title: Stoke City F.C.

text: Stoke's first club crest was a stylised "S" which was used by players in 1882 who would stitch the crest on to their shirts; however, this practice soon faded away. In the 1950s Stoke began using the shield from the Stoke-on-Trent coat-of-arms which was used infrequently until 1977. A new and simpler club crest was introduced a Stafford knot and pottery kiln represented local tradition while red and white stripes were also added. This lasted until 1992 when the club decided to use the entire Stoke-on-Trent coat-of-arms which included the club's name at the top of the crest. They changed their crest in 2001 to the current version which includes their nickname "The Potters". For the 2012–13 season, they used a special version to mark the club's 150th anniversary which included the club's Latin motto ""Vis Unita Fortior"" ("United Strength is Stronger").


title: Stoke City F.C.

text: "For details of former players, see List of Stoke City F.C. players, List of Stoke City F.C. players (25–99 appearances), List of Stoke City F.C. players (1–24 appearances) and ."


title: Redfoo

text: Stefan Kendal Gordy (born September 3, 1975), better known by his stage name Redfoo, is an American rapper, singer, songwriter, actor, dancer, record producer and DJ best known for being part of the musical duo LMFAO, and for their hit songs "Party Rock Anthem" and "Sexy and I Know It". Redfoo formed the duo with his half-nephew, Sky Blu, in 2006. They released two studio albums, "Party Rock" in 2009, and "Sorry for Party Rocking" in 2011, before going on an indefinite hiatus in 2012. He is the only son of Nancy Leiviska, and the youngest son of Berry Gordy Jr; the founder of Motown Record Corporation; his half-brother is recording artist Rockwell.


title: Redfoo

text: Gordy was born on September 3, 1975, to Berry Gordy Jr., the founder of the Motown record label, and writer-producer Nancy Leiviska. His maternal grandfather was Finnish. He attended junior high school with will.i.am and GoonRock. Gordy graduated from Palisades Charter High School in Pacific Palisades, Los Angeles, California in 1993.


title: Redfoo

text: In 1994, Redfoo scored his first major production credit for the song "Back in the Day" by Los Angeles rapper Ahmad and co-produced seven other tracks on Ahmad's self-titled debut album. In 1996, he signed with Bubonic Records, and he worked in collaboration with the rapper Dre' Kroon for an album together. The album, "Balance Beam", was released on October 10, 1997. Redfoo and Kroon released two singles: "Life Is a Game Of Chess" and "The Freshest". In 1999, he collaborated on "Duet" with The Black Eyed Peas, from their album "Behind the Front". He also produced "Focused Daily" for Defari. In 2004, Figgkidd released "I Gotta Know" as single which featured vocals from Redfoo and Tech N9ne. The song peaked at number 50 in Australia.


title: Redfoo

text: He formed the electro-pop band LMFAO with his nephew Sky Blu in 2006. The duo started building a local buzz through their shows and radio play. Once they had recorded some demos, Redfoo's friend will.i.am introduced them to Interscope head Jimmy Iovine, who gave the green light for them to be signed to Interscope/will.i.am Music. Interscope A&R and will.i.am manager Neil Jacobson told HitQuarters that the demos sounded like "finished records", and that so little artist development work was needed it was essentially a "turnkey operation" for the label. LMFAO released the debut album, "Party Rock" on July 7, 2009. The album charted at number 33 on the "Billboard" 200 and number two on the Billboard Dance Chart. Their first single was "I'm in Miami Bitch", which was released in December 2008, and peaked at number 51 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 and number 37 in Canada. In early 2009, a little-known DJ/producer, "DJ Inphinity", created a bootleg using the Silvio Ecomo remix of DJ Chuckie's 2008 hit "Let the Bass Kick" and the a cappella of LMFAO, creating "Bass Kick in Miami". That same year, LMFAO was featured in The Crystal Method's song "Sine Language".


title: Redfoo

text: In 2010, they were featured in David Guetta's song "Gettin' Over You", which was an international hit, peaking in the top ten in eleven countries and at number one in three of them, including in the United Kingdom. It also peaked at number 31 on the U.S. Hot 100 and at number 12 in Canada. The duo then recorded their second album, "Sorry for Party Rocking", late in 2010 and released it on June 17, 2011, in the U.S. The first single taken from the album, "Party Rock Anthem", was released on January 1, 2011. It features British singer Lauren Bennett formerly of the girl pop group Paradiso Girls and producer GoonRock, and showcases the Melbourne Shuffle dance style in its popular video. The song is so far the most successful of their career, peaking at number one in the United States, Canada, the UK and over ten other countries, as well as being in the top ten in many others. The second single from "Sorry for Party Rocking", "Champagne Showers", was released on May 27, 2011, and features English singer-songwriter Natalia Kills. The third single, "Sexy and I Know It", was released on October 3, 2011, and reached number one on the iTunes charts worldwide and number one on the Australian and Canadian Hot 100.


title: Redfoo

text: Also in 2011, LMFAO embarked on the world tour Sorry for Party Rocking Tour. They were also the opening acts for American singer Kesha's "Get Sleazy Tour". After they released "Sexy and I Know It" as single and became the duo's second number one in the US, Canada, Australia and New Zealand. On February 5, 2012, the group appeared with Madonna at the Super Bowl XLVI during the Bridgestone Halftime Show. They performed during her song "Music", which contained a mash-up with "Party Rock Anthem" and "Sexy and I Know It". Also in 2012, Redfoo was sued by a previous management company for $7 million, claiming breach of contract. On September 21, 2012, the duo released a statement announcing their hiatus. Redfoo said, "I feel like we've been doing this for so long, five or six years", and that he and Sky Blu would not be performing together anytime soon as they would be taking their careers in different directions.


title: Redfoo

text: In December 2012, Redfoo released his first solo single "Bring Out the Bottles" and appeared in the film "Last Vegas". On April 21, 2013, Redfoo was confirmed as Guy Sebastian's replacement for the fifth season of the Australian version of "The X Factor", a singing talent television show, joining Ronan Keating, Natalie Bassingthwaighte and fellow debuting judge Dannii Minogue, who replaced Mel B. Because of commitments to "The X Factor", he relocated to Sydney, Australia in 2013. In September, Redfoo released a new hit single titled "Let's Get Ridiculous", which he premiered on "The X Factor Australia", performing live during the third live show. The single debuted at number one on the ARIA Singles Chart and was certified four times platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association. On October 19, 2013, Redfoo released the pilot episode of his new comedy web series, "Behind the Speedo". A second episode was released on March 25, 2014. In 2014, Redfoo returned for the sixth season of "The X Factor Australia". In June 2014, he released a new single titled "Where The Baes At" with Eric D-lux and Rio. In August 2014, Redfoo released a new single titled "New Thang" and peaked at number three in Australia.


title: Redfoo

text: The promotional single "Like Ya Just Don't Care" was released on September 2, 2014. The single is part of his solo debut album, "Party Rock Mansion", but under the title "Keep Shining", the first track on the album. In October 2014, Redfoo was featured on Play-N-Skillz song and video "Literally I Can't" along with Lil Jon and Enertia McFly. The song attracted widespread criticism for being misogynistic. On February 24, 2015, Redfoo was announced as one of the celebrities who will compete on the 20th season of "Dancing with the Stars". He was partnered with professional dancer Emma Slater. He had been a guest judge on the 18th season of the show, and is the first guest judge ever to return as a contestant. He and Slater were the first couple eliminated from the competition on March 23, 2015. On May 1, 2015, Redfoo announced that he would not be returning for the seventh season of "The X Factor Australia".


title: Redfoo

text: Redfoo announced his second album, "Party Rock Mansion", near the end of December 2015. He released a promotional single, "Lights Out", on January 15, 2016. The album was released on March 18, 2016, receiving mixed reviews from music critics, as well as being a commercial failure, with only 144 copies sold throughout Australia in its first week of release.


title: Redfoo

text: He has since released the singles "Brand New Day" and "Sock It to Ya" in 2017, and "Everything I Need" in 2018.


title: Redfoo

text: In 2020, his previously released single "New Thang" went viral on TikTok, being used in many videos and gaining newfound traction.


title: Redfoo

text: Redfoo is a former day trader and has been featured on business television CNBC's "Mad Money" with Jim Cramer.


title: Redfoo

text: Redfoo began dating former number one ranked tennis player Victoria Azarenka in 2012, but the couple split in 2014. He attended the 2012 US Open, 2013 Australian Open, 2013 Wimbledon Championships and 2014 Australian Open as a member of Azarenka's player box. As a tennis player, he attempted to qualify for the 2013 US Open as a wild-card entry. He entered the USTA Northern California Sectional qualifying tournament in June and was knocked out 6–1, 6–2 in his first match. Since 2018, he has been dating Jasmine Alkouri, a chef and road manager who now lives with him in his mansion.


title: Redfoo

text: Redfoo, through his line of Party Rock clothing, sponsored the Red Rock Pro Open, an ITF Women's Circuit tournament held in Las Vegas, from 2012 to 2013. Tyler Weeks, a tennis pro at the Cosmopolitan of Las Vegas, mentioned to Foo that his tournament needed a new sponsor after giving him a lesson, and Foo agreed for Party Rock clothing to be the new sponsor. The event is usually held at the end of September.


title: Death Grips

text: Death Grips is an American experimental hip hop group formed in 2010 in Sacramento, California. The group consists of Stefan Burnett, also known as MC Ride (vocals, lyrics), Zach Hill (drums, production, lyrics), and Andy Morin (keyboards, production, lyrics). Though he is not the group's frontman, Hill has been credited with being the driving creative force behind the project. Drawing from punk rock, electronic, noise, and industrial styles, the band's innovative and often difficult-to-categorize sound has earned critical acclaim and a cult following, while their aggressive performance style and cryptic interactions with their fans and the media have gained widespread notoriety.


title: Death Grips

text: The group released the mixtape "Exmilitary" in April 2011 and their debut studio album, "The Money Store", a year later; both received critical praise. Shortly after signing to Epic Records in 2012, the group leaked their second album, "No Love Deep Web", for free download in breach of their contract and were dropped from the label. They released their third album, "Government Plates", in 2013. Following several broken performance commitments, the group announced their disbanding in July 2014 along with the release of their fourth album, a double album titled "The Powers That B". The group leaked the first disc of this double album, "Niggas On The Moon", in 2014. In early 2015, before releasing the second disc, "Jenny Death", the group released an instrumental "soundtrack" album titled "Fashion Week". The song titles follow as; "Runway J", "Runway E", and so on; acrostically spelling out the phrase "JENNY DEATH WHEN", which had become a popular phrase coined by fans of the band, who were eagerly anticipating the release of the second disc. "The Powers That B" was released in 2015, billed as their final album. However, in March 2015, the group revealed that they "might make some more" music, and later announced a world tour.


