title: Singular value decomposition

text: One application of SVD to rather large matrices is in numerical weather prediction, where Lanczos methods are used to estimate the most linearly quickly growing few perturbations to the central numerical weather prediction over a given initial forward time period; i.e., the singular vectors corresponding to the largest singular values of the linearized propagator for the global weather over that time interval. The output singular vectors in this case are entire weather systems. These perturbations are then run through the full nonlinear model to generate an ensemble forecast, giving a handle on some of the uncertainty that should be allowed for around the current central prediction.


title: Singular value decomposition

text: SVD has also been applied to reduced order modelling. The aim of reduced order modelling is to reduce the number of degrees of freedom in a complex system which is to be modeled. SVD was coupled with radial basis functions to interpolate solutions to three-dimensional unsteady flow problems.


title: Singular value decomposition

text: Interestingly, SVD has been used to improve gravitational waveform modeling by the ground-based gravitational-wave interferometer aLIGO. SVD can help to increase the accuracy and speed of waveform generation to support gravitational-waves searches and update two different waveform models.


title: Singular value decomposition

text: Singular value decomposition is used in recommender systems to predict people's item ratings. Distributed algorithms have been developed for the purpose of calculating the SVD on clusters of commodity machines.


title: Singular value decomposition

text: Low-rank SVD has been applied for hotspot detection from spatiotemporal data with application to disease outbreak detection. A combination of SVD and higher-order SVD also has been applied for real time event detection from complex data streams (multivariate data with space and time dimensions) in disease surveillance.


title: Singular value decomposition

text: An eigenvalue of a matrix is characterized by the algebraic relation . When is Hermitian, a variational characterization is also available. Let be a real symmetric matrix. Define


title: Singular value decomposition

text: By the extreme value theorem, this continuous function attains a maximum at some u when restricted to the unit sphere {||x|| = 1}. By the Lagrange multipliers theorem, u necessarily satisfies


title: Singular value decomposition

text: for some real number . The nabla symbol, , is the del operator (differentiation with respect to x). Using the symmetry of we obtain


title: Singular value decomposition

text: Therefore , so u is a unit length eigenvector of . For every unit length eigenvector v of its eigenvalue is "f"(v), so is the largest eigenvalue of . The same calculation performed on the orthogonal complement of "u" gives the next largest eigenvalue and so on. The complex Hermitian case is similar; there is a real-valued function of real variables.


title: Singular value decomposition

text: Singular values are similar in that they can be described algebraically or from variational principles. Although, unlike the eigenvalue case, Hermiticity, or symmetry, of is no longer required.


title: Singular value decomposition

text: Let formula_29 be an complex matrix. Since formula_73 is positive semi-definite and Hermitian, by the spectral theorem, there exists an unitary matrix formula_74 such that


title: Singular value decomposition

text: where formula_76 is diagonal and positive definite, of dimension formula_77, with formula_78 the number of non-zero eigenvalues of formula_73 (which can be shown to verify formula_80). Note that formula_74 is here by definition a matrix whose formula_82-th column is the formula_82-th eigenvector of formula_73, corresponding to the eigenvalue formula_85. Moreover, the formula_86-th column of formula_74, for formula_88, is an eigenvector of formula_73 with eigenvalue formula_90. This can be expressed by writing formula_74 as formula_92, where the columns of formula_93 and formula_94 therefore contain the eigenvectors of formula_73 corresponding to non-zero and zero eigenvalues, respectively. Using this rewriting of formula_74, the equation becomes:


title: Singular value decomposition

text: Moreover, the second equation implies formula_99. Finally, the unitary-ness of formula_74 translates, in terms of formula_93 and formula_94, into the following conditions:


title: Singular value decomposition

text: where the subscripts on the identity matrices are used to remark that they are of different dimensions.


title: Singular value decomposition

text: since formula_106 This can be also seen as immediate consequence of the fact that formula_107. This is equivalent to the observation that if formula_108 is the set of eigenvectors of formula_73 corresponding to non-vanishing eigenvalues formula_110, then formula_111 is a set of orthogonal vectors, and formula_112 is a (generally not complete) set of "orthonormal" vectors. This matches with the matrix formalism used above denoting with formula_93 the matrix whose columns are formula_108, with formula_94 the matrix whose columns are the eigenvectors of formula_73 with vanishing eigenvalue, and formula_117 the matrix whose columns are the vectors formula_112.


title: Singular value decomposition

text: We see that this is almost the desired result, except that formula_117 and formula_93 are in general not unitary, since they might not be square. However, we do know that the number of rows of formula_117 is no smaller than the number of columns, since the dimensions of formula_76 is no greater than formula_123 and formula_124. Also, since


title: Singular value decomposition

text: the columns in formula_117 are orthonormal and can be extended to an orthonormal basis. This means that we can choose formula_127 such that formula_128 is unitary.


title: Singular value decomposition

text: where extra zero rows are added or removed to make the number of zero rows equal the number of columns of , and hence the overall dimensions of formula_130 equal to formula_131. Then


title: Singular value decomposition

text: Notice the argument could begin with diagonalizing rather than (This shows directly that and have the same non-zero eigenvalues).


title: Singular value decomposition

text: The singular values can also be characterized as the maxima of , considered as a function of and , over particular subspaces. The singular vectors are the values of and where these maxima are attained.


title: Singular value decomposition

text: Let denote an matrix with real entries. Let be the unit formula_134-sphere in formula_135, and define formula_136


title: Singular value decomposition

text: Consider the function restricted to . Since both and are compact sets, their product is also compact. Furthermore, since is continuous, it attains a largest value for at least one pair of vectors and . This largest value is denoted and the corresponding vectors are denoted and . Since is the largest value of it must be non-negative. If it were negative, changing the sign of either or would make it positive and therefore larger.


title: Singular value decomposition

text: Proof. Similar to the eigenvalues case, by assumption the two vectors satisfy the Lagrange multiplier equation:


title: Singular value decomposition

text: Multiplying the first equation from left by formula_139 and the second equation from left by formula_140 and taking into account gives


title: Singular value decomposition

text: More singular vectors and singular values can be found by maximizing over normalized which are orthogonal to and , respectively.


title: Singular value decomposition

text: The SVD of a matrix is typically computed by a two-step procedure. In the first step, the matrix is reduced to a bidiagonal matrix. This takes O("mn") floating-point operations (flop), assuming that "m" ≥ "n". The second step is to compute the SVD of the bidiagonal matrix. This step can only be done with an iterative method (as with eigenvalue algorithms). However, in practice it suffices to compute the SVD up to a certain precision, like the machine epsilon. If this precision is considered constant, then the second step takes O("n") iterations, each costing O("n") flops. Thus, the first step is more expensive, and the overall cost is O("mn") flops .


title: Singular value decomposition

text: The first step can be done using Householder reflections for a cost of 4"mn" − 4"n"/3 flops, assuming that only the singular values are needed and not the singular vectors. If "m" is much larger than "n" then it is advantageous to first reduce the matrix to a triangular matrix with the QR decomposition and then use Householder reflections to further reduce the matrix to bidiagonal form; the combined cost is 2"mn" + 2"n" flops .


title: Singular value decomposition

text: The second step can be done by a variant of the QR algorithm for the computation of eigenvalues, which was first described by . The LAPACK subroutine DBDSQR implements this iterative method, with some modifications to cover the case where the singular values are very small . Together with a first step using Householder reflections and, if appropriate, QR decomposition, this forms the DGESVD routine for the computation of the singular value decomposition.


title: Singular value decomposition

text: The same algorithm is implemented in the GNU Scientific Library (GSL). The GSL also offers an alternative method that uses a one-sided Jacobi orthogonalization in step 2 . This method computes the SVD of the bidiagonal matrix by solving a sequence of 2 × 2 SVD problems, similar to how the Jacobi eigenvalue algorithm solves a sequence of 2 × 2 eigenvalue methods . Yet another method for step 2 uses the idea of divide-and-conquer eigenvalue algorithms .


title: Singular value decomposition

text: There is an alternative way that does not explicitly use the eigenvalue decomposition. Usually the singular value problem of a matrix is converted into an equivalent symmetric eigenvalue problem such as , , or


title: Singular value decomposition

text: The approaches that use eigenvalue decompositions are based on the QR algorithm, which is well-developed to be stable and fast.


title: Singular value decomposition

text: Note that the singular values are real and right- and left- singular vectors are not required to form similarity transformations. One can iteratively alternate between the QR decomposition and the LQ decomposition to find the real diagonal Hermitian matrices. The QR decomposition gives and the LQ decomposition of gives . Thus, at every iteration, we have , update and repeat the orthogonalizations. Eventually, this iteration between QR decomposition and LQ decomposition produces left- and right- unitary singular matrices. This approach cannot readily be accelerated, as the QR algorithm can with spectral shifts or deflation. This is because the shift method is not easily defined without using similarity transformations. However, this iterative approach is very simple to implement, so is a good choice when speed does not matter. This method also provides insight into how purely orthogonal/unitary transformations can obtain the SVD.


title: Singular value decomposition

text: where formula_146 are complex numbers that parameterize the matrix, is the identity matrix, and formula_147 denote the Pauli matrices. Then its two singular values are given by


title: Singular value decomposition

text: In applications it is quite unusual for the full SVD, including a full unitary decomposition of the null-space of the matrix, to be required. Instead, it is often sufficient (as well as faster, and more economical for storage) to compute a reduced version of the SVD. The following can be distinguished for an "m"×"n" matrix "M" of rank "r":


title: Singular value decomposition

text: the matrices "U" and "V" contain only the first "k" columns of "U" and "V", and Σ contains only the first "k" singular values from Σ. The matrix "U" is thus "m"×"k", Σ is "k"×"k" diagonal, and "V"* is "k"×"n".


title: Singular value decomposition

text: The thin SVD uses significantly less space and computation time if "k" ≪ max("m", "n"). The first stage in its calculation will usually be a QR decomposition of "M", which can make for a significantly quicker calculation in this case.


title: Singular value decomposition

text: Only the "r" column vectors of "U" and "r" row vectors of "V*" corresponding to the non-zero singular values Σ are calculated. The remaining vectors of "U" and "V*" are not calculated. This is quicker and more economical than the thin SVD if "r" ≪ min("m", "n"). The matrix "U" is thus "m"×"r", Σ is "r"×"r" diagonal, and "V"* is "r"×"n".


