title: Ghostwire: Tokyo

text: Akito and KK follow Hannya into the giant's mouth; Inside, they pass through a series of doors representing Akito and Mari's memories, revealing that Akito was an emotionally closed off person, which was only exacerbated by his parents' deaths. With the loss of her parents and Akito's coldness towards her, Mari fell into an almost suicidal depression. The two heroes catch up to Hannya as he opens a direct gate to the underworld, but before he can finish the ritual, Mari's spirit appears and throws into the gate. As her spirit starts to fade away, she tells Akito that her accident wasn't his fault. She reveals that she had a chance to escape the fire but went back to grab their parents' wedding rings as they were the only thing they had left of them. As Mari dies, Hannya climbs back out and fuses himself with his daughter and wife's spirits, turning himself into a monstrous amalgamation. The two heroes finish him off for good, freeing all the souls Hannya captured. The spirits of Akito's parents arrive to escort Mari to the afterlife as Akito promises her that he'll lead a good life from then on. With the crisis averted, Akito returns to the living world and KK's spirit leaves his body.


title: Ghostwire: Tokyo

text: In June 2019, during Bethesda Softworkss press conference at E3 2019, Shinji Mikami and creative director Ikumi Nakamura announced "Ghostwire: Tokyo", an action-adventure game with horror elements. Nakamura later resigned from Tango Gameworks in September 2019, leaving the studio after nine years. Unlike "The Evil Within" series of video games, "Ghostwire" is primarily an action-adventure game instead of a survival horror game, though the game still retains some horror themes and elements. Shinichirō Hara, who worked on the combat of 2016's "Doom", joined Tango to help the team craft the game's action-oriented combat. According to him, the game's combat, which was largely inspired by Kuji-kiri and martial arts, enabled the team to "put a lot more movement and personality into the player action as the player's hands are organic extensions of the character". The game uses Unreal Engine 4.


title: Ghostwire: Tokyo

text: On September 21, 2020, Bethesda Softworks' parent company, ZeniMax Media and Microsoft announced Microsoft's intent to buy ZeniMax and its studios, including Tango Gameworks, for , incorporating the studios as part of Xbox Game Studios, with the sale finalized on March 9, 2021. Xbox Game Studios head Phil Spencer said that this deal would not affect the pre-existing plan to release "Ghostwire: Tokyo" as a console-exclusive on the PlayStation 5, and the game would eventually arrive on Xbox consoles at least one year after the initial release. Those who pre-ordered the Deluxe Edition via PlayStation Store were granted early access to the game on March 22, 2022. The game released for PlayStation 5 and Windows on March 25, 2022.


title: Ghostwire: Tokyo

text: "Ghostwire: Tokyo" received "generally favorable" reviews from critics, according to review aggregator Metacritic.


title: Ghostwire: Tokyo

text: Reviewers linked the lack of polish and antiquated nature of the game's action elements to a "different era of action game design", while others, though reviewing the title positively, acknowledged the narrow target audience due to said elements.


title: Ghostwire: Tokyo

text: Combat was criticized for lacking depth through its lack of combos, rudimentary skill tree, and slow and imprecise movement, but was praised for its engaging presentation, kinetic feel, and its use of the DualSense controller. Movement was also criticized for being slow and imprecise during combat. Several review outlets felt that the "Ghostwire: Tokyo"'s premise was largely compelling, and that its story and characters were tightly written, but that none of these elements were fully realized.


title: Ghostwire: Tokyo

text: Many outlets also claimed that the game felt particularly uninspired and repetitive after a while, and that it failed to do anything new or interesting with its premise in terms of gameplay. They also felt that the game's structure of cleansing gates was largely repetitive and criticized the underutilized potential of the linearly designed open world. The visual style and theming, atmosphere, dense design, and compact scale of the world was largely praised.


title: Ghostwire: Tokyo

text: Some commended side quests for their weirder tones, engaging design, and short length, while others criticized them for being unmemorable and repetitive. Enemies were heavily praised for their haunting designs, but were criticized for the lack of variety and unchallenging design. Bosses in particular were deemed underwhelming in nature.


title: Ghostwire: Tokyo

text: Prior to release, a number of outlets noted technical issues with the PC version of the game, citing stuttering as an issue.


title: Ghostwire: Tokyo

text: The PlayStation 5 version of "Ghostwire: Tokyo" was the sixth bestselling retail game during its first week on sale in Japan, with 10,144 physical copies being sold.


title: Thrash metal

text: Thrash metal (or simply thrash) is an extreme subgenre of heavy metal music characterized by its overall aggression and often fast tempo. The songs usually use fast percussive beats and low-register guitar riffs, overlaid with shredding-style lead guitar work. The lyrical subject matter often includes criticism of The Establishment and concern over environmental destruction, and at times shares a disdain for Christian dogma with that of black metal. The language is typically direct and denunciatory, an approach borrowed from hardcore punk.


title: Thrash metal

text: The genre emerged in the early 1980s as musicians began fusing the double bass drumming and complex guitar stylings of the new wave of British heavy metal (NWOBHM) with the speed and aggression of hardcore punk. Philosophically, thrash metal developed as a backlash against both the conservatism of the Reagan Era and the much more moderate, pop-influenced, and widely accessible heavy metal subgenre of glam metal which also developed concurrently in the 1980s.


title: Thrash metal

text: The early thrash metal movement revolved around independent record labels, including Megaforce, Metal Blade, Combat, Roadrunner, and Noise, and the underground tape trading industry in both Europe and North America. The genre was commercially successful during the mid-to-late 1980s and early 1990s, with the "Big Four" of thrash metal – Metallica, Slayer, Megadeth, and Anthrax – being joined by Exodus, Overkill, Testament, and Sepultura, as well as the "Big Four" of German thrash metal: Kreator, Destruction, Sodom, and Tankard. Some of those bands are often credited for helping create, develop and popularize the genre.


title: Thrash metal

text: The thrash metal genre had declined in popularity by the mid-1990s, with the commercial success of numerous genres such as alternative rock, grunge, and later nu metal. During that period, some bands either disbanded or moved away from their thrash metal roots and more towards groove metal or alternative metal. During the 2000s and 2010s, thrash metal experienced a resurgence in popularity, with the arrival of various modern acts such as Bonded by Blood, Evile, Hatchet, Havok, Municipal Waste, and Warbringer, who have all been credited for leading the so-called "thrash metal revival" scene.


title: Thrash metal

text: Thrash metal generally features fast tempos, low-register, complex guitar riffs, high-register guitar solos, and double bass drumming. The rhythm guitar parts are played with heavy distortion and often palm muted to create a tighter and more precise sound. Vocally, thrash metal can employ anything from melodic singing to shouted or screamed vocals. Most guitar solos are played at high speed and technically demanding, as they are usually characterized by shredding, and use advanced techniques such as sweep picking, legato phrasing, alternate picking, tremolo picking, string skipping, and two-hand tapping.


title: Thrash metal

text: David Ellefson, bassist for one of the biggest thrash bands, Megadeth, described thrash metal as "a combination of the attitude from punk rock but the riffs and complexities of traditional metal."


title: Thrash metal

text: The guitar riffs often use chromatic scales and emphasize the tritone and diminished intervals, instead of using conventional single-scale-based riffing. For example, the intro riff of Metallica's "Master of Puppets" (the title track of the namesake album) is a chromatic descent, followed by a chromatic ascent based on the tritone.


title: Thrash metal

text: Speed, pacing, and time changes also define thrash metal. Thrash tends to have an accelerating feel which may be due in large part to its aggressive drumming style. For example, drummers often use two bass drums, or a double-bass pedal to create a relentless, driving beat. Cymbal stops/chokes are often used to transition from one riff to another or to precede an acceleration in tempo. Some common characteristics of the genre are fast guitar riffs with aggressive picking styles and fast guitar solos, and extensive use of two bass drums as opposed to the conventional use of only one, typical of most rock music.


title: Thrash metal

text: To keep up with the other instruments, many bassists use a plectrum. However, some prominent thrash metal bassists have used their fingers, such as Frank Bello, Greg Christian, Steve Di Giorgio, Robert Trujillo, and Cliff Burton. Several bassists use a distorted bass tone, an approach popularized by Burton and Motörhead's Lemmy. Lyrical themes in thrash metal include warfare, corruption, injustice, murder, suicide, isolation, alienation, addiction, and other maladies that afflict the individual and society. In addition, politics, particularly pessimism and dissatisfaction towards politics, are common themes among thrash metal bands. Humor and irony can occasionally be found (Anthrax for example), but they are limited, and are an exception rather than a rule.


title: Thrash metal

text: Among the earliest songs credited with influencing future thrash musicians was Queen's "Stone Cold Crazy", recorded and released in 1974. The song was described as being thrash metal "before the term had been invented". Black Sabbath's "Symptom of the Universe", released in 1975, is often referred to as a compelling early influence on thrash, and was a direct inspiration for Diamond Head's pioneering song "Am I Evil?". The NWOBHM bands emerging from Britain in the late 1970s further influenced the development of early thrash. The early work of artists such as Diamond Head, Iron Maiden, Venom, Motörhead, Tygers of Pan Tang, Raven, and Angel Witch, among others, introduced the fast-paced and intricate musicianship that became core aspects of thrash. Phil Taylor's double-bass drumming featured in Motörhead's 1979 song "Overkill" has been acknowledged by many thrash drummers, most notably Lars Ulrich, as a primary influence on their playing. Metal Blade Records executive Brian Slagel played a key role in bringing the emerging genre to a larger audience, as he was responsible for discovering both Metallica and Slayer and producing their earliest studio recordings.


title: Thrash metal

text: Void is hailed as one of the earliest examples of hardcore/heavy metal crossover, whose chaotic musical approach is often cited as particularly influential. Their 1982 split LP with fellow Washington band The Faith showed both bands exhibiting quick, fiery, high-speed punk rock. It has been argued that those recordings laid the foundation for early thrash metal, at least in terms of selected tempos.


title: Thrash metal

text: In Latin America, this genre also gained a lot of strength, and its creation is also attributed to it, since it began to gain popularity due to the dictatorships that many countries faced at that time, with bands like V8 (1979) with their debut albums "Demo 1982" or "Luchando por el metal", and (1980) from Argentina, Transmetal (1987) from México, also the band Massakre (1985) in Chile.


