title: Amartya Sen

text: Governments and international organisations handling food crises were influenced by Sen's work. His views encouraged policy makers to pay attention not only to alleviating immediate suffering but also to finding ways to replace the lost income of the poor—for example through public works—and to maintain stable prices for food. A vigorous defender of political freedom, Sen believed that famines do not occur in functioning democracies because their leaders must be more responsive to the demands of the citizens. In order for economic growth to be achieved, he argued, social reforms—such as improvements in education and public health—must precede economic reform.


title: Amartya Sen

text: In 2009, Sen published a book called "The Idea of Justice". Based on his previous work in welfare economics and social choice theory, but also on his philosophical thoughts, Sen presented his own theory of justice that he meant to be an alternative to the influential modern theories of justice of John Rawls or John Harsanyi. In opposition to Rawls but also earlier justice theoreticians Immanuel Kant, Jean-Jacques Rousseau or David Hume, and inspired by the philosophical works of Adam Smith and Mary Wollstonecraft, Sen developed a theory that is both comparative and realisations-oriented (instead of being transcendental and institutional). However, he still regards institutions and processes as being equally important. As an alternative to Rawls's veil of ignorance, Sen chose the thought experiment of an impartial spectator as the basis of his theory of justice. He also stressed the importance of public discussion (understanding democracy in the sense of John Stuart Mill) and a focus on people's capabilities (an approach that he had co-developed), including the notion of universal human rights, in evaluating various states with regard to justice.


title: Amartya Sen

text: Sen began his career both as a teacher and a research scholar in the Department of Economics, Jadavpur University as a professor of economics in 1956. He spent two years in that position. From 1957 to 1963, Sen served as a fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. Between 1960 and 1961, Sen was a visiting professor at Massachusetts Institute of Technology in the United States, where he got to know Paul Samuelson, Robert Solow, Franco Modigliani, and Norbert Wiener. He was also a visiting professor at the University of California, Berkeley (1964–1965) and Cornell University (1978–1984). He taught as Professor of Economics between 1963 and 1971 at the Delhi School of Economics (where he completed his "magnum opus" Collective Choice and Social Welfare in 1969).


title: Amartya Sen

text: During this time Sen was also a frequent visitor to various other premiere Indian economic schools and centres of excellence like Jawaharlal Nehru University, Indian Statistical Institute, Centre for Development Studies, Gokhale Institute of Politics and Economics and Centre for Studies in Social Sciences. He was a companion of distinguished economists like Manmohan Singh (Ex-Prime Minister of India and a veteran economist responsible for liberalizing the Indian economy), K. N. Raj (advisor to various prime ministers and a veteran economist who was the founder of Centre for Development Studies, Trivandrum, which is one of India's premier think tanks and schools) and Jagdish Bhagwati (who is known to be one of the greatest Indian economists in the field of international trade and currently teaches at Columbia University). This is a period considered to be a Golden Period in the history of DSE. In 1971, he joined the London School of Economics as a professor of economics, where he taught until 1977. From 1977 to 1988, he taught at the University of Oxford, where he was first a professor of economics and fellow of Nuffield College, and then the Drummond Professor of Political Economy and a fellow of All Souls College, Oxford, from 1980.


title: Amartya Sen

text: In 1987, Sen joined Harvard as the Thomas W. Lamont University Professor of Economics. In 1998 he was appointed as Master of Trinity College, Cambridge, becoming the first Asian head of an Oxbridge college. In January 2004, Sen returned to Harvard. He also established the Eva Colorni Trust at the former London Guildhall University in the name of his deceased wife.


title: Amartya Sen

text: In May 2007, he was appointed as chairman of Nalanda Mentor Group to examine the framework of international cooperation, and proposed structure of partnership, which would govern the establishment of Nalanda International University Project as an international centre of education seeking to revive the ancient center of higher learning which was present in India from the fifth century to 1197.


title: Amartya Sen

text: He chaired the Social Sciences jury for the Infosys Prize from 2009 to 2011, and the Humanities jury from 2012 to 2018.


title: Amartya Sen

text: On 19 July 2012, Sen was named the first chancellor of the proposed Nalanda University (NU). Sen was criticized as the project suffered due to inordinate delays, mismanagement and lack of presence of faculty on ground. Finally teaching began in August 2014. On 20 February 2015, Sen withdrew his candidature for a second term.


title: Amartya Sen

text: He has served as president of the Econometric Society (1984), the International Economic Association (1986–1989), the Indian Economic Association (1989) and the American Economic Association (1994). He has also served as president of the Development Studies Association and the Human Development and Capability Association. He serves as the honorary director of the Academic Advisory Committee of the Center for Human and Economic Development Studies at Peking University in China.


title: Amartya Sen

text: Sen has been called "the Conscience of the profession" and "the Mother Teresa of Economics" for his work on famine, human development theory, welfare economics, the underlying mechanisms of poverty, gender inequality, and political liberalism. However, he denies the comparison to Mother Teresa, saying that he has never tried to follow a lifestyle of dedicated self-sacrifice. Amartya Sen also added his voice to the campaign against the anti-gay Section 377 of the Indian Penal Code.


title: Amartya Sen

text: Sen has served as Honorary Chairman of Oxfam, the UK based international development charity, and is now its Honorary Advisor.


title: Amartya Sen

text: He is also one of the 25 leading figures on the Information and Democracy Commission launched by Reporters Without Borders.


title: Amartya Sen

text: A 56-minute documentary named "Amartya Sen: A Life Re-examined" directed by Suman Ghosh details his life and work. A documentary about Amartya Sen, titled The Argumentative Indian (the title of one of Sen's own books), was released in 2017.


title: Amartya Sen

text: A 2001 portrait of Sen by Annabel Cullen is in Trinity College's collection. A 2003 portrait of Sen hangs in the National Portrait Gallery in London.


title: Amartya Sen

text: In 2011, he was present at the "Rabindra Utsab" ceremony at Bangabandhu International Conference Centre (BICC), Bangladesh. He unveiled the cover of Sruti Gitobitan, a Rabindrasangeet album comprising all the 2222 Tagore songs, brought out by Rezwana Chowdhury Bannya, principal of Shurer Dhara School of Music.


title: Amartya Sen

text: Sen was critical of Indian politician Narendra Modi when he was announced as its prime ministerial candidate by the BJP. In April 2014, he said that Modi would not make a good Prime Minister. He conceded later in December 2014 that Modi did give people a sense of faith that things can happen. In February 2015, Sen opted out of seeking a second term for the chancellor post of Nalanda University, stating that the Government of India was not keen on him continuing in the post.


title: Amartya Sen

text: In August 2019, during the clampdown and curfew in Kashmir for more than two weeks after the Indian revocation of Jammu and Kashmir's special status, Sen criticized the government and said "As an Indian, I am not proud of the fact that India, after having done so much to achieve a democratic norm in the world – where India was the first non-Western country to go for democracy – that we lose that reputation on the grounds of action that have been taken". He regarded the detention of Kashmiri political leaders as "a classical colonial excuse" to prevent backlash against the Indian government's decision and called for a democratic solution that would involve Kashmiri people.


title: Amartya Sen

text: Sen spent much of his later life as a political writer and activist. He was outspoken about Narendra Modi's leadership in India. In an interview with the "New York Times", he claimed that Modi's fearmongering among the Indian people was anti-democratic. "The big thing that we know from John Stuart Mill is that democracy is government by discussion, and, if you make discussion fearful, you are not going to get a democracy, no matter how you count the votes." He disagreed with Modi's ideology of Hindu nationalism, and advocated for a more integrated and diverse ideology that reflects the heterogeneity of India.


title: Amartya Sen

text: Sen also wrote an article for the "New York Times" documenting the reasons why India trails behind China in economic development. He advocates for healthcare reform, because low-income people in India have to deal with exploitative and inadequate private healthcare. He recommends India implement the same education policies that Japan did in the late 19th century. However, he realizes that there is a tradeoff between democracy and progress in Asia because democracy is a near reality in India and not in China.


title: Amartya Sen

text: In a 1999 article in "The Atlantic", Sen recommended for India a middle path between the "hard-knocks" development policy that creates wealth at the expense of civil liberties, and radical progressivism that only seeks to protect civil liberties at the expense of development. Rather than create an entirely new theory for ethical development in Asia, Sen sought to reform the current development model.


title: Amartya Sen

text: Sen has been married three times. His first wife was Nabaneeta Dev Sen, an Indian writer and scholar, with whom he had two daughters: Antara, a journalist and publisher, and Nandana, a Bollywood actress. Their marriage broke up shortly after they moved to London in 1971. In 1978 Sen married Eva Colorni, an Italian economist, daughter of Eugenio Colorni and Ursula Hirschmann and niece of Albert O. Hirschman. The couple had two children, a daughter Indrani, who is a journalist in New York, and a son Kabir, a hip hop artist, MC, and music teacher at Shady Hill School. Eva died of cancer in 1985. In 1991, Sen married Emma Georgina Rothschild, who serves as the Jeremy and Jane Knowles Professor of History at Harvard University.


title: Amartya Sen

text: The Sens have a house in Cambridge, Massachusetts, which is the base from which they teach during the academic year. They also have a home in Cambridge, England, where Sen is a Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, and Rothschild is a Fellow of Magdalene College. He usually spends his winter holidays at his home in Shantiniketan in West Bengal, India, where he used to go on long bike rides until recently. Asked how he relaxes, he replies: "I read a lot and like arguing with people."


title: Amartya Sen

text: Sen has received over 90 honorary degrees from universities around the world. In 2019, London School of Economics announced the creation of the Amartya Sen Chair in Inequality Studies.


title: Genesis Motor

text: Genesis Motor, LLC, commonly referred to as Genesis (), is the luxury vehicle division of the South Korean vehicle manufacturer Hyundai Motor Company. Initially envisioned along with plans for Hyundai's new luxury Genesis sedan in 2004, the Genesis brand was officially announced as an independent marque on 4 November 2015, launching their first Genesis standalone model, the Genesis G90, in 2017. Genesis models are designed in Rüsselsheim (Germany), Namyang (South Korea), and Irvine (United States); and produced in Ulsan (South Korea). In 2020, J.D. Power named Genesis the most dependable automotive brand and in 2021 the most technologically innovative in North America.


title: Genesis Motor

text: Hyundai conceived "Concept Genesis" in 2003 and introduced its first model in 2007 as a "progressive interpretation of the modern rear-wheel drive sports sedan". The body design took three years and the total cost of the program was $500 million over a development period of 23 months. Reliability testing ran for 800,000 miles.