title: Death Grips

text: Later in 2015, Death Grips announced their fifth official studio album, "Bottomless Pit", which was released in May 2016. Their sixth studio album, "Year of the Snitch", was released in June 2018. Their fourth EP, "Gmail and the Restraining Orders", was released in June 2019 in celebration of Warp Records' 30th anniversary.


title: Death Grips

text: Death Grips were formed in Sacramento, California, on December 21, 2010. On the same day, they recorded their first song, "Full Moon (Death Classic)". It was released on March 8, 2011, with a video and a free self-titled EP which featured the song alongside five other songs. On April 25, 2011, Death Grips released a free mixtape entitled "Exmilitary", containing three tracks from the EP along with new songs. Throughout the spring and early summer in 2011, they played small shows while "Exmilitary" was spreading steadily throughout the Internet and receiving favorable reviews from music critics. The band members were largely elusive during this time, with the only confirmed member being Hill.


title: Death Grips

text: Death Grips signed with Epic Records in February 2012, under the recommendation of Epic's then-executive vice president of marketing, Angelica Cob-Baehler. They announced the release of two albums in 2012. Their first studio album, "The Money Store", was released in April, got a 10/10 by Anthony Fantano, and debuted on the Billboard 200 chart at No. 130. Termed as "avant-rap", "Pitchfork" called "The Money Store" "confrontational, abrasive, and chaotic". The "Los Angeles Times" called it "punk rock with a hip-hop face-lift".


title: Death Grips

text: October saw the release of "No Love Deep Web". It was described as a darker album by "NPR", saying that the group creates a "soundtrack to modern urban living" with lyrics that describe "constant paranoia". The album contains heavily edited vocal performances from Ride. Its cover art drew attention and controversy for consisting of a picture of Hill's erect penis with the album title written across it. The album was recorded within four months in Sacramento. Prior to that, an international tour was scheduled to support "The Money Store", but was immediately cancelled in order to complete "No Love Deep Web." This caused conflict between the group and their fans, as well as their label Epic Records. In particular, the album was self-released for legal download via BitTorrent as an effort to bypass their label's original intent to release the album in 2013. Death Grips was cut from their recording contract as a result, and would launch their new label Third Worlds in the following year from "a unique relationship with Harvest/Capitol". Material would then be distributed by Caroline Records.


title: Death Grips

text: The group remixed two Björk songs from her album "Biophilia", "Sacrifice" and "Thunderbolt", after receiving an artist-to-artist note of support. The re-workings were featured in her 2012 remix album "Bastards". A non-album track titled "True Vulture Bare" was issued in October 2012 and was accompanied with an animated video by Galen Pehrson. This project was created for the Museum of Contemporary Art in Los Angeles.


title: Death Grips

text: In March 2013, the group released a series of videos to their YouTube account, collectively called "No Hands". On March 20, 2013, a music video for "Lock Your Doors", which was recorded at a live show in SXSW, was released. Hill did not attend the show physically, but played the drums via Skype. Hill wrote and directed an original feature film in May, with the involvement of Death Grips in the soundtrack. During this period, Hill was also working on the group's album.


title: Death Grips

text: Death Grips were scheduled to perform at Lollapalooza in August, but their performance was cancelled after the group failed to show up for an after-party show the previous night at the Bottom Lounge, instead putting on a playlist of pre-recorded tracks. Draped over the back of the stage was a huge printout of a fan's suicide note, written to the group in the form of an email. Fans at the show destroyed and stole pieces of the band's equipment after being informed of the cancellation. Their subsequent performance scheduled for Montreal's Osheaga Music and Arts Festival on the next day was cancelled, as well as performances in Boston and New York. The group however, never planned to actually appear at Lollapalooza; they later stated that the drum kit, suicide note, and pre-recorded music "was the show". The drum kit that was destroyed was revealed to be a children's learning kit and not Hill's actual kit.


title: Death Grips

text: "Government Plates" (2013) was released for free download on their official website. An "NME" review called the record "a challenging listen" but dubbed the album, along with "Slant Magazine", as "transgressive". The album "[pushes] further away from typical hip-hop" and "[toys] with electronic dance music of various eras", according to "The New York Times". In January 2014, Warp Music Publishing signed an exclusive worldwide publishing agreement with the group, covering previous and future releases. In June, Death Grips announced a double album titled "The Powers That B", along with a download of the first disc, subtitled "Niggas on the Moon". The second disc, "Jenny Death", was announced to be released later in the year. "Niggas on the Moon" features chopped up samples of Björk's vocals. The double album's first half received mixed to positive reviews. "Pitchfork" called it the group's least intense effort in their entire discography. A review by MusicOMH stated that it had less of Hill's percussion and claimed that Morin lacked direction in producing the album. Death Grips were scheduled as a supporting act to tour with Nine Inch Nails and Soundgarden in July but the group announced an abrupt disbandment, thus cancelling their appearances. An image of the following message, posted on their Facebook page, was written on a napkin:


title: Death Grips

text: In January 2015, without any prior notification, Death Grips released a free instrumental album entitled "Fashion Week". The song titles, each beginning with the word "Runway" followed by a letter of the alphabet, spelled out the phrase "JENNY DEATH WHEN" in reference to the then-unreleased second disc of "The Powers That B". The album was released in its complete form in March and reached the Billboard 200 chart at No. 72. In the same year, Hill and Morin formed a side project called the I.L.Y's and issued their debut album "I've Always Been Good at True Love" through Death Grips' official website; it was initially released with little information about the project.


title: Death Grips

text: In October 2015, the group uploaded a video to their YouTube page titled "Bottomless Pit". It features footage from 2013 of American actress Karen Black reciting lines from a film script Hill wrote months before her death. They also posted on their website and Facebook that this would be the title for their fifth studio album. In March, the group published a 32-minute video to their YouTube page titled "Interview 2016", which shares its name with their second EP; the video shows the group being interviewed by Matthew Hoffman of "Tuesdays With Matthew", an online volunteer project that aims to combat loneliness in elderly people by recruiting them to act in recreations of famous movie scenes. However, all of the interview's audio is replaced by the album's songs, while the EP's cover art consists solely of a picture of Hoffman looking into the camera. Death Grips uploaded their third EP, "Steroids (Crouching Tiger Hidden Gabber Megamix)", to their YouTube channel in May 2017; the EP consists of a single 22-minute song of the same name. Following this, the group co-headlined an autumn U.S. tour with industrial metal band Ministry.


title: Death Grips

text: In March 2018, Death Grips posted images on social media outlining that they were "working on the new album" titled "Year of the Snitch" with Australian noise artist Lucas Abela, New Zealand film director Andrew Adamson, and English musician Justin Chancellor (best known as the bassist for Tool). In April, Death Grips uploaded a video to their YouTube channel writing the track listing for the new album with text messages.


title: Death Grips

text: In May 2018, Death Grips uploaded the singles "Streaky", "Black Paint", and "Flies". In June, they uploaded a single titled "Hahaha", as well as an accompanying tweet announcing the release date for "Year of the Snitch" as June 22. A week later, the group released another two singles: "Dilemma", featuring Andrew Adamson, and "Shitshow". On June 21, "Year of the Snitch" was systematically made available on streaming services after the time reached midnight on June 22 in New Zealand, subsequently leading to listeners spreading differing versions of the album hours before its full scheduled rollout. The group also tweeted the album being "leaked". The following day, "Year of the Snitch" was officially released.


title: Death Grips

text: On June 21, 2019, Death Grips released a 30-minute mix titled "Gmail and the Restraining Orders" as part of Warp Records' 30th anniversary celebrations.


title: Death Grips

text: On January 29, 2021, "Gmail and the Restraining Orders" and "More Than the Fairy", a 2016 non-album single featuring Les Claypool, were released on streaming services.


title: Death Grips

text: On May 12, 2022, Death Grips published a cryptic video of a moth with a heavy trance background, as a teaser for new music.


title: Death Grips

text: On July 11, 2022, Death Grips released "Live from Death Valley", an EP from 2011, to streaming services.


title: Death Grips

text: In November 2022, Death Grips were announced as participants in the Sick New World, Outbreak Fest and Primavera Sound music festivals scheduled for summer 2023. These announcements were followed in December 2022 by the confirmation of a North American tour, the band's first in four years, scheduled from May to October 2023. The day after these tour announcements, Death Grips published a video of new music over distorted visuals.


title: Death Grips

text: Death Grips' music combines a variety of styles including hip hop, punk rock, electronic, noise, and industrial. Their style has been categorized as experimental hip hop, rap rock, electropunk, industrial hip hop, and punk rap. The group is known for Ride's aggressive rapping style, alongside their noisy and often chaotic production style and bleak and cryptic lyrics. They have also received attention for their wild physical performances and stage presence. Their live performances are notable for antics such as the destruction of instruments, their complete absence at one of their scheduled shows, Hill drumming to the point of severe injury or performing in handcuffs, Ride's intense and chaotic stage persona, and Morin's use of live sampling alongside his improvised synthesizer flourishes and violent dancing.


title: Death Grips

text: They are also notable for engaging in extended periods of live musical improvisation interwoven into their set as bridges between songs, typically performed on the fly by Morin and Hill. Ride has been known to adopt many different vocal styles on record and during live performances, such as shouting, screaming, spoken word-style talking, and even whispering. Morin's unorthodox style of production and sampling and Hill's noisy, fast, and unconventional drumming styles and patterns are also distinct features of Death Grips' sound. The group is also notable for their distinctive and lo-fi visual style made clear in their music videos, performances, and releases.


title: Death Grips

text: The band remixed two of Björk's tracks for her remix album "Bastards", released in 2012. She then recorded original vocal samples for the band, which they used on every track of "Niggas on the Moon". Her contribution is credited as "found object". The actor Robert Pattinson is a fan, friend, and collaborator of the band; he played guitar on the song "Birds" from "Government Plates", which Hill recorded on an iPhone during a jam session and later sampled into the song. Pattinson also appeared in a 2013 photo with the group and Beyoncé backstage at the latter's concert, which went viral. Guitarist Sergio Pizzorno of Kasabian cited them as an influence the band's album "". According to David Bowie collaborator Donny McCaslin, Bowie was inspired by Death Grips while working on his final album "Blackstar".


