title: La Toya Jackson

text: In 2010, Jackson launched Dream Cream, a hand cream for German cosmetics firm Alessandro International, and named Teddy Riley head of Ja-Tail Records' music division. Jackson took part in NBC's "Celebrity Apprentice", which aired from March through May 2011 and raised $65,000 for her chosen charity, AIDS Project Los Angeles. La Toya was "fired" from "Celebrity Apprentice" in episode 8 during season 11, which aired on April 24, 2011 on NBC. In an "Apprentice" first, Jackson was rehired in the following episode, as she felt she couldn't defend her case. La Toya was fired for the second time on May 8, 2011 and became the first person to be fired from "The Apprentice" twice within the same season. She was also the first guest judge to appear in two episodes of season three of "RuPaul's Drag Race". She also served as guest judge on the 17th season of "America's Next Top Model". Jackson's second memoir, "Starting Over", was released in the United States on June 21, 2011 through Gallery Books, an imprint of Simon & Schuster. An EP, also called "Starting Over", was released the same day via digital outlets.


title: La Toya Jackson

text: In 2013, Jackson started her own reality series called "Life With La Toya" which is premiered on Oprah Winfrey's OWN. Also in 2013, Jackson rejoined the newest cast for "The All-Star Celebrity Apprentice". Jackson lasted until the 3rd episode of the season, when she was fired on an episode titled "I'm Being Punked By A Jackson". Jackson volunteered to be the project manager on a task that saw the cast creating a Soap Opera themed commercial for Crystal Light. Jackson's team lost the task and she subsequently was fired by Donald Trump. Unlike her first appearance on the show, Trump specifically stated that he would not allow Jackson to return to the show after being fired. In September 2013, Jackson made her stage debut in a week-long engagement in the off-Broadway musical, "Newsical".


title: La Toya Jackson

text: It was falsely reported that on December 6, 2013 Jackson married her business partner Jeffre Phillips in Los Angeles. On December 16 TMZ reported that La Toya and Jeffre stated that they have not married and this was reaffirmed on "". Jeffre had publicly asked her to marry him in an episode of her reality series that recently aired. His decision to propose to La Toya was prompted by their friend Brenda Harvey Richie (ex-wife of Lionel Richie) who noted that they had been best friends for 15 years as he became La Toya's business partner after Jack Gordon. He did so with the permission of La Toya's father, Joe Jackson. Recently it has been reported that La Toya and Jeffre' Phillips have canceled their engagement, but remain close.


title: La Toya Jackson

text: Currently, she and Jeffre are also the executive producers of a documentary called "Dancing in Jaffa" which follows 150 young Jewish and Palestinian Israelis as they dance together in unity by putting their cultural differences aside.


title: La Toya Jackson

text: In 2016, she collaborated with Iranian-Armenian pop star Andy on the single "Tehran" where she sings in Persian.


title: La Toya Jackson

text: On May 24, 2018, she visited "El hormiguero" to sponsor the musical "Forever. The best show about The King of Pop". That same year Jackson participated in a celebrity edition of Food Network's "Worst Cooks in America". Coached by Tyler Florence, she advanced to the final and beat out Ian Ziering to win the season; $25,000 was awarded to Race to Erase MS in Jackson's name.


title: La Toya Jackson

text: In February 2019, Jackson was revealed to be "Alien" on the FOX reality series "The Masked Singer". In May 2021, two years after she appeared as the Alien on the USA version of "The Masked Singer", Jackson competed as the Menina (Girl) on "Mask Singer: Adivina Quién Canta" (the Spanish version of "The Masked Singer"), making it the second time she appeared on a version of the singing competition.


title: La Toya Jackson

text: La Toya Jackson has a three-octave vocal range reaching up to E in her single, "Bet'cha Gonna Need My Lovin'." "The Evening Independent" says that she has an "attractive, pleasant voice that is matured and controlled." Andrew Hamilton of "AllMusic" describes her voice as a light, wispy "sexy whisper". Like her siblings, Michael and Janet, she is mainly a pop, R&B, and dance music performer but she has also dabbled in rock as heard in her song, "No More Drama" and reggae in her signature song "Heart Don't Lie", as well as country music.


title: La Toya Jackson

text: Like many other Jacksons, most notably Michael, she cites James Brown as a "major influence". When Jackson headlined the Moulin Rouge she paid homage to La Goulue and cited Josephine Baker as an influence. "L'Express" hailed Jackson as "the new Josephine Baker." According to academic Bennetta Jules-Rosette, "Through careful planning, she was able to model a successful part of her career abroad on the master tropes of a Baker-like image. Jackson exemplifies Baudrillard's notion that neither the message nor the content count as much as the referentiality of the signifier in postmodern performative discourse."


title: Bill Hicks

text: William Melvin Hicks (December 16, 1961 – February 26, 1994) was an American stand-up comedian, social critic, satirist, and musician. His material—encompassing a wide range of social issues including religion, politics, and philosophy—was controversial and often steeped in dark comedy.


title: Bill Hicks

text: At the age of 16, while still in high school, Hicks began performing at the Comedy Workshop in Houston, Texas. During the 1980s, he toured the U.S. extensively and made a number of high-profile television appearances, but it was in the UK that he amassed a significant fan base, filling large venues during his 1991 tour. He also achieved some recognition as a guitarist and songwriter.


title: Bill Hicks

text: Hicks died of pancreatic cancer on February 26, 1994, at the age of 32. In subsequent years, his work gained significant acclaim in creative circles—particularly after a series of posthumous album releases—and he developed a substantial cult following. In 2007, he was No. 6 on Channel 4's list of the "100 Greatest Stand-Up Comics", and rose to No. 4 on the 2010 list. In 2017, "Rolling Stone" magazine ranked him No. 13 on its list of the 50 best stand-up comics of all time.


title: Bill Hicks

text: Hicks was born in Valdosta, Georgia, the son of James Melvin "Jim" Hicks (1923–2006) and Mary (Reese) Hicks. He had an older sister, Lynn, and an older brother, Steve. The family lived in Alabama, Florida, and New Jersey, before settling in Houston, Texas when Hicks was seven years old. He was drawn to comedy at an early age, emulating Woody Allen and Richard Pryor, and would write routines with his friend Dwight Slade. While attending Stratford High School, he began performing comedy (mostly derivations of Woody Allen material) for his classmates. At home, he would write his own one-liners and slide them under the bedroom door of Steve, who he thought was a genius, for critical analysis. Steve told him, "Keep it up. You're really good at this."


title: Bill Hicks

text: Early on, Hicks began to mock his family's Southern Baptist religious beliefs. He joked to the "Houston Post" in 1987, "We were Yuppie Baptists. We worried about things like, 'If you scratch your neighbor's Subaru, should you leave a note?'" Biographer Cynthia True described a typical argument with his father:


title: Bill Hicks

text: However, he was close with his family his whole life and he did not reject spiritual ideology itself, and throughout his life he sought various alternative methods of experiencing it. Kevin Slade, elder brother of Dwight, introduced him to Transcendental Meditation and other forms of spirituality. Over one Thanksgiving weekend, he took Hicks and Dwight to a Transcendental Meditation residence course in Galveston. Worried about his rebellious behavior, his parents took him to a psychoanalyst at age 17. According to Hicks, the analyst took him aside after the first group session and told him, "You can continue coming if you want to, but it's them, not you."


title: Bill Hicks

text: Hicks was associated with the Texas Outlaw Comics group developed at the Comedy Workshop in Houston in the 1980s.


title: Bill Hicks

text: By January 1986, Hicks was using recreational drugs and his financial resources had dwindled. However his career received another upturn in 1987, when he appeared on Rodney Dangerfield's "Young Comedians Special". The same year, he moved to New York City, and for the next five years performed about 300 times a year. On the album "Relentless", he jokes that he quit using drugs because "once you've been taken aboard a UFO, it's kind of hard to top that", although in his performances, he continued to enthusiastically praise the virtues of LSD, marijuana, and psychedelic mushrooms.


title: Bill Hicks

text: He eventually fell back to chain smoking, a theme that figured heavily in his performances from then on. His nicotine addiction, love of smoking, and occasional attempts to quit became a recurring theme in his act throughout his later years.


title: Bill Hicks

text: On the track "Modern Bummer" of his 1990 album "Dangerous", Hicks says he quit drinking alcohol in 1988.


title: Bill Hicks

text: In 1989, he released his first video, "Sane Man"; a remastered version with 30 minutes of extra footage was released in 1999.


title: Bill Hicks

text: In 1990, Hicks released his first album, "Dangerous", performed on the HBO special "One Night Stand," and performed at Montreal's "Just for Laughs" festival. He was also part of a group of American stand-up comedians performing in London's West End in November. Hicks was a huge hit in the UK and Ireland and continued touring there throughout 1991. That year, he returned to "Just for Laughs" and filmed his second video, "Relentless."


title: Bill Hicks

text: Hicks made a brief detour into musical recording with the "Marble Head Johnson" album in 1992 collaborating with Houston high school friend Kevin Booth and Austin Texas drummer Pat Brown. During the same year he toured the UK, where he recorded the "Revelations" video for Britain's Channel 4. He closed the show with his soon-to become-famous philosophy regarding life, "It's Just a Ride." Also in that tour he recorded the stand-up performance released in its entirety on a double CD titled "Salvation." Hicks was voted "Hot Standup Comic" by "Rolling Stone" magazine in 1993. He moved to Los Angeles in 1992.


title: Bill Hicks

text: Progressive metal band Tool invited Hicks to open a number of concerts in its 1993 Lollapalooza appearances, where Hicks once asked the audience to look for a contact lens he had lost. Thousands of people complied.


title: Bill Hicks

text: Members of Tool felt that they and Hicks "were resonating similar concepts". Intending to raise awareness about Hicks's material and ideas, Tool dedicated their triple-platinum album "Ænima" (1996) to Hicks. Both the lenticular casing of the "Ænima" album packaging as well as the chorus of the title track "Ænema" make reference to a sketch from Hicks's "Arizona Bay" album, in which he contemplates the idea of Los Angeles falling into the Pacific Ocean. "Ænima"s final track, "Third Eye" contains samples from Hicks's "Dangerous" and "Relentless" albums.


title: Bill Hicks

text: An alternate version of the "Ænima" artwork shows a painting of Bill Hicks, calling him "Another Dead Hero", and mentions of Hicks are found both in the liner notes and on the record.