title: Thrash metal

text: In Europe, the earliest band of the emerging thrash movement was Venom from Newcastle upon Tyne, formed in 1979. Their 1982 album "Black Metal" has been cited as a major influence on many subsequent genres and bands in the extreme metal world, such as Bathory, Hellhammer, Slayer, and Mayhem. The European scene was almost exclusively influenced by the most aggressive music Germany and England were producing at the time. British bands such as Tank and Raven, along with German bands Accept (whose 1982 song "Fast as a Shark" is often credited as one of the first-ever thrash/speed metal songs) and Living Death, motivated musicians from central Europe to start bands of their own, eventually producing groups such as Sodom, Kreator, and Destruction from Germany, as well as Switzerland's Celtic Frost (formed by two-thirds of Hellhammer), Coroner and Carrion (who later became Poltergeist).


title: Thrash metal

text: In 1981, Los Angeles band Leather Charm wrote a song entitled "Hit the Lights". Leather Charm soon disbanded and the band's primary songwriter, vocalist/rhythm guitarist James Hetfield, met drummer Lars Ulrich through a classified advertisement. Together, Hetfield and Ulrich formed Metallica, one of the "Big Four" thrash bands, with lead guitarist Dave Mustaine, who would later form Megadeth, another of the "Big Four" originators of thrash, and bassist Ron McGovney. McGovney would be replaced by Cliff Burton (formerly of Trauma), and Mustaine was later replaced by Kirk Hammett of the then-unsigned Bay Area thrash metal act Exodus, and at Burton's insistence, the band relocated to the San Francisco Bay Area. Before Metallica had even settled on a definitive lineup, Metal Blade Records executive Brian Slagel asked Hetfield and Ulrich (credited as "Mettallica") to record "Hit the Lights" for the first edition of his "Metal Massacre" compilation in 1982. An updated version of "Hit the Lights" would later open their first studio album, "Kill 'Em All", released in mid-1983.


title: Thrash metal

text: The term "thrash metal" was first used in the music press by "Kerrang!" magazine's journalist Malcolm Dome while referring to another of the "Big Four", Anthrax (who, like Metallica, formed in 1981), and their song "Metal Thrashing Mad". Before this, Metallica frontman James Hetfield referred to his band's sound as speed metal or power metal.


title: Thrash metal

text: Another "Big Four" thrash band formed in Los Angeles in 1981, when guitarists Jeff Hanneman and Kerry King met while auditioning for the same band and subsequently decided to form a band of their own. Hanneman and King recruited vocalist/bassist Tom Araya and drummer Dave Lombardo, and Slayer was formed. Slayer was discovered by Metal Blade Records executive Brian Slagel; the band's live performance of Iron Maiden's "Phantom of the Opera" so impressed him that he promptly signed them to his label. In December 1983, four months after the release of Metallica's debut "Kill 'Em All", Slayer released their debut album, "Show No Mercy".


title: Thrash metal

text: To the north, Canada produced influential thrash and speed metal bands such as Annihilator, Anvil, Exciter, Razor, Sacrifice, and Voivod.


title: Thrash metal

text: The popularity of thrash metal increased in 1984 with the release of Metallica's sophomore record "Ride the Lightning", as well as Anthrax's debut "Fistful of Metal". Slayer and Overkill released extended plays on independent labels during this era, "Haunting the Chapel" and "Overkill" respectively. This led to a heavier-sounding form of thrash, which was reflected in Exodus' "Bonded by Blood" and Slayer's "Hell Awaits". In 1985, the German band Kreator released their debut album "Endless Pain" and the Brazilian band Sepultura released their EP "Bestial Devastation". Overkill and Megadeth, the latter of which was formed by former Metallica guitarist Dave Mustaine, released their debut albums "Feel the Fire" and "Killing Is My Business... and Business Is Good!" respectively, and Anthrax released the critically acclaimed "Spreading the Disease" in 1985. Several other debut albums associated with the thrash metal genre were released that year, including "Seven Churches" by Possessed, "To Mega Therion" by Celtic Frost, and "Energetic Disassembly" by Watchtower; the first two are often credited for pioneering and popularizing the mid-1980s extreme metal scene (as well as the then-developing genres of death metal and black metal, respectively), while the latter has been cited as the first progressive/technical thrash metal album.


title: Thrash metal

text: From a creative standpoint, the year 1986 was perhaps the pinnacle of thrash metal, as a number of critically acclaimed and genre-defining albums were released. Metallica's major label debut "Master of Puppets" was released in March, becoming the first thrash album to be certified platinum, being certified 6× platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA); it would be the band's last album to feature bassist Cliff Burton, who was killed in a bus accident six months after its release. Kreator released "Pleasure to Kill" in April 1986, which would later be a major influence on the death metal scene. Megadeth released "Peace Sells... but Who's Buying?" in September, an album which proved to be the band's commercial and critical breakthrough and which AllMusic later cited as "a classic of early thrash". Slayer, regarded as one of the most sinister thrash metal bands of the early 1980s, released "Reign in Blood" in October, an album considered by some to have single-handedly inspired the death metal genre. Also in October, Nuclear Assault released their debut album "Game Over", followed a month later by Dark Angel's "Darkness Descends", which marked the debut of renowned drummer Gene Hoglan. Flotsam and Jetsam's debut album "Doomsday for the Deceiver" (released on the Fourth of July in 1986) received some attention as well, due to the album being "the first of only a handful" to ever receive a 6K rating from "Kerrang!" magazine, and it is also notable for featuring a then-unknown Jason Newsted, who, not long after the album's release, joined Metallica as Burton's replacement.


title: Thrash metal

text: Also during the mid-to-late 1980s, bands such as Suicidal Tendencies, D.R.I., S.O.D. (who featured three-fifths of Anthrax), and Corrosion of Conformity paved the way to what became known as crossover thrash, a fusion genre that lies on a continuum between heavy metal and hardcore punk, and is arguably faster and more aggressive than thrash metal. Other notable crossover thrash bands that emerged during this period include California-based acts such as Attitude Adjustment, Cryptic Slaughter, Excel, Hirax, and Verbal Abuse, and East Coast bands including Agnostic Front, Carnivore, the Cro-Mags, the Crumbsuckers, Gang Green, Ludichrist, M.O.D. (fronted by former S.O.D. frontman Billy Milano) and Murphy's Law.


title: Thrash metal

text: In 1987, Anthrax released their third album "Among the Living", which borrowed elements from their two previous releases, with fast guitar riffs and pounding drums. Death Angel took a similar approach with their 1987 debut, "The Ultra-Violence". Suicidal Tendencies, who were originally a hardcore punk band and are often considered to be one of the "fathers of crossover thrash", became more recognized as a thrash metal band in the late 1980s (thanks in large part to the presence of guitarists Rocky George and Mike Clark), and the band would reach new heights of success with their first two major-label albums, "How Will I Laugh Tomorrow When I Can't Even Smile Today" (1988) and "Controlled by Hatred/Feel Like Shit... Déjà Vu" (1989). D.R.I., also a pioneering crossover thrash band, garnered considerable attention with the more thrash-oriented albums, "Crossover" (1987), "4 of a Kind" (1988), and "Thrash Zone" (1989).


title: Thrash metal

text: Sepultura's third album, "Beneath the Remains" (1989), earned them some mainstream appeal as it was released by Roadrunner Records. Testament released three albums in the late 1980s, "The Legacy", "The New Order," and "Practice What You Preach", all showing the band's musical growth and gaining Testament nearly the same level of popularity as the "Big Four", while Exodus' third album "Fabulous Disaster" (1989) garnered the band their first music video and one of their most recognized songs, the mosh-pit anthem "The Toxic Waltz". Vio-lence, Forbidden, and Sadus, three relative latecomers to the Bay Area thrash metal scene, released their debut albums "Eternal Nightmare", "Forbidden Evil," and "Illusions", respectively, in 1988; the latter album demonstrated a sound that was primarily driven by the fretless bass of Steve Di Giorgio.


title: Thrash metal

text: Canadian thrashers Annihilator released their highly technical debut "Alice in Hell" in 1989, which was praised for its fast riffs and extended guitar solos. In Germany, Sodom released "Agent Orange", and Kreator would release "Extreme Aggression". Several highly acclaimed albums associated with the sub-genre of technical thrash metal were also released in 1989, including Coroner's "No More Color", Dark Angel's "Leave Scars", Toxik's "Think This," and Watchtower's "Control and Resistance", which has been recognized and acknowledged as one of the cornerstones of jazz-metal fusion and a major influence on the technical death metal genre, while Forced Entry's debut album "Uncertain Future" helped pioneer the late 1980s Seattle music scene.


title: Thrash metal

text: From 1987 to 1989, Overkill released "Taking Over", "Under the Influence," and "The Years of Decay", three albums considered their best. Each of the "Big Four" of thrash metal bands released albums in 1988: Slayer released "South of Heaven", Megadeth released "So Far, So Good... So What!", Anthrax released "State of Euphoria" while Metallica's "...And Justice for All" spawned the band's first video and Top 40 hit, the World War I–themed song "One".


title: Thrash metal

text: Many thrash metal bands benefited from the exposure they received on MTV's "Headbangers Ball", radio stations such as KNAC in Long Beach and Z Rock in Dallas, and coverage on numerous publications, including "Kerrang!" and "RIP Magazine". These outlets not only played a major role in the crossover success of thrash metal during the late 1980s, but helped push album sales of the genre's "Big Four" and other similar bands, or moved them from playing clubs to arenas and stadiums. One of the most notable events in thrash metal's growing popularity during this period was the summer of 1988 Monsters of Rock tour in North America (co-headlined by Van Halen and Scorpions), where Metallica was one of the supporting acts and drew the largest audiences of the two-month-long arena and stadium tour. In the following year, Anthrax teamed up with Exodus and Helloween on a US arena tour sponsored by "Headbangers Ball".


title: Thrash metal

text: A substantial number of thrash metal groups pay tribute to punk rock and hardcore punk. Metallica has covered Discharge ("Free Speech for the Dumb"), Anti-Nowhere League ("So What?"), Killing Joke ("The Wait"), Ramones ("53rd & 3rd", among others), and The Misfits ("Die, Die My Darling", "Last Caress/Green Hell"), and Slayer recorded "Undisputed Attitude", an album of punk rock covers, including Minor Threat, early D.R.I., and Iggy and the Stooges. Megadeth has covered two Sex Pistols songs ("Anarchy in the UK" and "Problems"), as have Anthrax ("God Save the Queen" and "Friggin' in the Riggin"). Anthrax has also covered "Protest and Survive" by Discharge on their album "Attack of the Killer B's", "We're a Happy Family" by Ramones, "Snap/I'd Rather Be Sleeping" by D.R.I. as a bonus track on "" and "New Noise" by the Swedish band Refused as a hidden track on "Worship Music". Overkill has covered the Sex Pistols ("No Feelings"), Ramones ("I'm Against it"), Subhumans ("Fuck You"), and Dead Boys ("Sonic Reducer", and "Ain't Nothing to Do"). In addition, Pantera covered Poison Idea ("The Badge"), while Kreator released their cover version of Bad Religion's "You Are the Government" as a bonus track on "Hordes of Chaos".


