title: Jeremy Meeks

text: Meeks appeared in Tommy Hilfiger's Spring 2018 fashion show in Milan on February 25 of the same year. The show was a collaboration with model Gigi Hadid and ran during Milan Fashion Week. He appeared on the cover of the Summer 2018 issues of the fashion and lifestyle magazines "FV" and "L' Officiel Hommes."


title: Jeremy Meeks

text: In September 2019, Frankfurt-based fashion company Fashion Concept GmbH announced a $15 million partnership with Meeks to build a fashion line in his name. The fashion line launched in July 2020.


title: Jeremy Meeks

text: In November 2019, Meeks became brand ambassador for fragrance line Gisada Switzerland's fragrance duo "Gisada Ambassador."


title: Jeremy Meeks

text: In January 2018, Meeks flew to Moscow to appear in the music video "Wi-Fi" by Russian pop singer Olga Buzova.


title: Jeremy Meeks

text: Meeks made his feature film debut in 2020 with the BET+ streaming feature "Trigger." In 2021, Meeks appeared in the independent feature film "Secret Society"; the film was directed by Jamal Hill, and is based on the book of the same name by Miasha Coleman.


title: Jeremy Meeks

text: In June 2017, it was reported that Meeks was in a relationship with Chloe Green, the daughter of British businessman Philip Green. Meeks had gone on a trip to Turkey, where the first images of him and Green came out on a yacht. On May 29, 2018, Green gave birth to the couple's son. In August 2019, it was reported the couple had amicably split and were selling their joint London home.


title: Edie Sedgwick

text: Edith Minturn Sedgwick Post (April 20, 1943 – November 16, 1971) was an American actress and fashion model, known for being one of Andy Warhol's superstars. Sedgwick became known as "The Girl of the Year" in 1965 after starring in several of Warhol's short films in the 1960s. She was dubbed an "It Girl", while "Vogue" magazine also named her a "Youthquaker".


title: Edie Sedgwick

text: Sedgwick broke with Warhol in 1966, and attempted to forge an independent acting career. However, her mental health deteriorated from drug abuse, and she struggled to complete the semi-autobiographical film "Ciao! Manhattan". She gave up drugs and alcohol after meeting her future husband Michael Post, and completed filming "Ciao! Manhattan" in early 1971. Post and Sedgwick married in July 1971; she died four months later of an overdose at age 28.


title: Edie Sedgwick

text: Edie Sedgwick was born in Santa Barbara, California, the seventh of eight children of Alice Delano de Forest (1908–1988) and Francis Minturn Sedgwick (1904–1967), a rancher and sculptor, and a member of the historical Sedgwick family of Massachusetts. Sedgwick's mother, Alice, was the daughter of Henry Wheeler de Forest, the president and chairman of the board of the Southern Pacific Railroad. She was named after her father's aunt, Edith Minturn Stokes, who was famously painted with her husband, Isaac Newton Phelps Stokes, by John Singer Sargent. She was of English and French Huguenot ancestry.


title: Edie Sedgwick

text: Despite the family's wealth and high social status, Sedgwick's early life was troubled. The Sedgwick children were raised on the family's California ranches. Initially schooled at home and cared for by nannies, their lives were rigidly controlled by their parents. They were largely isolated from the outside world, and it was instilled into them that they were superior to most of their peers. It was within these familial and social conditions that Sedgwick by her early teens developed an eating disorder, settling into an early pattern of binging and purging. At age 13 (the year her grandfather Henry Dwight Sedgwick died), Sedgwick began boarding at the Branson School near San Francisco. According to her older sister Alice "Saucie" Sedgwick, she was soon taken out of the school because of the eating disorder. Her father severely restricted her freedom when she returned home.


title: Edie Sedgwick

text: All the Sedgwick children had conflicted relationships with their father (whom they called "Fuzzy"). By most accounts, he was narcissistic, emotionally remote, controlling, and frequently abusive. He also openly carried on affairs with other women. On one occasion, Edie walked in on him while he was having sex with one of his mistresses. She reacted with great surprise, but he claimed that she had imagined it, slapped her, and called a doctor to administer tranquilizers to her. As an adult, Sedgwick told people that he had attempted to molest her several times, beginning when she was seven.


title: Edie Sedgwick

text: In 1958, her parents enrolled her at St. Timothy's School in Maryland. She was eventually taken out of the school due to an eating disorder that had progressed to anorexia.


title: Edie Sedgwick

text: In the autumn of 1962, at her father's insistence, Sedgwick was committed to the private Silver Hill psychiatric hospital in New Canaan, Connecticut. As the regime was very lax, Sedgwick easily manipulated the situation at Silver Hill, and her weight kept dropping. She was later sent to Bloomingdale, the Westchester County, New York division of New York Hospital, where her anorexia improved markedly. Around the time she left the hospital, she had a brief relationship with a Harvard student, became pregnant, and procured an abortion, citing her present psychological issues.


title: Edie Sedgwick

text: In the autumn of 1963, Sedgwick moved to Cambridge, Massachusetts and began studying sculpture with her cousin, artist Lily Saarinen. According to Saarinen, Sedgwick "was very insecure about men, though all the men loved her." During this period, she partied with members of an elite bohemian fringe of the Harvard social scene.


title: Edie Sedgwick

text: Sedgwick was deeply affected by the loss of her older brothers, Francis Jr. (known as "Minty") and Robert (known as "Bobby"), who died within 18 months of each other. Francis Sedgwick, who had a particularly unhappy relationship with their father, suffered several breakdowns, eventually dying by suicide in 1964 while committed at Silver Hill Hospital. Her second oldest brother, Robert, also suffered from mental health problems and died when his motorcycle crashed into the side of a New York City bus on New Year's Eve 1965.


title: Edie Sedgwick

text: On her twenty-first birthday in April 1964, Sedgwick received an $80,000 trust fund from her maternal grandmother. Soon after, she relocated to New York City to pursue a career in modeling. In March 1965, she met artist and avant-garde filmmaker Andy Warhol at a party at Lester Persky's apartment, and began frequently visiting The Factory, Warhol's art studio in Midtown Manhattan. During one of her subsequent visits, Warhol was filming "Vinyl" (1965), his interpretation of Anthony Burgess' novel "A Clockwork Orange". Despite "Vinyl"s all-male cast, Warhol put Sedgwick in the movie. Around this time, she also made a small cameo appearance in another Warhol film, "Horse" (1965). Sedgwick's appearances in both films were brief but generated enough interest that Warhol decided to cast her in the starring role of his next films.


title: Edie Sedgwick

text: The first of these avant-garde films, "Poor Little Rich Girl" (1965), was originally conceived as part of a series of films featuring Sedgwick called "The Poor Little Rich Girl Saga". The series was to include "Poor Little Rich Girl", "Restaurant", "Face" and "Afternoon". Filming of "Poor Little Rich Girl" began in March 1965 in Sedgwick's apartment; it depicted her going about her daily routines. Sedgwick's next film for Warhol was "Kitchen", which was filmed in May 1965 but was not released until 1966. Written by Factory scriptwriter Ronald Tavel, the film stars Sedgwick, Rene Ricard, Roger Trudeau, Donald Lyons and Elecktrah. After "Kitchen", Chuck Wein replaced Ronald Tavel as a writer and assistant director for the filming of "Beauty No. 2" (1965), which was filmed in June and premiered in July 1965. The film shows Sedgwick lounging on a bed in her underwear with Gino Piserchio and being taunted by Chuck Wein off-screen.


title: Edie Sedgwick

text: Warhol's films were for the most part shown only in underground film theaters and in viewings held at The Factory, and were not commercially successful. Regardless, Sedgwick began receiving attention from the mainstream media, who reported on her appearances in the films and on her personal style. During this period, she developed a distinct look including black leotards, mini dresses, large chandelier earrings, and heavy eye make-up. Sedgwick also cut her naturally brown hair short and dyed it with silver spray, thus matching her look with Warhol's, who was known for wearing silvery hair pieces. Warhol dubbed Sedgwick his "Superstar", and they began appearing together at various public events.


title: Edie Sedgwick

text: Sedgwick and Warhol continued making films together —"Outer and Inner Space", "Prison", "Lupe" and "Chelsea Girls"— throughout 1965. The edited footage of Sedgwick in "Chelsea Girls" would eventually become the film "Afternoon". Their relationship deteriorated by late 1965, and Sedgwick demanded that Warhol stop showing her films.


title: Edie Sedgwick

text: "Lupe" is often thought to be Sedgwick's last Warhol film, but she filmed "The Andy Warhol Story" with Rene Ricard in November 1966, almost a year after finishing "Lupe". "The Andy Warhol Story" was an unreleased film that was only screened once at The Factory. Along with Sedgwick, the film featured Ricard satirically pretending to be Andy Warhol.


title: Edie Sedgwick

text: Following her estrangement from Warhol's inner circle, Sedgwick began living at the Chelsea Hotel, where she became close to Bob Dylan. Dylan and his friends eventually convinced Sedgwick to sign up with Albert Grossman, Dylan's manager. According to Paul Morrissey, Sedgwick had developed a crush on Dylan that she thought he reciprocated. She was also under the impression that she and Dylan would star in a mainstream film together. Unbeknownst to Sedgwick, Dylan had secretly married his girlfriend Sara Lownds in November 1965. Morrissey claimed that Sedgwick was informed of the marriage by Warhol (who reportedly heard about it through his lawyer) in February 1966. Friends of Sedgwick's later said that she saw the supposed offer of doing a film with Dylan as a ticket to a mainstream film career. Paul Morrissey claimed that Dylan likely never had plans to star in a film with Sedgwick, and Dylan "hadn't been very truthful."


title: Edie Sedgwick

text: Since Sedgwick's death, Bob Dylan has routinely denied that he ever had a romantic relationship with her, but did acknowledge knowing her. In December 2006, several weeks before the release of the controversial film "Factory Girl", the Weinstein Company and the film's producers interviewed Sedgwick's older brother, Jonathan, who said that Sedgwick told him she had aborted a baby she claimed was Dylan's. Jonathan Sedgwick claimed that Edie had the abortion soon after she was injured in a motorcycle accident. As a result of the accident, doctors consigned her to a mental hospital where she was treated for drug addiction. No hospital records or Sedgwick family records exist to support this story. Nonetheless, Sedgwick's brother also claimed "Staff found she was pregnant but, fearing the baby had been damaged by her drug use and anorexia, forced her to have the abortion."


title: Edie Sedgwick

text: Throughout most of 1966, Sedgwick was involved in an intense but troubled relationship with Dylan's friend Bob Neuwirth. During this time, she became increasingly dependent on barbiturates. In early 1967, unable to cope with Sedgwick's drug abuse and erratic behavior, Neuwirth broke off their relationship.