title: Bill Hicks

text: In 1984, Hicks was invited to appear on "Late Night with David Letterman" for the first time. He had a joke that he used frequently in comedy clubs about how he caused a serious accident that left a classmate using a wheelchair. NBC had a policy that no handicapped jokes could be aired on the show, making his stand-up routine difficult to perform without mentioning words such as "wheelchair."


title: Bill Hicks

text: On October 1, 1993, Hicks was scheduled to appear on "Late Show with David Letterman" on CBS, where Letterman had recently moved. It was his 12th appearance on a Letterman late-night show, but his entire performance was removed from the broadcast: at that point the only occasion where a comedian's entire routine was cut after taping. Hicks's stand-up routine was removed from the show, Hicks said, because Letterman's producers believed the material, which included jokes involving religion and the anti-abortion movement, was unsuitable for broadcast. Producer Robert Morton initially blamed CBS, which denied responsibility; Morton later conceded it was his decision. Although Letterman later expressed regret at the way Hicks had been handled, Hicks did not appear on the show again. Hicks was undergoing chemotherapy at the time of his final "Late Show" appearance, unbeknownst to Letterman, and most others outside of Hicks's family, and died less than four months later.


title: Bill Hicks

text: Letterman finally aired the censored routine in its entirety on January 30, 2009. Hicks's mother, Mary, was present in the studio and appeared on-camera as a guest. Letterman took responsibility for the original decision to remove Hicks's set from the 1993 show. "It says more about me as a guy than it says about Bill," he said, after the set aired, "because there was absolutely nothing wrong with that".


title: Bill Hicks

text: For many years, Hicks was friends with fellow comedian Denis Leary, but in 1993, he was angered by Leary's album "No Cure for Cancer", which featured lines and subject matter similar to his own routine. According to "American Scream: The Bill Hicks Story" by Cynthia True, upon hearing the album Hicks was furious. "All these years, aside from the occasional jibe, he had pretty much shrugged off Leary's lifting. Comedians borrowed, stole stuff, and even bought bits from one another. Milton Berle and Robin Williams were famous for it. This was different. Leary had practically taken line for line huge chunks of Bill's act and "recorded" it." The friendship ended abruptly as a result.


title: Bill Hicks

text: At least three stand-up comedians have gone on the record stating they believe Leary stole Hicks's material as well as his persona and attitude. In an interview, when Hicks was asked why he had quit smoking, he answered, "I just wanted to see if Denis would, too." In another interview, Hicks said, "I have a scoop for you. I stole his [Leary's] act. I camouflaged it with punchlines, and, to really throw people off, I did it before he did." During a 2003 Comedy Central Roast of Denis Leary, comedian Lenny Clarke, a friend of Leary's, said there was a carton of cigarettes backstage from Bill Hicks with the message, "Wish I had gotten these to you sooner." This joke was cut from the final broadcast.


title: Bill Hicks

text: Hicks's performance style was seen as a play on his audience's emotions. He expressed anger, disgust, and apathy while addressing the audience in a casual and personal manner, which he likened to merely conversing with his friends. He would invite his audiences to challenge authority and the existential nature of "accepted truth." One such message, which he often used in his shows, was delivered in the style of a news report (in order to draw attention to the negative slant news organizations give to any story about drugs):


title: Bill Hicks

text: The American philosopher and ethnomycologist Terence McKenna was a frequent source of Hicks's most controversial psychedelic and philosophical counter-cultural material; he infamously acted out an abridged version of McKenna's "Stoned Ape" model of human evolution as a routine during several of his final shows.


title: Bill Hicks

text: Another of Hicks's most delivered lines was delivered during a gig in Chicago during 1989 (later released as the bootleg "I'm Sorry, Folks"). After a heckler repeatedly shouted "Free Bird", Hicks screamed, "Hitler had the right idea; he was just an underachiever!" Hicks followed this remark with a misanthropic tirade calling for unbiased genocide against the whole of humanity.


title: Bill Hicks

text: Much of Hicks's routine involved direct attacks on mainstream society, religion, politics, and consumerism. Asked in a BBC interview why he cannot do a routine that appeals "to everyone", he said that such an act was impossible. He responded by repeating a comment that an audience member once made to him, "We don't come to comedy to think!", to which he replied, "Gee, where do you go to think? I'll meet you there!" When asked whether there was a "half way" point between audience expectations and his own, he said: "but my way "is" half-way between, I mean, this is a night-club, and, you know, these are adults, and what do you expect?" Hicks was strongly against political correctness, and jokingly stated that the politically correct should be "hunted down and killed."


title: Bill Hicks

text: Hicks often discussed popular conspiracy theories in his performances, most notably the assassination of President John F. Kennedy. He mocked the Warren Report and the official version of Lee Harvey Oswald as a "lone nut assassin." He also questioned the guilt of David Koresh and the Branch Davidian compound during the Waco Siege. Hicks would end some of his shows, especially those being recorded in front of larger audiences as albums, with a mock "assassination" of himself on stage, making gunshot sound effects into the microphone while falling to the ground.


title: Bill Hicks

text: He started receiving weekly chemotherapy, while still touring and also recording his album, "Arizona Bay", with Booth. He was also working with comedian Fallon Woodland on a pilot episode of a new talk show, titled "Counts of the Netherworld" for Channel 4 at the time of his death. The budget and concept had been approved, and a pilot was filmed. The "Counts of the Netherworld" pilot was shown at the various Tenth Anniversary Tribute Night events around the world on February 26, 2004.


title: Bill Hicks

text: After being diagnosed with cancer, Hicks would often joke that any given performance could be his last; the public, however, was unaware of his condition, and only a few close friends and family members knew of the disease. He performed the final show of his career at Caroline's in New York on January 6, 1994; he moved back to his parents' house in Little Rock, Arkansas, shortly thereafter. In his last weeks he re-read J. R. R. Tolkien's "The Lord of the Rings", and made telephone calls to friends to say goodbye before he stopped speaking on February 14.


title: Bill Hicks

text: Hicks died on February 26, 1994 in Little Rock at the age of 32. He was buried in the family grave plot in Magnolia Cemetery, Leakesville, Mississippi.


title: Bill Hicks

text: His albums "Arizona Bay" and "Rant in E-Minor" were released posthumously in 1997 on the Voices imprint of the Rykodisc label. "Dangerous" and "Relentless" were re-released simultaneously.


title: Bill Hicks

text: In a 2005 poll to find The Comedian's Comedian, comedians and comedy insiders voted Hicks 13th on their list of "The Top 20 Greatest Comedy Acts Ever". In "Comedy Central Presents: 100 Greatest Stand-ups of All Time" (2004), Hicks was ranked 19th. In March 2007, he was voted sixth on Britain's Channel 4 list of the 100 Greatest Stand-Up Comics, and rose to number four on the 2010 list.


title: Bill Hicks

text: Devotees have incorporated Hicks's words, image, and attitude into their own creations. By means of audio sampling, fragments of his rants, diatribes, social criticisms, and philosophies have found their way into many musical works, such as the live version of Super Furry Animals' "The Man Don't Give a Fuck" and Adam Freeland's "We Want Your Soul". His influence on the band Tool is well documented as he is sampled at the beginning of their song "Third Eye""Ænima" (1996); he "appears" on the Fila Brazillia album "Maim That Tune" (1995) and on SPA's eponymously titled album "SPA" (1997), which are both dedicated to Hicks; the British band Radiohead's second album "The Bends" (1995) is also dedicated to his memory. American indie rock band Built to Spill's song "Planting Seeds" on its 2009 album "There Is No Enemy" alludes to Hicks's routine on advertising and marketing, which appears on the performance film "Bill Hicks: Revelations". Singer/songwriter Tom Waits listed "Rant in E-Minor" as one of his 20 most cherished albums of all time.


title: Bill Hicks

text: Comedians who have cited Hicks as an inspiration include Joe Rogan, Dave Attell, Lewis Black, Patton Oswalt, David Cross, Russell Brand, Ron White, Frankie Boyle, Jimmy Dore, and Brendon Burns. The political cartoonist "Mr. Fish" described in 2022 how he learned from Bill Hicks.


title: Bill Hicks

text: The British actor Chas Early portrayed Hicks in the one-man stage show "Bill Hicks: Slight Return", which premiered in 2004. The show was co-written by Chas Early and Richard Hurst, and imagined Hicks's view of the world 10 years after his death.


title: Bill Hicks

text: Hicks is mentioned in the 1999 British film "Human Traffic". In the movie, the young and hip club-going protagonist, "Jip" praises Hicks as an alternative thinker, and explains that he needs to get a regular infusion of Hicks's insights. Before leaving his house to start on the movie's main adventure, Jip states: "... first a daily injection of the late prophet Bill Hicks ... just to remind me not to take life too seriously." He then watches a clip of one of Hicks's rants about drugs, and how they had never affected him badly.


title: Bill Hicks

text: On February 25, 2004, British MP Stephen Pound tabled an early day motion titled "Anniversary of the Death of Bill Hicks" (EDM 678 of the 2003–04 session), the text of which reads:


title: Bill Hicks

text: Hicks appeared in a flashback scene in writer Garth Ennis's Vertigo comic-book series "Preacher", in the story "Underworld" in issue No. 31 (Nov. 1997).


title: Bill Hicks

text: Hicks is the subject of at least two tribute songs including "Bill Hicks" released in 2000 by fellow Texan Ed Hamell of Hamell on Trial, and the 2007 “Bill Hicks” by Australian gypsy-blues group Juke Baritone and the Swamp Dogs.


title: Bill Hicks

text: Rock band Clutch mentions Hicks in the song "How to Shake Hands" from their 2018 album, "Book of Bad Decisions". "First thing that I'm gonna do is disclose all those U.F.O.s, put Jimi Hendrix on the 20 dollar bill, and Bill Hicks on a five note".


title: Bill Hicks

text: Folk musician Roxanne de Bastion dedicated her 2012 song "Here's Tom with the weather", inspired by the eponymous quote, to Bill Hicks.


title: Bill Hicks

text: English songwriter-musician Charlie Dore wrote the folk ballad song, "When Bill Hicks Died," for her album, Cuckoo Hill, released in 2006.


title: Bill Hicks

text: A documentary titled "", based on interviews with his family and friends, premiered on March 12, 2010, at the South by Southwest Film Festival in Austin, Texas.