title: Thrash metal

text: A number of more typical but technically sophisticated albums were released in 1990, including Megadeth's "Rust in Peace", Anthrax's "Persistence of Time", Slayer's "Seasons in the Abyss", Suicidal Tendencies' "Lights...Camera...Revolution!", Testament's "Souls of Black", Kreator's "Coma of Souls", Destruction's "Cracked Brain", Forbidden's "Twisted into Form", Exodus' "Impact Is Imminent", Sacred Reich's "The American Way", Prong's "Beg to Differ", Pantera's "Cowboys from Hell" and Exhorder's "Slaughter in the Vatican"; the latter three are often credited for being an integral part of the then-developing groove metal genre. All of those albums were commercial high points for the aforementioned artists. During this period, Megadeth and Slayer co-headlined one of the most successful tours in thrash metal history called the Clash of the Titans; the first leg in Europe included support from Testament and Suicidal Tendencies, while the second leg in the US had Anthrax and then-emerging Seattle band Alice in Chains, who were the supporting act.


title: Thrash metal

text: Several albums, some of which had come to be known as technical thrash metal, were released in 1991, including Overkill's "Horrorscope", Heathen's "Victims of Deception", Dark Angel's "Time Does Not Heal", Sepultura's "Arise", Coroner's "Mental Vortex", Prong's "Prove You Wrong" and Forced Entry's "As Above, So Below".


title: Thrash metal

text: In 1991, Metallica released their eponymous album, known as "The Black Album". The album marked a stylistic change in the band, eliminating much of the speed and longer song structures of the band's previous work, and instead focusing on more concise and heavier songs. The album was a change in Metallica's direction from the thrash metal style of the band's previous four studio albums towards a more contemporary heavy metal sound with original hard rock elements, but still had remnant characteristics of thrash metal. It would go on to become the band's best-selling album and began a wave of thrash metal bands releasing more garage-oriented albums, or else more experimental ones.


title: Thrash metal

text: The era of 1991–1992 marked the beginning of the end of thrash metal's commercial peak, due to the rising popularity of the alternative metal and grunge movements. In response to this climate change, many thrash metal bands that had emerged from the previous decade had called it quits or went on hiatus during the 1990s, while half of the "Big Four" and other veteran bands began changing to more accessible, radio-friendly styles. Metallica was a notable example of this shift, particularly with their mid–to–late 1990s albums "Load", and "ReLoad", which displayed minor blues and southern rock influences, and were seen as a major departure from the band's earlier sound. Megadeth took a more accessible heavy metal route starting with their 1992 album "Countdown to Extinction". Testament, Exodus and Flotsam and Jetsam all took a melodic/progressive approach with the albums "The Ritual", "Force of Habit", and "Cuatro", respectively. One of the pioneers of crossover thrash, Corrosion of Conformity, began changing their sound into a slower and Black Sabbath-influenced heavy metal direction with their post-1980s output, adapting influences and textures of sludge, doom metal, blues, and southern rock on several of their albums, including "Blind" (1991), "Deliverance" (1994) and "Wiseblood" (1996).


title: Thrash metal

text: In the wake of the success of groove metal, instigated by Pantera (who went on to become one of the most successful heavy metal bands of the 1990s), several thrash metal established bands started to expand their sound by adding elements and influences from the groove metal genre. Anthrax, who had recently replaced Joey Belladonna with John Bush as their singer, began stepping away from their previously established thrash metal formula to a more accessible alternative/groove metal approach for the remainder of their 1990s output, starting with and including "Sound of White Noise" (1993). Sacred Reich, Overkill, Coroner, Prong, Testament, and Forbidden followed this trend with their respective albums "Independent", "I Hear Black", "Grin", "Cleansing", "Low", and "Distortion". Sepultura's 1993 album "Chaos A.D." also marked the beginning of their transition away from death/thrash metal to groove metal which had influenced then-up-and-coming bands like Korn, who reciprocally became the inspiration behind the nu metal style of the band's next album "Roots" (1996). "Roots" would influence a generation of bands from Linkin Park to Slipknot, which during the 1990s meant the replacement of death, thrash, and speed, by nu metal and metalcore as popular epicenters of the hardest metal scene.


title: Thrash metal

text: Staying away from this new commercial mainstream of groove metal, metalcore, and especially nu metal, the second wave of black metal emerged as an opposed underground music scene, initially in Norway. This crop of new bands differenced themselves from the "first wave" by totally distilling black metal from the combined origins with thrash metal, but they preserved from all these sub-genres the emphasis on atmosphere over rhythm.


title: Thrash metal

text: As further extreme metal genres came to prominence in the 1990s (industrial metal, death metal, and black metal each finding their own fanbase), the heavy metal "family tree" soon found itself blending aesthetics and styles. For example, bands with all the musical traits of thrash metal began using death growls, a vocal style borrowed from death metal, while black metal bands often utilized the airy feel of synthesizers, popularized in industrial metal. Today the placing of bands within distinct sub-genres remains a source of contention for heavy metal fans, however, little debate resides over the fact that thrash metal is the sole proprietor of its respective spin-offs.


title: Thrash metal

text: Many 1980s-era thrash bands who split or were inactive during the 1990s – such as Dark Angel, Death Angel, Nuclear Assault, and Forbidden – reunited in the 2000s. Notable bands returned to their roots with releases such as Kreator's "Violent Revolution" (2001), Metallica's "Death Magnetic" (2008), Megadeth's "Endgame" (2009), Slayer's "World Painted Blood" (2009), Exodus' "" (2010), Overkill's "Ironbound" (2010), Anthrax's "Worship Music" (2011), Testament's "Dark Roots of Earth" (2012), and Flotsam and Jetsam's "Ugly Noise" (2012). More recent bands of the genre, such as Havok and Legion of the Damned have turned their focus towards a more aggressive rendition of thrash metal, incorporating elements of melodic death metal.


title: Thrash metal

text: Thrash metal is directly responsible for the development of underground metal genres, such as death metal, black metal, and groove metal. In addition to this, metalcore, grindcore, and deathcore employ similar riffs in their composition, the former with more focus on melody rather than chromaticism. The blending of punk ethos and metal's brutal nature led to even more extreme, underground styles after thrash metal began gaining mild commercial success in the late 1980s. With gorier subject matter, heavier down tuning of guitars, more consistent use of blast beat drumming, and darker, atonal death growls, death metal was established in the mid-1980s. Black metal, also related to thrash metal, emerged at the same time, with many black metal bands taking influence from thrash metal bands such as Venom. Black metal continued deviating from thrash metal, often providing more orchestral overtones, open tremolo picking, blast beat drumming, shrieked or raspy vocals and pagan or occult-based aesthetics to distinguish itself from thrash metal. Thrash metal would later combine with its spinoffs, thus giving rise to genres like blackened thrash metal and deathrash.


title: Thrash metal

text: Groove metal takes the intensity and sonic qualities of thrash metal and plays them at mid-tempo, with most bands making only occasional forays into fast tempo, but since the early 1990s, it started to favor a more death metal–derived sound. Thrash metal with stronger punk elements is called crossover thrash. Its overall sound is more punk-influenced than traditional thrash metal but has more heavy metal elements than hardcore punk and thrashcore.


title: Thrash metal

text: Thrash metal emerged predominantly from a handful of regional scenes, each of which was generally distinguished by the unique characteristics of its bands.


title: Behemoth

text: Behemoth (; , "bəhēmōṯ") is a beast from the biblical Book of Job, and is a form of the primeval chaos-monster created by God at the beginning of creation; he is paired with the other chaos-monster, Leviathan, and according to later Jewish tradition both would become food for the righteous at the end-time. Metaphorically, the name has come to be used for any extremely large or powerful entity.


title: Behemoth

text: The Hebrew word "behemoth" has the same form as the plural of the Hebrew noun בהמה "behemah" meaning 'beast', suggesting an augmentative meaning 'great beast'. However, some theorize that the word might originate from an Egyptian word of the form "pꜣ jḥ mw" 'the water-ox' meaning 'hippopotamus', altered by folk etymology in Hebrew to resemble "behemah". However, this phrase with this meaning is unattested at any stage of Egyptian.


title: Behemoth

text: Behemoth is mentioned in a speech from the mouth of God in chapter 40 of the Book of Job, a primeval creature created by God and so powerful that only God can overcome him:


title: Behemoth

text: 23 Behold, if the river is turbulent, he is not frightened; he is confident though Jordan rushes against his mouth.<br>


title: Behemoth

text: The passage pairs Behemoth with the sea-monster Leviathan, both composite mythical creatures with enormous strength which humans like Job could not hope to control, yet both reduced to the status of divine pets.


title: Behemoth

text: In Jewish apocrypha and pseudepigrapha, such as the 2nd century BC Book of Enoch (), Behemoth is the unconquerable male land-monster, living in an invisible desert east of the Garden of Eden, as Leviathan is the primeval female sea-monster, dwelling in "the Abyss", and Ziz the primordial sky-monster. Similarly, in the most ancient section of the Second Book of Esdras (6:47–52), written around 100 AD (), the two are described as inhabiting the mountains and the seas, respectively, after being separated from each another, due to the sea's insufficiency to contain them both. Likewise, in the contemporary Syriac Apocalypse of Baruch (29:4), it is stated that Behemoth will come forth from his seclusion on land, and Leviathan out of the sea, and the two gigantic monsters, created on the fifth day, will serve as food for the elect, who will survive in the days of the Messiah.


title: Behemoth

text: A Jewish rabbinic legend describes a great battle which will take place between them at the end of time: "they will interlock with one another and engage in combat, with his horns the Behemoth will gore with strength, the fish [Leviathan] will leap to meet him with his fins, with power. Their Creator will approach them with his mighty sword [and slay them both];" then, "from the beautiful skin of the Leviathan, God will construct canopies to shelter the righteous, who will eat the meat of the Behemoth and the Leviathan amid great joy and merriment." In the Haggadah, Behemoth's strength reaches its peak on the summer solstice of every solar year (around 21 June). At this time of year, Behemoth lets out a loud roar that makes all animals tremble with fear, and thus renders them less ferocious for a whole year. As a result, weak animals live in safety away from the reach of wild animals. This mythical phenomenon is shown as an example of divine mercy and goodness. Without Behemoth's roar, traditions narrate, animals would grow more wild and ferocious, and hence go around butchering each other and humans.


title: Behemoth

text: In 2003, French scientists working in Baluchistan, Pakistan discovered the complete remains of an extinct variety of rhinoceros called a "Baluchitherium", which was much larger and matched the physical description given in Job.


