product with the gradient:


title: Gradient

text: at a point in is a linear map from to which is often denoted by or and called the differential or total derivative of at . The function , which maps to , is called the total differential or exterior derivative of and is an example of a differential 1-form.


title: Gradient

text: Much as the derivative of a function of a single variable represents the slope of the tangent to the graph of the function, the directional derivative of a function in several variables represents the slope of the tangent hyperplane in the direction of the vector.


title: Gradient

text: for any , where formula_58 is the dot product: taking the dot product of a vector with the gradient is the same as taking the directional derivative along the vector.


title: Gradient

text: If is viewed as the space of (dimension ) column vectors (of real numbers), then one can regard as the row vector with components


title: Gradient

text: so that is given by matrix multiplication. Assuming the standard Euclidean metric on , the gradient is then the corresponding column vector, that is,


title: Gradient

text: The best linear approximation to a function can be expressed in terms of the gradient, rather than the derivative. The gradient of a function from the Euclidean space to at any particular point in characterizes the best linear approximation to at . The approximation is as follows:


title: Gradient

text: for close to , where is the gradient of computed at , and the dot denotes the dot product on . This equation is equivalent to the first two terms in the multivariable Taylor series expansion of at .


title: Gradient

text: Let be an open set in . If the function is differentiable, then the differential of is the Fréchet derivative of . Thus is a function from to the space such that


title: Gradient

text: As a consequence, the usual properties of the derivative hold for the gradient, though the gradient is not a derivative itself, but rather dual to the derivative:


title: Gradient

text: For the second form of the chain rule, suppose that is a real valued function on a subset of , and that is differentiable at the point . Then


title: Gradient

text: If is differentiable, then the dot product of the gradient at a point with a vector gives the directional derivative of at in the direction . It follows that in this case the gradient of is orthogonal to the level sets of . For example, a level surface in three-dimensional space is defined by an equation of the form . The gradient of is then normal to the surface.


title: Gradient

text: More generally, any embedded hypersurface in a Riemannian manifold can be cut out by an equation of the form such that is nowhere zero. The gradient of is then normal to the hypersurface.


title: Gradient

text: Similarly, an affine algebraic hypersurface may be defined by an equation , where is a polynomial. The gradient of is zero at a singular point of the hypersurface (this is the definition of a singular point). At a non-singular point, it is a nonzero normal vector.


title: Gradient

text: The gradient of a function is called a gradient field. A (continuous) gradient field is always a conservative vector field: its line integral along any path depends only on the endpoints of the path, and can be evaluated by the gradient theorem (the fundamental theorem of calculus for line integrals). Conversely, a (continuous) conservative vector field is always the gradient of a function.


title: Gradient

text: The Jacobian matrix is the generalization of the gradient for vector-valued functions of several variables and differentiable maps between Euclidean spaces or, more generally, manifolds. A further generalization for a function between Banach spaces is the Fréchet derivative.


title: Gradient

text: Suppose is a function such that each of its first-order partial derivatives exist on . Then the Jacobian matrix of is defined to be an matrix, denoted by formula_68 or simply formula_69. The th entry is formula_70. Explicitly


title: Gradient

text: Since the total derivative of a vector field is a linear mapping from vectors to vectors, it is a tensor quantity.


title: Gradient

text: (where the Einstein summation notation is used and the tensor product of the vectors and is a dyadic tensor of type (2,0)). Overall, this expression equals the transpose of the Jacobian matrix:


title: Gradient

text: In curvilinear coordinates, or more generally on a curved manifold, the gradient involves Christoffel symbols:


title: Gradient

text: Expressed more invariantly, the gradient of a vector field can be defined by the Levi-Civita connection and metric tensor:


title: Gradient

text: For any smooth function on a Riemannian manifold , the gradient of is the vector field such that for any vector field ,


title: Gradient

text: where denotes the inner product of tangent vectors at defined by the metric and is the function that takes any point to the directional derivative of in the direction , evaluated at . In other words, in a coordinate chart from an open subset of to an open subset of , is given by:


title: Gradient

text: More precisely, the gradient is the vector field associated to the differential 1-form using the musical isomorphism


title: Gradient

text: (called "sharp") defined by the metric . The relation between the exterior derivative and the gradient of a function on is a special case of this in which the metric is the flat metric given by the dot product.


title: Bushido

text: Bushido formalized earlier samurai moral values and ethical code, most commonly stressing a combination of sincerity, frugality, loyalty, martial arts mastery and honour until death. Born from Neo-Confucianism during times of peace in the Edo period (1603–1868) and following Confucian texts, while also being influenced by Shinto and Zen Buddhism, it allowed the violent existence of the samurai to be tempered by wisdom, patience and serenity. Bushido developed between the 16th and 20th centuries, debated by pundits who believed they were building on a legacy dating back to the 10th century, although the term bushido itself is "rarely attested in pre-modern literature". This ethical code took shape with the rise of the warrior caste to power at the end of the Heian period (794–1185) and the establishment of the first shogunate of the Kamakura period (1185–1333). It was developed further during the Muromachi period (1336–1573) and formally defined and applied in law by Tokugawa shogunates in the Edo period. There is no strict definition, and interpretations of the code have varied over time. Bushido has undergone many changes throughout Japanese history, and various Japanese clans interpreted it in their own way.


title: Bushido

text: The earliest use of the written term is in the Kōyō Gunkan in 1616 by Kōsaka Masanobu. In 1685, the ukiyo-e book by artist Hishikawa Moronobu included the term and artwork of samurai with simple descriptions meant for children. In 1642, the was written by samurai Saito Chikamori and included moral precepts which explained the theoretical aspects of bushido. It was written with accessible kana and intended for commoners, not warriors. It was very popular, demonstrating that the idea of bushido had spread among the population. The Kashoki shows that moral values were present in bushido by 1642. The term, bushido, came into common international usage with the 1899 publication of Nitobe Inazō's "" which was read by many influential western people. In "Bushido" (1899), Nitobe wrote:


title: Bushido

text: Bushidō, then, is the code of moral principles which the samurai were required or instructed to observe ... More frequently it is a code unuttered and unwritten ... It was an organic growth of decades and centuries of military career. In order to become a samurai this code has to be mastered.


title: Bushido

text: Nitobe was the first to document Japanese chivalry in this way. In "Feudal and Modern Japan" (1896), historian Arthur May Knapp wrote:


title: Bushido

text: The samurai of thirty years ago had behind him a thousand years of training in the law of honor, obedience, duty, and self-sacrifice ... It was not needed to create or establish them. As a child he had but to be instructed, as indeed he was from his earliest years, in the etiquette of self-immolation.


title: Bushido

text: Chinese politician Dai Jitao acknowledged the historical legitimacy of bushido and said it originated as a theory of a social order, but it had evolved considerably. In the Tokugawa period, bushido was used to describe an ethical theory and it became a religious concept based on Shinto. In the Meiji period, bushido absorbed European ideals and formed the foundation of Japan's political ethics. Chinese writer Zhou Zuoren supported the historical legitimacy, although it was thought to be altered and corrupted in the modern period.


title: Bushido

text: is a Japanese word that literally means "warrior way". It is first attested in the 1616 work , a military chronicle recording the exploits of the Takeda clan. The term is a compound of , a Chinese-derived word first attested in Japanese in 712 with the "on'yomi" (Sino-Japanese reading), and . In modern usage, "bushi" is often used as a synonym for "samurai"; however, historical sources make it clear that "bushi" and "samurai" were distinct concepts, with the former referring to soldiers or warriors and the latter referring instead to a kind of hereditary nobility.


title: Bushido

text: In the early 17th century, the term with its "on'yomi" reading was used alongside the synonymous alternative form , read using native Japanese vocabulary ("kun'yomi") as "mono no fu no michi". Another important term is .


title: Bushido

text: For centuries the samurai adhered to multiple types of the code of which the interpretations varied per samurai clan and per member of the military nobility. This encompassed morality, their role in society, how to live a life with honor and virtue. The samurai had some common values, but they did not have a singular definition or path that all samurai were required to abide. The samurai were as practical on the battlefield as any other warriors. These concepts, codes and ideals were ingrained in the samurai since they rose to power in the Kamakura period (1185–1333). At certain eras there were prevalent rules and unwritten customs such as the "Way of the Bow and the Horse" (弓馬の道, kyūba no michi) since the 12th century and in the Edo period the code of the samurai was formalized with specific virtues and laws by the ruling Tokugawa Shogunate. Notable samurai wrote extensively about their interpretations of bushido such as Miyamoto Musashi (1584-1645) and Yamamoto Tsunetomo (1659-1719). In the 1870s the Meiji restoration abolished the samurai class and they were transferred to professional, military and business classes. However, the former samurai and their descendants continued to be influential in Japanese society because they occupied important positions. Bushido has continued to exist in various types. Additional concepts and ideas were added to bushido so that it could evolve with the times. It was used in the Armed Forces of the Empire of Japan and symbolically by the successor Japan Self-Defense Forces. In the Taisho period, bushido was advocated as the way of the merchant. It can be dormant for years and revived during geopolitical instability. Centuries of rule by the samurai class has left a deep impact on Japanese society. Thus various forms are still used today in e.g. Japanese culture, business, martial arts and communication.


title: Bushido

text: Bushido is often described as a specific moral code that all members of the samurai class were obligated to follow. However, historically the samurai adhered to multiple warrior codes and the interpretations varied per samurai clan, individuals and eras. These codes and philosophies changed drastically during the different eras. The earliest proto-bushido type existed since the Kamakura period (1185). The degrees of devoutness and interpretations varied between individuals. Since at least the Sengoku period, samurai didn't have compunction to use certain weapons. Retreating from battles did occur if it was unwinnable while others chose to fight till the end. Samurai did not actively seek an honorable death. However, it was honorable to die in the service of a daimyo only while furthering the daimyo's cause.


title: Bushido

text: Samurai had dark customs, the most notable: "Kiri-sute gomen" was the right to strike lower class who dishonored them. "Seppuku" was ritual suicide to die honorably or restore one's honor. "Tsujigiri" (crossroads killing) to attack a human opponent to test a weapon or skill became rampant in the early Edo period until a ban was issued. The exact frequency of tsujigiri is unknown and it was never condoned by any samurai clan. Samurai did "head collection" with a ritual to beautify severed heads of worthy rivals and put on display. The samurai applied various cruel punishments on criminals. The most common capital punishments up until the Meiji Restoration were (in order of severity): decapitation, decapitation with disgraceful exposure of head post-death, crucifixion (for e.g. parricide), and death by burning with incendiaries. Members of the samurai class had the privilege to perform hara-kiri (suicide disemboweling). If it was not lethal then a friend or relation performed decapitation (seppuku). In 1597, Toyotomi Hideyoshi ordered the prosecution of 26 Martyrs of Japan. They were tortured, mutilated, paraded through villages and executed by crucifixion, tied to crosses on a hill and impaled by lances (spears). In the 17th century, the Tokugawa Shogunate executed over 400 Christians (Martyrs of Japan) for being more loyal to their faith than the Shogunate. The capital punishments were beheading, crucifixion, death by burning and .


title: Bushido

text: Bushido has been described as Japanese chivalry. There are notable similarities and differences depending on which bushido type is compared with chivalry. Christianity had a modifying influence on the virtues of chivalry, whereas bushido was influenced by Zen Buddhism, Shinto, and Confucianism. Bushido is commonly associated with the moral norms of Nitobe Inazō's "" (1900), because his book popularized the term bushido internationally. However, it is a romanticized interpretation of bushido which differs from other historical literature by samurai. Thus, the morals defined by Nitobe do not represent all of bushido. Some researchers claim that chivalric bushido as defined by Nitobe (a.k.a. Meiji Bushido) was invented in the 19th century. However, there is a plethora of historical literature about Japanese warrior codes, practices, philosophies since the Kamakura period. These types can be categorized by era into Sengoku, Edo, Meiji and Contemporary Bushido. Therefore the term "bushido" can be used as an "overarching term" for all the codes, practices, philosophies and principles of samurai culture.


title: Bushido

text: The values that became bushido evolved significantly over the centuries to the present. These first appeared as unwritten customs in the 12th century with shogun Minamoto Yoritomo. The written term "bushido" first appears in the Koyo Gunkan of roughly circa 1616, an account of the military exploits of the Takeda clan. Bushido evolved from being totally devoted to valor in battle into refined types that were more related to moral integrity. The samurai had different types of bushido in each era in history, reflecting changing requirements on the battlefield and in society. The era name should be used to describe the type of bushido.


title: Bushido

text: The first proper Japanese central government was established around the year 700. Japan was ruled by the Emperor (Tennō) with bureaucratic support of the aristocracy. They gradually lost control of their armed servants, the samurai. The samurai is similar to "the old English cniht (knecht, knight), guards or attendants". By the mid-12th century, the samurai class had seized control. The samurai (bushi) ruled Japan with the shogun (将軍) as the overlord until the mid 19th century. The shogun was originally the Emperor's military deputy. After the Genpei War (1180–1185), Minamoto no Yoritomo usurped power from the civil aristocracy by establishing a military government called the bakufu situated in Kamakura since 1192. The Emperor and his court became figureheads.


title: Bushido

text: The appearance of bushido is linked to that of feudal Japan and the first shogun at the time of Minamoto no Yoritomo (1147-1199) in the 12th century. The own moral dimension bushido gradually appears in the warrior culture and landmark in stories and military treaties only from the 14th and 15th century. Thus is noted a permanence of the modern representation of its antiquity in Japanese culture and its diffusion.


title: Bushido

text: In the 10th and 11th century there was the "Way of the Man-At-Arms" (Tsuwamon no michi), and the "Way of the Bow and Arrows" (Kyûsen / kyûya no Michi). At the time of the Genpei War (1180–1185), it was called ""Way of the Bow and the Horse"" (弓馬の道, kyūba no michi) because of the major importance of this style of combat for the warriors of the time, and because it was considered a traditional method, that of the oldest samurai heroes, such as Prince Shōtoku, Minamoto no Yorimitsu and Minamoto no Yoshiie (Hachimantarō). According to Louis Frédéric, the kyūba no michi appeared around the 10th century as a set of rules and unwritten customs that samurai were expected to comply. There was also ""Yumiya toru mi no narai"" (customs for those who draw the bow). This shows there was an emerging sense of ideal warrior behavior that evolved from daily training and warfare experience.


title: Bushido

text: "The Tale of the Heike" depicts an idealized story of the Genpei War (1180–1185) with a struggle between two powerful samurai clans, the Minamoto and the Taira. Clearly depicted throughout the epic is the ideal of the cultivated warrior. During the early modern era, these ideals were vigorously pursued in the upper echelons of warrior society and recommended as the proper form of the Japanese man of arms. The influence of Shinto, Buddhism, Taoism, and Confucianism on bushido's early development instilled among those who live by the code a religious respect for it.


title: Bushido

text: Many early literary works of Japan talk of warriors, but the term "bushidō" does not appear in text until the Edo period. The code which would become bushido was conceptualized during the late-Kamakura period (1185–1333) in Japan. Since the days of the Kamakura shogunate, the "way of the warrior" has been an integral part of Japanese culture. Scholars generally regard pre-modern Japan as a "warrior nation" since the medieval period. The samurai were role models for society since medieval times. In accordance with Confucianism, one of their duties was to serve as a role model for society. They balanced their martial arts skills with peaceful accomplishments such as literature, poetry and the tea ceremony. Such as the medieval Japanese proverb "Hana wa sakuragi, hito wa bushi" (, literally "the [best] blossom is the cherry blossom; the [best] man is the warrior"). In 1843 Nakamura said:


title: Bushido

text: During the Muromachi period (1336–1573) the way of the warrior began to "refine" by inserting in their daily activities, alongside martial training, Zen meditation, painting (monochrome style), ikebana, the tea ceremony, poetry such as the death poem (written by samurai before suicidal missions or battles) and literature.


title: Bushido

text: Carl Steenstrup noted that 13th- and 14th-century writings ("gunki monogatari") "portrayed the "bushi" in their natural element, war, eulogizing such virtues as reckless bravery, fierce family pride, and selfless, at times senseless devotion of master and man".


title: Bushido

text: The sayings of Sengoku-period retainers and warlords such as Katō Kiyomasa (1562–1611) and Nabeshima Naoshige were generally recorded or passed down to posterity around the turn of the 16th century when Japan had entered a period of relative peace. In a handbook addressed to "all "samurai", regardless of rank", Katō states:


title: Bushido

text: Nabeshima Naoshige (1538 – 1618) says similarly, that it is shameful for any man to die without having risked his life in battle, regardless of rank, and that ""bushidō" is in being crazy to die. Fifty or more could not kill one such a man". However, Naoshige also suggests that "everyone should personally know exertion as it is known in the lower classes".


title: Bushido

text: By the mid-16th century, several of Japan's most powerful warlords began to vie for supremacy over territories amidst the Kyoto government's waning power. With Kyoto's capture by the warlord Oda Nobunaga in 1573, the Muromachi period concluded.


title: Bushido

text: In 1551 CE, one of the first western people to visit Japan was the Roman Catholic missionary Francis Xavier. The description of Francis shows that honor, weaponry and warfare were valued of utmost importance in Japanese culture.


title: Bushido

text: The practice of decapitating and collecting enemy heads is an example of honor in samurai culture. The decapitated heads were shown to a general as evidence that they killed wanted opponents and to collect rewards. More heads meant higher prestige, honor and rewards. A beautification ritual of the decapitated heads called "Ohaguro" was performed. Prestigious heads were arranged on a table and presented in front of the warriors. All heads were identified and marked to prevent mistakes. The guards were left and right of the general and cited spells to transfix demonic spirits of the enemy. Then a samurai said his own name, lifted a box to show and describe the decapitated head. The general inspected the trophy heads while holding a fan so that the dead could not recognize his face. If the claimed head was correct then the samurai received a payment otherwise he was dismissed.


title: Bushido

text: Despite the war-torn culmination of this era and the birth of the Edo period, Samurai codes of conduct continued to extend beyond the realms of warfare. Forms of bushido-related Zen Buddhism and Confucianism also emerged during this period. A Samurai adhering to bushido-like codes was expected to live a just and ethical social life; honoring the practices of the gentry in the absence of military campaigns.


title: Bushido

text: Japan enjoyed two and a half centuries of relative peace during the Edo period (1600 to the mid-19th century). Japan didn't have domestic or international conflict. These peaceful times in Tokugawa society enabled bushido to be refined from a focus on "valor in battle" to more "moral integrity".