title: Bill Hicks

text: Russell Crowe announced in 2012 that he would direct a Bill Hicks biopic. Crowe was originally thought to be playing the comedian, but Mark Staufer, the actor's schoolmate and writer on the film, suggested the part is now open for casting. Joseph Gordon-Levitt was frequently mentioned as a popular choice by fans. Production was expected to start in 2013, but, as of 2018, no further announcements regarding the film's progress have been made.


title: Bill Hicks

text: On October 28, 2018, it was announced that Richard Linklater is set to direct a biopic about Bill Hicks for the film production company Focus Features.


title: SHA-2

text: SHA-2 (Secure Hash Algorithm 2) is a set of cryptographic hash functions designed by the United States National Security Agency (NSA) and first published in 2001. They are built using the Merkle–Damgård construction, from a one-way compression function itself built using the Davies–Meyer structure from a specialized block cipher.


title: SHA-2

text: SHA-2 includes significant changes from its predecessor, SHA-1. The SHA-2 family consists of six hash functions with digests (hash values) that are 224, 256, 384 or 512 bits: SHA-224, SHA-256, SHA-384, SHA-512, SHA-512/224, SHA-512/256. SHA-256 and SHA-512 are novel hash functions computed with eight 32-bit and 64-bit words, respectively. They use different shift amounts and additive constants, but their structures are otherwise virtually identical, differing only in the number of rounds. SHA-224 and SHA-384 are truncated versions of SHA-256 and SHA-512 respectively, computed with different initial values. SHA-512/224 and SHA-512/256 are also truncated versions of SHA-512, but the initial values are generated using the method described in Federal Information Processing Standards (FIPS) PUB 180-4.


title: SHA-2

text: SHA-2 was first published by the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) as a U.S. federal standard (FIPS). The SHA-2 family of algorithms are patented in US. The United States has released the patent under a royalty-free license.


title: SHA-2

text: As of 2011, the best public attacks break preimage resistance for 52 out of 64 rounds of SHA-256 or 57 out of 80 rounds of SHA-512, and collision resistance for 46 out of 64 rounds of SHA-256.


title: SHA-2

text: With the publication of FIPS PUB 180-2, NIST added three additional hash functions in the SHA family. The algorithms are collectively known as SHA-2, named after their digest lengths (in bits): SHA-256, SHA-384, and SHA-512.


title: SHA-2

text: The algorithms were first published in 2001 in the draft FIPS PUB 180-2, at which time public review and comments were accepted. In August 2002, FIPS PUB 180-2 became the new Secure Hash Standard, replacing FIPS PUB 180-1, which was released in April 1995. The updated standard included the original SHA-1 algorithm, with updated technical notation consistent with that describing the inner workings of the SHA-2 family.


title: SHA-2

text: In February 2004, a change notice was published for FIPS PUB 180-2, specifying an additional variant, SHA-224, defined to match the key length of two-key Triple DES. In October 2008, the standard was updated in FIPS PUB 180-3, including SHA-224 from the change notice, but otherwise making no fundamental changes to the standard. The primary motivation for updating the standard was relocating security information about the hash algorithms and recommendations for their use to Special Publications 800-107 and 800-57. Detailed test data and example message digests were also removed from the standard, and provided as separate documents.


title: SHA-2

text: In January 2011, NIST published SP800-131A, which specified a move from the then-current minimum of 80-bit security (provided by SHA-1) allowable for federal government use until the end of 2013, to 112-bit security (provided by SHA-2) being both the minimum requirement (starting in 2014) and the recommended security level (starting from the publication date in 2011).


title: SHA-2

text: In March 2012, the standard was updated in FIPS PUB 180-4, adding the hash functions SHA-512/224 and SHA-512/256, and describing a method for generating initial values for truncated versions of SHA-512. Additionally, a restriction on padding the input data prior to hash calculation was removed, allowing hash data to be calculated simultaneously with content generation, such as a real-time video or audio feed. Padding the final data block must still occur prior to hash output.


title: SHA-2

text: In July 2012, NIST revised SP800-57, which provides guidance for cryptographic key management. The publication disallowed creation of digital signatures with a hash security lower than 112 bits after 2013. The previous revision from 2007 specified the cutoff to be the end of 2010. In August 2012, NIST revised SP800-107 in the same manner.


title: SHA-2

text: The NIST hash function competition selected a new hash function, SHA-3, in 2012. The SHA-3 algorithm is not derived from SHA-2.


title: SHA-2

text: The SHA-2 hash function is implemented in some widely used security applications and protocols, including TLS and SSL, PGP, SSH, S/MIME, and IPsec.


title: SHA-2

text: SHA-256 is used for authenticating Debian software packages and in the DKIM message signing standard; SHA-512 is part of a system to authenticate archival video from the International Criminal Tribunal of the Rwandan genocide. SHA-256 and SHA-512 are proposed for use in DNSSEC. Unix and Linux vendors are moving to using 256- and 512-bit SHA-2 for secure password hashing.


title: SHA-2

text: Several cryptocurrencies, including Bitcoin, use SHA-256 for verifying transactions and calculating proof of work or proof of stake. The rise of ASIC SHA-2 accelerator chips has led to the use of scrypt-based proof-of-work schemes.


title: SHA-2

text: SHA-1 and SHA-2 are the Secure Hash Algorithms required by law for use in certain U.S. Government applications, including use within other cryptographic algorithms and protocols, for the protection of sensitive unclassified information. FIPS PUB 180-1 also encouraged adoption and use of SHA-1 by private and commercial organizations. SHA-1 is being retired for most government uses; the U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology says, "Federal agencies should stop using SHA-1 for...applications that require collision resistance as soon as practical, and must use the SHA-2 family of hash functions for these applications after 2010" (emphasis in original). NIST's directive that U.S. government agencies must stop uses of SHA-1 after 2010 was hoped to accelerate migration away from SHA-1.


title: SHA-2

text: The SHA-2 functions were not quickly adopted initially, despite better security than SHA-1. Reasons might include lack of support for SHA-2 on systems running Windows XP SP2 or older and a lack of perceived urgency since SHA-1 collisions had not yet been found. The Google Chrome team announced a plan to make their web browser gradually stop honoring SHA-1-dependent TLS certificates over a period from late 2014 and early 2015. Similarly, Microsoft announced that Internet Explorer and Edge would stop honoring public SHA-1-signed TLS certificates from February 2017. Mozilla disabled SHA-1 in early January 2016, but had to re-enable it temporarily via a Firefox update, after problems with web-based user interfaces of some router models and security appliances.


title: SHA-2

text: For a hash function for which "L" is the number of bits in the message digest, finding a message that corresponds to a given message digest can always be done using a brute force search in 2 evaluations. This is called a preimage attack and may or may not be practical depending on "L" and the particular computing environment. The second criterion, finding two different messages that produce the same message digest, known as a collision, requires on average only 2 evaluations using a birthday attack.


title: SHA-2

text: Some of the applications that use cryptographic hashes, such as password storage, are only minimally affected by a collision attack. Constructing a password that works for a given account requires a preimage attack, as well as access to the hash of the original password (typically in the codice_1 file) which may or may not be trivial. Reversing password encryption (e.g., to obtain a password to try against a user's account elsewhere) is not made possible by the attacks. (However, even a secure password hash cannot prevent brute-force attacks on weak passwords.)


title: SHA-2

text: In the case of document signing, an attacker could not simply fake a signature from an existing document—the attacker would have to produce a pair of documents, one innocuous and one damaging, and get the private key holder to sign the innocuous document. There are practical circumstances in which this is possible; until the end of 2008, it was possible to create forged SSL certificates using an MD5 collision which would be accepted by widely used web browsers.


title: SHA-2

text: Increased interest in cryptographic hash analysis during the SHA-3 competition produced several new attacks on the SHA-2 family, the best of which are given in the table below. Only the collision attacks are of practical complexity; none of the attacks extend to the full round hash function.


title: SHA-2

text: At FSE 2012, researchers at Sony gave a presentation suggesting pseudo-collision attacks could be extended to 52 rounds on SHA-256 and 57 rounds on SHA-512 by building upon the biclique pseudo-preimage attack.


title: SHA-2

text: Implementations of all FIPS-approved security functions can be officially validated through the CMVP program, jointly run by the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) and the Communications Security Establishment (CSE). For informal verification, a package to generate a high number of test vectors is made available for download on the NIST site; the resulting verification, however, does not replace the formal CMVP validation, which is required by law for certain applications.


title: SHA-2

text: , there are over 1300 validated implementations of SHA-256 and over 900 of SHA-512, with only 5 of them being capable of handling messages with a length in bits not a multiple of eight while supporting both variants.


title: SHA-2

text: Even a small change in the message will (with overwhelming probability) result in a mostly different hash, due to the avalanche effect. For example, adding a period to the end of the following sentence changes almost half (111 out of 224) of the bits in the hash:


title: SHA-2

text: Pseudocode for the SHA-256 algorithm follows. Note the great increase in mixing between bits of the codice_2 words compared to SHA-1.


title: SHA-2

text: The computation of the codice_3 and codice_4 values can be optimized the same way as described for SHA-1.


title: SHA-2

text: The "SHA-512/t IV generation function" evaluates a "modified SHA-512" on the ASCII string "SHA-512/"t"", substituted with the decimal representation of "t". The "modified SHA-512" is the same as SHA-512 except its initial values codice_5 through codice_6 have each been XORed with the hexadecimal constant codice_18.


title: SHA-2

text: In the table below, "internal state" means the "internal hash sum" after each compression of a data block.


title: SHA-2

text: In the bitwise operations column, "Rot" stands for rotate no carry, and "Shr" stands for right logical shift. All of these algorithms employ modular addition in some fashion except for SHA-3.


title: SHA-2

text: More detailed performance measurements on modern processor architectures are given in the table below.


title: SHA-2

text: The performance numbers labeled 'x86' were running using 32-bit code on 64-bit processors, whereas the 'x86-64' numbers are native 64-bit code. While SHA-256 is designed for 32-bit calculations, it does benefit from code optimized for 64-bit processors on the x86 architecture. 32-bit implementations of SHA-512 are significantly slower than their 64-bit counterparts. Variants of both algorithms with different output sizes will perform similarly, since the message expansion and compression functions are identical, and only the initial hash values and output sizes are different. The best implementations of MD5 and SHA-1 perform between 4.5 and 6 cycles per byte on modern processors.


