title: Sexual attraction

text: Though attempts have been made to devise objective criteria of sexual attractiveness and measure it as one of several bodily forms of capital asset ("see erotic capital"), a person's sexual attractiveness is to a large extent a subjective measure dependent on another person's interest, perception, and sexual orientation. For example, a gay or lesbian person would typically find a person of the same sex to be more attractive than one of the other sex. A bisexual person would find either sex to be attractive. Asexuality refers to those who do not experience sexual attraction for either sex, though they may have romantic attraction (homoromantic, biromantic or heteroromantic) or a non-directed libido. Interpersonal attraction includes factors such as physical or psychological similarity, familiarity or possessing a preponderance of common or familiar features, similarity, complementarity, reciprocal liking, and reinforcement.


title: Sexual attraction

text: The ability of a person's physical and other qualities to create a sexual interest in others is the basis of their use in advertising, film, and other visual media, as well as in modeling and other occupations.


title: Sexual attraction

text: In evolutionary terms, the ovulatory shift hypothesis posits that female humans exhibit different sexual behaviours and desires at points in their menstrual cycle, as a means to ensure that they attract a high quality mate to copulate with during their most fertile time. Hormone levels throughout the menstrual cycle affect a woman's overt behaviours, influencing the way a woman presents herself to others during stages of her menstrual cycle, in attempt to attract high quality mates the closer the woman is to ovulation.


title: Sexual attraction

text: Human sexuality has many aspects. In biology, sexuality describes the reproductive mechanism and the basic biological drive that exists in all sexually reproducing species and can encompass sexual intercourse and sexual contact in all its forms. There are also emotional and physical aspects of sexuality. These relate to the bond between individuals, which may be expressed through profound feelings or emotions. Sociologically, it can cover the cultural, political, and legal aspects; philosophically, it can span the moral, ethical, theological, spiritual, and religious aspects.


title: Sexual attraction

text: Which aspects of a person's sexuality attract another is influenced by cultural factors; it has varied over time as well as personal factors. Influencing factors may be determined more locally among sub-cultures, across sexual fields, or simply by the preferences of the individual. These preferences come about as a result of a complex variety of genetic, psychological, and cultural factors.


title: Sexual attraction

text: A person's physical appearance has a critical impact on their sexual attractiveness. This involves the impact one's appearance has on the senses, especially in the beginning of a relationship, among them:


title: Sexual attraction

text: As with other animals, pheromones may have an impact, though less significantly in the case of humans. Theoretically, the "wrong" pheromone may cause someone to be disliked, even when they would otherwise appear attractive. Frequently, a pleasant-smelling perfume is used to encourage the member of the opposite sex to more deeply inhale the air surrounding its wearer, increasing the probability that the individual's pheromones will be inhaled. The importance of pheromones in human relationships is probably limited and is widely disputed, although it appears to have some scientific basis.


title: Sexual attraction

text: Some people exhibit high levels of sexual fetishism and are sexually stimulated by other stimuli not normally associated with sexual arousal. The degree to which such fetishism exists or has existed in different cultures is controversial.


title: Sexual attraction

text: Pheromones have been determined to play a role in sexual attraction between people. They influence gonadal hormone secretion, for example, follicle maturation in the ovaries in females and testosterone and sperm production in males.


title: Sexual attraction

text: Research conducted by Donald G. Dutton and Arthur P. Aron in the 1970s aimed to find the relation between sexual attraction and high anxiety conditions. In doing so, 85 male participants were contacted by an attractive female interviewer at either a fear-arousing suspension bridge or a normal bridge. Conclusively, it was shown that the male participants who were asked by the female interviewer to perform the thematic apperception test (TAT) on the fear-arousing bridge, wrote more sexual content in the stories and attempted, with greater effort, to contact the interviewer after the experiment than those participants who performed the TAT on the normal bridge. In another test, a male participant, chosen from a group of 80, was given anticipated shocks. With him was an attractive female confederate, who was also being shocked. The experiment showed that the male's sexual imagery in the TAT was much higher when self shock was anticipated and not when the female confederate shock was anticipated.


title: Sexual attraction

text: People consciously or subconsciously enhance their sexual attractiveness or sex appeal for a number of reasons. It may be to attract someone with whom they can form a deeper relationship, for companionship, procreation, or an intimate relationship, besides other possible purposes. It can be part of a courtship process. This can involve physical aspects or interactive processes whereby people find and attract potential partners, and maintain a relationship. These processes, which involve attracting a partner and maintaining sexual interest, can include flirting, which can be used to attract the sexual attention of another to encourage romance or sexual relations, and can involve body language, conversation, joking, or brief physical contact.


title: Sexual attraction

text: Men have been found to have a greater interest in uncommitted sex compared to women. Some research shows this interest to be more sociological than biological. Men have a greater interest in visual sexual stimuli than women. However, additional trends have been found with a greater sensitivity to partner status in women choosing a sexual partner and men placing a greater emphasis on physical attractiveness in a potential mate, as well as a significantly greater tendency toward sexual jealousy in men and emotional jealousy in women.


title: Sexual attraction

text: Bailey, Gaulin, Agyei, and Gladue (1994) analyzed whether these results varied according to sexual orientation. In general, they found biological sex played a bigger role in the psychology of sexual attraction than orientation. However, there were some differences between homosexual and heterosexual women and men on these factors. While gay and straight men showed similar psychological interest in casual sex on markers of sociosexuality, gay men showed a larger number of partners in behaviour expressing this interest (proposed to be due to a difference in opportunity). Self-identified lesbian women showed a significantly greater interest in visual sexual stimuli than heterosexual women and judged partner status to be less important in romantic partnerships. Heterosexual men had a significantly greater preference for younger partners than homosexual men. People who identify as asexual may not be sexually attracted to anyone. Gray asexuality includes those who only experience sexual attraction under certain circumstances; for example, exclusively after an emotional bond has been formed. This tends to vary from person to person.


title: Sexual attraction

text: The ovulatory shift hypothesis is the theory that female humans tend to exhibit different sexual behaviours and desires at points in their cycle. Two meta-analyses published in 2014 reached opposing conclusions on whether the existing evidence was robust enough to support the prediction that women's mate preferences change across the cycle. A newer 2018 review does not show women changing the type of men they desire at different times in their fertility cycle.


title: Sexual attraction

text: In males, a masculine face has been positively correlated with fewer respiratory diseases and, as a consequence, masculine features offer a marker of health and reproductive success.


title: Sexual attraction

text: Hormone levels throughout the menstrual cycle affect a woman's behaviour in preferences and in their overt behaviours. The ornamentation effect is a phenomenon influenced by a stage of the menstrual cycle which refers to the way a woman presents herself to others, in a way to attract potential sexual partners. Studies have found that the closer women were to ovulation, the more provocatively they dress and the more attractive they are rated.


title: Sexual attraction

text: It is possible that women are sensitive to the changes in their physical attractiveness throughout their cycles, such that at their most fertile stages their levels of attractiveness are increased. Consequently, they choose to display their increased levels of attractiveness through this method of ornamentation.


title: Sexual attraction

text: During periods of hormonal imbalance, women exhibit a peak in sexual activity. As these findings have been recorded for female-initiated sexual activity and not for male-initiated activity, the causation appears to be hormonal changes during the menstrual cycle.


title: Sexual attraction

text: Research has also found that menstrual cycles affect sexual behaviour frequency in pre-menopausal women. For example, women who had weekly sexual intercourse with men had menstrual cycles with the average duration of 29 days, while women with less frequent sexual interactions tended to have more extreme cycle lengths.


title: Sexual attraction

text: Changes in hormones during a female's cycles affect the way she behaves and the way males behave towards her. Research has found that men are a lot more attentive and loving towards their partners when they are in the most fertile phase of their cycles, in comparison to when they are in the luteal phases. Men become increasingly jealous and possessive over their partners during this stage.


title: Opera (web browser)

text: Opera is a multi-platform web browser developed by its namesake company Opera. The browser is based on Chromium, but distinguishes itself from other Chromium-based browsers (Chrome, Edge, etc.) through its user interface and other features.


title: Opera (web browser)

text: Opera was initially released on 10 April 1995, making it one of the oldest desktop web browsers still actively developed. It was commercial software for its first ten years and had its own proprietary layout engine, Presto. In 2013, it switched from the Presto engine to Chromium.


title: Opera (web browser)

text: Opera is available on Windows, macOS, Linux, Android, and iOS (Safari WebKit engine). There are also mobile versions called Opera Mobile and Opera Mini. Opera users also have access to Opera News, a news app based on an AI platform.


title: Opera (web browser)

text: The company released a gaming-oriented version of the browser, Opera GX, in 2019, and a blockchain-focused Opera Crypto Browser into public beta in January 2022.


title: Opera (web browser)

text: In 1994, Jon Stephenson von Tetzchner and Geir Ivarsøy started developing the Opera web browser while working at Telenor, a Norwegian telecommunications company.


title: Opera (web browser)

text: In 1995, they founded Opera Software AS. Opera was initially released on 10 April 1995, and then it was released publicly in 1996 with version 2.10, which ran on Microsoft Windows 95. Development for mobile device platforms started in 1998.


title: Opera (web browser)

text: Opera 4.0, released in 2000, included a new cross-platform core that facilitated the creation of editions of Opera for multiple operating systems and platforms.


title: Opera (web browser)

text: To this point, Opera was trialware and had to be purchased after the trial period. With version 5.0, released in 2000, Opera became ad-sponsored, displaying ads to users who had not paid for it. Subsequent versions have given users the choice of seeing banner ads or targeted text ads from Google.


title: Opera (web browser)

text: With version 8.5, released in 2005, the ads were completely removed, and the browser's primary financial support came through revenue from Google (by contract, Opera's default search engine).


title: Opera (web browser)

text: Among new features introduced in version 9.1, released in 2006, was fraud protection using technology from GeoTrust, a digital certificate provider, and PhishTank, an organization that tracks known phishing web sites. This feature was further expanded in version 9.5, when GeoTrust was replaced with Netcraft, and malware protection from Haute Secure was added.