title: Edie Sedgwick

text: After breaking with Andy Warhol and The Factory scene, Sedgwick attempted to forge a legitimate acting career. She auditioned for Norman Mailer. His stage adaptation of his novel "The Deer Park" was being produced. But Mailer "turned her down...—She was very good in a sort of tortured and wholly sensitive way—...She used so much of herself with every line that we knew she'd be immolated after three performances."


title: Edie Sedgwick

text: As fast as Diana Vreeland of "Vogue" had been to cast aside Edie the young American aristocrat, she now pounced on a teen-age working-class girl from England, Twiggy, whose arrival in New York in March 1967 caused nearly riotous events among young American followers of style and fashion. In that same month, March 1967, Sedgwick began what may have seemed propitious but in fact began her torturous and final decline: the shooting of "Ciao! Manhattan", a semi-autobiographical underground film co-directed by John Palmer and David Weisman. During this, she accidentally set her room on fire in the Chelsea Hotel and was briefly hospitalized with burns. Due to Sedgwick's rapidly deteriorating health from drug use, the film was suspended. After further hospitalizations for drug abuse and mental issues in 1968 and 1969, Sedgwick returned to her family's ranch in California to recuperate. In August 1969, she was hospitalized again in the psychiatric ward of the Santa Barbara Cottage Hospital after being arrested for drug offenses by the local police. While in the hospital, Sedgwick met another patient, Michael Brett Post, whom she would marry in July 1971.


title: Edie Sedgwick

text: Sedgwick was hospitalized again in the summer of 1970 but was let out under the supervision of a psychiatrist, two nurses, and the live-in care of filmmaker John Palmer and his wife Janet. Determined to finish "Ciao! Manhattan" and have her story told, Sedgwick reconnected with the film crew and began shooting in Arcadia and Santa Barbara in late 1970. She also recorded audio tapes reflecting on her life story: accounts Weisman and Palmer incorporated into the film's dramatic arc. Filming completed in early 1971, and the film was released in February 1972.


title: Edie Sedgwick

text: In the summer of 1970, Sedgwick met Michael Post, who was a fellow patient at the Santa Barbara Cottage Hospital. They married on July 24, 1971. During this time she gave up drugs and alcohol, but in October 1971, she relapsed after taking prescription pain medication given to her for a physical illness, which in turn led to abusing barbiturates and alcohol.


title: Edie Sedgwick

text: On the night of November 15, 1971, Sedgwick went to a fashion show at the Santa Barbara Museum that included a segment filmed for the television show "An American Family". After the fashion show, she attended a party where she drank alcohol. She then phoned her husband to pick her up. On the way home, Sedgwick expressed thoughts of uncertainty about their marriage. Before they both fell asleep, Post gave Sedgwick the medication that had been prescribed for her. According to Post, Sedgwick started to fall asleep very quickly and her breathing was "bad – it sounded like there was a big hole in her lungs", but he attributed it to her heavy smoking habit and went to sleep.


title: Edie Sedgwick

text: When Post awoke the following morning at 7:30 a.m., he found Sedgwick dead. The coroner ruled her death as "undetermined/accident/suicide". Her death certificate states the immediate cause was "probable acute barbiturate intoxication" due to ethanol intoxication. Sedgwick's alcohol level was registered at 0.17% and her barbiturate level was 0.48 mg%. She was 28.


title: Edie Sedgwick

text: Sedgwick was not buried in her family's Sedgwick Pie cemetery plot but in the small Oak Hill Cemetery in Ballard, California. Her epitaph reads "Edith Sedgwick Post – Wife Of Michael Brett Post 1943–1971".


title: Benedetta (film)

text: Benedetta is a 2021 biographical psychological drama film co-written and directed by Paul Verhoeven, starring Virginie Efira as Benedetta Carlini, a nun in the 17th century who joins an Italian convent while a young child and later has a lesbian love affair with another nun, while seeing religious visions.


title: Benedetta (film)

text: The film is loosely based on the 1986 non-fiction book "Immodest Acts: The Life of a Lesbian Nun in Renaissance Italy" by Judith C. Brown, and brings back most of the key crew members from Verhoeven's previous film "Elle" (which co-starred Efira), including producer Saïd Ben Saïd, writer David Birke, composer Anne Dudley and editor Job ter Burg.


title: Benedetta (film)

text: In 17th-century Pescia, Italy, young Benedetta Carlini is enrolled by her parents in a Theatine convent run by Abbess Felicita, to become a nun. Eighteen years later, while playing the Virgin Mary in a play, Benedetta has a vision of Jesus calling to her. One day, a young peasant woman named Bartolomea seeks shelter in the convent from her abusive father. Benedetta is assigned to oversee Bartolomea's integration into convent life. That night, Bartolomea kisses Benedetta.


title: Benedetta (film)

text: Benedetta begins to have recurring visions of Jesus. After a particularly fraught vision, where a man whom she mistakes for Jesus saves her from being gang raped, Benedetta falls into a deep illness. Abbess Felicita assigns Bartolomea to look after her. Benedetta has another vision of Christ, asking her to undress and touch his hands. The next morning, she wakes up with stigmata on her palms and feet.


title: Benedetta (film)

text: An investigation ensues. Abbess Felicita is sceptical because Benedetta's stigmata appeared while she was asleep, not during prayer, and her forehead lacks the marks of a crown of thorns. Outside Felicita's chambers, Benedetta collapses. She then begins speaking in an angry male voice, castigating those who doubt her, as bleeding wounds appear on her forehead. Sister Christina, Felicita's daughter, suspects that Benedetta's wounds are self-inflicted, after spotting a nearby shard of pottery.


title: Benedetta (film)

text: Following a dispute between Felicita and local church leaders about the way popular interest in Benedetta's visions should be handled, Benedetta is elevated to the position of abbess in place of Felicita. Benedetta and Bartolomea move into Felicita's old quarters and begin a sexual relationship, later using a dildo carved by Bartolomea out of Benedetta's wooden Virgin Mary statuette.


title: Benedetta (film)

text: In confession, Christina lies to the priest that she witnessed Benedetta inflicting her forehead wounds. The next day, the priest compels Christina to say her accusations publicly. When questioned by the priest, Felicita refutes Christina's claims because Christina has previously admitted to her that she did not actually see the wounds being self-inflicted. Benedetta, apparently possessed by the spirit of Jesus, orders Christina to flagellate herself. Felicita later observes Benedetta and Bartolomea having sex through a peephole in their chambers.


title: Benedetta (film)

text: Humiliated, Christina jumps to her death from the roof of the convent. As a plague begins to ravage the countryside, Benedetta has a vision that Pescia will be spared and orders the abbey closed to prevent infection. Felicita secretly travels to Florence to report Benedetta's sexual indiscretions to the local papal nuncio. Meanwhile, Benedetta suddenly dies of unknown causes.


title: Benedetta (film)

text: Shortly after Felicita returns to the abbey with the nuncio, Benedetta revives, saying that she was in heaven and has seen the fates of all those present. The nuncio, as representative of the pope, opens a court of inquiry into Benedetta's conduct. Bartolomea initially denies any sexual involvement with Benedetta, but after being tortured by the nuncio's men, she ultimately confesses the truth, leading the nuncio to the wooden dildo hidden in a bible. He has Benedetta arrested; speaking in a male voice again, she lashes out at those who persecute her, announcing that the nuncio will soon fall ill. The nuncio discovers that Felicita has the plague and orders her condition to be hidden. Bartolomea is expelled from the abbey.


title: Benedetta (film)

text: In the town square, before she is to be executed, Benedetta reveals new stigmata and, speaking in a male voice, announces that the Angel of Death approaches. Felicita, revealing her disease, blames the nuncio for bringing the plague to Pescia. Chaos ensues as the townspeople prevent the nuncio's men from burning Benedetta at the stake. Bartolomea unties Benedetta, discovering a bloody potsherd at her feet. The nuncio is killed by an angry mob, Benedetta and Bartolomea flee the town, and Felicita self-immolates on the fire lit for Benedetta's execution.


title: Benedetta (film)

text: In an abandoned stable outside of town, after spending the night with Bartolomea, Benedetta insists that she must return to the convent. Bartolomea begs her to stay and tries to get her to admit that she faked her stigmata, but Benedetta refuses and instead heads back towards Pescia.


title: Benedetta (film)

text: A title card reveals that Benedetta lived in the abbey until her death at the age of 70, and that the plague spared Pescia.


title: Benedetta (film)

text: Following the critical and commercial success of his previous film "Elle" (2016), director Paul Verhoeven developed several projects including one about Jesus based on his own book "Jesus of Nazareth", another about the French Resistance during World War II, and a medieval story set in a monastery scripted by Jean-Claude Carrière. On 25 April 2017, producer Saïd Ben Saïd revealed that the third had been the one chosen as Verhoeven's next project. The film, then titled "Blessed Virgin", marked the producer and the director's second collaboration after "Elle". Gerard Soeteman, who has worked with Verhoeven on eight previous films including "Turkish Delight" (1973), "The Fourth Man" (1983) and "Black Book" (2006), replaced Carrière to adapt the 1986 non-fiction book "Immodest Acts: The Life of a Lesbian Nun in Renaissance Italy" by historian Judith C. Brown. Soeteman ultimately distanced himself from the project and had his name removed from the credits as he felt too much of the story was focused on sexuality.


title: Benedetta (film)

text: Belgian actress Virginie Efira, who played a supporting part as a devout Catholic in "Elle", was cast in the leading role of Benedetta Carlini, a 17th-century nun who suffers from disturbing religious and erotic visions. On 25 March 2018, Saïd Ben Saïd announced that Verhoeven had co-written the final draft with David Birke, who previously wrote "Elle". Brown stated that "Paul Verhoeven and David Birke have written an imaginative and spellbinding script that explores the intersection of religion, sexuality, and human ambition in an age of plague and faith." Verhoeven then clarified his intentions:


title: Benedetta (film)

text: On 3 April 2018, Lambert Wilson told French newspaper "Le Journal du Dimanche" that he has a role in the film. On 1 May 2018, "Deadline Hollywood" revealed that Charlotte Rampling entered negotiations to play a key supporting role. On 4 May 2018, it was announced that the film was retitled to "Benedetta". Although Verhoeven had hoped to convince Isabelle Huppert to play a supporting role in the film, producer Saïd Ben Saïd stated on 31 May 2018 that the actress was not joining the project. Ben Saïd also confirmed that Louise Chevillotte, Olivier Rabourdin, Clotilde Courau and Hervé Pierre had been cast in the film.


title: Benedetta (film)

text: Principal photography on the retitled production began on 19 July 2018 in Montepulciano, Italy. Other locations included Val d'Orcia and Bevagna, also in Italy, as well as the Silvacane Abbey and Le Thoronet Abbey, in France. Production was followed by a strong campaign of secrecy and no one, unless working on the film, was allowed on the set. Producer Saïd Ben Saïd admitted that the story was "subject to controversy" and feared reactions from fundamentalist Catholic associations.