title: SHA-2

text: Testing was performed by the University of Illinois at Chicago on their hydra8 system running an Intel Xeon E3-1275 V2 at a clock speed of 3.5 GHz, and on their hydra9 system running an AMD A10-5800K APU at a clock speed of 3.8 GHz. The referenced cycles per byte speeds above are the median performance of an algorithm digesting a 4,096 byte message using the SUPERCOP cryptographic benchmarking software. The MiB/s performance is extrapolated from the CPU clockspeed on a single core; real-world performance will vary due to a variety of factors.


title: Master of Arts

text: A Master of Arts ( or "Artium Magister"; abbreviated MA, M.A., AM, or A.M.) is the holder of a master's degree awarded by universities in many countries. The degree is usually contrasted with that of Master of Science. Those admitted to the degree have typically studied subjects within the scope of the humanities and social sciences, such as history, literature, languages, linguistics, public administration, political science, communication studies, law or diplomacy; however, different universities have different conventions and may also offer the degree for fields typically considered within the natural sciences and mathematics. The degree can be conferred in respect of completing courses and passing examinations, research, or a combination of the two.


title: Master of Arts

text: The degree of Master of Arts traces its origins to the teaching license or of the University of Paris, designed to produce "masters" who were graduate teachers of their subjects.


title: Master of Arts

text: Like all EU member states, Czech Republic and Slovakia follow the Bologna Process. Czech Republic and Slovakia both award two different types of Master's degrees; both award a title of Mgr. or Ing. to be used before the name.


title: Master of Arts

text: Prior to reforms for compliance with the Bologna process, a Master's degree could only be obtained after 5 years of uninterrupted study. Under the new system, it takes only 2 years but requires a previously completed 3-year bachelor's program (a Bc. title). Writing a thesis (in both master's and bachelor's programs) and passing final exams are necessary to obtain the degree. It is mostly the case that the final exams cover the main study areas of the whole study program, i.e. a student is required to prove their knowledge in the subjects they attended during the 2 resp. 3 years of their study. Exams also include the defence of a thesis before an academic board.


title: Master of Arts

text: Ing. (Engineer) degrees are usually awarded for Master's degrees achieved in the Natural Sciences or Mathematics-heavy study programmes, whereas an Mgr. (Magister) is generally awarded for Master's studies in social sciences, humanities and the arts.


title: Master of Arts

text: In Germany, the Master of Arts degree was called in Latin "Magister Artium". This degree, which usually required five years of studies, existed in the Holy Roman Empire and its successors, including the German Empire and the Federal Republic of Germany, but not in the former East Germany where all degree courses led to a "Diplom". Traditional "Magister" degrees are granted in social sciences and most of the humanities (International Business, Affairs, European Studies and Economics included), with the exception of visual and performing arts such as music and theatre.


title: Master of Arts

text: The "Magister Artium" held either a double major degree or a combination of one major and two minors. German postgraduate Master's of Arts and Master's of Science degrees were introduced in 2001. Therefore, the new Master of Arts and the old "Magister Artium" degrees have existed side by side, since 2010; "Magister Artium" degrees are still awarded by some universities, as of 2020. The new Bachelor of Arts and Master of Arts degrees together also require five years of studies, which is the reason the new Master of Arts and the old "Magister Artium" degrees are considered equivalent.


title: Master of Arts

text: In the Netherlands, the Master of Arts and the Master of Science degrees were introduced in 2002. Until that time, a single program that led to the "doctorandus" degree (or the "ingenieur" degree in the case of technical subjects) was in effect, which comprised the same course-load as the Bachelor and Master programs put together. Those who had already started the "doctorandus" program could, upon completing it, opt for the "doctorandus" degree, which gave the title “Doctorandus” before their name, abbreviated to 'drs.'; in the case of ingenieur, this would be 'ir.'), or else opt for a master's degree as postnominals behind their name, in accordance with the new standard ('MA' or 'MSc'). A Master's degree can take 1 or 2 years.


title: Master of Arts

text: The Polish equivalent of Master of Arts is "magister" (its abbreviation "mgr" is placed before one's name, like the title Dr). At the technical universities, a student is awarded with "inżynier" (engineer) after three years and then with "magister" after completing another two years of study and graduating. Such persons use titles "mgr inż". In the 1990s, the MA programs usually lasting five years were replaced by separate three-year bachelor's and two-year master's programs. The degree is awarded in the arts (literature, foreign languages, filmmaking, theatre etc.), natural sciences, mathematics, computer science fields, and economics. The completion of a research thesis is required. All master's degrees in Poland qualify for a doctorate program.


title: Master of Arts

text: In Finland, Denmark and Norway, the master's degree is a combined taught/research degree, awarded after two years of studies after completing the bachelor's degree. The student is required to write a scientific thesis.


title: Master of Arts

text: In Finland, this master's degree is called a "filosofian maisteri" (in Finnish) or "filosofie magister" (in Swedish), and it is abbreviated as "FM" or "fil.mag.".


title: Master of Arts

text: In Sweden, there is still an intermediate degree between the Bachelor ("kandidat") and Master called "magister" which only requires one year of studies, including a scientific thesis after completing the bachelor's degree. This fourth year typically constitutes the first half of a Master's programme. If not, it may be supplemented by a fifth year and a Master's thesis to obtain a master's degree in the field of study.


title: Master of Arts

text: Except at Oxford, Cambridge, and Trinity College Dublin (see below) the MA is typically a "taught" postgraduate degree, involving lectures, examination, and a dissertation based on independent research. Taught master's programs involve one or two years of full-time study. Many can be done part-time as well. Until recently, both the undergraduate and postgraduate master's degrees were awarded without grade or class (like the class of an honours degree). Nowadays, however, master's degrees are normally classified into the categories of Fail, Pass, Pass with Merit, or Pass with Distinction. This education pattern in the United Kingdom is followed in India and many Commonwealth Nations.


title: Master of Arts

text: The Master of Laws (LLM) is the standard degree taught for law, but certain courses may lead to MA, MLitt, Master of Studies (MSt), and the Bachelor of Civil Law (BCL) at Oxford. All of these degrees are considered substitutes to one another and are thus generally equivalent.


title: Master of Arts

text: In the ancient universities of Scotland, the degree of Master of Arts is awarded in universities as a four-year undergraduate degree, see Master of Arts (Scotland).


title: Master of Arts

text: The degree of Master of Arts is the first degree awarded in arts, humanities, theology, and social sciences. However, some universities in Scotland award the degree of Master of Letters (MLitt) to students in the arts, humanities, divinity, and social sciences.


title: Master of Arts

text: At Oxford, Cambridge and the University of Dublin, the title of Master of Arts is conferred after a certain number of years, without further examination, to those who have graduated as Bachelor of Arts and who have the requisite years' standing as members of the university or as graduates. This happens, in England, only at the universities of Oxford, four years after completing a bachelor's degree, and Cambridge, six years after the first term of study. It is also the case at the University of Dublin. The abbreviated name of the university (Oxon, Cantab or Dubl) is therefore almost always appended in parentheses to the initials "MA" in the same way that it is to higher degrees, e.g. "John Smith, MA (Cantab), PhD (Lond)", principally so that it is clear (to those who are aware of the system) that these are nominal and unexamined degrees.


title: Master of Arts

text: The MLitt is a research degree at the University of Cambridge, where the Master of Philosophy (MPhil) is the name given to the standard one-year taught degree with a unique research element, in contrast to the use of MPhil at other institutions for a research degree.


title: Master of Arts

text: Research in 2000 by the universities watchdog, the Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Education, showed that two-thirds of employers were unaware that the Oxford and Cambridge MA did not represent any kind of post-graduate achievement.


title: Master of Arts

text: In February 2011, the Labour Member of Parliament Chris Leslie sponsored a private member's bill in Parliament, the Master's Degrees (Minimum Standards) Bill, in order to "prohibit universities awarding Master's degrees unless certain standards of study and assessment are met". The bill's supporters described the practice as a "historical anachronism" and argued that "unearned qualifications" should be discontinued in order to preserve the academic integrity of the taught MA. Further, they warned that the title gave Oxbridge graduates an unfair advantage in the job market. On 21 October 2011, the bill received its second reading, but it failed to complete its passage through Parliament before the end of the session, meaning it fell.


title: Master of Arts

text: A number of different master's degrees may be earned at Oxford and Cambridge. The most common, the Master of Philosophy degree (MPhil), is a two-year research degree. To prepare to graduate as a Master of Science (MSc) or a Master of Studies (MSt) takes only one year, both courses often combining some coursework with research. A Master of Letters (MLitt) is the holder of a pure research master's degree. In comparison to the LLM at Cambridge, Oxford offers two master's degrees in law depending on the jurisdictional background of the student. The degree of Bachelor of Civil Law (BCL) is for those from a common law background, whilst the more recent Magister Juris is for those from civil law jurisdictions. More recently, Oxford and Cambridge offer the degree of Master of Business Administration. Master's degrees are generally offered without classification, although the top five percent may be deemed worthy of Distinction. Both universities also offer a variety of four-year undergraduate integrated master's degrees such as MEng or MMath.


title: Master of Arts

text: In Canada and the United States, the Master of Arts ("Magister Artium") and Master of Science ("Magister Scientiæ") are the basic graduate-level degrees in most subjects and may be course-based, research-based, or, more typically, a combination of the two.


title: Master of Arts

text: Admission to a master's program is normally contingent upon holding a bachelor's degree. Some programs provide for a joint bachelor's and master's after about five years. Some universities use the Latin degree names, such as "Artium Magister" (AM) or "Scientiæ Magister" (SM). For example, Harvard University, Dartmouth College, the University of Chicago, MIT, the University of Pennsylvania, and Brown University use the abbreviations AM and SM for some of their master's degrees. A Master of Arts may be given in a scientific discipline, common at Ivy League universities.


title: Master of Arts

text: Many universities offer Master of Arts programs, which are differentiated either as Thesis or Non-Thesis programs. Usually, the duration for a Non-Thesis option is one to two years of full-time study. The period for a Thesis option may last longer, depending also on the required level of courses and complexity of the thesis. Sometimes, qualified students who are admitted to a "very high research" Master of Arts might have to earn credits also at the PhD level, and they may need to complete their program in about three years of full-time candidature e.g. at the universities Harvard in the US and McGill in Canada.