title: Opera (web browser)

text: In 2006, Opera Software ASA was released as well as Internet Channel and Nintendo DS Browser for Nintendo's DS and Wii gaming systems.


title: Opera (web browser)

text: A new JavaScript engine, called Carakan (after the Javanese alphabet), was introduced with version 10.50. According to Opera Software, it made Opera 10.50 more than seven times faster in SunSpider than Opera 10.10.


title: Opera (web browser)

text: On 16 December 2010, Opera 11 was released, featuring extensions, tab stacking (where dragging one tab over another allowed creating a group of tabs), visual mouse gestures and changes to the address bar. Opera 12 was released on 14 June 2012.


title: Opera (web browser)

text: On 12 February 2013, Opera Software announced that it would drop its own Presto layout engine in favour of WebKit as implemented by Google's Chrome browser, using code from the Chromium project. Opera Software planned as well to contribute code to WebKit. On 3 April 2013, Google announced it would fork components from WebKit to form a new layout engine, Blink. That day, Opera Software confirmed it would follow Google in implementing Blink.


title: Opera (web browser)

text: On 28 May 2013, a beta release of Opera 15 was made available, the first version based on the Chromium project. Many distinctive Opera features of the previous versions were dropped, and Opera Mail was separated into a standalone application derived from Opera 12.


title: Opera (web browser)

text: In 2016, the company changed ownership when a group of Chinese investors purchased the web browser, the consumer business, and the Opera Software ASA brand. On 18 July 2016, Opera Software ASA announced it had sold its browser, privacy and performance apps, and the Opera brand to Golden Brick Capital Private Equity Fund I Limited Partnership, a consortium of Chinese investors.


title: Opera (web browser)

text: In January 2017, the source code of Opera 12.15, one of the last few versions still based on the Presto layout engine, was leaked.


title: Opera (web browser)

text: To demonstrate how radically different a browser could look, Opera Neon, dubbed a "concept browser," was released in January 2017. "PC World" compared it to demo models that automakers and hardware vendors release to show their visions of the future. Instead of a Speed Dial (also explained in the following chapter, "Features"), it displays the frequently accessed websites in resemblance to a desktop with computer icons scattered over it in an artistic formation.


title: Opera (web browser)

text: Opera has originated features later adopted by other web browsers, including: Speed Dial, pop-up blocking, reopening recently closed pages, private browsing, and tabbed browsing. Additional features include a built-in screenshot tool, Snapshot, which also includes an image-markup tool; built-in ad blockers, and tracking blockers.


title: Opera (web browser)

text: Opera’s desktop browser includes access to social media messaging apps WhatsApp, Telegram, Facebook Messenger, Twitter, Instagram, TikTok, and VK.


title: Opera (web browser)

text: Opera includes a bookmarks bar and a download manager. It also has "Speed Dial" which allows the user to add an unlimited number of pages shown in thumbnail form in a page displayed when a new tab is opened.


title: Opera (web browser)

text: Opera Turbo, a feature that compresses requested web pages (except HTTPS pages) before sending them to the users, is no longer available on the desktop browser. Opera Turbo is available in Opera Mini, the mobile browser.


title: Opera (web browser)

text: One security feature is the option to delete private data, such as HTTP cookies, browsing history, items in cache and passwords with the click of a button.


title: Opera (web browser)

text: When visiting a site, Opera displays a security badge in the address bar which shows details about the website, including security certificates. Opera's fraud and malware protection warns the user about suspicious web pages and is enabled by default. It checks the requested page against several databases of known phishing and malware websites, called blacklists.


title: Opera (web browser)

text: In 2016, a free virtual private network (VPN) service was implemented in the browser. Opera said that this would allow encrypted access to websites otherwise blocked, and provide security on public WiFi networks. It was later determined that the browser VPN operated as a web proxy rather than a VPN, meaning that it only secured connections made by the browser and not by any other apps on the computer.


title: Opera (web browser)

text: In 2018, a built-in cryptocurrency wallet to the Opera Web Browser was released, announcing that they would be the first browser with a built-in Crypto Wallet. On 13 December 2018, Opera released a video showing many decentralized applications like Cryptokitties running on the Android version of the Opera Web Browser.


title: Opera (web browser)

text: In March 2020, Opera updated its Android browser to access crypto domains, making it the first browser to be able to support a domain name system (DNS) which is not part of the traditional DNS directly without the need of a plugin or add-on. This was through a collaboration with a San Francisco based startup, Unstoppable Domains.


title: Opera (web browser)

text: In January 2022, Opera introduced Opera Crypto Browser into public beta, combining a non-custodial wallet with a dedicated browser for blockchain enabled services and Web3 technologies. On April 14 2022, Opera launched its Crypto Browser available on iOS devices.


title: Opera (web browser)

text: Opera GX is a gaming-oriented counterpart of Opera. The browser was announced and released in early access for Windows on 11 June 2019, during E3 2019. The macOS version was released in December of the same year.


title: Opera (web browser)

text: Opera GX adds features geared towards gamers on top of the regular Opera browser. The browser allows users to limit network, CPU, and memory usage to preserve system resources, with GX Cleaner, a tool that allows users to clear cache, cookies, and other junk. It also adds integrations with other apps such as Twitch, Discord, Twitter, and Instagram. The browser also has a built-in page called the GX Corner, which collates gaming-related releases, deals, and news articles.


title: Opera (web browser)

text: Opera Software uses a release cycle consisting of three "streams," corresponding to phases of development, that can be downloaded and installed independently of each other: "developer," "beta," and "stable." New features are first introduced in the developer build, then, depending on user feedback, may progress to the beta version and eventually be released.


title: Opera (web browser)

text: The developer stream allows early testing of new features, mainly targeting developers, extension creators, and early adopters. Opera developer is not intended for everyday browsing as it is unstable and is prone to failure or crashing, but it enables advanced users to try out new features that are still under development, without affecting their normal installation of the browser. New versions of the browser are released frequently, generally a few times a week.


title: Opera (web browser)

text: The beta stream, formerly known as "Opera Next," is a feature complete package, allowing stability and quality to mature before the final release. A new version is released every couple of weeks.


title: Opera (web browser)

text: Both streams can be installed alongside the official release without interference. Each has a different icon to help the user distinguish between the variants.


title: Opera (web browser)

text: In 2005, Adobe Systems integrated Opera's rendering engine, Presto, into its Adobe Creative Suite applications. Opera technology was employed in Adobe GoLive, Adobe Photoshop, Adobe Dreamweaver, and other components of the Adobe Creative Suite. Opera's layout engine is also found in Virtual Mechanics SiteSpinner Pro. The Internet Channel is a version of the Opera 9 web browser for use on the Nintendo Wii created by Opera Software and Nintendo. Opera Software is also implemented in the Nintendo DS Browser for Nintendo's handheld systems.


title: Opera (web browser)

text: Opera is one of the top 5 browsers used around the world. As of April 2021, Opera's offerings had over 320 million active users.


title: Opera (web browser)

text: The Opera browser has been listed as a "tried and tested direct alternative to Chrome." It scores close to Chrome on the HTML5test, which scores browsers’ compatibility with different web standards.


title: Opera (web browser)

text: Versions with the Presto layout engine have been positively reviewed, although they have been criticized for website compatibility issues. Because of this issue, Opera 8.01 and higher had included workarounds to help certain popular but problematic web sites display properly.


title: Opera (web browser)

text: Versions with the Blink layout engine have been criticized by some users for missing features such as UI customization, and for abandoning Opera Software's own Presto layout engine. Despite that, versions with the Blink layout engine have been noted for being fast and stable, for handling the latest web standards and for having a better website compatibility and a modern-style user interface.


title: Grand Theft Auto III

text: Grand Theft Auto III is a 2001 action-adventure game developed by DMA Design and published by Rockstar Games. It is the third main entry in the "Grand Theft Auto" series, following 1999's "Grand Theft Auto 2", and the fifth instalment overall. Set within the fictional Liberty City (loosely based on New York City), the story follows Claude, a silent protagonist who, after being betrayed and left for dead by his girlfriend during a robbery, embarks on a quest for revenge that leads him to become entangled in a world of crime, drugs, gang warfare, and corruption. The game is played from a third-person perspective and its world is navigated on foot or by vehicle. Its open world design lets players freely roam Liberty City, consisting of three main areas.


title: Grand Theft Auto III

text: Development was shared between DMA Design, based in Edinburgh, and Rockstar, based in New York City. Much of the development involved transforming popular elements from the "Grand Theft Auto" series into a fully 3D world for the first time. The game was delayed following the September 11 attacks to allow the team to change references and gameplay deemed inappropriate. It was released in October 2001 for the PlayStation 2, in May 2002 for Windows, and in October 2003 for the Xbox.


title: Grand Theft Auto III

text: "Grand Theft Auto III" received critical acclaim, with particular praise directed at its concept and gameplay. However, it also generated controversy, with criticism directed at its depictions of violence and sex. It became the best-selling video game of 2001, and sold over 14.5 million copies by March 2008. Considered by many critics as one of the most significant titles of the sixth generation of video games and a landmark game in the open world concept, it is often listed among the greatest video games. It won several year-end accolades, including Game of the Year awards from several gaming publications. Since its release, it has received ports to many different gaming platforms. An enhanced version of the game was released on mobile platforms in 2011 for the game's tenth anniversary, and a for the twentieth anniversary was released in 2021. The game was followed by 2002's "", while two prequels, "Grand Theft Auto Advance" and "", were released in 2004 and 2005, respectively.


title: Grand Theft Auto III

text: "Grand Theft Auto III" is an action-adventure game played from a third-person perspective. Players complete missions—linear scenarios with set objectives—to progress through the story. It is possible to have several missions available at a time, as some missions require players to wait for further instructions or events. Outside of missions, players can freely roam the game's open world, and have the ability to complete optional side missions. Liberty City is composed of three boroughs: Portland, Staunton Island, and Shoreside Vale; the latter two areas become unlocked as the player progresses through the storyline.


