title: Soil

text: In grassland, much of the organic matter added to the soil is from the deep, fibrous, grass root systems. By contrast, tree leaves falling on the forest floor are the principal source of soil organic matter in the forest. Another difference is the frequent occurrence in the grasslands of fires that destroy large amounts of aboveground material but stimulate even greater contributions from roots. Also, the much greater acidity under any forests inhibits the action of certain soil organisms that otherwise would mix much of the surface litter into the mineral soil. As a result, the soils under grasslands generally develop a thicker A horizon with a deeper distribution of organic matter than in comparable soils under forests, which characteristically store most of their organic matter in the forest floor (O horizon) and thin A horizon.


title: Soil

text: Humus refers to organic matter that has been decomposed by soil microflora and fauna to the point where it is resistant to further breakdown. Humus usually constitutes only five percent of the soil or less by volume, but it is an essential source of nutrients and adds important textural qualities crucial to soil health and plant growth. Humus also feeds arthropods, termites and earthworms which further improve the soil. The end product, humus, is suspended in colloidal form in the soil solution and forms a weak acid that can attack silicate minerals by chelating their iron and aluminum atoms. Humus has a high cation and anion exchange capacity that on a dry weight basis is many times greater than that of clay colloids. It also acts as a buffer, like clay, against changes in pH and soil moisture.


title: Soil

text: Humic acids and fulvic acids, which begin as raw organic matter, are important constituents of humus. After the death of plants, animals, and microbes, microbes begin to feed on the residues through their production of extra-cellular soil enzymes, resulting finally in the formation of humus. As the residues break down, only molecules made of aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons, assembled and stabilized by oxygen and hydrogen bonds, remain in the form of complex molecular assemblages collectively called humus. Humus is never pure in the soil, because it reacts with metals and clays to form complexes which further contribute to its stability and to soil structure. Although the structure of humus has in itself few nutrients (with the exception of constitutive metals such as calcium, iron and aluminum) it is able to attract and link, by weak bonds, cation and anion nutrients that can further be released into the soil solution in response to selective root uptake and changes in soil pH, a process of paramount importance for the maintenance of fertility in tropical soils.


title: Soil

text: Lignin is resistant to breakdown and accumulates within the soil. It also reacts with proteins, which further increases its resistance to decomposition, including enzymatic decomposition by microbes. Fats and waxes from plant matter have still more resistance to decomposition and persist in soils for thousand years, hence their use as tracers of past vegetation in buried soil layers. Clay soils often have higher organic contents that persist longer than soils without clay as the organic molecules adhere to and are stabilised by the clay. Proteins normally decompose readily, to the exception of scleroproteins, but when bound to clay particles they become more resistant to decomposition. As for other proteins clay particles absorb the enzymes exuded by microbes, decreasing enzyme activity while protecting extracellular enzymes from degradation. The addition of organic matter to clay soils can render that organic matter and any added nutrients inaccessible to plants and microbes for many years. A study showed increased soil fertility following the addition of mature compost to a clay soil. High soil tannin content can cause nitrogen to be sequestered as resistant tannin-protein complexes.


title: Soil

text: Humus formation is a process dependent on the amount of plant material added each year and the type of base soil. Both are affected by climate and the type of organisms present. Soils with humus can vary in nitrogen content but typically have 3 to 6 percent nitrogen. Raw organic matter, as a reserve of nitrogen and phosphorus, is a vital component affecting soil fertility. Humus also absorbs water, and expands and shrinks between dry and wet states to a higher extent than clay, increasing soil porosity. Humus is less stable than the soil's mineral constituents, as it is reduced by microbial decomposition, and over time its concentration diminishes without the addition of new organic matter. However, humus in its most stable forms may persist over centuries if not millennia. Charcoal is a source of highly stable humus, called black carbon, which had been used traditionally to improve the fertility of nutrient-poor tropical soils. This very ancient practice, as ascertained in the genesis of Amazonian dark earths, has been renewed and became popular under the name of biochar. It has been suggested that biochar could be used to sequester more carbon in the fight against the greenhouse effect.


title: Soil

text: The production, accumulation and degradation of organic matter are greatly dependent on climate. For example, when a thawing event occurs, the flux of soil gases with atmospheric gases is significantly influenced. Temperature, soil moisture and topography are the major factors affecting the accumulation of organic matter in soils. Organic matter tends to accumulate under wet or cold conditions where decomposer activity is impeded by low temperature or excess moisture which results in anaerobic conditions. Conversely, excessive rain and high temperatures of tropical climates enables rapid decomposition of organic matter and leaching of plant nutrients. Forest ecosystems on these soils rely on efficient recycling of nutrients and plant matter by the living plant and microbial biomass to maintain their productivity, a process which is disturbed by human activities. Excessive slope, in particular in the presence of cultivation for the sake of agriculture, may encourage the erosion of the top layer of soil which holds most of the raw organic material that would otherwise eventually become humus.


title: Soil

text: Cellulose and hemicellulose undergo fast decomposition by fungi and bacteria, with a half-life of 12–18 days in a temperate climate. Brown rot fungi can decompose the cellulose and hemicellulose, leaving the lignin and phenolic compounds behind. Starch, which is an energy storage system for plants, undergoes fast decomposition by bacteria and fungi. Lignin consists of polymers composed of 500 to 600 units with a highly branched, amorphous structure, linked to cellulose, hemicellulose and pectin in plant cell walls. Lignin undergoes very slow decomposition, mainly by white rot fungi and actinomycetes; its half-life under temperate conditions is about six months.


title: Soil

text: A horizontal layer of the soil, whose physical features, composition and age are distinct from those above and beneath, is referred to as a soil horizon. The naming of a horizon is based on the type of material of which it is composed. Those materials reflect the duration of specific processes of soil formation. They are labelled using a shorthand notation of letters and numbers which describe the horizon in terms of its colour, size, texture, structure, consistency, root quantity, pH, voids, boundary characteristics and presence of nodules or concretions. No soil profile has all the major horizons. Some, called entisols, may have only one horizon or are currently considered as having no horizon, in particular incipient soils from unreclaimed mining waste deposits, moraines, volcanic cones sand dunes or alluvial terraces. Upper soil horizons may be lacking in truncated soils following wind or water ablation, with concomitant downslope burying of soil horizons, a natural process aggravated by agricultural practices such as tillage. The growth of trees is another source of disturbance, creating a micro-scale heterogeneity which is still visible in soil horizons once trees have died. By passing from a horizon to another, from the top to the bottom of the soil profile, one goes back in time, with past events registered in soil horizons like in sediment layers. Sampling pollen, testate amoebae and plant remains in soil horizons may help to reveal environmental changes (e.g. climate change, land use change) which occurred in the course of soil formation. Soil horizons can be dated by several methods such as radiocarbon, using pieces of charcoal provided they are of enough size to escape pedoturbation by earthworm activity and other mechanical disturbances. Fossil soil horizons from paleosols can be found within sedimentary rock sequences, allowing the study of past environments.


title: Soil

text: The exposure of parent material to favourable conditions produces mineral soils that are marginally suitable for plant growth, as is the case in eroded soils. The growth of vegetation results in the production of organic residues which fall on the ground as litter for plant aerial parts (leaf litter) or are directly produced belowground for subterranean plant organs (root litter), and then release dissolved organic matter. The remaining surficial organic layer, called the O horizon, produces a more active soil due to the effect of the organisms that live within it. Organisms colonise and break down organic materials, making available nutrients upon which other plants and animals can live. After sufficient time, humus moves downward and is deposited in a distinctive organic-mineral surface layer called the A horizon, in which organic matter is mixed with mineral matter through the activity of burrowing animals, a process called pedoturbation. This natural process does not go to completion in the presence of conditions detrimental to soil life such as strong acidity, cold climate or pollution, stemming in the accumulation of undecomposed organic matter within a single organic horizon overlying the mineral soil and in the juxtaposition of humified organic matter and mineral particles, without intimate mixing, in the underlying mineral horizons.


title: Soil

text: One of the first soil classification systems was developed by Russian scientist Vasily Dokuchaev around 1880. It was modified a number of times by American and European researchers and was developed into the system commonly used until the 1960s. It was based on the idea that soils have a particular morphology based on the materials and factors that form them. In the 1960s, a different classification system began to emerge which focused on soil morphology instead of parental materials and soil-forming factors. Since then, it has undergone further modifications. The World Reference Base for Soil Resources aims to establish an international reference base for soil classification.


title: Soil

text: Soil is used in agriculture, where it serves as the anchor and primary nutrient base for plants. The types of soil and available moisture determine the species of plants that can be cultivated. Agricultural soil science was the primeval domain of soil knowledge, long time before the advent of pedology in the 19th century. However, as demonstrated by aeroponics, aquaponics and hydroponics, soil material is not an absolute essential for agriculture, and soilless cropping systems have been claimed as the future of agriculture for an endless growing mankind.


title: Soil

text: Soil material is also a critical component in mining, construction and landscape development industries. Soil serves as a foundation for most construction projects. The movement of massive volumes of soil can be involved in surface mining, road building and dam construction. Earth sheltering is the architectural practice of using soil for external thermal mass against building walls. Many building materials are soil based. Loss of soil through urbanization is growing at a high rate in many areas and can be critical for the maintenance of subsistence agriculture.


title: Soil

text: Soil resources are critical to the environment, as well as to food and fibre production, producing 98.8% of food consumed by humans. Soil provides minerals and water to plants according to several processes involved in plant nutrition. Soil absorbs rainwater and releases it later, thus preventing floods and drought, flood regulation being one of the major ecosystem services provided by soil. Soil cleans water as it percolates through it. Soil is the habitat for many organisms: the major part of known and unknown biodiversity is in the soil, in the form of earthworms, woodlice, millipedes, centipedes, snails, slugs, mites, springtails, enchytraeids, nematodes, protists), bacteria, archaea, fungi and algae; and most organisms living above ground have part of them (plants) or spend part of their life cycle (insects) below-ground. Above-ground and below-ground biodiversities are tightly interconnected, making soil protection of paramount importance for any restoration or conservation plan.


title: Soil

text: The biological component of soil is an extremely important carbon sink since about 57% of the biotic content is carbon. Even in deserts, cyanobacteria, lichens and mosses form biological soil crusts which capture and sequester a significant amount of carbon by photosynthesis. Poor farming and grazing methods have degraded soils and released much of this sequestered carbon to the atmosphere. Restoring the world's soils could offset the effect of increases in greenhouse gas emissions and slow global warming, while improving crop yields and reducing water needs.