title: Master of Arts

text: A thesis must be a distinct contribution to knowledge. It must demonstrate ability to plan and carry out research, organize results, and defend the approach and conclusions in a scholarly manner. The research presented must meet current standards of the discipline. Finally, the thesis must clearly demonstrate how the research advances knowledge in the field.


title: Hepatitis C

text: Hepatitis C is an infectious disease caused by the hepatitis C virus (HCV) that primarily affects the liver; it is a type of viral hepatitis. During the initial infection people often have mild or no symptoms. Occasionally a fever, dark urine, abdominal pain, and yellow tinged skin occurs. The virus persists in the liver in about 75% to 85% of those initially infected. Early on, chronic infection typically has no symptoms. Over many years however, it often leads to liver disease and occasionally cirrhosis. In some cases, those with cirrhosis will develop serious complications such as liver failure, liver cancer, or dilated blood vessels in the esophagus and stomach.


title: Hepatitis C

text: HCV is spread primarily by blood-to-blood contact associated with injection drug use, poorly sterilized medical equipment, needlestick injuries in healthcare, and transfusions. Using blood screening, the risk from a transfusion is less than one per two million. It may also be spread from an infected mother to her baby during birth. It is not spread by superficial contact. It is one of five known hepatitis viruses: A, B, C, D, and E.


title: Hepatitis C

text: Diagnosis is by blood testing to look for either antibodies to the virus or viral RNA. In the United States, screening for HCV infection is recommended in all adults age 18 to 79 years old.


title: Hepatitis C

text: There is no vaccine against hepatitis C. Prevention includes harm reduction efforts among people who inject drugs, testing donated blood, and treatment of people with chronic infection. Chronic infection can be cured more than 95% of the time with antiviral medications such as sofosbuvir or simeprevir. Peginterferon and ribavirin were earlier generation treatments that had a cure rate of less than 50% and greater side effects. Getting access to the newer treatments, however, can be expensive. Those who develop cirrhosis or liver cancer may require a liver transplant. Hepatitis C is the leading reason for liver transplantation, though the virus usually recurs after transplantation.


title: Hepatitis C

text: An estimated 58 million people worldwide were infected with hepatitis C in 2019. Approximately 290,000 deaths from the virus, mainly from liver cancer and cirrhosis attributed to hepatitis C, also occurred in 2019. The existence of hepatitis C – originally identifiable only as a type of non-A non-B hepatitis – was suggested in the 1970s and proven in 1989. Hepatitis C infects only humans and chimpanzees.


title: Hepatitis C

text: Acute symptoms develop in some 20–30% of those infected. When this occurs, it is generally 4–12 weeks following infection (but it may take from 2 weeks to 6 months for acute symptoms to appear).


title: Hepatitis C

text: Symptoms are generally mild and vague, and may include fatigue, nausea and vomiting, fever, muscle or joint pains, abdominal pain, decreased appetite and weight loss, jaundice (occurs in ~25% of those infected), dark urine, and clay-coloured stools. Acute liver failure due to acute hepatitis C is exceedingly rare. Symptoms and laboratory findings suggestive of liver disease should prompt further tests and can thus help establish a diagnosis of hepatitis C infection early on.


title: Hepatitis C

text: Following the acute phase, the infection may resolve spontaneously in 10–50% of affected people; this occurs more frequently in young people, and females.


title: Hepatitis C

text: About 80% of those exposed to the virus develop a chronic infection. This is defined as the presence of detectable viral replication for at least six months. Most experience minimal or no symptoms during the initial few decades of the infection. Chronic can be associated with fatigue and mild cognitive problems. Chronic infection after several years may cause cirrhosis or liver cancer. The liver enzymes measured from blood samples are normal in 7–53%. (Elevated levels indicate liver cells are being damaged by the virus or other disease). Late relapses after apparent cure have been reported, but these can be difficult to distinguish from reinfection.


title: Hepatitis C

text: Fatty changes to the liver occur in about half of those infected and are usually present before cirrhosis develops. Usually (80% of the time) this change affects less than a third of the liver. Worldwide hepatitis C is the cause of 27% of cirrhosis cases and 25% of hepatocellular carcinoma. About 10–30% of those infected develop cirrhosis over 30 years. Cirrhosis is more common in those also infected with hepatitis B, schistosoma, or HIV, in alcoholics and in those of male sex. In those with hepatitis C, excess alcohol increases the risk of developing cirrhosis 5-fold. Those who develop cirrhosis have a 20-fold greater risk of hepatocellular carcinoma. This transformation occurs at a rate of 1–3% per year. Being infected with hepatitis B in addition to hepatitis C increases this risk further.


title: Hepatitis C

text: Liver cirrhosis may lead to portal hypertension, ascites (accumulation of fluid in the abdomen), easy bruising or bleeding, varices (enlarged veins, especially in the stomach and esophagus), jaundice, and a syndrome of cognitive impairment known as hepatic encephalopathy. Ascites occurs at some stage in more than half of those who have a chronic infection.


title: Hepatitis C

text: The most common problem due to but not involving the liver is mixed cryoglobulinemia (usually the type II form) – an inflammation of small and medium-sized blood vessels. is also associated with autoimmune disorders such as Sjögren's syndrome, lichen planus, a low platelet count, porphyria cutanea tarda, necrolytic acral erythema, insulin resistance, diabetes mellitus, diabetic nephropathy, autoimmune thyroiditis, and B-cell lymphoproliferative disorders. 20–30% of people infected have rheumatoid factor – a type of antibody. Possible associations include Hyde's prurigo nodularis and membranoproliferative glomerulonephritis. Cardiomyopathy with associated abnormal heart rhythms has also been reported. A variety of central nervous system disorders has been reported. Chronic infection seems to be associated with an increased risk of pancreatic cancer. People may experience other issues in the mouth such as dryness, salivary duct stones, and crusted lesions around the mouth.


title: Hepatitis C

text: Persons who have been infected with hepatitis C may appear to clear the virus but remain infected. The virus is not detectable with conventional testing but can be found with ultra-sensitive tests. The original method of detection was by demonstrating the viral genome within liver biopsies, but newer methods include an antibody test for the virus' core protein and the detection of the viral genome after first concentrating the viral particles by ultracentrifugation. A form of infection with persistently moderately elevated serum liver enzymes but without antibodies to hepatitis C has also been reported. This form is known as cryptogenic occult infection.


title: Hepatitis C

text: Several clinical pictures have been associated with this type of infection. It may be found in people with anti-hepatitis-C antibodies but with normal serum levels of liver enzymes; in antibody-negative people with ongoing elevated liver enzymes of unknown cause; in healthy populations without evidence of liver disease; and in groups at risk for HCV infection including those on hemodialysis or family members of people with occult HCV. The clinical relevance of this form of infection is under investigation. The consequences of occult infection appear to be less severe than with chronic infection but can vary from minimal to hepatocellular carcinoma.


title: Hepatitis C

text: The rate of occult infection in those apparently cured is controversial but appears to be low. 40% of those with hepatitis but with both negative hepatitis C serology and the absence of detectable viral genome in the serum have hepatitis C virus in the liver on biopsy. How commonly this occurs in children is unknown.


title: Hepatitis C

text: The hepatitis C virus (HCV) is a small, enveloped, single-stranded, positive-sense RNA virus. It is a member of the genus "Hepacivirus" in the family "Flaviviridae". There are seven major genotypes of HCV, which are known as genotypes one to seven. The genotypes are divided into several subtypes with the number of subtypes depending on the genotype. In the United States, about 70% of cases are caused by genotype 1, 20% by genotype 2 and about 1% by each of the other genotypes. Genotype 1 is also the most common in South America and Europe.


title: Hepatitis C

text: The half life of the virus particles in the serum is around 3 hours and may be as short as 45 minutes. In an infected person, about 10 virus particles are produced each day. In addition to replicating in the liver the virus can multiply in lymphocytes.


title: Hepatitis C

text: Percutaneous contact with contaminated blood is responsible for most infections; however, the method of transmission is strongly dependent on both geographic region and economic status. Indeed, the primary route of transmission in the developed world is injection drug use, while in the developing world the main methods are blood transfusions and unsafe medical procedures. The cause of transmission remains unknown in 20% of cases; however, many of these are believed to be accounted for by injection drug use.


title: Hepatitis C

text: Injection drug use (IDU) is a major risk factor for in many parts of the world. Of 77 countries reviewed, 25 (including the United States) were found to have a prevalence of of between 60% and 80% among people who use injection drugs. Twelve countries had rates greater than 80%. It is believed that ten million intravenous drug users are infected with ; China (1.6 million), the United States (1.5 million), and Russia (1.3 million) have the highest absolute totals. Occurrence of among prison inmates in the United States is 10 to 20 times that of the occurrence observed in the general population; this has been attributed to high-risk behavior in prisons such as IDU and tattooing with non-sterile equipment. Shared intranasal drug use may also be a risk factor.


title: Hepatitis C

text: Blood transfusion, transfusion of blood products, or organ transplants without HCV screening carry significant risks of infection. The United States instituted universal screening in 1992, and Canada instituted universal screening in 1990. This decreased the risk from one in 200 units to between one in 10,000 to one in 10,000,000 per unit of blood. This low risk remains as there is a period of about 11–70 days between the potential blood donor's acquiring and the blood's testing positive depending on the method. Some countries do not screen for due to the cost.


title: Hepatitis C

text: Those who have experienced a needle stick injury from someone who was HCV positive have about a 1.8% chance of subsequently contracting the disease themselves. The risk is greater if the needle in question is hollow and the puncture wound is deep. There is a risk from mucosal exposures to blood, but this risk is low, and there is no risk if blood exposure occurs on intact skin.


title: Hepatitis C

text: Hospital equipment has also been documented as a method of transmission of , including reuse of needles and syringes; multiple-use medication vials; infusion bags; and improperly sterilized surgical equipment, among others. Limitations in the implementation and enforcement of stringent standard precautions in public and private medical and dental facilities are known to have been the primary cause of the spread of HCV in Egypt, the country that had the highest rate of infection in the world in 2012, and currently has one of the lowest in the world in 2021.