title: Grand Theft Auto III

text: Players may run, jump or use vehicles to navigate the game's world. In combat, auto-aim can be used as assistance against enemies. Should players take damage, their health meter can be fully regenerated through the use of health pick-ups. Body armour can be used to absorb gunshots and explosive damage, but is used up in the process. When health is entirely depleted, gameplay stops and players respawn at the nearest hospital, at the expense of losing armour, weapons, and an amount of money.


title: Grand Theft Auto III

text: If players commit crimes while playing, the game's law enforcement agencies may respond as indicated by a "wanted" meter in the head-up display (HUD). On the meter, the displayed stars indicate the current wanted level (for example, at the maximum six-star level, efforts by law enforcement to incapacitate players become very aggressive). Law enforcement officers will search for players who leave the wanted vicinity. The wanted meter enters a cooldown mode and eventually recedes when players are hidden from the officers' line of sight.


title: Grand Theft Auto III

text: The game lets players control the mute criminal Claude. During the story, Claude meets various new characters from gangs. As players complete missions for different gangs and criminal organisations, fellow gang members will often defend players, while rival gang members will recognise players and subsequently shoot on sight. While free roaming the game world, players may engage in activities such as a vigilante minigame, a fire fighting activity, a paramedic service and a taxi cab service. Completion of these activities grants players with context-specific rewards; for example, completing the vigilante mission allows players to bribe police after committing a crime.


title: Grand Theft Auto III

text: Players use melee attacks, firearms and explosives to fight enemies. The firearms include weapons such as the Micro Uzi, an M16 rifle and a flamethrower. The game's three-dimensional environment allows a first-person view while aiming with the sniper rifle, rocket launcher and the M16 rifle. In addition, the game's combat was reworked to allow players to commit drive-by shootings by facing sideways in a vehicle. The game gives players a wide variety of weapon options—they can be purchased from local firearms dealers, found on the ground, retrieved from dead enemies, or found around the city.


title: Grand Theft Auto III

text: Small-time criminal Claude is betrayed and shot by his girlfriend Catalina (voiced by Cynthia Farrell) during a bank heist outside Liberty City. Claude is arrested, but escapes during his transfer to prison when members of the Colombian Cartel ambush his transport to abduct another prisoner. During his escape, Claude befriends explosives expert and fellow convict 8-Ball (Guru), who shelters Claude and introduces him to the Leone Mafia family for work. Claude assists the Mafia with various operations, including winning a gang war against a local group of Triads, earning him the respect of Don Salvatore Leone (Frank Vincent). After learning that the Cartel are creating and selling a new street drug called SPANK to fund their expansion into Liberty City, Salvatore orders Claude to destroy their floating drug lab. Claude accomplishes this with 8-Ball's help.


title: Grand Theft Auto III

text: Salvatore later instructs Claude to deal with a minor problem, but his trophy wife Maria (Debi Mazar), who took a liking to Claude, reveals it to be a set-up. Maria claims that she lied to Salvatore about having an affair with Claude to make him jealous, and now Salvatore wants to murder him. Claude escapes to Staunton Island with Maria and her friend Asuka Kasen (Lianna Pai). After assassinating Salvatore to cut ties with the Mafia, Claude begins working for the Yakuza, led by Asuka and her brother Kenji (Les J.N. Mau). During this time, he also provides assistance to corrupted police inspector Ray Machowski (Robert Loggia), whom he eventually helps flee the city, and influential businessman Donald Love (Kyle MacLachlan). Donald hires Claude to assassinate Kenji under the guise of a Cartel attack to start a gang war that will allow Donald to obtain construction sites for his businesses. After the job's success, Claude carries out another task for Donald that leads him to encounter Catalina, now the leader of the Cartel, at a construction site. However, Catalina escapes after betraying and shooting her partner, Miguel (Al Espinosa).


title: Grand Theft Auto III

text: Asuka blames the Cartel for Kenji's death and seizes the construction site. The Yakuza capture the wounded Miguel and torture him for information on Cartel operations in the city, allowing Claude to strike against them and hinder the Cartel. Enraged, Catalina murders both Asuka and Miguel and kidnaps Maria, demanding $500,000 for her release. Claude meets with her to pay the ransom, but Catalina deceives him again and traps him. Claude escapes, rescues Maria, and destroys the helicopter Catalina attempts to flee in, killing her. As Claude and Maria leave the scene, the latter begins to complain about the kidnapping, but is silenced by a gunshot.


title: Grand Theft Auto III

text: The core development team of "Grand Theft Auto III" consisted of about 23 people at DMA Design in Edinburgh, who worked closely with publisher Rockstar Games in New York City. The original prototype for the game was created on the Dreamcast around the end of development on the previous game "Grand Theft Auto 2" (1999), which led to it being greenlit. By early 2001, the team had designed the city, cars and some weapons. An online multiplayer mode was initially planned for the game, but was ultimately dropped due to time and resource limitations. Producer Leslie Benzies described "Grand Theft Auto III" as a "crime simulation game". Rockstar originally offered it to Microsoft Game Studios as an Xbox exclusive, but Microsoft declined due to the game's adult nature and its poorly-performing predecessors. The game was released for the PlayStation 2 on 23 October 2001 in North America. When porting the game to Windows, the team delayed it from the PlayStation 2 release in order to ensure quality, citing issues with the simultaneous platform release of previous games in the series. Capcom published the game in Japan in September 2003.


title: Grand Theft Auto III

text: "Grand Theft Auto III" is considered to be the first 3D game in the series, using Criterion Games' RenderWare game engine. Executive producer Sam Houser had always wanted the series to move to 3D; the development team of "Grand Theft Auto 2" had performed some similar tests, and DMA Design had experimented with 3D worlds with games like "Body Harvest" and "Space Station Silicon Valley" (both 1998). With the release of the PlayStation 2, the team felt that a large 3D world was possible. Art director Aaron Garbut felt that other video games at the time "were a thing you played", wanting "Grand Theft Auto III" to be "a place you lived in".


title: Grand Theft Auto III

text: When designing the game, the development team expanded upon concepts introduced in the previous "Grand Theft Auto" games. Benzies stated that the intention was to recreate the "freedom and diversity" of the previous games in a "living, breathing 3D world", using the power of the PlayStation 2 to do so. The console's ability to use DVDs, an improvement over the PlayStation's limit to CDs, allowed the team to store more data, such as animations, music and environments. Despite this, the team found it difficult to fit the game into the PlayStation 2's 32 megabytes of RAM, due to the scale. The game's size also created difficulties for the testers, due to the variety of options. Benzies felt that creating a living city was the "underlying principle" of the game's concept during development. Sam Houser felt that the game's 3D element allowed the "chemistry of the team [to come] together perfectly for the first time".


title: Grand Theft Auto III

text: A major difficulty the team encountered was converting all game elements into a fully 3D world, including the sound and radio stations, as well as designing and voicing the non-player characters, due to the amount that existed within the open world. Producer Dan Houser said there were about 8,000 lines of recorded dialogue in the game, while audio programmer Raymond Usher estimated about 18,000. The basic technical elements of the game began to work together in mid-2000, with a carjacking mechanic prototype and stable streaming model. Streaming was initially intended to be reserved for music and map geometry, but other elements were eventually included when it became apparent to the team as more data was entered.


title: Grand Theft Auto III

text: When designing the game world, the team initially created a "hybrid city", which Dan Houser described as "a post industrial Midwest slash east coast generic" city. Upon developing within this game world, the team realised that basing the design on a real location meant "you have a lot of things you can say about it". As a result, they redesigned Liberty City, which had been previously featured in the first "Grand Theft Auto" (1997), basing it loosely on New York City. DMA Design worked with a team at Rockstar in New York for cultural references; the Rockstar team would regularly work long hours for full weeks, ensuring that the references, such as in-game car manufacturers, were appropriate to the city.


title: Grand Theft Auto III

text: The city is broken into three islands: an industrial section representing Brooklyn and Queens, a commercial centre resembling Manhattan, and suburbs similar to New Jersey. The islands unlock as the story progresses; the team wanted players to "start out feeling poor and work to being richer". Dan Houser described Liberty City as a "hybrid of a generic American city", including Chicago, Pittsburgh, Detroit, New York, and Philadelphia; he felt that the parallel realism of the world allowed the team to make more social commentary than previously. Sam Houser cited films and shows like "Heat" (1995) and "The Sopranos" (1999–2007) as inspiration for the setting, and wanted to emulate them in the game. He also cited the influence of "The Legend of Zelda", "Super Mario 64" and the 1990 film "Goodfellas", describing "Grand Theft Auto III" as "a cross between a gangster movie and an RPG".


title: Grand Theft Auto III

text: The team developed the story and design simultaneously. Dan Houser said, "we use the story to expose the mechanics, and we use the mechanics to tell the story"; however, he found it difficult to create the narrative, as the game is so strongly focused on player freedom. He wanted the story to be more nuanced and interesting than the generic "rise and fall and rise again of a superhero bad guy". The game's script was also focused on mission objectives, attempting to implement high amounts of interactivity. Dan Houser felt that each mission is "its own short story", and part of an "overarching story". Dan Houser and co-writer James Worrall drew influence from mob films and the mafiosi featured in films by Martin Scorsese; the team also "paid a lot of attention" to shows like "Miami Vice" and "The Sopranos". When writing the story, Dan Houser and Worrall regularly met with the designers, and filled a room with post-it notes to reconstruct the story components to shape the game.


title: Grand Theft Auto III

text: Many of the game characters were animated using motion capture, filmed at a rented studio at the Brooklyn Navy Yard, though this was limited by technical constraints. The character movement was also treated as being cinematic, though limited polygons heavily inhibited this. Animating non-player characters entering and driving cars proved to be difficult for the team, due to the variety of vehicle designs. "It involved chaining together dozens of different animations and altering key frames in code", recalled software engineer Alan Campbell. The team used varying camera angles when animating the game's cutscenes in order to evoke different emotions. For the voice acting, the team wanted "natural, subtle performances", which proved difficult as many of the actors "had in their head the idea that because video games are animated, their performances needed to be animated", explained motion capture director Navid Khonsari.