title: Soil

text: Waste management often has a soil component. Septic drain fields treat septic tank effluent using aerobic soil processes. Land application of waste water relies on soil biology to aerobically treat BOD. Alternatively, landfills use soil for daily cover, isolating waste deposits from the atmosphere and preventing unpleasant smells. Composting is now widely used to treat aerobically solid domestic waste and dried effluents of settling basins. Although compost is not soil, biological processes taking place during composting are similar to those occurring during decomposition and humification of soil organic matter.


title: Soil

text: Organic soils, especially peat, serve as a significant fuel and horticultural resource. Peat soils are also commonly used for the sake of agriculture in Nordic countries, because peatland sites, when drained, provide fertile soils for food production. However, wide areas of peat production, such as rain-fed sphagnum bogs, also called blanket bogs or raised bogs, are now protected because of their patrimonial interest. As an example, Flow Country, covering 4,000 square kilometres of rolling expanse of blanket bogs in Scotland, is now candidate for being included in the World Heritage List. Under present-day global warming peat soils are thought to be involved in a self-reinforcing (positive feedback) process of increased emission of greenhouse gases (methane and carbon dioxide) and increased temperature, a contention which is still under debate when replaced at field scale and including stimulated plant growth.


title: Soil

text: Geophagy is the practice of eating soil-like substances. Both animals and humans occasionally consume soil for medicinal, recreational, or religious purposes. It has been shown that some monkeys consume soil, together with their preferred food (tree foliage and fruits), in order to alleviate tannin toxicity.


title: Soil

text: Soils filter and purify water and affect its chemistry. Rain water and pooled water from ponds, lakes and rivers percolate through the soil horizons and the upper rock strata, thus becoming groundwater. Pests (viruses) and pollutants, such as persistent organic pollutants (chlorinated pesticides, polychlorinated biphenyls), oils (hydrocarbons), heavy metals (lead, zinc, cadmium), and excess nutrients (nitrates, sulfates, phosphates) are filtered out by the soil. Soil organisms metabolise them or immobilise them in their biomass and necromass, thereby incorporating them into stable humus. The physical integrity of soil is also a prerequisite for avoiding landslides in rugged landscapes.


title: Soil

text: Land degradation is a human-induced or natural process which impairs the capacity of land to function. Soil degradation involves acidification, contamination, desertification, erosion or salination.


title: Soil

text: Soil acidification is beneficial in the case of alkaline soils, but it degrades land when it lowers crop productivity, soil biological activity and increases soil vulnerability to contamination and erosion. Soils are initially acid and remain such when their parent materials are low in basic cations (calcium, magnesium, potassium and sodium). On parent materials richer in weatherable minerals acidification occurs when basic cations are leached from the soil profile by rainfall or exported by the harvesting of forest or agricultural crops. Soil acidification is accelerated by the use of acid-forming nitrogenous fertilizers and by the effects of acid precipitation. Deforestation is another cause of soil acidification, mediated by increased leaching of soil nutrients in the absence of tree canopies.


title: Soil

text: Soil contamination at low levels is often within a soil's capacity to treat and assimilate waste material. Soil biota can treat waste by transforming it, mainly through microbial enzymatic activity. Soil organic matter and soil minerals can adsorb the waste material and decrease its toxicity, although when in colloidal form they may transport the adsorbed contaminants to subsurface environments. Many waste treatment processes rely on this natural bioremediation capacity. Exceeding treatment capacity can damage soil biota and limit soil function. Derelict soils occur where industrial contamination or other development activity damages the soil to such a degree that the land cannot be used safely or productively. Remediation of derelict soil uses principles of geology, physics, chemistry and biology to degrade, attenuate, isolate or remove soil contaminants to restore soil functions and values. Techniques include leaching, air sparging, soil conditioners, phytoremediation, bioremediation and Monitored Natural Attenuation. An example of diffuse pollution with contaminants is copper accumulation in vineyards and orchards to which fungicides are repeatedly applied, even in organic farming.


title: Soil

text: Microfibres from synthetic textiles are another type of plastic soil contamination, 100% of agricultural soil samples from southwestern China contained plastic particles, 92% of which were microfibres. Sources of microfibres likely included string or twine, as well as irrigation water in which clothes had been washed.


title: Soil

text: The application of biosolids from sewage sludge and compost can introduce microplastics to soils. This adds to the burden of microplastics from other sources (e.g. the atmosphere). Approximately half the sewage sludge in Europe and North America is applied to agricultural land. In Europe it has been estimated that for every million inhabitants 113 to 770 tonnes of microplastics are added to agricultural soils each year.


title: Soil

text: Desertification, an environmental process of ecosystem degradation in arid and semi-arid regions, is often caused by badly adapted human activities such as overgrazing or excess harvesting of firewood. It is a common misconception that drought causes desertification. Droughts are common in arid and semiarid lands. Well-managed lands can recover from drought when the rains return. Soil management tools include maintaining soil nutrient and organic matter levels, reduced tillage and increased cover. These practices help to control erosion and maintain productivity during periods when moisture is available. Continued land abuse during droughts, however, increases land degradation. Increased population and livestock pressure on marginal lands accelerates desertification. It is now questioned whether present-day climate warming will favour or disfavour desertification, with contradictory reports about predicted rainfall trends associated with increased temperature, and strong discrepancies among regions, even in the same country.


title: Soil

text: Erosion of soil is caused by water, wind, ice, and movement in response to gravity. More than one kind of erosion can occur simultaneously. Erosion is distinguished from weathering, since erosion also transports eroded soil away from its place of origin (soil in transit may be described as sediment). Erosion is an intrinsic natural process, but in many places it is greatly increased by human activity, especially unsuitable land use practices. These include agricultural activities which leave the soil bare during times of heavy rain or strong winds, overgrazing, deforestation, and improper construction activity. Improved management can limit erosion. Soil conservation techniques which are employed include changes of land use (such as replacing erosion-prone crops with grass or other soil-binding plants), changes to the timing or type of agricultural operations, terrace building, use of erosion-suppressing cover materials (including cover crops and other plants), limiting disturbance during construction, and avoiding construction during erosion-prone periods and in erosion-prone places such as steep slopes. Historically, one of the best examples of large-scale soil erosion due to unsuitable land-use practices is wind erosion (the so-called dust bowl) which ruined American and Canadian prairies during the 1930s, when immigrant farmers, encouraged by the federal government of both countries, settled and converted the original shortgrass prairie to agricultural crops and cattle ranching.


title: Soil

text: A serious and long-running water erosion problem occurs in China, on the middle reaches of the Yellow River and the upper reaches of the Yangtze River. From the Yellow River, over 1.6 billion tons of sediment flow each year into the ocean. The sediment originates primarily from water erosion (gully erosion) in the Loess Plateau region of northwest China.


title: Soil

text: Soil piping is a particular form of soil erosion that occurs below the soil surface. It causes levee and dam failure, as well as sink hole formation. Turbulent flow removes soil starting at the mouth of the seep flow and the subsoil erosion advances up-gradient. The term sand boil is used to describe the appearance of the discharging end of an active soil pipe.


title: Soil

text: Soil salination is the accumulation of free salts to such an extent that it leads to degradation of the agricultural value of soils and vegetation. Consequences include corrosion damage, reduced plant growth, erosion due to loss of plant cover and soil structure, and water quality problems due to sedimentation. Salination occurs due to a combination of natural and human-caused processes. Arid conditions favour salt accumulation. This is especially apparent when soil parent material is saline. Irrigation of arid lands is especially problematic. All irrigation water has some level of salinity. Irrigation, especially when it involves leakage from canals and overirrigation in the field, often raises the underlying water table. Rapid salination occurs when the land surface is within the capillary fringe of saline groundwater. Soil salinity control involves watertable control and flushing with higher levels of applied water in combination with tile drainage or another form of subsurface drainage.


title: Soil

text: Soils which contain high levels of particular clays with high swelling properties, such as smectites, are often very fertile. For example, the smectite-rich paddy soils of Thailand's Central Plains are among the most productive in the world. However, the overuse of mineral nitrogen fertilizers and pesticides in irrigated intensive rice production has endangered these soils, forcing farmers to implement integrated practices based on Cost Reduction Operating Principles.


title: Soil

text: Many farmers in tropical areas, however, struggle to retain organic matter and clay in the soils they work. In recent years, for example, productivity has declined and soil erosion has increased in the low-clay soils of northern Thailand, following the abandonment of shifting cultivation for a more permanent land use. Farmers initially responded by adding organic matter and clay from termite mound material, but this was unsustainable in the long-term because of rarefaction of termite mounds. Scientists experimented with adding bentonite, one of the smectite family of clays, to the soil. In field trials, conducted by scientists from the International Water Management Institute (IWMI) in cooperation with Khon Kaen University and local farmers, this had the effect of helping retain water and nutrients. Supplementing the farmer's usual practice with a single application of 200 kg bentonite per rai (6.26 rai = 1 hectare) resulted in an average yield increase of 73%. Other studies showed that applying bentonite to degraded sandy soils reduced the risk of crop failure during drought years.


title: Soil

text: In 2008, three years after the initial trials, IWMI scientists conducted a survey among 250 farmers in northeast Thailand, half of whom had applied bentonite to their fields. The average improvement for those using the clay addition was 18% higher than for non-clay users. Using the clay had enabled some farmers to switch to growing vegetables, which need more fertile soil. This helped to increase their income. The researchers estimated that 200 farmers in northeast Thailand and 400 in Cambodia had adopted the use of clays, and that a further 20,000 farmers were introduced to the new technique.


title: Soil

text: If the soil is too high in clay or salts (e.g. saline sodic soil), adding gypsum, washed river sand and organic matter (e.g.municipal solid waste) will balance the composition.


title: Soil

text: Adding organic matter, like ramial chipped wood or compost, to soil which is depleted in nutrients and too high in sand will boost its quality and improve production.


title: Soil

text: Special mention must be made of the use of charcoal, and more generally biochar to improve nutrient-poor tropical soils, a process based on the higher fertility of anthropogenic pre-Columbian Amazonian Dark Earths, also called Terra Preta de Índio, due to interesting physical and chemical properties of soil black carbon as a source of stable humus. However, the uncontrolled application of charred waste products of all kinds may endanger soil life and human health.


title: Soil

text: The history of the study of soil is intimately tied to humans' urgent need to provide food for themselves and forage for their animals. Throughout history, civilizations have prospered or declined as a function of the availability and productivity of their soils.


title: Soil

text: The Greek historian Xenophon (450–355 BCE) is credited with being the first to expound upon the merits of green-manuring crops: 'But then whatever weeds are upon the ground, being turned into earth, enrich the soil as much as dung.'