title: Genesis Motor

text: There was internal debate whether to sell the Genesis as a Hyundai, or to launch a new brand for it, either as a separate retail chain, or through Hyundai dealerships. Hyundai introduced the Genesis in 2008 at the North American International Auto Show.


title: Genesis Motor

text: In 2015, Chris Hosford, Hyundai's United States spokesman, cited three main reasons for making Genesis a stand-alone brand:


title: Genesis Motor

text: Genesis Motor announced the launch of its first model, the G90 (EQ900 in South Korea), on 9 December 2015. Genesis launched in the United States in late 2016 with the G80 and G90. In the U.S., Genesis vehicles are sold through a subset of existing Hyundai dealers, with designated space for Genesis within the dealerships' showrooms.


title: Genesis Motor

text: In June 2018, according to the reports, Genesis Motor ranked first on J.D. Power's Initial Quality Study.


title: Genesis Motor

text: In May 2021, Genesis launched in the European market alongside the debut of Genesis G70 Shooting Brake. Genesis is now being marketed in South Korea, China, the Middle East, Russia, Canada, Australia and the United States, Europe, and the rest of Asia.


title: Genesis Motor

text: The initial Genesis vehicle was marketed in South Korea as the Genesis G90, which is the brand's flagship model. In late 2016, the brand launched in the United States with two models: the G80 (previously sold as the Hyundai Genesis) and G90 (previously sold as the Hyundai Equus). On 14 September 2016 a third model, the Genesis G70, was unveiled in Namyang, South Korea. The G70 was introduced to the United States market during the 2018 New York Auto Show on 28 March 2018.


title: Genesis Motor

text: The brand's first SUV, the GV80, formally debuted on 14 January 2020. In April 2021, Genesis unveiled its first production electric vehicle, the Electrified G80. At the 2021 Shanghai International Automobile Industry Exhibition, Genesis showed three new vehicles: the Electrified G80, the Genesis X Concept, and an EV-based Gran Turismo concept car. In August 2021, Genesis released first-hand images of the latest GV60, the new EV SUV for the brand.


title: Genesis Motor

text: Genesis follows an alphanumeric naming convention; car models are named by combining the letter ""G"" and a number (70, 80, 90, and so on) while crossovers are named by combining the letters ""GV"" and a number.


title: Genesis Motor

text: The Hyundai Vision G concept predates the official launch of Genesis as a separate marque, but it carried Genesis badges and when it was debuted, Hyundai introduced planned actions for the Genesis brand.


title: Genesis Motor

text: Jaehoon (Jay) Chang is global head and executive vice president. Luc Donckerwolke, former design director of Volkswagen subsidiaries Bentley, Lamborghini and Audi, is chief creative officer. Claudia Marquez, former senior director of sales operations at Infiniti, is chief operating officer of Genesis North America. Markus Henne, former vice-president at Mercedes-Benz, is CEO of Genesis Motor China. Sang-Yup Lee, former designer of the Bentley Continental GT and C-6 Chevrolet Corvette, is head of design. Filippo Perini, former Lamborghini head of design, is chief designer. Albert Biermann, former head of the BMW M performance division, oversees tuning and performance as executive vice president of performance development and high performance vehicles. Fayez Rahman, former development leader at BMW, is vice-president of architecture development. Andrea Jensen, former designer at Škoda and Volkswagen, heads colour and trim.


title: Genesis Motor

text: Between November 2015 and October 2018, Genesis sold 206,882 vehicles; of the total, 127,283 were G80 models, 52,417 were G90 units, and 27,182 were G70s. In 2016, Genesis sold 66,029 models in South Korea.


title: Genesis Motor

text: Genesis is the official sponsor of the NFL, the Genesis Invitational at the Riviera Country Club, the Scottish Open, and the Condé Nast International Conference. Architect Rem Koolhaas designed the world's first ever Genesis showroom in Seoul's Gangnam district. Genesis Connected Services, a cloud-based service, features remote vehicle functions such as remote start with climate control and remote lock/unlock is available on iOS, Android and an Alexa Skill developed with Amazon. The Genesis Intelligent Assistant was developed for Android and iOS, providing similar service to Genesis Connected Services.


title: Genesis Motor

text: On 9 September 2016, the Genesis Studio Hanam was opened at Starfield in 750, Misa-daero, Hanam-si, Gyeonggi-do. The studio is about 476-metre square, and the vintage concrete finishing and waterproof steel plate differ from other existing exhibition halls. The studio displays real vehicle doors that allow visitors to check flagship models, new vehicles and concept cars, exterior colours and interior materials.


title: Genesis Motor

text: On 6 January 2018, the Genesis Studio Gangnam opened at 410, Yeongdong-daero, Gangnam-gu. The Gangnam studio displays engine line-ups and different colours of all models. Unlike Genesis Studio Hanam, which shows the brand's sensibility and philosophy, Genesis Gangnam has constructed a space focusing on product experience. It is about 1296 metre square and has applied different materials and techniques from existing exhibition halls, such as vintage concrete finishes and hot-rolled steel plates.


title: Genesis Motor

text: The Genesis Suji, which opened on 30 July 2020, at 11, Pungdeokcheon-ro 197 beon-gil, Suji-gu, Yongin-si, Gyeonggi-do, is the largest Genesis vehicle exhibition hall in Korea with four stories above the ground and about 4992-metre square. The exterior of the building used weatherproof steel plates to express the value of Genesis. The interior of the exhibition hall is an open structure connected with exposed concrete imprinted with wood grain patterns and glass (1st to 3rd floors), which embodies bold spatial beauty.


title: Genesis Motor

text: On 19 November 2020, Genesis Studio Anseong, which opened at 3930–39, Seodong-daero, Gongdo-eup, Anseong-si, Gyeonggi-do, is the second mall-type space after Hanam and was constructed on a scale of about 664-metre square. All Genesis models can be viewed, experienced, and purchased and consists of a total of four experience zones: a brand experience zone, a product experience zone, an interior and exterior experience zone, and a test drive experience zone.


title: Genesis Motor

text: In addition, Genesis Studio Chengdu was opened on 4 June 2021, including Genesis Studio Shanghai, which was built on 8 April 2021, with a total capacity of 1,300 square meters. Also, Genesis Studios in Sydney, New York, and Europe are being operated.


title: Rolling Stone's 100 Greatest Artists of All Time

text: "The 100 Greatest Artists of All Time" is a special issue published by the American magazine "Rolling Stone" in two parts in 2004 and 2005 and updated in 2011. The list presented was compiled based on input from musicians, writers, and industry figures and is focused on the rock & roll era.


text: The publication features comments written by musicians about their favorite colleagues (e.g., Elvis Costello on the Beatles, Janet Jackson on Tina Turner, etc.). Since its publication, the list has been frequently cited by many specialized and generalist publications.


text: The list, published in two issues in 2004 and 2005 and updated in 2011, was based on the choices of a panel of 55 musicians, writers, and industry figures. As the editors explain, the artists were selected by "their peers", and the list aims to be "a broad survey of rock history", encompassing rock and roll, blues, hard rock, heavy metal, indie rock, rap and contemporary pop.


text: In both versions of the list, the top three positions are held by the Beatles, Bob Dylan, and Elvis Presley; rounding out the top ten (in descending order) are the Rolling Stones, Chuck Berry, Jimi Hendrix, James Brown, Little Richard, Aretha Franklin, and Ray Charles.


text: In 2011, "Rolling Stone" published a revised edition of the list, with position changes from the 27th position onward. The updated list also features artists not present in the original (Queen, Metallica, Pink Floyd, Talking Heads, R.E.M., Tom Petty, Creedence Clearwater Revival and Jay-Z), while removing others (Etta James, Louis Jordan, Lee "Scratch" Perry, Miles Davis, Roxy Music, N.W.A., Ricky Nelson and Martha & The Vandellas).


text: The list consists primarily of American or British artists, as well as the following: AC/DC (Australian, with several British-born members), The Band (Canada/US), Bob Marley (Jamaica), Joni Mitchell (Canada), Lee "Scratch" Perry (Jamaica; only in the 2005 list), Carlos Santana (Mexican by birth, naturalised American), U2 (Ireland, with two British-born members) and Neil Young (Canada).


title: Christian Science

text: Christian Science is a set of beliefs and practices associated with members of the Church of Christ, Scientist. Adherents are commonly known as Christian Scientists or students of Christian Science, and the church is sometimes informally known as the Christian Science church. It was founded in 19th-century New England by Mary Baker Eddy, who wrote the 1875 book "Science and Health with Key to the Scriptures", which outlined the theology of Christian Science. The book became Christian Science's central text, along with the Bible, and by 2001 had sold over nine million copies.


title: Christian Science

text: Eddy and 26 followers were granted a charter by the Commonwealth of Massachusetts in 1879 to found the "Church of Christ (Scientist)"; the church would be reorganized under the name "Church of Christ, Scientist" in 1892. The Mother Church, The First Church of Christ, Scientist, was built in Boston, Massachusetts, in 1894. Christian Science became the fastest growing religion in the United States, with nearly 270,000 members there by 1936, a figure that had declined to just over 100,000 by 1990 and reportedly to under 50,000 by 2009. The church is known for its newspaper, "The Christian Science Monitor", which won seven Pulitzer Prizes between 1950 and 2002, and for its public Reading Rooms around the world.


title: Christian Science

text: Eddy described Christian Science as a return to "primitive Christianity and its lost element of healing". There are key differences between Christian Science theology and that of traditional Christianity. In particular, adherents subscribe to a radical form of philosophical idealism, believing that reality is purely spiritual and the material world an illusion. This includes the view that disease is a mental error rather than physical disorder, and that the sick should be treated not by medicine but by a form of prayer that seeks to correct the beliefs responsible for the illusion of ill health.


title: Christian Science

text: The church does not require that Christian Scientists avoid medical care—adherents use dentists, optometrists, obstetricians, physicians for broken bones, and vaccination when required by law—but maintains that Christian Science prayer is most effective when not combined with medicine. Most controversially, the reliance on prayer and avoidance of medical treatment has been blamed for the deaths of several adherents and their children. Between the 1880s and 1990s, parents and others were prosecuted for, and in a few cases convicted of, manslaughter or neglect.