title: Rachael Harris

text: Rachael Elaine Harris (born January 12, 1968) is an American actress and comedian. She is known for her numerous acting roles, such as starring as Dr. Linda Martin in "Lucifer", her role in the "Diary of a Wimpy Kid" film series, and as a guest star on numerous TV shows.


title: Rachael Harris

text: Harris performed with the Los Angeles improvisational comedy troupe The Groundlings and taught for a time with The Groundlings school.


title: Rachael Harris

text: She debuted on television on "SeaQuest DSV" in 1993. After an appearance on "" in 1997, Harris went on to a recurring role in The WB's "Sister, Sister". Other television credits include a stint as a correspondent for "The Daily Show's" 2002–2003 season, as well as guest roles on "The Sarah Silverman Program", "Reno 911!", "The West Wing", "The Good Guys", "Friends", "The Office", "Curb Your Enthusiasm", "Monk", "", and "Desperate Housewives" in November 2008. Harris played the supporting role of Kevyn Shecket, Kirstie Alley's personal makeup artist, on the Showtime series "Fat Actress" in 2005–2009. She also appeared in "Suits" as Sheila Sazs, Louis Litt's on-and-off again love interest, and played Cooper in the ABC sitcom "Notes from the Underbelly".


title: Rachael Harris

text: Harris hosted "Smoking Gun TV" in 2004, and has made multiple appearances on such VH1 documentaries as "I Love the '80s", "I Love the '90s", and "Best Week Ever". On ABC's "Cougar Town", she played Shanna, a woman that the network describes as being the "nemesis" of Jules. Also on ABC, she made a guest appearance in the "Modern Family" episode "Caught in the Act" as Amelia, a restaurateur and mother to a playmate of Lily Pritchett.


title: Rachael Harris

text: In March 2014, Harris began a new role in the very short-lived series "Surviving Jack" with Chris Meloni. In March 2015, Harris was cast as Linda, Lucifer's therapist in the Netflix original series "Lucifer".


title: Rachael Harris

text: In 2018, Harris appeared alongside Cheryl Hines on the reality series "Hell's Kitchen" where they both sat in the blue team's chef's table in the episode "Hell Freezes Over".


title: Rachael Harris

text: She debuted on film in the 1992 film "Treehouse Trolls" as the Treehouse Mom. Harris recalls the experience, "But Treehouse Trolls, that just came out of an audition in this shitty theater. Like, it wasn't even a theater. It was a room. Near Times Square. And I was like, "I hope this is a legitimate audition. I could be going in for a porn. I don't know"."


title: Rachael Harris

text: Her film credits include roles in "Best in Show", "A Mighty Wind", "For Your Consideration", "Kicking & Screaming", and "Daddy Day Care". In the 2009 comedy "The Hangover", she plays Melissa, the domineering, abusive girlfriend to Ed Helms's character Stu. She previously co-starred with Helms on "The Daily Show". From 2010 to 2012, she played Susan Heffley in the original "Diary of a Wimpy Kid" film trilogy.


title: Rachael Harris

text: Harris' TV commercial work includes ads for Dinty Moore, Avis, Expedia, Quaker Oats, T-Mobile, GEICO, and a Super Bowl commercial for the 2010 Census. She is the voice of turtle Karolyn Slowsky in the Comcast Slowskys television commercials.


title: Rachael Harris

text: Harris was born in Worthington, Ohio. She graduated from Worthington High School in 1986 and Otterbein College in 1989, earning a Bachelor of Fine Arts in theatre.


title: Rachael Harris

text: Harris and violinist Christian Hebel eloped on April 30, 2015 and married in New York City. They have two children.


title: White

text: White is the lightest color and is achromatic (having no hue). It is the color of objects such as snow, chalk, and milk, and is the opposite of black. White objects fully reflect and scatter all the visible wavelengths of light. White on television and computer screens is created by a mixture of red, blue, and green light. The color white can be given with white pigments, especially titanium dioxide.


title: White

text: In ancient Egypt and ancient Rome, priestesses wore white as a symbol of purity, and Romans wore white togas as symbols of citizenship. In the Middle Ages and Renaissance a white unicorn symbolized chastity, and a white lamb sacrifice and purity. It was the royal color of the kings of France, and of the monarchist movement that opposed the Bolsheviks during the Russian Civil War (1917–1922). Greek and Roman temples were faced with white marble, and beginning in the 18th century, with the advent of neoclassical architecture, white became the most common color of new churches, capitols and other government buildings, especially in the United States. It was also widely used in 20th century modern architecture as a symbol of modernity and simplicity.


title: White

text: According to surveys in Europe and the United States, white is the color most often associated with perfection, the good, honesty, cleanliness, the beginning, the new, neutrality, and exactitude. White is an important color for almost all world religions. The pope, the head of the Roman Catholic Church, has worn white since 1566, as a symbol of purity and sacrifice. In Islam, and in the Shinto religion of Japan, it is worn by pilgrims. In Western cultures and in Japan, white is the most common color for wedding dresses, symbolizing purity and virginity. In many Asian cultures, white is also the color of mourning.


title: White

text: The word "white" continues Old English ', ultimately from a Common Germanic ' also reflected in OHG ', ON ', Goth. '. The root is ultimately from Proto-Indo-European language ', surviving also in Sanskrit ' "to be white or bright" and Slavonic ' "light". The Icelandic word for white, ', is directly derived from the Old Norse form of the word '. Common Germanic also had the word *"blankaz" ("white, bright, blinding"), borrowed into Late Latin as *"blancus", which provided the source for Romance words for "white" (Catalan, Occitan and French "blanc", Spanish "blanco", Italian "bianco", Galician-Portuguese "branco", etc.). The antonym of white is black.


title: White

text: Some non-European languages have a wide variety of terms for white. The Inuit language has seven different words for seven different nuances of white. Sanskrit has specific words for bright white, the white of teeth, the white of sandalwood, the white of the autumn moon, the white of silver, the white of cow's milk, the white of pearls, the white of a ray of sunlight, and the white of stars. Japanese has six different words, depending upon brilliance or dullness, or if the color is inert or dynamic.


title: White

text: White was one of the first colors used in art. The Lascaux Cave in France contains drawings of bulls and other animals drawn by paleolithic artists between 18,000 and 17,000 years ago. Paleolithic artists used calcite or chalk, sometimes as a background, sometimes as a highlight, along with charcoal and red and yellow ochre in their vivid cave paintings.


title: White

text: In ancient Egypt, white was connected with the goddess Isis. The priests and priestesses of Isis dressed only in white linen, and it was used to wrap mummies.


title: White

text: In Greece and other ancient civilizations, white was often associated with mother's milk. In Greek mythology, the chief god Zeus was nourished at the breast of the nymph Amalthea. In the Talmud, milk was one of four sacred substances, along with wine, honey, and the rose.


title: White

text: The ancient Greeks saw the world in terms of darkness and light, so white was a fundamental color. According to Pliny the Elder in his "Natural History", Apelles (4th century BC) and the other famous painters of ancient Greece used only four colors in their paintings; white, red, yellow and black; For painting, the Greeks used the highly toxic pigment lead white, made by a long and laborious process.


title: White

text: A plain white toga, known as a "toga virilis", was worn for ceremonial occasions by all Roman citizens over the age of 14–18. Magistrates and certain priests wore a "toga praetexta", with a broad purple stripe.


title: White

text: In the time of the Emperor Augustus, no Roman man was allowed to appear in the Roman forum without a toga.


title: White

text: The ancient Romans had two words for white; "albus", a plain white, (the source of the word "albino"); and "candidus," a brighter white. A man who wanted public office in Rome wore a white toga brightened with chalk, called a "toga candida", the origin of the word "candidate". The Latin word "candere" meant to shine, to be bright. It was the origin of the words "candle" and "candid".


title: White

text: In ancient Rome, the priestesses of the goddess Vesta dressed in white linen robes, a white palla or shawl, and a white veil. They protected the sacred fire and the penates of Rome. White symbolized their purity, loyalty, and chastity.


title: White

text: The early Christian church adopted the Roman symbolism of white as the color of purity, sacrifice and virtue. It became the color worn by priests during Mass, the color worn by monks of the Cistercian Order, and, under Pope Pius V, a former monk of the Dominican Order, it became the official color worn by the pope himself. Monks of the Order of Saint Benedict dressed in the white or gray of natural undyed wool, but later changed to black, the color of humility and penitence.


title: White

text: Postclassical history art, the white lamb became the symbol of the sacrifice of Christ on behalf of mankind. John the Baptist described Christ as the lamb of God, who took the sins of the world upon himself. The white lamb was the center of one of the most famous paintings of the Medieval period, the "Ghent Altarpiece" by Jan van Eyck.


title: White

text: White was also the symbolic color of the transfiguration. The Gospel of Saint Mark describes Jesus' clothing in this event as "shining, exceeding white as snow." Artists such as Fra Angelico used their skill to capture the whiteness of his garments. In his painting of the transfiguration at the Convent of Saint Mark in Florence, Fra Angelico emphasized the white garment by using a light gold background, placed in an almond-shaped halo.


title: White

text: The white unicorn was a common subject of Postclassical history manuscripts, paintings and tapestries. It was a symbol of purity, chastity and grace, which could only be captured by a virgin. It was often portrayed in the lap of the Virgin Mary.


title: White

text: During the Postclassical history, painters rarely ever mixed colors; but in the Renaissance, the influential humanist and scholar Leon Battista Alberti encouraged artists to add white to their colors to make them lighter, brighter, and to add "hilaritas", or gaiety. Many painters followed his advice, and the palette of the Renaissance was considerably brighter.


title: White

text: Until the 16th century, white was commonly worn by widows as a color of mourning. The widows of the kings of France wore white until Anne of Brittany in the 16th century. A white tunic was also worn by many knights, along with a red cloak, which showed the knights were willing to give their blood for the king or Church.


title: White

text: White was the dominant color of architectural interiors in the Baroque period and especially the Rococo style that followed it in the 18th century. Church interiors were designed to show the power, glory and wealth of the church. They seemed to be alive, filled with curves, asymmetry, mirrors, gilding, statuary and reliefs, unified by white.


title: White

text: White was also a fashionable color for both men and women in the 18th century. Men in the aristocracy and upper classes wore powdered white wigs and white stockings, and women wore elaborate embroidered white and pastel gowns.