title: Soil

text: Columella's "Of husbandry", circa 60 CE, advocated the use of lime and that clover and alfalfa (green manure) should be turned under, and was used by 15 generations (450 years) under the Roman Empire until its collapse. From the fall of Rome to the French Revolution, knowledge of soil and agriculture was passed on from parent to child and as a result, crop yields were low. During the European Middle Ages, Yahya Ibn al-'Awwam's handbook, with its emphasis on irrigation, guided the people of North Africa, Spain and the Middle East; a translation of this work was finally carried to the southwest of the United States when under Spanish influence. Olivier de Serres, considered the father of French agronomy, was the first to suggest the abandonment of fallowing and its replacement by hay meadows within crop rotations. He also highlighted the importance of soil (the French terroir) in the management of vineyards. His famous book contributed to the rise of modern, sustainable agriculture and to the collapse of old agricultural practices such as soil amendment for crops by the lifting of forest litter and assarting, which ruined the soils of western Europe during the Middle Ages and even later on according to regions.


title: Soil

text: Experiments into what made plants grow first led to the idea that the ash left behind when plant matter was burned was the essential element but overlooked the role of nitrogen, which is not left on the ground after combustion, a belief which prevailed until the 19th century. In about 1635, the Flemish chemist Jan Baptist van Helmont thought he had proved water to be the essential element from his famous five years' experiment with a willow tree grown with only the addition of rainwater. His conclusion came from the fact that the increase in the plant's weight had apparently been produced only by the addition of water, with no reduction in the soil's weight. John Woodward ( 1728) experimented with various types of water ranging from clean to muddy and found muddy water the best, and so he concluded that earthy matter was the essential element. Others concluded it was humus in the soil that passed some essence to the growing plant. Still others held that the vital growth principal was something passed from dead plants or animals to the new plants. At the start of the 18th century, Jethro Tull demonstrated that it was beneficial to cultivate (stir) the soil, but his opinion that the stirring made the fine parts of soil available for plant absorption was erroneous.


title: Soil

text: As chemistry developed, it was applied to the investigation of soil fertility. The French chemist Antoine Lavoisier showed in about 1778 that plants and animals must combust oxygen internally to live. He was able to deduce that most of the weight of van Helmont's willow tree derived from air. It was the French agriculturalist Jean-Baptiste Boussingault who by means of experimentation obtained evidence showing that the main sources of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen for plants were air and water, while nitrogen was taken from soil. Justus von Liebig in his book "Organic chemistry in its applications to agriculture and physiology" (published 1840), asserted that the chemicals in plants must have come from the soil and air and that to maintain soil fertility, the used minerals must be replaced. Liebig nevertheless believed the nitrogen was supplied from the air. The enrichment of soil with guano by the Incas was rediscovered in 1802, by Alexander von Humboldt. This led to its mining and that of Chilean nitrate and to its application to soil in the United States and Europe after 1840.


title: Soil

text: The work of Liebig was a revolution for agriculture, and so other investigators started experimentation based on it. In England John Bennet Lawes and Joseph Henry Gilbert worked in the Rothamsted Experimental Station, founded by the former, and that plants took nitrogen from the soil, and that salts needed to be in an available state to be absorbed by plants. Their investigations also produced the superphosphate, consisting in the acid treatment of phosphate rock. This led to the invention and use of salts of potassium (K) and nitrogen (N) as fertilizers. Ammonia generated by the production of coke was recovered and used as fertiliser. Finally, the chemical basis of nutrients delivered to the soil in manure was understood and in the mid-19th century chemical fertilisers were applied. However, the dynamic interaction of soil and its life forms was still not understood.


title: Soil

text: In 1856, J. Thomas Way discovered that ammonia contained in fertilisers was transformed into nitrates, and twenty years later Robert Warington proved that this transformation was done by living organisms. In 1890 Sergei Winogradsky announced he had found the bacteria responsible for this transformation.


title: Soil

text: It was known that certain legumes could take up nitrogen from the air and fix it to the soil but it took the development of bacteriology towards the end of the 19th century to lead to an understanding of the role played in nitrogen fixation by bacteria. The symbiosis of bacteria and leguminous roots, and the fixation of nitrogen by the bacteria, were simultaneously discovered by the German agronomist Hermann Hellriegel and the Dutch microbiologist Martinus Beijerinck.


title: Soil

text: Crop rotation, mechanisation, chemical and natural fertilisers led to a doubling of wheat yields in western Europe between 1800 and 1900.


title: Soil

text: The scientists who studied the soil in connection with agricultural practices had considered it mainly as a static substrate. However, soil is the result of evolution from more ancient geological materials, under the action of biotic and abiotic processes. After studies of the improvement of the soil commenced, other researchers began to study soil genesis and as a result also soil types and classifications.


title: Soil

text: In 1860, while in Mississippi, Eugene W. Hilgard (1833–1916) studied the relationship between rock material, climate, vegetation, and the type of soils that were developed. He realised that the soils were dynamic, and considered the classification of soil types. Unfortunately, his work was not continued. At about the same time, Friedrich Albert Fallou was describing soil profiles and relating soil characteristics to their formation as part of his professional work evaluating forest and farm land for the principality of Saxony. His 1857 book, (First principles of soil science) established modern soil science. Contemporary with Fallou's work, and driven by the same need to accurately assess land for equitable taxation, Vasily Dokuchaev led a team of soil scientists in Russia who conducted an extensive survey of soils, observing that similar basic rocks, climate and vegetation types lead to similar soil layering and types, and established the concepts for soil classifications. Due to language barriers, the work of this team was not communicated to western Europe until 1914 through a publication in German by Konstantin Glinka, a member of the Russian team.


title: Soil

text: Curtis F. Marbut, influenced by the work of the Russian team, translated Glinka's publication into English, and, as he was placed in charge of the U.S. National Cooperative Soil Survey, applied it to a national soil classification system.


title: Euphoria

text: Euphoria ( ) is the experience (or affect) of pleasure or excitement and intense feelings of well-being and happiness. Certain natural rewards and social activities, such as aerobic exercise, laughter, listening to or making music and dancing, can induce a state of euphoria. Euphoria is also a symptom of certain neurological or neuropsychiatric disorders, such as mania. Romantic love and components of the human sexual response cycle are also associated with the induction of euphoria. Certain drugs, many of which are addictive, can cause euphoria, which at least partially motivates their recreational use.


title: Euphoria

text: Hedonic hotspots – i.e., the pleasure centers of the brain – are functionally linked. Activation of one hotspot results in the recruitment of the others. Inhibition of one hotspot results in the blunting of the effects of activating another hotspot. Therefore, the simultaneous activation of every hedonic hotspot within the reward system is believed to be necessary for generating the sensation of an intense euphoria.


title: Euphoria

text: The word "euphoria" is derived from the Ancient Greek terms : εὖ "eu" meaning "well" and φέρω "pherō" meaning "to bear". It is semantically opposite to dysphoria.


title: Euphoria

text: A 1706 English dictionary defines euphoria as "the well bearing of the Operation of a Medicine, i.e., when the patient finds himself eas'd or reliev'd by it".


title: Euphoria

text: In the 1860s, the English physician Thomas Laycock described euphoria as the feeling of bodily well-being and hopefulness; he noted its misplaced presentation in the final stage of some terminal illnesses and attributed such euphoria to neurological dysfunction. Sigmund Freud's 1884 monograph "Über Coca" described (his own) consumption of cocaine producing "the normal euphoria of a healthy person", while about 1890 the German neuropsychiatrist Carl Wernicke lectured about the "abnormal euphoria" in patients with mania.


title: Euphoria

text: A 1903 article in "The Boston Daily Globe" refers to euphoria as "pleasant excitement" and "the sense of ease and well-being". In 1920 "Popular Science" magazine described euphoria as "a high sounding name" meaning "feeling fit": normally making life worth living, motivating drug use, and ill formed in certain mental illnesses. Robert S. Woodworth's 1921 textbook "Psychology: A study of mental life", describes euphoria as an organic state which is the opposite of fatigue, and "means about the same as feeling good."


title: Euphoria

text: In 1940, "The Journal of Psychology" defined euphoria as a "state of general well being ... and pleasantly toned feeling." A decade later, finding "ordinary feelings of well being" difficult to evaluate, American addiction researcher Harris Isbell redefined euphoria as behavioral changes and objective signs typical of morphine. However, in 1957 British pharmacologist D. A. Cahal did not regard opioid euphoria as medically undesirable but an effect which "enhance[s] the value of a major analgesic." The 1977 edition of "A Concise Encyclopaedia of Psychiatry" called euphoria "a mood of contentment and well-being," with pathologic associations when used in a psychiatric context. As a sign of cerebral disease, it was described as bland and out of context, representing an inability to experience negative emotion.


title: Euphoria

text: In the 21st century, euphoria is "generally" defined as a state of great happiness, well-being and excitement, which may be normal, or abnormal and inappropriate when associated with psychoactive drugs, manic states, or brain disease or injury.


title: Euphoria

text: Hedonic hotspots – i.e., the pleasure centers of the brain – are functionally linked. Activation of one hotspot results in the recruitment of the others. Inhibition of one hotspot results in the blunting of the effects of activating another hotspot. Therefore, the simultaneous activation of every hedonic hotspot within the reward system is believed to be necessary for generating the sensation of euphoria.


title: Euphoria

text: Many different types of stimuli can induce euphoria, including psychoactive drugs, natural rewards, and social activities. Affective disorders such as unipolar mania or bipolar disorder can involve euphoria as a symptom.


title: Euphoria

text: Euphoria can occur as a result of dancing to music, music-making, and listening to emotionally arousing music. Neuroimaging studies have demonstrated that the reward system plays a central role in mediating music-induced pleasure. Pleasurable emotionally arousing music strongly increases dopamine neurotransmission in the dopaminergic pathways that project to the striatum (i.e., the mesolimbic pathway and nigrostriatal pathway). Approximately 5% of the population experiences a phenomenon termed "musical anhedonia", in which individuals do not experience pleasure from listening to emotionally arousing music despite having the ability to perceive the intended emotion that is conveyed in passages of music.


title: Euphoria

text: A clinical study from January 2019 that assessed the effect of a dopamine precursor (levodopa), dopamine antagonist (risperidone), and a placebo on reward responses to music – including the degree of pleasure experienced during musical chills, as measured by changes in electrodermal activity as well as subjective ratings – found that the manipulation of dopamine neurotransmission bidirectionally regulates pleasure cognition (specifically, the hedonic impact of music) in human subjects. This research suggests that increased dopamine neurotransmission acts as a "sine qua non" condition for pleasurable hedonic reactions to music in humans.