title: Grand Theft Auto III

text: The playable protagonist is unnamed in the game, and his name is not officially revealed as Claude until his appearance in "" (2004). He is a silent protagonist, never speaking throughout his appearances; the team decided upon this primarily because it "did not seem like a major issue", due to the other challenges faced during development, and also partly to allow players to identify with the character, as he would be who the players want him to be. The developers did not have "any one single inspiration" for Claude; they liked the idea of a "strong, silent killer, who would be juxtaposed with all of these neurotic and verbose mobsters".


title: Grand Theft Auto III

text: "Grand Theft Auto III" features about three and a half hours of in-game radio material. For the music, the team sought a broad diversity to recreate the real sensation of skipping through radio stations, reflecting the gangster movie culture invoked by the game. The team used the talk radio stations to add character to the city and provide a "unique take on American life"; Sam Houser described it as "a very iconoclastic look at America". The team used real DJs to portray those on the radio. In doing so, they wrote unusual dialogue for the DJs, seeking the effect of "high production values and absurd content". Music director Craig Conner assembled the assets of the radio station—music, advertisements, DJ dialogue, and station imaging.


title: Grand Theft Auto III

text: Chatterbox FM, one of the game's radio stations, is entirely talk radio hosted by Lazlow Jones, who met Rockstar's managing director Terry Donovan in 2001 as they were both preparing to travel to Los Angeles for E3. Donovan invited Jones to Rockstar's offices in Manhattan, where he met the development team, including Dan and Sam Houser and producer Jamie King, and they invited him to work on the game. The writing sessions took place at Dan Houser's apartment, and the entire process, including editing and recording, took around four to five months. With the station's guests and callers, the writers wanted to satirise American lifestyles, focusing on fictional stories as opposed to quickly outdated stories based on recent news. Jones found the conversations to be natural, having worked in radio for several years. The roles of the guests and callers were performed by Jones's friends and neighbours, including his father, and were recorded in New York.


title: Grand Theft Auto III

text: Prior to "Grand Theft Auto III"s initial release, several modifications were made to the game. While changes are frequent during game development, these changes were noted to be around the time of the attacks of September 11, 2001, which led to speculation that the changes were motivated by the attacks. On 19 September 2001, Rockstar delayed the game's release by three weeks, citing the attacks as an influencing factor in the delay. "Everyone had someone who had an uncle or brother [who was impacted by the attack]", said Paul Eibeler, then president of distributor Take-Two Interactive.


title: Grand Theft Auto III

text: One of the changes made shortly after the 9/11 attacks was the colour scheme of the police cars, which were originally blue with white stripes and resembled that of the New York City Police Department. It was changed to black-and-white designs common among several police departments in the United States, such as Los Angeles and San Francisco. Other changes included altering the flight path of a plane to avoid appearing to fly into or behind a skyscraper and removing a mission referencing terrorists, as well as some changes to pedestrian dialogue and talk radio. Another cut to the game was the character of Darkel, a revolutionary urchin who vowed to bring down the city's economy. When references to Darkel were found in the game's code, speculation arose that he was related to 9/11, but Dan Houser explained that the character had been cut "months before [release]". There are also reports and previews stating that the game featured schoolchildren as pedestrians prior to release, although Rockstar has dismissed such rumours as "nonsense".


title: Grand Theft Auto III

text: Rockstar stated that the game was "about 1% different" after 9/11, and that the biggest change was the cover art. They felt that the game's original cover, which was still used for its release in Europe, was "too raw" after 9/11, and it was changed to what became the "signature style" of the series. Sam Houser stated that the cover was designed in an evening and was instantly preferred over the original cover. The cover was inspired by the movie posters for 1960s films, such as "The Thomas Crown Affair" (1968).


title: Grand Theft Auto III

text: "Grand Theft Auto III" was released to critical acclaim. Metacritic calculated an average score of 97 out of 100, indicating "universal acclaim", based on 56 reviews. It is tied with "Tony Hawk's Pro Skater 3" as the highest-rated PlayStation 2 game on the site and tied with a number of others as the sixth-highest-rated game overall. Reviewers liked the game's sound, gameplay, and open world design, though some criticism was directed at the controls. Tom Bramwell of "Eurogamer" called "Grand Theft Auto III" "a luscious, sprawling epic", and "Official PlayStation Magazine" named it "the most innovative, outlandish, brilliant video game". "GameSpot"s Jeff Gerstmann described the game as "an incredible experience that shouldn't be missed by anyone"; "IGN"s Doug Perry named it "one of the best titles of the year, on PlayStation 2, or on any system".


title: Grand Theft Auto III

text: Many reviewers found the 3D graphics a welcome change from the 2D of the previous games. "GameSpot"s Gerstmann particularly praised the character and vehicle models, and the overall texture quality of the city. "GameSpy"s Andrei Alupului found the graphics "really rather impressive", describing the car models as "greatly improved" over those in "Midnight Club". "Eurogamer"s Bramwell considered the graphics "generally pleasant to look at", but considered it inferior to games like "Gran Turismo 3" and "Ico". Justin Leeper of "Game Informer" described game world as "stunning in scope and detail", and Perry of "IGN" found it to be "on a scale that's truly epic". "Game Revolution"s Ben Silverman called the city a "technological marvel ... that captures the essence of gritty city life in amazing detail".


title: Grand Theft Auto III

text: "IGN"s Perry considered the game's sound "unbelievably and meticulously delivered", particularly praising the soundtrack, voice acting and sound design, stating that it was "really approached as if it were done for a movie". "Eurogamer"s Bramwell echoed similar remarks, describing the city sounds as "perfect" and the soundtrack as "monstrous". The sound was described as "terrific" by "GameSpot"s Gerstmann and "Game Revolution"s Silverman, and "1UP.com" appreciated the subtlety of the in-game radio stations. "AllGame"s Scott Alan Marriott named the music "the true star" of the game.


title: Grand Theft Auto III

text: Reviewers considered the style of the game's missions to be a welcoming departure from those in previous games. "1UP.com" described the missions as "wonderfully creative", while "GamesMaster" appreciated the diversity. "IGN"s Perry similarly appreciated the variety and scale of the missions, and praised the amount of available side missions. "GameSpy"s Alupului described the game's story as "well-paced" and "coherent", featuring plot elements akin to a mob film. "GameSpot"s Gerstmann found the missions entertaining and challenging, but noted that exploring the game world also offers "a great deal of fun" to players.


title: Grand Theft Auto III

text: Reactions to the game's controls were mixed. Alupului of "GameSpy" found the game "controls beautifully", both while driving and on-foot. "Game Revolution"s Silverman identified the control issues as the game's only flaw, although praised the responsiveness of the driving mechanics. Matt Helgeson of "Game Informer" similarly described the driving as "great", but noted "clunky" combat. "GamePro"s Four-Eyed Dragon found the cars simple to manoeuvre. "Edge" described the game's combat as "an awkward system that stymies play". "1UP.com" noted particular flaws in the targeting system, explaining that it "often focuses on the wrong guy".


title: Grand Theft Auto III

text: When "Grand Theft Auto III" was released for Windows in May 2002, it received similar acclaim. Metacritic calculated an average score of 93 out of 100, indicating "universal acclaim", based on 20 reviews; the game was Metacritic's highest-rated title for Windows in 2002. Reviewers liked the visual enhancements and control improvements, but criticised the port for its demanding system requirements.


title: Grand Theft Auto III

text: The in-game features and controls in the port were generally well-received. "IGN"s Tal Blevins praised the higher precision of the mouse controls, finding the aiming mechanic more precise. "GameSpot"s Erik Wolpaw also commended the mouse controls, but disapproved the replay system, particularly due to the lack of options with timing and camera controls. "Extended Play"s Andrew Bub appreciated the addition of a custom radio station, as well as the availability of custom skins. Daniel Morris of "PC Gamer" praised the gameplay tweaks provided by the port but criticised the lack of major additional features, such as an overhead map of the in-game city.


title: Grand Theft Auto III

text: The port's visuals received a positive response from reviewers. "GameSpot"s Wolpaw praised the port's reworked textures but criticised the frequent popup and the advanced system requirements. "IGN"s Blevins similarly criticised the necessity of an advanced system for stable play, but ultimately felt that the port looks "a bit nicer" than the original game. "GameSpy"s Sal Accardo felt that the port "looks much sharper" than the PlayStation 2 version, though noted some "choppy" animations. "Extended Play"s Bub mentioned that the advanced settings resulted in slowdown and crashes. "Game Informer"s Matt Helgeson noticed little difference between the visuals of the original and the port.


title: Grand Theft Auto III

text: When "Grand Theft Auto III" was released to mobile devices in December 2011, it received generally positive reviews. Metacritic calculated an average score of 80 out of 100, based on 26 reviews. Reviewers liked the enhanced visuals, but criticism was directed at the touchscreen controls.


title: Grand Theft Auto III

text: "IGN"s Peter Eykemans commended the port's smoother textures, especially condensed on a mobile screen, while "Destructoid"s Jim Sterling noted improvements in the character and vehicle models. Mark Walton of "GameSpot" wrote that the game runs well on high-end devices like the Motorola Xoom and Samsung Galaxy S II, but noticed significant frame rate and texture issues on the Xperia Play. "Pocket Gamer"s Mark Brown identified the game's short draw distance leading to sudden popup, although still found that the models and textures "have been given a tune-up" in the port.


title: Grand Theft Auto III

text: The touchscreen controls received a mixed response. "Eurogamer"s Dan Whitehead appreciated the driving mechanics, but felt that moving on-foot is "a flaky way of navigating" the world, and criticised the "clumsy" shooting mechanics as most of the guns cannot be manually targeted. "IGN"s Eykemans felt that the controls "make half the experience frustrating", and "Destructoid"s Sterling described them as "by far the biggest barrier toward enjoying" the port. Brown of "Pocket Gamer" found that the touchscreen "hasn't hindered [the game] too drastically", commending simple movement and "effortless" driving mechanics. Some critics identified better controls upon the use of external gamepads, but felt that they hinder the game's portability.