title: White

text: After the French Revolution, a more austere white ("blanc cassé") became the most fashionable color in women's costumes which were modeled after the outfits of Ancient Greece and Republican Rome. Because of the rather revealing design of these dresses, the ladies wearing them were called "les merveilleuses" (the marvellous) by French men of that era. The Empire style under Emperor Napoléon I was modeled after the more conservative outfits of Ancient Imperial Rome. The dresses were high in fashion but low in warmth considering the more severe weather conditions of northern France; in 1814 the former wife of Napoleon, Joséphine de Beauharnais, caught pneumonia and died after taking a walk in the cold night air with Tsar Alexander I of Russia.


title: White

text: White was the universal color of both men and women's underwear and of sheets in the 18th and 19th centuries. It was unthinkable to have sheets or underwear of any other color. The reason was simple; the manner of washing linen in boiling water caused colors to fade. When linen was worn out, it was collected and turned into high-quality paper.


title: White

text: The 19th-century American painter James McNeill Whistler (1834–1903), working at the same time as the French impressionists, created a series of paintings with musical titles where he used color to create moods, the way composers used music. His painting "Symphony in White No. 1 – The White Girl", which used his mistress Joanna Hiffernan as a model, used delicate colors to portray innocence and fragility, and a moment of uncertainty.


title: White

text: The White movement was the opposition that formed against the Bolsheviks during the Russian Civil War, which followed the Russian Revolution in 1917. It was finally defeated by the Bolsheviks in 1921–22, and many of its members emigrated to Europe.


title: White

text: At the end of the 19th century, lead white was still the most popular pigment; but between 1916 and 1918, chemical companies in Norway and the United States began to produce titanium white, made from titanium oxide. It had first been identified in the 18th century by the German chemist Martin Klaproth, who also discovered uranium. It had twice the covering power of lead white, and was the brightest white pigment known. By 1945, 80 percent of the white pigments sold were titanium white.


title: White

text: The absoluteness of white appealed to modernist painters. It was used in its simplest form by the Russian suprematist painter Kazimir Malevich in his 1917 painting 'the white square,' the companion to his earlier 'black square.' It was also used by the Dutch modernist painter Piet Mondrian. His most famous paintings consisted of a pure white canvas with grid of vertical and horizontal black lines and rectangles of primary colors.


title: White

text: Black and white also appealed to modernist architects, such as Le Corbusier (1887–1965). He said a house was "a machine for living in" and called for a "calm and powerful architecture" built of reinforced concrete and steel, without any ornament or frills. Almost all the buildings of contemporary architect Richard Meier, such as his museum in Rome to house the ancient Roman Ara Pacis, or Altar of Peace, are stark white, in the tradition of Le Corbusier.


title: White

text: Light is perceived by the human visual system as white when the incoming light to the eye stimulates all three types of color sensitive cone cells in the eye in roughly equal amounts. Materials that do not emit light themselves appear white if their surfaces reflect back most of the light that strikes them in a diffuse way.


title: White

text: In 1666, Isaac Newton demonstrated that white light was composed of multiple colors by passing it through a prism to break it up into components then using a second prism to reassemble them. Before Newton, most scientists believed that white was the fundamental color of light.


title: White

text: White light can be generated by the sun, by stars, or by earthbound sources such as fluorescent lamps, white LEDs and incandescent bulbs. On the screen of a color television or computer, white is produced by mixing the primary colors of light: red, green and blue (RGB) at full intensity, a process called additive mixing (see image above). White light can be fabricated using light with only two wavelengths, for instance by mixing light from a red and cyan laser or yellow and blue lasers. This light will however have very few practical applications since color rendering of objects will be greatly distorted.


title: White

text: The fact that light sources with vastly different spectral power distributions can result in a similar sensory experience is due to the way the light is processed by the visual system. One color that arises from two different spectral power distributions is called a metamerism.


title: White

text: Many of the light sources that emit white light emit light at almost all visible wavelengths (sun light, incandescent lamps of various Color temperatures). This has led to the notion that white light can be defined as a mixture of "all colors" or "all visible wavelengths". This widespread idea is a misconception, and might originally stem from the fact that Newton discovered that "sunlight" is composed of light with wavelengths across the visible spectrum. Concluding that "since "all colors" produce white light then white must be made up of "all colors"" is a common logical error called affirming the consequent, which might be the cause of the misunderstanding.


title: White

text: A range of spectral distributions of light sources can be perceived as white—there is no single, unique specification of "white light". For example, when buying a "white" light bulb, one might buy one labeled 2700K, 6000K, etc., which produce light having very different spectral distributions, and yet this will not prevent the user from identifying the color of objects that those light bulbs illuminate.


title: White

text: Color vision allows us to distinguish different "objects" by their color. In order to do so, color constancy can keep the perceived color of an object relatively unchanged when the illumination changes among various broad (whitish) spectral distributions of light.


title: White

text: The same principle is used in photography and cinematography where the choice of white point determines a transformation of all other color stimuli. Changes in or manipulation of the white point can be used to explain some optical illusions such as The dress.


title: White

text: While there is no single, unique specification of "white light", there is indeed a unique specification of "white object", or, more specifically, "white surface".


title: White

text: A perfectly white surface diffusely reflects (scatters) all visible light that strikes it, without absorbing any, irrespective of the light's wavelength or spectral distribution.


title: White

text: If the reflection is not diffuse but rather specular, this describes a mirror rather than a white surface.


title: White

text: Reflection of 100% of incident light at all wavelengths is a form of uniform reflectance, so white is an achromatic color, meaning a color without hue. The color stimulus produced by the perfect diffuser is usually considered to be an achromatic stimulus for all illuminants, except for those whose light sources appear to be highly chromatic.


title: White

text: Color constancy is achieved by chromatic adaptation. The International Commission on Illumination defines "white (adapted)" as "a color stimulus that an observer who is [chromatically] adapted to the viewing environment would judge to be perfectly achromatic and to have a luminance factor of unity. The color stimulus that is considered to be the adapted white may be different at different locations within a scene.


title: White

text: Beaches with sand containing high amounts of quartz or eroded limestone also appear white, since quartz and limestone reflect or scatter sunlight, rather than absorbing it. Tropical white sand beaches may also have a high quantity of white calcium carbonate from tiny bits of seashells ground to fine sand by the action of the waves.


title: White

text: The White Cliffs of Dover take their white color from the large amount of chalk, made of limestone, which they contain, which reflects the sunlight.


title: White

text: Snow is a mixture of air and tiny ice crystals. When white sunlight enters snow, very little of the spectrum is absorbed; almost all of the light is reflected or scattered by the air and water molecules, so the snow appears to be the color of sunlight, white. Sometimes the light bounces around inside the ice crystals before being scattered, making the snow seem to sparkle.


title: White

text: In the case of glaciers, the ice is more tightly pressed together and contains little air. As sunlight enters the ice, more light of the red spectrum is absorbed, so the light scattered will be bluish.


title: White

text: Clouds are white for the same reason as ice. They are composed of water droplets or ice crystals mixed with air, very little light that strikes them is absorbed, and most of the light is scattered, appearing to the eye as white. Shadows of other clouds above can make clouds look gray, and some clouds have their own shadow on the bottom of the cloud.


title: White

text: Many mountains with winter or year-round snow cover are named accordingly: Mauna Kea means "white mountain" in Hawaiian, Mont Blanc means "white mountain" in French. Changbai Mountains literally meaning "perpetually white mountains", marks the border between China and Korea.


title: White

text: Chalk is a type of limestone, made of the mineral calcite, or calcium carbonate. It was originally deposited under the sea as the scales or plates of tiny micro-organisms called Coccolithophore. It was the first white pigment used by prehistoric artists in cave paintings. The chalk used on blackboards today is usually made of gypsum or calcium sulphate, a powder pressed into sticks.


title: White

text: "Bianco di San Giovanni" is a pigment used in the Renaissance, which was described by the painter Cennino Cennini in the 15th century. It is similar to chalk, made of calcium carbonate with calcium hydroxide. It was made of dried lime which was made into a powder, then soaked in water for eight days, with the water changed each day. It was then made into cakes and dried in the sun.


title: White

text: Lead white was being produced during the 4th century BC; the process is described is Pliny the Elder, Vitruvius and the ancient Greek author Theophrastus. Pieces of lead were put into clay pots which had a separate compartment filled with vinegar. The pots in turn were piled on shelves close to cow dung. The combined fumes of the vinegar and the cow dung caused the lead to corrode into lead carbonate. It was a slow process which could take a month or more. It made an excellent white and was used by artists for centuries, but it was also toxic. It was replaced in the 19th century by zinc white and titanium white.


title: White

text: Titanium white is the most popular white for artists today; it is the brightest available white pigment, and has twice the coverage of lead white. It first became commercially available in 1921. It is made out of titanium dioxide, from the minerals brookite, anatase, rutile, or ilmenite, currently the major source. Because of its brilliant whiteness, it is used as a colorant for most toothpaste and sunscreen.


title: White

text: Zinc white is made from zinc oxide. It is similar to but not as opaque as titanium white. It is added to some foods to enrich them with zinc, an important nutrient. Chinese white is a variety of zinc white made for artists.


title: White

text: Some materials can be made to look "whiter than white", this is achieved using optical brightener agents (OBA). These are chemical compounds that absorb light in the ultraviolet and violet region (usually 340–370 nm) of the electromagnetic spectrum, and re-emit light in the blue region (typically 420–470 nm). OBAs are often used in paper and clothing to create an impression of very bright white. This is due to the fact that the materials actually send out more visible light than they receive.


title: White

text: Bleaching is a process for whitening fabrics which has been practiced for thousands of years. Sometimes it was simply a matter of leaving the fabric in the sun, to be faded by the bright light. In the 18th century several scientists developed varieties of chlorine bleach, including sodium hypochlorite and calcium hypochlorite (bleaching powder). Bleaching agents that do not contain chlorine most often are based on peroxides, such as hydrogen peroxide, sodium percarbonate and sodium perborate. While most bleaches are oxidizing agents, a fewer number are reducing agents such as sodium dithionite.


title: White

text: Bleaches attack the chromophores, the part of a molecule which absorbs light and causes fabrics to have different colors. An oxidizing bleach works by breaking the chemical bonds that make up the chromophore. This changes the molecule into a different substance that either does not contain a chromophore, or contains a chromophore that does not absorb visible light. A reducing bleach works by converting double bonds in the chromophore into single bonds. This eliminates the ability of the chromophore to absorb visible light.