title: Euphoria

text: The various stages of copulation may also be described as inducing euphoria in some people. Various analysts have described either the entire sexual act, the moments leading to orgasm, or the orgasm itself as the pinnacle of human pleasure or euphoria.


title: Euphoria

text: A euphoriant is a type of psychoactive drug which tends to induce euphoria. Most euphoriants are addictive drugs due to their reinforcing properties and ability to activate the brain's reward system.


title: Euphoria

text: Traditional psychedelic drugs, such as LSD and psilocybin are capable of inducing euphoria despite lacking addictive qualities. The Global Drug Survey has revealed that out of 22,000 participant reports, MDMA, LSD, and psilocybin mushrooms were ranked most positively on the Net Pleasure Index of all recreational drugs included in the study.


title: Euphoria

text: Dopaminergic stimulants like amphetamine, methamphetamine, cocaine, MDMA, and methylphenidate are euphoriants. Nicotine is a parasympathetic stimulant that acts as a mild euphoriant in some people. Xanthines such as caffeine and theobromine may also be considered mild euphoriants by some.


title: Euphoria

text: Chewing areca nut (seeds from the "Areca catechu" palm) with slaked lime (calcium hydroxide) – a common practice in South- and Southeast Asia – produces stimulant effects and euphoria. The major psychoactive ingredients – arecoline (a muscarinic receptor partial agonist) and arecaidine (a GABA reuptake inhibitor) – are responsible for the euphoric effect.


title: Euphoria

text: Certain depressants can produce euphoria; some of the euphoriant drugs in this class include alcohol in moderate doses, , and ketamine.


title: Euphoria

text: Some barbiturates and benzodiazepines may cause euphoria. Euphoriant effects are determined by the drug's speed of onset, increasing dose, and with intravenous administration. Barbiturates more likely to cause euphoria include amobarbital, secobarbital and pentobarbital. Benzodiazepines more likely to cause euphoria are flunitrazepam, alprazolam and clonazepam. Benzodiazepines also tend to enhance opioid-induced euphoria.


title: Euphoria

text: Pregabalin induces dose-dependent euphoria. Occurring in a small percentage of individuals at recommended doses, euphoria is increasingly frequent at supratherapeutic doses (or with intravenous- or nasal administration). At doses five times the maximum recommended, intense euphoria is reported. Another GABA analogue, gabapentin, may induce euphoria. Characterized as opioid-like but less intense, it may occur at supratherapeutic doses, or in combination with other drugs, such as opioids or alcohol. Ethosuximide and perampanel can also produce euphoria at therapeutic doses.


title: Euphoria

text: µ-Opioid receptor agonists are a set of euphoriants that include drugs such as heroin, morphine, codeine, oxycodone, and fentanyl. By contrast, κ-opioid receptor agonists, like the endogenous neuropeptide "dynorphin", are known to cause dysphoria, a mood state opposite to euphoria that involves feelings of profound discontent.


title: Euphoria

text: Cannabinoid receptor 1 agonists are a group of euphoriants that includes certain plant-based cannabinoids (e.g., THC from the cannabis plant), endogenous cannabinoids (e.g., anandamide), and synthetic cannabinoids.


title: Euphoria

text: Acute exogenous glucocorticoid administration is known to produce euphoria, but this effect is not observed with long-term exposure.


title: Euphoria

text: Fasting has been associated with improved mood, well-being, and sometimes euphoria. Various mechanisms have been proposed and possible applications in treating depression considered.


title: Euphoria

text: Euphoria is also strongly associated with both hypomania and mania, mental states characterized by a pathological heightening of mood, which may be either euphoric or irritable, in addition to other symptoms, such as pressured speech, flight of ideas, and grandiosity.


title: Euphoria

text: Although hypomania and mania are syndromes with multiple etiologies (that is, ones that may arise from any number of conditions), they are most commonly seen in bipolar disorder, a psychiatric illness characterized by alternating periods of mania and depression.


title: Euphoria

text: Euphoria may occur during auras of seizures typically originating in the temporal lobe, but affecting the anterior insular cortex. This euphoria is symptomatic of a rare syndrome called ecstatic seizures, often also involving mystical experiences. Euphoria (or more commonly dysphoria) may also occur in periods between epileptic seizures. This condition, "interictal dysphoric disorder", is considered an atypical affective disorder. Persons who experience feelings of depression or anxiety between or before seizures occasionally experience euphoria afterwards.


title: Euphoria

text: Some persons experience euphoria in the prodrome – hours to days before the onset – of a migraine headache. Similarly, a euphoric state occurs in some persons following the migraine episode.


title: Euphoria

text: Euphoria sometimes occurs in persons with multiple sclerosis as the illness progresses. This euphoria is part of a syndrome originally called "euphoria sclerotica," which typically includes disinhibition and other symptoms of cognitive and behavioral dysfunction.


title: Euphoria

text: Gender euphoria is satisfaction or enjoyment felt by a person due to consistency between their gender identity and gendered features associated with a gender different to the sex they were assigned at birth. It is considered to be the positive counterpart of gender dysphoria.


title: Donald Faison

text: Donald Adeosun Faison (; born June 22, 1974) is an American actor and comedian, best known for his leading role as Dr. Chris Turk in the ABC/NBC comedy-drama "Scrubs" (2001–2010), and a supporting role as Murray in both the film "Clueless" (1995) and the subsequent television series of the same name. He also starred as Phil Chase in the TV Land sitcom "The Exes" (2011–2015). Faison has also co-starred in the films "Waiting to Exhale" (1995), "Remember the Titans" (2000), "Uptown Girls" (2003), "Something New" (2006), "Next Day Air" (2009), "Skyline" (2010), and "Kick-Ass 2" (2013).


title: Donald Faison

text: Faison was born in Harlem in New York City, the son of Shirley, a talent agent, and Donald Faison, a building manager. His parents divorced in 1992. He is the older brother of singer/musician Olamide Faison. His middle name stems from the words "ade" (meaning "crown") and "osun" (meaning "river of life") in the west African language of Yoruba. His parents were active with the National Black Theatre in Harlem. He attended the Professional Children's School in Manhattan with his best friend, actor Dash Mihok.


title: Donald Faison

text: Faison first appeared in a 1989 commercial for Folgers coffee at the age of 15, in which he played the younger brother of a soldier returning from war. In 1992, he appeared with Malik Yoba in the ABC News special "Prejudice: Answering Children's Questions", hosted by Peter Jennings. He also had a small role in "Sugar Hill" starring Wesley Snipes. He then became famous for his role as Murray Duvall in the 1995 film "Clueless" and the subsequent television series, which ran from 1996 to 1999. In 1995, he also appeared in "Waiting to Exhale" as Tarik, the son of Loretta Devine's character, Gloria. He was featured in "New Jersey Drive". He also starred in "Big Fat Liar" alongside Frankie Muniz, Paul Giamatti, and Amanda Bynes. He had a recurring role as Tracy on "Felicity", appeared in "Remember the Titans" as the running-back turned corner-back Petey Jones, and provided voice work for various characters in the MTV animated series "Clone High". He had minor roles in the sitcoms "Sister, Sister" and "Sabrina, the Teenage Witch", and in the film "Josie and the Pussycats". In 2005, Faison produced one episode of MTV's "Punk'd" involving his "Scrubs" co-star Zach Braff. He also appeared in the music videos for Brandy's "Sittin' Up in My Room," Fall Out Boy's cover of Michael Jackson's "Beat It," and Gavin Degraw's "Chariot."


title: Donald Faison

text: In 2008, Faison voiced Gary the Stormtrooper in "". Afterwards, he interned on the Robot Chicken show to learn more about stop motion animation, and started a "Star Wars-"themed Lego stop-motion show, "BlackStormTrooper", on his YouTube channel, "shundigga".


title: Donald Faison

text: On February 13, 2009, Faison participated in the NBA All-Star Weekend Celebrity Game. Other celebrities participating included NBA Hall of Famers Clyde Drexler and Dominique Wilkins, NFL wide-receiver Terrell Owens, actor Chris Tucker, and four Harlem Globetrotters.


title: Donald Faison

text: In 2010, Faison starred alongside Scottie Thompson, Brittany Daniel, Eric Balfour, Laz Alonso, and Crystal Reed in the Brothers Strause science fiction thriller "Skyline".


title: Donald Faison

text: As of March 2011, Faison appeared in commercials for "The Sims Medieval". In 2012, he made a cameo appearance in the movie "Pitch Perfect". In 2013, Faison hosted the short-lived TBS comedy sketch show "Who Gets the Last Laugh?". From 2016 to 2018, he hosted the GSN game show "Winsanity".


title: Donald Faison

text: From 2018 until 2020, Faison voiced pilot Hype Fazon, a character written and named for him by Dave Filoni, in "Star Wars Resistance". Faison had caught Filoni's attention via his stop motion Star Wars cartoons.


title: Donald Faison

text: Faison and "Scrubs" co-star Zach Braff co-host the rewatch podcast "Fake Doctors, Real Friends", which launched in March 2020, sharing their stories and experiences of shooting the show. The podcast is distributed by iHeartRadio.


title: Donald Faison

text: In 1997, Faison started dating Lisa Askey, a nursing student. The two were married from 2001 to 2005. After six years of dating, Faison married his second wife, CaCee Cobb, on December 15, 2012. The wedding was held at the home of Faison's former "Scrubs" co-star and best friend Zach Braff, who also served as a groomsman. Serving as a bridesmaid was singer Jessica Simpson, for whom Cobb formerly worked as a personal assistant.


title: Donald Faison

text: Faison has six children: son Shawn, born in 1997, with ex-girlfriend Audrey Ince; fraternal boy-girl twins Dade and Kaya born in 1999, and son Kobe, born in 2001, with first wife Lisa Askey; and with second wife Cobb, a son Rocco born in 2013 and a daughter Wilder, born in 2015. Dade, Kaya, and Kobe moved in with Donald and CaCee after their mother Lisa Askey died in 2017.


title: Donald Faison

text: A dance that Faison performs during an episode of "Scrubs" is featured in the video game "Fortnite". Faison's permission was not sought before including the dance, and he did not receive royalties for it.


title: BMW 5 Series (E60)

text: The fifth generation of the BMW 5 Series executive cars consists of the BMW E60 (sedan version) and BMW E61 (wagon version, marketed as 'Touring'). The E60/E61 generation was produced by BMW from 2003 to 2010 and is often collectively referred to as the E60.


title: BMW 5 Series (E60)

text: The E60 generation introduced various new electronic features, including the iDrive infotainment system, head-up display, active cruise control, active steering, adaptive headlights, night vision, lane departure warning and voice control. The E60 was the first 5 Series to be available with a turbocharged petrol engine, a 6-speed automatic transmission and regenerative braking.


title: BMW 5 Series (E60)

text: The M5 model was introduced in 2005 and is powered by the BMW S85 V10 engine. It was sold in the sedan and wagon body styles, with most cars using the 7-speed SMG III transmission. It was the first and only M5 model to be sold with a V10 engine.


title: BMW 5 Series (E60)

text: The development programme for the E60 began in 1997, concluding in 2002. The lead designer was Boyke Boyer. The final design, developed by Davide Arcangeli under BMW Design Director Chris Bangle, was approved in 2000 and German design patents filed on 16 April 2002.


title: BMW 5 Series (E60)

text: The sedan was launched on 5 July 2003 in Europe and in October 2003 in North America. In late 2004, the Touring models were introduced.


title: BMW 5 Series (E60)

text: The body of the E60 was made using aluminium for the front of the car, and steel for the passenger cabin and rear. Kerb weights are for the sedan and for the wagon. The weight distribution of the sedan models was 50:50.


title: BMW 5 Series (E60)

text: The iDrive infotainment system— first introduced in the E65 7 Series— was fitted to all E60 models. The standard iDrive system included a 6.5-inch LCD screen, a single-disc CD/MP3 player, Bluetooth for phone calls (available only on later-build 2004 models, and standard on all 2005 and newer models), basic voice control, and vehicle settings. Optional features included an 8-inch LCD screen, GPS navigation, Sirius Satellite Radio (on North American-spec models), and DVD video playback. iPod and USB integration, HD Radio (on North American-spec models), an auxiliary audio input jack (standard on 2008 and newer models), full voice control, and a multi-disc CD/MP3/DVD changer (mounted in the glove compartment). On North American-spec models, a ten-speaker premium audio system with dual under-seat subwoofers and an amplifier was standard equipment, with a thirteen-speaker Harman Kardon "Logic 7" premium surround sound audio system available as an option on all models.


title: BMW 5 Series (E60)

text: An emergency hotline feature (BMW Assist) was also available for the E60. The BMW Assist system could also use the phone network to notify the driver and their preferred BMW dealership when servicing was due. This feature was standard on all E60 models sold in the United States.


title: BMW 5 Series (E60)

text: Other features available in the E60 initially included active cruise control, Bi-Xenon headlights, run-flat tyres, active anti-roll bars, head-up display and active steering. Safety-related items include Dynamic Stability Control (DSC), adaptive headlights and night vision.


title: BMW 5 Series (E60)

text: In 2009, the iDrive system was upgraded from the first-generation "CCC" interface to the newer "CIC" interface. The audio system control panel added six multifunction preset buttons that could be programmed to store favorite radio stations and frequently-dialed telephone numbers for the Bluetooth hands-free system. The iDrive controller in the center console was also redesigned, and now integrated shortcut keys for frequently-used functions.


title: BMW 5 Series (E60)

text: Over the E60's lifespan, the following features were added: Active Cruise Control with Stop & Go, keyless entry ("comfort access"), LED taillights, Lane Departure Warning and Brake Force Display.


title: BMW 5 Series (E60)

text: The E60 was the first 5 Series in 22 years where the centre console was not angled towards the driver, however the E60's successor returned to angling the centre console towards the driver.


title: BMW 5 Series (E60)

text: In 2003 a 6-speed SMG-II gearbox was offered as an option on the 525i, 530i, 545i and 550i in some markets.


title: BMW 5 Series (E60)

text: At launch, the E60 used the previous generation E39 5 Series' M54 straight 6 engine in the 520i, 525i and 530i models. The only petrol model with a new engine at launch was the 545i with the N62 V8. The M54 was phased out after the 2005 model years and replaced with the straight-4 N43 (in the 520i) and the straight-6 N52 engine (in the 525i and 530i). The model range was also expanded the same year to include a wider range of models like the 523i, 540i and 550i. In 2007, the only turbocharged E60 model was introduced, the 535i with the twin-turbo straight-6 N54 engine. This model was exclusive to the North American market and was not sold in Europe.


title: BMW 5 Series (E60)

text: The only diesel model available at launch was the 530d, which used an updated "TU" version of the M57 engine found in the previous generation E39 5 Series. In 2004 the 535d and 525d were added to the model range which also used different versions of the M57 straight-6 turbo engine. In 2005, the only 4 cylinder diesel model E60 was added to the model range, the 520d using the older M47 engine at first, and later the new N47 engine from 2007. Most of the diesel model range was exclusive to the European market, except a few models which were sold in some countries in Asia. No diesel models were offered in North America.


title: BMW 5 Series (E60)

text: The M5 model of the E60 generation was introduced in 2005 and produced in sedan and wagon body styles. The E60 M5 is powered by the BMW S85 V10 engine, which produces at 7,750 rpm, at 6,100 rpm and has a redline of 8,250 rpm. The acceleration time is 4.7 seconds.


title: BMW 5 Series (E60)

text: The majority of M5s were sold with a 7-speed automated manual transmission ("SMG III"), however a 6-speed manual was also available in some markets.


title: BMW 5 Series (E60)

text: Introduced in February 2005, the "Alpina B5" and "Alpina B5 S" were built in sedan and wagon body styles and powered by the BMW N62 petrol V8 engine (as used by the 545i) with the addition of a centrifugal supercharger. The rated power outputs are for the B5 and for the B5 S. Both models used the ZF 6HP26 6-speed hydraulic automatic transmission shared with the regular E60 models.


title: BMW 5 Series (E60)

text: The E60 was available as 'Security' models, a factory armoured version which was unveiled at the 2005 Frankfurt Motor Show. Built with ballistic steel, aramid, polyethylene and 21mm polycarbonate layered glass it was certified at VR4 level of VPAM's Bullet Resistant Vehicle guidelines (1999). The armoured areas include the entire passenger cell, battery terminals and Engine Control Unit. As standard they included an intercom system and panic alarm.


title: BMW 5 Series (E60)

text: The Security models were built using the mechanicals of the 530i or the 550i, with upgraded suspension and braking systems. Production of the Security models began alongside the series model at BMW's Dingolfing plant, with armouring prepared before being shipped to a specialist facility in Toluca, Mexico, where the vehicles complete the final assembly stage.


title: BMW 5 Series (E60)

text: A long-wheelbase (LWB) version of the E60 5 Series was offered in China. Models included the 520Li, 523Li, 525Li, and 530Li. The wheelbase was increased to from the original wheelbase of , a increase.


title: BMW 5 Series (E60)

text: The 5 Series Authority Vehicle is designed for police forces, fire services, and emergency rescue services. It has a firearm bracket in the rear center armrest.


title: BMW 5 Series (E60)

text: Initially the 5 Series received a three-star rating for adult occupants. However changes were made to the steering column, footrest, door trims, door latch, airbags and electronic software and the car was retested achieving its four-star rating. BMW claims the modifications improved the car's Euro NCAP score, not the vehicle's safety; consequently BMW chose not to recall the earlier-built cars.


title: BMW 5 Series (E60)

text: The American Insurance Institute for Highway Safety (IIHS) gives the 5 Series a "Good" overall rating in frontal collisions but a "Marginal" overall rating for side impact collisions. The IIHS reported their side impact test would likely cause driver related rib fractures and/or internal organ injuries. The IIHS tests were conducted on models built after May 2007; these models had modifications to improve side impact safety.


title: BMW 5 Series (E60)

text: The 'Life Cycle impulse' (LCI) models were introduced in March 2007 (for the 2008 model year). Styling changes were relatively subtle, and included revised headlights, tail lights and front bumper. The interior was significantly revised. The iDrive system was upgraded with programmable "favourite" shortcut buttons (for 2009 models), a revised menu system, preset buttons for the audio system and the switch from DVD to hard disk based storage (for 2010 models).


title: BMW 5 Series (E60)

text: Mechanically, the 5 Series gained the new engines and transmissions from the E70 X5. On automatic transmission models, a shift by wire shifter replaced the mechanical version and shift paddles were available for the first time on a 5 Series model besides the M5.


title: BMW 5 Series (E60)

text: The active cruise control was upgraded to bring the vehicle to a complete stop and accelerate from stationary (called "Stop & Go"). Other changes include adaptive headlights, LED rear lights, Lane Departure Warning, night vision and Brake Force Display. The E60 LCI was the first BMW to feature regenerative braking.


title: BMW 5 Series (E60)

text: Production of the E60/E61 occurred at the BMW Group Plant Dingolfing in Germany and at the BMW Brilliance plant in China.


title: BMW 5 Series (E60)

text: Complete knock-down assembly of German-produced kits took place in Thailand, Egypt, Russia and Malaysia.


title: Kelly Piquet

text: Kelly Tamsma Piquet Souto Maior (born 7 December 1988) is a Brazilian model, columnist, blogger and public relations professional.


title: Kelly Piquet

text: Kelly Piquet was born in Homburg, Germany. She is the daughter of Nelson Piquet, Brazilian racing driver and three-time Formula One World Champion, and Sylvia Tamsma, a Dutch model. She spent most of her childhood living in the South of France. At the age of 12, she moved to Brazil where she lived until she was 15 years old. After that Piquet returned to France, and lived there for another year before moving to England to study at a boarding school. At the age of 17, she returned to Brazil to attend her senior year of high school. Piquet attended Marymount Manhattan College in New York, majoring in International Relations with an emphasis on political science and economics. During college, she took an internship in fashion and decided to continue working in the area. She worked at "Vogue Latinoamerica", Bergdorf Goodman, KCD PR agency, in addition to being a columnist for "Marie Claire" magazine.


title: Kelly Piquet

text: As a model, Piquet posed for PatBO and Lucas Boccalão, in addition she has walked the catwalk in some fashion shows.


title: Kelly Piquet

text: In January 2017, Piquet began dating the Russian Formula One driver Daniil Kvyat. She had a daughter with Kvyat, born in July 2019. In December of the same year the relationship came to an end. She has been publicly dating Dutch two time Formula One World Champion Max Verstappen since January 2021.


title: Doris Roberts

text: Doris May Roberts ( Green; November 4, 1925 – April 17, 2016) was an American actress whose career spanned seven decades of television and film. She received five Emmy Awards and a Screen Actors Guild award during her acting career, which began in 1951.


title: Doris Roberts

text: Roberts studied acting at The Neighborhood Playhouse School of the Theatre in New York City and started in films in 1961. She had several prominent roles in movies, including playing opposite Shirley Stoler in "The Honeymoon Killers" (1970), Elliott Gould in "Little Murders" (1971), Steven Keats in "Hester Street" (1975), Billy Crystal in "Rabbit Test" (1978), Robert Carradine in "Number One with a Bullet" (1987), and Cady McClain in "Simple Justice" (1989), among many others.


title: Doris Roberts

text: She achieved continuing success in television, becoming known for her role as Mildred Krebs in "Remington Steele" from 1983 to 1987 and her co-starring role as Raymond Barone's mother, Marie Barone, on the long-running CBS sitcom "Everybody Loves Raymond" (1996–2005). Towards the end of her acting career, she also had a prominent role opposite Tyler Perry in "Madea's Witness Protection" (2012).


title: Doris Roberts

text: She appeared as a guest on many talk and variety shows, as well as a panelist on several game shows. She was an advocate of animal rights and animal rights activism, supporting groups such as the United Activists for Animal Rights.


title: Doris Roberts

text: Doris May Green was born in St. Louis, Missouri, to a family of Russian-Jewish immigrants. She was raised by her mother, Ann (née Meltzer), and her maternal grandparents in The Bronx, New York, after her father, Larry Green, deserted the family. Roberts' stepfather, whose surname she took as her own, was Chester H. Roberts. Chester and Roberts' mother operated the Z.L. Rosenfield Agency, a stenographic service catering to playwrights and actors.


title: Doris Roberts

text: Roberts' acting career began in 1951 with a role on the TV series "Studio One". She appeared in episodes of "The Naked City" (1958-1963), "Way Out" (1961), "Ben Casey" (1963), and "The Defenders" (1962-1963). In 1961, she made her film debut in "Something Wild" (1961).


title: Doris Roberts

text: She appeared in such 1960s/1970s films as "A Lovely Way to Die", "No Way to Treat a Lady", "The Honeymoon Killers", "Such Good Friends", "Little Murders", and "The Taking of Pelham One Two Three". In 1978, she appeared in a film about John F. Kennedy's assassination, "Ruby and Oswald", in which she played Jack Ruby's sister. She also appeared very briefly in "The Rose", as the mother of the title character played by Bette Midler.


title: Doris Roberts

text: In an interview with the Archive of American Television, Rue McClanahan confirmed that in 1972 she was approached by Norman Lear during the taping of an "All in the Family" episode to be a late replacement for Roberts, who was originally intended for the role of Vivian on "Maude". (Roberts later guest starred in a 1976 "All in the Family" episode, "Edith's Night Out" as a bar patron who befriended Edith.) Roberts played Theresa Falco on "Angie", and later appeared as Mildred Krebs on "Remington Steele".


title: Doris Roberts

text: After "Remington Steele" ended, she starred in the TV movie remake of "If It's Tuesday, It Still Must Be Belgium" (1987) and the National Lampoon's "Christmas Vacation" (1989). She appeared on "Alice", playing the mother of the title character (played by her former Broadway co-star Linda Lavin); on "Barney Miller" in two different roles, as the wife of a man who secretly visits a sex surrogate, and (in three episodes) as the harried wife of a middle-aged man who occasionally makes erratic decisions to give his life meaning; and on "Full House" as Danny Tanner's mother, Claire. She played the unhinged Flo Flotsky on four episodes of "Soap"; Dorelda Doremus, a faith healer, on "Mary Hartman, Mary Hartman"; and lonely Aunt Edna on "Step by Step".


title: Doris Roberts

text: Roberts achieved much of her fame for her role as Marie Barone on "Everybody Loves Raymond". She was reportedly one of 100 actresses considered for the role. For her work on the series, she was nominated for seven Emmy Awards (and won four times) for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series. She had previously won an Emmy for a guest appearance on "St. Elsewhere", playing a homeless woman, and was also once nominated for her role on "Remington Steele". She was nominated for appearances on "Perfect Strangers" and a PBS special called "The Sunset Gang". In 2003, she made a guest appearance as Gordo's grandmother in "Lizzie McGuire". The same year, she received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. In 2006, she starred in "Our House" as a wealthy woman who took in homeless people into her own house, and in "Grandma's Boy".


title: Doris Roberts

text: In 2007, she made a guest appearance on "". In 2008, she appeared in the romantic comedy "Play the Game" alongside Andy Griffith, who plays a lonely widowed grandfather re-entering the dating world after a 60-year hiatus. Roberts appeared in the 2009 film "Aliens in the Attic", which was filmed in Auckland, New Zealand. She played George Needleman's mother in Tyler Perry's "Madea's Witness Protection" (2012).


title: Doris Roberts

text: On September 23, 2010, she played Ms. Rinsky, Brick Heck's teacher in the second-season premiere episode of "The Middle". This appearance reunited her with Patricia Heaton, her co-star from "Everybody Loves Raymond". The two women's characters, of course, clash, with Heaton's Frankie Heck always managing to get pushed out of sorts into disastrous action usually resulting in some kind of public chastisement by Roberts' Rinsky, an expert at passive-aggressive manipulation. Roberts returned in two other episodes that season, "The Math Class" and the finale, "Back to Summer". In 2013 she was a special guest star in the "Major Crimes" episode "There’s No Place Like Home".


title: Doris Roberts

text: Roberts' stage career began in the 1950s on Broadway. She appeared in numerous Broadway shows including William Marchant's "The Desk Set" (with Shirley Booth), Neil Simon's "The Last of the Red Hot Lovers" (with James Coco and Linda Lavin) and Terrence McNally's "Bad Habits". She starred in McNally's "Unusual Acts of Devotion" at the LaJolla Playhouse in June 2009.


title: Doris Roberts

text: In May 2005, Roberts received an honorary doctorate of fine arts from the University of South Carolina. She was awarded the Ellis Island Medal of Honor on May 7, 2011. She was awarded a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame in February 2003, at 7021 Hollywood Blvd.


title: Doris Roberts

text: On September 4, 2002, Roberts testified before a U.S. Congressional panel that age discrimination was prevalent in Hollywood. She was a registered Democrat.


title: Doris Roberts

text: An animal rights advocate, Roberts worked with the group Puppies Behind Bars, which works with inmates in training guide dogs and assistance dogs for the physically disabled and elderly, as well as dogs trained in explosives detection to be used by law enforcement agencies. She was also active with the Children with AIDS Foundation, where she served as chairwoman.


title: Doris Roberts

text: With Danelle Morton, Roberts wrote "Are You Hungry, Dear? Life, Laughs, and Lasagna". The book was published by St. Martin's Press in 2003, and serves as a memoir as well as a collection of some of Roberts' recipes.


title: Doris Roberts

text: Roberts married Michael Cannata in 1956; they divorced in 1962. They had one son. She had three grandchildren. Her second husband was writer William Goyen and they were married from 1963 until his death from leukemia in 1983.


title: Doris Roberts

text: Roberts died in her sleep on April 17, 2016, at her home in Los Angeles following a stroke, at the age of 90. She had also suffered from pulmonary hypertension for many years before her death. Just a month after her death she was memorialized in New York City, where a public tribute was held at the Ambassador Theatre, where she appeared in 1972 in "The Secret Affairs of Mildred Wild" with Maureen Stapleton. Among the stars attending the service were Ray Romano and Patricia Heaton (her co-stars from "Everybody Loves Raymond") and actor David Hyde Pierce. Romano said of Roberts:


title: Doris Roberts

text: In another interview Romano jokingly referred to the kissing thing that Roberts would do off-camera: "You know how great she was then!" He also added: "We had a little get together for her. She was one of a kind. She can outwork it, outdrink it, good kisser, I was joking! I appreciated her." Just a month after her death, he said: She was interred at Pierce Brothers Westwood Village Memorial Park and Mortuary in Los Angeles, California.


title: Coppola family tree

text: The lineal descendants of Carmine Coppola and Italia Pennino have been nominated 23 times for an Academy Award, winning 9 times in categories including Best Picture, Best Director, Best Actor, Best Original Screenplay, Best Adapted Screenplay, and Best Original Score. In addition, Talia Shire's ex-husband David Shire, Sofia Coppola's ex-husband Spike Jonze, and Nicolas Cage's ex-wife Patricia Arquette are also Academy Award winners. Talia Shire's late husband Jack Schwartzman is also the father of Oscar nominee John Schwartzman by a previous marriage.


title: Bed size

text: Standard bed sizes are based on standard mattress sizes, which vary from country to country. Bed sizes also vary according to the size and degree of ornamentation of the bed frame. Dimensions and names vary considerably around the world, with most countries having their own standards and terminology. In addition, two mattresses with the same nominal size may still have slightly different dimensions, due to manufacturing tolerances, amount of padding, and support type. While beds are generally rectangular, more specialized shapes may be obtained by special order, such as circular beds. Mattress sizes may differ from bedding sizes.


title: Bed size

text: Naming standards on different bed sizes and their corresponding actual measurements can vary across national standards. Examples of such nomenclature are names like "Single", "Double", "Queen" or "King" size. Sometimes the naming standards are further divided by adding adjectives such as "Narrow", "Wide", "Extra Wide", "Long", "Extra Long" and so on, which also can vary across national standards.


title: Bed size

text: Because of the growth of international trade and the above potential cause of confusion, bed sizes are becoming more standardized. In most countries, using the International System of Units, bed dimensions most often appear in centimeters, and often only by width and length. In the United States, Canada and other regions influenced by the former British Empire, dimensions are often in inches.


title: Bed size

text: Europe may traditionally have had more variations in national bed size standards than any other part of the world, but in the recent years a few sizes have become more common than others. Bed sizes are defined in centimeters in all European countries, although supplementary Imperial equivalents are sometimes shown in the United Kingdom.


title: Bed size

text: Other sizes are also available in some European countries (e.g., ), but the widths listed above are the most common when looking at the European market as a whole, while and (nominal) are more typical in the UK and Ireland.


title: Bed size

text: Today, the length is the most common bed length sold by pan-European retailers. Lengths of are often also available by special order. The longer beds are intended for taller people, and as a rule of thumb long beds may be recommended to people or taller, while beds are recommended for people over tall.


title: Bed size

text: These sizes are for Austria, Switzerland, Liechtenstein, Germany, Poland, Belgium, Netherlands, Luxembourg, Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Iceland, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania. There are some variations between different countries, but these are the most common sizes. Until the 1980s the most common mattress length was .


title: Bed size

text: In Spain, standardized lengths are , with being the most common. Standardized widths are . The most common bed sizes are:


title: Bed size

text: In the United Kingdom and Ireland, beds are measured according to the size of mattress they hold, not the dimensions of the bed frame itself; bed frame sizes are not standardized and may differ between manufacturers. Listed below are the typical bed sizes from the National Bed Federation, which is the trade association for the majority of British and Irish bed manufacturers and their suppliers. Most NBF manufacturers use designs dimensioned in feet and inches with the metric indicators not being exact equivalents. There can legally be a tolerance of up to ± between the quoted measurements and the size of the mattress itself.


title: Bed size

text: Some UK retailers may have a "queen" size which refers to one of the above standard sizes, but there is inconsistency around which size specifically, with both the small double and super king being prevalent.


title: Bed size

text: As well as customary UK sizes, some common European sizes can be found in the UK from imports and IKEA. The typical length of an IKEA and other European mattresses is , whereas UK lengths vary depending on the width of the mattress, being usually either . In 2015, IKEA started offering beds and mattresses in customary UK sizes alongside their standard European sizes.


title: Bed size

text: The sizes of mattresses use non-numeric labels such as a "king" or "full", but are defined in inches. Historically most beds were "twins" or "doubles" but in the mid-1940s larger mattresses were introduced by manufacturers. These were later standardized as "queen" and "king", and first made a significant impact on the market in the 1950s and 60s. Standard mattress depth ranges from the "standard" size of to "high contour" of up to . Below are the standard ISPA widths and heights in the United States and Canada.


title: Bed size

text: While the dimensions are specified to the half-inch below, the actual dimension used by manufacturers or various websites may be half an inch larger or smaller.


title: Bed size

text: Bedding in the United States must state the type of bed it is intended for, in addition to the dimensions in both inches and centimeters.


title: Bed size

text: In South Africa, bed sizes have standard lengths of either , with the latter being called "XL" variants. XL mattresses have the same widths as their non-XL counterparts. The XL length is recommended for persons over tall.


title: Bed size

text: In practice, bed sizes are usually categorized by the width. The length is typically , but this may vary. The most common sizes are:


title: Bed size

text: In Indonesia, the standard length is always . The following market-standard sizes are commonly available in Indonesia:


title: Bed size

text: Standard Japanese bedding sizes are described in the standard "JIS S 1102:2017 Beds for domestic use" by the Japanese Standards Association.


title: Bed size

text: There are five common bed sizes in Taiwan, locally known as 3 footer, 3.5 footer, 5 footer, 6 footer and 7 footer. They are also known as Taiwanese small single, twin, full, queen and king respectively.


title: Bed size

text: However, American beds are also popular in Taiwan. Bedroom furniture and bedding of U.S. standard sizes can be purchased in major cities there.


title: Hatfield–McCoy feud

text: The Hatfield–McCoy feud, also described by journalists as the Hatfield–McCoy conflict, involved two rural American families of the West Virginia–Kentucky area along the Tug Fork of the Big Sandy River in the years 1863–1891. The Hatfields of West Virginia were led by William Anderson "Devil Anse" Hatfield, while the McCoys of Kentucky were under the leadership of Randolph "Ole Ran'l" McCoy. Those involved in the feud were descended from Joseph Hatfield and William McCoy (born  1750). The feud has entered the American folklore lexicon as a metonym for any bitterly feuding rival parties.


title: Hatfield–McCoy feud

text: The McCoy family lived primarily on the Kentucky side of the Tug Fork; the Hatfields lived mostly on the West Virginia side. The majority of the Hatfields, although living in Mingo County (then part of Logan County), fought for the Confederacy in the American Civil War; most McCoys also fought for the Confederates, with the exception of Asa Harmon McCoy, who fought for the Union. The first real violence in the feud was the death of Asa as he returned from the war, murdered by a group of Confederate Home Guards called the Logan Wildcats. Devil Anse Hatfield was a suspect at first, but was later confirmed to have been sick at home at the time of the murder. It was widely believed that his uncle, Jim Vance, a member of the Wildcats, committed the murder.


title: Hatfield–McCoy feud

text: The Hatfields were more affluent than the McCoys and had many more political connections. Anse's timbering operation was a source of wealth for his family, while the McCoys were more of a lower-middle-class family. Ole Ran'l owned a farm. Both families had also been involved in the manufacturing and selling of illegal moonshine, a popular commodity at the time.


title: Hatfield–McCoy feud

text: Asa Harmon McCoy joined the 45th Kentucky Infantry on October 20, 1863. According to his Compiled Service Records, he was "captured by Rebels" on December 5, 1863, and was released four months later to a Union hospital in Maryland. At the time of his capture, he was recovering from a gunshot wound to the chest. During the early months of the Civil War, Asa joined a company of the Pike County Home Guards, under the command of Uriah Runyon, and it is thought he sustained the wound while serving in this unit. William Francis also led a company of Pike County Guards during 1862, a group of which attacked and shot Mose Christian Cline, a friend of Devil Anse Hatfield. Although Cline survived his wounds, Anse vowed to retaliate against the responsible parties. Some time in 1863, a group of Confederate Home Guards ambushed and killed Francis as he was leaving his house, and Anse took credit for the deed. Runyon later joined the 39th Kentucky Infantry and was killed on May 7, 1864, in Pike County, Kentucky. His Compiled Service Records say "Killed by Rebels".


title: Hatfield–McCoy feud

text: On muster rolls beginning on May 6, 1864, Asa is reported in a Lexington hospital, suffering from a leg fracture. Beginning in December 1864, the 45th Kentucky Infantry began mustering its companies out of service. Asa's Company E was mustered out on December 24, 1864, in Ashland. He was killed near his home on January 7, 1865, just thirteen days after leaving the Union Army. A group of Confederate guerrillas took credit for the killing and his wife's pension application states that he was "killed by Rebels". There are no existing records pertaining to his death and no warrants were issued in connection with the murder. McCoy family tradition points to James "Jim" Vance, an uncle of Anse and a member of a West Virginia militia group, as the culprit.


title: Hatfield–McCoy feud

text: The second recorded instance of violence in the feud occurred thirteen years later, in 1878, after a dispute about the ownership of a hog: Floyd Hatfield, a cousin of Anse's, owned the hog, but Randolph McCoy claimed it was his, saying that the notches on the pig's ears were McCoy, not Hatfield, marks. The matter was taken to the local Justice of the Peace, Anderson "Preacher Anse" Hatfield, who ruled in favor of the Hatfields by the testimony of Bill Staton, a relative of both families. In June 1880, Staton was killed by two McCoy brothers, Sam and Paris, who were later acquitted on the grounds of self-defense.


title: Hatfield–McCoy feud

text: The feud escalated after Roseanna McCoy entered a relationship with Devil Anse's son Johnson, known as "Johnse" (spelled "Jonce" in some sources), leaving her family to live with the Hatfields in West Virginia. Roseanna eventually returned to the McCoys, but when the couple tried to resume their relationship, Johnse was arrested by the McCoys on outstanding Kentucky bootlegging warrants. He was freed from McCoy custody only when Roseanna made a desperate midnight ride to alert Anse, who organized a rescue party. The Hatfield party surrounded the McCoys and took Johnse back to West Virginia before he could be transported the next day to the county seat in Pikeville, Kentucky. Despite what was seen as her betrayal of her own family on his behalf, Johnse thereafter abandoned the pregnant Roseanna for her cousin, Nancy McCoy, whom he wed in 1881.


title: Hatfield–McCoy feud

text: The feud continued in 1882 when Ellison Hatfield, brother of Anse, was killed by three of Roseanna's younger brothers: Tolbert, Phamer (Pharmer), and Bud. On an election day in Kentucky, the three McCoy brothers fought a drunken Ellison and another Hatfield brother; Ellison was stabbed 26 times and finished off with a gunshot. The McCoy brothers were initially arrested by Hatfield constables and were taken to Pikeville for trial. Secretly, Anse organized a large group of vigilantes and intercepted the constables and their McCoy prisoners before they reached Pikeville. The brothers were taken by force to West Virginia. When Ellison died from his injuries, all three McCoy brothers were killed by the Hatfields in turn: they were tied to pawpaw bushes and each was shot numerous times, with a total of fifty shots fired. Their bodies were described as "bullet-riddled". Soon, another McCoy, the second son of the murdered Harmon named Larkin "Lark" McCoy, was ambushed by an alleged West Virginia posse led by the Hatfields.


title: Hatfield–McCoy feud

text: Even though the Hatfields and most inhabitants of the area believed their revenge was warranted, up to about twenty men, including Anse, were indicted. All of the Hatfields eluded arrest; this angered the McCoy family, who took their cause up with Perry Cline. Cline, who was married to Martha McCoy, is believed to have used his political connections to reinstate the charges and announced rewards for the Hatfields' arrests as an act of revenge. A few years prior, Cline had lost a lawsuit against Anse over the deed to thousands of acres of land, subsequently increasing the hatred between the two families. In 1886, Jeff McCoy killed a mail carrier named Fred Wolford, and the man who went to pursue him for his crime was acting constable Cap Hatfield. Cap and a friend named Tom Wallace shot him while on the run on the banks of the Tug Fork. Tom Wallace was soon found dead in the spring of 1887.


title: Hatfield–McCoy feud

text: The feud reached its peak during the 1888 New Year's Night Massacre. Cap and Vance led several members of the Hatfield clan to surround the McCoy cabin and opened fire on the sleeping family. Awoken by the shooting, the McCoys managed to grab their weapons and fired back. The cabin was then set on fire in an effort to drive the McCoys into the open.


title: Hatfield–McCoy feud

text: Panicking, the McCoys rushed to every exit they could find. Randolph managed to escape and hide inside the pig pen. Most of his children managed to escape into the woods. Unfortunately, two of Randolph's children, Calvin and Alifair, were shot and killed near the family well as they exited their home. Randolph's wife, Sarah, was caught, beaten, and almost killed. With his house burning, Randolph and his remaining family members were able to escape farther into the wilderness; his children, unprepared for the elements, suffered frostbite. The remaining McCoys moved to Pikeville to escape the West Virginia raiding parties.


title: Hatfield–McCoy feud

text: Between 1880 and 1891, the feud claimed more than a dozen members of the two families. On one occasion, the governors of West Virginia and Kentucky even threatened to have their militias invade each other's states. In response, Kentucky Governor S. B. Buckner sent his Adjutant General Sam Hill to Pike County to investigate the situation.