title: Singular value decomposition

text: In many applications the number "r" of the non-zero singular values is large making even the Compact SVD impractical to compute. In such cases, the smallest singular values may need to be truncated to compute only "t" ≪ "r" non-zero singular values. The truncated SVD is no longer an exact decomposition of the original matrix "M", but rather provides the optimal low-rank matrix approximation formula_56 by any matrix of a fixed rank "t"


title: Singular value decomposition

text: Only the "t" column vectors of "U" and "t" row vectors of "V*" corresponding to the "t" largest singular values Σ are calculated. This can be much quicker and more economical than the compact SVD if "t"≪"r", but requires a completely different toolset of numerical solvers.


title: Singular value decomposition

text: In applications that require an approximation to the Moore–Penrose inverse of the matrix "M", the smallest singular values of "M" are of interest, which are more challenging to compute compared to the largest ones.


title: Singular value decomposition

text: The first of the Ky Fan norms, the Ky Fan 1-norm, is the same as the operator norm of "M" as a linear operator with respect to the Euclidean norms of "K" and "K". In other words, the Ky Fan 1-norm is the operator norm induced by the standard "ℓ" Euclidean inner product. For this reason, it is also called the operator 2-norm. One can easily verify the relationship between the Ky Fan 1-norm and singular values. It is true in general, for a bounded operator "M" on (possibly infinite-dimensional) Hilbert spaces


title: Singular value decomposition

text: But, in the matrix case, ("M* M") is a normal matrix, so ||"M* M"|| is the largest eigenvalue of ("M* M"), i.e. the largest singular value of "M".


title: Singular value decomposition

text: The last of the Ky Fan norms, the sum of all singular values, is the trace norm (also known as the 'nuclear norm'), defined by ||"M"|| = Tr[("M* M")] (the eigenvalues of "M* M" are the squares of the singular values).


title: Singular value decomposition

text: The singular values are related to another norm on the space of operators. Consider the Hilbert–Schmidt inner product on the matrices, defined by


title: Singular value decomposition

text: where are the singular values of . This is called the Frobenius norm, Schatten 2-norm, or Hilbert–Schmidt norm of . Direct calculation shows that the Frobenius norm of coincides with:


title: Singular value decomposition

text: In addition, the Frobenius norm and the trace norm (the nuclear norm) are special cases of the Schatten norm.


title: Singular value decomposition

text: formula_159 can be represented using mode-"k" multiplication of matrix formula_160 applying formula_161 then formula_162 on the result; that is formula_163.


title: Singular value decomposition

text: Two types of tensor decompositions exist, which generalise the SVD to multi-way arrays. One of them decomposes a tensor into a sum of rank-1 tensors, which is called a tensor rank decomposition. The second type of decomposition computes the orthonormal subspaces associated with the different factors appearing in the tensor product of vector spaces in which the tensor lives. This decomposition is referred to in the literature as the higher-order SVD (HOSVD) or Tucker3/TuckerM. In addition, multilinear principal component analysis in multilinear subspace learning involves the same mathematical operations as Tucker decomposition, being used in a different context of dimensionality reduction.


title: Singular value decomposition

text: The singular values of a matrix "A" are uniquely defined and are invariant with respect to left and/or right unitary transformations of "A". In other words, the singular values of "UAV", for unitary "U" and "V", are equal to the singular values of "A". This is an important property for applications in which it is necessary to preserve Euclidean distances and invariance with respect to rotations.


title: Singular value decomposition

text: The Scale-Invariant SVD, or SI-SVD, is analogous to the conventional SVD except that its uniquely-determined singular values are invariant with respect to diagonal transformations of "A". In other words, the singular values of "DAE", for invertible diagonal matrices "D" and "E", are equal to the singular values of "A". This is an important property for applications for which invariance to the choice of units on variables (e.g., metric versus imperial units) is needed.


title: Singular value decomposition

text: Tensor product (TP) model transformation numerically reconstruct the HOSVD of functions. For further details please visit:


title: Singular value decomposition

text: The factorization can be extended to a bounded operator "M" on a separable Hilbert space "H". Namely, for any bounded operator "M", there exist a partial isometry "U", a unitary "V", a measure space ("X", "μ"), and a non-negative measurable "f" such that


title: Singular value decomposition

text: This can be shown by mimicking the linear algebraic argument for the matricial case above. "VT""V"* is the unique positive square root of "M*M", as given by the Borel functional calculus for self-adjoint operators. The reason why "U" need not be unitary is because, unlike the finite-dimensional case, given an isometry "U" with nontrivial kernel, a suitable "U" may not be found such that


title: Singular value decomposition

text: As for matrices, the singular value factorization is equivalent to the polar decomposition for operators: we can simply write


title: Singular value decomposition

text: The notion of singular values and left/right-singular vectors can be extended to compact operator on Hilbert space as they have a discrete spectrum. If is compact, every non-zero in its spectrum is an eigenvalue. Furthermore, a compact self-adjoint operator can be diagonalized by its eigenvectors. If is compact, so is . Applying the diagonalization result, the unitary image of its positive square root has a set of orthonormal eigenvectors corresponding to strictly positive eigenvalues . For any ,


title: Singular value decomposition

text: where the series converges in the norm topology on . Notice how this resembles the expression from the finite-dimensional case. are called the singular values of . (resp. ) can be considered the left-singular (resp. right-singular) vectors of .


title: Singular value decomposition

text: Compact operators on a Hilbert space are the closure of finite-rank operators in the uniform operator topology. The above series expression gives an explicit such representation. An immediate consequence of this is:


title: Singular value decomposition

text: The singular value decomposition was originally developed by differential geometers, who wished to determine whether a real bilinear form could be made equal to another by independent orthogonal transformations of the two spaces it acts on. Eugenio Beltrami and Camille Jordan discovered independently, in 1873 and 1874 respectively, that the singular values of the bilinear forms, represented as a matrix, form a complete set of invariants for bilinear forms under orthogonal substitutions. James Joseph Sylvester also arrived at the singular value decomposition for real square matrices in 1889, apparently independently of both Beltrami and Jordan. Sylvester called the singular values the "canonical multipliers" of the matrix "A". The fourth mathematician to discover the singular value decomposition independently is Autonne in 1915, who arrived at it via the polar decomposition. The first proof of the singular value decomposition for rectangular and complex matrices seems to be by Carl Eckart and Gale J. Young in 1936; they saw it as a generalization of the principal axis transformation for Hermitian matrices.


title: Singular value decomposition

text: In 1907, Erhard Schmidt defined an analog of singular values for integral operators (which are compact, under some weak technical assumptions); it seems he was unaware of the parallel work on singular values of finite matrices. This theory was further developed by Émile Picard in 1910, who is the first to call the numbers formula_169 "singular values" (or in French, "valeurs singulières").


title: Singular value decomposition

text: Practical methods for computing the SVD date back to Kogbetliantz in 1954–1955 and Hestenes in 1958, resembling closely the Jacobi eigenvalue algorithm, which uses plane rotations or Givens rotations. However, these were replaced by the method of Gene Golub and William Kahan published in 1965, which uses Householder transformations or reflections. In 1970, Golub and Christian Reinsch published a variant of the Golub/Kahan algorithm that is still the one most-used today.


title: Album

text: An album is a collection of audio recordings issued on compact disc (CD), vinyl, audio tape, or another medium such as digital distribution. Albums of recorded sound were developed in the early 20th century as individual 78 rpm records collected in a bound book resembling a photograph album; this format evolved after 1948 into single vinyl long-playing (LP) records played at  rpm.


title: Album

text: The album was the dominant form of recorded music expression and consumption from the mid-1960s to the early 21st century, a period known as the album era. Vinyl LPs are still issued, though album sales in the 21st-century have mostly focused on CD and MP3 formats. The 8-track tape was the first tape format widely used alongside vinyl from 1965 until being phased out by 1983 and was gradually supplanted by the cassette tape during the 1970s and early 1980s; the popularity of the cassette reached its peak during the late 1980s, sharply declined during the 1990s and had largely disappeared during the first decade of the 2000s.


title: Album

text: Most albums are recorded in a studio, although they may also be recorded in a concert venue, at home, in the field, or a mix of places. The time frame for completely recording an album varies between a few hours to several years. This process usually requires several takes with different parts recorded separately, and then brought or "mixed" together. Recordings that are done in one take without overdubbing are termed "live", even when done in a studio. Studios are built to absorb sound, eliminating reverberation, to assist in mixing different takes; other locations, such as concert venues and some "live rooms", have reverberation, which creates a "live" sound. Recordings, including live, may contain editing, sound effects, voice adjustments, etc. With modern recording technology, artists can be recorded in separate rooms or at separate times while listening to the other parts using headphones; with each part recorded as a separate track.


title: Album

text: Album covers and liner notes are used, and sometimes additional information is provided, such as analysis of the recording, and lyrics or librettos. Historically, the term "album" was applied to a collection of various items housed in a book format. In musical usage, the word was used for collections of short pieces of printed music from the early nineteenth century. Later, collections of related 78 rpm records were bundled in book-like albums (one side of a 78 rpm record could hold only about 3.5 minutes of sound). When LP records were introduced, a collection of pieces or songs on a single record was called an "album"; the word was extended to other recording media such as compact disc, MiniDisc, compact audio cassette, 8-track tape and digital albums as they were introduced.


title: Album

text: An "album" (Latin "albus", white), in ancient Rome, was a board chalked or painted white, on which decrees, edicts, and other public notices were inscribed in black. It was from this that in medieval and modern times, album came to denote a book of blank pages in which verses, autographs, sketches, photographs and the like are collected. This in turn led to the modern meaning of an album as a collection of audio recordings issued as a single item.


title: Album

text: In the early nineteenth century, "album" was occasionally used in the titles of some classical music sets, such as Robert Schumann's "Album for the Young" Opus 68, a set of 43 short pieces.


title: Album

text: With the advent of 78 rpm records in the early 1900s, the typical 10-inch disc could only hold about three minutes of sound per side, so almost all popular recordings were limited to around three minutes in length. Classical-music and spoken-word items generally were released on the longer 12-inch 78s, playing around 4–5 minutes per side. For example, in 1924, George Gershwin recorded a drastically shortened version of his new seventeen-minute composition "Rhapsody in Blue" with Paul Whiteman and His Orchestra. The recording was issued on both sides of a single record, Victor 55225 and ran for 8m 59s. By 1910, though some European record companies had issued albums of complete operas and other works, the practice of issuing albums was not widely taken up by American record companies until the 1920s.