title: White

text: Sunlight acts as a bleach through a similar process. High energy photons of light, often in the violet or ultraviolet range, can disrupt the bonds in the chromophore, rendering the resulting substance colorless.


title: White

text: Some detergents go one step further; they contain fluorescent chemicals which glow, making the fabric look literally whiter than white.


title: White

text: A white dwarf is a stellar remnant composed mostly of electron-degenerate matter. They are very dense; a white dwarf's mass is comparable to that of the Sun and its volume is comparable to that of the Earth. Its faint luminosity comes from the emission of stored thermal energy. A white dwarf is very hot when it is formed, but since it has no source of energy, it will gradually radiate away its energy and cool down. This means that its radiation, which initially has a high color temperature, will lessen and redden with time. Over a very long time, a white dwarf will cool to temperatures at which it will no longer emit significant heat or light, and it will become a cold black dwarf. However, since no white dwarf can be older than the Age of the universe (approximately 13.8 billion years), even the oldest white dwarfs still radiate at temperatures of a few thousand kelvins, and no black dwarfs are thought to exist yet.


title: White

text: An A-type main-sequence star (A V) or A dwarf star is a main-sequence (hydrogen-burning) star of spectral type A and luminosity class V. These stars have spectra which are defined by strong hydrogen Balmer absorption lines. They have masses from 1.4 to 2.1 times the mass of the Sun and surface temperatures between 7600 and 11 500  K.


title: White

text: White animals use their color as a form of camouflage in winter. Animals such as penguins are countershaded with white bellies, again as camouflage.


title: White

text: White is an important symbolic color in most religions and cultures, usually because of its association with purity.


title: White

text: In the Roman Catholic Church, white is associated with Jesus Christ, innocence and sacrifice. Since the Middle Ages, priests wear a white cassock in many of the most important ceremonies and religious services connected with events in the life of Christ. White is worn by priests at Christmas, during Easter, and during celebrations connected with the other events of the life of Christ, such as Corpus Christi Sunday, and Trinity Sunday. It is also worn at the services dedicated to the Virgin Mary, and to those Saints who were not martyred, as well as other special occasions, such as the ordination of priests and the installation of new bishops. Within the hierarchy of the church, the lighter the color, the higher the rank. Ordinary priests wear black; bishops wear violet, cardinals wear red, and outside a church, only the Pope will wear white. Popes occasionally wore white in the Middle Ages, but usually wore red. Popes have worn white regularly since 1566, when Pope Pius V, a member of the Dominican Order, began the practice. White is the color of the Dominican Order.


title: White

text: In the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints the color white is used as a symbol of purity, innocence, and cleanliness, particularly in religious ceremonies such as baptism and temple ceremonies. In temple ceremonies, white clothing is also worn by all participants, both men and women, to also symbolize unity and equality before God.


title: White

text: In Islam, white clothing is worn during required pilgrimage to Mecca, or "Ihram" pilgrimage ("Hajj").Hajj. Called Ihram clothing, men's garments often consist of two white un-hemmed sheets (usually towelling material). The top (the "riḍā") is draped over the torso and the bottom (the "izār") is secured by a belt; plus a pair of sandals. Women's clothing varies considerably and reflects regional as well as religious influences. Ihram is typically worn during Dhu al-Hijjah, the last month in the Islamic calendar.


title: White

text: White also has a long history of use as a religious and political symbol in Islam, beginning with the white banner that tradition ascribes to the Quraysh, the tribe to which Muhammad belonged. The Umayyad dynasty also used white as its dynastic color, following the personal banner of its founder, Mu'awiya I, while the Shi'ite Fatimids also chose white to highlight their opposition to the Sunni Abbasid Caliphate, whose color was black.


title: White

text: In Judaism, during the rituals of Yom Kippur, the ceremony of atonement, the rabbi dresses in white, as do the members of the congregation, to restore the bonds between God and his followers.


title: White

text: In the traditional Japanese religion of Shinto, an area of white gravel or stones marks a sacred place, called a "niwa". These places were dedicated to the "kami", spirits which had descended from the heavens or had come across the sea. Later, temples of Zen Buddhism in Japan often featured a Zen garden, where white sand or gravel was carefully raked to resemble rivers or streams, designed as objects of meditation.


title: White

text: In the temples of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church or also known as Mormon), White clothing is worn inside once they have been officially dedicated, due to white symbolizing purity.


title: White

text: Many religions symbolize heaven by using a sky with white clouds. This phenomenon is not limited to western culture; in Yoruba religion, the orisha Obatala in the Ifá tradition is represented by white. Obatala is associated with calmness, morality, old age, and purity.


title: White

text: In Theosophy and similar religions, the deities called the Great White Brotherhood are said to have white auras.


title: White

text: In some Asian and Slavic cultures, white is considered to be a color that represents death. White also represented death in ancient Egypt, representing the lifeless desert that covered much of the country; black was held to be the color of life, representing the mud-covered fertile lands created by the flooding of the Nile and giving the country its name ("Kemet", or "black land").


title: White

text: In China, Korea, and some other Asian countries, white, or more precisely, the whitish color of undyed linen, is the color of mourning and funerals.


title: White

text: In traditional China, undyed linen clothing is worn at funerals. As time passes, the bereaved can gradually wear clothing dyed with colors, then with darker colors. Small sacks of quicklime, one for each year of the life of the deceased are placed around the body to protect it against impurity in the next world, and white paper flowers are placed around the body.


title: White

text: In China and other Asian countries, white is the color of reincarnation, showing that death is not a permanent separation from the world.


title: White

text: In China, white is associated with the masculine (the "yang" of the "yin" and "yang"); with the unicorn and tiger; with the fur of an animal; with the direction of west; with the element metal; and with the autumn season.


title: White

text: In Japan, undyed linen white robes are worn by pilgrims for rituals of purification, and bathing in sacred rivers. In the mountains, pilgrims wear costumes of undyed jute to symbolize purity. A white kimono is often placed in the casket with the deceased for the journey to the other world, as white represents death sometimes. Condolence gifts, or "kooden", are tied with black and white ribbons and wrapped in white paper, protecting the contents from the impurities of the other world.


title: White

text: In India, it is the color of purity, divinity, detachment and serenity. In Hindi, the name Sweta means white.


title: White

text: In the Bedouin and some other pastoral cultures, there is a strong connection between milk and white, which is considered the color of gratitude, esteem, joy, good fortune and fertility.


title: White

text: In Paganism, it is used for peace, innocence, illumination, and purity. It can also be used to stand for any color. White is also associated with cleansing, a Pagan practice that cleans something using the elements. In Wicca, a white-handled knife called the boline is used in rituals.


title: White

text: White is often associated with monarchism. The association originally came from the white flag of the Bourbon dynasty of France. White became the banner of the royalist rebellions against the French Revolution (see Revolt in the Vendée).


title: White

text: During the Civil War which followed the Russian Revolution of 1917, the White Army, a coalition of monarchists, nationalists and liberals, fought unsuccessfully against the Red Army of the Bolsheviks. A similar battle between reds and whites took place during the Civil War in Finland in the same period.


title: White

text: The Ku Klux Klan is a racist and anti-immigrant organization which flourished in the Southern United States after the American Civil War. They wore white robes and hoods, burned crosses and violently attacked and murdered black Americans.


title: White

text: In Iran, the White Revolution was a series of social and political reforms launched in 1963 by the last Shah of Iran before his downfall.


title: White

text: White is also associated with peace and passive resistance. The white ribbon is worn by movements denouncing violence against women and the White Rose was a non-violent resistance group in Nazi Germany.


title: White

text: White is a common color in national flags, though its symbolism varies widely. The white in the flag of the United States and flag of the United Kingdom comes from traditional red St George's Cross on a white background of the historic flag of England. The white in the flag of France represents either the monarchy or "white, the ancient French color" according to the Marquis de Lafayette.


title: White

text: Many flags in the Arab world use the colors of the flag of the Arab Revolt of 1916; red, white, green and black. These include the flags of Egypt, Palestine, Jordan, Syria, Kuwait and Iraq.


title: White

text: In Western culture, white is the color most often associated with innocence, or purity. In the Bible and in Temple Judaism, white animals such as lambs were sacrificed to expiate sins. The white lily is considered the flower of purity and innocence, and is often associated with the Virgin Mary.


title: White

text: White is the color in Western culture most often associated with beginnings. In Christianity, children are baptized and first take communion wearing white. Christ after the Resurrection is traditionally portrayed dressed in white.


title: White

text: Queen Elizabeth II wore white when she opened each session of British Parliament. In high society, debutantes traditionally wear white for their first ball.


title: White

text: White has long been the traditional color worn by brides at royal weddings, but the white wedding gown for ordinary people appeared in the 19th century. Before that time, most brides wore their best Sunday clothing, of whatever color. The white lace wedding gown of Queen Victoria in 1840 had a large impact on the color and fashion of wedding dresses in both Europe and America down to the present day.


title: White

text: White is the color most associated with cleanliness. Objects which are expected to be clean, such as refrigerators and dishes, toilets and sinks, bed linen and towels, are traditionally white. White was the traditional color of the coats of doctors, nurses, scientists and laboratory technicians, though nowadays a pale blue or green is often used. White is also the color most often worn by chefs, bakers, and butchers, and the color of the aprons of waiters in French restaurants.


title: White

text: White is the color associated with ghosts and phantoms. In the past the dead were traditionally buried in a white shroud. Ghosts are said to be the spirits of the dead who, for various reasons, are unable to rest or enter heaven, and so walk the earth in their white shrouds. White is also connected with the paleness of death. A common expression in English is "pale as a ghost."


title: White

text: The woman in white, Weiße Frau, or "dame blanche" is a familiar figure in English, German and French ghost stories. She is a spectral apparition of a female clad in white, in most cases the ghost of an ancestor, sometimes giving warning about death and disaster. The most notable Weiße Frau is the legendary ghost of the German Hohenzollern dynasty.


title: White

text: Seeing a white horse in a dream is said to be presentiment of death. In the Book of Revelation, the last book in the New Testament of the Bible, the Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse are supposed to announce the Apocalypse before the Last Judgement. The man on a white horse with a bow and arrow, according to different interpretations, represents either War and Conquest, the Antichrist, or Christ himself, cleansing the world of sin. Death rides a horse whose color is described in ancient Greek as "khlōros" (χλωρός) in the original Koine Greek, which can mean either green/greenish-yellow or pale/pallid.