title: Benedetta (film)

text: On 16 February 2018, "The Hollywood Reporter" announced Pathé would be producing and distributing the film in France and would also be handling international sales. On 29 August 2018, Pathé and SBS Productions released a first look image of the film.


title: Benedetta (film)

text: Although it was initially reported that the film would premiere at the 2019 Cannes Film Festival, Pathé announced on 14 January 2019 that the release had been postponed until 2020, stating that post-production had been delayed as Verhoeven was recovering from hip surgery. However, the release was delayed again to 2021, following the cancellation of the 2020 edition of the Cannes Film Festival where the film was set to premiere, due to the COVID-19 pandemic.


title: Benedetta (film)

text: On 10 May 2020, Cannes director Thierry Fremaux confirmed the film's selection and stated that "Paul Verhoeven delivers an erotic and mischievous, also political, vision of the Middle Ages in a grandiose production."


title: Benedetta (film)

text: "Benedetta" world premiere took place at the 2021 Cannes Film Festival in competition for the Palme d'Or. By the end of its run, it will have screened at film festivals in Brussels, Busan, Haifa, Hong Kong, Karlovy Vary, London, New York, and San Sebastian.


title: Benedetta (film)

text: On 5 May 2021, Pathé unveiled the first trailer and final theatrical release poster. That same month, Mubi and IFC Films acquired the distribution rights to the United Kingdom, Ireland, and the United States, respectively. It was released in the United States on 3 December 2021.


title: Benedetta (film)

text: In its opening weekend in France, the film earned $562,420 from 361 theaters. In the United States and Canada, it earned $136,839 from 201 theaters in its opening weekend.


title: Benedetta (film)

text: On the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 84% based on 195 reviews, with an average rating of 7.2/10. The website's critics consensus reads, "Precariously walking a tightrope of varying genres and tones, "Benedetta" provokes salient questions about sexual freedom and its relationship to faith." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 73 out of 100, based on 31 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".


title: Benedetta (film)

text: At the 2021 New York Film Festival, where "Benedetta" was part of the Main Slate, the Catholic group, The American TFP staged a protest targeting the film. The group denounced it as blasphemous for its portrayal of lesbianism within the confines of a convent. Upon the film's US commercial release, the film was once again protested by The American TFP as well as other Catholic groups throughout the country.


title: Benedetta (film)

text: The film was refused classification in Singapore by the Infocomm Media Development Authority (IMDA) due to portrayals of "the Jesus Christ and members of the church that is insensitive and offensive to the Christian and Catholic faith".


title: Benedetta (film)

text: The film was banned in Russia by the Ministry of Culture amid a complaint from the religious group Orthodox Forty Forties Movement.


title: Dildo

text: A dildo is a sex toy, often explicitly phallic in appearance, intended for sexual penetration or other sexual activity during masturbation or with sex partners. Dildos can be made from a number of materials and shaped like an erect human penis. They are typically about the average length of an erect penis, , but some may be longer. A dildo's circumference is typically .


title: Dildo

text: A dildo is an object usually designed for sexual penetration of the vagina, mouth, or anus, and is usually solid and phallic in shape. Penis prosthetic aids, known as "extensions", are not considered dildos. Some include penis-shaped items clearly designed for vaginal penetration, even if they are not true approximations of a penis. An anal dildo is intended for repeated anal penetration, to be distinguished from a butt plug which is flanged with the intent of remaining in place. People of all genders and sexual orientations use these devices for masturbation or other sexual activity.


title: Dildo

text: Rubber dildos, usually incorporating a steel spring for stiffness, became available in the 1940s. This arrangement was unsatisfactory because of the potential for injury from cuts by the spring if the rubber cracked and came apart. Later, PVC dildos with a softer PVC filler became popular. Most of the inexpensive dildos sold in the 2000s are made this way.


title: Dildo

text: PVC and jelly-rubber toys are problematic because they contain unsafe phthalates, softeners added to many plastics that are also found in some jewelry, food containers, and other soft rubber toys. Phthalates are linked to health problems such as cancer and prenatal defects. Products made of PVC or thermoplastic elastomer ("jelly rubber") cannot be sterilized. Manufacturers recommend using condoms with these toys if users share them.


title: Dildo

text: Silicone rubber dildos became popular in the 1990s. Initially expensive, the cost of silicone dildos has dropped over time. Silicone is resistant to accidental damage, non-porous, and can be sterilized easily, making silicone dildos more durable and sanitary than dildos made of other soft materials. Silicone dildos conduct vibration well, and can be used in combination with a vibrator.


title: Dildo

text: High-end, chrome plated steel dildos are also popular in the BDSM scene. Some users prefer them because of their hardness, firmness, durability, electrical conductance (see erotic electrostimulation), and low friction, especially when used with lubricant. Because they are heavy, they can be used to exercise vaginal PC muscles. A steel dildo may be warmed or cooled in water to elicit a range of temperature sensations. It may also retain the user's body heat. Its polished nonporous surface allows sterilization in boiling water or an autoclave.


title: Dildo

text: Glass and steel dildos have similar features. In most cases, glass toys are solid, and made of Pyrex or other types of borosilicate glass (Schott-Duranglas and Simax), although their construction can vary depending on the manufacturer. Like steel, glass toys may be used to apply firmer pressure than silicone can to a person's G-spot (urethral sponge) or prostate gland. Unlike other types of toys, glass sex toys can also be personalized with inscriptions.


title: Dildo

text: Cyberskin is a synthetic material that feels more like human skin. It is porous and cannot be sterilized. It often becomes sticky after washing (which can be remedied by a dusting of cornstarch) and is more delicate and more prone to rips and tears than silicone dildos. "Packing dildos", which are not designed for penetration, are often made of this material.


title: Dildo

text: Phallus-shaped vegetables and fruits, such as bananas or zucchini or other food items, such as hot dogs or other types of sausages, have been used as dildos in a form of food play. Any object of sufficient firmness and shape can be used like a dildo.


title: Dildo

text: Recent social acceptance and popularity has resulted in the emergence of highly adorned dildos, which are often made of expensive materials and may be jewelled.


title: Dildo

text: Conventionally, many dildos are shaped like a human penis with varying degrees of detail, while others are made to resemble the phallus of animals. Not all, however, are fashioned to reproduce the male anatomy meticulously, and dildos come in a wide variety of shapes. They may resemble figures, or simply be practical creations which stimulate more easily than conventional designs. In Japan, many dildos are created to resemble animals or cartoon characters, such as Hello Kitty, so that they may be sold as conventional toys, thus avoiding obscenity laws. Some dildos have textured surfaces to enhance sexual pleasure, and others have macrophallic dimensions including over a dozen inches long.


title: Dildo

text: One research, which used 33 dildos of various sizes found that the average length women chose (for their partner) was around 6,3 inches long and with a girth of 4,8 inches. That said, some women may prefer different sizes then the aforementioned, and the 3D printing of dildos gives the option of personalization (allowing to shape and size the dildo to the exact specific dimension that the user wants). Starting in 2012, 3D models of dildos became available for printing by individuals. The advantage of printing at home was not only personalization but also discretion. This, however, did not take off at that time, in part due to the porosity issue of the materials used (which is mainly a problem if no condom is used over the dildo). Some websites have continued to exist however. Besides printing it at home, it is also possible to print it off at a fablab, makerspace, or 3D printing marketplace. All of these avoid needing to purchase a personal 3d printer for printing off 3D models.


title: Dildo

text: Most dildos are intended for vaginal or anal penetration and stimulation, for masturbation on oneself or by a sexual partner. Dildos have fetishistic value as well, and may be used in other ways, such as touching one's own or another's skin in various places, often during foreplay or as an act of dominance and submission. If of appropriate sizes, they can be used as gags, for oral penetration for a sort of artificial fellatio. Dildos, particularly specially designed ones, may be used to stimulate the G-spot area.


title: Dildo

text: A dildo designed for anal insertion that then remains in place is usually referred to as a butt plug. A dildo intended for repeated anal penetration (thrusting) is typically referred to as an anal dildo or simply "dildo". Anal dildos and butt plugs generally have a large base to avoid accidental complete insertion into the rectum, which may require medical removal. Some women use double-ended dildos, with different-sized shafts pointing in the same direction, for simultaneous vaginal and anal penetration, or for two partners to share a single dildo. In the latter case, the dildo acts as a sort of "see-saw," where each partner takes an end and receives stimulation.


title: Dildo

text: Some dildos are designed to be worn in a harness, sometimes called a strap-on harness or strap-on dildo, or to be worn inside the vagina (then called strapless dildo or "strapless strap-on dildo"), sometimes with externally-attached vibrating devices. Strap-on dildos may be double-ended, meant to be worn by users who want to experience vaginal or anal penetration while also penetrating a partner. They may also be used for anally penetrating men. If a female penetrates a male, the act is known as "pegging".


title: Dildo

text: Other types of dildos include those designed to be fitted to the face of one party, inflatable dildos, and dildos with suction cups attached to the base (sometimes referred to as a wall mount). Other types of harness mounts for dildos (besides strapping to the groin) include thigh mount, face mount, or furniture mounting straps.


title: Dildo

text: The etymology of the word "dildo" was long considered unclear, but the third edition of the "Oxford English Dictionary" concluded in 2018 that the word originates in nonsense syllables common in early-modern popular ballads (not dissimilar to the still-familiar nursery rhyme phrase "hey diddle diddle"), which came to be used as a coy euphemism for dildos. The phrase "Dil Doul", referring to a man's penis, appears in the seventeenth-century folk ballad "The Maids Complaint for want of a Dil Doul". The song was among the many in the library of Samuel Pepys.


title: Dildo

text: Other theories that have previously circulated include that the word "dildo" originally referred to the phallus-shaped peg used to lock an oar in position on a dory (small boat). It would be inserted into a hole on the side of the boat, and is very similar in shape to the modern toy. The sex toy might take its name from this sailing tool, which also lends its name to the town of Dildo and the nearby Dildo Island in Newfoundland, Canada. Others suggest the word is a corruption of Italian "diletto" "delight".


title: Dildo

text: According to the "OED", one of the word's first appearances in English was in Thomas Nashe's "The Choise of Valentines" "or the Merie Ballad of Nash his Dildo" (c. 1593), in the sentence "Curse Eunuke dilldo, senceless, counterfet, | Who sooth maie fill, but neuer can begett" ('curse dildo, that eunuch, lacking feelings, and counterfeit, who can certainly fill [a vagina], but can never beget [children]').


title: Dildo

text: An "olisbos" (pl. "olisboi") is a classical term for a dildo, from Greek , i.e. a dildo that was usually made of leather. A "godemiché" is a dildo in the shape of a penis with scrotum.