title: Behemoth

text: Additionally, some creationist fundamentalists, such as the Christian organization Answers in Genesis, claim that the Behemoth is some species of sauropod or other dinosaur based on the comparison of the tail to a cedar tree. This view is often criticized and discredited based on classical (it is not supported by the text) or scientific grounds ("Homo sapiens" didn't live on earth until 66.5 million years after the dinosaurs died out).


title: Behemoth

text: The 17th-century political philosopher Thomas Hobbes named the Long Parliament 'Behemoth' in his book "Behemoth". It accompanies his book of political theory that draws on the lessons of English Civil War, the rather more famous "Leviathan".


title: Behemoth

text: The Behemoth is also mentioned in the opera, "Nixon in China", composed by John Adams, and written by Alice Goodman. At the beginning of the first act, the chorus sings "The people are the heroes now, Behemoth pulls the peasants' plow" several times.


title: Behemoth

text: The Russian writer Mikhail Bulgakov used a demonic cat with the name Behemoth as a character in his novel "The Master and Margarita". In the book the cat could speak, walk on two legs and was part of the entourage of Woland who represented Satan.


title: Lindsay Wagner

text: Lindsay Jean Wagner (born June 22, 1949) is an American film and television actress, model, author, singer, and acting coach. Wagner is best known for her leading role in the American science-fiction television series "The Bionic Woman" (1976–1978), in which she portrayed action character Jaime Sommers. She first played this role on the series "The Six Million Dollar Man". The character became a popular-culture icon of the 1970s. For this role, Wagner won an Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Dramatic Role in 1977 – the first for an actor or actress in a science fiction series. Wagner began acting professionally in 1971 and has maintained a lengthy acting career in a variety of film and television productions to the present day.


title: Lindsay Wagner

text: Wagner was born in Los Angeles, California, the daughter of Marilyn Louise ( Thrasher) and William Nowels Wagner. When she was seven years old, Wagner's parents divorced and her mother moved with her to the northeast Los Angeles neighborhood of Eagle Rock, near Pasadena. Another relocation with her mother and stepfather, Ted Ball, brought Wagner to Portland, Oregon, where she attended David Douglas High School and appeared in a number of school plays.


title: Lindsay Wagner

text: After graduation, Wagner spent a couple of months in France before enrolling at the University of Oregon for one year. Wagner then transferred to Mt. Hood Community College, Gresham, for six months before dropping out and moving to Los Angeles. She was diagnosed with dyslexia.


title: Lindsay Wagner

text: Wagner worked as a model in Los Angeles and gained some television experience by appearing as a hostess in "Playboy After Dark", and she was also a contestant on the game show "The Dating Game" in 1969 (one of her potential suitors, whom she did not choose, was TV actor Roger Ewing). In 1971, she signed a contract with Universal Studios and worked as a contract player in Universal productions. Her primetime network television debut was in the series "Adam-12" ("Million Dollar Buff"), and she went on to appear in a dozen other Universal shows, including "", "The F.B.I.", "Sarge", and "Night Gallery" (1971, as the nurse in the episode: "The Diary").


title: Lindsay Wagner

text: Between 1971 and 1975, she appeared in five episodes of Universal's "Marcus Welby, M.D." and two episodes of "The Rockford Files". In 1973, Wagner branched into film roles when Universal cast her in "Two People," which was her first feature film and her first lead role. She also co-starred in the 20th Century Fox film "The Paper Chase" the same year, playing the daughter of the stern law professor, Kingsfield.


title: Lindsay Wagner

text: In 1975, arranged under her extended contract with Universal Studios, Wagner played the role of Jaime Sommers, a former tennis professional who was the childhood sweetheart of "Six Million Dollar Man" Colonel Steve Austin (played by Lee Majors). According to Kenneth Johnson, interviewed for a featurette included in the 2010 North American DVD release of "The Bionic Woman" season one, Wagner was cast in the role based upon her appeal and spontaneity after he saw her appearance in the pilot and a follow-up episode of "The Rockford Files". In the third-season, two-part episode, her character is critically injured in a skydiving accident and equipped with bionic implants similar to Austin's, but her body rejects them, ultimately leading to her death.


title: Lindsay Wagner

text: This was intended to be Wagner's last role under her Universal contract, but public response to the character was so overwhelming that the "death" was retconned into a cover story for a near-death secret recovery, and Wagner appeared in a two-part episode which returned her character, followed by a spin-off series, "The Bionic Woman", which debuted in January 1976. The same year, she co-starred in a Canadian film, "Second Wind" opposite James Naughton. She made several crossover appearances in "The Six Million Dollar Man" during the series' run. The role earned Wagner an Emmy Award for "Best Actress in a Dramatic Role" in 1977.


title: Lindsay Wagner

text: Following the cancellation of "The Bionic Woman" in 1978, Wagner continued to act, predominantly in television miniseries and television films. These included the highly rated 1980 miniseries "Scruples", as well as three made-for-TV "Bionic" reunion movies with Lee Majors between 1987 and 1994. Also in the 1980s, Wagner co-starred as Sylvester Stallone's ex-wife in his 1981 movie "Nighthawks" and starred in two more weekly television series, "Jessie" (1984) and "A Peaceable Kingdom" (1989), though both of these were short-lived. In 1983, she also appeared in an episode of Lee Majors' series "The Fall Guy".


title: Lindsay Wagner

text: Wagner continued to act into the 1990s and 2000s, though in less prominent roles, such as a small part in the action movie "Ricochet" (1991). Her most recent projects have included the 2005 television film "Thicker than Water" with Melissa Gilbert, "Buckaroo: The Movie" (2005), and "Four Extraordinary Women" (2006). In 2010, Wagner began a recurring role as Dr. Vanessa Calder in the SyFy channel's hit drama "Warehouse 13" and played the character again in its Syfy sister show "Alphas" in 2011. In the fall semester of 2013, Wagner began teaching at San Bernardino Valley College in southern California (Acting and Directing for Television and Film, Motion Picture Production) as an adjunct faculty member. In 2015, Wagner appeared in the "NCIS" season 13, episode 10: "Blood Brothers" in the role of Barbara Bishop, the mother of "NCIS" Probationary Agent Eleanor Bishop (Emily Wickersham).


title: Lindsay Wagner

text: She appeared in "Grey's Anatomy" as Alex Karev's mother, Helen Karev, over the course of two seasons, first appearing in 2018 during Season 14 for a single episode and reappearing in 2019 for a number of episodes during Season 15.


title: Lindsay Wagner

text: In June 2018, it was announced that Wagner would co-star in "Death Stranding", a video game being developed by Sony Interactive Entertainment and Kojima Productions. Wagner lent her likeness to the characters Bridget and Amelie Strand and voiced the former, with Emily O'Brien voicing the latter and a younger version of the former. "Death Stranding" was Wagner's first role in a video game, and her first experience with the industry's motion capture and voice acting technology.


title: Lindsay Wagner

text: In 1987, Wagner wrote a series of books with Robert M. Klein about using acupressure to achieve results akin to a surgical facelift. In 1994, she wrote one of the first "celebrity" vegetarian (and mainly vegan) cookbooks, "High Road to Health". Wagner appeared in commercials as a spokesperson for Southern California's regional Ford Motor Company dealerships from 1987 through 2000. She was also a spokesperson in infomercials for Select Comfort's "Sleep Number" bed from 2003 to 2009.


title: Lindsay Wagner

text: In recent years, Wagner has given seminars and workshops for her self-help therapy, "Quiet the Mind and Open the Heart," which promotes spirituality and meditation.


title: Lindsay Wagner

text: In 2010, she participated in interviews and featurettes included in the long-delayed North American DVD releases of "The Bionic Woman" and the 2011 release of "The Six Million Dollar Man."


title: Lindsay Wagner

text: In 2016, Wagner publicly advocated as a treatment for her chronic urticaria (i.e., hives) Miracle Mineral Solution (MMS), a substance which the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) declared was a toxic industrial bleach used in wastewater treatment and hydraulic fracturing.


title: Lindsay Wagner

text: Wagner earned an Emmy Award in 1977 for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Dramatic Role for her role in "The Bionic Woman" television series.


title: Lindsay Wagner

text: On December 13, 1984, the Hollywood Chamber of Commerce presented Wagner with a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame, category 'Film', located at the north side of the 6700 block of Hollywood Boulevard.


title: Lindsay Wagner

text: On October 18, 2019, the San Diego International Film Festival presented the actress with the Humanitarian Award. Previous winners include, Geena Davis, Mariel Hemingway and Joaquin Phoenix.


title: Lindsay Wagner

text: During the first year of "The Bionic Woman," Wagner was the driver in a car accident with her then boyfriend, actor Michael Brandon, in the passenger seat. Brandon almost lost an eye and Wagner received a severe cut on her upper lip which left a small but permanent scar. The event halted production on the show for weeks.


title: Lindsay Wagner

text: Prior to being married, Wagner lived with Captain Daniel M. Yoder (USAF) until he went to Vietnam. She has been married and divorced four times. From 1971 to 1973, she was married to music publisher Allan Rider. From 1976 to 1979, she was married to Michael Brandon. In 1981, she married stuntman Henry Kingi, whom she met on the set of "The Bionic Woman." Wagner had two sons with Kingi, Dorian (b. 1982) and Alex (b. 1986). The couple divorced in 1984. Wagner married TV producer Lawrence Mortorff in 1990 and they divorced three years later.


title: Lindsay Wagner

text: Wagner was scheduled to be a passenger on American Airlines Flight 191 from Chicago to Los Angeles on May 25, 1979, but suddenly felt very ill while waiting for the plane. She skipped the flight, which crashed only minutes after takeoff, killing all 271 people on board and 2 people on the ground – the deadliest aviation accident to have occurred in the United States.


title: Coconut crab

text: The coconut crab ("Birgus latro") is a species of terrestrial hermit crab, also known as the robber crab or palm thief. It is the largest terrestrial arthropod in the world, with a weight of up to . It can grow to up to in width from the tip of one leg to the tip of another. It is found on islands across the Indian Ocean, and parts of the Pacific Ocean as far east as the Gambier Islands, Pitcairn Islands and Caroline Island, similar to the distribution of the coconut palm; it has been extirpated from most areas with a significant human population, including mainland Australia and Madagascar. Coconut crabs also live off the coast of Africa near Zanzibar.