title: White

text: Black and white often represent the contrast between light and darkness, day and night, male and female, good and evil.


title: White

text: In taoism, the two complementary natures of the universe, yin and yang, are often symbolized in black and white, Ancient games of strategy, such as go and chess, use black and white to represent the two sides.


title: White

text: In the French monarchy, white symbolized the King and his power "par la grâce de Dieu" ("by the grace of God") and in contrast black was the color of the queen who according to the Salic Law which excluded women from the throne (and thus from power) could never become the ruling monarch.


title: White

text: Black and white also often represent formality and seriousness, as in the costumes of judges and priests, business suits, of formal evening dress. Monks of the Dominican Order wear a black cloak over a white habit. Until 1972, agents of the Federal Bureau of Investigation were informally required by FBI Director J. Edgar Hoover to wear white shirts with their suits, to project the correct image of the FBI.


title: White

text: White is the source of more names for women in western countries than any other color. Names taken from white include Alba, Albine (Latin). Blandine, Blanche and Blanchette (French); Bianca (Italian); Jennifer (Celt); Genevieve, Candice (from Latin Candida); Fenela, Fiona and Finola (Irish); Gwendoline, Gwenael, Nol(g)wen ("white woman") (Celt), Nives (Spanish) and Zuria (Basque).


title: White

text: In addition many names come from white flowers: Camille, Daisy, Lily, Lili, Magnolie, Jasmine, Yasemine, Leila, Marguerite, Rosalba, and others.


title: White

text: Other names come from the white pearl; Pearl, Margarita (Latin), Margaret, Margarethe, Marga, Grete, Rita, Gitta, Marjorie, Margot.


title: White

text: Since ancient times, temples, churches, and many government buildings in many countries have traditionally been white, the color associated with religious and civic virtue. The Parthenon and other ancient temples of Greece, and the buildings of the Roman Forum were mostly made of or clad in white marble, though it is now known that some of these ancient buildings were actually brightly painted. The Roman tradition of using white stone for government buildings and churches was revived in the Renaissance and especially in the neoclassic style of the 18th and 19th centuries. White stone became the material of choice for government buildings in Washington D.C. and other American cities. European cathedrals were also usually built of white or light-colored stone, though many darkened over the centuries from smoke and soot.


title: White

text: The Renaissance architect and scholar Leon Battista Alberti wrote in 1452 that churches should be plastered white on the inside, since white was the only appropriate color for reflection and meditation. Traditional Cistercian architecture also places a high emphasis on white for similar reasons. After the Reformation, Calvinist churches in the Netherlands were whitewashed and sober inside, a tradition that was also followed in the Protestant churches of New England, such as Old North Church in Boston.


title: White

text: People of the Caucasian race are often referred to simply as white. The United States Census Bureau defines white people as those "having origins in any of the original peoples of Europe, the Middle East, or North Africa. It includes people who reported "white" or wrote in entries such as Irish, German, Italian, Lebanese, Near Easterner, Arab, or Polish." White people constitute the majority of the U.S. population, with a total of 204,277,273 or 61.6% of the population in the 2020 United States Census.


title: White

text: A white flag has long been used to represent either surrender or a request for a truce. It is believed to have originated in the 15th century, during the Hundred Years' War between France and England, when multicolored flags, as well as firearms, came into common use by European armies. The white flag was officially recognized as a request to cease hostilities by the Geneva Convention of 1949.


title: Margaret Cho

text: Margaret Moran Cho (born December 5, 1968) is an American comedian, actress, LGBT social activist, and musician. She is known for her stand-up routines, through which she critiques social and political problems, especially regarding race and sexuality. She rose to prominence after starring in the ABC sitcom "All-American Girl" (1994–95), and became an established stand-up comic in the subsequent years.


title: Margaret Cho

text: She has also had endeavors in fashion and music, and has her own clothing line. Cho has also frequently supported LGBT rights and has won awards for her humanitarian efforts on behalf of women, Asian Americans, and the LGBT community.


title: Margaret Cho

text: As an actress, she has acted in such roles as Charlene Lee in "It's My Party" and John Travolta's FBI colleague in the action movie "Face/Off." Cho was part of the cast of the TV series "Drop Dead Diva" on Lifetime Television, in which she appeared as Teri Lee, a paralegal assistant. For her portrayal of Dictator Kim Jong-il on "30 Rock", she was nominated for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Comedy Series in 2012. In 2022, Cho co-starred in the film "Fire Island", a portrayal of the LBGT Asian American experience in the eponymous gay village off the South Shore of Long Island.


title: Margaret Cho

text: Cho was born in 1968 to a family of Korean origin in San Francisco, California. Her paternal grandfather Myung-sook Cho, a Christian minister, worked for the Japanese as a station master during their occupation of Korea. When Japan withdrew from Korea at the end of World War II, he was denounced as a traitor by North Korea's Communist regime, and was forced to move with his family, including his son, her father Seung-hoon Cho, to South Korea. During the Korean War, Myung-sook ran an orphanage in Seoul. According to Margaret herself, she "grew up in the church." She was raised in a racially diverse neighborhood near the Ocean Beach section of San Francisco, which she described as a community of "old hippies, ex-druggies, burn-outs from the 1960s, drag queens, Chinese people, and Koreans. To say it was a melting pot – that's the least of it. It was a really confusing, enlightening, wonderful time." Cho's parents, Young-Hie and Seung-Hoon Cho, ran Paperback Traffic, a bookstore on Polk Street at California Street in San Francisco. Her father writes joke books and a newspaper column in Seoul, South Korea.


title: Margaret Cho

text: At school, Cho was bullied, saying that "I was hurt because I was different, and so sharing my experience of being beaten and hated and called fat and queer and foreign and perverse and gluttonous and lazy and filthy and dishonest and yet all the while remaining invisible heals me, and heals others when they hear it – those who are suffering right now."


title: Margaret Cho

text: Between the ages of five and twelve, Cho was "sexually molested by a family friend". On the Loveline May 21, 1997, show with Adam Carolla and Dr. Drew Pinsky, she talks about being raped by her uncle, while during the same time period he was raping his three-year-old daughter. She often skipped class and got bad grades in ninth and tenth grades, resulting in her expulsion from Lowell High School. Cho said she was "raped continuously through my youngest years" (by another acquaintance), and that when she told someone else about it and her classmates found out, she received hostile remarks justifying it, including accusations of being "so fat" that only a crazy person would have sex with her.


title: Margaret Cho

text: After Cho expressed an interest in performance, she auditioned and was accepted into the San Francisco School of the Arts, a San Francisco public high school for the arts. While at the school, she became involved with the school's improvisational comedy group alongside actors Sam Rockwell and Aisha Tyler.


title: Margaret Cho

text: At age 15, she worked as a phone sex operator, and she later worked as a dominatrix. After graduating from high school, Cho attended San Francisco State University, studying drama; she did not graduate.


title: Margaret Cho

text: After doing several shows in a club adjacent to her parents' bookstore, Cho launched a stand-up comedy career and spent several years developing her material in clubs. Cho's career began to build after appearances on television and university campuses. In 1992, she appeared on the unsuccessful "Golden Girls" spin-off "The Golden Palace" in a small role. In 1994, Cho won the American Comedy Award for Best Female Comedian. In 2010, on "The View", she discussed her nervousness about doing "The Golden Palace" and thanked the late Rue McClanahan for her help with rehearsing. She also secured a coveted spot as opening act for Jerry Seinfeld; at about this time, she was featured on a Bob Hope special, and was also a frequent visitor to "The Arsenio Hall Show."


title: Margaret Cho

text: That same year, ABC developed and aired a sitcom based on Cho's stand-up routine. The show, titled "All-American Girl," was initially promoted as the first show prominently featuring an East Asian family, although the short lived sitcom "Mr. T and Tina," which had starred Noriyuki "Pat" Morita as Mr. T., preceded it by nearly two decades.


title: Margaret Cho

text: Cho has expressed subsequent regret for much of what transpired during the production of the show, specifically:


title: Margaret Cho

text: The show was canceled after suffering poor ratings and the effect of major content changes over the course of its single season (19 episodes).


title: Margaret Cho

text: After the show's 1995 cancellation, Cho became addicted to drugs and alcohol. As detailed in her 2002 autobiography, "I'm the One That I Want," in 1995, her substance abuse was evident during a performance in Monroe, Louisiana, where she was booed off the stage by 800 college students after going on the stage drunk.


title: Margaret Cho

text: Though her career and personal life were challenging after the show's cancellation, Cho eventually sobered up, refocused her energy, and developed new material. She hosted the "New Year's Rockin' Eve 95" show with Steve Harvey. In 1997, she had a supporting role in the thriller film "Face/Off" starring Nicolas Cage and John Travolta, playing Wanda, one of the fellow FBI agents of Travolta's primary character.


title: Margaret Cho

text: In 1999, she wrote about her struggles with "All-American Girl" in her first one-woman show, "I'm the One That I Want." That year, "I'm the One That I Want" won "New York" magazine's Performance of the Year award and was named one of the Great Performances of the year by "Entertainment Weekly." At the same time, Cho wrote and published an autobiographical book with the same title, and the show itself was filmed and released as a concert film in 2000. Her material dealt with her difficulties breaking into show business because of her ethnicity and weight and her resulting struggle with and triumph over body image issues and drug and alcohol addiction. Cho also appeared in an episode of the HBO comedy "Sex and the City's" fourth season. The episode, titled "The Real Me," first aired on June 3, 2001, and also guest-starred Heidi Klum.


title: Margaret Cho

text: In 2004, the show "Notorious C.H.O." (the title was derived from slain rapper The Notorious B.I.G.) referred to the comedian having been reared in 1970s San Francisco and her bisexuality. After completing "Notorious C.H.O.", she made another stand-up film, "Revolution," released in 2004, and subsequently work on her first self-written film in which she starred. "Bam Bam and Celeste," a low-budget comedy about a "fag hag" and her gay best friend, co-starred Cho's friend and co-touring act Bruce Daniels. The film premiered at the Toronto International Film Festival in 2005. On Valentine's Day of 2004, Cho spoke at the Marriage Equality Rally at the California State Capitol. Her speech can be seen in the documentary "Freedom to Marry."