title: Grand Theft Auto III

text: In the United States, "Grand Theft Auto III" was the highest-selling game of 2001, selling over two million units by February 2002. The game was also the second-best-selling game of 2002, only behind its sequel, "". Take-Two stock significantly increased following the game's launch, and the game was included in PlayStation's Greatest Hits selection. Within a year of release, the game had sold six million copies and generated over in revenue; by January 2003, it had sold seven million and generated over . In the United States, the game had sold 5.35 million units by June 2004, and 6.55 million units by December 2007. The Windows version accounted for 420,000 sales and $16.9 million in earnings by August 2006 in the United States, where it was the 34th-best-selling computer game between January 2000 and August 2006.


title: Grand Theft Auto III

text: In Japan, "Grand Theft Auto III" sold about 120,000 copies in its first week, and roughly 300,000 by December 2003. The number rose above 350,000 copies by January 2008. In Europe, over a million copies of the game were reportedly sold by December 2001. The game earned a "Diamond" award in the United Kingdom, indicating over one million sales; it was the first game to receive this award in the region. By March 2008, the game had sold 14.5 million units worldwide.


title: Grand Theft Auto III

text: "Grand Theft Auto III" received multiple nominations and awards from gaming publications. It was awarded Game of the Year at the 2nd Game Developers Choice Awards, and from GameSpot and GameSpy. It was named the Best PlayStation 2 Game by "Game Revolution", "GameSpot", "GameSpy", and "IGN". It also won Best Action Game from "Game Revolution", "GameSpot", and "IGN"; Most Innovative from "GameSpot"; and Excellence in Game Design at the Game Developers Choice Awards. "GameSpy" also awarded the game Most Offensive, Best Use of Radio, and tied for Best Artificial Intelligence. It won the Global Award at the 7th CESA Game Awards in 2003 and an Award for Excellence at the 8th CESA Game Awards in 2004.


title: Grand Theft Auto III

text: Prior to and since the release of "Grand Theft Auto III", the game generated several controversies. "GameSpy" awarded it the title "Most Offensive Game of the Year", calling it "absolutely reprehensible". They wrote that the game rewards players for "causing mayhem" and "killing innocent people by the dozen", ultimately questioning its appropriateness within the industry. The notoriety of "Grand Theft Auto III" resulted in American retailer Wal-Mart's decision to check the identification of purchasers who appeared to be under the age of 17 when purchasing mature titles. In an essay, assistant professor Shira Chess identified the lack of conclusion to player violence, due to the ability to respawn upon death or incarceration, and found that it denies the "reality of mortality and simultaneously [forces] it on players". When speaking about the game's depiction of violence, producer Leslie Benzies claimed that is intended to be comedic, and that the game is "not meant to be taken seriously". Producer Dan Houser stated that the team was conscious of the offence that the game would attract, but "never marketed it in a way that exploited that".


title: Grand Theft Auto III

text: The game allows players to participate in sexual activities with prostitutes and murder them to reclaim the payment, which was met with widespread controversy. The game also received some backlash for its depiction of crime and allowing violence against police officers. Psychologist David Walsh of the National Institute on Media and the Family stated that the game "glamorizes antisocial and criminal activity", and that "the purpose of the game is to perpetrate crime". In response, "Kotaku" writer Owen Good wrote that the game does not reward players for "proficiency at crime, no matter how much it is accused of doing so". Joanna Weiss of "The Boston Globe" noted the "adrenaline" that players feel when committing crimes in the game, excusing its violence due to its mature classification. In January 2002, the National Organization for Women called for Rockstar and Take-Two to withdraw the game from sale as it "encourages violence and the degradation of women". Matt Richtel of "The New York Times" wrote that the activities within the game "crossed the line into bad taste".


title: Grand Theft Auto III

text: "Grand Theft Auto III" was initially released in Australia with an MA15+ classification. After re-reviewing the game, however, the Office of Film and Literature Classification (OFLC) banned it due to its depiction of sexual content and violence against prostitutes. This prompted Take-Two to appeal to the OFLC, who reaffirmed the banned status on 11 December 2001, after reanalysing the game and seeking the professional opinion of a forensic psychologist. As a result, Take-Two recalled the game in Australia, and Rockstar made appropriate changes to the game; a modified version was re-released with an MA15+ classification in January 2002, removing all instances of sexual acts with prostitutes. The game was re-rated with an R18+ classification in September 2019, citing "sexual activities related to incentives and rewards".


title: Grand Theft Auto III

text: On 25 June 2003, teenage stepbrothers William and Josh Buckner shot at motorists, killing Aaron Hamel and wounding Kimberly Bede. In statements to investigators, the perpetrators claimed their actions were inspired by "Grand Theft Auto III". In response, on 20 October 2003, the families of Hamel and Bede filed a US$246 million lawsuit against Rockstar, Take-Two, Sony Computer Entertainment and Wal-Mart. Rockstar and Take-Two filed for dismissal of the lawsuit, stating in United States district court on 29 October 2003 that the "ideas and concepts", and the "purported psychological effects" of the perpetrators, are protected by the First Amendment's free-speech clause. Jack Thompson, the lawyer representing the victims, denied Rockstar's claims and attempted to move the lawsuit into a state court for consideration under Tennessee's consumer protection act.


title: Grand Theft Auto III

text: "Grand Theft Auto III" has been frequently included among the greatest video games of all time. In 2007, "GamePro" called "Grand Theft Auto III" the most important video game of all time, explaining that the "game's open-ended gameplay elements have revolutionized the way all video games are made". Similarly, "IGN" ranked the game among the "Top 10 Most Influential Games", and "GameSpot" listed it among the greatest games of all time. In 2009, "Game Informer" wrote that "Grand Theft Auto III" "changed the gaming landscape forever with its immersive open world sandbox", and in 2016, "GamesRadar+" named it the "most important game" of the 2000s. "Time" named it one of the greatest video games of all time in November 2012 and August 2016. The game was selected as part of the Game On touring exhibition, demonstrating some of the game's development plans and artwork. In 2016, The Strong National Museum of Play inducted "Grand Theft Auto III" to its World Video Game Hall of Fame.


title: Grand Theft Auto III

text: "Grand Theft Auto III" is considered to have a leading role in the popularisation of sandbox games, inspiring those such as "Crackdown", "Mafia", "Saints Row", "True Crime", and "Watch Dogs". The term ""Grand Theft Auto" clone" is frequently used to describe subsequent video games released with similar open-ended gameplay as "Grand Theft Auto III". While previous video games used open world design, including earlier "Grand Theft Auto" games, "Grand Theft Auto III" took this gameplay foundation and expanded it into a 3D world, offering an unprecedented variety of minigames and side-missions. Journalist and consultant Tom Bramwell felt that the game did not invent a lot of its gameplay features, but "brought them all together". Due to its greater success over its predecessors, it is credited with popularising the open-world genre; Dan Houser felt that the game made it "one of the most vibrant genres today", and Garbut felt that it led to the complexities of Rockstar's future open world games, including the later "Grand Theft Auto" titles and "Red Dead Redemption 2" (2018). "IGN"s Jack Harwood wrote that the game's talk radio station inspired similar inclusions in other open world games, such as "Mafia III" (2016) and "" (2020).


title: Grand Theft Auto III

text: The game also led the trend of mature video games; Dan Houser felt that it allowed other developers to create violent shooters. Hal Halpin, president of the Entertainment Consumers Association, described "Grand Theft Auto III" as the "lightning rod for the violence-in-games debate". "Metro"s Roger Hargreaves wrote that it "emboldened a whole new wave of games that were ... fixated with violence [and] gang culture". Greg Ford of "Electronic Gaming Monthly" felt that the game allowed the medium to handle mature subject matter in a more serious manner than previously perceived, and noted the improvement of video game classification as a result of its controversy. King said that video games at the time were often associated with children or nerds, and that the development team "wanted the rest of the entertainment industry to pay attention" and understand that the medium could also contain mature, adult content.


title: Grand Theft Auto III

text: Following the game's success, Rockstar developed further titles in the series. "Vice City" and "San Andreas" are set in their titular locations in 1986 and 1992, respectively. "Grand Theft Auto Advance" (2004) is set in Liberty City roughly a year before the events of "Grand Theft Auto III". "" (2005) takes place three years before the events of "Grand Theft Auto III" in the same rendition of Liberty City. A completely redesigned version of the city was later used in "Grand Theft Auto IV" (2008), "The Lost and Damned" (2009), "The Ballad of Gay Tony" (2009), and "Chinatown Wars" (2009).


title: Grand Theft Auto III

text: "Grand Theft Auto III" was released on 21 May 2002 for Windows, supporting higher screen resolutions and draw distance, and featuring more detailed textures. A GameCube release was planned, but later cancelled. In December 2003, the game was released on the Xbox, with its successor, "Vice City", as part of the "Grand Theft Auto: Double Pack" compilation. The Xbox port features custom soundtrack support as well as improved audio, polygon models, and reflections over the previous ports. "Double Pack" was later bundled with "San Andreas" as part of "", released in October 2005. "The Trilogy" was also released for OS X on 12 November 2010. On 15 December 2011, for the game's tenth anniversary, War Drum Studios ported the game to iOS and Android; this port is almost identical to the Windows version, with the addition of enhanced models and textures and touchscreen controls. This port was also released on Fire OS on 15 May 2014. A PlayStation 3 version was released on 25 September 2012 via the PlayStation Network. The original PlayStation 2 version was released for the PlayStation 4 as a PS2 Classics title, on 5 December 2015. In 2012, a modding community under the name RAGE Classic Team ported the map over to "Grand Theft Auto IV", named "Grand Theft Auto III: RAGE Classic".


title: Grand Theft Auto III

text: An enhanced version of "The Trilogy" subtitled "", including "Grand Theft Auto III", was released for Windows, Nintendo Switch, PlayStation 4, PlayStation 5, Xbox One, and Xbox Series X/S on 11 November 2021, to celebrate the game's twentieth anniversary; versions for Android and iOS devices are also in development. Existing versions of the game were removed from digital retailers in preparation for "The Definitive Edition".


title: Grand Theft Auto III

text: A core team of six fans reverse-engineered the game and released it as an executable in April 2020, having worked on it since 2016; titled "re3", the project allows the game to be unofficially ported to platforms such as Nintendo Switch, PlayStation Vita, and Wii U. Take-Two issued a DMCA takedown for the project in February 2021, though it was restored in June after the team filed a counter-notice. In September 2021, Take-Two filed a lawsuit in California against the programmers, asserting that the projects constitute copyright infringement.