title: Album

text: By about 1910, bound collections of empty sleeves with a paperboard or leather cover, similar to a photograph album, were sold as record albums that customers could use to store their records (the term "record album" was printed on some covers). These albums came in both 10-inch and 12-inch sizes. The covers of these bound books were wider and taller than the records inside, allowing the record album to be placed on a shelf upright, like a book, suspending the fragile records above the shelf and protecting them. In the 1930s, record companies began issuing collections of 78 rpm records by one performer or of one type of music in specially assembled albums, typically with artwork on the front cover and liner notes on the back or inside cover. Most albums included three or four records, with two sides each, making six or eight compositions per album.


title: Album

text: The 10-inch and 12-inch LP record (long play), or  rpm microgroove vinyl record, is a gramophone record format introduced by Columbia Records in 1948. A single LP record often had the same or similar number of tunes as a typical album of 78s, and it was adopted by the record industry as a standard format for the "album". Apart from relatively minor refinements and the important later addition of stereophonic sound capability, it has remained the standard format for vinyl albums.


title: Album

text: The term "album" was extended to other recording media such as 8-track tape, audio cassette, compact disc, MiniDisc, and digital albums, as they were introduced. As part of a trend of shifting sales in the music industry, some observers feel that the early 21st century experienced the death of the album.


title: Album

text: An album may contain any number of tracks. In the United States, The Recording Academy's rules for Grammy Awards state that an album must comprise a minimum total playing time of 15 minutes with at least five distinct tracks or a minimum total playing time of 30 minutes with no minimum track requirement. In the United Kingdom, the criteria for the UK Albums Chart is that a recording counts as an "album" if it either has more than four tracks or lasts more than 25 minutes. Sometimes shorter albums are referred to as mini-albums or EPs. Albums such as "Tubular Bells", "Amarok", and "Hergest Ridge" by Mike Oldfield, and Yes' "Close to the Edge", include fewer than four tracks, but still surpass the 25-minute mark. The album "Dopesmoker" by Sleep contains only a single track, but the composition is over 63 minutes long. There are no formal rules against artists such as Pinhead Gunpowder referring to their own releases under thirty minutes as "albums".


title: Album

text: If an album becomes too long to fit onto a single vinyl record or CD, it may be released as a double album where two vinyl LPs or compact discs are packaged together in a single case, or a triple album containing three LPs or compact discs. Recording artists who have an extensive back catalogue may re-release several CDs in one single box with a unified design, often containing one or more albums (in this scenario, these releases can sometimes be referred to as a "two (or three)-fer"), or a compilation of previously unreleased recordings. These are known as box sets. Some musical artists have also released more than three compact discs or LP records of new recordings at once, in the form of boxed sets, although in that case the work is still usually considered to be an album.


title: Album

text: Material (music or sounds) is stored on an album in sections termed tracks, normally 12 tracks. A music track (often simply referred to as a track) is an individual song or instrumental recording. The term is particularly associated with popular music where separate tracks are known as album tracks; the term is also used for other formats such as EPs and singles. When vinyl records were the primary medium for audio recordings a track could be identified visually from the grooves and many album covers or sleeves included numbers for the tracks on each side. On a compact disc the track number is indexed so that a player can jump straight to the start of any track. On digital music stores such as iTunes the term song is often used interchangeably with track regardless of whether there is any vocal content.


title: Album

text: A bonus track (also known as a bonus cut or bonus) is a piece of music which has been included as an extra. This may be done as a marketing promotion, or for other reasons. It is not uncommon to include singles, B-sides, live recordings, and demo recordings as bonus tracks on re-issues of old albums, where those tracks weren't originally included. Online music stores allow buyers to create their own albums by selecting songs themselves; bonus tracks may be included if a customer buys a whole album rather than just one or two songs from the artist. The song is not necessarily free nor is it available as a stand-alone download, adding also to the incentive to buy the complete album. In contrast to hidden tracks, bonus tracks are included on track listings and usually do not have a gap of silence between other album tracks. Bonus tracks on CD or vinyl albums are common in Japan for releases by European and North American artists; since importing international copies of the album can be cheaper than buying a domestically released version, Japanese releases often feature bonus tracks to incentivize domestic purchase.


title: Album

text: Commercial sheet music are published in conjunction with the release of a new album (studio, compilation, soundtrack, etc.). A matching folio songbook is a compilation of the music notation of all the songs included in that particular album. It typically has the album's artwork on its cover and, in addition to sheet music, it includes photos of the artist. Most pop and rock releases come in standard Piano/Vocal/Guitar notation format (and occasionally Easy Piano / E-Z Play Today). Rock-oriented releases may also come in Guitar Recorded Versions edition, which are note-for-note transcriptions written directly from artist recordings.


title: Album

text: Vinyl LP records have two sides, each comprising one-half of the album. If a pop or rock album contained tracks released separately as commercial singles, they were conventionally placed in particular positions on the album. During the Sixties, particularly in the UK, singles were generally released separately from albums. Today, many commercial albums of music tracks feature one or more singles, which are released separately to radio, TV or the Internet as a way of promoting the album. Albums have been issued that are compilations of older tracks not originally released together, such as singles not originally found on albums, b-sides of singles, or unfinished "demo" recordings.


title: Album

text: Double albums during the Seventies were sometimes sequenced for record changers. In the case of a two-record set, for example, sides 1 and 4 would be stamped on one record, and sides 2 and 3 on the other. The user would stack the two records onto the spindle of an automatic record changer, with side 1 on the bottom and side 2 (on the other record) on top. Side 1 would automatically drop onto the turntable and be played. When finished, the tone arm's position would trigger a mechanism which moved the arm out of the way, dropped the record with side 2, and played it. When both records had been played, the user would pick up the stack, turn it over, and put them back on the spindle—sides 3 and 4 would then play in sequence. Record changers were used for many years of the LP era, but eventually fell out of use.


title: Album

text: 8-track tape (formally Stereo 8: commonly known as the eight-track cartridge, eight-track tape, or simply eight-track) is a magnetic tape sound recording technology popular in the United States from the mid-1960s to the late 1970s when the Compact Cassette format took over. The format is regarded as an obsolete technology, and was relatively unknown outside the United States, the United Kingdom, Canada and Australia.


title: Album

text: Stereo 8 was created in 1964 by a consortium led by Bill Lear of Lear Jet Corporation, along with Ampex, Ford Motor Company, General Motors, Motorola, and RCA Victor Records (RCA). It was a further development of the similar Stereo-Pak four-track cartridge created by Earl "Madman" Muntz. A later quadraphonic version of the format was announced by RCA in April 1970 and first known as Quad-8, then later changed to just Q8.


title: Album

text: The Compact Cassette was a popular medium for distributing pre-recorded music from the early 1970s to the early 2000s. The first "Compact Cassette" was introduced by Philips in August 1963 in the form of a prototype. Compact Cassettes became especially popular during the 1980s after the advent of the Sony Walkman, which allowed the person to control what they listened to. The Walkman was convenient because of its size, the device could fit in most pockets and often came equipped with a clip for belts or pants.


title: Album

text: The compact cassette used double-sided magnetic tape to distribute music for commercial sale. The music is recorded on both the "A" and "B" side of the tape, with cassette being "turned" to play the other side of the album. Compact Cassettes were also a popular way for musicians to record "Demos" or "Demo Tapes" of their music to distribute to various record labels, in the hopes of acquiring a recording contract.


title: Album

text: Compact cassettes also saw the creation of mixtapes, which are tapes containing a compilation of songs created by any average listener of music. The songs on a mixtape generally relate to one another in some way, whether it be a conceptual theme or an overall sound. After the introduction of Compact discs, the term "Mixtape" began to apply to any personal compilation of songs on any given format.


title: Album

text: The sales of Compact Cassettes eventually began to decline in the 1990s, after the release and distribution Compact Discs. The 2010s saw a revival of Compact Cassettes by independent record labels and DIY musicians who preferred the format because of its difficulty to share over the internet.


title: Album

text: The compact disc format replaced both the vinyl record and the cassette as the standard for the commercial mass-market distribution of physical music albums. After the introduction of music downloading and MP3 players such as the iPod, US album sales dropped 54.6% from 2001 to 2009. The CD is a digital data storage device which permits digital recording technology to be used to record and play-back the recorded music.


title: Album

text: Most recently, the MP3 audio format has matured, revolutionizing the concept of digital storage. Early MP3 albums were essentially CD-rips created by early CD-ripping software, and sometimes real-time rips from cassettes and vinyl.


title: Album

text: The so-called "MP3 album" is not necessarily just in MP3 file format, in which higher quality formats such as FLAC and WAV can be used on storage media that MP3 albums reside on, such as CD-R-ROMs, hard drives, flash memory (e.g. thumbdrives, MP3 players, SD cards), etc.


title: Album

text: The contents of the album are usually recorded in a studio or live in concert, though may be recorded in other locations, such as at home (as with JJ Cale's "Okie", Beck's "Odelay", David Gray's "White Ladder", and others), in the field – as with early Blues recordings, in prison, or with a mobile recording unit such as the Rolling Stones Mobile Studio.


title: Album

text: Most albums are studio albums — that is, they are recorded in a recording studio with equipment meant to give those overseeing the recording as much control as possible over the sound of the album. They minimize external noises and reverberations and have highly sensitive microphones and sound mixing equipment. In some studios, each member of a band records their part in separate rooms (or even at separate times, while listening to the other parts of the track with headphones to keep the timing right). In the 2000s, with the advent of digital recording, it became possible for musicians to record their part of a song in another studio in another part of the world, and send their contribution over digital channels to be included in the final product.


title: Album

text: Recordings that are done in one take without overdubbing or multi-tracking are termed "live", even when done in a studio. However, the common understanding of a "live album" is one that was recorded at a concert before an audience, even when the recording is overdubbed or multi-tracked. Concert or stage performances are recorded using remote recording techniques. Albums may be recorded at a single concert, or combine recordings made at multiple concerts. They may include applause, laughter and other noise from the audience, monologues by the performers between pieces, improvisation, and so on. They may use multitrack recording direct from the stage sound system (rather than microphones placed among the audience), and can employ additional manipulation and effects during post-production to enhance the quality of the recording.


title: Album

text: Notable early live albums include the double album of Benny Goodman, "The Famous 1938 Carnegie Hall Jazz Concert", released in 1950. Live double albums later became popular during the 1970s. Appraising the concept in "" (1981), Robert Christgau said most "are profit-taking recaps marred by sound and format inappropriate to phonographic reproduction (you can't put sights, smells, or fellowship on audio tape). But for Joe Cocker and Bette Midler and Bob-Dylan-in-the-arena, the form makes a compelling kind of sense."