title: Margaret Cho

text: In 2005, Cho released her second book, "I Have Chosen to Stay and Fight," a compilation of essays and prose about global politics, human rights, and other topical issues. Cho launched a national book tour in support of the collection. An audio reading of the book was also released. A DVD of a live taping of her "" tour was released in conjunction with the book. The same year, Cho started promoting and touring with her new show, "Assassin." The show became her fourth live concert film and premiered on the gay and lesbian premium cable network Here! TV in September 2005. In this DVD, she notably includes herself when talking about gay people, saying "we" and "our community." Posters for "Assassin" featured Cho in paratrooper gear and holding a microphone in the style of an automatic rifle, a reference to the infamous 1974 photo of heiress Patty Hearst.


title: Margaret Cho

text: Cho launched "The Sensuous Woman," a burlesque-style variety show tour, in Los Angeles on August 10, 2007, with tour dates scheduled through November 3, as of October 10. Scheduled tour stops meant to follow Los Angeles were Chicago, Illinois and New York City. On August 10, 2007 the "San Francisco Chronicle" reviewed the show, Cho's work, key events in her personal life and characterized the show thus: "In fact, as bawdy and bad-behaving as the cast gets, the whole show feels more like a crazy family reunion than a performance."


title: Margaret Cho

text: Also in 2007, Cho appeared in The Dresden Dolls' video of their song "Shores of California," which was MCed by Amanda Palmer and in The Cliks's video for "Eyes in the Back of My Head," in which she appeared as Lucas Silveira's lover. She also provided the character voice for a character named Condie Ling on the Logo animated series "." Her episodes began airing in 2007.


title: Margaret Cho

text: The premiere performance of Cho's "Beautiful" tour was on February 28, 2008, in Sydney, Australia as part of the Gay and Lesbian Mardi Gras Festival. Cho was also the Chief of Parade for the festival's annual parade along Oxford Street on March 1. During her stay in Sydney, Cho was filmed shopping for parade outfits in a drag store with Kathy Griffin and Cyndi Lauper for Griffin's Bravo series "." The episode featuring Cho aired on June 26, 2008.


title: Margaret Cho

text: Cho and her family and friends appeared in an episode of NBC's series "Celebrity Family Feud," which premiered on June 24, 2008. Later that summer, she appeared in her own semi-scripted reality sitcom for VH1, "The Cho Show," which premiered on August 21, 2008 and lasted one season. She next appeared in the supporting cast of the series "Drop Dead Diva," which debuted in July 2009.


title: Margaret Cho

text: In April 2011, Cho guest starred on the comedy "30 Rock" in the episode "Everything Sunny All the Time Always." She portrayed Kim Jong-Il, then the leader of North Korea, that required her to speak both Korean and English. She was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Comedy Series. She later returned to portray Kim Jong-Il's son, Kim Jong-Un. [S:6, E:21] In 2010, Cho was a contestant on the 11th season of "Dancing with the Stars."


title: Margaret Cho

text: Also in 2011, online human rights awareness project America 2049 had Margaret appear as one of the main characters, whose videos were played as part of the main storyline. The Facebook-interfaced game uses a fictional, fractioned future to highlight today's social inequities.


title: Margaret Cho

text: Since January 2013, Cho has been the co-host of the weekly podcast "Monsters of Talk" along with Jim Short. Cho embarked on her "Mother" tour in the fall of 2013 and slated it for engagements in Europe in 2014. The title of the tour refers not to Cho's impressions of her own mother, but to Cho herself. It is her nickname for the figure she has played to her many gay friends over the years. In 2014, she participated in "Do I Sound Gay?", a documentary film directed and produced by David Thorpe. The film is about stereotypes of gay men's speech patterns.


title: Margaret Cho

text: In January 2019, Cho competed in season one of "The Masked Singer" as "Poodle". She was eliminated in Episode 4.


title: Margaret Cho

text: In July 2019, Cho started a solo podcast called "The Margaret Cho", which features guests who primarily work in show business. Guests have included "Queer Eye"'s Jonathan Van Ness, tattooist and reality TV figure Kat Von D, screenwriter Diablo Cody, drag queen Jackie Beat, and comedian and TV host Michael Yo. Cho has a chapter giving advice in Tim Ferriss' book Tools of Titans.


title: Margaret Cho

text: In February 2022, she was cast in the documentary series "Everything's Gonna Be All White", airing on Showtime.


title: Margaret Cho

text: In June 2022, Cho co-starred in a romantic comedy film, "Fire Island", directed by Andrew Ahn, airing on Hulu


title: Margaret Cho

text: Cho is also well known for discussing her relationship with her mother, particularly in imitating her mother's heavily accented speech. Her depictions of "Mommy" have become a popular part of her routine. Cho's comedy routines are often explicit. She has covered substance abuse, eating disorders, her bisexuality and obsession with gay men, and Asian-American stereotypes, among other subjects, in her stand-up routines.


title: Margaret Cho

text: A substantial segment of her material and advocacy addresses LGBT issues. In addition to her shows, Cho also developed an additional outlet for her advocacy with the advent of her website and her daily blog. When San Francisco Mayor Gavin Newsom directed that San Francisco's city hall issue marriage licenses to same-sex couples in San Francisco in 2004 (until reversed by the state supreme court), Cho started "Love is Love is Love," a website promoting the legalization of gay marriage in the United States.


title: Margaret Cho

text: Cho's material often features commentary on politics and contemporary American culture. She has also been outspoken about her dislike of former President George W. Bush. She began to draw intense fire from conservatives over her fiercely anti-Bush commentary; a live performance in Houston, Texas, was threatened with picketing. Although protesters never showed up, she held a counter protest outside the club until security told her she had to go inside.


title: Margaret Cho

text: In 2004, Cho was performing at a corporate event in a hotel when, after ten minutes, her microphone was cut off and a band was instructed to begin playing. Cho claims that this was because the manager of the hotel was offended by anti-Bush administration comments. Cho's payment, which was issued by way of check directly to a non-profit organization, a defense fund for the West Memphis Three, initially bounced but was eventually honored.


title: Margaret Cho

text: In July 2004, during the Democratic National Convention, Cho was disinvited to speak at a Human Rights Campaign/National Stonewall Democrats fundraiser out of fear that her comments might cause controversy. In November 2005, she campaigned to pardon Stanley Tookie Williams, an early Crips gang leader, for his death sentence for four murders, but this campaign failed; on December 13, 2005, after exhausting all forms of appeal, Williams was executed by lethal injection at San Quentin State Prison, California.


title: Margaret Cho

text: In 2007, Cho hosted the multi-artist True Colors Tour, which traveled through 15 cities in the United States and Canada. The tour, sponsored by the Logo channel, began on June 8, 2007. Headlined by Cyndi Lauper, the tour also included Debbie Harry, Erasure, The Gossip, Rufus Wainwright, The Dresden Dolls, The MisShapes, Rosie O'Donnell, Indigo Girls, The Cliks, and other special guests. Profits from the tour helped to benefit the Human Rights Campaign as well as PFLAG and The Matthew Shepard Foundation.


title: Margaret Cho

text: On January 25, 2008, Cho officially gave her support to Barack Obama for the nomination on the Democratic ticket for the 2008 U.S. presidential election. After Republican Presidential candidate John McCain announced his running mate, Governor Sarah Palin of Alaska, Cho said of her, "I think [Palin] is the worst thing to happen to America since 9/11."


title: Margaret Cho

text: After same-sex marriage became legal in California in May 2008, Cho was deputized by the City of San Francisco to perform marriages there.


title: Margaret Cho

text: In 2003, Cho founded a clothing line with friend and fashion designer Ava Stander called High Class Cho. The company eventually went defunct.


title: Margaret Cho

text: In 2004, Cho took up bellydancing and in 2006 started her own line of bellydancing belts and accessories called Hip Wear; these she sold through her website. She also had extensive tattooing done to cover the majority of her back.


title: Margaret Cho

text: In November 2006, Cho joined the board of Good Vibrations, a sex toy retailer. With fellow comedian Diana Yanez, she co-wrote "My Puss", a rap song which they recorded as the duo of "Maureen and Angela." Cho appeared in and directed the music video for the song. In December 2006, Cho appeared on the Sci-Fi Channel's miniseries "The Lost Room" as Suzie Kang.


title: Margaret Cho

text: On an episode of "The Hour" with host George Stroumboulopoulos, Cho mentioned that she loved Broken Social Scene and wishes to be a part of the band (offering to play the rainstick or the triangle). On air, Stroumboulopoulos called band member Kevin Drew from his cell phone, and Cho made her request to join the band via his voicemail.


title: Margaret Cho

text: In April 2009, Cho was photographed by photographer Austin Young and appeared in a Bettie Page–inspired "Heaven Bound" art show.


title: Margaret Cho

text: In September 2008, Cho released her single, "I Cho Am a Woman," on iTunes. The song, produced by Desmond Child, was featured on her VH1 series.


title: Margaret Cho

text: Throughout 2010, she worked on a full-length album, going through the titles "Guitarded" and "Banjovi" before finally settling on "Cho Dependent." Released on August 24, 2010, the album was supported by music videos for "I'm Sorry," "Eat Shit and Die," and "My Lil' Wayne;" Liam Kyle Sullivan directed the first two. It was nominated for a 2010 Grammy award for Best Comedy Album. In 2011 Showtime released a stand-up comedy special, titled "Margaret Cho: Cho Dependent," which featured musical performances from the album.


title: Margaret Cho

text: In May 2010, Cho directed, and appeared in, the music video for "I Wanna Be a Bear," a song by "Pixie Herculon," a pseudonym of Jill Sobule. In 2011, Cho sang the Bob Mould song "Your Favorite Thing" at the tribute concert "See A Little Light" with Grant-Lee Phillips.


title: Margaret Cho

text: In May 2016, she rapped on and made an appearance in the music video for "Green Tea", a song by rapper Awkwafina. Both play with stereotypes of people of East Asian descent in hopes that "women of color embrace their quirkiness, their sexuality, their inner-child and their creativity with passion."


title: Margaret Cho

text: Also in 2016, Cho featured on the track "Ride or Die" on the album "Sweet T" by American drag queen and singer/artist Ginger Minj.


title: Margaret Cho

text: In July 2019, Cho started a podcast called "The Margaret Cho". It features guests who primarily work in show business and features original music by Garrison Starr.


title: Margaret Cho

text: Cho married Al Ridenour, an artist involved in The Cacophony Society and the Art of Bleeding, in 2003. Cho was featured in an Art of Bleeding performance in March 2006. She described her marriage as "very conventional and conservative, I think. I mean we're such weird people that people just can't imagine that we would have a conventional marriage. But, yeah, we are very conventional." They were separated in September 2014 and Cho confirmed their separation in December. Cho referred to herself as "divorced" in an April 2015 profile in "The New York Times", but actually filed for divorce in August 2015. In April 2019 it was reported that the divorce was finalized.