title: Dildo

text: In some modern languages, the names for "dildo" can be more descriptive, creative or subtle—note, for instance, the Russian фаллоимитатор (literally "phallic imitator"), Bengali , Hindi "", Spanish "consolador" "consoler" and Welsh "cala goeg" "fake penis".


title: Dildo

text: Dildos in one form or another have existed widely in history. Artifacts from the Upper Paleolithic of a type called bâton de commandement have been speculated to have been used for sexual purposes. Few archaeologists consider these items as sex toys, but archaeologist Timothy Taylor put it, "Looking at the size, shape, and—some cases—explicit symbolism of the ice age batons, it seems disingenuous to avoid the most obvious and straightforward interpretation. But it has been avoided."


title: Dildo

text: The first dildos were made of stone, tar, wood, bone, ivory, limestone, teeth, and other materials that could be shaped as penises and that were firm enough to be used as penetrative sex toys. Scientists believe that a 20-centimeter siltstone phallus from the Upper Palaeolithic period 30,000 years ago, found in Hohle Fels Cave near Ulm, Germany, may have been used as a dildo. Prehistoric double-headed dildos have been found which date anywhere from 13 to 19,000 years ago. Various paintings from ancient Egypt around 3000 BCE feature dildos being used in a variety of ways. In medieval times, a plant called the “cantonese groin” was soaked in hot water to enlarge and harden for women to use as dildos. Dildo-like breadsticks, known as "olisbokollikes" (sing. "olisbokollix"), were known in Ancient Greece prior to the 5th century BC. In Italy during the 1400s, dildos were made of leather, wood, or stone. Chinese women in the 15th century used dildos made of lacquered wood with textured surfaces, and were sometimes buried with them. Nashe's early-1590s work "The Choise of Valentines" mentions a dildo made from glass. Dildos also appeared in 17th and 18th century Japan, in shunga. In these erotic novels, women are shown enthusiastically buying dildos, some made out of water buffalo horns.


title: Dildo

text: Dildos were not just used for sexual pleasure. Examples from the Eurasia Ice Age (40,000-10,000 BCE) and Roman era are speculated to have been used for defloration rituals. This is not the only example of dildos being used for ritual ceremonies, as people in 4000 BCE Pakistan used them to worship the god Shiva.


title: Dildo

text: Many references to dildos exist in the historical and ethnographic literature. Haberlandt, for example, illustrates single and double-ended wooden dildos from late 19th century Zanzibar. With the invention of modern materials, making dildos of different shapes, sizes, colors and textures became more practical.


title: Dildo

text: Dildos may be seen in some examples of ancient Greek vase art. Some pieces show their use in group sex or in solitary female masturbation. One vessel, of about the sixth century BCE, depicts a scene in which a woman bends over to perform oral sex on a man, while another man is about to thrust a dildo into her anus.


title: Dildo

text: Herodas' short comic play, "Mime VI", written in the 3rd century BCE, is about a woman called Metro, anxious to discover from a friend where she recently acquired a dildo.


title: Dildo

text: She eventually discovers the maker to be a man called Kerdon, who hides his trade by the front of being a cobbler, and leaves to seek him out. Metro and Kerdon are main characters in the next play in the sequence, "Mime VII", when she visits his shop.


title: Dildo

text: Page duBois, a classicist and feminist theorist, suggests that dildos were present in Greek art because the ancient Greek male imagination found it difficult to conceive of sex taking place without penetration. Therefore, female masturbation or sex between women required an artificial phallus to be used. Greek dildos were often made out of leather stuffed with wool in order to give it varying degrees of thickness and firmness. They were often lubricated with olive oil, and used for sexual practice and other activities. The Greeks were also one of the first groups to use the term “toy” in reference to a dildo.


title: Dildo

text: The Talmud's Avodah Zarah Tractate records the interpretation which Rav Yosef bar Hiyya gave to the Biblical reference of King Asa of Judah having "(...) deposed his grandmother Maakah from her position as Queen Mother, because she had made a repulsive image for the worship of Asherah. Asa cut it down and burned it in the Kidron Valley". According to Rav Yosef, Maakah had installed "a kind of male organ" on her Asherah image "in order to fulfill her desire", and was "mating with it every day". Rav Yosef's words are quoted by Rashi in his own interpretation of 2 Chronicles 15:16. Whether or not Rav Yosef was right in attributing this practice to the Biblical Queen, his speaking of it indicates that Jews in 3rd Century Mesopotamia were familiar with such devices.


title: Dildo

text: In the early 1590s, the English playwright Thomas Nashe wrote a poem known as "The Choise of Valentines", "Nashe's Dildo" or "The Merrie Ballad of Nashe his Dildo". This was not printed at the time, due to its obscenity but it was still widely circulated and made Nashe's name notorious. The poem describes a visit to a brothel by a man called "Tomalin"; he is searching for his sweetheart, Francis, who has become a prostitute. The only way he can see her is to hire her. However, she resorts to using a glass dildo as he finds himself unable to perform sexually to her satisfaction.


title: Dildo

text: Dildos are humorously mentioned in Act IV, scene iv of Shakespeare's "The Winter's Tale". This play and Ben Jonson's play "The Alchemist" (1610) are typically cited as the first use of the word in publication (Nashe's "Merrie Ballad" was not published until 1899).


title: Dildo

text: John Wilmot, the seventeenth-century English libertine, published his poem "Signor Dildo" in 1673. During the Parliamentary session of that year, objections were raised to the proposed marriage of James, Duke of York, brother of the King and heir to the throne, to Mary of Modena, an Italian Catholic princess. An address was presented to King Charles on 3 November, foreseeing the dangerous consequences of marriage to a Catholic, and urging him to put a stop to any planned wedding '...to the unspeakable Joy and Comfort of all Your loyal Subjects." Wilmot's response was "Signior Dildo (You ladies all of merry England) ", a mock address anticipating the 'solid' advantages of a Catholic marriage, namely the wholesale importation of Italian dildos, to the unspeakable joy and comfort of all the ladies of England:


title: Dildo

text: This ballad was subsequently added to by other authors, and became so popular that "Signor" became a term for a dildo. In the epilogue to "The Mistaken Husband" (1674), by John Dryden, an actress complains:


title: Dildo

text: Many other works of bawdy and satirical English literature of the period deal with the subject. "Dildoides: A Burlesque Poem" (London, 1706), attributed to Samuel Butler, is a mock lament to a collection of dildos that had been seized and publicly burnt by the authorities. Examples of anonymous works include "The Bauble, a tale" (London, 1721) and "Monsieur Thing's Origin: or Seignor D---o's Adventures in London," (London, 1722). In 1746, Henry Fielding wrote "The Female Husband: or the surprising history of Mrs Mary, alias Mr. George Hamilton", in which a woman posing as a man uses a dildo. This was a fictionalized account of the story of Mary Hamilton.


title: Dildo

text: Dildos are obliquely referred to in Saul Bellow's novel "The Adventures of Augie March" (1953): "...he had brought me along to a bachelor's stag where two naked acrobatic girls did stunts with false tools". A dildo called "Steely Dan III from Yokohama" appears in the William S. Burroughs novel "The Naked Lunch" (1959). The rock band Steely Dan took their name from it.


title: Dildo

text: In 2017, dark web privacy researcher Sarah Jamie Lewis connected a vibrator (using reverse engineering) to Tor, the anonymity network, in a proof of concept demonstrating the applicability of privacy technology after the fact.


title: Dildo

text: The possession and sale of dildos is illegal in some jurisdictions, such as India. Until recently, many southern states and some Great Plains states in the United States banned the sale of dildos completely, either directly or through laws regulating "obscene devices". In 2007, a federal appeals court upheld Alabama's law prohibiting the sale of sex toys. The law, the Anti-Obscenity Enforcement Act of 1998, was also upheld by the Supreme Court of Alabama on September 11, 2009. There are even instances where dildos have been seized and burned at customs.


title: Dildo

text: In February 2008, a United States federal appeals court overturned a Texas statute banning the sales of dildos and other sexual toys, deeming such a statute as violating the Constitution's 14th Amendment on the right to privacy. The appeals court cited "Lawrence v. Texas", where the Supreme Court of the United States in 2003 struck down bans on consensual sex between gay couples, as unconstitutionally aiming at "enforcing a public moral code by restricting private intimate conduct." Similar statutes have been struck down in Kansas and Colorado. Alabama is the only state where a law prohibiting the sale of sex toys remains on the books.


title: Dildo

text: Some Conservative Christians believe that the use of sex toys is immoral. The Southern Baptist preacher Dan Ireland has been an outspoken critic of such devices and has fought to ban them on religious and ethical grounds. Ireland led an effort to outlaw dildos and other sex toys in Alabama to "...protect the public against themselves." Other Christian religious leaders such as Evangelical Lutheran Church of America pastor Heidi Johnson, who founded a student group on sexuality at Duke Divinity School, have a positive view of sex toys in Christian sexuality.


title: NCIS: New Orleans

text: NCIS: New Orleans is an American action crime drama and police procedural television series that premiered on CBS on September 23, 2014, following the twelfth season of "NCIS". The pilot was written by Gary Glasberg. Produced by CBS Studios, Wings Productions and, for the first four seasons, When Pigs Fly Incorporated, the series stars Scott Bakula and CCH Pounder. The series, set and filmed in New Orleans, is the third series of the "NCIS" franchise. In May 2020, the show was renewed for the seventh season, which premiered on November 8, 2020. In February 2021, CBS announced that the seventh season would be the series' final one. The series concluded on May 23, 2021, making it the first show in the "NCIS" franchise to end.


title: NCIS: New Orleans

text: "NCIS: New Orleans" follows a fictional team of Naval Criminal Investigative Service (NCIS) agents stationed out of New Orleans, Louisiana and led by Supervisory Special Agent Dwayne Cassius Pride (Scott Bakula). The team focuses on crimes that involve personnel in the United States Navy and Marine Corps, and their territory ranges from the Mississippi River to the Texas Panhandle. Working under the supervision of Pride at the start of the series are Christopher LaSalle (Lucas Black), a former Jefferson Parish sheriff's deputy recruited by Pride following Hurricane Katrina, and Meredith Brody (Zoe McLellan), a transfer from the NCIS Great Lakes field office, who has worked as a Special Agent Afloat and is keen to leave her past behind as she moves to New Orleans. They are assisted by Dr. Loretta Wade (CCH Pounder), the coroner for Jefferson Parish, Sebastian Lund (Rob Kerkovich), a forensics specialist who assists Wade, and Patton Plame (Daryl "Chill" Mitchell), a paraplegic hacker turned computer specialist for NCIS. In season 2, Sonja Percy (Shalita Grant), a ATF Special Agent who assisted the team on the Baitfish case the prior season, joins them on a permanent basis.