title: Album

text: Eric Clapton's "Unplugged" (1992), over 26 million copies, Garth Brooks' "Double Live" (1998), over 21 million copies, and Peter Frampton's "Frampton Comes Alive!" (1976), over 11 million copies, are among the best selling live albums.


title: Album

text: A solo album, in popular music, is an album recorded by a current or former member of a musical group which is released under that artist's name only, even though some or all other band members may be involved. The solo album appeared as early as the late 1940s. A 1947 "Billboard" magazine article heralded "Margaret Whiting huddling with Capitol execs over her first solo album on which she will be backed by Frank De Vol". There is no formal definition setting forth the amount of participation a band member can solicit from other members of their band, and still have the album referred to as a solo album. One reviewer wrote that Ringo Starr's third venture, "Ringo", "[t]echnically... wasn't a solo album because all four Beatles appeared on it". Three of the four members of the Beatles released solo albums while the group was officially still together.


title: Album

text: A performer may record a solo album for several reasons. A solo performer working with other members will typically have full creative control of the band, be able to hire and fire accompanists, and get the majority of the proceeds. The performer may be able to produce songs that differ widely from the sound of the band with which the performer has been associated, or that the group as a whole chose not to include in its own albums. Graham Nash of The Hollies described his experience in developing a solo album as follows: "The thing that I go through that results in a solo album is an interesting process of collecting songs that can't be done, for whatever reason, by a lot of people". A solo album may also represent the departure of the performer from the group.


title: Album

text: A compilation album is a collection of material from various recording projects or various artists, assembled with a theme such as the "greatest hits" from one artist, B-sides and rarities by one artist, or selections from a record label, a musical genre, a certain time period, or a regional music scene. Promotional sampler albums are compilations.


title: Album

text: A tribute or cover album is a compilation of cover versions of songs or instrumental compositions. Its concept may involve various artists covering the songs of a single artist, genre or period, a single artist covering the songs of various artists or a single artist, genre or period, or any variation of an album of cover songs which is marketed as a "tribute".


title: Bajrangi Bhaijaan

text: Bajrangi Bhaijaan () is a 2015 Indian Hindi-language comedy-drama film co-written and directed by Kabir Khan, based on an original story by screenwriter V. Vijayendra Prasad, and produced by Salman Khan, Rockline Venkatesh and Kabir Khan. The film stars Salman with debutante Harshaali Malhotra, Nawazuddin Siddiqui and Kareena Kapoor Khan, and tells the story of Pawan Kumar Chaturvedi, a devotee of the Hindu deity Hanuman, who embarks on a journey to take a mute six-year-old Pakistani Muslim girl Shahida, separated in India from her mother, back to her hometown.


title: Bajrangi Bhaijaan

text: Made on a budget of – , the principal photography commenced in November 2014. The cinematography was done by Aseem Mishra and was edited by Rameshwar S. Bhagat. Julius Packiam composed the film score while the songs featured in the film were composed by Pritam.


title: Bajrangi Bhaijaan

text: "Bajrangi Bhaijaan" received widespread critical acclaim from critics upon release, who praised its storyline, dialogues, music, cinematography, direction and the cast performances, particularly those of Salman Khan, Siddiqui and Malhotra, and became a huge commercial success; it grossed () worldwide, and is currently the 5th highest-grossing Indian film and 2nd highest-grossing Bollywood film. It won the National Film Award for Best Popular Film Providing Wholesome Entertainment at the 63rd National Film Awards, and was nominated for 4 awards at the 61st Filmfare Awards, including Best Film, Best Director (Kabir Khan) and Best Actor (Salman Khan), and won Best Story (V. Vijayendra Prasad). It was also nominated for Best Foreign Film in China's 2015 Douban Film Awards.


title: Bajrangi Bhaijaan

text: In the hills of Sultanpur, Jhelum, Pakistan lives a six-year-old mute girl named Shahida. One afternoon, she is playing on a hill when she accidentally falls off it. When she doesn’t return home by the end of the day, the villagers organize a search party. After hours of searching, they find the little girl on a branch protruding from the hill. She had been stuck on it for the entire day but couldn’t call for help because of her disability. The following morning, her parents and neighbors discuss what must be done to help her. Older man suggests they take her to the shrine of Sufi saint Nizamuddin Auliya in Delhi, India. The religious family believes that a visit to the holy shrine will bring peace and happiness and most importantly, restore Shahida’s speech. Shahida’s father used to be in the military and has fought against the Indian army. He is sure that he won't be provided with a visa to India. Hence, her mother Razia takes it upon herself to travel far from the village for the first time. The trip goes as planned for the most part. The two reach the shrine, pay offerings and get on a train back to their home country.


title: Bajrangi Bhaijaan

text: On the return journey, the train stops for repairs at night. When everyone is asleep, Shahida notices a sheep stuck in a pit right outside the train. She doesn’t think much before going outside to help the animal. However, the train restarts before she can return to her mother. The little girl runs towards it but is eventually left behind. In a desperate attempt to go the same way that her mother did, she boards a freight train. But to her dismay, it goes reverse-path and stops in Kurukshetra, India. Raiza notices her daughter is missing and stops the train. Policemen are appointed to look for the girl around the track where she was lost. However, they cannot find her since Shahida has already reached a different place. Raiza meets her husband who is worried to death about his daughter. They cannot get an immediate visa back to India, much to their dismay. The parents have no other way but to pray that their daughter is safe.


title: Bajrangi Bhaijaan

text: Meanwhile, Shahida is now lost in a different country with no way to communicate. In a religious celebration, she sees a stranger eating at a street-side restaurant. The stranger is the kind Pawan Kumar Chaturvedi who invites her to have a meal with him. After a few minutes of trying to get her to talk, he realizes she is mute and starts calling her Munni. A starving Munni finishes the food and follows Pawan around. Assuming that she was separated from her parents during the festival, he asks her to stay in front of a temple. Pawan is a devout Hindu Brahmin and an ardent devotee of Lord Hanuman. He believes that Lord Hanuman will take Munni home if she stays in front of his temple. When Munni still doesn’t stop following him, he brings her to the police station. But since she cannot tell them any details about her parents, the police can only wait for someone to file a missing complaint. Until her parents are found, Munni needs a place to stay, hence, Pawan takes her in. On his way to his home in Delhi, he tells Munni to call him Mama if she ever talks in the future. He also starts naming different Indian cities, asking her to nod if she knows what city her parents are in. All the passengers on the bus help him but none of them name cities outside of India. As they talk, Pawan tells everyone how he came to Delhi for work.


title: Bajrangi Bhaijaan

text: A flashback shows the time he was in high school. He was an average student who could never pass the final examination. All his friends cheated and went on with their lives, but Pawan refused to cheat or lie, being a true


title: Bajrangi Bhaijaan

text: devotee of Lord Hanuman. Eventually, he passed on his eleventh try and came to Delhi to look for work. He stayed with his father’s friend, Pandey, a strict Hindu who refused to let the followers of any other religion enter his house. Pandey’s daughter Rasika offered Pawan a job at the school she taught and fell in love with his innocent persona. But being the strict father he is, Pandey asked Pawan to build his own house before marrying his daughter. Even since then, Pawan and Rasika have been working hard to collect money. The two are bound to get married sometime next year. Everyone on the bus is impressed by his story. He and Munni reach his home where Rasika receives them in the doorway. She is glad that Pawan is helping a little girl in need but Pandey doesn’t feel the same way. He is worried about the possibility that Munni belongs to a different religion. Pawan rationalizes that she is Hindu because of her fair skin color and persuades Pandey to let her stay for a month. Munni cries every day in the memory of her parents even though Pawan and Rasika treat her like their own daughter. Since the entire family is vegetarian and Munni is accustomed to eating meat with every meal, she hardly ever finishes her food.


title: Bajrangi Bhaijaan

text: One day, Pawan and Rasika find her in a Muslim neighbor’s home devouring home-cooked chicken. Pawan brings her to a restaurant that evening and lets her eat whatever she likes, even though eating meat is against his religion.


title: Bajrangi Bhaijaan

text: Munni is very fond of the glittery bangles they sell on the street side. One day while walking down a market, she innocently picks up a pack of bangles before being stopped by the vendor. Pawan makes her return it and takes her to the temple to apologize to God for stealing. As he teaches her to join her hands, Munni sneaks into a Mosque nearby. Pawan is hesitant to follow her inside but he does it anyway. To his utter surprise, he sees her reading the Quran in front of a shrine. For a few minutes, he feels like she betrayed him because he would have never befriended a Muslim.But Rasika makes him realize that she is a human before being Muslim. She hates that her father discriminates against people because of their religion and wants Pawan to be different. Pawan understands and runs into the Mosque to get Munni but by now, she has already left. As he nervously looks for her, she runs to him and hugs him tightly. At that moment, he accepts her entirely, overcoming his irrational fear of going against his religion.


title: Bajrangi Bhaijaan

text: That night is a cricket match against Pakistan and India. The entire family watches it on TV, cheering for India, except Munni who cheers when Pakistan scores. When the Pakistani team wins the game, she dances and kisses their flag through TV. Pawan approaches her and asks her if she is from Pakistan. After weeks of shaking her head to every Indian city, Munni finally nods yes. Pandey is furious. Being a Muslim was bad enough but since the girl is from Pakistan, he can no longer allow her to stay at their home. Pawan promises to hand her to the Pakistani embassy the next day. However, the embassy worker cannot allow her a visa without a passport. In Munni’s case, they don’t even know her real name so a visa allotment is impossible. Moreover, a riot takes place in front of the embassy that closes all visa processing for a month. As the last resort, Pawan takes her to a travel agent at Pandey’s suggestion. The agent promises to take the little girl to the other side of the border and asks for one lakh rupees. Pawan and Rakisa give up the funds they had collected for their house to help Munni. The next day, Pawan reluctantly brings Munni to the travel agent’s office and leaves after a tearful farewell. On his way home, he notices a street vendor selling glittery bangles. He remembers that Munni liked them and buys one for her. However, on returning to the travel agent’s office, he finds out that he has been cheated. The agent has taken the little girl to a brothel and is about to sell her into prostitution. The otherwise composed Pawan loses his temper at the sight of the agent counting bills that he made from Munni. He throws the man out of the window and brings Munni home again.