title: Margaret Cho

text: , Cho identified as a Christian. , Cho was living in Peachtree City, Georgia, as "Drop Dead Diva" was filmed in the Atlanta area.


title: Margaret Cho

text: Cho is openly bisexual, and has stated that she has had "a lot of experience in the area of polyamory and alternative sexuality in general." When discussing her sexuality in a 2018 "Huffington Post" interview, Cho said, "I don't know using 'bisexual' is right because that indicates that there's only two genders, and I don't believe that. I've been with people all across the spectrum of gender and who have all kinds of different expressions of gender, so it's so hard to say. Maybe 'pansexual' is technically the more correct term but I like 'bisexual' because it's kind of '70s." Cho states that she “loves” Fire Island and spends summers there.


title: Margaret Cho

text: Cho was a guest on comedian Bobby Lee's "Tigerbelly Podcast" Episode 71, which was uploaded on December 16, 2016. In that episode, she recounted an incident between her and actress Tilda Swinton. According to Cho, Swinton contacted her via email to discuss the Asian American community's reaction to the news that Swinton had been cast to play the character Ancient One, who in comic books is Tibetan, in the movie version of Doctor Strange. Cho found the inquiry odd, since she did not know Swinton and had never talked to her before, nor did she have anything to do with the movie or casting. On December 21, Swinton released the email exchange between her and Cho to the website Jezebel. According to Swinton, she had contacted Cho to better understand why Asian Americans were upset about the casting. In response to the release, Cho stated that she stands by her words both on "TigerBelly" and in the email exchange.


title: Margaret Cho

text: Cho revealed in a panel discussion that after doing genealogy testing, she discovered that she had some Chinese ancestry.


title: Margaret Cho

text: [N]ot all women comedians are dangerous; some are just very funny: Tina Fey and Amy Poehler are too relatable, Joan Rivers was too firmly ensconced in the society that she mocked. Amy Schumer relies a little too much on the word "pussy" to be any kind of threat, though she would like very much to be a bad person. On the other hand, ... Margaret Cho know[s] no boundaries and inspire[s] palpable fear anytime [she] begin[s] one of [her] riffs.


title: Eskimo

text: Eskimo () is an exonym used to refer to two closely related Indigenous peoples: the Inuit (including the Alaska Native Iñupiat, the Greenlandic Inuit, and the Canadian Inuit) and the Yupik (or Yuit) of eastern Siberia and Alaska. A related third group, the Aleut, which inhabit the Aleutian Islands, are generally excluded from the definition of Eskimo. The three groups share a relatively recent common ancestor, and speak related languages belonging to the Eskimo–Aleut language family.


title: Eskimo

text: These circumpolar peoples have traditionally inhabited the Arctic and subarctic regions from eastern Siberia (Russia) to Alaska (United States), Northern Canada, Nunavik, Nunatsiavut, and Greenland.


title: Eskimo

text: Many Inuit, Yupik, Aleut, and other individuals consider the term "Eskimo", which is of a disputed etymology, to be unacceptable and even pejorative. Eskimo continues to be used within a historical, linguistic, archaeological, and cultural context. The governments in Canada and the United States have made moves to cease using the term "Eskimo" in official documents, but it has not been eliminated, as the word is in some places written into tribal, and therefore national, legal terminology. Canada officially uses the term "Inuit" to describe the indigenous Canadian people who are living in the country's northern sectors and are not First Nations or Métis. The United States government legally uses "Alaska Native" for Native Alaskans including the Yupik, Inuit, and Aleut, but also for non-Eskimo Native Alaskans including the Tlingit, the Haida, the Eyak, and the Tsimshian, in addition to at least nine separate northern Athabaskan/Dene peoples. The designation "Alaska Native" applies to enrolled tribal members only, in contrast to individual Eskimo/Aleut persons claiming descent from the world's "most widespread aboriginal group".


title: Eskimo

text: There are between 171,000 and 187,000 Inuit and Yupik, the majority of whom live in or near their traditional circumpolar homeland. Of these, 53,785 (2010) live in the United States, 65,025 (2016) in Canada, and 51,730 (2021) in Greenland. In addition, 16,730 people living in Denmark were born in Greenland, and an unknown number are Siberians. The non-governmental organization (NGO) known as the Inuit Circumpolar Council claims to represent 180,000 people.


title: Eskimo

text: The non-Inuit sub-branch of the Eskimo branch of the Eskimo-Aleut language family consists of four distinct Yupik languages, two of them are used in the Russian Far East as well as on St. Lawrence Island, and two of them are used in western Alaska, southwestern Alaska, and the western part of Southcentral Alaska. The extinct language of the Sirenik people is sometimes claimed to be related to these other languages.


title: Eskimo

text: A variety of theories have been postulated for the etymological origin of the word Eskimo. According to Smithsonian linguist Ives Goddard, etymologically the word derives from the Innu-aimun (Montagnais) word "ayas̆kimew", meaning "a person who laces a snowshoe", and is related to "husky" (a breed of dog). The word "assime·w" means "she laces a snowshoe" in Innu, and Innu language speakers refer to the neighbouring Mi'kmaq people using words that sound like "eskimo". This interpretation is generally confirmed by more recent academic sources.


title: Eskimo

text: In 1978, José Mailhot, a Quebec anthropologist who speaks Innu-aimun (Montagnais), published a paper suggesting that Eskimo meant "people who speak a different language". French traders who encountered the Innu (Montagnais) in the eastern areas adopted their word for the more western peoples and spelled it as "Esquimau" or "Esquimaux" in a transliteration.


title: Eskimo

text: Some people consider "Eskimo" offensive, because it is popularly perceived to mean "eaters of raw meat" in Algonquian languages common to people along the Atlantic coast. An unnamed Cree speaker suggested the original word that became corrupted to Eskimo might have been "askamiciw" (meaning "he eats it raw"); the Inuit are referred to in some Cree texts as "askipiw" (meaning "eats something raw"). Regardless, the term still carries a derogatory connotation for many Inuit and Yupik.


title: Eskimo

text: One of the first printed uses of the French word "Esquimaux" comes from Samuel Hearne's "A Journey from Prince of Wales's Fort in Hudson's Bay to the Northern Ocean in the Years 1769, 1770, 1771, 1772" first published in 1795.


title: Eskimo

text: The term "Eskimo" is still used by people to encompass the Inuit and Yupik, as well as other Indigenous or Alaska Native and Siberian peoples. In the 21st century, usage in North America has declined. Linguistic, ethnic, and cultural differences exist between Yupik and Inuit.


title: Eskimo

text: In Canada and Greenland, and to a certain extent in Alaska, the term "Eskimo" is predominantly seen as offensive and has been widely replaced by the term "Inuit" or terms specific to a particular group or community. This has resulted in a trend whereby some Canadians and Americans believe that they should use "Inuit" even for Yupik who are non-Inuit.


title: Eskimo

text: The Inuit of Greenland generally refer to themselves as Greenlanders ("Kalaallit" or "Grønlændere") and speak the Greenlandic language and Danish. The Inuit of Greenland belong to three groups: the Kalaallit of west Greenland, who speak Kalaallisut; the Tunumiit of Tunu (east Greenland), who speak Tunumiit oraasiat ("East Greenlandic"); and the Inughuit of north Greenland, who speak Inuktun.


title: Eskimo

text: The word "Eskimo" is a racially charged term in Canada. In Canada's Central Arctic, "Inuinnaq" is the preferred term, and in the eastern Canadian Arctic "Inuit". The language is often called "Inuktitut", though other local designations are also used.


title: Eskimo

text: Section 25 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms and section 35 of the Canadian Constitution Act of 1982 recognized the Inuit as a distinctive group of Aboriginal peoples in Canada. Although "Inuit" can be applied to all of the Eskimo peoples in Canada and Greenland, that is not true in Alaska and Siberia. In Alaska, the term "Eskimo" is still used because it includes both Iñupiat (singular: Iñupiaq), who are Inuit, and Yupik, who are not.


title: Eskimo

text: The term "Alaska Native" is inclusive of (and under U.S. and Alaskan law, as well as the linguistic and cultural legacy of Alaska, refers to) all Indigenous peoples of Alaska, including not only the Iñupiat (Alaskan Inuit) and the Yupik, but also groups such as the Aleut, who share a recent ancestor, as well as the largely unrelated indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast and the Alaskan Athabaskans, such as the Eyak people. The term "Alaska Native" has important legal usage in Alaska and the rest of the United States as a result of the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act of 1971. It does not apply to Inuit or Yupik originating outside the state. As a result, the term Eskimo is still in use in Alaska. Alternative terms, such as "Inuit-Yupik", have been proposed, but none has gained widespread acceptance. Recent (early 21st century) population estimates registered more than 135,000 individuals of Eskimo descent, with approximately 85,000 living in North America, 50,000 in Greenland, and the rest residing in Siberia.


title: Eskimo

text: In 1977, the Inuit Circumpolar Conference (ICC) meeting in Utqiaġvik, Alaska, officially adopted "Inuit" as a designation for all circumpolar Native peoples, regardless of their local view on an appropriate term. They voted to replace the word "Eskimo" with "Inuit". Even at that time, such a designation was not accepted by all. As a result, the Canadian government usage has replaced the term "Eskimo" with "Inuit" ("Inuk" in singular).


title: Eskimo

text: The ICC charter defines "Inuit" as including "the Inupiat, Yupik (Alaska), Inuit, Inuvialuit (Canada), Kalaallit (Greenland) and Yupik (Russia)". Despite the ICC's 1977 decision to adopt the term "Inuit", this has not been accepted by all or even most Yupik people.


title: Eskimo

text: In 2010, the ICC passed a resolution in which they implored scientists to use "Inuit" and "Paleo-Inuit" instead of "Eskimo" or "Paleo-Eskimo".


title: Eskimo

text: In a 2015 commentary in the journal "Arctic", Canadian archaeologist Max Friesen argued fellow Arctic archaeologists should follow the ICC and use "Paleo-Inuit" instead of "Paleo-Eskimo". In 2016, Lisa Hodgetts and "Arctic" editor Patricia Wells wrote: "In the Canadian context, continued use of any term that incorporates "Eskimo" is potentially harmful to the relationships between archaeologists and the Inuit and Inuvialuit communities who are our hosts and increasingly our research partners."