title: Kawasaki Ninja H2

text: The Kawasaki Ninja H2 is a "supercharged supersport"-class motorcycle in the Ninja sports bike series manufactured by Kawasaki, featuring a variable-speed centrifugal supercharger.


title: Kawasaki Ninja H2

text: Its namesake is the 750 cc Kawasaki H2 Mach IV, an inline triple that was introduced by Kawasaki in 1972 to "disrupt what it saw as a sleeping motorcycle market".


title: Kawasaki Ninja H2

text: Its Ninja H2R track-only variant is the fastest and most powerful production motorcycle on the market, producing a maximum of and with ram-air. The H2R has 50% more power than the fastest street-legal motorcycles, while the street-legal Ninja H2 has a lower power output of – with ram-air.


title: Kawasaki Ninja H2

text: Kawasaki selected the literbike platform for its top-of-the-line Ninja H2 model, rather than continuing with the higher-displacement Ninja ZX-14 hyperbike. "Cycle World"'s Kevin Cameron explained that the literbike class is "the center of the high-performance market", attracting the best development in racing, with the best chassis and suspension design, so it made sense for Kawasaki to create a machine that could leverage this.


title: Kawasaki Ninja H2

text: The H2 is the first production motorcycle with a supercharger, although turbochargers were available on some models in the early 1980s.


title: Kawasaki Ninja H2

text: The street-legal Ninja H2 has mirrors in place of the track-only H2R's winglets, and plastic body panels in place of the H2R's carbon-fiber panels. The street-legal H2 is said to make , probably with reduced supercharger boost compared to the H2R. The H2 and H2R share the supercharger (with a lower boost level on the H2) and many other components, with the exception of the head gasket, cam profile and timing with ECU mapping, exhaust system, and clutch (the H2R's clutch has two additional plates).


title: Kawasaki Ninja H2

text: For 2017, Kawasaki made a limited-edition model with 120 units produced globally: the individually-numbered Kawasaki Ninja H2 Carbon with special paint and carbon-fiber upper cowl. For 2017, the standard Ninja H2 was also updated.


title: Kawasaki Ninja H2

text: For 2018, Kawasaki made a new sport touring version of the H2, the , with a claimed wet weight of . Features that are options on the base model H2 SX come standard on the Kawasaki H2 SX SE, which has a claimed wet weight of . With revised throttle bodies, camshafts, crankshaft, pistons, cylinder and cylinder head as well as a new exhaust system aimed at increasing mid range torque. The intake system and supercharger impeller were also redesigned. A new larger fuel tank, rear trellis subframe and panniers increase the bike's weight by .


title: Kawasaki Ninja H2

text: For 2019, the H2 received an update with 15% more power from updates to the intake, spark plugs, ECU, and air filter, among other components. Also added was a new LED lighting scheme and a special top coat of paint that is claimed to be self-healing and able to smooth over small scratches in warmer conditions. Also new were lighter and smaller Brembo Stylema calipers, a new TFT dash, and smartphone connectivity that provides information about the GPS route, speed, RPM, current gear, fuel mileage, fuel level, and odometer. In addition, the 2019 Ninja H2 SX SE+ features electronically controlled suspension.


title: Kawasaki Ninja H2

text: The supercharger is driven by a series of gears and shafts connecting the flywheel to a planetary drive, finally spinning a dog-shifted two-speed shaft attached to the impeller. Throttle control is electronic. A centrifugal supercharger has the advantage of generating less heat than other designs, especially scroll-type or screw-type superchargers. Without an intercooler (which the H2 lacks), excess heat in the intake charge can cause pre-ignition that can damage or destroy the engine.


title: Kawasaki Ninja H2

text: Electronic rider aids include an anti-lock braking system (ABS), Kawasaki Traction Control (KTRC), Kawasaki Engine Brake Control (KEBC), a Kawasaki Quick Shifter (KQS), an electronic steering damper (ESD), and Kawasaki Launch Control Mode (KLCM).


title: Kawasaki Ninja H2

text: The front fairing of the Ninja H2R incorporates winglets made of carbon fiber, just like the rest of the H2R-exclusive bodywork. They may be aerodynamic devices designed to create a low-pressure zone to help move cooling air through the engine bay, to produce downforce at high speed, or to provide straight-line stability in a short-wheelbase sportsbike chassis.


title: Kawasaki Ninja H2

text: The H2 and H2R have a tubular, thin-wall steel trellis frame and a single-sided swingarm, with a traditional sportsbike wheelbase of .


title: Kawasaki Ninja H2

text: Explaining the advantages of Kawasaki's approach to exploiting aerodynamics instead of lengthening the wheelbase, a South African writer said, "It's easy to build stability into a hard-accelerating drag machine with a long wheelbase... but Kawasaki wanted a track-day machine, one that would also go round corners." High speed motorcycles often have long wheelbases. Extra length is added by the extended swingarm on a typical drag motorcycle, and a typical land speed record streamliner has a meters-long wheelbase (3.7 meters for the current record holder, Ack Attack).


title: Kawasaki Ninja H2

text: The H2 was announced by Kawasaki in a late-2014 teaser campaign, and was widely expected to be fully revealed at the Intermot motorcycle trade show the same year. Before full details were released by Kawasaki, the supercharged inline-4 engine was thought by several industry observers to be identical to, or closely related to, a nearly 1,000 cc inline-4 with a centrifugal supercharger displayed by Kawasaki at the 2013 Tokyo Motor Show.


title: Kawasaki Ninja H2

text: Cameron published an analysis showing that an engine of that displacement, mildly boosted at , would generate —more than that of Kawasaki's current leader, the ZX-14 (horsepower figures are expressed at the rear wheel). The same engine would generate with of pressure. His analysis included a discussion of the benefits of a two-speed supercharger for more linear power delivery (as opposed to the intractable Japanese turbo bikes of the 1980s that suffered from turbo lag). Cameron also said Kawasaki patent documents suggested the engine would rely on evaporative cooling using port fuel injection, instead of a bulky intercooler.


title: Kawasaki Ninja H2

text: Kawasaki claimed the 2013 model had the first supercharger designed by a motorcycle manufacturer. In 2013, journalists said that the engine could power the "next generation [Ninja] ZX-14R" sportbike. Journalists also noted that Kawasaki already has a production inline-4 supercharged (albeit intercooled) engine powering the Jet Ski Ultra 300X personal watercraft.


title: Kawasaki Ninja H2

text: At the 2014 Intermot motorcycle trade show on September 30, 2014, Kawasaki announced that a race-only Ninja H2R model would be produced in addition to the detuned street-legal Ninja H2, which would be fully revealed at the EICMA trade show in November. The bike was shown for the first time in North America at the AIMExpo show at Orlando, Florida in October, 2014.


title: Kawasaki Ninja H2

text: According to details Kawasaki made public about the H2's engine at Intermot, it was confirmed to be a 998 cc inline-four engine with a supercharger, producing in the track-only H2R variant, still by far the highest rated engine ever for any factory production motorcycle (50% more than its nearest competitor, the BMW S1000RR).


title: Kawasaki Ninja H2

text: Before the full reveal of the H2R, reactions tended to emphasize the reintroduction of forced induction to the motorcycle marketplace, with headlines like "Hail the New Supercharged Era" (Autoevolution), "Supercharged Ninja imminent" ("Motor Cycle News"), "New Kawasaki sports bike will use a 1000cc supercharged engine" (Visordown (UK)), "Kawasaki officially uncovers Ninja H2 supercharger" ("Cycle Online" (Australia)), "Kawasaki Ninja H2: How the supercharger works" (""), and "Kawasaki's H2 superbike: A technical look at Kawasaki’s upcoming supercharged superbike" ("Cycle World").


title: Kawasaki Ninja H2

text: After the introduction, before any test rides had even been permitted, coverage turned to both the bike's unusual styling and its precedent setting power. Both industry and general-readership press said the machine "will beat up the supersport scene with a steam hammer" ("Der Tagesspiegel"), "smashes the superbike class" (Gizmag), is "a game changer" (Autoevolution), "a quantum leap into the future that redefines the way we see motorcycles" (Independent Newspapers), and "the poster child of 2-wheeled insanity ... so extreme it's hard to comprehend" ("Road & Track"), or was simply "radical" ("Motor Cycle News") and even "ludicrous" ("Bloomberg Businessweek").


title: Kawasaki Ninja H2

text: "Cycle World" and "Motor Cycle News" both commented on how Kawasaki had claimed the high end of the market with the H2, moving past a stagnant market (at least from the Japanese Big Four manufacturers) full of cookie-cutter sportsbikes and low-priced entry-level bikes, and had set up the H2 as a halo model for the entire brand. Cameron said, "When we look at the current crop of 1000s, all date from before our present "recession," and what little has come by way of new product has sought to please the mostly imaginary "new buyer" with low-tech delights." Highlighting Kawasaki's ability to create a product leveraging aerodynamic, turbine and engine technology design expertise from across the large Kawasaki Heavy Industries conglomerate (called a "vast industrial complex" by "Sport Rider"), an unsigned "Motor Cycle News" piece said "The H2R you see here is the very pinnacle of what Kawasaki can do ... This is the firm's halo product, and every element is Kawasaki at its very best, from the engine and aerodynamic development, through to the mirror-finish black chrome paint specially developed for this model."


title: Kawasaki Ninja H2

text: Some analysts noted odd features of the supposedly track-only H2R model. Although it is outfitted with racing slicks and lacks many features required on a street-legal vehicle in most jurisdictions, such as headlights, rear view mirrors, and turn signals visible from the front or sides, it also has features that are unusual or absent on pure track bikes, such as an ignition lock and LED tail light.


title: Kawasaki Ninja H2

text: "Cycle World" recorded a -mile time of 9.62 sec. @ with a 0 to 60 mph acceleration at 2.6 seconds and a top speed of . Kent Kunitsugu, editor for Sport Rider magazine, competing in a land-speed racing event in Mojave, California at the Mojave Air and Space Port airfield in the Mojave Magnum land-speed racing, took a Ninja H2 with just a few bolt-on performance parts adding over 70 horsepower and achieved a top speed of .