title: Christian Science

text: Several periods of Protestant Christian revival nurtured a proliferation of new religious movements in the United States. In the latter half of the 19th century these included what came to be known as the metaphysical family: groups such as Christian Science, Divine Science, the Unity School of Christianity, and (later) the United Church of Religious Science. From the 1890s the liberal section of the movement became known as New Thought, in part to distinguish it from the more authoritarian Christian Science.


title: Christian Science

text: The term "metaphysical" referred to the movement's philosophical idealism, a belief in the primacy of the mental world. Adherents believed that material phenomena were the result of mental states, a view expressed as "life is consciousness" and "God is mind." The supreme cause was referred to as Divine Mind, Truth, God, Love, Life, Spirit, Principle or Father–Mother, reflecting elements of Plato, Hinduism, Berkeley, Hegel, Swedenborg, and transcendentalism.


title: Christian Science

text: The metaphysical groups became known as the mind-cure movement because of their strong focus on healing. Medical practice was in its infancy, and patients regularly fared better without it. This provided fertile soil for the mind-cure groups, who argued that sickness was an absence of "right thinking" or failure to connect to Divine Mind. The movement traced its roots in the United States to Phineas Parkhurst Quimby (1802–1866), a New England clockmaker turned mental healer, whose motto was "the truth is the cure." Mary Baker Eddy had been a patient of his, leading to debate about how much of Christian Science was based on his ideas.


title: Christian Science

text: New Thought and Christian Science differed in that Eddy saw her views as a unique and final revelation. Eddy's idea of malicious animal magnetism (that people can be harmed by the bad thoughts of others) marked another distinction, introducing an element of fear that was absent from the New Thought literature. Most significantly, she dismissed the material world as an illusion, rather than as merely subordinate to Mind, leading her to reject the use of medicine, or "materia medica", and making Christian Science the most controversial of the metaphysical groups. Reality for Eddy was purely spiritual.


title: Christian Science

text: Christian Science leaders place their religion within mainstream Christian teaching, according to J. Gordon Melton, and reject any identification with the New Thought movement. Eddy was strongly influenced by her Congregationalist upbringing. According to the church's tenets, adherents accept "the inspired Word of the Bible as [their] sufficient guide to eternal Life ... acknowledge and adore one supreme and infinite God ... [and] acknowledge His Son, one Christ; the Holy Ghost or divine Comforter; and man in God's image and likeness." When founding the Church of Christ, Scientist, in April 1879, Eddy wrote that she wanted to "reinstate primitive Christianity and its lost element of healing". Later she suggested that Christian Science was a kind of second coming and that "Science and Health" was an inspired text. In 1895, in the "Manual of the Mother Church", she ordained the Bible and "Science and Health" as "Pastor over the Mother Church".


title: Christian Science

text: Christian Science theology differs in several respects from that of traditional Christianity. Eddy's "Science and Health" reinterprets key Christian concepts, including the Trinity, divinity of Jesus, atonement, and resurrection; beginning with the 1883 edition, she added "with a Key to the Scriptures" to the title and included a glossary that redefined the Christian vocabulary. At the core of Eddy's theology is the view that the spiritual world is the only reality and is entirely good, and that the material world, with its evil, sickness and death, is an illusion. Eddy saw humanity as an "idea of Mind" that is "perfect, eternal, unlimited, and reflects the divine", according to Bryan Wilson; what she called "mortal man" is simply humanity's distorted view of itself. Despite her view of the non-existence of evil, an important element of Christian Science theology is that evil thought, in the form of malicious animal magnetism, can cause harm, even if the harm is only apparent.


title: Christian Science

text: Eddy viewed God not as a person but as "All-in-all". Although she often described God in the language of personhood—she used the term "Father–Mother God" (as did Ann Lee, the founder of Shakerism), and in the third edition of "Science and Health" she referred to God as "she"—God is mostly represented in Christian Science by the synonyms "Mind, Spirit, Soul, Principle, Life, Truth, Love". The Holy Ghost is Christian Science, and heaven and hell are states of mind. There is no supplication in Christian Science prayer. The process involves the Scientist engaging in a silent argument to affirm to herself the unreality of matter, something Christian Science practitioners will do for a fee, including "in absentia", to address ill health or other problems. Wilson writes that Christian Science healing is "not curative ... on its own premises, but rather preventative of ill health, accident and misfortune, since it claims to lead to a state of consciousness where these things do not exist. What heals is the realization that there is nothing really to heal." It is a closed system of thought, viewed as infallible if performed correctly; healing confirms the power of Truth, but its absence derives from the failure, specifically the bad thoughts, of individuals.


title: Christian Science

text: Eddy accepted as true the creation narrative in the Book of Genesis up to chapter 2, verse 6—that God created man in his image and likeness—but she rejected the rest "as the story of the false and the material", according to Wilson. Her theology is nontrinitarian: she viewed the Trinity as suggestive of polytheism. She saw Jesus as a Christian Scientist, a "Way-shower" between humanity and God, and she distinguished between Jesus the man and the concept of Christ, the latter a synonym for Truth and Jesus the first person fully to manifest it. The crucifixion was not a divine sacrifice for the sins of humanity, the atonement (the forgiveness of sin through Jesus's suffering) "not the bribing of God by offerings", writes Wilson, but an "at-one-ment" with God. Her views on life after death were vague and, according to Wilson, "there is no doctrine of the soul" in Christian Science: "[A]fter death, the individual continues his probationary state until he has worked out his own salvation by proving the truths of Christian Science." Eddy did not believe that the dead and living could communicate.


title: Christian Science

text: To the more conservative of the Protestant clergy, Eddy's view of "Science and Health" as divinely inspired was a challenge to the Bible's authority. "Eddyism" was viewed as a cult; one of the first uses of the modern sense of the word was in A. H. Barrington's "Anti-Christian Cults" (1898), a book about Spiritualism, Theosophy and Christian Science. In a few cases Christian Scientists were expelled from Christian congregations, but ministers also worried that their parishioners were choosing to leave. In May 1885 the London "Times" Boston correspondent wrote about the "Boston mind-cure craze": "Scores of the most valued Church members are joining the Christian Scientist branch of the metaphysical organization, and it has thus far been impossible to check the defection." In 1907 Mark Twain described the appeal of the new religion to its adherents:


title: Christian Science

text: Mary Baker Eddy was born Mary Morse Baker on a farm in Bow, New Hampshire, the youngest of six children in a religious family of Protestant Congregationalists. In common with most women at the time, Eddy was given little formal education, but read widely at home and was privately tutored. From childhood she lived with protracted ill health. Eddy's first husband died six months after their marriage and three months before their son was born, leaving her penniless; and as a result of her poor health she lost custody of the boy when he was four. She married again, and her new husband promised to become the child's legal guardian, but after their marriage he refused to sign the needed papers and the boy was taken to Minnesota and told his mother had died. Eddy, then known as Mary Patterson, and her husband moved to rural New Hampshire, where Eddy continued to suffer from health problems which often kept her bedridden. Eddy tried various cures for her health problems, including "allopathic" or conventional medicine, and most forms of alternative medicine such as Grahamism, electrotherapy, homeopathy, hydropathy, and finally mesmerism under Phineas Quimby. She was later accused by critics, beginning with Julius Dresser, of borrowing ideas from Quimby in what biographer Gillian Gill would call the "single most controversial issue" of her life.


title: Christian Science

text: In February 1866, Eddy fell on the ice in Lynn, Massachusetts. Evidence suggests she had severe injuries, but a few days later she apparently asked for her Bible, opened it to an account of one of Jesus' miracles, and left her bed telling her friends that she was healed through prayer alone. The moment has since been controversial, but she considered this moment one of the "falling apples" that helped her to understand Christian Science, although she said she did not fully understand it at the time.


title: Christian Science

text: In 1866, after her fall on the ice, Eddy began teaching her first student and began writing her ideas which she eventually published in "Science and Health with Key to the Scriptures", considered her most important work. Her students voted to form a church called the Church of Christ (Scientist) in 1879, later reorganized as The First Church of Christ, Scientist, also known as The Mother Church, in 1892. She founded the Massachusetts Metaphysical College in 1881 to continue teaching students, Eddy started a number of periodicals: "The Christian Science Journal" in 1883, the "Christian Science Sentinel" in 1898, "The Herald of Christian Science" in 1903, and "The Christian Science Monitor" in 1908, the latter being a secular newspaper. The "Monitor" has gone on to win seven Pulitzer prizes as of 2011. She also wrote numerous books and articles in addition to "Science and Health", including the Manual of The Mother Church which contained by-laws for church government and member activity, and founded the Christian Science Publishing Society in 1898 in order to distribute Christian Science literature. Although the movement started in Boston, the first purpose-built Christian Science church building was erected in 1886 in Oconto, Wisconsin. During Eddy's lifetime, Christian Science spread throughout the United States and to other parts of the world including Canada, Great Britain, Germany, South Africa, Hong Kong, the Philippines, Australia, and elsewhere.


title: Christian Science

text: Eddy encountered significant opposition after she began teaching and writing on Christian Science, which only increased towards the end of her life. One of the most prominent examples was Mark Twain, who wrote a number of articles on Eddy and Christian Science which were first published in "Cosmopolitan" magazine in 1899 and were later published as a book. Another extended criticism, which again was first serialized in a magazine and then published in book form, was Georgine Milmine and Willa Cather's "The Life of Mary Baker G. Eddy and the History of Christian Science" which first appeared in "McClure's" magazine in January 1907. Also in 1907, several of Eddy's relatives filed an unsuccessful lawsuit instigated by the "New York World", known in the press as the "Next Friends Suit", against members of Eddy's household, alleging that she was mentally unable to manage her own affairs. The suit fell apart after Eddy was interviewed in her home in August 1907 by the judge and two psychiatrists, including Allan McLane Hamilton, who concluded that she was mentally competent. The "McClure's" and "New York World" stories are considered to at least partially be the reason Eddy asked the church in July 1908 to found the "Christian Science Monitor" as a platform for responsible journalism.


title: Christian Science

text: Eddy died two years later, on the evening of Saturday, December 3, 1910, aged 89. The Mother Church announced at the end of the Sunday morning service that Eddy had "passed from our sight". The church stated that "the time will come when there will be no more death," but that Christian Scientists "do not look for [Eddy's] return in this world." Her estate was valued at $1.5 million, most of which she left to the church.