title: Bajrangi Bhaijaan

text: Pawan has made the decision to bring Munni home himself. Although he has no connections or ideas about Pakistani villages, he packs his bags and makes his way to the border. A few miles away from it, they meet a secret agent named Ali who illegally transports people to the other side through a tunnel. After listening to Munni’s story, he agrees to take them for free. When they reach Pakistan’s side of the border, Ali runs away but being a lord Hanuman’s devotee, Pawan refuses to go without asking the guards for permission. When the officers find him, they beat him up as Munni watches and cries. Pawan pretends to laugh even while being beaten so the little girl wouldn’t be afraid. After finding out the reason for his travel the head soldier asks him to do whatever he wants in the following ten minutes before they return for the next round. Pawan decides to wait for them because they have still not permitted him. Although the idea is idiotic, and he gets beaten up again, he is eventually allowed to go, with permission from the soldiers.


title: Bajrangi Bhaijaan

text: In the following scene, he and Munni are in a restaurant. Munni sees a cop’s handcuffs and steals it, assuming that it is a bracelet. The cop finds out and throws Pawan in jail, labeling him as an Indian spy because of the lack of a passport. Then, we are introduced to a struggling journalist Chand Nawab. He finds out about the alleged spy and runs to the police station to interview him. He gets a few vague answers from Pawan and informs the media company that doesn’t take him seriously. Inside the police station, a cop interrogates Pawan but refuses to believe anything he has to say. Suddenly, Munni sees a picture on a table calendar and recognizes it as her village. Pawan is overjoyed until the policeman forcefully makes Munni open her mouth. Pawan loses his temper and attacks the man, inviting more trouble for himself. He manages to defeat the officers and run away from the police. Nawab sees him escaping and follows him behind.


title: Bajrangi Bhaijaan

text: They board the bus where Pawan shows the conductor their destination and also tells him Munni’s story. After finding out he is actually a good person, Nawab and the rest of the travelers decide to help him. They hide him and Munni on the top of the bus when the police come looking for them. At night, Nawab, Pawan, and Munni stay at a Mosque. A religious scholar named Azad also helps them and hides them from the policemen searching the entire city for the alleged spy. One of Azad’s students sees "Switzerland" written on the picture that Munni thought was her village. The group is back to square one. After that, Azad dresses up Pawan and Nawab in a burqa and manages to send them outside the city without the police noticing. Pawan, who was oblivious to Islam a few weeks ago, feels strange in them traditional clothing. He apologizes to his god but is ready to do anything for Munni. For the next few days, Pawan and Nawab take Munni to several different places, asking people if they know her. Nawab documents their journey and everything about Munni and Pawan’s relationship. He tries selling the documentary to news channels, but they refuse to air it, claiming that it is boring. They have to find another way to spread the news so, the people on the internet can help. One day, they go to a famous mosque were they find policemen looking for them. Nawab realizes that his cameraman friend is being used by the police to gather information about their whereabouts. The trio immediately runs away from the holy place and gives the cameraman false information to distract the police.


title: Bajrangi Bhaijaan

text: Following that, the group is reviewing the footage from their time at the mosque when Munni recognizes her mother in one of the clips. They see her getting into a specific bus and go to the bus driver the very next day. On inquiring, he names all the villages that come to his daily route. One of them is Sultanpur which Munni confirms is her home. Nawab and Pawan hug, having finally found their destination. Nawab also uploads the video documentary on YouTube and the police get a hint of their location through it. On their way to Sultanpur, the bus is stopped to be checked. With no way out, Pawan comes to the police’s view and pretends to run away. While the men are busy trying to catch him, Nawab takes Munni and brings her back to her village. In the following scene, we see Munni run to her mother, who couldn’t be happier to see her. As she reunites with her family, Pawan gets beaten up by the police.


title: Bajrangi Bhaijaan

text: The documentary on YouTube goes viral and bigger news channels start covering the story. Eventually, people find out that Pawan is not a spy and is being held in prison for helping a little girl. Both Indian and Pakistani people give him all their support. But the Pakistani officials refuse to let him go. They torture him in prison, beating him up for hours, drowning him until his last breath, and starving him. Nawab then claps back with another video, this time on a bigger platform, asking people to gather at the border and ensure that Pawan reaches home safely. The plan works, and several people from both sides come to the border in crowds. Rasika and her family are also among the crowd, waiting for him to come home. Eventually, the officials have to back down. The crowd erupts chanting Pawan’s name as he crosses the border. Then, we see Munni among the crowd, waving her hands but unable to call him. All of a sudden, she shouts “Mama”, the name Pawan wanted her to call him when they first met. The crowd goes silent as she yells goodbye. Pawan turns around in shock. The movie ends as they run to each other and hug.


title: Bajrangi Bhaijaan

text: The film's story writer V. Vijayendra Prasad stated that the idea of the film was inspired by the 1987 Telugu film "Pasivadi Pranam", which itself is a remake of the Malayalam film "Poovinu Puthiya Poonthennal" (1986). Prasad also took inspiration from a story he heard about a Pakistani couple coming to India for their daughter's heart surgery.


title: Bajrangi Bhaijaan

text: Kabir Khan noted that the script of "Bajrangi Bhaijaan" was influenced by some of his own experiences. He noted the influence of the Hindu epic "Ramayana", which he used to watch Ramlila plays of as a child, and particularly the Hindu deity Bajrangi (Hanuman), who left a strong impression on him as a child. He felt that Bajrangi was a character who was loved by people all religious communities in India, including Hindus and Muslims in India, due to how Bajrangi brought joy and fun to many Indian children. Khan began writing "Bajrangi Bhaijaan" partly in response to the rise of religious sectarianism in India since the 1980s and particularly in response to the Bajrang Dal, a Hindu fundamentalist organisation that appropriated Bajrangi for violent sectarian motives and played a central role in the deadly 2002 Gujarat riots, leading to the name Bajrangi having communal connotations. He began writing "Bajrangi Bhaijaan" in 2013 as a way of reclaiming Bajrangi for all communities, and as a way of bringing Hindus and Muslims together.


title: Bajrangi Bhaijaan

text: The principal photography began on 3 November 2014 in New Delhi, with Salman Khan and Kareena Kapoor Khan participating. The second filming schedule took place at the ND Studios, Karjat. The third schedule of the film was held in Mandawa, Rajasthan. On 7 January 2015, Khan was seen on the top of the castle of Mandawa playing cricket with a young boy. On 10 January 2015, Khan shot with school students in Rajasthan's Jhunjhunu district. Shooting of the film was completed on 20 May. Some scenes of the film were shot at Khan's Panvel farm house. Shooting also took place in the Kashmir Valley in places like Sonamarg and Zoji La. The film's climax was shot at Sonmarg near the Thajiwas glacier (at 10,000 ft above sea level) with around 7,000 people. Nawazuddin Siddiqui's character Chand Nawab was inspired by a real character Chand Nawab, who was with Karachi-based Indus News in 2008.


title: Bajrangi Bhaijaan

text: A. R. Rahman was initially in talks to compose the music of the film, however he did not sign the film. The music was then composed by Kabir Khan's usual collaborators, with Pritam composing the songs and Julius Packiam composing the score. The lyrics were written by Mayur Puri, Amitabh Bhattacharya, Neelesh Misra, Shabbir Ahmed, and Kausar Munir while Julius Packiam composed the score. The soundtrack of the movie become Super Hit. The Song "Bhar Do Jholi" one of the biggest hits of 2015 sang by Adnan Sami. The soundtrack album consists of eleven tracks, was released on 17 June 2015. "Tu Chahiye" and "Selfie Le Le Re" become chartbusters.


title: Bajrangi Bhaijaan

text: The film includes the qawwali "Bhar Do Jholi Meri Ya Muhammad" originally written by Purnam Allahabadi and composed and sung by the Sabri Brothers. The qawwali was revamped with the voice of Adnan Sami Khan. EMI Pakistan and Amjad Sabri heir to the Sabri Brothers, have called for legal action against the producers of the film and the qawwali in separate instances.


title: Bajrangi Bhaijaan

text: Initially announced as an Eid 2014 release, the film was rescheduled to 12 January 2014."Bajrangi Bhaijaan" was released on 17 July 2015, one day before Eid, on 4,500 screens in India and 1,000 screens in overseas respectively. The film was also released in 50 countries outside India, on more than 700 screens. "Bajrangi Bhaijaan" premiered at the 20th Busan International Film Festival (BIFF) on 6 October 2015.


title: Bajrangi Bhaijaan

text: In November 2017, it was announced that "Bajrangi Bhaijaan" was set to release in China, following the success of Aamir Khan's "Dangal" (2016) in the country. In December 2017, it was announced the film would release there in 2018. Prior to the announcement, "Bajrangi Bhaijaan" had a cult following in China, where it has an average rating of 8.6 out of 10 on the popular film site Douban, with over 70,000 votes. It placed fourth on Douban's list of top foreign films of 2015. "Bajrangi Bhaijaan" was released in China under the title 小萝莉的猴神大叔 which roughly translates as ""Little Lolita's Monkey God Uncle""; "monkey god" is a rough translation of "Bajrangi" while "little lolita" and "uncle" reference the characters. The Chinese version was also cut down in length to 140 minutes. In January 2018, it was announced that the film would be getting a wide release, on 8,000 screens in China, building on the Chinese box office success of Aamir Khan's "Dangal" and "Secret Superstar" (2017), and "Bajrangi Bhaijaan"s positive word-of-mouth. The film released in China on 2 March 2018. On 6 February 2018, the film had advance screenings in 29 Chinese cities, receiving a positive reception from audiences. It also had a limited preview on 25 February 2018. The film's China premiere on 27 February 2018 was attended by Kabir Khan and Harshali Malhotra. Its release date of 2 March 2018 marks the Lantern Festival, which celebrates families coming together.


title: Bajrangi Bhaijaan

text: It was released in Turkey on 17 August 2018 on 190 screens. In the first weekend it grossed approx $89,796 with a spectator count of 8,389. The film released in Japan on 18 January 2019, with the title "バジュランギおじさんと、小さな迷子", which translates as "Uncle Bajrangi and a small lost child" ("Bajurangi ojisan to, chīsana maigo").


title: Bajrangi Bhaijaan

text: In India, "Bollywood Hungama" gave the film 4.5 out of 5 stars, writing that "this film easily qualifies to be Salman Khan's best movie till date, featuring his career's best performance. The film wins you over completely". Srijana Mitra Das of "Times of India" gave the film 4 out of 5 stars, writing that "Bajrangi Bhaijaan is Salman Khan's most daring film where Salman presents a beautiful performance - but allows the story to be the real "dabangg" ".Rachit Gupta for "Filmfare" wrote that "If movies are meant to inspire, then "Bajrangi Bhaijaan" fulfills its purpose with resounding success", giving the movie 3.5 out of 5 stars. Archita Kashyap of "Koimoi" gave the film 3.5 out of 5 stars, writing that "watch (the film) for full-blown, larger than life, wholesome Hindi filmy entertainment". Raja Sen of "Rediff.com" gave a 3.5 out of 5 star rating explaining that ""Bajrangi Bhaijaan" is an overearnest, oversimplified, preposterously sweet and frequently schlocky film, which shouldn't work because of how predictable and soppy it is. Yet, because of a finely picked supporting cast, some sharp lines of dialogue and, most crucially, because of its overall heart, it works, and works well." Rajeev Masand of "CNN-IBN" gave 3 stars out of 5, commenting ""Bajrangi Bhaijaan" is way too long at 2 hours and 35 minutes, and could have done with some serious pruning, especially in its first half. Nevertheless, it's more engaging than such typical Salman Khan blockbusters as Bodyguard and Ready, if only because it has a sliver of a story, and its heart in the right place." Anupama Chopra of "Hindustan Times" said ""Bajrangi Bhaijaan" is simplistic, occasionally silly, and tiringly over-stretched. It's also unashamedly manipulative. But it works. Director and co-writer Kabir Khan preserves the larger-than-life Salman image but also allows it to evolve so that the star is not just a slick superman." Uday Bhatia for "Mint" wrote: "To say Bajrangi Bhaijaan is geared towards maximum emotional impact is an understatement. It is engineered for it. Its parts have been carefully assembled so as to make you laugh every other scene, tear up every 10 minutes"; further praising Harshaali Malhotra, he goes "Who says you need a girl and a gun to make a movie? This film proves that you only need the former, provided she’s a criminally cute six-year-old".


title: Bajrangi Bhaijaan

text: Overseas too, the film received positive reviews from Chinese critics. Several critics in China, where it was released as "Little Lolita's Monkey Uncle", noted narrative parallels to the 16th century Chinese epic "Journey to the West" and its monkey-king hero Sun Wukong (which in turn have similarities to the 4th century BC Hindu epic "Ramayana" and its monkey-god hero Hanuman), making the film relatable to Chinese audiences. The film's theme of connecting people across nations, religions and ethnicities also resonated with Chinese audiences. In Japan, upon release in January 2019, it was the week's highest-rated film on the Filmarks audience satisfaction survey.


title: Bajrangi Bhaijaan

text: "Bajrangi Bhaijaan" grossed worldwide in its first week, beating the previous record of worldwide by "PK". The film went on to net and gross in India and grossed overseas for a worldwide gross of in 31 days. "Bajrangi Bhaijaan" became the quickest film to collect and net domestically beating "PK" and "Dhoom 3". The distributor share of the film had crossed crore which is a record in India being the second film to do so after "PK". In August 2015, Eros International said in a statement to the Bombay Stock Exchange that "Bajrangi Bhaijaan" has become the fastest Bollywood film to gross worldwide, while it crossed at the domestic box office.


title: Bajrangi Bhaijaan

text: The film is the highest nett grosser ever in Delhi / UP, CP Berar, CI, Bihar, Assam and Orissa, East Punjab, Rajasthan and West Bengal beating the lifetime collections of "PK" and "Dhoom 3". The footfalls of the film crossed 35.2million after five weeks, making it the most watched film in India since "" (2001) and beating "PK", "3 Idiots", "Dhoom 3", and "Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham...". "Bajrangi Bhaijaan" grossed worldwide at the end of its 7th week. The domestic Indian gross for the film was as of August 2015, while its overseas gross was US$30.9 million (211.05crore) as of 2017. It was one of the highest-grossing Indian film ever at the time, behind "PK". Prior to its China release, "Bajrangi Bhaijaan"s worldwide gross was 626crore (US$million) as of 27 February 2018. After 22 days at the Chinese box office, it became the fourth Indian film to gross 900crore (US$million) worldwide, after "Dangal", "Baahubali 2", and "Secret Superstar". As of today, "Bajrangi Bhaijaan" is the third highest-grossing Indian film ever worldwide. The film was marketed by a Mumbai-based company named Spice PR owned by Prabhat Choudhary.


title: Bajrangi Bhaijaan

text: "Bajrangi Bhaijaan" opened to an overwhelming response at the domestic box office and went on to break the first week record of "PK" and "Happy New Year". The film grossed around in India on the first day of release, and further showed incredible growth on its second and third day to gross , setting new records in several circuits, and on the first Sunday to take its first-weekend total to , which is an all-time first-weekend record, becoming the quickest film to gross domestically. The film grossed on its first Monday which is the highest-ever non-holiday Monday and Tuesday as well as on its first Wednesday and Thursday to take its first-week gross to , making it the highest first-week total for an Indian film in domestic markets beating previous record holder "PK".


title: Bajrangi Bhaijaan

text: The film grossed on its second Friday. The film showed further growth and grossed on its second Saturday and Sunday for a total of , which is the highest second weekend ever for an Indian film and took its domestic total to in ten days and also made it the second highest weekend ever for an Indian film. "Bajrangi Bhaijaan" grossed around on its second Monday. "Bajrangi Bhaijaan" grossed around on its second Tuesday, on its second Wednesday, and on its second Thursday. "Bajrangi Bhaijaan" grossed , which is the second-highest second-week collection of all time to take its two-week domestic gross to .


title: Bajrangi Bhaijaan

text: "Bajrangi Bhaijaan" grossed on its third Friday, on its third Saturday, and on its third Sunday to take its third weekend total to which is the second-highest third weekend of all time. The film grossed around in its third weekend, reaching in seventeen days in India to become the second-highest-grossing Bollywood film of all time in domestic markets, beating "Dhoom 3". The film went on to gross overseas for a worldwide gross of in just 17 days. "Bajrangi Bhaijaan" set a new all-time lifetime record in India by becoming the highest grosser ever in Bihar as it went to the gross mark after its third weekend. The film grossed on its third Monday, on its second Tuesday, and on its second Wednesday to take its 19 days total to in India and become only the 2nd Indian film to do so. The film also recorded the third-highest third week ever as it grossed on its third Thursday for a combined total of in its third week.


title: Bajrangi Bhaijaan

text: The film grossed in its fourth weekend. The film grossed in its fourth week, in its fifth week, in its sixth week, in its seventh week, and in its eighth week. The film collected in its ninth week becoming the second film ever to gross more than 10 lakhs in the ninth week after "Vicky Donor".


title: Bajrangi Bhaijaan

text: The film had a tenth week and became the third Indian film of the 2010s to ever have one. The other films were "Vicky Donor" and "Band Baaja Baaraat". The film's final domestic gross was ().


title: Bajrangi Bhaijaan

text: "Bajrangi Bhaijaan" grossed around $8.1 million in the first weekend in overseas markets, which is the second-highest opening weekend for a Hindi film. The film has grossed around $2.45 million in its first weekend in US-Canada. "Bajrangi Bhaijaan" grossed () in Pakistan in its first 3 days of its release, and subsequently () in the first week. The ten-day overseas gross of "Bajrangi Bhaijaan" was over . At the end of two weeks, "Bajrangi Bhaijaan" grossed US$20 million in overseas. "Bajrangi Bhaijaan" grossed around $23.5 million in overseas in 17 days. "Bajrangi Bhaijaan" set an all-time record in the Persian Gulf region with collections of to become the highest-grossing film in the territory, beating films like "Happy New Year" and "Dhoom 3". The film is also the biggest Salman Khan film in the Persian Gulf, beating the previous best of "Kick" which grossed around $4.1 million. The film has done excellent across all overseas markets, according to Box Office India.


title: Bajrangi Bhaijaan

text: The film topped all four major markets by beating the lifetime collection of "PK". "Bajrangi Bhaijaan" grossed £2,662,115 () in the United Kingdom, where it became the highest-grossing foreign-language film of 2015, the eleventh highest-grossing foreign-language film of all time, and the second highest-grossing foreign-language Indian film ever (after "Dhoom 3"). It also grossed US$9,450,000 in the Persian Gulf region and A$1,701,000 in Australia. The film grossed $8,180,000 after its sixth weekend in the United States and Canada, with a final gross of US$8.187million in the US and Canada. In Hong Kong, the film grossed HK$1,364,088 (US$) in 2016. "Bajrangi Bhaijaan" grossed US$30.9 million (211 crore) overseas as of 2017. After 26 days of its release in China, the film became the third Indian film (first featuring Salman Khan) to gross more than 500 crore from overseas markets.


title: Bajrangi Bhaijaan

text: In China, on its opening day of 2 March 2018, the film grossed US$2.29million, debuting at number seven on the daily China box office. This is the fourth-highest opening for an Indian film in China, after "Secret Superstar" ($6.97million), "Hindi Medium" ($3.68million) and "Dangal" ($2.55million), while "Bajrangi Bhaijaan" also crossed the lifetime China gross of "3 Idiots" (2009). On its second day, "Bajrangi Bhaijaan" grossed $3.11million, entering the top five, with a two-day gross of $5.36million. It grossed another $3.13million in its third day, giving it an opening weekend gross of $9million. It is the third-highest opening weekend for an Indian film, behind only "Secret Superstar" and "Dangal", and it has become the highest-grossing Indian film not starring Aamir Khan. The successful opening weekend of "Bajrangi Bhaijaan" has been attributed to strong word of mouth, generated by high audience ratings such as 8.6 on Douban and 9.7 on Maoyan.


title: Bajrangi Bhaijaan

text: On the 14th day of its release, the film grossed $1.13 million and became the first Indian film not featuring Aamir Khan to gross more than 200crore in the Chinese market, grossing $31.12million up until then. In 31 days, the film had a cumulative gross of $48million(313crore). The film's audiences were about 60% female and 40% male, and the majority were in the 20–34 age group. It surpassed "" to become the seventh highest-grossing film in China during the first quarter of 2018, behind "Secret Superstar" and other American films including "Black Panther" and "".


title: Bajrangi Bhaijaan

text: In December 2021, Khan confirmed that the sequel of the movie was in scripting stage, and is writing the script. Later that month, Khan confirmed that the movie has been titled as "Pawan Putra Bhaijaan".