title: Coconut crab

text: The coconut crab is the only species of the genus Birgus, and is related to the other terrestrial hermit crabs of the genus "Coenobita". It shows a number of adaptations to life on land. Juvenile coconut crabs use empty gastropod shells for protection like other hermit crabs, but the adults develop a tough exoskeleton on their abdomens and stop carrying a shell. Coconut crabs have organs known as branchiostegal lungs, which they use for breathing instead of their vestigial gills. After the juvenile stage, they will drown if immersed in water for too long. They have an acute sense of smell which they use to find potential food sources, and which has developed convergently with that of insects.


title: Coconut crab

text: Adult coconut crabs feed primarily on fleshy fruits, nuts, seeds, and the pith of fallen trees, but they will eat carrion and other organic matter opportunistically. Anything left unattended on the ground is a potential source of food, which they will investigate and may carry away – thereby getting the alternative name of "robber crab". The species is popularly associated with the coconut palm, yet coconuts are not a significant part of its diet. Although it lives in a burrow, the crab has been filmed climbing coconut and pandanus trees. No film shows a crab selectively picking coconut fruit, though they might dislodge ripe fruit that otherwise would fall naturally. Climbing is an immediate escape route (if too far from the burrow) to avoid predation by large sea birds (when young) or by humans, or cannibalism (at any age) by bigger, older crabs.


title: Coconut crab

text: Mating occurs on dry land, but the females return to the edge of the sea to release their fertilized eggs, and then retreat back up the beach. The larvae that hatch are planktonic for 3–4 weeks, before settling to the sea floor, entering a gastropod shell and returning to dry land. Sexual maturity is reached after about 5 years, and the total lifespan may be over 60 years. In the 3–4 weeks that the larvae remain at sea, their chances of reaching another suitable location is enhanced if a floating life support system avails itself to them. Examples of the systems that provide such opportunities include floating logs and rafts of marine or terrestrial vegetation. Similarly, floating coconuts can be a very significant part of the crab's dispersal options. Fossils of this crab date back to the Miocene.


title: Coconut crab

text: The coconut crab has been known to western scientists since the voyages of Francis Drake around 1580 and William Dampier around 1688. Based on an account by Georg Eberhard Rumphius (1705), who had called the animal "'", Carl Linnaeus (1767) named the species "Cancer latro", from the Latin ', meaning "robber". The genus "Birgus" was erected in 1816 by William Elford Leach, containing only Linnaeus' "Cancer latro", which was thus renamed "Birgus latro".


title: Coconut crab

text: "Birgus" is classified in the family Coenobitidae, alongside one other genus, "Coenobita", which contains the terrestrial hermit crabs.


title: Coconut crab

text: Common names for the species include coconut crab, robber crab, and palm thief, which mirrors the animal's name in other European languages ("e.g." ). In Japan (where the species lives on some of the country's southerly island chains), the species is typically referred to as , meaning 'palm crab'.


title: Coconut crab

text: "B. latro" is the largest terrestrial arthropod, and indeed terrestrial invertebrate, in the world; reports about its size vary, but most sources give a body length up to , a weight up to , and a leg span more than , with males generally being larger than females. The carapace may reach a length of , and a width up to .


title: Coconut crab

text: The body of the coconut crab is, like that of all decapods, divided into a front section (cephalothorax), which has 10 legs, and an abdomen. The front-most pair of legs has large chelae (claws), with the left being larger than the right. The next two pairs, as with other hermit crabs, are large, powerful walking legs with pointed tips, which allow coconut crabs to climb vertical or overhanging surfaces. The fourth pair of legs is smaller with tweezer-like chelae at the end, allowing young coconut crabs to grip the inside of a shell or coconut husk to carry for protection; adults use this pair for walking and climbing. The last pair of legs is very small and is used by females to tend their eggs, and by the males in mating. This last pair of legs is usually held inside the carapace, in the cavity containing the breathing organs. Some difference in color occurs between the animals found on different islands, ranging from orange-red to purplish blue; in most regions, blue is the predominant color, but in some places, including the Seychelles, most individuals are red.


title: Coconut crab

text: Although "B. latro" is a derived type of hermit crab, only the juveniles use salvaged snail shells to protect their soft abdomens, and adolescents sometimes use broken coconut shells for that purpose. Unlike other hermit crabs, the adult coconut crabs do not carry shells, but instead harden their abdominal terga by depositing chitin and chalk. Not being constrained by the physical confines of living in a shell allows this species to grow much larger than other hermit crabs in the family Coenobitidae. Like most true crabs, "B. latro" bends its tail underneath its body for protection. The hardened abdomen protects the coconut crab and reduces water loss on land, but must be moulted periodically. Adults moult annually, and dig a burrow up to long in which to hide while vulnerable. It remains in the burrow for 3–16 weeks, depending on the size of the animal. Depending on the animal's size, 1–3 weeks are needed for the exoskeleton to harden after moulting, during which time the animal's body is soft and vulnerable, and it stays hidden for protection.


title: Coconut crab

text: Except as larvae, coconut crabs cannot swim, and they drown if left in water for more than an hour. They use a special organ called a branchiostegal lung to breathe. This organ can be interpreted as a developmental stage between gills and lungs, and is one of the most significant adaptations of the coconut crab to its habitat. The branchiostegal lung contains a tissue similar to that found in gills, but suited to the absorption of oxygen from air, rather than water. This organ is expanded laterally and is evaginated to increase the surface area; located in the cephalothorax, it is optimally placed to reduce both the blood/gas diffusion distance and the return distance of oxygenated blood to the pericardium.


title: Coconut crab

text: Coconut crabs use their hindmost, smallest pair of legs to clean these breathing organs and to moisten them with water. The organs require water to properly function, and the coconut crab provides this by stroking its wet legs over the spongy tissues nearby. Coconut crabs may drink water from small puddles by transferring it from their chelipeds to their maxillipeds.


title: Coconut crab

text: In addition to the branchiostegal lung, the coconut crab has an additional rudimentary set of gills. Although these gills are comparable in number to aquatic species from the families Paguridae and Diogenidae, they are reduced in size and have comparatively less surface area.


title: Coconut crab

text: The coconut crab has a well-developed sense of smell, which it uses to locate its food. The process of smelling works very differently depending on whether the smelled molecules are hydrophilic molecules in water or hydrophobic molecules in air. Crabs that live in water have specialized organs called s on their antennae to determine both the denseness and the direction of a scent. Coconut crabs live on the land, so the aesthetascs on their antennae are shorter and blunter than those of other crabs and are more similar to those of insects.


title: Coconut crab

text: While insects and the coconut crab originate from different paths, the same need to track smells in the air led to the development of remarkably similar organs. Coconut crabs flick their antennae as insects do to enhance their reception. Their sense of smell can detect interesting odors over large distances. The smells of rotting meat, bananas, and coconuts, all potential food sources, catch their attention especially. The olfactory system in the coconut crab's brain is well-developed compared to other areas of the brain.


title: Coconut crab

text: Coconut crabs mate frequently and quickly on dry land in the period from May to September, especially between early June and late August. Males have spermatophores and deposit a mass of spermatophores on the abdomens of females; the oviducts opens at the base of the third pereiopods, and fertilisation is thought to occur on the external surface of the abdomen, as the eggs pass through the spermatophore mass.


title: Coconut crab

text: The extrusion of eggs occurs on land in crevices or burrows near the shore. The female lays her eggs shortly after mating and glues them to the underside of her abdomen, carrying the fertilised eggs underneath her body for a few months. At the time of hatching, the female coconut crab migrates to the seashore and releases the larvae into the ocean. The coconut crab takes a large risk while laying the eggs, because coconut crabs can't swim: If a coconut crab falls into the water or is swept away, its weight makes it difficult, or impossible, for it to swim back to dry land. The egg laying usually takes place on rocky shores at dusk, especially when this coincides with high tide. The empty egg cases remain on the female's body after the larvae have been released, and the female eats the egg cases within a few days.


title: Coconut crab

text: The larvae float in the pelagic zone of the ocean with other plankton for 3–4 weeks, during which a large number of them are eaten by predators. The larvae pass through three to five "zoea" stages before moulting into the postlarval "glaucothoe" stage; this process takes from 25 to 33 days.


title: Coconut crab

text: Upon reaching the glaucothoe stage of development, they settle to the bottom, find and wear a suitably sized gastropod shell, and migrate to the shoreline with other terrestrial hermit crabs. At that time, they sometimes visit dry land. Afterwards, they leave the ocean permanently and lose the ability to breathe in water. As with all hermit crabs, they change their shells as they grow. Young coconut crabs that cannot find a seashell of the right size often use broken coconut pieces. When they outgrow their shells, they develop a hardened abdomen. The coconut crab reaches sexual maturity around 5 years after hatching. They reach their maximum size only after 40–60 years. It grows remarkably slowly, taking perhaps 120 years to reach full size, as posited by ecologist Michelle Drew of the Max Planck Institute.


title: Coconut crab

text: Coconut crabs live in the Indian Ocean and the central Pacific Ocean, with a distribution that closely matches that of the coconut palm. The western limit of the range of "B. latro" is Zanzibar, off the coast of Tanzania, while the tropics of Cancer and Capricorn mark the northern and southern limits, respectively, with very few population in the subtropics, such as the Ryukyu Islands. Some evidence indicates the coconut crab once lived on the mainland of Australia, Madagascar, Rodrigues, Easter Island, Tokelau, the Marquesas islands, and possibly India, but is now extirpated in those areas. As they cannot swim as adults, coconut crabs must have colonised the islands as planktonic larvae.


title: Coconut crab

text: Christmas Island in the Indian Ocean has the largest and densest population of coconut crabs in the world, although it is outnumbered there by more than 50 times by the Christmas Island red crab ("Gecarcoidea natalis"). Other Indian Ocean populations exist on the Seychelles, including Aldabra and Cosmoledo, but the coconut crab is extinct on the central islands. Coconut crabs occur on several of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal. They occur on most of the islands, and the northern atolls, of the Chagos Archipelago.


title: Coconut crab

text: In the Pacific, the coconut crab's range became known gradually. Charles Darwin believed it was only found on "a single coral island north of the Society group". The coconut crab is far more widespread, though it is not abundant on every Pacific island it inhabits. Large populations exist on the Cook Islands, especially Pukapuka, Suwarrow, Mangaia, Takutea, Mauke, Atiu, and Palmerston Island. These are close to the eastern limit of its range, as are the Line Islands of Kiribati, where the coconut crab is especially frequent on Teraina (Washington Island), with its abundant coconut palm forest. The Gambier Islands mark the species' eastern limit.