title: Christian Science

text: In the aftermath of Eddy's death some newspapers speculated that the church would fall apart, while others expected it to continue just as it had before. As it was, the movement continued to grow in the first few decades after 1910. The Manual of the Mother Church prohibits the church from publishing membership figures, and it is not clear exactly where the height of the movement was. A 1936 census counted c. 268,915 Christian Scientists in the United States (2,098 per million), and Rodney Stark believes this to be close to the height. However the number of Christian Science churches continued to increase until around 1960, at which point there was a reversal and since then many churches have closed their doors. The number of Christian Science practitioners in the United States began to decline in the 1940s according to Stark. According to J. Gordon Melton, in 1972 there were 3,237 congregations worldwide, of which roughly 2,400 were in the United States; and in the following ten years about 200 congregations were closed.


title: Christian Science

text: During the years after Eddy's death, the church has gone through a number of hardships and controversies. This included attempts to make practicing Christian Science illegal in the United States and elsewhere; a period known as the Great Litigation which involved two intertwined lawsuits regarding church governance; persecution under the Nazi and Communist regimes in Germany and the Imperial regime in Japan; a series of lawsuits involving the deaths of members of the church, most notably some children; and a controversial decision to publish a book by Bliss Knapp. In conjunction with the Knapp book controversy, there was controversy within the church involving "The Monitor Channel", part of "The Christian Science Monitor" which had been losing money, and which eventually led to the channel shutting down. In addition, it has since its beginning been branded as a cult by more fundamentalist strains of Christianity, and attracted significant opposition as a result. A number of independent teachers and alternative movements of Christian Science have emerged since its founding, but none of these individuals or groups have achieved the prominence of the Christian Science church.


title: Christian Science

text: Despite the hardships and controversies, many Christian Science churches and Reading Rooms remain in existence around the world, and in recent years there have been reports of the religion growing in Africa. "The Christian Science Monitor" also remains a well respected non-religious paper which is especially noted for its international reporting and lack of partisanship.


title: Christian Science

text: Christian Scientists avoid almost all medical treatment, relying instead on Christian Science prayer. This consists of silently arguing with oneself; there are no appeals to a personal god, and no set words. Caroline Fraser wrote in 1999 that the practitioner might repeat: "the allness of God using Eddy's seven synonyms—Life, Truth, Love, Spirit, Soul, Principle and Mind," then that "Spirit, Substance, is the only Mind, and man is its image and likeness; that Mind is intelligence; that Spirit is substance; that Love is wholeness; that Life, Truth, and Love are the only reality." She might deny other religions, the existence of evil, mesmerism, astrology, numerology, and the symptoms of whatever the illness is. She concludes, Fraser writes, by asserting that disease is a lie, that this is the word of God, and that it has the power to heal.


title: Christian Science

text: Christian Science practitioners are certified by the Church of Christ, Scientist, to charge a fee for Christian Science prayer. There were 1,249 practitioners worldwide in 2015; in the United States in 2010 they charged $25–$50 for an e-mail, telephone or face-to-face consultation. Their training is a two-week, 12-lesson course called "primary class", based on the Recapitulation chapter of "Science and Health". Practitioners wanting to teach primary class take a six-day "normal class", held in Boston once every three years, and become Christian Science teachers. There are also Christian Science nursing homes. They offer no medical services; the nurses are Christian Scientists who have completed a course of religious study and training in basic skills, such as feeding and bathing.


title: Christian Science

text: The "Christian Science Journal" and "Christian Science Sentinel" publish anecdotal healing testimonials (they published 53,900 between 1900 and April 1989), which must be accompanied by statements from three verifiers: "people who know [the testifier] well and have either witnessed the healing or can vouch for [the testifier's] integrity in sharing it". Philosopher Margaret P. Battin wrote in 1999 that the seriousness with which these testimonials are treated by Christian Scientists ignores factors such as false positives caused by self-limiting conditions. Because no negative accounts are published, the testimonials strengthen people's tendency to rely on anecdotes. A church study published in 1989 examined 10,000 published testimonials, 2,337 of which the church said involved conditions that had been medically diagnosed, and 623 of which were "medically confirmed by follow-up examinations". The report offered no evidence of the medical follow-up. The Massachusetts Committee for Children and Youth listed among the report's flaws that it had failed to compare the rates of successful and unsuccessful Christian Science treatment.


title: Christian Science

text: Nathan Talbot, a church spokesperson, told the "New England Journal of Medicine" in 1983 that church members were free to choose medical care, but according to former Christian Scientists those who do may be ostracized. In 2010 the "New York Times" reported church leaders as saying that, for over a year, they had been "encouraging members to see a physician if they feel it is necessary", and that they were repositioning Christian Science prayer as a supplement to medical care, rather than a substitute. The church has lobbied to have the work of Christian Science practitioners covered by insurance.


title: Christian Science

text: As of 2015, it was reported that Christian Scientists in Australia were not advising anyone against vaccines, and the religious exception was deemed "no longer current or necessary". In 2021, a church Committee on Publication reiterated that although vaccination was an individual choice, that the church did not dictate against it, and those who were not vaccinated did not do so because of any "church dogma".


title: Christian Science

text: In the hierarchy of the Church of Christ, Scientist, only the Mother Church in Boston, The First Church of Christ, Scientist, uses the definite article in its name. Otherwise the first Christian Science church in any city is called First Church of Christ, Scientist, then Second Church of Christ, Scientist, and so on, followed by the name of the city (for example, ). When a church closes, the others in that city are not renamed.


title: Christian Science

text: Founded in April 1879, the Church of Christ, Scientist is led by a president and five-person board of directors. There is a public-relations department, known as the Committee on Publication, with representatives around the world; this was set up by Eddy in 1898 to protect her own and the church's reputation. The church was accused in the 1990s of silencing internal criticism by firing staff, delisting practitioners and excommunicating members.


title: Christian Science

text: The church's administration is headquartered on Christian Science Center on the corner of Massachusetts Avenue and Huntington Avenue, Boston. The 14.5-acre site includes the Mother Church (1894), Mother Church Extension (1906), the Christian Science Publishing Society building (1934)—which houses the Mary Baker Eddy Library and the church's administrative staff—the Sunday School building (1971), and the Church Colonnade building (1972). It also includes the 26-story Administration Building (1972), designed by Araldo Cossutta of I. M. Pei & Associates, which until 2008 housed the administrative staff from the church's 15 departments. There is also a children's fountain and a reflecting pool.


title: Christian Science

text: Eddy's "Manual of The Mother Church" (first published 1895) lists the church's by-laws. Requirements for members include daily prayer and daily study of the Bible and "Science and Health". Members must subscribe to church periodicals if they can afford to, and pay an annual tax to the church of not less than one dollar.


title: Christian Science

text: Prohibitions include engaging in mental malpractice; visiting a store that sells "obnoxious" books; joining other churches; publishing articles that are uncharitable toward religion, medicine, the courts or the law; and publishing the number of church members. The manual also prohibits engaging in public debate about Christian Science without board approval, and learning hypnotism. It includes "The Golden Rule": "A member of The Mother Church shall not haunt Mrs. Eddy's drive when she goes out, continually stroll by her house, or make a summer resort near her for such a purpose."


title: Christian Science

text: The Church of Christ, Scientist is a lay church which has no ordained clergy or rituals, and performs no baptisms; with clergy of other faiths often performing marriage or funeral services since they have no clergy of their own. Its main religious texts are the Bible and "Science and Health". Each church has two Readers, who read aloud a "Bible lesson" or "lesson sermon" made up of selections from those texts during the Sunday service, and a shorter set of readings to open Wednesday evening testimony meetings. In addition to readings, members offer testimonials during the main portion of the Wednesday meetings, including recovery from ill health attributed to prayer. There are also hymns, time for silent prayer, and repeating together the Lord’s Prayer at each service.


title: Christian Science

text: Notable Scientists have included Directors of Central Intelligence William H. Webster and Admiral Stansfield M. Turner; Richard Nixon's chief of staff H. R. Haldeman; and Chief Domestic Advisor John Ehrlichman. The viscountess Nancy Astor was a Christian Scientist, as was naval officer Charles Lightoller, who survived the sinking of the "Titanic" in 1912.


title: Christian Science

text: There used to be a concentration of Scientists in the film industry, including Joan Crawford, Carol Channing, Doris Day, Colleen Dewhurst, Cecil B. DeMille, Horton Foote, George Hamilton, Mary Pickford, Ginger Rogers, Mickey Rooney, Jean Stapleton and King Vidor. Robert Duvall and Val Kilmer are Christian Scientists. Those raised by Christian Scientists include jurist Helmuth James Graf von Moltke, military analyst Daniel Ellsberg, Ellen DeGeneres, Henry Fonda, James Hetfield, Audrey Hepburn, Marilyn Monroe, Robin Williams, and Elizabeth Taylor. Taylor's godfather, the British politician Victor Cazalet, was also a member of the church. Actor Anne Archer was raised within Christian Science; she left the church when her son, Tommy Davis, was a child, and both became prominent in the Church of Scientology.


title: Christian Science

text: A conspicuous event was the death in June 1937 of actress Jean Harlow, who died of kidney failure at age 26. Her mother, known as Mama Jean, was a recent convert to Christian Science and did on at least two occasions attempt to block conventional medical treatment for her daughter. Fellow actors and studio executives intervened, and Harlow received medical treatment, although in 1937, nothing could be done for kidney failure and she perished.


title: Christian Science

text: The Christian Science Publishing Society publishes several periodicals, including the "Christian Science Monitor", winner of seven Pulitzer Prizes between 1950 and 2002. This had a daily circulation in 1970 of 220,000, which by 2008 had contracted to 52,000. In 2009 it moved to a largely online presence with a weekly print run. In the 1980s the church produced its own television programs, and in 1991 it founded a 24-hour news channel, which closed with heavy losses after 13 months.


title: Christian Science

text: The church also publishes the weekly "Christian Science Sentinel", the monthly "Christian Science Journal", and the "Herald of Christian Science", a non-English publication. In April 2012 JSH-Online made back issues of the "Journal", "Sentinel" and "Herald" available online to subscribers.


title: Gandhi (film)

text: Gandhi is a 1982 period biographical film based on the life of Mahatma Gandhi, the leader of nonviolent non-cooperative Indian independence movement against the British Empire during the 20th century. A co-production between India and United Kingdom, it is directed and produced by Richard Attenborough from a screenplay written by John Briley. It stars Ben Kingsley in the title role. The film covers Gandhi's life from a defining moment in 1893, as he is thrown off from a South African train for being in a whites-only compartment and concludes with his assassination and funeral in 1948. Although a practising Hindu, Gandhi's embracing of other faiths, particularly Christianity and Islam, is also depicted.