title: Jessica Seinfeld

text: Jessica Seinfeld (; , born Nina Danielle Sklar; September 12, 1971) is an American author. She has released five cookbooks about preparing food for families, and is the founder of the GOOD+ Foundation (formerly Baby Buggy), a New York City-based charitable organization that provides essential items for families in need throughout New York City. She is married to comedian Jerry Seinfeld.


title: Jessica Seinfeld

text: Jessica Nina Sklar was born in Oyster Bay, New York, the middle child of three daughters, and grew up in a middle-class household in Burlington, Vermont. Her mother was a Victims Service Advocate for more than fifty years and an attendance officer at Hunt Middle School, while her father was a computer software engineer.


title: Jessica Seinfeld

text: After graduating from the University of Vermont, Seinfeld worked in public relations for Golden Books Entertainment and Tommy Hilfiger.


title: Jessica Seinfeld

text: Seinfeld founded Baby Buggy in 2001 following the birth of her first child. She started with a donation drive, whereby she asked people for their used baby supplies after realizing that her first child's products, no longer of use to her own family, could certainly be used by others.


title: Jessica Seinfeld

text: With a motto of "Love. Recycled", Baby Buggy's goal is to help families in need be able to access the essentials for ensuring their safety and well-being. By providing concrete resources to families through a network of social service professionals, Baby Buggy seeks to alleviate the stress of living in poverty and help in the prevention of crisis. As of May 2013, Baby Buggy has donated over six million items to New York families since the organization was established.


title: Jessica Seinfeld

text: Baby Buggy works with a network of over 50 community-based organizations (CBOs) that are carefully selected—each applies annually to become a recipient. Some of the organizations that have partnered with Baby Buggy include organizations working with victims of domestic violence such as Safe Horizon and New York Asian Women's Center, now known as Womankind; multi-service sites including Single Stop East Harlem and Lenox Hill Neighborhood House; prenatal and NICU units at hospitals such as Woodhull and NY Presbyterian; immigrant and refugee-serving organizations including the International Rescue Committee; and parenting programs, such as the Nurse-Family Partnership program and the Harlem Children's Zone's Baby College.


title: Jessica Seinfeld

text: About $2 Million of Baby Buggy's budget is made up of in-kind product donations from individuals and corporations. Financial support for the organization comes from its board of directors, the friends of Baby Buggy group, private individuals, corporations and foundations. As of 2008, 88 cents of every dollar received by Baby Buggy went straight to programs. In 2013, Baby Buggy received its fourth Four Star rating from Charity Navigator. The charity is also an Accredited Charity of the Better Business Bureau.


title: Jessica Seinfeld

text: In July 2010, Baby Buggy launched a layette collection with Target Corporation, with 10% of sales going to help families in need. The layette line was designed by illustrator and children's book author Maira Kalman.


title: Jessica Seinfeld

text: In 2016, Baby Buggy was rebranded as the Good Plus Foundation (also seen as Good+ Foundation). As Baby Buggy, the nonprofit had seen 20 million items donated to families across the United States. Seinfeld shared with "Good Morning America" co-anchor George Stephanopoulos that the charity had outgrown its name. The Good Plus Foundation pairs goods and services in an incentives program. For example, a parent who opens an education savings account will also receive a stroller.


title: Jessica Seinfeld

text: In October 2007, Seinfeld released her first cookbook, "Deceptively Delicious: Simple Secrets to Get Your Kids Eating Good Food", which contains strategies and recipes for making healthy food appealing to young children. The book features traditional recipes, such as mac and cheese and spaghetti and meatballs, that get a nutritional boost from vegetable purees. "Deceptively Delicious" was featured on The Oprah Winfrey Show, became a No. 1 New York Times bestseller, remaining on the list for five months after its release. The book also reached No. 1 on Amazon.com and No. 2 on the "USA Today" bestseller list. Expert Joy Bauer added nutritional advice to the recipes, while Roxana Mehran and Mehmet Oz wrote the foreword. A portion of the royalties from "Deceptively Delicious" was donated to Baby Buggy.


title: Jessica Seinfeld

text: In October 2010, Seinfeld released her second cookbook, "Double Delicious! Good, Simple Food for Busy, Complicated Lives", which shared more healthy twists on traditional recipes, and incorporated vegetable purees, whole grains, and alternatives to processed sugars and flours. Like her first book, "Double Delicious!" was featured on The Oprah Winfrey Show.


title: Jessica Seinfeld

text: In 2013 she released her third cookbook, "The Can't Cook Book", billed as "100 recipes for the absolutely terrified!" In 2017 she released her fourth cookbook, "Food Swings".


title: Jessica Seinfeld

text: In 2021, Seinfeld adopted a plant-based diet. She authored a vegan cookbook titled "Vegan, at Times" for those "who cannot quite commit" to a vegan diet all the time.


title: Jessica Seinfeld

text: In October 2010, Seinfeld launched a website for beginner cooks called "Do it Delicious." The website teaches at-home viewers how to prepare particular dishes or meals step-by-step, as well as a kitchen guide, store, blog, and community forum where users can submit tips and ask how-to questions.


title: Jessica Seinfeld

text: In June 1998, she married Eric Nederlander, a theatrical producer and the son of theater owner Robert Nederlander. Several months before the wedding, she met Jerry Seinfeld at a Reebok Sports Club. After returning from a honeymoon in Italy with Nederlander, she began dating Seinfeld. Nederlander filed for divorce in October 1998, only four months after marriage. Sklar and Seinfeld became engaged in November 1999, and were married on December 25, 1999. Comedian George Wallace was the best man at the wedding.


title: Jessica Seinfeld

text: After much criticism from Nederlander on Sklar's divorce and subsequent marriage, the Seinfelds gave a personal account of their relationship to "Vogue" in 2004. Jessica Seinfeld is quoted as having said,


title: Jessica Seinfeld

text: Jerry Seinfeld has said, "If it wasn't for Jess and the kids, I'd really blow my brains out. Jessica saved my life. She gave me something to care about."


title: Jessica Seinfeld

text: The Seinfelds have three children, all born in New York City. Daughter Sascha was born November 7, 2000; son Julian Kal on March 1, 2003; and Shepherd Kellen was born on August 22, 2005.


title: Jessica Seinfeld

text: Seinfeld's first book, "Deceptively Delicious", was published by HarperCollins on January 7, 2008, and contained a series of recipes to hide pureed fruits and vegetables inside children's meals.


title: Jessica Seinfeld

text: Following her book's release, another cookbook author, Missy Chase Lapine, sued both Seinfelds, accusing Jessica of copyright and trademark infringement. Lapine had unsuccessfully shopped her own manuscript, "The Sneaky Chef", to several publishers, including HarperCollins, before publishing with Running Press.


title: Jessica Seinfeld

text: In response to the accusations, Seinfeld denied that either author had invented the idea of hiding fruits and vegetables in children's meals, and asserted that "countless prior works utilized this very same unprotectable idea" in cookbooks dating back to 1971. She claimed, "My book came from years of trying to get my own children to eat healthy foods—my own trial and error in my own kitchen. The idea of pureeing vegetables has been around for decades."


title: Jessica Seinfeld

text: In the same lawsuit, Lapine also accused Jerry Seinfeld of defamation, after he appeared on "Late Show with David Letterman" on October 29, 2007, and called Lapine "angry and hysterical," a "wacko," a "stalker" and a "nut job," and suggested that "people with three names ... become assassins."


title: Jessica Seinfeld

text: In 2009, U.S. District Court Judge Laura Taylor Swain dismissed all claims against Jessica Seinfeld, but left open the claim of defamation against her husband, to be tried in New York state court. The federal judge ruled that "no reasonable fact finder could conclude" that any copying occurred, and that the books were "very different" and had "a completely different feel."


title: Jessica Seinfeld

text: Lapine appealed the decision, but the dismissal was affirmed by the U.S. Court of Appeals in 2010. In 2011, the state court dismissed the remaining defamation claim against Jerry Seinfeld.


title: Cecil Rhodes

text: Cecil John Rhodes (5 July 1853 – 26 March 1902) was a British mining magnate and politician in southern Africa who served as Prime Minister of the Cape Colony from 1890 to 1896.


title: Cecil Rhodes

text: An ardent believer in British imperialism, Rhodes and his British South Africa Company colonised the southern African territory of Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe and Zambia), which the company named after him in 1895. South Africa's Rhodes University is also named after him. He also devoted much effort to realising his vision of a Cape to Cairo Railway through British territory. Rhodes set up the provisions of the Rhodes Scholarship, which is funded by his estate.


title: Cecil Rhodes

text: The son of a vicar, Rhodes was born at Netteswell House, Bishop's Stortford, Hertfordshire. A sickly child, he was sent to South Africa by his family when he was 17 years old in the hope that the climate might improve his health. He entered the diamond trade at Kimberley in 1871, when he was 18, and, thanks to funding from Rothschild & Co, began to systematically buy out and consolidate diamond mines. Over the next two decades he gained near-complete domination of the world diamond market, forming a massive monopoly. His diamond company De Beers, formed in 1888, retained its prominence into the 21st century.


title: Cecil Rhodes

text: Rhodes entered the Cape Parliament at the age of 27 in 1881, and in 1890, he became prime minister. During his time as prime minister, Rhodes used his political power to expropriate land from black Africans through the Glen Grey Act, while also tripling the wealth requirement for voting under the Franchise and Ballot Act, effectively barring black people from taking part in elections. After overseeing the formation of Rhodesia during the early 1890s, he was forced to resign in 1896 after the disastrous Jameson Raid, an unauthorised attack on Paul Kruger's South African Republic (or Transvaal). Rhodes's career never recovered; his heart was weak and after years of poor health he died in 1902. He was buried in what is now Zimbabwe; his grave has been a controversial site.


title: Cecil Rhodes

text: Rhodes' racial views are a subject of scrutiny and debate. He believed the natives of the Cape to have existed in a state of barbarism.


title: Cecil Rhodes

text: In his last will, he provided for the establishment of the prestigious international Rhodes Scholarship at Oxford University, the oldest graduate scholarship in the world. Every year it grants 102 full postgraduate scholarships. It has benefited prime ministers of Malta, Australia and Canada, United States President Bill Clinton, and many others.