title: NCIS: New Orleans

text: At the end of season 2, a case involving a domestic terrorist attack and a corrupt Homeland Security agent leads to backlash that culminates in Brody's resignation from NCIS at the start of season 3. Following this, FBI Special Agent Tammy Gregorio (Vanessa Ferlito) is sent to investigate Pride and his team; she is later recruited to NCIS after being fired by the FBI after a vital part of their case against a drug cartel goes wrong on her watch. Also, Sebastian, after taking an interest in field work, completes FLETC training and joins the team as a Forensics Agent during the season.


title: NCIS: New Orleans

text: Near the end of season 4, Percy leaves the team after accepting an offer to join the FBI. Shortly after, Pride is shot and nearly killed by the vengeful wife of an assassin linked to the Clearwater case, whom he had killed in season 3. He recovers at the start of season 5, and later accepts a promotion to Regional Special-Agent-In-Charge for a change of pace. Arriving to replace him is Supervisory Special Agent Hannah Khoury (Necar Zadegan), a former intelligence agent looking to settle down and reconnect with her family.


title: NCIS: New Orleans

text: In season 6, Khoury is demoted from team leader after breaking protocol in a joint-operation with the FBI, allowing Pride to return and retake his old position, though Khoury stays on as second-in-command. Also during the season, LaSalle's search into his brother Cade's disappearance, and later, murder, results in his own death at the hands of the same killer. After being avenged and mourned, he is soon replaced by the notoriously anti-social Special Agent Quentin Carter (Charles Michael Davis) a fixer with a reputation for working alone who gradually warms to the team over time.


title: NCIS: New Orleans

text: In season 7, with the COVID-19 pandemic having thrown the city of New Orleans into uncertainty, JAG Commander Rita Devereaux (Chelsea Field), Pride's long-time girlfriend and a seasoned attorney, joins the D.A.'s office to help with restoring social justice, while Pride joins a task-force set up by the mayor to restore the city. The two eventually marry in the series finale.


title: NCIS: New Orleans

text: In September 2013, "NCIS: New Orleans" was introduced with a two-part backdoor pilot during the eleventh season of "NCIS". The episode title "Crescent City (Part I)" and "Crescent City (Part II)", written by Gary Glasberg, which aired on March 25, 2014, to April 1, 2014, a second spin off from "NCIS" and set filmed located in New Orleans. "NCIS: New Orleans" picked up to series on May 9, 2014, "NCIS: New Orleans" premiered on September 23, 2014, on CBS. On October 27, 2014, CBS picked up "NCIS: New Orleans" for a full season of 23 episodes. On January 12, 2015, "NCIS: New Orleans" was renewed for a second season, that premiered on September 22, 2015. "NCIS: New Orleans" was renewed for a third season on March 25, 2016, which premiered on September 20, 2016. The third season was the last season produced by the "NCIS: New Orleans" creator and showrunner Gary Glasberg before he died on September 28, 2016. "NCIS: New Orleans" was renewed for a fourth season on March 23, 2017, which premiered on September 26, 2017. "NCIS: New Orleans" was renewed for a fifth season on April 18, 2018, which premiered on September 25, 2018. "NCIS: New Orleans" was renewed for a sixth season on April 22, 2019, which premiered on September 24, 2019. On May 6, 2020, "NCIS: New Orleans" was renewed for the seventh season, which premiered on November 8, 2020. On February 17, 2021, it was announced that the seventh season would be the show's last, with the finale airing on May 23, 2021.


title: NCIS: New Orleans

text: In February 2014, the pilot was cast with Scott Bakula, CCH Pounder, and Zoe McLellan as Dwayne Pride, Loretta Wade, and Meredith Brody. Lucas Black as Christopher LaSalle, and Rob Kerkovich joined cast as Sebastian Lund. In June 2015, "Deadline Hollywood" reported that Daryl Mitchell and Shalita Grant promoted as regulars in season two.


title: NCIS: New Orleans

text: In July 2016, Zoe McLellan, who plays Special Agent Meredith Brody, left the series "for creative reasons", and Vanessa Ferlito joined the cast as Special Agent Tammy Gregorio as a series regular.


title: NCIS: New Orleans

text: In January 2018, it was announced that Shalita Grant, who plays Special Agent Sonja Percy, would be departing the series near the end of the fourth season. In August 2018, it was announced that Necar Zadegan would join the cast as Special Agent Hannah Khoury as a new series regular for the fifth season.


title: NCIS: New Orleans

text: In 2018, Jason Alan Carvell was cast as James Edwin "Jimmy" Boyd who is the paternal half-brother of NCIS Special Agent Dwayne Pride. He reprised his role from time to time until the show's finale in 2021.


title: NCIS: New Orleans

text: In November 2019, Lucas Black, who portrayed Agent Christopher LaSalle, announced he would be departing in the sixth episode of the sixth season. On February 5, 2020, it was announced that Charles Michael Davis had been cast as Quentin Carter, and would appear as a series regular. On September 29, 2020, it was announced that Chelsea Field portraying attorney Rita Devereaux would be a series regular for the seventh season after recurring for the previous four seasons.


title: NCIS: New Orleans

text: Brad Kern took over the reins of "NCIS: New Orleans" as showrunner in January 2016. Within a year he had become the focus of two investigations for inappropriate behavior toward women. On May 17, 2018, it was reported that Kern was exiting his role as executive producer and showrunner, but would remain as consulting producer, with Christopher Silber replacing him as showrunner. Kern was placed on suspension in June 2018, when CBS launched a third investigation into claims of harassment. Kern was fired by CBS in October 2018.


title: NCIS: New Orleans

text: "NCIS: New Orleans" premiered on CBS in the United States on Tuesday, September 23, 2014, with the twelfth season premiere of "NCIS" as its lead-in. Season two premiered on September 22, 2015. Season three premiered on September 20, 2016. Season four premiered on September 26, 2017. Season five premiered on September 25, 2018. Season six premiered on September 24, 2019. "NCIS: New Orleans" aired simultaneously on Global in Canada. In Australia, "NCIS: New Orleans" premiered on Network Ten on October 7, 2014. "NCIS: New Orleans" was initially sold to Channel 5 in the United Kingdom, where it premiered on February 13, 2015 and aired for four seasons, before moving to Fox UK beginning July 20, 2018. "NCIS: New Orleans" has aired on Prime in New Zealand, on AXN in India and on Fox in Southeast Asia. On April 2, 2015, the series began airing on South Africa's M-Net cable TV service and was also broadcast to several other sub-Saharan African nations via DStv.


title: NCIS: New Orleans

text: "NCIS: New Orleans" has received mixed reviews from critics. Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes gives the first season of the show a rating of 65%, based on 26 reviews, with an average rating of 5.4/10. The site's consensus reads, "With a solid cast in a beautiful locale, "NCIS: New Orleans" makes extending this well-worn franchise look like the Big Easy." Metacritic gives the show a score of 55 out of 100, based on 15 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".


title: NCIS: New Orleans

text: In late September 2014, "The Wrap"s journalist Jason Hughes reviewed the pilot episode of the series, praising the music, the use of the city of New Orleans, and CBS' decision to cast Scott Bakula as "one of the most likable leading men in television, so they're set there."


title: NCIS: New Orleans

text: David Hinckley of the New York "Daily News" gave a mixed but critical review of the pilot episode, saying there is a "Crescent City flavor here. But in the larger picture, not much on this menu is unfamiliar." Liz Shannon Miller and Ben Travers of "Indiewire" said that "NCIS" is like "the obelisk in "2001: A Space Odyssey", it's an awe-inspiring, inescapable presence in the broadcast line-up. "NCIS" on CBS: It is here. It has always been here. It forever will be."


title: NCIS: New Orleans

text: In April 2019, CBS released the plot of the first part of the show's fifth season's finale, "", which is set to partially take place in the breakaway republic of South Ossetia, a region internationally recognized as part of Georgia but also recognized as independent by Russia, Nauru, Nicaragua, Venezuela, and Syria. The show, when describing the region, calls South Ossetia a "war-torn Russian province", which raised concerns from the Georgian government. On April 22, 2019, Georgian President Salome Zourabichvili posted on Twitter.


title: NCIS: New Orleans

text: Neither CBS nor the show's producers have responded to the President's commentary. However, the description of the second part of the finale, "" does not mention Russia, although the episode still takes place in South Ossetia.


title: Lionsgate Films

text: Lionsgate Films (formerly known as Cinépix Film Properties) is an American film production and film distribution studio, headquartered in Santa Monica and founded in Canada, and is the flagship division of Lionsgate Entertainment. It is the largest and most successful mini-major film studio in North America. It focuses on foreign and independent films and has distributed various commercially successful film franchises, including "The Hunger Games", "Rambo", "Divergent", "The Punisher", "John Wick", "Saw", "Madea", "Blair Witch", "Now You See Me", "Hostel", "The Expendables", "Sinister", "The Twilight Saga" and "Step Up."


title: Lionsgate Films

text: Cinépix was founded by John Dunning and Andre Link in 1962. Cinépix, based in Montreal, was a Canadian independent motion picture company that released English- and French-language films in Canada and the United States.


title: Lionsgate Films

text: Initially a distribution company, Cinépix's first production was the 1969 erotic drama "Valérie", which earned $1 million at the box office. Cinépix produced early work by David Cronenberg ("Shivers") and Ivan Reitman ("Meatballs"). The company also distributed art-house films including the grunge rock documentary "Hype", Vincent Gallo's "Buffalo '66", and "".


title: Lionsgate Films

text: From 1989 to 1994, Cinépix was partners with Famous Players in C/FP Distribution, which was renamed Cinépix Film Properties (C/FP). In 1994, Cinépix bought Famous Players' stake in the organization.


title: Lionsgate Films

text: By 1997, Cinépix had a New York-based U.S. distribution arm and owned 56 percent of Ciné-Groupe, an animated film production company.


title: Lionsgate Films

text: Lions Gate Entertainment Corporation (LGEC) was formed in 1997 by Frank Giustra, a banker. LGEC purchased Cinépix and kept its leadership. Cinépix was renamed Lions Gate Films on January 13, 1998. LGEC also purchased the Vancouver-based North Shore Studios, which became Lions Gate Studios. In June 1998, LGE purchased International Movie Group, whose film library included Jean-Claude Van Damme's "Kickboxer".


title: Lionsgate Films

text: Its first major box office success was "American Psycho" in 2000, which began a trend of producing and distributing films too controversial for the major film studios. Other notable films included "Affliction" (1998), "Gods and Monsters" (1998), "Dogma" (1999), "O" (2001), "" (2002), "Open Water" (2003), "Saw" (2004), "The Punisher" (2004) and the Michael Moore documentary "Fahrenheit 9/11" (2004), which had been the studio's highest-grossing film until the release of "The Hunger Games" in 2012.


title: Lionsgate Films

text: Giustra left the firm in 2000. That same year, Jon Feltheimer became CEO and Michael Burns became vice chairman. They decided to focus on the profits of videos and DVDs and began buying struggling firms that controlled large libraries. The two most notable acquisitions were Trimark Holdings (650 titles) in 2000 and Artisan Entertainment in 2003. The Trimark purchase also included CinemaNow, a broadband streaming website, where Lionsgate could feature its own movies. These two purchases along with others gave Lions Gate a large DVD (and later Blu-Ray) library, which includes "Total Recall", "Reservoir Dogs", "", "Young Guns", "Dirty Dancing" and "Apocalypse Now", in some cases via output deals with StudioCanal, American Zoetrope, and Miramax (most of them the result of prior licensing deals with Lions Gate's home video predecessor Artisan).


title: Lionsgate Films

text: Lions Gate occasionally co-produces films with major studios. For example, Lions Gate teamed with Miramax Films for the 2004 sequel "" and with Paramount Pictures for 2002's "Narc" and 2004's "The Prince & Me" which was given a studio credit. Lions Gate was also a silent partner in 20th Century Fox's 2004 sci-fi film "The Day After Tomorrow". Also in 2004, Lions Gate joined forces with United Artists in producing "Hotel Rwanda".


title: Lionsgate Films

text: On August 1, 2005, Lions Gate Entertainment Corp acquired the entire library of Modern Entertainment. On October 17, 2005, Lionsgate acquired Redbus Film Distribution for $35 million and became Lionsgate UK on February 23, 2006. Following this, Zygi Kamasa, who co-founded Redbus with Simon Franks, became CEO of Lionsgate UK and Europe.


title: Lionsgate Films

text: In 2007, Joe Drake became Lionsgate's co-COO and motion picture group president. Lionsgate cut back its annual production by four in February 2009.


title: Lionsgate Films

text: The Lionsgate film "The Hunger Games" grossed $68.3 million when it premiered at the U.S. box office on March 23, 2012. At the time, it was the best opening day ever for a non-sequel and the fifth highest of all time. Of that total, $19.7 million was earned via Thursday midnight screenings. In its first weekend, "The Hunger Games" grossed $152.5 million, making it Lionsgate's highest-grossing film after just three days.


title: Lionsgate Films

text: On January 13, 2012, Lions Gate Entertainment Corp acquired Summit Entertainment, the studio behind the "Twilight" and "Step Up" series for $412.5 million. On May 3, 2012, Lionsgate Films made an agreement with CodeBlack Enterprises' CEO Jeff Clanagan to create CodeBlack Films, based at Lionsgate. Drake left in 2012 to found Good Universe.


title: Lionsgate Films

text: On January 16, 2013, Lionsgate announced a low-budget film division to be led by John Sacchi. The division would release films under $2.5 million. Sacchi recently looked to acquire such films as Rock Bottom Creek (2012) and other independently made films as well.


title: Lionsgate Films

text: On November 22, 2013, Lions Gate released "". In its opening weekend, the movie grossed $158 million at the US box office, surpassing its predecessor, which generated $150 million in its opening weekend. The film had a budget of $130 million, breaking even soon after its opening, and making it profitable. Critics highly praised the film; it received a Rotten Tomatoes rating of 89% "certified fresh". The third "Hunger Games" film, "Mockingjay- Part 1", was released in 2014. The final film, "Mockingjay - Part 2", was released in 2015.


title: Lionsgate Films

text: On April 1, 2015, according to "Deadline", Lions Gate announced it has created its new label, Lionsgate Premiere. This new label will handle up to 15 releases a year, targeting young audiences at theaters and digital outlets. The new label, part of the company's diversification effort, will incorporate Lionsgate and Summit Entertainment titles and then specialize in "innovative multiplatform and other release strategies" to reach "affinity audiences with branded content and targeted marketing." Marketing and Research SVP Jean McDowell will handle marketing, with distribution to be run by Adam Sorensen, who currently manages Western Sales.


title: Lionsgate Films

text: On May 2, 2016, according to "Deadline Hollywood", Lions Gate announced it has teaming with eight international companies to launch the GlobalGate Entertainment consortium. GlobalGate will produce and distribute local-language films in markets around the world. Lionsgate said Monday it has partnered with international entertainment executives Paul Presburger, William Pfeiffer and Clifford Werber to launch GlobalGate.


title: Lionsgate Films

text: Drake returned in October 2017 as Liongate's film group chairman. The company laid off staff for theatrical marketing and publicity in its New York office, and moved to end its participation as a partner in CodeBlack Films in January 2019. The cut backs were due to the failures of "Robin Hood", and comedy "The Spy Who Dumped Me". In June 2019, Hulu and FX picked up show rights to Lionsgate films released in 2020 and 2021.


title: Gayle (singer)

text: Taylor Gayle Rutherfurd (born June 10, 2004), better known by her mononym Gayle (stylized as GAYLE), is an American singer. After signing with Atlantic Records/Arthouse Records, she released her hit single "ABCDEFU" in 2021, which has charted worldwide, including reaching number one in the United Kingdom, Ireland, and on the "Billboard" Global 200 and earned her a Grammy nomination for Song of the Year.


title: Gayle (singer)

text: Rutherfurd is from Plano, Texas. She started singing when she was seven and eventually moved to Nashville, Tennessee to pursue a musical career. She is dyslexic.


title: Gayle (singer)

text: After releasing several self-produced singles, Gayle was discovered by former "American Idol" judge and Arthouse music publisher Kara DioGuardi and was signed to Atlantic Records/Arthouse Records.


title: Gayle (singer)

text: In 2021, Gayle released "ABCDEFU", her major-label debut single with Atlantic Records/Arthouse Records. It became viral on TikTok and Spotify. "ABCDEFU" peaked at number three on the "Billboard" Hot 100. Outside of the United States, "ABCDEFU" topped the charts in Finland, Germany, Ireland, Norway, Sweden, and the United Kingdom, and the top ten in Australia, Austria, New Zealand, and Switzerland. Gayle subsequently released the song "Ur Just Horny" on January 19, 2022. On March 18, 2022, Gayle released a six-song extended play (EP) titled "A Study of the Human Experience Volume One" via Atlantic Records and Arthouse Records.


title: Gayle (singer)

text: On March 19, 2022, Gayle was a fill-in host for the CHR version of Ryan Seacrest's "American Top 40," where her song "ABCDEFU" spent its first week at number one.


title: Gayle (singer)

text: On October 7, 2022, Gayle released her second extended play, "A Study of the Human Experience Volume Two."


title: Gayle (singer)

text: On December 9, 2022, Gayle released a third extended play, "A Study of the Human Experience Volume Two and a Half." Rather than new bodies of music, the EP consists of eight new versions of songs from her previous two extended plays.


title: Gayle (singer)

text: Gayle will be an opening act on multiple shows of the US leg of Taylor Swift's upcoming The Eras Tour.


title: Republic of Texas

text: The Republic of Texas () was a sovereign state in North America that existed from March 2, 1836, to February 19, 1846, that bordered Mexico, the Republic of the Rio Grande in 1840 (another breakaway republic from Mexico), and the United States of America, although Mexico considered it a rebellious province during its entire existence despite the Treaties of Velasco of May 1836. It was bordered by Mexico to the west and southwest, the Gulf of Mexico to the southeast, the two U.S. states of Louisiana and Arkansas to the east and northeast, and United States territories encompassing parts of the current U.S. states of Oklahoma, Kansas, Colorado, Wyoming, and New Mexico to the north and west. The Anglo residents of the area and of the republic became known as Texians.


title: Republic of Texas

text: The region of the Mexican state of Coahuila y Tejas, now commonly referred to as Mexican Texas, declared its independence from Mexico during the Texas Revolution in 1835–1836, when the Centralist Republic of Mexico abolished autonomy from states of the Mexican federal republic.


title: Republic of Texas

text: The major fighting in the Texas war of independence ended on April 21, 1836, but the Mexican Congress refused to recognize the independence of the Republic of Texas, as the agreement was signed by Mexican President General Antonio López de Santa Anna under duress as prisoner of the Texians, and the majority of the Mexican Congress did not approve the agreement. Intermittent conflicts between Mexico and Texas continued into the 1840s. The United States recognized the Republic of Texas in March 1837 but declined to annex the territory at that time.


title: Republic of Texas

text: The Republic claimed borders based upon the Treaties of Velasco between the newly-created Texas Republic and General Santa Anna, who had been captured in battle. The eastern boundary had been defined by the Adams–Onís Treaty of 1819 between the United States and Spain, which recognized the Sabine River as the eastern boundary of Spanish Texas and western boundary of the Missouri Territory. Under the 1819 Adams–Onís Treaty, before Mexico's 1821 independence, the United States had renounced its claim to Spanish land to the east of the Rocky Mountains and to the north of the Rio Grande, which it claimed to have acquired as part of the Louisiana Purchase of 1803.


title: Republic of Texas

text: The republic's southern and western boundary with Mexico was disputed throughout the republic's existence, since Mexico disputed the independence of Texas. Texas claimed the Rio Grande as its southern boundary, while Mexico insisted that the Nueces River was the boundary. In practice, much of the disputed territory was occupied by the Comanche and outside the control of either state, but Texian claims included the eastern portions of New Mexico, which was administered by Mexico throughout this period.


title: Republic of Texas

text: Texas was annexed by the United States on December 29, 1845, and was admitted to the Union as the 28th state on that day, with the transfer of power from the Republic to the new state of Texas formally taking place on February 19, 1846.


title: Republic of Texas

text: However, the United States inherited the southern and western border-disputes with Mexico, which had refused to recognize Texas's independence or to accept U.S. offers to purchase the territory. Consequently, the annexation led to the Mexican–American War (1846–1848).


title: Republic of Texas

text: During the late Spanish colonial era, Texas had been one of the "Provincias Internas", and the region is known in the historiography as Spanish Texas. Though claimed by Spain, it was not formally colonized by the empire until competing French interests at Fort St. Louis encouraged Spain to establish permanent settlements in the area. The region was occupied and claimed by the existing indigenous groups. Sporadic missionary incursions occurred into the area during the period from the 1690s–1710s, before the establishment of San Antonio as a permanent civilian settlement. Owing to the area's relatively dense Native American populations, its remoteness from the population centers of New Spain, and the lack of any obvious valuable resources such as silver, Texas had only a small European population, although Spain maintained a small military presence to protect Catholic missionaries working among Native American tribes, and to act as a buffer against the French in Louisiana and British North America.


title: Republic of Texas

text: In 1762, Bourbon France ceded to Bourbon Spain most of its claims to the interior of North America, including its claim to Texas, as well as the vast interior that became Spanish Louisiana. During the years 1799 to 1803, the height of the Napoleonic Empire in France, Spain returned Louisiana to France, which then promptly sold the territory to the United States. The status of Texas during these transfers was unclear and was not resolved until 1819, when the Adams–Onís Treaty between Spain and the United States ceded Spanish Florida to the United States, and established a clear boundary between Texas and Louisiana.


title: Republic of Texas

text: Starting in 1810 with the outbreak of the Mexican War of Independence, New Spain sought a different relationship with the Spanish crown. Some Anglo Americans fought on the side of Mexico against Spain in filibustering expeditions. One of these, the Gutiérrez–Magee Expedition (also known as the Republican Army of the North) consisted of a group of about 130 Anglo Americans under the leadership of Bernardo Gutiérrez de Lara. Gutiérrez de Lara initiated Mexico's secession from Spain with efforts contributed by Augustus Magee. Bolstered by new recruits, and led by Samuel Kemper (who succeeded Magee after his death in battle in 1813), the expedition gained a series of victories against soldiers led by the Spanish governor, Manuel María de Salcedo.


title: Republic of Texas

text: Their victory at the Battle of Rosillo Creek convinced Salcedo to surrender on April 1, 1813; he was executed two days later. On April 6, 1813, the victorious Republican Army of the North drafted a constitution and declared the independent Republic of Texas, with Gutiérrez as its president. Soon disillusioned with the Mexican leadership, the Anglo Americans under Kemper returned to the United States.


title: Republic of Texas

text: The ephemeral Republic of Texas came to an end on August 18, 1813, with the Battle of Medina, where the Spanish Army crushed the Republican Army of the North. The harsh reprisals against the Texas rebels created a deep distrust of the Royal Spanish authorities, and veterans of the Battle of Medina later became leaders of the Texas Revolution and signatories of the Texas Declaration of Independence from Mexico 20 years later.


title: Republic of Texas

text: After the failure of the expedition, there would be no serious push for a "Republic of Texas" for another six years, until 1819, when Virginian filibuster James Long invaded Spanish Texas in an attempt to liberate the region.


title: Republic of Texas

text: Eli Harris led 120 men across the Sabine River to Nacogdoches. Long followed two weeks later with an additional 75 men. On June 22, the combined force declared a new government, with Long as president and a 21-member Supreme Council. The following day, they issued a declaration of independence, modeled on the United States Declaration of Independence. The document cited several grievances, including "Spanish rapacity" and "odious tyranny" and promised religious freedom, freedom of the press, and free trade. The council also allocated 10 square miles of land to each member of the expedition, and authorized the sale of additional land to raise cash for the fledgling government. Within a month, the expedition had grown to 300 members.


title: Republic of Texas

text: The new government established trading outposts near Anahuac along the Trinity River and the Brazos River. Long's Republic of Texas also established the first English-language newspaper ever published in Texas, so named the "Texas Republican", which existed only for the month of August 1819.


title: Republic of Texas

text: Long also contacted Jean Lafitte, who ran a large smuggling operation on Galveston Island. His letter suggested that the new government establish an admiralty court at Galveston, and offered to appoint Lafitte governor of Galveston. Unbeknownst to Long, Lafitte was actually a Spanish spy. While making numerous promises – and excuses – to Long, Lafitte gathered information about the expedition and passed it on to Spanish authorities. By July 16, the Spanish Consul in New Orleans had warned the viceroy in Mexico City that "I am fully persuaded that the present is the most serious expedition that has threatened the Kingdom".


title: Republic of Texas

text: With Lafitte's lack of assistance, the expedition soon ran low on provisions. Long dispersed his men to forage for food. Discipline began to break down, and many men, including James Bowie, returned home. In early October, Lafitte reached an agreement with Long to make Galveston an official port for the new country and name Lafitte governor. Within weeks, 500 Spanish troops arrived in Texas and marched on Nacogdoches. Long and his men withdrew. Over 40 men were captured. Long escaped to Natchitoches, Louisiana. Others fled to Galveston and settled along Bolivar Peninsula.


title: Republic of Texas

text: Undeterred in his defeat, Long returned once more in 1820 and joined the refugees at Bolivar Peninsula on April 6, 1820, with more reinforcements. He continued to raise money to equip a second expedition. Fifty men attempted to join him from the United States, but they were arrested by American authorities as they tried to cross into Texas. The men who had joined Long were disappointed they were paid in scrip, and they gradually began to desert. By December 1820, Long commanded only 50 men.


title: Republic of Texas

text: With the aid of Ben Milam and others, Long revitalized the Supreme Council. He later broke with Milam, and the expedition led an uncertain existence until September 19, 1821, when Long and 52 men marched inland to capture Presidio La Bahía. The town fell easily on October 4, but four days later Long was forced to surrender by Spanish troops. He was taken prisoner and sent to Mexico City, where about six months later he was shot and killed by a guard – reportedly bribed to do so by José Félix Trespalacios, thus ending the Long Expeditions.


title: Republic of Texas

text: Along with the rest of Mexico, Texas gained its independence from Spain in 1821 following the Treaty of Córdoba, and the new Mexican state was organized under the Plan of Iguala, which created Mexico as a constitutional monarchy under its first Emperor Agustín de Iturbide. During the transition from a Spanish territory to a part of the independent country of Mexico, Stephen F. Austin led a group of American settlers known as the Old Three Hundred, who negotiated the right to establish colonies of settlers in Texas with the Spanish Royal governor of the territory, and to bring their slaves with them. These colonies were limited in quotas and to specific locations. Since Mexican independence had been ratified by Spain shortly thereafter, Austin later traveled to Mexico City to secure the support of the new country for his right to settle. The establishment of Mexican Texas coincided with the Austin-led settlement, leading to animosity between Mexican authorities and ongoing American settlement of Texas. The First Mexican Empire was short-lived, being replaced by a republican form of government in 1823. In 1824, the sparsely populated territories of Texas and Coahuila were joined to form the state of Coahuila y Tejas. The capital was controversially located in southern Coahuila, the part farthest from Texas.


title: Republic of Texas

text: Following Austin's lead, additional groups of settlers, known as Empresarios, continued to colonize Mexican Texas from the United States. A spike in the price of cotton, and the success of plantations in Mississippi encouraged large numbers of white Americans to migrate to Texas and obtain slaves to try to replicate the business model. In the Law of April 6, 1830, Mexican President Anastasio Bustamante outlawed American immigration to Texas, following several conflicts with the Empresarios over the status of slavery, which had been abolished in Mexico in 1829, but which the Texians refused to end. Texians replaced slavery with long-term indentured servitude contracts signed by "liberated" slaves in the United States to work around the abolition of slavery. Angered at the interference of the Mexican government, the Empresarios held the Convention of 1832, which was the first formal step in what became the Texas Revolution.


title: Republic of Texas

text: By 1834, the American settlers in the area outnumbered Mexicans by a considerable margin. Following a series of minor skirmishes between Mexican authorities and the settlers, the Mexican government, fearing open rebellion of their Anglo subjects, began to step up military presence in Texas throughout 1834 and early 1835. Mexican President Antonio López de Santa Anna revoked the 1824 Constitution of Mexico and began to consolidate power in the central government under his own leadership. In 1835, the central government split Texas and Coahuila into two separate departments. The Texian leadership under Austin began to organize its own military, and hostilities broke out on October 2, 1835, at the Battle of Gonzales, the first engagement of the Texas Revolution. In November 1835, a provisional government known as the Consultation was established to oppose the Santa Anna regime (but stopped short of declaring independence from Mexico). On March 1, 1836, the Convention of 1836 came to order, and the next day declared independence from Mexico, establishing the Republic of Texas.


title: Republic of Texas

text: Sam Houston was elected as the new President of the Republic of Texas on September 5, 1836. The second Congress of the Republic of Texas convened a month later, in October 1836, at Columbia (now West Columbia). Stephen F. Austin, known as the "Father of Texas", died December 27, 1836, after serving two months as Secretary of State for the new Republic.


title: Republic of Texas

text: In 1836, five sites served as temporary capitals of Texas (Washington-on-the-Brazos, Harrisburg, Galveston, Velasco and Columbia), before President Sam Houston moved the capital to Houston in 1837. The next president, Mirabeau B. Lamar, moved the capital to the new town of Austin in 1839.


title: Republic of Texas

text: The first flag of the republic was the "Burnet Flag" (a single gold star on an azure field), followed in 1839 by official adoption of the Lone Star Flag.


title: Republic of Texas

text: Internal politics of the Republic centered on two factions. The nationalist faction, led by Lamar, advocated the continued independence of Texas, the expulsion of the Native Americans (Indians), and the expansion of Texas to the Pacific Ocean. Their opponents, led by Houston, advocated the annexation of Texas to the United States and peaceful coexistence with the Indians, when possible. The Texas Congress even passed a resolution over Houston's veto claiming the Californias for Texas. The 1844 presidential election split the electorate dramatically, with the newer western regions of the Republic preferring the nationalist candidate Edward Burleson, while the cotton country, particularly east of the Trinity River, went for Anson Jones.


title: Republic of Texas

text: The Comanche Indians furnished the main Indian opposition to the Texas Republic, manifested in multiple raids on settlements.</ref> In the late 1830s, Sam Houston negotiated peace between Texas and the Comanches. Lamar replaced Houston as president in 1838 and reversed the Indian policies. He returned to war with the Comanches and invaded Comancheria itself. In retaliation, the Comanches attacked Texas in a series of raids. After peace talks in 1840 ended with the massacre of 34 Comanche leaders in San Antonio, the Comanches launched a major attack deep into Texas, known as the Great Raid of 1840. Under command of Potsanaquahip (Buffalo Hump), 500 to 700 Comanche cavalry warriors swept down the Guadalupe River valley, killing and plundering all the way to the shore of the Gulf of Mexico, where they sacked the towns of Victoria and Linnville. The Comanches retreated after being pursued by 186 rangers and were caught at the Battle of Plum Creek, in which they lost the plunder they had taken. Houston became president again in 1841 and, with both Texians and Comanches exhausted by war, a new peace was established.


title: Republic of Texas

text: Although Texas achieved self-government, Mexico refused to recognize its independence. On March 5, 1842, a Mexican force of over 500 men, led by Ráfael Vásquez, invaded Texas for the first time since the revolution. They soon headed back to the Rio Grande after briefly occupying San Antonio. About 1,400 Mexican troops, led by the French mercenary general Adrián Woll, launched a second attack and captured San Antonio on September 11, 1842. A Texas militia retaliated at the Battle of Salado Creek while simultaneously, a mile and a half away, Mexican soldiers massacred a militia of fifty-three Texas volunteers who had surrendered after a skirmish. That night, upon their defeat, the Mexican Army retreated from San Antonio and back to Mexico, while being pursued by Texas soldiers. The Texas Army took the city of Laredo, at which point they were given official orders from Sam Houston to return to San Antonio. Several soldiers ignored this order, and launched a failed battle to retake Ciudad Mier.