title: Coconut crab

text: The diet of coconut crabs consists primarily of fleshy fruits (particularly "Ochrosia ackeringae", "Arenga listeri", "Pandanus elatus", "P. christmatensis"); nuts ("Aleurites moluccanus"), drupes ("Cocos nucifera") and seeds ("Annona reticulata"); and the pith of fallen trees. However, as they are omnivores, they will consume other organic materials such as tortoise hatchlings and dead animals. They have been observed to prey upon crabs such as "Gecarcoidea natalis" and "Discoplax hirtipes", as well as scavenge on the carcasses of other coconut crabs. During a tagging experiment, one coconut crab was observed killing and eating a Polynesian rat ("Rattus exulans"). In 2016, a large coconut crab was observed climbing a tree to disable and consume a red-footed booby on the Chagos Archipelago.


title: Coconut crab

text: The coconut crab can take a coconut from the ground and cut it to a husk nut, take it with its claw, climb up a tree high and drop the husk nut, to access the coconut flesh inside. They often descend from the trees by falling, and can survive a fall of at least unhurt. Coconut crabs cut holes into coconuts with their strong claws and eat the contents, although it can take several days before the coconut is opened.


title: Coconut crab

text: Thomas Hale Streets discussed the behaviour in 1877, doubting that the animal would climb trees to get at the coconuts. In the 1980s, Holger Rumpf was able to confirm Streets' report, observing and studying how they open coconuts in the wild. The animal has developed a special technique to do so; if the coconut is still covered with husk, it will use its claws to rip off strips, always starting from the side with the three germination pores, the group of three small circles found on the outside of the coconut. Once the pores are visible, the coconut crab bangs its pincers on one of them until it breaks. Afterwards, it turns around and uses the smaller pincers on its other legs to pull out the white flesh of the coconut. Using their strong claws, larger individuals can even break the hard coconut into smaller pieces for easier consumption.


title: Coconut crab

text: Coconut crabs are considered one of the most terrestrial-adapted of the decapods, with most aspects of its life oriented to, and centered around such an existence; they will actually drown in sea water in less than a day. Coconut crabs live alone in burrows and rock crevices, depending on the local terrain. They dig their own burrows in sand or loose soil. During the day, the animal stays hidden to reduce water loss from heat. The coconut crabs' burrows contain very fine yet strong fibres of the coconut husk which the animal uses as bedding. While resting in its burrow, the coconut crab closes the entrances with one of its claws to create the moist microclimate within the burrow, which is necessary for the functioning of its breathing organs. In areas with a large coconut crab population, some may come out during the day, perhaps to gain an advantage in the search for food. Other times, they emerge if it is moist or raining, since these conditions allow them to breathe more easily. They live almost exclusively on land, returning to the sea only to release their eggs; on Christmas Island, for instance, "B. latro" is abundant from the sea.


title: Coconut crab

text: Adult coconut crabs have no known predators apart from other coconut crabs and humans. Its large size and the quality of its meat means that the coconut crab is extensively hunted and is very rare on islands with a human population. The coconut crab is eaten as a delicacy – and regarded as an aphrodisiac – on various islands, and intensive hunting has threatened the species' survival in some areas.


title: Coconut crab

text: While the coconut crab itself is not innately poisonous, it may become so depending on its diet, and cases of coconut crab poisoning have occurred. For instance, consumption of the sea mango, "Cerbera manghas", by the coconut crab may make the coconut crab toxic due to the presence of cardiac cardenolides.


title: Coconut crab

text: The pincers of the coconut crab are powerful enough to cause noticeable pain to a human; furthermore, the coconut crab often keeps its hold for extended periods of time. Thomas Hale Streets reports a trick used by Micronesians of the Line Islands to get a coconut crab to loosen its grip: "It may be interesting to know that in such a dilemma a gentle titillation of the under soft parts of the body with any light material will cause the crab to loosen its hold."


title: Coconut crab

text: In the Cook Islands, the coconut crab is known as or , and in the Mariana Islands it is called , and is sometimes associated with because of the traditional belief that ancestral spirits can return in the form of animals such as the coconut crab.


title: Coconut crab

text: Coconut crab populations in several areas have declined or become locally extinct due to both habitat loss and human predation. In 1981, it was listed on the IUCN Red List as a vulnerable species, but a lack of biological data caused its assessment to be amended to "data deficient" in 1996. In 2018, IUCN updated its assessment to "vulnerable".


title: Coconut crab

text: Conservation management strategies have been put in place in some regions, such as minimum legal size limit restrictions in Guam and Vanuatu, and a ban on the capture of egg-bearing females in Guam and the Federated States of Micronesia. In the Northern Mariana Islands, hunting of non-egg-bearing adults above a carapace length of may take place in September, October, and November, and only under licence. The bag limit is five coconut crabs on any given day, and 15 across the whole season.


title: Coconut crab

text: In Tuvalu, coconut crabs live on the "motu" (islets) in the Funafuti Conservation Area, a marine conservation area covering 33 km (12.74 mimi) of reef, lagoon and "motu" on the western side of Funafuti atoll.


title: Carl Icahn

text: Carl Celian Icahn (; born February 16, 1936) is an American financier. He is the founder and controlling shareholder of Icahn Enterprises, a public company and diversified conglomerate holding company based in Sunny Isles Beach. Icahn takes large stakes in companies that he believes will appreciate via changes to corporate policy and he then pressures management to make changes that he believes will benefit shareholders. He was one of the first activist shareholders and is credited with making that investment strategy mainstream for hedge funds.


title: Carl Icahn

text: In the 1980s, Icahn developed a reputation as a "corporate raider" after profiting from the hostile takeover and asset stripping of Trans World Airlines.


title: Carl Icahn

text: Since 2011, Icahn no longer manages money for outside clients, although investors can invest in Icahn Enterprises.


title: Carl Icahn

text: Icahn was born in Brooklyn to an Ashkenazi Jewish family. He was raised in the Far Rockaway, Queens neighborhood of New York City, where he attended Far Rockaway High School. His father, Michael Icahn, a "sworn atheist", was a cantor, and later a substitute teacher. His mother, Bella (née Schnall) also worked as a schoolteacher. Icahn graduated from Princeton University with an A.B. in philosophy in 1957 after completing a senior thesis titled "The Problem of Formulating an Adequate Explication of the Empiricist Criterion of Meaning." He then entered New York University School of Medicine, but he dropped out after two years to join the military reserve force.


title: Carl Icahn

text: In 1961, Icahn began his career as a stockbroker for Dreyfus Corporation. In 1963, he became an options manager for Tessel, Patrick & Co. and then he moved to Gruntal & Co.


title: Carl Icahn

text: In 1968, with $150,000 of his own money and a $400,000 investment from his uncle, M. Elliot Schnall, Icahn bought a seat on the New York Stock Exchange and formed Icahn & Co., which focused on risk arbitrage and options trading.


title: Carl Icahn

text: In 1978, in his first takeover attempt, he took a controlling stake in Tappan and forced the sale of the company to Electrolux, making a profit of $2.7 million, or doubling his investment. In 1979, he acquired Bayswater Realty & Capital Corporation. In 1983, he acquired ACF Industries and in 1985 he sold those shares to Phillips Petroleum, making a $50 million profit.


title: Carl Icahn

text: In 1985, by pooling his funds with investor funds and funds borrowed from banks, Icahn acquired 50% of Trans World Airlines, and he completely acquired the company in a leveraged buyout in 1988. Icahn systematically sold TWA's assets to repay money he owed, which was described as "asset stripping" and made him known as a "corporate raider". In 1991, he sold TWA's London routes to American Airlines for $445 million. Icahn made a $469 million profit, and left TWA with $540 million in debt. He formed lowestfare.com to sell TWA tickets and acquired portions of Global Leisure Travel from Ramy El-Batrawi.


title: Carl Icahn

text: In October 1986, Icahn launched an unsuccessful $8 billion hostile takeover for 89% of U.S. Steel; the bid was dropped in January 1987. In 1991, he sold his stake in the company for $1 billion, making a $200 million profit.


title: Carl Icahn

text: In June 1989, in the largest share sale to date on the New York Stock Exchange, Icahn sold his stake in Texaco for $2 billion, making a profit of $700 million.


title: Carl Icahn

text: In 1994, he took a 6.6% interest in Western Company of North America as it was in the process of being acquired by BJ Services.


title: Carl Icahn

text: In December 1998, Icahn led an investor group that acquired a 5% stake in RJR Nabisco and pressured the company's management to separate its tobacco and food units.


title: Carl Icahn

text: In July 2001, Icahn's Riverdale, LLC lent Genesisintermedia $100 million and received options to purchase 5.5 million shares of the company at an average price of $5.09.


title: Carl Icahn

text: In 2004, Icahn began raising $3 billion to form Icahn Partners, a hedge fund. He took ownership stakes in Blockbuster Video and Time Warner.


title: Carl Icahn

text: In 2004, after Mylan announced a $4 billion stock deal to acquire King Pharmaceuticals, Icahn purchased a large block of stock and threatened a proxy fight, urging shareholders to vote against the acquisition. In February 2005, Mylan gave up its efforts to acquire King.


title: Carl Icahn

text: In 2005, XO Communications announced its intention to sell the wired part of its business for $700 million to Icahn, who was then chairman and a large shareholder; the money would be used to pay back its debts and to buy back its preferred stock for about $600 million from Icahn. Icahn would have then owned the wired business outright, and still own his 60% stake in XO. Despite Icahn's majority ownership and the board of directors declaring the deal to be in the best interest of shareholders, R2 and other minority shareholders blocked the transaction through the court system in 2008, which charged Icahn with penalties due to his conflict of interest.


title: Carl Icahn

text: In August 2006, Icahn bought stock in Take-Two Interactive, a video game publisher, and increased his holdings to 11.3% in 2009, becoming the company's second-largest shareholder.


title: Carl Icahn

text: In January 2007, he purchased a 9.2% stake in Telik, a biotech company engaged in cancer research. He also acquired 6.1 million shares of WCI Communities, later acquired by Lennar.


title: Carl Icahn

text: In May 2007, Icahn lost an election for a seat on the board of directors of Motorola, despite owning 3% of the company.


title: Carl Icahn

text: On February 9, 2007, Lear Corporation's board of directors accepted a $2.3 billion takeover offer from Icahn.


title: Carl Icahn

text: That month he also invested $50 million in Motricity, a North Carolina-based provider of mobile content delivery technology.


title: Carl Icahn

text: In September 2007, Icahn increased his stake in BEA Systems to 13.22%, a few months before Oracle Corporation announced its acquisition of BEA Systems, which Icahn supported.


title: Carl Icahn

text: In April 2007, Icahn sold his casino interests in Nevada, including the Stratosphere Las Vegas, Arizona Charlie's Boulder, Arizona Charlie's Decatur, and Aquarius Casino Resort which were operated through American Casino & Entertainment Properties, a subsidiary of Icahn Enterprises, for $1.3 billion or $1 billion more than he paid for the properties, to a unit of Goldman Sachs.