title: Hepatitis C

text: Sexual transmission of hepatitis C is uncommon. Studies examining the risk of HCV transmission between heterosexual partners, when one is infected and the other is not, have found very low risks. Sexual practices that involve higher levels of trauma to the anogenital mucosa, such as anal penetrative sex, or that occur when there is a concurrent sexually transmitted infection, including HIV or genital ulceration, present greater risks. The United States Department of Veterans Affairs recommends condom use to prevent transmission in those with multiple partners, but not those in relationships that involve only a single partner.


title: Hepatitis C

text: Tattooing is associated with two to threefold increased risk of . This could be due to either improperly sterilized equipment or contamination of the dyes being used. Tattoos or piercings performed either before the mid-1980s, "underground", or nonprofessionally are of particular concern, since sterile techniques in such settings may be lacking. The risk also appears to be greater for larger tattoos. It is estimated that nearly half of prison inmates share unsterilized tattooing equipment. It is rare for tattoos in a licensed facility to be directly associated with HCV infection.


title: Hepatitis C

text: Personal-care items such as razors, toothbrushes, and manicuring or pedicuring equipment can be contaminated with blood. Sharing such items can potentially lead to exposure to HCV. Appropriate caution should be taken regarding any medical condition that results in bleeding, such as cuts and sores. HCV is not spread through casual contact, such as hugging, kissing, or sharing eating or cooking utensils, nor is it transmitted through food or water.


title: Hepatitis C

text: Mother-to-child transmission of occurs in fewer than 10% of pregnancies. There are no measures that alter this risk. It is not clear when transmission occurs during pregnancy, but it may occur both during gestation and at delivery. A long labor is associated with a greater risk of transmission. There is no evidence that breastfeeding spreads HCV; however, to be cautious, an infected mother is advised to avoid breastfeeding if her nipples are cracked and bleeding, or if her viral loads are high.


title: Hepatitis C

text: There are a number of diagnostic tests for , including HCV antibody enzyme immunoassay (ELISA), recombinant immunoblot assay, and quantitative HCV RNA polymerase chain reaction (PCR). HCV RNA can be detected by PCR typically one to two weeks after infection, while antibodies can take substantially longer to form and thus be detected.


title: Hepatitis C

text: Diagnosing patients is generally a challenge as patients with acute illness generally present with mild, non-specific flu-like symptoms, while the transition from acute to chronic is sub-clinical. Chronic is defined as infection with the virus persisting for more than six months based on the presence of its RNA. Chronic infections are typically asymptomatic during the first few decades, and thus are most commonly discovered following the investigation of elevated liver enzyme levels or during a routine screening of high-risk individuals. Testing is not able to distinguish between acute and chronic infections. Diagnosis in infants is difficult as maternal antibodies may persist for up to 18 months.


title: Hepatitis C

text: testing typically begins with blood testing to detect the presence of antibodies to the HCV, using an enzyme immunoassay. If this test is positive, a confirmatory test is then performed to verify the immunoassay and to determine the viral load. A recombinant immunoblot assay is used to verify the immunoassay and the viral load is determined by an HCV RNA polymerase chain reaction. If there is no RNA and the immunoblot is positive, it means that the person tested had a previous infection but cleared it either with treatment or spontaneously; if the immunoblot is negative, it means that the immunoassay was wrong. It takes about 6–8 weeks following infection before the immunoassay will test positive. A number of tests are available as point-of-care testing (POCT), which can provide results within 30 minutes.


title: Hepatitis C

text: Liver enzymes are variable during the initial part of the infection and on average begin to rise at seven weeks after infection. The elevation of liver enzymes does not closely follow disease severity.


title: Hepatitis C

text: Liver biopsies are used to determine the degree of liver damage present; however, there are risks from the procedure. The typical changes seen are lymphocytes within the parenchyma, lymphoid follicles in portal triad, and changes to the bile ducts. There are a number of blood tests available that try to determine the degree of hepatic fibrosis and alleviate the need for biopsy.


title: Hepatitis C

text: It is believed that only 5–50% of those infected in the United States and Canada are aware of their status. Routine screening for those between the ages of 18 and 79 was recommended by the United States Preventive Services Task Force in 2020. Previously, testing was recommended for those at high risk, including injection drug users, those who have received blood transfusions before 1992, those who have been incarcerated, those on long-term hemodialysis, and those with tattoos. Screening is also recommended for those with elevated liver enzymes, as this is frequently the only sign of chronic hepatitis. , the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) recommends a single screening test for those born between 1945 and 1965. In Canada, a one-time screening is recommended for those born between 1945 and 1975.


title: Hepatitis C

text: , no approved vaccine protects against contracting . A combination of harm reduction strategies, such as the provision of new needles and syringes and treatment of substance use, decreases the risk of in people using injection drugs by about 75%. The screening of blood donors is important at a national level, as is adhering to universal precautions within healthcare facilities. In countries where there is an insufficient supply of sterile syringes, medications should be given orally rather than via injection (when possible). Recent research also suggests that treating people with active infection, thereby reducing the potential for transmission, may be an effective preventive measure.


title: Hepatitis C

text: Those with chronic are advised to avoid alcohol and medications that are toxic to the liver. They should also be vaccinated against hepatitis A and hepatitis B due to the increased risk if also infected. Use of acetaminophen is generally considered safe at reduced doses. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are not recommended in those with advanced liver disease due to an increased risk of bleeding. Ultrasound surveillance for hepatocellular carcinoma is recommended in those with accompanying cirrhosis. Coffee consumption has been associated with a slower rate of liver scarring in those infected with HCV.


title: Hepatitis C

text: Approximately 90% of chronic cases clear with treatment. Treatment with antiviral medication is recommended for all people with proven chronic hepatitis C who are not at high risk of death from other causes. People with the highest complication risk, which is based on the degree of liver scarring, should be treated first. The initial recommended treatment depends on the type of hepatitis C virus, if the person has received previous hepatitis C treatment, and whether the person has cirrhosis. Direct-acting antivirals are the preferred treatment and have been validated by testing for virus particles in patients' blood.


title: Hepatitis C

text: More than 90% of people with chronic infection can be cured when treated with medications. However, accessing these treatments can be expensive. The combination of sofosbuvir, velpatasvir, and voxilaprevir may be used in those who have previously been treated with sofosbuvir or other drugs that inhibit NS5A and were not cured.


title: Hepatitis C

text: Prior to 2011, treatments consisted of a combination of pegylated interferon alpha and ribavirin for a period of 24 or 48 weeks, depending on HCV genotype. This treatment produces cure rates of between 70 and 80% for genotype 2 and 3, respectively, and 45 to 70% for genotypes 1 and 4. Adverse effects with these treatments were common, with 50 to 60% of those being treated experiencing flu-like symptoms and nearly a third experiencing depression or other emotional issues. Treatment during the first six months of infection (the acute stage) is more effective than when has entered the chronic stage. In those with chronic hepatitis B, treatment for hepatitis C results in reactivation of hepatitis B about 25% of the time.


title: Hepatitis C

text: Cirrhosis due to hepatitis C is a common reason for liver transplantation, though the virus usually (80–90% of cases) recurs afterwards. Infection of the graft leads to 10–30% of people developing cirrhosis within five years. Treatment with pegylated interferon and ribavirin post-transplant decreases the risk of recurrence to 70%. A 2013 review found no clear evidence as to whether antiviral medication is useful if the graft became reinfected.


title: Hepatitis C

text: Several alternative therapies are claimed by their proponents to be helpful for , including milk thistle, ginseng, and colloidal silver. However, no alternative therapy has been shown to improve outcomes for patients, and no evidence exists that alternative therapies have any effect on the virus.


title: Hepatitis C

text: The responses to treatment is measured by "sustained viral response" (SVR), defined as the absence of detectable RNA of the hepatitis C virus in blood serum for at least 24 weeks after discontinuing treatment, and rapid virological response (RVR), defined as undetectable levels achieved within four weeks of treatment. Successful treatment decreases the future risk of hepatocellular carcinoma by 75%.


title: Hepatitis C

text: Prior to 2012, sustained response occurred in about 40–50% of those with HCV genotype 1 who received 48 weeks of treatment. A sustained response was seen in 70–80% of people with HCV genotypes 2 and 3 following 24 weeks of treatment. A sustained response occurs for about 65% of those with genotype 4 after 48 weeks of treatment. For those with HCV genotype 6, a 48-week treatment protocol of pegylated interferon and ribavirin results in a higher rate of sustained responses than for genotype 1 (86% vs. 52%). Further studies are needed to determine results for shorter 24-week treatments and for those given at lower dosages.


title: Hepatitis C

text: Depending on a variety of patient factors, between 15 and 45% of those with acute HCV infections will spontaneously clear the virus within six months, before the infection is considered chronic. Spontaneous resolution following acute infection appears more common in females and in patients who are younger, and may be influenced by certain genetic factors. Chronic HCV infection may also resolve spontaneously months or years after the acute phase has passed, though this is unusual.


title: Hepatitis C

text: The World Health Organization estimated in a 2021 report that 58 million people globally were living with chronic hepatitis C as of 2019. About 1.5 million people are infected per year, and about 290,000 people die yearly from hepatitis C-related diseases, mainly from liver cancer and cirrhosis.


title: Hepatitis C

text: Hepatitis C infection rates increased substantially in the 20th century due to a combination of intravenous drug abuse and the reuse of poorly sterilized medical equipment. However, advancements in treatment have led to notable declines in chronic infections and deaths from the virus. As a result, the number of chronic patients receiving treatment worldwide has grown from about 950,000 in 2015 to 9.4 million in 2019. During the same period, hepatitis C deaths declined from about 400,000 to 290,000.


title: Hepatitis C

text: Previously, a 2013 study found high infection rates (>3.5% population infected) in Central and East Asia, North Africa and the Middle East, intermediate infection rates (1.5–3.5%) in South and Southeast Asia, sub-Saharan Africa, Andean, Central and Southern Latin America, Caribbean, Oceania, Australasia and Central, Eastern and Western Europe; and low infection rates (<1.5%) in Asia-Pacific, Tropical Latin America and North America.


title: Hepatitis C

text: Among those chronically infected, the risk of cirrhosis after 20 years varies between studies but has been estimated at ~10–15% for men and ~1–5% for women. The reason for this difference is not known. Once cirrhosis is established, the rate of developing hepatocellular carcinoma is ~1–4% per year. Rates of new infections have decreased in the Western world since the 1990s due to improved screening of blood before transfusion.