title: Republic of Texas

text: The Naval Battle of Campeche took place on April 30, 1843, and May 16, 1843. The battle featured the most advanced warships of its day, including the Mexican steamer "Guadalupe" and the equally formidable "Montezuma" which engaged a squadron of vessels from the Republic of Yucatan and the Republic of Texas. The latter force consisted of the Texas Navy flagship sloop-of-war "Austin", commanded by Commodore Edwin Ward Moore, the brig "Wharton", and several schooners and five gunboats from the Republic of Yucatán, commanded by former Texas Navy Captain James D. Boylan. Texas had declared its independence in 1836, but by 1843, Mexico had refused to recognize it. In Yucatán, a similar rebellion had begun and was fought off-and-on from 1836 to 1846. The battle ended in a combined Yucatecan and Texan victory. A scene from this battle is engraved on the cylinder of every Colt 1851 Navy, 1860 Army, and 1861 Navy revolver.


title: Republic of Texas

text: Mexico's attacks on Texas intensified conflicts between political factions, including an incident known as the Texas Archive War. To "protect" the Texas national archives, President Sam Houston ordered them removed from Austin. The archives were eventually returned to Austin, albeit at gunpoint. The Texas Congress admonished Houston for the incident, and this episode in Texas history solidified Austin as Texas's seat of government for the Republic and the future state.


title: Republic of Texas

text: There were also domestic disturbances. The Regulator–Moderator War involved a land feud in Harrison and Shelby Counties in East Texas from 1839 to 1844. The feud eventually involved Nacogdoches, San Augustine, and other East Texas counties. Harrison County Sheriff John J. Kennedy and county judge Joseph U. Fields helped end the conflict, siding with the law-and-order party. Sam Houston ordered 500 militia to help end the feud.


title: Republic of Texas

text: Citizenship was not automatically granted to all previous inhabitants of Texas, and some residents were not allowed to continue living legally within the Republic without the consent of Congress. The Constitution of the Republic of Texas (1836) established different rights according to the race and ethnicity of each individual. Section 10 of the General Provisions of the Constitution stated that all persons who resided in Texas on the day of the Declaration of Independence were considered citizens of the Republic, excepting "Africans, the descendants of Africans, and Indians." For new white immigrants, Section 6 established that, to become citizens, they needed to live in the Republic for at least six months and take an oath. While regarding the black population, section 9 established that black persons who were brought to Texas as slaves were to remain slaves and that not even their owner could emancipate them without the consent of Congress. Furthermore, the Congress was not allowed to make laws that affected the slave trade or declare emancipation. Section 9 also established that: "No free person of African descent, either in whole or in part, shall be permitted to reside permanently in the Republic, without the consent of Congress."


title: Republic of Texas

text: In September 1836 Texas elected a Congress of 14 senators and 29 representatives. The Constitution allowed the first president to serve for two years and subsequent presidents for three years. To hold an office or vote, a man had to be a citizen of the Republic.


title: Republic of Texas

text: The first Congress of the Republic of Texas convened in October 1836 at Columbia (now West Columbia). Stephen F. Austin, often referred to as the "Father of Texas," died on December 27, 1836, after serving just two months as the republic's secretary of state. Due mainly to the ongoing war for independence, five sites served as temporary capitals of Texas in 1836: (Washington-on-the-Brazos, Harrisburg, Galveston, Velasco and Columbia). The capital was moved to the new city of Houston in 1837.


title: Republic of Texas

text: In 1839, a small pioneer settlement situated on the Colorado River in central Texas was chosen as the republic's seventh and final capital. Incorporated under the name Waterloo, the town was renamed Austin shortly thereafter in honor of Stephen F. Austin.


title: Republic of Texas

text: The court system inaugurated by Congress included a Supreme Court consisting of a chief justice appointed by the president and four associate justices, elected by a joint ballot of both houses of Congress for four-year terms and eligible for re-election. The associates also presided over four judicial districts. Houston nominated James Collinsworth to be the first chief justice. The county-court system consisted of a chief justice and two associates, chosen by a majority of the justices of the peace in the county. Each county was also to have a sheriff, a coroner, justices of the peace, and constables to serve two-year terms. Congress formed 23 counties, whose boundaries generally coincided with the existing municipalities. In 1839, Texas became the first nation in the world to enact a homestead exemption, under which creditors cannot seize a person's primary residence.


title: Republic of Texas

text: President Anson Jones signed the charter for Baylor University in the fall of 1845. Henry Lee Graves was elected Baylor's first president. It is believed to be the oldest university in Texas, however, Rutersville College was chartered in 1840 with land and the town of Rutersville. Chauncey Richardson was elected Rutersville first president. The college later became Southwestern University in Georgetown, Fayette county. University of Mary Hardin-Baylor was also chartered by the Republic of Texas in 1845, and received lands in Belton, Texas. Wesleyan College, chartered in 1844 and signed by president Sam Houston, another predecessor to Southwestern did not survive long due to competition from other colleges. Mirabeau Lamar signed a charter in 1844 for the Herman University for medicine but classes never started due to lack of funds. The University of San Augustine was chartered June 5, 1837, but did not open until 1842 when Marcus A. Montrose became president. There were as many as 150 students enrolled, however, attendance declined to 50 in 1845, and further situations including animosity and embittered factions in the community closed the university in 1847. Later it became the University of East Texas, and soon after that became the Masonic Institute of San Augustine in 1851. Guadalupe College at Gonzales was approved January 30, 1841, however, no construction efforts ensued for the next eleven years.


title: Republic of Texas

text: The Texian leaders at first intended to extend their national boundaries to the Pacific Ocean, but ultimately decided to claim the Rio Grande as boundary, including much of New Mexico, which the Republic never controlled. They also hoped, after peace was made with Mexico, to run a railroad to the Gulf of California to give "access to the East Indian, Peruvian and Chilean trade". When negotiating for the possibility of annexation to the U.S. in late 1836, the Texian government instructed its minister Wharton in Washington that if the boundary were an issue, Texas was willing to settle for a boundary at the watershed between the Nueces River and Rio Grande, and leave out New Mexico.


title: Republic of Texas

text: Apart from the United States, the Republic of Texas received diplomatic recognition from Belgium, France, the Netherlands, and the Republic of Yucatán (which in 1841 declared independence from Mexico). The United Kingdom later also extended recognition to Texas.


title: Republic of Texas

text: Texas' status as a slaveholding country and Mexico's claim on the territory caused significant problems in the foreign relations of Texas, with Mexico lobbying third countries not to aid the breakaway republic.


title: Republic of Texas

text: Though supported by the vast majority of the population of Texas at the time of independence, annexation by the United States was prevented by the leadership of both major U.S. political parties, the Democrats and the Whigs. They opposed the introduction of a vast slave-holding region into a country already divided into pro- and anti-slavery sections, and wished to avoid a war with Mexico.


title: Republic of Texas

text: On March 3, 1837, U.S. President Andrew Jackson appointed Alcée La Branche American "chargé d'affaires" to the Republic of Texas, thus officially recognizing Texas as an independent republic. France granted official recognition of Texas on September 25, 1839, appointing Alphonse Dubois de Saligny to serve as "chargé d'affaires". The French Legation was built in 1841, and still stands in Austin as the oldest frame structure in the city. Conversely, the Republic of Texas embassy in Paris was located in what is now the Hôtel de Vendôme, adjacent to the Place Vendôme in the 1st arrondissement of Paris.


title: Republic of Texas

text: The United Kingdom hesitated to grant official recognition of Texas due to its own friendly relations with Mexico, but admitted Texian goods into British ports on their own terms. In London, immediately opposite the gates to St. James's Palace, Sam Houston's original Embassy of the Republic of Texas to the Court of St. James's is now a hat shop but is clearly marked with a large plaque and there was a nearby restaurant by Trafalgar Square called the Texas Embassy Cantina but it closed in June 2012. A plaque on the exterior of 3 St. James's Street in London notes the upper floors of the building (which have housed the noted wine merchant Berry Brothers and Rudd since 1698) housed the Texas Legation.


title: Republic of Texas

text: The United Kingdom eventually recognized Texas in the 1840s after a cotton price crash, in a failed attempt to coerce Texas to give up slavery (replacing slave-produced cotton from southern U.S. states) and to stop expansion of the United States to the southwest. The cotton price crash of the 1840s bankrupted the Republic, increasing the urgency of finding foreign allies who could help prevent a reconquest by Mexico.


title: Republic of Texas

text: On February 28, 1845, the U.S. Congress passed a bill that authorized the United States to annex the Republic of Texas. On March 1, U.S. President John Tyler signed the bill. The legislation set the date for annexation for December 29 of the same year. Faced with imminent American annexation of Texas, Charles Elliot and Alphonse de Saligny, the British and French ministers to Texas, were dispatched to Mexico City by their governments. Meeting with Mexico's foreign secretary, they signed a "Diplomatic Act" in which Mexico offered to recognize an independent Texas with boundaries determined with French and British mediation. Texas President Anson Jones forwarded both offers to a specially elected convention meeting at Austin, and the American proposal was accepted with only one dissenting vote. The Mexican proposal was never put to a vote. Following the previous decree of President Jones, the proposal was then put to a vote throughout the republic.


title: Republic of Texas

text: On October 13, 1845, a large majority of voters in the republic approved both the American offer and the proposed constitution that specifically endorsed slavery and emigrants bringing slaves to Texas. This constitution was later accepted by the U.S. Congress, making Texas a U.S. state on the same day annexation took effect, December 29, 1845 (therefore bypassing a territorial phase). One of the motivations for annexation was the huge debts which the Republic of Texas government had incurred. As part of the Compromise of 1850, in return for $10,000,000 in Federal bonds, Texas dropped claims to territory that included parts of present-day Colorado, Kansas, Oklahoma, New Mexico, and Wyoming.


title: Republic of Texas

text: The resolution did include two unique provisions: First, it said up to four additional states could be created from Texas' territory with the consent of the State of Texas and pursuant to the admissions process of the federal constitution. New states north of the Missouri Compromise Line would be free states, while those south of the line could opt to become slave states. Though the resolution did not make exceptions to the constitution, the U.S. Constitution does not require Congressional consent to the creation of new states to be "ex post" to applications, nor does the U.S. Constitution require applications to expire. Second, Texas did not have to surrender its public lands to the federal government. While Texas did cede all territory outside of its current area to the federal government in 1850, it did not cede any public lands within its current boundaries. Consequently, the lands in Texas that the federal government owns are those it subsequently purchased. This also means the state government controls oil reserves, which it later used to fund the state's public university system through the Permanent University Fund. In addition, the state's control over offshore oil reserves in Texas runs out to 3 nautical leagues (9 nautical miles, 10.357 statute miles, 16.668 km) rather than three nautical miles (3.45 statute miles, 5.56 km) as with other states.