title: Gandhi (film)

text: "Gandhi" was released by Columbia Pictures in India on 30 November 1982, in the United Kingdom on 3 December, and in the United States on 8 December. It was praised for a historically accurate portrayal of the life of Gandhi, the Indian independence movement and the deteriorating results of British colonisation on India, its production values, costume design, and Kingsley's performance, which received worldwide critical acclaim. It became a commercial success, grossing $127.8 million on a $22 million budget.


title: Gandhi (film)

text: The film received a leading eleven nominations at the 55th Academy Awards, winning eight (more than any other film nominated that year), including for the Best Picture, Best Director, and Best Actor (for Kingsley). The film was screened retrospectively on 12 August 2016 as the opening film at the Independence Day Film Festival jointly presented by the Indian Directorate of Film Festivals and Ministry of Defence, commemorating the 70th Indian Independence Day. The British Film Institute ranked "Gandhi" as the 34th greatest British film of the 20th century.


title: Gandhi (film)

text: On 30 January 1948, on his way to an evening prayer service, an elderly Gandhi is helped out for his evening walk to meet a large number of greeters and admirers. One visitor, Nathuram Godse, shoots him point blank in the chest. His state funeral is shown, the procession attended by millions of people from all walks of life, with a radio reporter speaking eloquently about Gandhi's world-changing life and works.


title: Gandhi (film)

text: In June 1893, the 23-year-old Gandhi is thrown off from a South African train for being an Indian sitting in a first-class compartment despite having a first-class ticket. Realising the laws are biased against Indians, he then decides to start a non-violent protest campaign for the rights of all Indians in South Africa, arguing that they are British subjects and entitled to the same rights and privileges. After numerous arrests and unwelcome international attention, the government finally relents by recognising some rights for Indians.


title: Gandhi (film)

text: In 1915, as a result of his victory in South Africa, Gandhi is invited back to India, where he is now considered something of a national hero. He is urged to take up the fight for India's independence (Swaraj, Quit India) from the British Empire. Gandhi agrees, and mounts a non-violent non-cooperation campaign of unprecedented scale, coordinating millions of Indians nationwide. There are some setbacks, such as violence against the protesters, Gandhi's occasional imprisonment, and the 1919 Jallianwala Bagh massacre.


title: Gandhi (film)

text: Nevertheless, the campaign generates great attention, and Britain faces intense public pressure. In 1930, Gandhi protests against the British-imposed salt tax via the highly symbolic Salt March. He also travels to London for a conference concerning Britain's possible departure from India; this, however, proves fruitless. Gandhi spends much of the Second World War in prison. During a period under house arrest, his wife dies. After the war ends, India finally wins its independence. Indians celebrate this victory, but their troubles are far from over. The country is subsequently divided by religion. It is decided that the northwest area and the eastern part of India (current-day Bangladesh), both places where Muslims are in the majority, will become a new country called Pakistan. It is hoped that by encouraging the Muslims to live in a separate country, violence will abate. Gandhi is opposed to the idea and is even willing to allow Muhammad Ali Jinnah to become the first Prime Minister of India, but the Partition of India is carried out nevertheless. Religious tensions between Hindus and Muslims erupt into nationwide violence. Repulsed by this sudden unrest, Gandhi declares a hunger strike, in which he will not eat until the fighting stops. The fighting does stop eventually.


title: Gandhi (film)

text: Gandhi spends his last days trying to bring about peace between both nations. He, thereby, angers many dissidents on both sides, one of whom (Godse) is involved in a conspiracy to assassinate him. Gandhi is cremated and his ashes are scattered on the holy Ganga. As this happens, viewers hear Gandhi in another voiceover from earlier in the film.


title: Gandhi (film)

text: This film had been Richard Attenborough's dream project, although two previous attempts at filming had failed. In 1952, Gabriel Pascal secured an agreement with the Prime Minister of India (Jawaharlal Nehru) to produce a film of Gandhi's life. However, Pascal died in 1954 before preparations were completed.


title: Gandhi (film)

text: In 1962 Attenborough was contacted by Motilal Kothari, an Indian-born civil servant working with the Indian High Commission in London and a devout follower of Gandhi. Kothari insisted that Attenborough meet him to discuss a film about Gandhi. Attenborough agreed, after reading Louis Fischer's biography of Gandhi and spent the next 18 years attempting to get the film made. He was able to meet prime minister Nehru and his daughter Indira Gandhi through a connection with Lord Louis Mountbatten, the last Viceroy of India. Nehru approved of the film and promised to help support its production, but his death in 1964 was one of the film's many setbacks. Attenborough would dedicate the film to the memory of Kothari, Mountbatten, and Nehru.


title: Gandhi (film)

text: David Lean and Sam Spiegel had planned to make a film about Gandhi after completing "The Bridge on the River Kwai", reportedly with Alec Guinness as Gandhi. Ultimately, the project was abandoned in favour of "Lawrence of Arabia" (1962). Attenborough reluctantly approached Lean with his own Gandhi project in the late 1960s, and Lean agreed to direct the film and offered Attenborough the lead role. Instead Lean began filming "Ryan's Daughter", during which time Motilai Kothari had died and the project fell apart.


title: Gandhi (film)

text: Attenborough again attempted to resurrect the project in 1976 with backing from Warner Brothers. Then prime minister Indira Gandhi declared a state of emergency in India and shooting would be impossible. Co-producer Rani Dube persuaded prime minister Indira Gandhi to provide the first $10 million from the National Film Development Corporation of India, chaired by D. V. S. Raju at that time, on the back of which the remainder of the funding was finally raised. Finally in 1980 Attenborough was able to secure the remainder of the funding needed to make the film. Screenwriter John Briley had introduced him to Jake Eberts, the chief executive at the new Goldcrest production company that raised approximately two-thirds of the film's budget.


title: Gandhi (film)

text: Shooting began on 26 November 1980 and ended on 10 May 1981. Some scenes were shot near Koilwar Bridge, in Bihar. Over 300,000 extras were used in the funeral scene, the most for any film, according to "Guinness World Records".


title: Gandhi (film)

text: During pre-production, there was much speculation as to who would play the role of Gandhi. The choice was Ben Kingsley, who is partly of Indian heritage (his father was Gujarati and his birth name is Krishna Bhanji).


title: Gandhi (film)

text: "Gandhi" premiered in New Delhi, India on 30 November 1982. Two days later, on 2 December, it had a Royal Premiere at the Odeon Leicester Square in London in the presence of Prince Charles and Princess Diana before opening to the public the following day. The film had a limited release in the US starting on Wednesday, 8 December 1982, followed by a wider release in January 1983. In February 1983 it opened on two screens in India as well as opening nationwide in the UK and expanding into other countries.


title: Gandhi (film)

text: The film grossed $81,917 in its first 6 days at the Odeon Leicester Square in London. In the United States and Canada, it grossed $183,583 in its first 5 days from 4 theatres (Ziegfeld Theatre in New York City; Uptown Theater in Washington D.C.; Century Plaza in Los Angeles; and the York in Toronto). Due to the running time, it could be shown only three times a day. It went on to gross in the United States and Canada, the 12th highest-grossing film of 1982.


title: Gandhi (film)

text: Outside of the United States and Canada, the film grossed in the rest of the world, the third highest for the year.


title: Gandhi (film)

text: In the United Kingdom, the film grossed ( adjusted for inflation). It is one of the top ten highest-grossing British independent films of all time adjusted for inflation.


title: Gandhi (film)

text: In India, it was one of the highest-grossing films of all-time (and the highest for a foreign film) during the time of its release by earning over or 1billion rupees. At today's exchange rate, that amounts to , still making it one of the highest-grossing imported films in the country. It was shown tax free in Bombay (known as Mumbai since 1995) and Delhi.


title: Gandhi (film)

text: The film grossed a total of worldwide. Goldcrest Films invested £5,076,000 in the film and received £11,461,000 in return, earning them a profit of £6,385,000.


title: Gandhi (film)

text: Reviews were broadly positive not only in India but also internationally. The film was discussed or reviewed in "Newsweek", "Time", the "Washington Post", "The Public Historian", "Cross Currents", "The Journal of Asian Studies", "Film Quarterly", "The Progressive", "The Christian Century" and elsewhere. Ben Kingsley's performance was especially praised. Among the few who took a more negative view of the film, historian Lawrence James called it "pure hagiography" while anthropologist Akhil Gupta said it "suffers from tepid direction and a superficial and misleading interpretation of history." Also Indian novelist Makarand R. Paranjape has written that ""Gandhi", though hagiographical, follow a mimetic style of film-making in which cinema, the visual image itself, is supposed to portray or reflect 'reality'". The film was also criticised by some right-wing commentators who objected to the film's advocacy of nonviolence, including Pat Buchanan, Emmett Tyrrell, and especially Richard Grenier. In "Time", Richard Schickel wrote that in portraying Gandhi's "spiritual presence... Kingsley is nothing short of astonishing." A "singular virtue" of the film is that "its title figure is also a character in the usual dramatic sense of the term." Schickel viewed Attenborough's directorial style as having "a conventional handsomeness that is more predictable than enlivening," but this "stylistic self-denial serves to keep one's attention fastened where it belongs: on a persuasive, if perhaps debatable vision of Gandhi's spirit, and on the remarkable actor who has caught its light in all its seasons." Roger Ebert gave the film four stars and called it a "remarkable experience", and placed it 5th on his 10 best films of 1983.


title: Gandhi (film)

text: In "Newsweek", Jack Kroll stated that "There are very few movies that absolutely must be seen. Sir Richard Attenborough's "Gandhi" is one of them." The movie "deals with a subject of great importance... with a mixture of high intelligence and immediate emotional impact... [and] Ben Kingsley... gives what is possibly the most astonishing biographical performance in screen history." Kroll stated that the screenplay's "least persuasive characters are Gandhi's Western allies and acolytes" such as an English cleric and an American journalist, but that "Attenborough's 'old-fashioned' style is exactly right for the no-tricks, no-phony-psychologizing quality he wants." Furthermore, Attenborough


title: Gandhi (film)

text: mounts a powerful challenge to his audience by presenting Gandhi as the most profound and effective of revolutionaries, creating out of a fierce personal discipline a chain reaction that led to tremendous historical consequences. At a time of deep political unrest, economic dislocation and nuclear anxiety, seeing "Gandhi" is an experience that will change many minds and hearts.