title: Cecil Rhodes

text: Rhodes was born in 1853 in Bishop's Stortford, Hertfordshire, England, the fifth son of the Reverend Francis William Rhodes (1807–1878) and his wife, Louisa Peacock. Francis was a Church of England clergyman who served as perpetual curate of Brentwood, Essex (1834–1843), and then as vicar of nearby Bishop's Stortford (1849–1876), where he was well known for never having preached a sermon longer than ten minutes.


title: Cecil Rhodes

text: Francis was the eldest son of William Rhodes (1774–1843), a brick manufacturer from Hackney, Middlesex. The earliest traceable direct ancestor of Cecil Rhodes is James Rhodes (fl. 1660) of Snape Green, Whitmore, Staffordshire. Cecil's siblings included Frank Rhodes, a British Army officer.


title: Cecil Rhodes

text: Rhodes attended the Bishop's Stortford Grammar School from the age of nine, but, as a sickly, asthmatic adolescent, he was taken out of grammar school in 1869 and, according to Basil Williams, "continued his studies under his father's eye (...).


title: Cecil Rhodes

text: At age seven, he was recorded in the 1861 census as boarding with his aunt, Sophia Peacock, at a boarding house in Jersey, where the climate was perceived to provide a respite for those with conditions such as asthma. His health was weak and there were fears that he might be consumptive (have tuberculosis), a disease of which several of the family showed symptoms. His father decided to send him abroad for what were believed the good effects of a sea voyage and a better climate in South Africa.


title: Cecil Rhodes

text: When he arrived in Africa, Rhodes lived on money lent by his aunt Sophia. After a brief stay with the Surveyor-General of Natal, Dr. P.C. Sutherland, in Pietermaritzburg, Rhodes took an interest in agriculture. He joined his brother Herbert on his cotton farm in the Umkomazi valley in Natal. The land was unsuitable for cotton, and the venture failed.


title: Cecil Rhodes

text: In October 1871, 18-year-old Rhodes and his 26-year-old brother Herbert left the colony for the diamond fields of Kimberley in Northern Cape Province. Financed by N M Rothschild & Sons, Rhodes succeeded over the next 17 years in buying up all the smaller diamond mining operations in the Kimberley area.


title: Cecil Rhodes

text: His monopoly of the world's diamond supply was sealed in 1890 through a strategic partnership with the London-based Diamond Syndicate. They agreed to control world supply to maintain high prices. Rhodes supervised the working of his brother's claim and speculated on his behalf. Among his associates in the early days were John X. Merriman and Charles Rudd, who later became his partner in the De Beers Mining Company and the Niger Oil Company.


title: Cecil Rhodes

text: During the 1880s, Cape vineyards had been devastated by a phylloxera epidemic. The diseased vineyards were dug up and replanted, and farmers were looking for alternatives to wine. In 1892, Rhodes financed The Pioneer Fruit Growing Company at Nooitgedacht, a venture created by Harry Pickstone, an Englishman who had experience with fruit-growing in California. The shipping magnate Percy Molteno had just undertaken the first successful refrigerated export to Europe. In 1896, after consulting with Molteno, Rhodes began to pay more attention to export fruit farming and bought farms in Groot Drakenstein, Wellington and Stellenbosch. A year later, he bought Rhone and Boschendal and commissioned Sir Herbert Baker to build him a cottage there. The successful operation soon expanded into Rhodes Fruit Farms, and formed a cornerstone of the modern-day Cape fruit industry.


title: Cecil Rhodes

text: In 1873, Rhodes left his farm field in the care of his business partner, Rudd, and sailed for England to study at university. He was admitted to Oriel College, Oxford, but stayed for only one term in 1874. He returned to South Africa and did not return for his second term at Oxford until 1876. He was greatly influenced by John Ruskin's inaugural lecture at Oxford, which reinforced his own attachment to the cause of British imperialism.


title: Cecil Rhodes

text: Among his Oxford associates were James Rochfort Maguire, later a fellow of All Souls College and a director of the British South Africa Company, and Charles Metcalfe. Due to his university career, Rhodes admired the Oxford "system". Eventually, he was inspired to develop his scholarship scheme: "Wherever you turn your eye—except in science—an Oxford man is at the top of the tree".


title: Cecil Rhodes

text: While attending Oriel College, Rhodes became a Freemason in the Apollo University Lodge. Although initially he did not approve of the organisation, he continued to be a South African Freemason until his death in 1902. The shortcomings of the Freemasons, in his opinion, later caused him to envisage his own secret society with the goal of bringing the entire world under British rule.


title: Cecil Rhodes

text: During his years at Oxford, Rhodes continued to prosper in Kimberley. Before his departure for Oxford, he and C.D. Rudd had moved from the Kimberley Mine to invest in the more costly claims of what was known as old De Beers ("Vooruitzicht"). It was named after Johannes Nicolaas de Beer and his brother, Diederik Arnoldus, who occupied the farm.


title: Cecil Rhodes

text: After purchasing the land in 1839 from David Danser, a Koranna chief in the area, David Stephanus Fourie, forebearer for Claudine Fourie-Grosvenor, had allowed the de Beers and various other Afrikaner families to cultivate the land. The region extended from the Modder River via the Vet River up to the Vaal River.


title: Cecil Rhodes

text: In 1874 and 1875, the diamond fields were in the grip of depression, but Rhodes and Rudd were among those who stayed to consolidate their interests. They believed that diamonds would be numerous in the hard blue ground that had been exposed after the softer, yellow layer near the surface had been worked out. During this time, the technical problem of clearing out the water that was flooding the mines became serious. Rhodes and Rudd obtained the contract for pumping water out of the three main mines. After Rhodes returned from his first term at Oxford, he lived with Robert Dundas Graham, who later became a mining partner with Rudd and Rhodes.


title: Cecil Rhodes

text: On 13 March 1888, Rhodes and Rudd launched De Beers Consolidated Mines after the amalgamation of a number of individual claims. With £200,000 of capital, the company, of which Rhodes was secretary, owned the largest interest in the mine (£200,000 in 1880 = £22.5m in 2020 = $28.5m USD). Rhodes was named the chairman of De Beers at the company's founding in 1888. De Beers was established with funding from N.M. Rothschild & Sons in 1887.


title: Cecil Rhodes

text: In 1880, Rhodes prepared to enter public life at the Cape. With the earlier incorporation of Griqualand West into the Cape Colony under the Molteno Ministry in 1877, the area had obtained six seats in the Cape House of Assembly. Rhodes chose the rural and predominately Boer constituency of Barkly West, which would remain loyal to Rhodes until his death.


title: Cecil Rhodes

text: When Rhodes became a member of the Cape Parliament, the chief goal of the assembly was to help decide the future of Basutoland. The ministry of Sir Gordon Sprigg was trying to restore order after the 1880 rebellion known as the Gun War. The Sprigg ministry had precipitated the revolt by applying its policy of disarming all native Africans to those of the Basotho nation, who resisted.


title: Cecil Rhodes

text: In 1890, Rhodes became Prime Minister of the Cape Colony. He introduced various Acts of Parliament to push black people from their lands and make way for industrial development. Rhodes's view was that black people needed to be driven off their land to "stimulate them to labour" and to change their habits. "It must be brought home to them", Rhodes said, "that in future nine-tenths of them will have to spend their lives in manual labour, and the sooner that is brought home to them the better."


title: Cecil Rhodes

text: In 1892, Rhodes's Franchise and Ballot Act raised the property requirements from a relatively low £25 to a significantly higher £75 which had a disproportionate effect on the previously growing number of enfranchised black people in the Cape under the Cape Qualified Franchise that had been in force since 1853. By limiting the amount of land which black Africans were legally allowed to hold in the Glen Grey Act of 1894, Rhodes further disenfranchised the black population. To quote Richard Dowden, most would now "find it almost impossible to get back on the list because of the legal limit on the amount of land they could hold". In addition, Rhodes was an early architect of the Natives Land Act, 1913, which would limit the areas of the country where black Africans were allowed to settle to less than 10%. At the time, Rhodes would argue that "the native is to be treated as a child and denied the franchise. We must adopt a system of despotism, such as works in India, in our relations with the barbarism of South Africa."


title: Cecil Rhodes

text: Rhodes also introduced educational reform to the area. His policies were instrumental in the development of British imperial policies in South Africa, such as the Hut tax.


title: Cecil Rhodes

text: Rhodes did not, however, have direct political power over the independent Boer Republic of the Transvaal. He often disagreed with the Transvaal government's policies, which he considered unsupportive of mine-owners' interests. In 1895, believing he could use his influence to overthrow the Boer government, Rhodes supported the Jameson Raid, an unsuccessful attempt to create an uprising in the Transvaal that had the tacit approval of Secretary of State for the Colonies Joseph Chamberlain. The raid was a catastrophic failure. It forced Cecil Rhodes to resign as Prime Minister of the Cape Colony, sent his oldest brother Col. Frank Rhodes to jail in Transvaal convicted of high treason and nearly sentenced to death, and contributed to the outbreak of the Second Boer War.


title: Cecil Rhodes

text: In 1899, Rhodes was sued by a man named Burrows for falsely representing the purpose of the raid and thereby convincing him to participate in the raid. Burrows was severely wounded and had to have his leg amputated. His suit for £3,000 in damages was successful.


title: Cecil Rhodes

text: Rhodes used his wealth and that of his business partner Alfred Beit and other investors to pursue his dream of creating a British Empire in new territories to the north by obtaining mineral concessions from the most powerful indigenous chiefs. Rhodes' competitive advantage over other mineral prospecting companies was his combination of wealth and astute political instincts, also called the "imperial factor," as he often collaborated with the British Government. He befriended its local representatives, the British Commissioners, and through them organized British protectorates over the mineral concession areas via separate but related treaties. In this way he obtained both legality and security for mining operations. He could then attract more investors. Imperial expansion and capital investment went hand in hand.


title: Cecil Rhodes

text: The imperial factor was a double-edged sword: Rhodes did not want the bureaucrats of the Colonial Office in London to interfere in the Empire in Africa. He wanted British settlers and local politicians and governors to run it. This put him on a collision course with many in Britain, as well as with British missionaries, who favoured what they saw as the more ethical direct rule from London. Rhodes prevailed because he would pay the cost of administering the territories to the north of South Africa against his future mining profits. The Colonial Office did not have enough funding for this. Rhodes promoted his business interests as in the strategic interest of Britain: preventing the Portuguese, the Germans or the Boers from moving into south-central Africa. Rhodes's companies and agents cemented these advantages by obtaining many mining concessions, as exemplified by the Rudd and Lochner Concessions.