title: Hatfield–McCoy feud

text: A few days after the New Year's Massacre, a posse led by Pike County Deputy Sheriff Frank Philipps rode out to track down Anse's group across the state line into West Virginia. Two McCoys were members of Philipps' posse, Bud and one of Randolph's sons, James "Jim" McCoy. The posse's first victim was Vance, who was killed in the woods after he refused to be arrested. Philipps then made other successive raids on Hatfield homes and supporters, capturing many and killing another three Hatfield supporters, before cornering the rest in Grapevine Creek on January 19. Unfortunately for Philipps, Anse and other Hatfields were waiting for them with an armed group of their own. A battle ensued between the two parties, and the Hatfields were eventually apprehended. A deputy, Bill Dempsey, was wounded and executed by Frank Philipps after they surrendered. On August 24, 1888, eight of the Hatfields and their friends were indicted for the murder of Randolph's young daughter, Alfair McCoy (sometimes spelled Allaphare), who was killed during the New Year's Massacre. They included Cap, Johnse, Robert and Elliot Hatfield, Ellison Mounts, French Ellis, Charles Gillespie, and Thomas Chambers.


title: Hatfield–McCoy feud

text: Because of issues of due process and illegal extradition, the United States Supreme Court became involved ("Mahon v. Justice", 127 U.S. 700 (1888)). The Supreme Court ruled 7–2 in favor of Kentucky, holding that, even if a fugitive is returned from the asylum state illegally instead of through lawful extradition procedure, no federal law prevents him from being tried. Eventually, the men were tried in Kentucky and all were found guilty. Seven received life imprisonment, while the eighth, Ellison "Cottontop" Mounts, was executed by hanging and buried in an unmarked grave within sight of the gallows.


title: Hatfield–McCoy feud

text: Ellison had tried to retract his confession, stating that he was innocent and that he had only confessed because he expected leniency, but his retraction was denied. Thousands attended his hanging in Pikeville, but though the scaffold was in the open, its base was fenced in to comply with laws that had been passed which prohibited public executions. The hanging site is the current location of a classroom building of the present-day University of Pikeville. With his last words, Ellison claimed that: "The Hatfields made me do it." No one had been sent to the gallows in Pike County for forty years, and after Ellison, no one ever was again.


title: Hatfield–McCoy feud

text: Fighting between the families eased following the hanging of Mounts. Trials continued for years until the 1901 trial of Johnse, who was sentenced to life imprisonment for his involvement in the New Year's Massacre in the last of the feud trials.


title: Hatfield–McCoy feud

text: In 1979, the families united for a special week's taping of the popular game show "Family Feud", in which they played for a cash prize and a pig which was kept on stage during the games. The McCoy family won the week-long series three games to two. While the Hatfield family won more money – $11,272 to the McCoys' $8,459—the decision was made to augment the McCoy family's winnings to $11,273.


title: Hatfield–McCoy feud

text: Tourists travel to those parts of West Virginia and Kentucky each year to examine the relics that remain from the days of the feud. In 1999, a large project known as the "Hatfield and McCoy Historic Site Restoration" was completed, funded by a federal grant from the Small Business Administration. Many improvements to various feud sites were completed. A committee of local historians spent months researching reams of information to find out about the factual history of the events surrounding the feud. This research was compiled in an audio compact disc, the "Hatfield–McCoy Feud Driving Tour", which is only available at the Pike County Tourism CVB Visitors Center in Pikeville. The CD is a self-guided driving tour of the restored feud sites and includes maps and pictures as well as the audio CD. The driving tour leads visitors to feud related points of interest including the gravesites of the feudists, the "Hog Trial Cabin", also known as Valentine Hatfield's cabin, Randolph McCoy's homeplace and well in Hardy, Kentucky, Aunt Betty's House and many more sites, some complete with historical markers.


title: Hatfield–McCoy feud

text: Great-great-great-grandsons Bo McCoy and Ron McCoy of feud patriarch Randolph McCoy organized a joint family reunion of the Hatfield and McCoy families in 2000 that garnered national attention. More than 5,000 people attended.


title: Hatfield–McCoy feud

text: In 2002, Bo and Ron McCoy brought a lawsuit to acquire access to the McCoy Cemetery which holds the graves of six family members, including five slain during the feud. The McCoys took on a private property owner, John Vance, who had restricted access to the cemetery.


title: Hatfield–McCoy feud

text: In the 2000s, a all-terrain vehicle trail system, the Hatfield–McCoy Trails, was created around the theme of the feud.


title: Hatfield–McCoy feud

text: On June 14, 2003, in Pikeville, Kentucky, the McCoy cousins partnered with Reo Hatfield of Waynesboro, Virginia, to declare an official truce between the families. Reo Hatfield said that he wanted to show that if the two families could reach an accord, others could also. He had said that he wanted to send a broader message to the world that when national security is at risk, Americans put their differences aside and stand united: "We're not saying you don't have to fight because sometimes you do have to fight," he said. "But you don't have to fight forever." Signed by more than sixty descendants during the fourth Hatfield–McCoy Festival, the truce was touted as a proclamation of peace, saying "We ask by God's grace and love that we be forever remembered as those that bound together the hearts of two families to form a family of freedom in America." Governor Paul E. Patton of Kentucky and Governor Bob Wise of West Virginia signed proclamations declaring June 14 Hatfield and McCoy Reconciliation Day. Ron McCoy, one of the festival's founders, said it is unknown where the three signed proclamations will be exhibited and that "the Hatfields and McCoys symbolize violence and feuding and fighting, but by signing this, hopefully people will realize that's not the final chapter."


title: Hatfield–McCoy feud

text: The Hatfield and McCoy Reunion Festival and Marathon are held annually in June on a three-day weekend. The events take place in Pikeville, Kentucky, Matewan, West Virginia, and Williamson, West Virginia. The festival commemorates the famed feud and includes a marathon and half-marathon (the motto is "no feudin', just runnin'"), in addition to an ATV ride in all three towns. There is also a tug-of-war across the Tug Fork tributary near which the feuding families lived, a live re-enactment of scenes from their most famous fight, a motorcycle ride, live entertainment, Hatfield–McCoy landmark tours, a cornbread contest, pancake breakfast, arts, crafts, and dancing. Launched in 2000, the festival typically attracts thousands with more than 300 runners taking part in the races.


title: Hatfield–McCoy feud

text: In August 2015 members of both families helped archeologists dig for ruins at a site where they believe Randolph McCoy's house was burned.


title: Hatfield–McCoy feud

text: In September 2018, a wooden statue, standing over 8 feet tall, was erected in honor of Randolph McCoy at the McCoy homeplace in Hardy, Kentucky. Carved by chainsaw carver Travis Williams and donated to the property, this statue had been commissioned by McCoy property owner and Hatfield descendant Bob Scott. The statue was unveiled during Hatfield-McCoy Heritage Days in Pike County, Kentucky, an event that occurs every September that brings Hatfield and McCoy descendants back to Pike County to celebrate the long-standing peace between the families. The McCoy homeplace, like many others associated with the feud, is open to tourists year-round.


title: Hatfield–McCoy feud

text: The 1923 Buster Keaton comedy "Our Hospitality" centers on the "Canfield–McKay feud," a thinly disguised fictional version of the Hatfield–McCoy feud.


title: Hatfield–McCoy feud

text: The 1938 Merrie Melodies cartoon "A Feud There Was" depicts a feud between two backwoods families, called the Weavers and the McCoys. It features Egghead as a peace activist - going by the name Elmer Fudd (before he was a hunter) - trying to put an end to the two feuding hillbilly clans.


title: Hatfield–McCoy feud

text: The 1939 Max Fleischer cartoon "Musical Mountaineers" has Betty Boop wander into the territory of the Peters family who are at war with the Hatfields.


title: Hatfield–McCoy feud

text: The 1943 Walter Lantz Swing Symphony cartoon "Pass the Biscuits Mirandy!" depicts the feud between the Foys and Bartons, basing off from the lyrics of a song of the same title.


title: Hatfield–McCoy feud

text: The 1946 Disney cartoon short "The Martins and the Coys" in "Make Mine Music" animated feature was another very thinly disguised caricature of the Hatfield–McCoy feud.


title: Hatfield–McCoy feud

text: In 1949, the Samuel Goldwyn feature film "Roseanna McCoy" told a fictionalized version of the romance between the title character, played by Joan Evans, and Johnse Hatfield, played by Farley Granger.


title: Hatfield–McCoy feud

text: The 1949 Screen Songs short "Comin' Round the Mountain" features another thinly disguised caricature of the Hatfield–McCoy feud, with cats (called "Catfields") and dogs ("McHounds") fighting each other, until a new school teacher arrives.


title: Hatfield–McCoy feud

text: In 1950, Warner Bros. released a spoof of the Hatfield–McCoy feud titled "Hillbilly Hare", featuring Bugs Bunny interacting with members of the "Martin family", obviously a reference to a family in the other famous Kentucky feud, the Rowan County War who had been feuding with the "Coy family". When Bugs Bunny is asked, "Be y'all a Martin or be y'all a Coy rabbit?", Bugs answers, "Well, my friends say I'm very coy!" and laughs. The Martin brothers chase Bugs for the rest of the short and are outwitted by him at every turn.


title: Hatfield–McCoy feud

text: The 1951 Abbott and Costello feature "Comin' Round the Mountain" features a feud between the Winfields and McCoys.


title: Hatfield–McCoy feud

text: The 2007 movie "" portrays the feud between the Hatfields and McCoys, but the circumstances of the feud are different.


title: Hatfield–McCoy feud

text: In 2012, Lionsgate Films released a direct-to-DVD film titled "Hatfields & McCoys: Bad Blood", starring Jeff Fahey, Perry King, and Christian Slater.


title: Hatfield–McCoy feud

text: Members of the Hatfield clan appear in Manly Wade Wellman's 1957 short story "Old Devlins Was A-Waiting" alongside fictional great-grandchildren of both the Hatfields and McCoys.


title: Hatfield–McCoy feud

text: The Lucky Luke adventure "Les Rivaux de Painful Gulch" (The Rivals of Painful Gulch) from 1962 was inspired by the Hatfield–McCoy feud.


title: Hatfield–McCoy feud

text: Ann Rinaldi authored a 2002 historical novel titled "The Coffin Quilt", based on a fictionalized account of the feud.


title: Hatfield–McCoy feud

text: In Kurt Vonnegut's 1976 novel "Slapstick", a frontiersman dressed like "Davy Crockett" kills a man charged with conveying a message to the former of the United States because he mistakes him for Newton McCoy. When the frontiersman is asked his name, he replies "Byron Hatfield".