title: Hepatitis C

text: In Egypt, following Egypt's 2030 Vision, the country managed to bring down the infection rates of Hepatitis C from 22% in 2011 to just 2% in 2021. It was believed that the high prevalence in Egypt was linked to a discontinued mass-treatment campaign for schistosomiasis, using improperly sterilized glass syringes.


title: Hepatitis C

text: In the United States, about 2% of people have chronic . In 2014, an estimated 30,500 new acute hepatitis C cases occurred (0.7 per 100,000 population), an increase from 2010 to 2012. The number of deaths from hepatitis C has increased to 15,800 in 2008 having overtaken HIV/AIDS as a cause of death in the US in 2007. In 2014 it was the single greatest cause of infectious death in the United States. This mortality rate is expected to increase, as those infected by transfusion before HCV testing become apparent. In Europe the percentage of people with chronic infections has been estimated to be between 0.13 and 3.26%.


title: Hepatitis C

text: In the United Kingdom about 118,000 people were chronically infected in 2019. About half of people using a needle exchange in London in 2017/8 tested positive for hepatitis C of which half were unaware that they had it. As part of a bid to eradicate hepatitis C by 2025 NHS England conducted a large procurement exercise in 2019. Merck Sharp & Dohme, Gilead Sciences, and Abbvie were awarded contracts, which, together, are worth up to £1 billion over five years.


title: Hepatitis C

text: The total number of people with this infection is higher in some countries in Africa and Asia. Countries with particularly high rates of infection include Pakistan (4.8%) and China (3.2%).


title: Hepatitis C

text: Since 2014, extremely effective medication have been available to eradication the disease in 8–12 weeks in most people. In 2015 about 950,000 people were treated while 1.7 million new infections occurred, meaning that overall the number of people with HCV increased. These numbers differ by country and improved in 2016, with some countries achieving higher cure rates than new infection rates (mostly high income countries). By 2018, twelve countries are on track to achieve HCV elimination. While antiviral agents will curb new infections, it is less clear whether they impact overall deaths and morbidity. Furthermore, for them to be effective, people need to be aware of their infection – it is estimated that worldwide only 20% of infected people are aware of their infection (in the US fewer than half were aware).


title: Hepatitis C

text: In the mid-1970s, Harvey J. Alter, Chief of the Infectious Disease Section in the Department of Transfusion Medicine at the National Institutes of Health, and his research team demonstrated how most post-transfusion hepatitis cases were not due to hepatitis A or B viruses. Despite this discovery, international research efforts to identify the virus, initially called "non-A, non-B hepatitis" (NANBH), failed for the next decade. In 1987, Michael Houghton, Qui-Lim Choo, and George Kuo at Chiron Corporation, collaborating with Daniel W. Bradley at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, used a novel molecular cloning approach to identify the unknown organism and develop a diagnostic test. In 1988, Alter confirmed the virus by verifying its presence in a panel of NANBH specimens, and Chiron announced its discovery at a Washington, DC Press conference in May, 1988.


title: Hepatitis C

text: At the time, Chiron was in talks with the Japanese health ministry to sell a biotech version of the Hepatitis B vaccine. Simultaneously, Emperor Hirohito had developed cancer and required numerous blood transfusions. The Japanese health ministry placed a screening order for Chiron's experimental NANBH test. Chiron's Japanese marketing subsidiary, Diagnostic Systems KK invented the term "Hepatitis C" in November, 1988 in Tokyo news reports publicizing the testing of the Emperor's blood. Chiron managed to sell a screening order to the Japanese health ministry in November 1988, earning the company $60 million a year. However, because Chiron had not published any of its research and did not make a culture model available to other researchers to verify Chiron's discovery, Hepatitis C earned the nickname "The Emperor's New Virus."


title: Hepatitis C

text: In April 1989, the "discovery" of HCV was published in two articles in the journal "Science". Chiron filed for several patents on the virus and its diagnosis. A competing patent application by the CDC was dropped in 1990 after Chiron paid $1.9 million to the CDC and $337,500 to Bradley. In 1994, Bradley sued Chiron, seeking to invalidate the patent, have himself included as a coinventor, and receive damages and royalty income. He dropped the suit in 1998 after losing before an appeals court.


title: Hepatitis C

text: Because of the unique molecular "isolation" of the Hepatitis C virus, although Houghton and Kuo's team at Chiron had discovered strong biochemical markers for the virus and the test proved effective at reducing cases of post-transfusion hepatitis, the existence of a Hepatitis C virus was essentially inferred. In 1992, the San Francisco Chronicle reported the virus had never been observed under an electron microscope. In 1997, the American FDA approved the first Hepatitis C drug on the basis of a Surrogate Marker called "Sustained Virological Response." In response, the pharmaceutical industry established a nationwide network of "Astro-Turf" patient advocacy groups to raise awareness (and fear) of the disease.


title: Hepatitis C

text: Hepatitis C was finally "discovered" in 2005 when a Japanese team was able to propagate a molecular clone in a cell culture called Huh7. This discovery enabled proper characterization of the viral particle and rapid research into the development of protease inhibitors replacing early interferon treatments. The first of these, Sovaldi, was approved on December 6, 2013. These drugs are marketed as "cures;" however, because they were approved on the basis of surrogate markers and not clinical endpoints such as prolonging life or improving liver health, many experts question their value.


title: Hepatitis C

text: After blood screening began, a notable Hepatitis C prevalence was discovered in Egypt, which claimed six million individuals were infected by unsterile needles in a late 1970's mass chemotherapy campaign to eliminate snail fever.


title: Hepatitis C

text: On October 5, 2020, Houghton and Alter, together with Charles M. Rice, were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their work.


title: Hepatitis C

text: World Hepatitis Day, held on July 28, is coordinated by the World Hepatitis Alliance. The economic costs of hepatitis C are significant both to the individual and to society. In the United States the average lifetime cost of the disease was estimated at US$33,407 in 2003 with the cost of a liver transplant costing approximately US$200,000. In Canada the cost of a course of antiviral treatment is as high as 30,000 CAD in 2003, while the United States costs are between 9,200 and 17,600 in 1998 USD. In many areas of the world, people are unable to afford treatment with antivirals as they either lack insurance coverage or the insurance they have will not pay for antivirals. In the English National Health Service treatment rates for hepatitis C are higher among wealthier groups per 2010–2012 data. Spanish anaesthetist Juan Maeso infected 275 patients between 1988 and 1997 as he used the same needles to give both himself and the patients opioids. For this he was jailed.


title: Hepatitis C

text: Compared with adults, infection in children is much less understood. Worldwide the prevalence of virus infection in pregnant women and children has been estimated to 1–8% and 0.05–5% respectively. The vertical transmission rate has been estimated to be 3–5% and there is a high rate of spontaneous clearance (25–50%) in the children. Higher rates have been reported for both vertical transmission (18%, 6–36% and 41%) and prevalence in children (15%).


title: Hepatitis C

text: In developed countries transmission around the time of birth is now the leading cause of HCV infection. In the absence of virus in the mother's blood transmission seems to be rare. Factors associated with an increased rate of infection include membrane rupture of longer than 6 hours before delivery and procedures exposing the infant to maternal blood. Cesarean sections are not recommended. Breastfeeding is considered safe if the nipples are not damaged. Infection around the time of birth in one child does not increase the risk in a subsequent pregnancy. All genotypes appear to have the same risk of transmission.


title: Hepatitis C

text: HCV infection is frequently found in children who have previously been presumed to have non-A, non-B hepatitis and cryptogenic liver disease. The presentation in childhood may be asymptomatic or with elevated liver function tests. While infection is commonly asymptomatic both cirrhosis with liver failure and hepatocellular carcinoma may occur in childhood.


title: Hepatitis C

text: The rate of in immunosuppressed people is higher. This is particularly true in those with human immunodeficiency virus infection, recipients of organ transplants, and those with hypogammaglobulinemia. Infection in these people is associated with an unusually rapid progression to cirrhosis. People with stable HIV who never received medication for HCV, may be treated with a combination of peginterferon plus ribavirin with caution to the possible side effects.


title: Hepatitis C

text: , there are about one hundred medications in development for . These include vaccines to treat hepatitis, immunomodulators, and cyclophilin inhibitors, among others. These potential new treatments have come about due to a better understanding of the virus. There are a number of vaccines under development and some have shown encouraging results.


title: Hepatitis C

text: The combination of sofosbuvir and velpatasvir in one trial (reported in 2015) resulted in cure rates of 99%. More studies are needed to investigate the role of the preventive antiviral medication against HCV recurrence after transplantation.


title: Hepatitis C

text: One barrier to finding treatments for is the lack of a suitable animal model. Despite moderate success, research highlights the need for pre-clinical testing in mammalian systems such as mouse, particularly for the development of vaccines in poorer communities. Chimpanzees remain the only available living system to study, yet their use has ethical concerns and regulatory restrictions. While scientists have made use of human cell culture systems such as hepatocytes, questions have been raised about their accuracy in reflecting the body's response to infection.


title: Hepatitis C

text: One aspect of hepatitis research is to reproduce infections in mammalian models. A strategy is to introduce liver tissues from humans into mice, a technique known as xenotransplantation. This is done by generating chimeric mice, and exposing the mice HCV infection. This engineering process is known to create humanized mice, and provide opportunities to study hepatitis C within the 3D architectural design of the liver and evaluating antiviral compounds. Alternatively, generating inbred mice with susceptibility to HCV would simplify the process of studying mouse models.


title: Anniversary

text: An anniversary is the date on which an event took place or an institution was founded in a previous year, and may also refer to the commemoration or celebration of that event. The word was first used for Catholic feasts to commemorate saints.


title: Anniversary

text: Most countries celebrate national anniversaries, typically called national days. These could be the date of independence of the nation or the adoption of a new constitution or form of government. There is no definite method for determining the date of establishment of an institution, and it is generally decided within the institution by convention. The important dates in a sitting monarch's reign may also be commemorated, an event often referred to as a "jubilee".


title: Anniversary

text: The Latin phrase "dies natalis" (literally "birth day") has become a common term, adopted in many languages, especially in intellectual and institutional circles, for the anniversary of the founding ("legal or statutory birth") of an institution, such as an "alma mater" (college or other school). In ancient Rome, the "[dies] Aquilae natalis" was the "birthday of the eagle", the anniversary of the official founding of a legion.