title: Kawasaki Ninja H2

text: On August 12, 2018, rider Shigeru Yamashita, with an unofficial team of Kawasaki employees (known as Team 38), set a speed record in the Southern California Timing Association (SCTA) P-PB 1000 class for under-1,000 cc displacement production supercharged motorcycles with limited modifications at the Bonneville Speedway. On August 15, Yamashita broke his own record with a new speed of .


title: Kawasaki Ninja H2

text: In June 2015, TT race competitor James Hillier rode a Kawasaki H2R around the 37-mile TT road course as an inter-race demonstration lap at near-race speeds, using normal Superbike slick race tires, leading to a TT record of the highest top speed attained in the Isle of Man by a motorcycle. The top speed of "over 206 mph" (332 km/h) on the Sulby Straight was recorded on Hillier's personal Strava GPS smartphone app for cyclists.


title: Kawasaki Ninja H2

text: On June 30, 2016, Kenan Sofuoglu, a five-time world champion Supersport circuit-racer, made a top speed attempt. Kawasaki supplied a stock H2R augmented only with special tires developed by Pirelli for the top speed attempt to withstand extreme high speeds, and the bike was supplied with race-grade fuel. Sofuoglu was also supplied with a special one-piece leather suit to enhance aerodynamics for his record attempt.


title: Kawasaki Ninja H2

text: This attempt, with the Turkish president in attendance, was made across the then-newly completed Osman Gazi Bridge, the fourth longest in the world at just over a mile and a half. Kawasaki quoted the H2R's maximum speed to be . After training and preparing for four months, a speed of in just 26 seconds was claimed by a video-recording of the bike's dashboard display.


title: Kawasaki Ninja H2

text: The speed was not officially confirmed or independently verified. No fixed point optical sensors for distance/speed calculations, chronometers or hand-held devices were used, and later with a theoretical calculation, of the distance he traveled in 26 seconds on the bridge. Cameron had calculated two years earlier that with the right gearing, the H2R's engine power could theoretically overcome aerodynamic drag up to .


title: Keynesian economics

text: Keynesian economics ( ; sometimes Keynesianism, named after British economist John Maynard Keynes) are the various macroeconomic theories and models of how aggregate demand (total spending in the economy) strongly influences economic output and inflation. In the Keynesian view, aggregate demand does not necessarily equal the productive capacity of the economy. Instead, it is influenced by a host of factors – sometimes behaving erratically – affecting production, employment, and inflation.


title: Keynesian economics

text: Keynesian economists generally argue that aggregate demand is volatile and unstable and that, consequently, a market economy often experiences inefficient macroeconomic outcomes – a recession, when demand is low, or inflation, when demand is high. Further, they argue that these economic fluctuations can be mitigated by economic policy responses coordinated between government and central bank. In particular, fiscal policy actions (taken by the government) and monetary policy actions (taken by the central bank), can help stabilize economic output, inflation, and unemployment over the business cycle. Keynesian economists generally advocate a regulated market economy – predominantly private sector, but with an active role for government intervention during recessions and depressions.


title: Keynesian economics

text: Keynesian economics developed during and after the Great Depression from the ideas presented by Keynes in his 1936 book, "The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money". Keynes' approach was a stark contrast to the aggregate supply-focused classical economics that preceded his book. Interpreting Keynes's work is a contentious topic, and several schools of economic thought claim his legacy.


title: Keynesian economics

text: Keynesian economics, as part of the neoclassical synthesis, served as the standard macroeconomic model in the developed nations during the later part of the Great Depression, World War II, and the post-war economic expansion (1945–1973). It was developed in part to attempt to explain the Great Depression and to help economists understand future crises. It lost some influence following the oil shock and resulting stagflation of the 1970s. Keynesian economics was later redeveloped as New Keynesian economics, becoming part of the contemporary new neoclassical synthesis, that forms current-day mainstream macroeconomics. The advent of the financial crisis of 2007–2008 sparked renewed interest in Keynesian policies by governments around the world.


title: Keynesian economics

text: Macroeconomics is the study of the factors applying to an economy as a whole. Important macroeconomic variables include the overall price level, the interest rate, the level of employment, and income (or equivalently output) measured in real terms.


title: Keynesian economics

text: The classical tradition of partial equilibrium theory had been to split the economy into separate markets, each of whose equilibrium conditions could be stated as a single equation determining a single variable. The theoretical apparatus of supply and demand curves developed by Fleeming Jenkin and Alfred Marshall provided a unified mathematical basis for this approach, which the Lausanne School generalized to general equilibrium theory.


title: Keynesian economics

text: For macroeconomics, relevant partial theories included the Quantity theory of money determining the price level and the classical theory of the interest rate. In regards to employment, the condition referred to by Keynes as the "first postulate of classical economics" stated that the wage is equal to the marginal product, which is a direct application of the marginalist principles developed during the nineteenth century (see "The General Theory"). Keynes sought to supplant all three aspects of the classical theory.


title: Keynesian economics

text: Although Keynes's work was crystallized and given impetus by the advent of the Great Depression, it was part of a long-running debate within economics over the existence and nature of general gluts. A number of the policies Keynes advocated to address the Great Depression (notably government deficit spending at times of low private investment or consumption), and many of the theoretical ideas he proposed (effective demand, the multiplier, the paradox of thrift), had been advanced by authors in the 19th and early 20th centuries. (E.g. J. M. Robertson raised the paradox of thrift in 1892.) Keynes's unique contribution was to provide a "general theory" of these, which proved acceptable to the economic establishment.


title: Keynesian economics

text: An intellectual precursor of Keynesian economics was underconsumption theories associated with John Law, Thomas Malthus, the Birmingham School of Thomas Attwood, and the American economists William Trufant Foster and Waddill Catchings, who were influential in the 1920s and 1930s. Underconsumptionists were, like Keynes after them, concerned with failure of aggregate demand to attain potential output, calling this "underconsumption" (focusing on the demand side), rather than "overproduction" (which would focus on the supply side), and advocating economic interventionism. Keynes specifically discussed underconsumption (which he wrote "under-consumption") in the "General Theory," in Chapter 22, Section IV and Chapter 23, Section VII.


title: Keynesian economics

text: Numerous concepts were developed earlier and independently of Keynes by the Stockholm school during the 1930s; these accomplishments were described in a 1937 article, published in response to the 1936 "General Theory," sharing the Swedish discoveries.


title: Keynesian economics

text: In 1923 Keynes published his first contribution to economic theory, "A Tract on Monetary Reform", whose point of view is classical but incorporates ideas that later played a part in the "General Theory". In particular, looking at the hyperinflation in European economies, he drew attention to the opportunity cost of holding money (identified with inflation rather than interest) and its influence on the velocity of circulation.


title: Keynesian economics

text: In 1930 he published "A Treatise on Money", intended as a comprehensive treatment of its subject "which would confirm his stature as a serious academic scholar, rather than just as the author of stinging polemics", and marks a large step in the direction of his later views. In it, he attributes unemployment to wage stickiness and treats saving and investment as governed by independent decisions: the former varying positively with the interest rate, the latter negatively. The velocity of circulation is expressed as a function of the rate of interest. He interpreted his treatment of liquidity as implying a purely monetary theory of interest.


title: Keynesian economics

text: Keynes's younger colleagues of the Cambridge Circus and Ralph Hawtrey believed that his arguments implicitly assumed full employment, and this influenced the direction of his subsequent work. During 1933, he wrote essays on various economic topics "all of which are cast in terms of movement of output as a whole".


title: Keynesian economics

text: At the time that Keynes's wrote the General Theory, it had been a tenet of mainstream economic thought that the economy would automatically revert to a state of general equilibrium: it had been assumed that, because the needs of consumers are always greater than the capacity of the producers to satisfy those needs, everything that is produced would eventually be consumed once the appropriate price was found for it. This perception is reflected in Say's law and in the writing of David Ricardo, which states that individuals produce so that they can either consume what they have manufactured or sell their output so that they can buy someone else's output. This argument rests upon the assumption that if a surplus of goods or services exists, they would naturally drop in price to the point where they would be consumed.


title: Keynesian economics

text: Given the backdrop of high and persistent unemployment during the Great Depression, Keynes argued that there was no guarantee that the goods that individuals produce would be met with adequate effective demand, and periods of high unemployment could be expected, especially when the economy was contracting in size. He saw the economy as unable to maintain itself at full employment automatically, and believed that it was necessary for the government to step in and put purchasing power into the hands of the working population through government spending. Thus, according to Keynesian theory, some individually rational microeconomic-level actions such as not investing savings in the goods and services produced by the economy, if taken collectively by a large proportion of individuals and firms, can lead to outcomes wherein the economy operates below its potential output and growth rate.


title: Keynesian economics

text: Prior to Keynes, a situation in which aggregate demand for goods and services did not meet supply was referred to by classical economists as a "general glut", although there was disagreement among them as to whether a general glut was possible. Keynes argued that when a glut occurred, it was the over-reaction of producers and the laying off of workers that led to a fall in demand and perpetuated the problem. Keynesians therefore advocate an active stabilization policy to reduce the amplitude of the business cycle, which they rank among the most serious of economic problems. According to the theory, government spending can be used to increase aggregate demand, thus increasing economic activity, reducing unemployment and deflation.


title: Keynesian economics

text: The Liberal Party fought the 1929 General Election on a promise to "reduce levels of unemployment to normal within one year by utilising the stagnant labour force in vast schemes of national development". David Lloyd George launched his campaign in March with a policy document, "We can cure unemployment," which tentatively claimed that, "Public works would lead to a second round of spending as the workers spent their wages." Two months later Keynes, then nearing completion of his "Treatise on money", and Hubert Henderson collaborated on a political pamphlet seeking to "provide academically respectable economic arguments" for Lloyd George's policies. It was titled "Can Lloyd George do it?" and endorsed the claim that "greater trade activity would make for greater trade activity ... with a cumulative effect". This became the mechanism of the "ratio" published by Richard Kahn in his 1931 paper "The relation of home investment to unemployment", described by Alvin Hansen as "one of the great landmarks of economic analysis". The "ratio" was soon rechristened the "multiplier" at Keynes's suggestion.