title: Gandhi (film)

text: According to the Museum of Broadcast Communications there was "a cycle of film and television productions which emerged during the first half of the 1980s, which seemed to indicate Britain's growing preoccupation with India, Empire and a particular aspect of British cultural history". In addition to "Gandhi," this cycle also included "Heat and Dust" (1983), "Octopussy" (1983), "The Jewel in the Crown" (1984), "The Far Pavilions" (1984) and "A Passage to India" (1984).


title: Gandhi (film)

text: An important origin of one myth about Gandhi was Richard Attenborough's 1982 film. Take the episode when the newly arrived Gandhi is ejected from a first-class railway carriage at Pietermaritzburg after a white passenger objects to sharing space with a "coolie" (an Indian indentured labourer). In fact, Gandhi's demand to be allowed to travel first-class was accepted by the railway company. Rather than marking the start of a campaign against racial oppression, as legend has it, this episode was the start of a campaign to extend racial segregation in South Africa. Gandhi was adamant that "respectable Indians" should not be obliged to use the same facilities as "raw Kaffirs". He petitioned the authorities in the port city of Durban, where he practised law, to end the indignity of making Indians use the same entrance to the post office as blacks, and counted it a victory when three doors were introduced: one for Europeans, one for Asiatics and one for Natives.


title: Gandhi (film)

text: Richard Grenier in his 1983 article, "The Gandhi Nobody Knows", which was also the title of the book of the same name and topic, also criticised the film, arguing it misportrayed him as a "saint". He also alleged the Indian government admitted to financing about a third of the film's budget. Grenier's book later became an inspiration for G. B. Singh's book "". Parts of the book also discuss the film negatively.


title: Gandhi (film)

text: In the DVD edition of the 1998 film "Jinnah", the director's commentary of the film makes mention of the 1982 film. In the commentary, both Sir Christopher Lee, who portrayed the older Muhammed Ali Jinnah, and director Jamil Dehlavi criticised the film "Gandhi" for its portrayal of Jinnah, arguing it to be demonising and historically inaccurate.


title: Gandhi (film)

text: One notable person, Mark Boyle (better known as "The Moneyless Man") has stated that watching the film was the moment that changed his life and said that after that, he took Mahatma Gandhi's message of peace and non-violence to heart and that the film inspired him to become an activist.


title: Gandhi (film)

text: Review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes retrospectively collected 108 reviews and judged 89% of them to be positive, with an average rating of 8.30/10. The website's critical consensus reads: "Director Richard Attenborough is typically sympathetic and sure-handed, but it's Ben Kingsley's magnetic performance that acts as the linchpin for this sprawling, lengthy biopic." Metacritic gave the film a score of 79 out of 100 based on 16 critical reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews". CinemaScore reported that audiences gave the film a rare "A+" grade. In 2010, the "Independent Film & Television Alliance" selected the film as one of the 30 Most Significant Independent Films of the last 30 years.


title: Dana Carvey

text: Dana Thomas Carvey (born June 2, 1955) is an American stand-up comedian, actor, impressionist, screenwriter, and producer. He is best known for his seven seasons as a cast member on "Saturday Night Live" from 1986 to 1993, which earned him five consecutive Primetime Emmy Award nominations.


title: Dana Carvey

text: Carvey is also known for his film roles in comedies such as "Tough Guys" (1986), "Opportunity Knocks" (1990), "Trapped in Paradise" (1994), and "The Master of Disguise" (2002), as well as reprising his role of Garth Algar in the "SNL" spin-off film "Wayne's World" (1992) and its sequel "Wayne's World 2" (1993).


title: Dana Carvey

text: Carvey was born in Missoula, Montana, the fourth of five (with three older brothers and one younger sister<ref name="yearbook/1976-Carlmont"></ref>) born to Billie Dahl, a schoolteacher, and William John (Bud) Carvey,<ref name="smdailyjournal/obituaries/bud"></ref> a high school business teacher. Carvey is the brother of Brad Carvey, the engineer/designer of the Video Toaster. The character Garth Algar is loosely based on Brad. Carvey has English, German, Irish, Norwegian, and Swedish ancestry, and was raised Lutheran.


title: Dana Carvey

text: In 1957, his family moved to Anderson, California, when Bud got a teaching job. When he was three years old, his family moved to San Carlos, California, in the San Francisco Bay Area. He attended Tierra Linda Junior High in San Carlos, Carlmont High School in Belmont, California (where he was a member of the Central Coast Section champion cross country team), College of San Mateo in San Mateo, California, and received his bachelor's degree in broadcast communications from San Francisco State University. In 1977, he won the San Francisco Stand-Up Comedy Competition.


title: Dana Carvey

text: Carvey had a minor role in "Halloween II" in 1981, and co-starred in "One of the Boys" in 1982, a short-lived television sitcom that also starred Mickey Rooney, Nathan Lane, and Meg Ryan. In 1984, Carvey had a small role in Rob Reiner's film "This Is Spinal Tap", in which he played a mime, with fellow comedian Billy Crystal (who tells him "Mime is money!"). He appeared in the music video for the Greg Kihn song "Lucky" in 1985. He also appeared in the short-lived film-based action television series "Blue Thunder". His big break came in 1986, when he co-starred opposite Kirk Douglas and Burt Lancaster in "Tough Guys". As a lifelong Douglas fan, Carvey threw in an affectionate impression of his mentor, while describing a hairy scene they did together on a moving train.


title: Dana Carvey

text: Carvey was a finalist for the hosting role on the Nickelodeon TV game show "Double Dare". He ultimately withdrew his name from consideration after he was cast on "Saturday Night Live". The job would go to Marc Summers.


title: Dana Carvey

text: In 1986, Carvey became a household name when he joined the cast of NBC's "Saturday Night Live". He, along with newcomers Phil Hartman, Kevin Nealon, Jan Hooks, and Victoria Jackson, helped to reverse the show's declining popularity and made "SNL" "must-see" TV once again. An important part of the show's revival was Carvey's breakout character, the Church Lady, the uptight, smug, and pious host of "Church Chat". Carvey said he based the character on women he knew from church while growing up, who would keep track of other churchgoers' attendance. He became so associated with the character that later cast members such as Chris Farley referred to Carvey simply as "The Lady".


title: Dana Carvey

text: Carvey's other original characters included Garth Algar (from "Wayne's World"), who was based on his brother; Hans (from "Hans and Franz"); the Grumpy Old Man (from "Weekend Update" appearances); and Ching Chang, a Chinese poultry store owner. Throughout the election and presidency of George H. W. Bush, he was the designated impersonator of the president, making him the lead actor of the regular political sketches on "SNL".


title: Dana Carvey

text: During the 1992 US presidential election campaign, Carvey also did an impression of independent candidate Ross Perot; in a prime-time special before the election, Carvey played both George H. W. Bush and Perot in a three-way debate with Bill Clinton, played by Phil Hartman. As Perot—recorded and timed to give the appearance of interacting with the live Bush and Clinton—Carvey eschewed the show's signature "Live from New York" opening line, telling Bush "Why don't you do it, live-boy?" Carvey left "SNL" in 1993.


title: Dana Carvey

text: In 1992, Carvey joined Mike Myers in "Wayne's World", the film. A sequel, "Wayne's World 2", was filmed and released in 1993.


title: Dana Carvey

text: Carvey's "SNL" work won him an Emmy Award in 1993 for Outstanding Individual Performance in a Variety or Music Program. He has a total of six Emmy nominations. Carvey has returned to host "SNL" four times, in 1994, 1996, 2000, and 2011 in addition to numerous cameo appearances.


title: Dana Carvey

text: In 1994, Carvey starred in the film "Clean Slate". The following year, Carvey filmed his first HBO stand-up special "Critic's Choice". The show featured Carvey doing many of his "SNL" impersonations, as well as making fun of the premium channel's name, pronouncing it "hobo".


title: Dana Carvey

text: He reprised many of his "SNL" characters in 1996 for "The Dana Carvey Show", a short-lived prime-time variety show on ABC. The show was most notable for launching Robert Smigel's cartoon "The Ambiguously Gay Duo", as well as the careers of Steve Carell and Stephen Colbert.


title: Dana Carvey

text: In 2002, he returned to films in the spy comedy "The Master of Disguise". Released a week after former colleague Mike Myers' successful film "Austin Powers in Goldmember", most critics compared the movies and panned Carvey's effort. However, the movie did manage about $40 million at the North American box office. In March 2007, review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes ranked the film as the 18th worst-reviewed movie of the 2000s decade, with an approval rating of 1% based on 103 reviews. Comedian and former "Mystery Science Theater 3000" host Michael J. Nelson named the film the third-worst comedy ever made. Carvey did not appear in a film again until 2011's "Jack and Jill". It, too, has been called one of the worst comedies of all time. He had previously appeared in another Adam Sandler film, "Little Nicky".


title: Dana Carvey

text: Carvey eventually withdrew from the limelight to focus on his family. He later said in an interview that he did not want to be in a career in which his kids would already be grown with him having neglected spending time with them, a major reason for his declining the hosting spot for "Late Night" that ultimately went to Conan O'Brien. Carvey has said that he generally prefers stand-up comedy to acting in movies and regularly performs lucrative corporate dates, boasting of "a few million-dollar months" during a 2016 Howard Stern interview.


title: Dana Carvey

text: Carvey made an appearance at the 2008 MTV Movie Awards, reprising his "SNL" character Garth Algar with host Mike Myers for a "Wayne's World" sketch. On June 14, 2008, Carvey filmed a second HBO stand-up special, the first in 13 years, entitled "Squatting Monkeys Tell No Lies".


title: Dana Carvey

text: In 2010, Carvey appeared in the "Funny or Die" original comedy sketch "Presidential Reunion". He played the role of President George H. W. Bush alongside other current and former "SNL" president impersonators.


title: Dana Carvey

text: In early 2010, Carvey and comedian/writer Spike Feresten created and starred together in "Spoof", a sketch comedy pilot for Fox. This included a sketch of a trailer for "Darwin", a mock film in which he played the evolutionary biologist, as well as a spoof of the hit TV series "Lost". Both of these sketches can be seen on YouTube. On the animated TV series "The Fairly OddParents", Carvey voiced Cosmo Cosma's con artist brother Schnozmo.