title: Anniversary

text: Anniversaries of nations are usually marked by the number of years elapsed, expressed with Latin words or Roman numerals.


title: Anniversary

text: Latin terms for anniversaries are mostly straightforward, particularly those relating to the first thirty years (1–30), or multiples of ten years (30, 40, 50, 60, 70 etc.), or multiples of centuries or millenniums (100, 200, 300, 1000, 2000, 3000, etc.) In these instances, the name of the anniversary is generally derived from the Latin word(s) for the respective number of years. When anniversaries relate to fractions of centuries (125, 150, 175, 225 years—i.e. 1.25, 1.5, 1.75, and 2.25 centuries), the situation is not as simple.


title: Anniversary

text: Roman fractions were based on a duodecimal system. From to they were expressed as multiples of twelfths ("uncia" "twelfth"; the source of the English words "inch" and "ounce") and from to they were expressed as multiple twelfths less than the next whole unit—i.e. a whole unit less , or respectively. There were also special terms for quarter ("quadrans"), half ("semis"), and three-quarters ("dodrans"). "Dodrans" is a Latin contraction of "de-quadrans" which means "a whole unit less a quarter" ("de" means "from"; "quadrans" means "quarter"). Thus for the example of 175 years, the term is a quarter century less than the next whole (bi)century or 175 = (−25 + 200).


title: Anniversary

text: In Latin, it seems that this rule did not apply precisely for . While "secundus" is Latin for "second", and "bis" for "twice", these terms are not used such as in sesqui-secundus. Instead "sesqui" (or "ses") is used by itself.


title: Anniversary

text: Many anniversaries have special names. "Etiquette in Society, in Business, in Politics and at Home" by Emily Post, published in 1922, contained suggestions for wedding anniversary gifts for 1, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 50, and 75 years. Wedding anniversary gift suggestions for other years were added in later editions and publications; they now comprise what is referred to as the "traditional" list. Generally speaking, the longer the period, the more precious or durable the material associated with it.


title: Anniversary

text: There are variations according to some national traditions. There exist numerous partially overlapping, partially contradictory lists of anniversary gifts (such as wedding stones), separate from the 'traditional' names.


title: Anniversary

text: The concepts of a person's birthday stone and zodiac stone, by contrast, are fixed for life according to the day of the week, month, or astrological sign corresponding to the recipient's birthday.


title: Finn Bálor

text: Fergal Devitt (born 25 July 1981) is an Irish professional wrestler. He is currently signed to WWE, where he performs on the Raw brand under the ring name Finn Bálor (), and is a member of The Judgment Day.


title: Finn Bálor

text: Devitt is widely known for his tenure with New Japan Pro-Wrestling (NJPW) as Prince Devitt, where he is a three-time IWGP Junior Heavyweight Champion and six-time IWGP Junior Heavyweight Tag Team Champion, having held the title twice with Minoru and four times with Ryusuke Taguchi. He is also a two-time winner of the Best of the Super Juniors tournament, having won in 2010 and 2013, as well as being a founding member and the original leader of the Bullet Club stable. Through NJPW's working relationship with Mexican promotion Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre (CMLL), Devitt also wrestled there, becoming a one-time NWA World Historic Middleweight Champion. He also wrestled for a number of independent promotions, becoming a one-time ICW Zero-G Champion, one-time RPW British Cruiserweight Champion and a two-time NWA British Commonwealth Heavyweight Champion.


title: Finn Bálor

text: After signing with WWE's developmental system, NXT, and adopting his current ring name, Bálor won the NXT Championship, and he was the longest reigning champion at 292 days until Adam Cole broke the record on 19 March 2020. Also during his time in NXT, Bálor became the first co-winner of the inaugural Dusty Rhodes Tag Team Classic with Samoa Joe. Shortly after arriving on the main roster, Bálor became the first wrestler in WWE history to win a world title in their pay-per-view debut, the second ever Irish world champion in WWE (after Sheamus) as well as becoming the quickest wrestler in WWE history to win a world title at 27 days following his main roster debut by becoming the inaugural WWE Universal Champion at SummerSlam 2016. During his time on the main roster, Bálor was also a two-time Intercontinental Champion and a one-time United States Champion.


title: Finn Bálor

text: Fergal Devitt was born on 25 July 1981 in Bray, County Wicklow, the son of Leonie and Fintan Devitt. He has one older sibling and three younger siblings. He attended St. Cronan's School in Bray. Before deciding to become a professional wrestler, he played association football and Gaelic football. While growing up, he enjoyed watching "World of Sport" and WWF (now WWE) shows and was a fan of The British Bulldogs, Shawn Michaels, Mr. Perfect, Rick Rude, Savio Vega, and Koko B. Ware.


title: Finn Bálor

text: After training at NWA UK Hammerlock, Devitt made his professional wrestling debut on 23 November 2001. He quickly won the NWA British Commonwealth Heavyweight Championship. After graduating, his wrestling career started quickly, and he began touring Ireland, the United Kingdom, and the United States. In mid-2002, Devitt, along with Paul Tracey, opened NWA Ireland, his own wrestling promotion based in Ireland. The promotion soon became the sister group of NWA UK Hammerlock as both promoted under the NWA banner. As part of NWA Ireland, Devitt trained future WWE competitor Becky Lynch.


title: Finn Bálor

text: On 8 October 2005, in Nashville, Tennessee, at the NWA 57th Anniversary Show, Devitt defeated Dru Onyx for his second British Commonwealth title. After the match both participants were invited to the New Japan Inoki Dojo in Santa Monica, California to train. During late 2005, Devitt also began competing for the U.S.based Millennium Wrestling Federation (MWF). He made his debut in a triple threat match at "Soul Survivor III" on 5 November, challenging for the MWF Television Championship against the champion Eddie Edwards and R. J. Brewer. He made his television debut on the November edition of "MWF Ultra", in a match against Osiris. After impressing many promoters and trainers, he was invited to train in New Japan's main dojo in Tokyo, where, in early 2006, he began training in the Japanese style of professional wrestling. He lost the British Commonwealth Championship to Karl Anderson in March 2006.


title: Finn Bálor

text: In June 2007, Devitt participated in a tournament for the National Wrestling Alliance (NWA) called "Reclaiming the Glory", which was to crown a new NWA World Heavyweight Champion. The championship had been controlled by Total Nonstop Action Wrestling (TNA) for several years, but in 2007 NWA had terminated its agreement with TNA. In the first round, Devitt defeated Australian wrestler Mikey Nicholls, but lost in the second round to Bryan Danielson.


title: Finn Bálor

text: The day after losing the British Commonwealth Championship, Devitt signed a contract with New Japan Pro-Wrestling (NJPW) in March 2006. In April 2006, he made his NJPW debut against El Samurai, using the ring name Prince Devitt. Devitt later stated in an interview with "PowerSlam Mag" that New Japan renamed him Prince Devitt because nobody Japanese could pronounce his actual name. He was originally going to be called King David until people started questioning why the 24-year-old would be a king already. Eventually, Simon Inoki came up with the name Prince Devitt, which Devitt himself also preferred. In May 2006, New Japan started holding brandexclusive events, and Devitt was assigned to the Wrestle Land brand, debuting under a mask as the second Pegasus Kid, which led to comparisons between Devitt and the original Pegasus Kid, Chris Benoit.


title: Finn Bálor

text: During his tour of New Japan in late August and early September, he started competing again as his Prince Devitt identity, utilizing an Irish superstar gimmick. He eventually turned heel and started teaming with the Control Terrorism Unit (CTU) in an apprenticetype role. While teaming with CTU, he began a losing streak, aggravating his teammates to such a degree that they did not want anything to do with him anymore. This led to him being given one final chance on 6 October, where he rose to the occasion and impressed his CTU teammates enough to continue his association with them. To solidify his status with the stable, Devitt teamed with CTU leader, Jushin Thunder Liger to take on Wataru Inoue and Ryusuke Taguchi. In a huge twist, Devitt was the one to make the final cover on Inoue following a stiff brainbuster. From then on he was officially recognized as a member of the CTU.


title: Finn Bálor

text: His momentum was halted in January 2007, when he suffered a serious knee injury, sidelining him from in-ring action in New Japan until early May of that year. Following the injury, he returned to action, showing great improvement and was touted by fellow CTU teammate, Minoru, as the future winner of the 2007 Best of the Super Juniors tournament. However, when the tournament was held in June 2007, Devitt scored no points and was eliminated early from the competition. Following the folding of CTU in August 2007, Devitt and Minoru joined the new RISE stable, forming a tag team named "Prince Prince", a reference to both Devitt's ring name and Minoru's nickname, "Black Prince". In November 2007, TNA made a tour of Japan, during which Devitt and Minoru were defeated by TNA wrestlers Senshi and Christopher Daniels.


title: Finn Bálor

text: On 27 January 2008, Devitt and Minoru won the IWGP Junior Heavyweight Tag Team Championship, this served as Devitt's first major tag title reign. They lost the championship to Akira and Jyushin Thunder Liger in February, before regaining the title on 21 July. After a near three-month reign they lost the championship to No Limit (Tetsuya Naito and Yujiro) in October.


title: Finn Bálor

text: Devitt teamed with Ryusuke Taguchi as and on 5 July 2009 at "Circuit 2009 New Japan Soul" they defeated The Motor City Machine Guns (Alex Shelley and Chris Sabin) to win the IWGP Junior Heavyweight Tag Team Championship. On 30 May, Devitt entered the 2009 Best of the Super Juniors tournament. After winning his block in the round-robin stage of the tournament, Devitt advanced to the semifinals, where he defeated Kota Ibushi. In the end, Devitt was defeated in the finals of the tournament by Koji Kanemoto. In December, Devitt entered the 2009 Super J-Cup. After defeating Atsushi Aoki, Danshoku Dino and Yamato, Devitt was once again defeated in the finals of the tournament, this time by Naomichi Marufuji. On 4 January 2010, at Wrestle Kingdom IV in Tokyo Dome, Devitt and Taguchi successfully defended the IWGP Junior Heavyweight Tag Team Championship against Averno and Último Guerrero. On 21 April, Devitt and Taguchi were stripped of the title, after not defending them for 30 days. On 8 May, the two entered the Super J Tag Tournament in an attempt to regain the championship, but were defeated in the finals by the team of El Samurai and Koji Kanemoto.