title: Keynesian economics

text: The multiplier of Kahn's paper is based on a respending mechanism familiar nowadays from textbooks. Samuelson puts it as follows:


title: Keynesian economics

text: Let’s suppose that I hire unemployed resources to build a $1000 woodshed. My carpenters and lumber producers will get an extra $1000 of income... If they all have a marginal propensity to consume of 2/3, they will now spend $666.67 on new consumption goods. The producers of these goods will now have extra incomes... they in turn will spend $444.44 ... Thus an endless chain of "secondary consumption respending"  is set in motion by my "primary"  investment of $1000.


title: Keynesian economics

text: Samuelson's treatment closely follows Joan Robinson's account of 1937 and is the main channel by which the multiplier has influenced Keynesian theory. It differs significantly from Kahn's paper and even more from Keynes's book.


title: Keynesian economics

text: The designation of the initial spending as "investment" and the employment-creating respending as "consumption" echoes Kahn faithfully, though he gives no reason why initial consumption or subsequent investment respending shouldn't have exactly the same effects. Henry Hazlitt, who considered Keynes as much a culprit as Kahn and Samuelson, wrote that ...


title: Keynesian economics

text: ... in connection with the multiplier (and indeed most of the time) what Keynes is referring to as "investment" really means "any addition to spending for any purpose"... The word "investment" is being used in a Pickwickian, or Keynesian, sense.


title: Keynesian economics

text: Kahn envisaged money as being passed from hand to hand, creating employment at each step, until it came to rest in a "cul-de-sac"  (Hansen's term was "leakage"); the only "culs-de-sac"  he acknowledged were imports and hoarding, although he also said that a rise in prices might dilute the multiplier effect. Jens Warming recognised that personal saving had to be considered, treating it as a "leakage" (p. 214) while recognising on p. 217 that it might in fact be invested.


title: Keynesian economics

text: The textbook multiplier gives the impression that making society richer is the easiest thing in the world: the government just needs to spend more. In Kahn's paper, it is harder. For him, the initial expenditure must not be a diversion of funds from other uses, but an increase in the total expenditure: something impossible – if understood in real terms – under the classical theory that the level of expenditure is limited by the economy's income/output. On page 174, Kahn rejects the claim that the effect of public works is at the expense of expenditure elsewhere, admitting that this might arise if the revenue is raised by taxation, but says that other available means have no such consequences. As an example, he suggests that the money may be raised by borrowing from banks, since ...


title: Keynesian economics

text: ... it is always within the power of the banking system to advance to the Government the cost of the roads without in any way affecting the flow of investment along the normal channels.


title: Keynesian economics

text: ... no such hypothesis is really necessary. For it will be demonstrated later on that, "pari passu"  with the building of roads, funds are released from various sources at precisely the rate that is required to pay the cost of the roads.


title: Keynesian economics

text: The demonstration relies on "Mr Meade's relation" (due to James Meade) asserting that the total amount of money that disappears into "culs-de-sac"  is equal to the original outlay, which in Kahn's words "should bring relief and consolation to those who are worried about the monetary sources" (p. 189).


title: Keynesian economics

text: A respending multiplier had been proposed earlier by Hawtrey in a 1928 Treasury memorandum ("with imports as the only leakage"), but the idea was discarded in his own subsequent writings. Soon afterwards the Australian economist Lyndhurst Giblin published a multiplier analysis in a 1930 lecture (again with imports as the only leakage). The idea itself was much older. Some Dutch mercantilists had believed in an infinite multiplier for military expenditure (assuming no import "leakage"), since ...


title: Keynesian economics

text: ... a war could support itself for an unlimited period if only money remained in the country ... For if money itself is "consumed", this simply means that it passes into someone else's possession, and this process may continue indefinitely. Multiplier doctrines had subsequently been expressed in more theoretical terms by the Dane Julius Wulff (1896), the Australian Alfred de Lissa (late 1890s), the German/American Nicholas Johannsen (same period), and the Dane Fr. Johannsen (1925/1927). Kahn himself said that the idea was given to him as a child by his father.


title: Keynesian economics

text: As the 1929 election approached "Keynes was becoming a strong public advocate of capital development" as a public measure to alleviate unemployment. Winston Churchill, the Conservative Chancellor, took the opposite view:


title: Keynesian economics

text: It is the orthodox Treasury dogma, steadfastly held ... [that] very little additional employment and no permanent additional employment can, in fact, be created by State borrowing and State expenditure.


title: Keynesian economics

text: Keynes pounced on a flaw in the Treasury view. Cross-examining Sir Richard Hopkins, a Second Secretary in the Treasury, before the Macmillan Committee on Finance and Industry in 1930 he referred to the "first proposition" that "schemes of capital development are of no use for reducing unemployment" and asked whether "it would be a misunderstanding of the Treasury view to say that they hold to the first proposition". Hopkins responded that "The first proposition goes much too far. The first proposition would ascribe to us an absolute and rigid dogma, would it not?"


title: Keynesian economics

text: Later the same year, speaking in a newly created Committee of Economists, Keynes tried to use Kahn's emerging multiplier theory to argue for public works, "but Pigou's and Henderson's objections ensured that there was no sign of this in the final product". In 1933 he gave wider publicity to his support for Kahn's multiplier in a series of articles titled "The road to prosperity" in "The Times" newspaper.


title: Keynesian economics

text: A. C. Pigou was at the time the sole economics professor at Cambridge. He had a continuing interest in the subject of unemployment, having expressed the view in his popular "Unemployment"  (1913) that it was caused by "maladjustment between wage-rates and demand" – a view Keynes may have shared prior to the years of the "General Theory". Nor were his practical recommendations very different: "on many occasions in the thirties" Pigou "gave public support ... to State action designed to stimulate employment". Where the two men differed is in the link between theory and practice. Keynes was seeking to build theoretical foundations to support his recommendations for public works while Pigou showed no disposition to move away from classical doctrine. Referring to him and Dennis Robertson, Keynes asked rhetorically: "Why do they insist on maintaining theories from which their own practical conclusions cannot possibly follow?"


title: Keynesian economics

text: Keynes set forward the ideas that became the basis for Keynesian economics in his main work, "The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money" (1936). It was written during the Great Depression, when unemployment rose to 25% in the United States and as high as 33% in some countries. It is almost wholly theoretical, enlivened by occasional passages of satire and social commentary. The book had a profound impact on economic thought, and ever since it was published there has been debate over its meaning.


title: Keynesian economics

text: Keynes begins the "General Theory"  with a summary of the classical theory of employment, which he encapsulates in his formulation of Say's Law as the dictum "Supply creates its own demand".


title: Keynesian economics

text: He also wrote that although his theory was explained in terms of an Anglo-Saxon "laissez faire" economy, his theory was also more general in the sense that it would be easier to adapt to "totalitarian states" than a free market policy would.


title: Keynesian economics

text: Under the classical theory, the wage rate is determined by the marginal productivity of labour, and as many people are employed as are willing to work at that rate. Unemployment may arise through friction or may be "voluntary," in the sense that it arises from a refusal to accept employment owing to "legislation or social practices ... or mere human obstinacy", but "...the classical postulates do not admit of the possibility of the third category," which Keynes defines as "involuntary unemployment".


title: Keynesian economics

text: Keynes raises two objections to the classical theory's assumption that "wage bargains ... determine the real wage". The first lies in the fact that "labour stipulates (within limits) for a money-wage rather than a real wage". The second is that classical theory assumes that, "The real wages of labour depend on the wage bargains which labour makes with the entrepreneurs," whereas, "If money wages change, one would have expected the classical school to argue that prices would change in almost the same proportion, leaving the real wage and the level of unemployment practically the same as before." Keynes considers his second objection the more fundamental, but most commentators concentrate on his first one: it has been argued that the quantity theory of money protects the classical school from the conclusion Keynes expected from it.


title: Keynesian economics

text: Saving is that part of income not devoted to consumption, and consumption is that part of expenditure not allocated to investment, i.e., to durable goods. Hence saving encompasses hoarding (the accumulation of income as cash) and the purchase of durable goods. The existence of net hoarding, or of a demand to hoard, is not admitted by the simplified liquidity preference model of the "General Theory".


title: Keynesian economics

text: Once he rejects the classical theory that unemployment is due to excessive wages, Keynes proposes an alternative based on the relationship between saving and investment. In his view, unemployment arises whenever entrepreneurs' incentive to invest fails to keep pace with society's propensity to save ("propensity" is one of Keynes's synonyms for "demand"). The levels of saving and investment are necessarily equal, and income is therefore held down to a level where the desire to save is no greater than the incentive to invest.


title: Keynesian economics

text: The incentive to invest arises from the interplay between the physical circumstances of production and psychological anticipations of future profitability; but once these things are given the incentive is independent of income and depends solely on the rate of interest "r". Keynes designates its value as a function of "r"  as the "schedule of the marginal efficiency of capital".


title: Keynesian economics

text: The propensity to save behaves quite differently. Saving is simply that part of income not devoted to consumption, and:


title: Keynesian economics

text: ... the prevailing psychological law seems to be that when aggregate income increases, consumption expenditure will also increase but to a somewhat lesser extent.


title: Keynesian economics

text: Keynes adds that "this psychological law was of the utmost importance in the development of my own thought".


title: Keynesian economics

text: Keynes viewed the money supply as one of the main determinants of the state of the real economy. The significance he attributed to it is one of the innovative features of his work, and was influential on the politically hostile monetarist school.


title: Keynesian economics

text: Money supply comes into play through the "liquidity preference" function, which is the demand function that corresponds to money supply. It specifies the amount of money people will seek to hold according to the state of the economy. In Keynes's first (and simplest) account – that of Chapter 13 – liquidity preference is determined solely by the interest rate "r"—which is seen as the earnings forgone by holding wealth in liquid form: hence liquidity preference can be written "L"("r" ) and in equilibrium must equal the externally fixed money supply "M̂".