title: Dana Carvey

text: On April 29 and 30, 2016, Carvey recorded two live performances at the Wilbur Theatre in Boston, Massachusetts for a Netflix special released later in the year. His two sons, Tom and Dex, opened the show for him.


title: Dana Carvey

text: Carvey was a guest on Conan O'Brien's podcast, "Conan O'Brien Needs a Friend", on January 27, 2019. Carvey was subsequently featured in a six episode mini-series of the podcast titled "Deep Dive with Dana Carvey", released in August 2019.


title: Dana Carvey

text: Carvey has regularly done sketch impressions on "The Late Show with Stephen Colbert" playing, among others, President Joe Biden and former national security advisor John Bolton.


title: Dana Carvey

text: On August 1, 2019, Carvey appeared on the guest panel of the fourth episode of "Lights Out with David Spade" and also in costume as Tony Montana in a number of later episodes.


title: Dana Carvey

text: In 2021, Carvey began hosting the comedy podcast "Fantastic! with Dana Carvey". The podcast features mini sketches involving Carvey's many celebrity impressions, as well as interview segments with Carvey's family members and other friends from the stand-up comedy world. That same year, Carvey reprised his role of Garth Algar alongside Myers' Wayne Campbell in a series of commercials for Uber Eats. The original spot first ran during Super Bowl LV.


title: Dana Carvey

text: In 2022, Carvey began co-hosting the Fly on the Wall podcast with fellow Saturday Night Live alum David Spade. Guests include former cast members and hosts of SNL.


title: Dana Carvey

text: In 1979, childhood sweethearts Leah and Dana Carvey were married. During his marriage, while performing at The Other Cafe in San Francisco, Carvey met and became romantically involved with Paula Zwagerman. Subsequently, Leah and Dana divorced in 1980. Dana and Paula became engaged in 1981 and married in 1983. The couple have two children, Dex, born 1991, and Thomas, born 1993.


title: Dana Carvey

text: In 1995, Carvey had a home in the San Fernando Valley, and his parents relocated to Murrieta, California to be near Billie's sister, Shirley Miller.<ref name="crippenandflynnchapels/4641094"></ref>


title: Dana Carvey

text: In 1997, Carvey underwent heart bypass surgery for a blocked coronary artery. The artery was buried deep in myocardium and difficult to find; the surgeon mistakenly<ref name="people/2000-heart"></ref> performed the bypass on another accessible artery that was unblocked. As a result, Carvey continued to suffer from angina pectoris and successfully sued for $7.5 million in damages, which he donated to charity; he later underwent additional corrective surgery. He told "Newsday" that, while he was in the hospital for his final angioplasty, Frank Sinatra died in the room adjacent to his. In the late 1990s, Carvey took a break to raise his two sons.<ref name="people/carvey-left-hollywood"></ref><ref name="siriusxm/carvey-sons"></ref>


title: Jorge Luis Borges

text: Jorge Francisco Isidoro Luis Borges Acevedo (; ; 24 August 1899 – 14 June 1986) was an Argentine short-story writer, essayist, poet and translator, as well as a key figure in Spanish-language and international literature. His best-known books, "Ficciones" ("Fictions") and "El Aleph" ("The Aleph"), published in the 1940s, are collections of short stories exploring themes of dreams, labyrinths, chance, infinity, archives, mirrors, fictional writers and mythology. Borges' works have contributed to philosophical literature and the fantasy genre, and majorly influenced the magic realist movement in 20th century Latin American literature.


title: Jorge Luis Borges

text: Born in Buenos Aires, Borges later moved with his family to Switzerland in 1914, where he studied at the Collège de Genève. The family travelled widely in Europe, including Spain. On his return to Argentina in 1921, Borges began publishing his poems and essays in surrealist literary journals. He also worked as a librarian and public lecturer. In 1955, he was appointed director of the National Public Library and professor of English Literature at the University of Buenos Aires. He became completely blind by the age of 55. Scholars have suggested that his progressive blindness helped him to create innovative literary symbols through imagination. By the 1960s, his work was translated and published widely in the United States and Europe. Borges himself was fluent in several languages.


title: Jorge Luis Borges

text: In 1961, he came to international attention when he received the first Formentor Prize, which he shared with Samuel Beckett. In 1971, he won the Jerusalem Prize. His international reputation was consolidated in the 1960s, aided by his works being available in English, by the Latin American Boom and by the success of García Márquez's "One Hundred Years of Solitude". He dedicated his final work, "The Conspirators", to the city of Geneva, Switzerland. Writer and essayist J. M. Coetzee said of him: "He, more than anyone, renovated the language of fiction and thus opened the way to a remarkable generation of Spanish-American novelists."


title: Jorge Luis Borges

text: Jorge Francisco Isidoro Luis Borges Acevedo was born into an educated middle-class family on 24 August 1899. They were in comfortable circumstances but not wealthy enough to live in downtown Buenos Aires so the family resided in Palermo, then a poorer neighbourhood. Borges's mother, Leonor Acevedo Suárez, came from a traditional Uruguayan family of criollo (Spanish) origin. Her family had been much involved in the European settling of South America and the Argentine War of Independence, and she spoke often of their heroic actions.


title: Jorge Luis Borges

text: His 1939 book, "Cuaderno San Martín", includes the poem "Isidoro Acevedo", commemorating his grandfather, Isidoro de Acevedo Laprida, a soldier of the Buenos Aires Army. A descendant of the Argentine lawyer and politician Francisco Narciso de Laprida, Acevedo Laprida fought in the battles of Cepeda in 1859, Pavón in 1861, and Los Corrales in 1880. Acevedo Laprida died of pulmonary congestion in the house where his grandson Jorge Luis Borges was born.


title: Jorge Luis Borges

text: According to a study by Antonio Andrade, Jorge Luis Borges had Portuguese ancestry: Borges's great-grandfather, Francisco, was born in Portugal in 1770, and lived in Torre de Moncorvo, in the North of the country before he emigrated to Argentina, where he married Cármen Lafinur.


title: Jorge Luis Borges

text: Borges's own father, Jorge Guillermo Borges Haslam, was a lawyer, and wrote the novel "El caudillo" in 1921. Borges Haslam was born in Entre Ríos of Spanish, Portuguese, and English descent, the son of Francisco Borges Lafinur, a colonel, and Frances Ann Haslam, an Englishwoman. Borges Haslam grew up speaking English at home. The family frequently traveled to Europe. Borges Haslam wed Leonor Acevedo Suárez in 1898 and their offspring also included the painter Norah Borges, sister of Jorge Luis Borges.


title: Jorge Luis Borges

text: At age of ten, Jorge Luis Borges translated Oscar Wilde's "The Happy Prince" into Spanish. It was published in a local journal, but Borges's friends thought the real author was his father. Borges Haslam was a lawyer and psychology teacher who harboured literary aspirations. Borges said his father "tried to become a writer and failed in the attempt", despite the 1921 opus "El caudillo". Jorge Luis Borges wrote, "as most of my people had been soldiers and I knew I would never be, I felt ashamed, quite early, to be a bookish kind of person and not a man of action."


title: Jorge Luis Borges

text: Jorge Luis Borges was taught at home until the age of 11, was bilingual in Spanish and English, reading Shakespeare in the latter at the age of twelve. The family lived in a large house with an English library of over one thousand volumes; Borges would later remark that "if I were asked to name the chief event in my life, I should say my father's library."


title: Jorge Luis Borges

text: His father gave up practicing law due to the failing eyesight that would eventually afflict his son. In 1914, the family moved to Geneva, Switzerland, and spent the next decade in Europe. In Geneva, Borges Haslam was treated by an eye specialist, while his son and daughter attended school. Jorge Luis learned French, read Thomas Carlyle in English, and began to read philosophy in German. In 1917, when he was eighteen, he met writer Maurice Abramowicz and began a literary friendship that would last for the remainder of his life. He received his baccalauréat from the Collège de Genève in 1918. The Borges family decided that, due to political unrest in Argentina, they would remain in Switzerland during the war. After World War I, the family spent three years living in various cities: Lugano, Barcelona, Majorca, Seville, and Madrid. They remained in Europe until 1921.


title: Jorge Luis Borges

text: At that time, Borges discovered the writings of Arthur Schopenhauer and Gustav Meyrink's "The Golem" (1915) which became influential to his work. In Spain, Borges fell in with and became a member of the avant-garde, anti-Modernismo Ultraist literary movement, inspired by Guillaume Apollinaire and Filippo Tommaso Marinetti, close to the Imagists. His first poem, "Hymn to the Sea," written in the style of Walt Whitman, was published in the magazine "Grecia". While in Spain, he met such noted Spanish writers as Rafael Cansinos Assens and Ramón Gómez de la Serna.


title: Jorge Luis Borges

text: In 1921, Borges returned with his family to Buenos Aires. He had little formal education, no qualifications and few friends. He wrote to a friend that Buenos Aires was now "overrun by arrivistes, by correct youths lacking any mental equipment, and decorative young ladies". He brought with him the doctrine of Ultraism and launched his career, publishing surreal poems and essays in literary journals. In 1923, Borges first published his poetry, a collection called "Fervor de Buenos Aires" and contributed to the avant-garde review "Martín Fierro".


title: Jorge Luis Borges

text: Borges co-founded the journals "Prisma", a broadsheet distributed largely by pasting copies to walls in Buenos Aires, and "Proa". Later in life, Borges regretted some of these early publications, attempting to purchase all known copies to ensure their destruction.


title: Jorge Luis Borges

text: By the mid-1930s, he began to explore existential questions and fiction. He worked in a style that Argentine critic Ana María Barrenechea has called "irreality." Many other Latin American writers, such as Juan Rulfo, Juan José Arreola, and Alejo Carpentier, were investigating these themes, influenced by the phenomenology of Husserl and Heidegger. In this vein, Borges biographer Edwin Williamson underlines the danger of inferring an autobiographically inspired basis for the content or tone of certain of his works: books, philosophy, and imagination were as much a source of real inspiration to him as his own lived experience, if not more so.


title: Jorge Luis Borges

text: From the first issue, Borges was a regular contributor to "Sur", founded in 1931 by Victoria Ocampo. It was then Argentina's most important literary journal and helped Borges find his fame. Ocampo introduced Borges to Adolfo Bioy Casares, another well-known figure of Argentine literature who was to become a frequent collaborator and close friend. They wrote a number of works together, some under the "nom de plume" H. Bustos Domecq, including a parody detective series and fantasy stories. During these years, a family friend, Macedonio Fernández, became a major influence on Borges. The two would preside over discussions in cafés, at country retreats, or in Fernandez's tiny apartment in the Balvanera district. He appears by name in Borges's "Dialogue about a Dialogue", in which the two discuss the immortality of the soul.