title: Carl Icahn

text: In March 2008, Icahn sued Motorola as part of his effort to gain four seats on Motorola's board and force a sale of its mobile business.


title: Carl Icahn

text: In May 2008, Icahn purchased a large block of shares in Yahoo!, and shortly thereafter threatened to start a proxy fight to remove Yahoo's board of directors in response to their rejection of a takeover bid by Microsoft. Instead, he forced an agreement to expand Yahoo's board to eleven members, including Icahn and two others of his choice.


title: Carl Icahn

text: In September/October 2008 Icahn was involved in the rejected attempted purchase of Imclone by Bristol-Myers Squibb and in the eventual sale of Imclone to Eli Lilly and Company for $6.5 billion in cash.


title: Carl Icahn

text: In September 2009, he offered to buy the shares of XO he did not already own for $0.55 each. He later raised his offer to $0.80, which ultimately expired.


title: Carl Icahn

text: In October, he resigned from the board of directors at Yahoo!, and by the following February had reduced his equity stake from a one-time high of 75 million shares to 12 million shares.


title: Carl Icahn

text: In February 2010, Icahn, through a subsidiary of his Icahn Enterprises LP, acquired the Fontainebleau Las Vegas for about $150 million. In March he was one of a group of lenders who purchased Tropicana Casino & Resort Atlantic City, bringing the company out of bankruptcy for $200 million.


title: Carl Icahn

text: In May 2010, Icahn held a 6.9% stake in Mentor Graphics, increasing to 14% in July. Mentor's retaliation with a shareholder rights plan failed to deter Icahn who, in February 2011, made an unsuccessful offer to buy the company for about $1.86 billion in cash.


title: Carl Icahn

text: In January 2011, Icahn offered to buy Clorox for $10.2 billion. By February he had accumulated a 9.08% stake in the company.


title: Carl Icahn

text: By April 2013, Icahn accumulated a 9.2% stake in Nuance Communications. On August 2, 2013, Icahn sued computer giant Dell and its board in an attempt to derail a $24.4 billion buyout bid by the CEO, Michael Dell, in favor of his own rumored forthcoming bid. In October 2013, Icahn held 4.7 million shares of Apple Inc. The same month, Icahn acquired around 61 million shares in Talisman Energy, leading to a surge in the share price. Also that month, he sold about 50% of his shares in Netflix for a profit in excess of $800 million in less than one year.


title: Carl Icahn

text: In November 2013, he acquired a 12.5% interest in Hologic, a medical device and diagnostics manufacturer.


title: Carl Icahn

text: Also in January 2014, Icahn pushed eBay to complete the corporate spin-off of PayPal. This started a proxy fight which was settled by April.


title: Carl Icahn

text: In October 2014, Icahn invested in Talisman Energy. The company's stock price went down by 71% and he sold his shares two months later.


title: Carl Icahn

text: In November 2015, Icahn hired CBRE Group to market the unfinished Fontainebleau Las Vegas to potential buyers. Also in November 2015, he swapped his stake in eBay for shares in PayPal. Also in November 2015, Icahn disclosed a 7.13% stake in Xerox.


title: Carl Icahn

text: In December 2015, Icahn offered to acquire Pep Boys. He also raised his stake in Cheniere Energy to 13.8%, making him its largest shareholder.


title: Carl Icahn

text: In August 2017, Icahn sold the unfinished Fontainebleau Resort Las Vegas for $600 million, more than four times what he paid.


title: Carl Icahn

text: In January 2016, Icahn disclosed a 4.66% stake in Gannett Company and also held shares in Cheniere Energy and Freeport-McMoRan, both of which declined in value. Icahn sold his Apple shares in April 2016, citing concerns about Apple's relationship with China.


title: Carl Icahn

text: Also in October 2016, Icahn closed the Trump Taj Mahal Casino in Atlantic City, citing a $350 million loss over several years as well as failure to reach a deal with striking union workers. Nearly 3,000 workers lost their jobs.


title: Carl Icahn

text: In November 2016, he increased his holdings in the car rental company The Hertz Corporation, after the company's stock price had declined significantly.


title: Carl Icahn

text: In 2017, Icahn acquired a 9.7% stake in Conduent, sold out of Allergan and Nuance Communications, and increased his stakes in Navistar International and Herbalife Nutrition.


title: Carl Icahn

text: In May 2020, Icahn sold his entire 39% stake, or 55.3 million shares, of Hertz Global for 72 cents a share. He lost almost $2 billion on the investment.


title: Carl Icahn

text: In February 2022 Icahn, who held 200 shares of the company, nominated two people for election to McDonald's board of directors in what may be the first step toward a proxy fight. Icahn aims to pressure McDonald's to improve conditions of pigs raised by its suppliers.


title: Carl Icahn

text: However, in May 2022, only 1% of McDonald's' shareholders voted in favor of nominees put forward by Icahn, scoring a victory against his demands for the improvement of conditions in which pigs are raised. In its statement, Mcdonald's claimed it is already moving toward a more humane approach to the issue since its pledge in 2012, adding that Icahn's demands were unreasonable.


title: Carl Icahn

text: Icahn endorsed Donald Trump in the 2016 United States presidential election. He also announced the formation of a super PAC pledging $150 million to push for corporate tax reform, in particular of tax inversions, which occur when corporations move their headquarters from the U.S. to take advantage of lower tax rates elsewhere.


title: Carl Icahn

text: Upon becoming the presumptive Republican presidential nominee, Trump announced that he would nominate Icahn for United States Secretary of the Treasury. However, he instead nominated Steven Mnuchin.


title: Carl Icahn

text: On December 21, 2016, it was announced that Icahn would serve as special advisor to the president on regulatory reform under President Donald Trump and that Icahn would aid Trump in an "individual capacity" rather than as a federal employee, and that he would not have "specific duties" and therefore would not have to relinquish his business interests while serving as an advisor to Trump. Icahn stepped down from this role on August 18, 2017, citing a desire not to interfere with the work of Neomi Rao as administrator of the Office of Information and Regulatory Affairs.


title: Carl Icahn

text: In February 2018, Icahn avoided a $6 million loss by selling some of his holdings in a steel-price sensitive stock just days before the Trump administration announced a 25% tariff on steel imports.


title: Carl Icahn

text: When the President had Icahn interview Scott Pruitt during consideration of his nomination as Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency, Icahn specifically asked Pruitt about his position on the EPA's Renewable Fuel Standard. Icahn spoke directly to President Trump and to Gary Cohn about his proposed changes to the ethanol rule. CVR Energy, in which Icahn has 82% ownership, would save $205.9 million a year if Icahn's proposal was adopted. The Sugar Land, Texas oil refinery benefited when President Trump made an exception to his regulation freeze to expand the tax advantage of master limited partnerships. CVR Energy's stock doubled after President Trump's election, increasing $455 million in value.


title: Carl Icahn

text: In the summer of 1978, Icahn, then 41-years old, met Liba Trejbal, a 28-year old ballerina from the former Czechoslovakia. She became pregnant 8 months later and Icahn offered to marry her if she signed a prenuptial agreement. They were married in March 1979. In October 1993, Liba filed for divorce and sued to invalidate the prenuptial agreement, claiming she signed it under duress due to the pregnancy. The divorce was settled in July 1999. They have two children, Brett Icahn and Michelle Celia Icahn Nevin. His nephew is Rick Schnall.


title: Carl Icahn

text: In 1999, Icahn married his longtime assistant and former broker, Gail Golden. She has two children from a previous marriage.


title: Carl Icahn

text: Icahn Stadium on Randall's Island in New York City is named after him, as is the Carl C. Icahn Center for Science and Icahn Scholar Program at Choate Rosemary Hall, a prep school in Connecticut. This organization pays for tuition, room and board, books, and supplies for 10 students every year for four years (freshman–senior), an endowment valued at about $400,000 per annum.


title: Carl Icahn

text: Icahn made a substantial contribution to his alma mater, Princeton University, to fund a genomics laboratory which bears his name, the Carl C. Icahn Laboratory at the university's Institute for Integrated Genomics. He also made large contributions to Mount Sinai Hospital, New York, of which he is a trustee, which in return named a building the Icahn Medical Institute designed by Davis Brody Bond, and also, in 2013, renamed the Mount Sinai School of Medicine as the Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai. The genomics institute led by Eric Schadt was renamed the Icahn Institute for Genomics and Multiscale Biology.


title: Carl Icahn

text: His foundation, the Children's Rescue Fund, built Icahn House in The Bronx, a 65-unit complex for homeless families consisting of single pregnant women and single women with children, and operates Icahn House East and Icahn House West, both of which are homeless shelters in New York City.


title: Carl Icahn

text: In 2010, Icahn joined the Giving Pledge list, pledging to give away more than half his fortune. Icahn is an activist investor, and has worked with the Humane Society of the United States in pushing McDonald's to achieve its pledge to end the sourcing of pork produced with gestation crates.


title: Carl Icahn

text: Carl Icahn is featured in the 2022 HBO documentary "" directed by Bruce David Klein and Produced by Atlas Media Corp.


title: Carl Icahn

text: In 1985, Icahn established Foxfield Thoroughbreds, a horse breeding operation. At that year's Newstead Farm Trust sale run by Fasig-Tipton, he paid $4 million for Larida, a 6-year-old mare and a record $7 million for the 4-year-old bay mare Miss Oceana who was in foal to champion sire, Northern Dancer.


title: Carl Icahn

text: Icahn's Meadow Star won the 1990 Breeders' Cup Juvenile Fillies and was voted the American Champion Two-Year-Old Filly.


title: Carl Icahn

text: In 1992, Foxfield ended its racing operation and became a commercial breeder, having bred more than 140 graded stakes race horses.


title: Carl Icahn

text: In 2004, Icahn shut down Foxfield, selling all his mares and weanlings without reserve at the Keeneland Sales November breeding stock auction.


title: Reynolds number

text: The Reynolds number () helps predict flow patterns in different fluid flow situations by measuring the ratio between inertial and viscous forces. At low Reynolds numbers, flows tend to be dominated by laminar (sheet-like) flow, while at high Reynolds numbers flows tend to be turbulent. The turbulence results from differences in the fluid's speed and direction, which may sometimes intersect or even move counter to the overall direction of the flow (eddy currents). These eddy currents begin to churn the flow, using up energy in the process, which for liquids increases the chances of cavitation. Reynolds numbers are an important dimensionless quantity in fluid mechanics.