title: Jorge Luis Borges

text: In 1933, Borges gained an editorial appointment at "Revista Multicolor de los Sábados" (the literary supplement of the Buenos Aires newspaper "Crítica"), where he first published the pieces collected as "Historia universal de la infamia" ("A Universal History of Infamy") in 1935. The book includes two types of writing: the first lies somewhere between non-fiction essays and short stories, using fictional techniques to tell essentially true stories. The second consists of literary forgeries, which Borges initially passed off as translations of passages from famous but seldom-read works.


title: Jorge Luis Borges

text: In the following years, he served as a literary adviser for the publishing house Emecé Editores, and from 1936 to 1939 wrote weekly columns for "El Hogar". In 1938, Borges found work as the first assistant at the Miguel Cané Municipal Library. It was in a working-class area and there were so few books that cataloging more than one hundred books per day, he was told, would leave little to do for the other staff and would make them look bad. The task took him about an hour each day and the rest of his time he spent in the basement of the library, writing and translating.


title: Jorge Luis Borges

text: Borges's father died in 1938, shortly before his 64th birthday. On Christmas Eve that year, Borges had a severe head injury; during treatment, he nearly died of sepsis. While recovering from the accident, Borges began exploring a new style of writing for which he would become famous. His first story written after his accident, "Pierre Menard, Author of the "Quixote",” came out in May 1939. One of his most famous works, "Menard" examines the nature of authorship, as well as the relationship between an author and his historical context. His first collection of short stories, "El jardín de senderos que se bifurcan" ("The Garden of Forking Paths"), appeared in 1941, composed mostly of works previously published in "Sur".


title: Jorge Luis Borges

text: The title story concerns a Chinese professor in England, Dr. Yu Tsun, who spies for Germany during World War I, in an attempt to prove to the authorities that an Asian person is able to obtain the information that they seek. A combination of book and maze, it can be read in many ways. Through it, Borges arguably invented the hypertext novel and went on to describe a theory of the universe based upon the structure of such a novel.


title: Jorge Luis Borges

text: Composed of stories taking up over sixty pages, the book was generally well received, but "El jardín de senderos que se bifurcan" failed to garner for him the literary prizes many in his circle expected. Victoria Ocampo dedicated a large portion of the July 1942 issue of "Sur" to a "Reparation for Borges." Numerous leading writers and critics from Argentina and throughout the Spanish-speaking world contributed writings to the "reparation" project.


title: Jorge Luis Borges

text: With his vision beginning to fade in his early thirties and unable to support himself as a writer, Borges began a new career as a public lecturer. He became an increasingly public figure, obtaining appointments as president of the Argentine Society of Writers and as professor of English and American Literature at the Argentine Association of English Culture. His short story "Emma Zunz" was made into a film (under the name of "Días de odio", "Days of Hate", directed in 1954 by Leopoldo Torre Nilsson). Around this time, Borges also began writing screenplays.


title: Jorge Luis Borges

text: In 1955, he became director of the Argentine National Library. By the late 1950s he had become completely blind. Neither the coincidence nor the irony of his blindness as a writer escaped Borges:


title: Jorge Luis Borges

text: His later collection of poetry, "Elogio de la Sombra" ("In Praise of Darkness"), develops this theme. In 1956 the University of Cuyo awarded Borges the first of many honorary doctorates and the following year he received the National Prize for Literature. From 1956 to 1970, Borges also held a position as a professor of literature at the University of Buenos Aires and other temporary appointments at other universities. He was knighted by Queen Elizabeth II in 1964. In the fall of 1967 and spring of 1968, he delivered the Charles Eliot Norton Lectures at Harvard University.


title: Jorge Luis Borges

text: As his eyesight deteriorated, Borges relied increasingly on his mother's help. When he was not able to read and write anymore (he never learned to read Braille), his mother, to whom he had always been close, became his personal secretary. When Perón returned from exile and was re-elected president in 1973, Borges immediately resigned as director of the National Library.


title: Jorge Luis Borges

text: Eight of Borges's poems appear in the 1943 anthology of Spanish American Poets by H. R. Hays. "The Garden of Forking Paths", one of the first Borges stories to be translated into English, appeared in the August 1948 issue of "Ellery Queen's Mystery Magazine", translated by Anthony Boucher. Though several other Borges translations appeared in literary magazines and anthologies during the 1950s (and one story appeared in the science fiction magazine "Fantastic Universe" in 1960), his international fame dates from the early 1960s.


title: Jorge Luis Borges

text: In 1961, Borges received the first "Prix International", which he shared with Samuel Beckett. While Beckett had garnered a distinguished reputation in Europe and America, Borges had been largely unknown and untranslated in the English-speaking world and the prize stirred great interest in his work. The Italian government named Borges "Commendatore" and the University of Texas at Austin appointed him for one year to the Tinker Chair. This led to his first lecture tour in the United States. In 1962, two major anthologies of Borges's writings were published in English by New York presses: "Ficciones" and "Labyrinths". In that year, Borges began lecture tours of Europe. Numerous honors were to accumulate over the years such as a Special Edgar Allan Poe Award from the Mystery Writers of America "for distinguished contribution to the mystery genre" (1976), the Balzan Prize (for Philology, Linguistics and literary Criticism) and the Prix mondial Cino Del Duca, the Miguel de Cervantes Prize (all 1980), as well as the French Legion of Honour (1983) and the Diamond Konex Award for Literature Arts as the most important writer in the last decade in his country.


title: Jorge Luis Borges

text: In 1967, Borges began a five-year period of collaboration with the American translator Norman Thomas di Giovanni, through whom he became better known in the English-speaking world. Di Giovanni contended that Borges's popularity was due to his writing with multiple languages in mind and deliberately using Latin words as a bridge from Spanish to English.


title: Jorge Luis Borges

text: Borges continued to publish books, among them "El libro de los seres imaginarios" ("Book of Imaginary Beings", 1967, co-written with Margarita Guerrero), "El informe de Brodie" ("Dr. Brodie's Report", 1970), and "El libro de arena" ("The Book of Sand", 1975). He lectured prolifically. Many of these lectures were anthologized in volumes such as "Siete noches" ("Seven Nights") and "Nueve ensayos dantescos" ("Nine Dantesque Essays").


title: Jorge Luis Borges

text: His presence in 1967 on campus at the University of Virginia (UVA) in the U.S. influenced a group of students among whom was Jared Loewenstein, who would later become founder and curator of the Jorge Luis Borges Collection at UVA, one of the largest repositories of documents and manuscripts pertaining to Borges's early works. In 1984, he travelled to Athens, Greece, and later to Rethymnon, Crete, where he was awarded an honorary doctorate from the School of Philosophy at the University of Crete.


title: Jorge Luis Borges

text: In 1967, Borges married the recently widowed Elsa Astete Millán. Friends believed that his mother, who was 90 and anticipating her own death, wanted to find someone to care for her blind son. The marriage lasted less than three years. After a legal separation, Borges moved back in with his mother, with whom he lived until her death at age 99. Thereafter, he lived alone in the small flat he had shared with her, cared for by Fanny, their housekeeper of many decades.


title: Jorge Luis Borges

text: From 1975 until the time of his death, Borges traveled internationally. He was often accompanied in these travels by his personal assistant María Kodama, an Argentine woman of Japanese and German ancestry. In April 1986, a few months before his death, he married her via an attorney in Paraguay, in what was then a common practice among Argentines wishing to circumvent the Argentine laws of the time regarding divorce. On his religious views, Borges declared himself an agnostic, clarifying: "Being an agnostic means all things are possible, even God, even the Holy Trinity. This world is so strange that anything may happen, or may not happen." Borges was taught to read the Bible by his English Protestant grandmother and he prayed the Our Father each night because of a promise he made to his mother. He also died in the presence of a priest.


title: Jorge Luis Borges

text: During his final days in Geneva, Borges began brooding about the possibility of an afterlife. Although calm and collected about his own death, Borges began probing Kodama as to whether she inclined more towards the Shinto beliefs of her father or the Catholicism of her mother. Kodama "had always regarded Borges as an Agnostic, as she was herself", but given the insistence of his questioning, she offered to call someone more "qualified". Borges responded, "You are asking me if I want a priest." He then instructed her to call two clergymen, a Catholic priest, in memory of his mother, and a Protestant minister, in memory of his English grandmother. He was visited first by Father Pierre Jacquet and by Pastor Edouard de Montmollin.


title: Jorge Luis Borges

text: Borges died of liver cancer on 14 June 1986, aged 86, in Geneva. His burial was preceded by an ecumenical service at the Protestant Cathédrale de Saint Pierre on 18 June. With many Swiss and Argentine dignitaries present, Pastor de Montmollin read the First Chapter of St John's Gospel. He then preached that "Borges was a man who had unceasingly searched for the right word, the term that could sum up the whole, the final meaning of things." He said, however, that no man can reach that word through his own efforts and in trying becomes lost in a labyrinth. Pastor de Montmollin concluded, "It is not man who discovers the word, it is the Word that comes to him."


title: Jorge Luis Borges

text: Father Jacquet also preached, saying that, when visiting Borges before his death, he had found "a man full of love, who received from the Church the forgiveness of his sins". After the funeral, Borges was laid to rest in Geneva's Cimetière de Plainpalais. His grave, marked by a rough-hewn headstone, is adorned with carvings derived from Anglo-Saxon and Old Norse art and literature.


title: Jorge Luis Borges

text: Kodama, his widow and heir on the basis of the marriage and two wills, gained control over his works. Her assertive administration of his estate resulted in a bitter dispute with the French publisher Gallimard regarding the republication of the complete works of Borges in French, with Pierre Assouline in "Le Nouvel Observateur" (August 2006) calling her "an obstacle to the dissemination of the works of Borges". Kodama took legal action against Assouline, considering the remark unjustified and defamatory, asking for a symbolic compensation of one euro.


title: Jorge Luis Borges

text: Kodama also rescinded all publishing rights for existing collections of his work in English, including the translations by Norman Thomas di Giovanni, in which Borges himself collaborated, and from which di Giovanni would have received an unusually high fifty percent of the royalties. Kodama commissioned new translations by Andrew Hurley, which have become the official translations in English.