title: Reynolds number

text: The Reynolds number has wide applications, ranging from liquid flow in a pipe to the passage of air over an aircraft wing. It is used to predict the transition from laminar to turbulent flow and is used in the scaling of similar but different-sized flow situations, such as between an aircraft model in a wind tunnel and the full-size version. The predictions of the onset of turbulence and the ability to calculate scaling effects can be used to help predict fluid behavior on a larger scale, such as in local or global air or water movement, and thereby the associated meteorological and climatological effects.


title: Reynolds number

text: The concept was introduced by George Stokes in 1851, but the Reynolds number was named by Arnold Sommerfeld in 1908 after Osborne Reynolds (1842–1912), who popularized its use in 1883.


title: Reynolds number

text: The Reynolds number is the ratio of inertial forces to viscous forces within a fluid that is subjected to relative internal movement due to different fluid velocities. A region where these forces change behavior is known as a boundary layer, such as the bounding surface in the interior of a pipe. A similar effect is created by the introduction of a stream of high-velocity fluid into a low-velocity fluid, such as the hot gases emitted from a flame in air. This relative movement generates fluid friction, which is a factor in developing turbulent flow. Counteracting this effect is the viscosity of the fluid, which tends to inhibit turbulence. The Reynolds number quantifies the relative importance of these two types of forces for given flow conditions, and is a guide to when turbulent flow will occur in a particular situation.


title: Reynolds number

text: This ability to predict the onset of turbulent flow is an important design tool for equipment such as piping systems or aircraft wings, but the Reynolds number is also used in scaling of fluid dynamics problems and is used to determine dynamic similitude between two different cases of fluid flow, such as between a model aircraft, and its full-size version. Such scaling is not linear and the application of Reynolds numbers to both situations allows scaling factors to be developed.


title: Reynolds number

text: The Reynolds number can be defined for several different situations where a fluid is in relative motion to a surface. These definitions generally include the fluid properties of density and viscosity, plus a velocity and a characteristic length or characteristic dimension (L in the above equation). This dimension is a matter of convention – for example radius and diameter are equally valid to describe spheres or circles, but one is chosen by convention. For aircraft or ships, the length or width can be used. For flow in a pipe, or for a sphere moving in a fluid, the internal diameter is generally used today. Other shapes such as rectangular pipes or non-spherical objects have an "equivalent diameter" defined. For fluids of variable density such as compressible gases or fluids of variable viscosity such as non-Newtonian fluids, special rules apply. The velocity may also be a matter of convention in some circumstances, notably stirred vessels.


title: Reynolds number

text: In practice, matching the Reynolds number is not on its own sufficient to guarantee similitude. Fluid flow is generally chaotic, and very small changes to shape and surface roughness of bounding surfaces can result in very different flows. Nevertheless, Reynolds numbers are a very important guide and are widely used.


title: Reynolds number

text: Osborne Reynolds famously studied the conditions in which the flow of fluid in pipes transitioned from laminar flow to turbulent flow.


title: Reynolds number

text: In his 1883 paper Reynolds described the transition from laminar to turbulent flow in a classic experiment in which he examined the behaviour of water flow under different flow velocities using a small stream of dyed water introduced into the centre of clear water flow in a larger pipe.


title: Reynolds number

text: The larger pipe was glass so the behaviour of the layer of the dyed stream could be observed. At the end of this pipe, there was a flow control valve used to vary the water velocity inside the tube. When the velocity was low, the dyed layer remained distinct throughout the entire length of the large tube. When the velocity was increased, the layer broke up at a given point and diffused throughout the fluid's cross-section. The point at which this happened was the transition point from laminar to turbulent flow.


title: Reynolds number

text: From these experiments came the dimensionless Reynolds number for dynamic similarity—the ratio of inertial forces to viscous forces. Reynolds also proposed what is now known as the Reynolds averaging of turbulent flows, where quantities such as velocity are expressed as the sum of mean and fluctuating components. Such averaging allows for 'bulk' description of turbulent flow, for example using the Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes equations.


title: Reynolds number

text: For shapes such as squares, rectangular or annular ducts where the height and width are comparable, the characteristic dimension for internal-flow situations is taken to be the hydraulic diameter, , defined as


title: Reynolds number

text: where is the cross-sectional area, and is the wetted perimeter. The wetted perimeter for a channel is the total perimeter of all channel walls that are in contact with the flow. This means that the length of the channel exposed to air is "not" included in the wetted perimeter.


title: Reynolds number

text: For an annular duct, such as the outer channel in a tube-in-tube heat exchanger, the hydraulic diameter can be shown algebraically to reduce to


title: Reynolds number

text: For calculation involving flow in non-circular ducts, the hydraulic diameter can be substituted for the diameter of a circular duct, with reasonable accuracy, if the aspect ratio AR of the duct cross-section remains in the range < AR < 4.


title: Reynolds number

text: In boundary layer flow over a flat plate, experiments confirm that, after a certain length of flow, a laminar boundary layer will become unstable and turbulent. This instability occurs across different scales and with different fluids, usually when ≈ , where is the distance from the leading edge of the flat plate, and the flow velocity is the freestream velocity of the fluid outside the boundary layer.


title: Reynolds number

text: For flow in a pipe of diameter , experimental observations show that for "fully developed" flow, laminar flow occurs when < 2300 and turbulent flow occurs when > 2900. At the lower end of this range, a continuous turbulent-flow will form, but only at a very long distance from the inlet of the pipe. The flow in between will begin to transition from laminar to turbulent and then back to laminar at irregular intervals, called intermittent flow. This is due to the different speeds and conditions of the fluid in different areas of the pipe's cross-section, depending on other factors such as pipe roughness and flow uniformity. Laminar flow tends to dominate in the fast-moving center of the pipe while slower-moving turbulent flow dominates near the wall. As the Reynolds number increases, the continuous turbulent-flow moves closer to the inlet and the intermittency in between increases, until the flow becomes fully turbulent at > 2900. This result is generalized to non-circular channels using the hydraulic diameter, allowing a transition Reynolds number to be calculated for other shapes of channel.


title: Reynolds number

text: These transition Reynolds numbers are also called "critical Reynolds numbers", and were studied by Osborne Reynolds around 1895. The critical Reynolds number is different for every geometry.


title: Reynolds number

text: For a fluid moving between two plane parallel surfaces—where the width is much greater than the space between the plates—then the characteristic dimension is equal to the distance between the plates. This is consistent with the annular duct and rectangular duct cases above, taken to a limiting aspect ratio.


title: Reynolds number

text: For calculating the flow of liquid with a free surface, the hydraulic radius must be determined. This is the cross-sectional area of the channel divided by the wetted perimeter. For a semi-circular channel, it is a quarter of the diameter (in case of full pipe flow). For a rectangular channel, the hydraulic radius is the cross-sectional area divided by the wetted perimeter. Some texts then use a characteristic dimension that is four times the hydraulic radius, chosen because it gives the same value of for the onset of turbulence as in pipe flow, while others use the hydraulic radius as the characteristic length-scale with consequently different values of for transition and turbulent flow.


title: Reynolds number

text: Reynolds numbers are used in airfoil design to (among other things) manage "scale effect" when computing/comparing characteristics (a tiny wing, scaled to be huge, will perform differently). Fluid dynamicists define the chord Reynolds number like this: , where is the flight speed, is the chord length, and is the kinematic viscosity of the fluid in which the airfoil operates, which is for the atmosphere at sea level. In some special studies a characteristic length other than chord may be used; rare is the "span Reynolds number", which is not to be confused with span-wise stations on a wing, where chord is still used.


title: Reynolds number

text: The Reynolds number for an object moving in a fluid, called the particle Reynolds number and often denoted , characterizes the nature of the surrounding flow and its fall velocity.


title: Reynolds number

text: Where the viscosity is naturally high, such as polymer solutions and polymer melts, flow is normally laminar. The Reynolds number is very small and Stokes' law can be used to measure the viscosity of the fluid. Spheres are allowed to fall through the fluid and they reach the terminal velocity quickly, from which the viscosity can be determined.


title: Reynolds number

text: The laminar flow of polymer solutions is exploited by animals such as fish and dolphins, who exude viscous solutions from their skin to aid flow over their bodies while swimming. It has been used in yacht racing by owners who want to gain a speed advantage by pumping a polymer solution such as low molecular weight polyoxyethylene in water, over the wetted surface of the hull.


title: Reynolds number

text: It is, however, a problem for mixing polymers, because turbulence is needed to distribute fine filler (for example) through the material. Inventions such as the "cavity transfer mixer" have been developed to produce multiple folds into a moving melt so as to improve mixing efficiency. The device can be fitted onto extruders to aid mixing.


title: Reynolds number

text: For a sphere in a fluid, the characteristic length-scale is the diameter of the sphere and the characteristic velocity is that of the sphere relative to the fluid some distance away from the sphere, such that the motion of the sphere does not disturb that reference parcel of fluid. The density and viscosity are those belonging to the fluid. Note that purely laminar flow only exists up to = 10 under this definition.


title: Reynolds number

text: Under the condition of low , the relationship between force and speed of motion is given by Stokes' law.


title: Reynolds number

text: At higher Reynolds numbers the drag on a sphere depends on surface roughness. Thus, for example, adding dimples on the surface of a golf ball causes the boundary layer on the upstream side of the ball to transition from laminar to turbulent. The turbulent boundary layer is able to remain attached to the surface of the ball much longer than a laminar boundary and so creates a narrower low-pressure wake and hence less pressure drag. The reduction in pressure drag causes the ball to travel further.


title: Reynolds number

text: The equation for a rectangular object is identical to that of a sphere, with the object being approximated as an ellipsoid and the axis of length being chosen as the characteristic length scale. Such considerations are important in natural streams, for example, where there are few perfectly spherical grains. For grains in which measurement of each axis is impractical, sieve diameters are used instead as the characteristic particle length-scale. Both approximations alter the values of the critical Reynolds number.


title: Reynolds number

text: The particle Reynolds number is important in determining the fall velocity of a particle. When the particle Reynolds number indicates laminar flow, Stokes' law can be used to calculate its fall velocity. When the particle Reynolds number indicates turbulent flow, a turbulent drag law must be constructed to model the appropriate settling velocity.


title: Reynolds number

text: For fluid flow through a bed, of approximately spherical particles of diameter in contact, if the "voidage" is and the "superficial velocity" is , the Reynolds number can be defined as


title: Reynolds number

text: The choice of equation depends on the system involved: the first is successful in correlating the data for various types of packed and fluidized beds, the second Reynolds number suits for the liquid-phase data, while the third was found successful in correlating the fluidized bed data, being first introduced for liquid fluidized bed system.


title: Reynolds number

text: In a cylindrical vessel stirred by a central rotating paddle, turbine or propeller, the characteristic dimension is the diameter of the agitator . The velocity is where is the rotational speed in rad per second. Then the Reynolds number is: