text: Normally both civil and criminal forfeitures require involvement by the judiciary; however, there is a variant of civil forfeiture called "administrative forfeiture" which is essentially a civil forfeiture which does not require involvement by the judiciary, which derives its powers from the Tariff Act of 1930, and empowers police to seize banned imported merchandise, as well as things used to import or transport or store a controlled substance, money, or other property which is less than $500,000 value.


title: Michaela Conlin

text: Michaela Conlin (born June 9, 1978) is an American actress best known for her role as Angela Montenegro on the Fox crime procedural comedy-drama "Bones".


title: Michaela Conlin

text: Conlin was born in Allentown, Pennsylvania on June 9, 1978 to a Chinese mother, an accountant, and an Irish father, a contractor. She performed in her first play at the age of seven, and continued to appear on stage in numerous Pennsylvania community and regional productions.


title: Michaela Conlin

text: Conlin attended Parkland High School in South Whitehall Township, Pennsylvania, where she starred in productions of "Bye Bye Birdie" and "The Crucible". After graduating from high school in 1996, she moved to New York City to study acting and was accepted to New York University Tisch School of the Arts. While working toward her Bachelor of Fine Arts in Theater, she appeared in several productions at the Atlantic Theater Company, the Playwrights Horizons Theater School, Stonestreet Studios Conservatory, and she traveled to Amsterdam to study with the Experimental Theatre Wing's International Training Program.


title: Michaela Conlin

text: Following her graduation from New York University, Conlin was selected to be part of the cable documentary series "The It Factor", which focused on the lives of young actors in New York City. Soon after, she relocated to Los Angeles, where she landed her first starring role in the ABC drama series "MDs", playing an idealistic young intern taken under the wing of the hospital's two renegade doctors, played by William Fichtner and John Hannah. She followed that with a leading role in the ABC drama series "The D.A.", playing an outspoken political consultant to Steven Weber's district attorney.


title: Michaela Conlin

text: Conlin played Angela Montenegro on the popular Fox drama "Bones," which stars Emily Deschanel and David Boreanaz. In the series, Angela is married to Dr. Jack Hodgins (T. J. Thyne), while her father is ZZ Top's Billy Gibbons, who plays a fictionalized version of himself. Angela's full name is Angela "Pookie Noodlin" Pearly Gates Montenegro, with Pearly Gates also being the name of Gibbons' Les Paul guitar. In 2008, Conlin was nominated for an Asian Excellence Award in the category of Supporting Television actress for her role on "Bones".


title: Michaela Conlin

text: In addition to her television work, Conlin portrayed Detective Heidi Sobel in the 2011 drama film "The Lincoln Lawyer". She also appeared in "Open Window" and "Love the Hard Way". In 2021, she portrayed Maria Li in "Bad Trip".


title: Michaela Conlin

text: Conlin is best friends with "Bones" co-star Emily Deschanel, who played her best friend Temperance "Bones" Brennan on the show.


title: Jessica Pressler

text: Jessica Pressler (born 1977/78) is an American journalist and contributing editor at "New York" magazine. Her 2015 article "The Hustlers at Scores", was nominated for a National Magazine Award, and was later made into a feature film called "Hustlers" in 2019. She also wrote a story about Anna Sorokin that was later developed into the mini-series "Inventing Anna" released by Netflix in 2022.


title: Jessica Pressler

text: Her mother, Judith Pressler, was a guidance counselor at Swampscott High School and her father, Michael Pressler, was a professor of English and the director of the interdisciplinary arts program at Shippensburg University in Pennsylvania.


title: Jessica Pressler

text: Pressler became the co-editor of "New York" magazine's "Daily Intel" blog in 2007 after working as a staff writer at "Philadelphia" magazine and as a freelancer for celebrity magazines. At "New York", she has written extensively on "the culture of wealth and money," interviewing Wall Street CEOs such as Goldman Sachs Lloyd Blankfein and AIG CEO Robert Benmosche about their firms’ involvement in the 2008 financial crisis. Pressler has profiled New York personalities Lynn Tilton and Anthony Scaramucci. Her feature articles about the feud between Chris Burch and Tory Burch and the culture of Silicon Valley startups have appeared in "The Best Business Writing" editions.


title: Jessica Pressler

text: In 2014, Pressler wrote a story about a Stuyvesant High School senior who had allegedly made $72 million trading stocks, which was later revealed to be not true. Bloomberg News rescinded a job offer made to her for their investigative unit after the student confessed he had "made the whole thing up."


title: Jessica Pressler

text: On December 28, 2015, Pressler published an article for "New York" called "The Hustlers at Scores", a story about strippers who manipulated money out of their clients. She was nominated for a National Magazine Award in 2016. A team of producers that included Will Ferrell "snapped up" the film rights in February 2016. The story was adapted into a film by Gloria Sanchez Productions titled "Hustlers"; it stars Keke Palmer, Constance Wu and Jennifer Lopez, with Julia Stiles portraying "Elizabeth", a fictionalized version of Pressler. The film was released in 2019.


title: Jessica Pressler

text: In 2018, she wrote a story about New York City high society grifter Anna Sorokin, which was developed into the mini-series "Inventing Anna" by Netflix and Shonda Rhimes. Pressler's book, "Bad Influence: Money, Lies, Power, and the World that Created Anna Delvey", is scheduled for publication in 2022.


title: Jessica Pressler

text: Pressler has also written for "GQ", "Elle", "Esquire" and "Smithsonian". She was a regular "Gossip Girl" episode recap writer for "Vulture" website, and made an appearance as a "New York" magazine editor in one of its episodes.


title: Jessica Pressler

text: In 2008, she married Benjamin Wallace, a freelance magazine writer and author. They later divorced, and she is now married to Josh Uhl.


title: John Cena filmography

text: John Cena is an American professional wrestler, actor, and former rapper. The following are his roles in films, television series and video games. The filmography does not include his professional wrestling appearances in any form of media or featured televised productions.


title: Asia Cup

text: The Asian Cricket Council Asia Cup is a men's One Day International and Twenty20 International cricket tournament. It was established in 1983 when the Asian Cricket Council was founded as a measure to promote goodwill between Asian countries. It was originally scheduled to be held every two years. The Asia Cup is the only continental championship in cricket and the winning team becomes the champions of Asia. It alternates every 2-years between ODI and T20I formats.


title: Asia Cup

text: The first Asia Cup was held in 1984 in Sharjah in the United Arab Emirates where the council's offices were based (until 1995). India boycotted the 1986 tournament due to strained cricketing relations with Sri Lanka. Pakistan boycotted the 1990–91 tournament due to strained political relations with India and the 1993 tournament was cancelled for the same reason. The ACC announced that the tournament would be held biennially from 2009 onwards. The ICC has ruled that all games played in the Asia Cup have official ODI status.


title: Asia Cup

text: After downsizing the Asian Cricket Council in 2015, it was announced by the ICC that Asia Cup events from 2016 would be played on a rotation basis between One Day International and Twenty20 International format, on the basis of the format of upcoming world events. As a result, the 2016 event was the first event played in the T20I format and functioned as a preparatory tournament ahead of the 2016 ICC World Twenty20.


title: Asia Cup

text: India, with seven titles (six ODI and one T20I), is the most successful team in the tournament. Sri Lanka is the second most successful team, with six. Sri Lanka has played the most Asia Cups (14) followed by India, Pakistan and Bangladesh who have played 13 each. Sri Lanka won the Asia Cup 2022.


title: Asia Cup

text: The first edition of the Rothmans Asia Cup was held in 1984 in Sharjah, UAE, the location of the headquarters of the newly formed Asian Cricket Council. The tournament was a round-robin tournament among India, Sri Lanka and Pakistan. The first match was between Pakistan and the new ICC member Sri Lanka. India won this tournament with two victories, Sri Lanka were the runners up in the tournament with a single victory over Pakistan, while Pakistan went home without winning any of its two games.


title: Asia Cup

text: Sri Lanka was the host for the second edition in 1986. India pulled out of the tournament due to soured cricketing relations with Sri Lanka after a controversial series in Sri Lanka the previous year. Bangladesh was included for the first time. Sri Lanka won the tournament beating Pakistan in the final.


title: Asia Cup

text: The third edition, in 1988, was held in Bangladesh, the first time a multi-national cricket tournament was held there. In the final, India beat Sri Lanka by 6 wickets to win their second Asia Cup.


title: Asia Cup

text: The fourth edition of the tournament was held in India in 1990–91. Pakistan had pulled out of the tournament due to strained political relations with India. India retained the Asia Cup defeating Sri Lanka in the final.


title: Asia Cup

text: In 1993, the tournament was cancelled due to strained political relations between India and Pakistan.


title: Asia Cup

text: The fifth edition, in 1995, took the series back to Sharjah, UAE after 11 years. India and Sri Lanka made it to the final by virtue of better run rate than Pakistan as all three teams had equal points after the preliminary round. For the third successive time, India defeated Sri Lanka in the final.


title: Asia Cup

text: The sixth edition was held in Sri Lanka in 1997. Sri Lanka beat India in the final by 8 wickets to win its second Asia Cup.


title: Asia Cup

text: The seventh edition took place in Bangladesh for the second time in 2000. Pakistan and Sri Lanka made it to the final while India only won one match against Bangladesh and did not qualify for the final for the first time. In the final, Pakistan beat Sri Lanka to win the Asia Cup for the first time. Yousuf Youhana was the player of the Tournament.


title: Asia Cup

text: The eighth edition took place in Sri Lanka in 2004. There was a change in the tournament format as UAE and Hong Kong were also included for the first time and the tournament was now divided into three stages – the "Group Stage", "Super Fours" and the final. The group stage was divided into two groups of 3 teams, each playing each other once. The top two teams from each group qualified for the Super Four stage where they played each other again once. The top two teams in the Super Four stage then qualified for the final. Hosts Sri Lanka, India and UAE were placed in Group A while the then defending champions Pakistan, Bangladesh and Hong Kong were placed in Group B. UAE and Hong Kong were knocked out in the group stage. Bangladesh had the distinction of reaching the second stage in a major tournament for the first time, but played poorly in the Super Fours and got eliminated. India and Sri Lanka topped the Super Four stage and reached the final. In the final, Sri Lanka defeated India by 25 runs to win the Asia Cup. Sanath Jayasuriya was the player of the Tournament.


title: Asia Cup

text: The ninth edition of the Asia Cup was held in Pakistan. Once again, the 2004 format was retained. The tournament started on 24 June 2008 and the Final was held on 6 July 2008. Sri Lanka topped Group A and qualified for the second phase along with Bangladesh. In Group B, India came out on top and entered the Super Fours along with Pakistan in second place. Sri Lanka and India topped the Super Four stage and entered the final. Sri Lanka beat India in the final comfortably winning their fourth Asia Cup. Sanath Jayasuriya scored a quick 125 off 114 balls to rescue Sri Lanka from 66/4 earlier on when the top order collapsed. Sri Lanka's new mystery spinner, Ajantha Mendis, took 6/13 bowling Sri Lanka to a 100 run victory. He also was adjudged as the Player of the Tournament.


title: Asia Cup

text: The tenth edition was held in Sri Lanka, between 15 and 24 June 2010 hosting the Asia Cup for the fourth time. It only featured the four Test playing Asian nations, and seven matches were played in all (including the final). Sri Lanka and India topped the group stages and entered the final. In the final, India beat Sri Lanka comfortably to become champions for the fifth time, winning the tournament for first time in 15 years. Shahid Afridi was the Player of the Tournament.


title: Asia Cup

text: The eleventh edition of Asia Cup was held in Dhaka, Bangladesh from 11 to 22 March 2012. Pakistan and Bangladesh qualified to play in the final of the eleventh edition, Bangladesh had beaten India and Sri Lanka to book its place in the final for the first time in the history of the tournament.


title: Asia Cup

text: Pakistan beat Bangladesh after a thrilling final over, winning their second Asia Cup. Shakib Al Hasan was adjudged the Player of the Tournament.Sachin Tendulkar scored his 100th international century in this tournament.


title: Asia Cup

text: The twelfth edition was held in Dhaka and Fatullah, Bangladesh from 25 February to 8 March 2014. The tournament consisted of five teams with Afghanistan in it for the first time since its inception in 1984. Sri Lanka defeated Pakistan by 5 wickets in the final to win the Asia Cup for the fifth time. Lahiru Thirimanne was adjudged the Player of the tournament scoring 279 runs.


title: Asia Cup

text: After the Asian Cricket Council was downsized by the ICC in 2015, it was announced that Asia Cup tournaments will be played on rotation basis in ODI and T20I format. As a result, 2016 events was the first tournament in T20I format and was played between five teams just ahead of 2016 ICC World Twenty20. The 2016 edition of the Asia Cup tournament was held in Bangladesh for the third consecutive time from 24 February to 6 March. The final was held on 6 March 2016. India won the final by beating Bangladesh by 8 wickets in the final held at the Sher-e-Bangla National Stadium situated in Mirpur locality, Dhaka, Bangladesh. It is for the sixth time that India won the Asia cup title in 2016. Shikhar Dhawan of India was the man of the match for his 60 runs. Sabbir Rahman of Bangladesh was the player of the series.


title: Asia Cup

text: India won all of its matches played in Asia Cup 2016 beating Bangladesh 2 times, Pakistan, Sri Lanka and UAE.


title: Asia Cup

text: On 29 October 2015, following the Asian Cricket Council meeting in Singapore, BCCI secretary Anurag Thakur stated that the 2018 edition of the tournament would be held in India. It will follow the ODI format. However, in April 2018, the tournament was moved to the United Arab Emirates, due to political tensions between India and Pakistan.


title: Asia Cup

text: India were the defending champions, and retained their title, after beating Bangladesh by three wickets in the final. India did not suffer a single defeat in the tournament, with 2 wins each against Pakistan & Bangladesh, a solitary win against Hong Kong, and a tie with Afghanistan.


title: Asia Cup

text: Afghanistan was the only team in the tournament who remained unbeaten against eventual winners India.


title: Asia Cup

text: Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the 2020 Asia Cup was first postponed to 2021 with Sri Lanka set to host the event but was later pushed back to 2022 with matches to be played in UAE owing to the packed international schedule and the rising covid cases in Sri Lanka.


title: Asia Cup

text: United Arab Emirates hosted the tournament and Sri Lanka won the Asia Cup beating Pakistan by 23 runs in the final. Sri Lanka reached the final as the only unbeaten team in the Super-Four stage winning against Afghanistan, India, and Pakistan.


title: Asia Cup

text: Bhanuka Rajapaksa was awarded Man of the Match for his unbeaten 71 off 45 balls, and Wanindu Hasaranga was second highest wicket-taker with 9 wickets in 6 matches, scored 66 runs in 5 innings and was named Player of the Series.


title: Asia Cup

text: Pakistan had an average start in the Asia cup with a defeat against India in group stage, beating India in a close encounter, & Afghanistan in Super 4, ending with 2 back-to-back defeats against Sri Lanka.


title: Asia Cup

text: India started the tournament as hot favourites defeating Pakistan; however, they couldn’t win important matches of super 4 and got knocked out of the tournament


title: Asia Cup

text: The table below provides an overview of the performances of teams over past Asia Cup ODI and T20I tournaments.


title: Asia Cup

text: The table below provides an overview of the performances of teams over past Asia Cup ODI tournaments.


title: Natural law

text: Natural law (, "lex naturalis") is a system of law based on a close observation of human nature, and based on values intrinsic to human nature that can be deduced and applied independently of positive law (the express enacted laws of a state or society). According to natural law theory (called jusnaturalism), all people have inherent rights, conferred not by act of legislation but by "God, nature, or reason." Natural law theory can also refer to "theories of ethics, theories of politics, theories of civil law, and theories of religious morality."


title: Natural law

text: In the Western tradition, it was anticipated by the pre-Socratics, for example in their search for principles that governed the cosmos and human beings. The concept of natural law was documented in ancient Greek philosophy, including Aristotle, and was referred to in ancient Roman philosophy by Cicero. References to it are also to be found in the Old and New Testaments of the Bible, and were later expounded upon in the Middle Ages by Christian philosophers such as Albert the Great and Thomas Aquinas. The School of Salamanca made notable contributions during the Renaissance.


title: Natural law

text: Although the central ideas of natural law had been part of Christian thought since the Roman Empire, the foundation for natural law as a consistent system was laid by Aquinas, as he synthesised ideas from his predecessors and condensed them into his "Lex Naturalis" (lit. "Natural law"). St. Thomas argues that because human beings have reason, and because reason is a spark of the divine (see image of God), all human lives are sacred and of infinite value compared to any other created object, meaning all humans are fundamentally equal and bestowed with an intrinsic basic set of rights that no human can remove.


title: Natural law

text: Modern natural law theories took shape in the Age of Enlightenment, combining inspiration from Roman law, Christian scholastic philosophy, and contemporary concepts such as social contract theory. It was used in challenging the theory of the divine right of kings, and became an alternative justification for the establishment of a social contract, positive law, and government—and thus legal rights—in the form of classical republicanism. In the early decades of the 21st century, the concept of natural law is closely related to the concept of natural rights. Indeed, many philosophers, jurists and scholars use natural law synonymously with natural rights (), or natural justice, though others distinguish between natural law and natural right.


title: Natural law

text: Because of the intersection between natural law and natural rights, natural law has been claimed or attributed as a key component in the Act of Abjuration (1581) of the Netherlands, the Declaration of Independence (1776) of the United States, the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (1789) of France, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) of the United Nations, as well as the European Convention on Human Rights (1953) of the Council of Europe.


title: Natural law

text: Although Plato did not have an explicit theory of natural law (he rarely used the phrase 'natural law' except in "Gorgias" 484 and "Timaeus" 83e), his concept of nature, according to John Wild, contains some of the elements found in many natural law theories. According to Plato, we live in an orderly universe. The basis of this orderly universe or nature are the forms, most fundamentally the Form of the Good, which Plato describes as "the brightest region of Being." The Form of the Good is the cause of all things, and when it is seen it leads a person to act wisely. In the "Symposium", the Good is closely identified with the Beautiful. In the "Symposium", Plato describes how the experience of the Beautiful by Socrates enabled him to resist the temptations of wealth and sex. In the "Republic", the ideal community is "a city which would be established in accordance with nature."


title: Natural law

text: Greek philosophy emphasized the distinction between "nature" ("physis", "φúσις") on the one hand and "law," "custom," or "convention" ("nomos", "νóμος") on the other. What the law commanded would be expected to vary from place to place, but what was "by nature" should be the same everywhere. A "law of nature" would therefore have the flavor more of a paradox than something that obviously existed. Against the conventionalism that the distinction between nature and custom could engender, Socrates and his philosophic heirs, Plato and Aristotle, posited the existence of natural justice or natural right ("dikaion physikon", "δίκαιον φυσικόν", Latin "ius naturale"). Of these, Aristotle is often said to be the father of natural law.


title: Natural law

text: Aristotle's association with natural law may be due to the interpretation given to his works by Thomas Aquinas. But whether Aquinas correctly read Aristotle is in dispute. According to some, Aquinas conflates natural law and natural right, the latter of which Aristotle posits in Book V of the "Nicomachean Ethics" (Book IV of the "Eudemian Ethics"). According to this interpretation, Aquinas's influence was such as to affect a number of early translations of these passages in an unfortunate manner, though more recent translations render those more literally. Aristotle notes that natural justice is a species of political justice, specifically the scheme of distributive and corrective justice that would be established under the best political community; were this to take the form of law, this could be called a natural law, though Aristotle does not discuss this and suggests in the "Politics" that the best regime may not rule by law at all.


title: Natural law

text: The best evidence of Aristotle's having thought there was a natural law comes from the "Rhetoric", where Aristotle notes that, aside from the "particular" laws that each people has set up for itself, there is a "common" law that is according to nature. Specifically, he quotes Sophocles and Empedocles:


title: Natural law

text: Universal law is the law of Nature. For there really is, as every one to some extent divines, a natural justice and injustice that is binding on all men, even on those who have no association or covenant with each other. It is this that Sophocles' Antigone clearly means when she says that the burial of Polyneices was a just act in spite of the prohibition: she means that it was just by nature:


title: Natural law

text: And so Empedocles, when he bids us kill no living creature, he is saying that to do this is not just for some people, while unjust for others:


title: Natural law

text: Some critics believe that the context of this remark suggests only that Aristotle advised that it could be rhetorically advantageous to appeal to such a law, especially when the "particular" law of one's own city was averse to the case being made, not that there actually was such a law. Moreover, they claim that Aristotle considered two of the three candidates for a universally valid, natural law provided in this passage to be wrong. Aristotle's paternity of natural law tradition is consequently disputed.


title: Natural law

text: The development of this tradition of natural justice into one of natural law is usually attributed to the Stoics. The rise of natural law as a universal system coincided with the rise of large empires and kingdoms in the Greek world. Whereas the "higher" law that Aristotle suggested one could appeal to was emphatically natural, in contradistinction to being the result of divine positive legislation, the Stoic natural law was indifferent to either the natural or divine source of the law: the Stoics asserted the existence of a rational and purposeful order to the universe (a divine or eternal law), and the means by which a rational being lived in accordance with this order was the natural law, which inspired actions that accorded with virtue.


title: Natural law

text: There is no change in political theory so startling in its completeness as the change from the theory of Aristotle to the later philosophical view represented by Cicero and Seneca ... We think that this cannot be better exemplified than with regard to the theory of the equality of human nature." Charles H. McIlwain likewise observes that "the idea of the equality of men is the most profound contribution of the Stoics to political thought" and that "its greatest influence is in the changed conception of law that in part resulted from it.


title: Natural law

text: Natural law first appeared among the stoics who believed that God is everywhere and in everyone (see classical pantheism). According to this belief, within humans there is a "divine spark" which helps them to live in accordance with nature. The stoics felt that there was a way in which the universe had been designed, and that natural law helped us to harmonise with this.


title: Natural law

text: In the Fifth Book of his History of the Roman Republic Livy puts a formulation of the Natural Law into the mouth of Marcus Furius Camillus during the siege of the Falerii "You, villain, have not come with your villainous offer to a nation or a commander like yourself. Between us and the Faliscans there is no fellowship based on a formal compact as between man and man, but the fellowship which is based on natural instincts exists between us, and will continue to do so. There are rights of war as there are rights of peace, and we have learnt to wage our wars with justice no less than with courage. We do not use our weapons against those of an age which is spared even in the capture of cities, but against those who are armed as we are, and who without any injury or provocation from us attacked the Roman camp at Veii. These men you, as far as you could, have vanquished by an unprecedented act of villainy; I shall vanquish them as I vanquished Veii, by Roman arts, by courage and strategy and force of arms."


title: Natural law

text: Cicero wrote in his "De Legibus" that both justice and law originate from what nature has given to humanity, from what the human mind embraces, from the function of humanity, and from what serves to unite humanity. For Cicero, natural law obliges us to contribute to the general good of the larger society. The purpose of positive laws is to provide for "the safety of citizens, the preservation of states, and the tranquility and happiness of human life." In this view, "wicked and unjust statutes" are "anything but 'laws,'" because "in the very definition of the term 'law' there inheres the idea and principle of choosing what is just and true." Law, for Cicero, "ought to be a reformer of vice and an incentive to virtue." Cicero expressed the view that "the virtues which we ought to cultivate, always tend to our own happiness, and that the best means of promoting them consists in living with men in that perfect union and charity which are cemented by mutual benefits."


title: Natural law

text: Cicero influenced the discussion of natural law for many centuries to come, up through the era of the American Revolution. The jurisprudence of the Roman Empire was rooted in Cicero, who held "an extraordinary grip ... upon the imagination of posterity" as "the medium for the propagation of those ideas which informed the law and institutions of the empire." Cicero's conception of natural law "found its way to later centuries notably through the writings of Saint Isidore of Seville and the Decretum of Gratian." Thomas Aquinas, in his summary of medieval natural law, quoted Cicero's statement that "nature" and "custom" were the sources of a society's laws.


title: Natural law

text: The Renaissance Italian historian Leonardo Bruni praised Cicero as the person "who carried philosophy from Greece to Italy, and nourished it with the golden river of his eloquence." The legal culture of Elizabethan England, exemplified by Sir Edward Coke, was "steeped in Ciceronian rhetoric." The Scottish moral philosopher Francis Hutcheson, as a student at Glasgow, "was attracted most by Cicero, for whom he always professed the greatest admiration." More generally in eighteenth-century Great Britain, Cicero's name was a household word among educated people. Likewise, "in the admiration of early Americans Cicero took pride of place as orator, political theorist, stylist, and moralist."


title: Natural law

text: The British polemicist Thomas Gordon "incorporated Cicero into the radical ideological tradition that travelled from the mother country to the colonies in the course of the eighteenth century and decisively shaped early American political culture." Cicero's description of the immutable, eternal, and universal natural law was quoted by Burlamaqui and later by the American revolutionary legal scholar James Wilson. Cicero became John Adams's "foremost model of public service, republican virtue, and forensic eloquence." Adams wrote of Cicero that "as all the ages of the world have not produced a greater statesman and philosopher united in the same character, his authority should have great weight." Thomas Jefferson "first encountered Cicero as a schoolboy while learning Latin, and continued to read his letters and discourses throughout his life. He admired him as a patriot, valued his opinions as a moral philosopher, and there is little doubt that he looked upon Cicero's life, with his love of study and aristocratic country life, as a model for his own." Jefferson described Cicero as "the father of eloquence and philosophy."


title: Natural law

text: Paul's Epistle to the Romans is generally considered the Scriptural authority for the Christian idea of natural law as something that was endowed in all men, contrasted with an idea of law as something revealed (for example, the law revealed to Moses by God).


title: Natural law

text: "For when the Gentiles, which have not the law, do by nature the things contained in the law, these, having not the law, are a law unto themselves: Which shew the work of the law written in their hearts, their conscience also bearing witness, and their thoughts the meanwhile accusing or else excusing one another."


title: Natural law

text: The intellectual historian A. J. Carlyle has commented on this passage, "There can be little doubt that St Paul's words imply some conception analogous to the 'natural law' in Cicero, a law written in men's hearts, recognized by man's reason, a law distinct from the positive law of any State, or from what St Paul recognized as the revealed law of God. It is in this sense that St Paul's words are taken by the Fathers of the fourth and fifth centuries like St Hilary of Poitiers, St Ambrose, and St Augustine, and there seems no reason to doubt the correctness of their interpretation."


title: Natural law

text: Because of its origins in the Old Testament, early Church Fathers, especially those in the West, saw natural law as part of the natural foundation of Christianity. The most notable among these was Augustine of Hippo, who equated natural law with humanity's prelapsarian state; as such, a life according to unbroken human nature was no longer possible and persons needed instead to seek healing and salvation through the divine law and grace of Jesus Christ. Augustine was also among the earliest to examine the legitimacy of the laws of man, and attempt to define the boundaries of what laws and rights occur naturally based on wisdom and conscience, instead of being arbitrarily imposed by mortals, and if people are obligated to obey laws that are unjust.


title: Natural law

text: The natural law was inherently teleological as well as deontological. For Christians, natural law is how human beings manifest the divine image in their life. This mimicry of God's own life is impossible to accomplish except by means of the power of grace. Thus, whereas deontological systems merely require certain duties be performed, Christianity explicitly states that no one can, in fact, perform any duties if grace is lacking. For Christians, natural law flows not from divine commands, but from the fact that humanity is made in God's image, humanity is empowered by God's grace. Living the natural law is how humanity displays the gifts of life and grace, the gifts of all that is good. Consequences are in God's hands, consequences are generally not within human control, thus in natural law, actions are judged by three things: (1) the person's intent, (2) the circumstances of the act and (3) the nature of the act. The apparent good or evil consequence resulting from the moral act is not relevant to the act itself. The specific content of the natural law is therefore determined by how each person's acts mirror God's internal life of love. Insofar as one lives the natural law, temporal satisfaction may or may not be attained, but salvation will be attained. The state, in being bound by the natural law, is conceived as an institution whose purpose is to assist in bringing its subjects to true happiness. True happiness derives from living in harmony with the mind of God as an image of the living God.


title: Natural law

text: After the Protestant Reformation, some Protestant denominations maintained parts of the Catholic concept of natural law. The English theologian Richard Hooker from the Church of England adapted Thomistic notions of natural law to Anglicanism five principles: to live, to learn, to reproduce, to worship God, and to live in an ordered society.


title: Natural law

text: Catholic counties in the tradition of the early Christian law and in the twelfth century, Gratian equated the natural law with divine law. Albertus Magnus would address the subject a century later, and his pupil, St. Thomas Aquinas, in his "Summa Theologica" I-II qq. 90–106, restored Natural Law to its independent state, asserting natural law as the rational creature's participation in the eternal law. Yet, since human reason could not fully comprehend the Eternal law, it needed to be supplemented by revealed Divine law. (See also Biblical law in Christianity.) Meanwhile, Aquinas taught that all human or positive laws were to be judged by their conformity to the natural law. An unjust law is not a law, in the full sense of the word. It retains merely the 'appearance' of law insofar as it is duly constituted and enforced in the same way a just law is, but is itself a 'perversion of law.' At this point, the natural law was not only used to pass judgment on the moral worth of various laws, but also to determine what those laws meant in the first place. This principle laid the seed for possible societal tension with reference to tyrants.


title: Natural law

text: The Catholic Church holds the view of natural law introduced by Albertus Magnus and elaborated by Thomas Aquinas, particularly in his "Summa Theologiae", and often as filtered through the School of Salamanca. This view is also shared by some Protestants, and was delineated by Anglican writer C. S. Lewis in his works "Mere Christianity" and "The Abolition of Man".


title: Natural law

text: The Catholic Church understands human beings to consist of body and mind, the physical and the non-physical (or soul perhaps), and that the two are inextricably linked. Humans are capable of discerning the difference between good and evil because they have a conscience. There are many manifestations of the good that we can pursue. Some, like procreation, are common to other animals, while others, like the pursuit of truth, are inclinations peculiar to the capacities of human beings.


title: Natural law

text: To know what is right, one must use one's reason and apply it to Thomas Aquinas' precepts. This reason is believed to be embodied, in its most abstract form, in the concept of a primary precept: "Good is to be sought, evil avoided." St. Thomas explains that:


title: Natural law

text: However, while the primary and immediate precepts cannot be "blotted out," the secondary precepts can be. Therefore, for a deontological ethical theory they are open to a surprisingly large amount of interpretation and flexibility. Any rule that helps humanity to live up to the primary or subsidiary precepts can be a secondary precept, for example:


title: Natural law

text: Natural moral law is concerned with both exterior and interior acts, also known as action and motive. Simply doing the right thing is not enough; to be truly moral one's motive must be right as well. For example, helping an old lady across the road (good exterior act) to impress someone (bad interior act) is wrong. However, good intentions don't always lead to good actions. The motive must coincide with the cardinal or theological virtues. Cardinal virtues are acquired through reason applied to nature; they are:


title: Natural law

text: According to Aquinas, to lack any of these virtues is to lack the ability to make a moral choice. For example, consider a person who possesses the virtues of justice, prudence, and fortitude, yet lacks temperance. Due to their lack of self-control and desire for pleasure, despite their good intentions, they will find themself swaying from the moral path.


title: Natural law

text: In the 16th century, the School of Salamanca (Francisco Suárez, Francisco de Vitoria, etc.) further developed a philosophy of natural law, and major interpretations were provided by 20th century philosophers such as Jacques Maritain.


title: Natural law

text: The Catechism of the Catholic Church describes it in the following way: "The natural law expresses the original moral sense which enables man to discern by reason the good and the evil, the truth and the lie: 'The natural law is written and engraved in the soul of each and every man, because it is human reason ordaining him to do good and forbidding him to sin . . . But this command of human reason would not have the force of law if it were not the voice and interpreter of a higher reason to which our spirit and our freedom must be submitted.


title: Natural law

text: The natural law consists, for the Catholic Church, of one supreme and universal principle from which are derived all our natural moral obligations or duties. Thomas Aquinas resumes the various ideas of Catholic moral thinkers about what this principle is: since good is what primarily falls under the apprehension of the practical reason, the supreme principle of moral action must have the good as its central idea, and therefore the supreme principle is that good is to be done and evil avoided.


title: Natural law

text: Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī, a medieval scholar, scientist, and polymath, understood "natural law" as the survival of the fittest. He argued that the antagonism between human beings can be overcome only through a divine law, which he believed to have been sent through prophets. This is also said to be the general position of the Ashari school, the largest school of Sunni theology, as well as Ibn Hazm. Conceptualized thus, all "laws" are viewed as originating from subjective attitudes actuated by cultural conceptions and individual preferences, and so the notion of "divine revelation" is justified as some kind of "divine intervention" that replaces human positive laws, which are criticized as being relative, with a single divine positive law. This, however, also entails that anything may be included in "the divine law" as it would in "human laws," but unlike the latter, "God's law" is seen as binding regardless of the nature of the commands by virtue of "God's might": since God is not subject to human laws and conventions, He may command what He wills just as He may do what He wills.


title: Natural law

text: The Maturidi school, the second-largest school of Sunni theology, as well as the Mu'tazilites, posits the existence of a form of natural, or "objective," law that humans can comprehend. Abu Mansur al-Maturidi stated that the human mind could know of the existence of God and the major forms of "good" and "evil" without the help of revelation. Al-Maturidi gives the example of stealing, which, he believes, is known to be evil by reason alone due to people's working hard for their property. Similarly, killing, fornication, and drunkenness are all "discernible evils" that the human mind could know of according to al-Maturidi. Likewise, Averroes (Ibn Rushd), in his treatise on "Justice and Jihad" and his commentary on Plato's "Republic", writes that the human mind can know of the unlawfulness of killing and stealing and thus of the five maqasid or higher intents of the Islamic sharia, or the protection of religion, life, property, offspring, and reason. His Aristotelian commentaries also influenced the subsequent Averroist movement and the writings of Thomas Aquinas.


title: Natural law

text: Ibn Qayyim Al-Jawziyya also posited that human reason could discern between "great sins" and "good deeds." Nonetheless, he, like Ibn Taymiyah, emphasized the authority of "divine revelation" and asserted that it must be followed even if it "seems" to contradict human reason, though he stressed that most, if not all, of "God's commands" are both sensible (that is, rationalizable) and advantageous to humans in both "this life" and "the hereafter."


title: Natural law

text: The concept of "Istislah" in Islamic law bears some similarities to the natural law tradition in the West, as exemplified by Thomas Aquinas. However, whereas natural law deems good what is self-evidently good, according as it tends towards the fulfillment of the person, "istislah" typically calls good whatever is related to one of five "basic goods." Many jurists, theologians, and philosophers attempted to abstract these "basic and fundamental goods" from legal precepts. Al-Ghazali, for instance, defined them as religion, life, reason, lineage, and property, while others add "honor" also.


title: Natural law

text: Early Irish law, An Senchus Mor (The Great Tradition) mentions in a number of places "recht aicned" or natural law. This is a concept predating European legal theory, and reflects a type of law that is universal and may be determined by reason and observation of natural action. Neil McLeod identifies concepts that law must accord with: fír (truth) and dliged (right or entitlement). These two terms occur frequently, though Irish law never strictly defines them. Similarly, the term córus (law in accordance with proper order) occurs in some places, and even in the titles of certain texts. These were two very real concepts to the jurists and the value of a given judgment with respect to them was apparently ascertainable. McLeod has also suggested that most of the specific laws mentioned have passed the test of time and thus their truth has been confirmed, while other provisions are justified in other ways because they are younger and have not been tested over time The laws were written in the oldest dialect of the Irish language, called Bérla Féini [Bairla-faina], which even at the time was so difficult that persons about to become brehons had to be specially instructed in it, the length of time from beginning to becoming a learned Brehon was usually 20 years. Although under the law any third person could fulfill the duty if both parties agreed, and both were sane. It has been included in an Ethno-Celtic breakaway subculture, as it has religious undertones and freedom of religious expression allows it to once again be used as a valid system in Western Europe.


title: Natural law

text: Heinrich A. Rommen remarked upon "the tenacity with which the spirit of the English common law retained the conceptions of natural law and equity which it had assimilated during the Catholic Middle Ages, thanks especially to the influence of Henry de Bracton (d. 1268) and Sir John Fortescue (d. cir. 1476)." Bracton's translator notes that Bracton "was a trained jurist with the principles and distinctions of Roman jurisprudence firmly in mind"; but Bracton adapted such principles to English purposes rather than copying slavishly. In particular, Bracton turned the imperial Roman maxim that "the will of the prince is law" on its head, insisting that the king is "under" the law. The legal historian Charles F. Mullett has noted Bracton's "ethical definition of law, his recognition of justice, and finally his devotion to natural rights." Bracton considered justice to be the "fountain-head" from which "all rights arise." For his definition of justice, Bracton quoted the twelfth-century Italian jurist Azo: "'Justice is the constant and unfailing will to give to each his right.'" Bracton's work was the second legal treatise studied by the American historical figure Thomas Jefferson as a young apprentice lawyer.


title: Natural law

text: Fortescue stressed "the supreme importance of the law of God and of nature" in works that "profoundly influenced the course of legal development in the following centuries." The legal scholar Ellis Sandoz has noted that "the historically ancient and the ontologically higher law—eternal, divine, natural—are woven together to compose a single harmonious texture in Fortescue's account of English law." As the legal historian Norman Doe explains: "Fortescue follows the general pattern set by Aquinas. The objective of every legislator is to dispose people to virtue. It is by means of law that this is accomplished. Fortescue's definition of law (also found in Accursius and Bracton), after all, was 'a sacred sanction commanding what is virtuous ["honesta"] and forbidding the contrary.'" Fortescue cited the great Italian Leonardo Bruni for his statement that "virtue alone produces happiness."


title: Natural law

text: Christopher St. Germain's "The Doctor and Student" was a classic of English jurisprudence. Norman Doe notes that St. Germain's view "is essentially Thomist," quoting Thomas Aquinas's definition of law as "an ordinance of reason made for the common good by him who has charge of the community, and promulgated."


title: Natural law

text: Sir Edward Coke was the preeminent jurist of his time. Coke's preeminence extended across the ocean: "For the American revolutionary leaders, 'law' meant Sir Edward Coke's custom and right reason." Coke defined law as "perfect reason, which commands those things that are proper and necessary and which prohibits contrary things." For Coke, human nature determined the purpose of law; and law was superior to any one person's reason or will. Coke's discussion of natural law appears in his report of "Calvin's Case" (1608): "The law of nature is that which God at the time of creation of the nature of man infused into his heart, for his preservation and direction." In this case the judges found that "the ligeance or faith of the subject is due unto the King by the law of nature: secondly, that the law of nature is part of the law of England: thirdly, that the law of nature was before any judicial or municipal law: fourthly, that the law of nature is immutable." To support these findings, the assembled judges (as reported by Coke, who was one of them) cited as authorities Aristotle, Cicero, and the Apostle Paul; as well as Bracton, Fortescue, and St. Germain.


title: Natural law

text: After Coke, the most famous common law jurist of the seventeenth century is Sir Matthew Hale. Hale wrote a treatise on natural law that circulated among English lawyers in the eighteenth century and survives in three manuscript copies. This natural-law treatise has been published as "Of the Law of Nature" (2015). Hale's definition of the natural law reads: "It is the Law of Almighty God given by him to Man with his Nature discovering the morall good and moral evill of Moral Actions, commanding the former, and forbidding the latter by the secret voice or dictate of his implanted nature, his reason, and his concience." He viewed natural law as antecedent, preparatory, and subsequent to civil government, and stated that human law "cannot forbid what the Law of Nature injoins, nor Command what the Law of Nature prohibits." He cited as authorities Plato, Aristotle, Cicero, Seneca, Epictetus, and the Apostle Paul. He was critical of Hobbes's reduction of natural law to self-preservation and Hobbes's account of the state of nature, but drew positively on Hugo Grotius's "De jure belli ac pacis", Francisco Suárez's "Tractatus de legibus ac deo legislatore", and John Selden's "De jure naturali et gentium juxta disciplinam Ebraeorum".


title: Natural law

text: As early as the thirteenth century, it was held that "the law of nature...is the ground of all laws" and by the Chancellor and Judges that "it is required by the law of nature that every person, before he can be punish'd, ought to be present; and if absent by contumacy, he ought to be summoned and make default." Further, in 1824, we find it held that "proceedings in our Courts are founded upon the law of England, and that law is again founded upon the law of nature and the revealed law of God. If the right sought to be enforced is inconsistent with either of these, the English municipal courts cannot recognize it."


title: Natural law

text: By the 17th century, the medieval teleological view came under intense criticism from some quarters. Thomas Hobbes instead founded a contractarian theory of legal positivism on what all men could agree upon: what they sought (happiness) was subject to contention, but a broad consensus could form around what they feared (violent death at the hands of another). The natural law was how a rational human being, seeking to survive and prosper, would act. Natural law, therefore, was discovered by considering humankind's natural rights, whereas previously it could be said that natural rights were discovered by considering the natural law. In Hobbes' opinion, the only way natural law could prevail was for men to submit to the commands of the sovereign. Because the ultimate source of law now comes from the sovereign, and the sovereign's decisions need not be grounded in morality, legal positivism is born. Jeremy Bentham's modifications on legal positivism further developed the theory.


title: Natural law

text: As used by Thomas Hobbes in his treatises "Leviathan" and "De Cive", natural law is "a precept, or general rule, found out by reason, by which a man is forbidden to do that which is destructive of his life, or takes away the means of preserving the same; and to omit that by which he thinks it may best be preserved."


title: Natural law

text: According to Hobbes, there are nineteen Laws. The first two are expounded in chapter XIV of "Leviathan" ("of the first and second natural laws; and of contracts"); the others in chapter XV ("of other laws of nature").


title: Natural law

text: Hobbes's philosophy includes a frontal assault on the founding principles of the earlier natural legal tradition, disregarding the traditional association of virtue with happiness, and likewise re-defining "law" to remove any notion of the promotion of the common good. Hobbes has no use for Aristotle's association of nature with human perfection, inverting Aristotle's use of the word "nature." Hobbes posits a primitive, unconnected state of nature in which men, having a "natural proclivity...to hurt each other" also have "a Right to every thing, even to one anothers body"; and "nothing can be Unjust" in this "warre of every man against every man" in which human life is "solitary, poore, nasty, brutish, and short." Rejecting Cicero's view that people join in society primarily through "a certain social spirit which nature has implanted in man," Hobbes declares that men join in society simply for the purpose of "getting themselves out from that miserable condition of Warre, which is necessarily consequent...to the naturall Passions of men, when there is no visible Power to keep them in awe." As part of his campaign against the classical idea of natural human sociability, Hobbes inverts that fundamental natural legal maxim, the Golden Rule. Hobbes's version is ""Do not that to another, which thou wouldst not have done to thy selfe.""


title: Natural law

text: The English cleric Richard Cumberland wrote a lengthy and influential attack on Hobbes's depiction of individual self-interest as the essential feature of human motivation. Historian Knud Haakonssen has noted that in the eighteenth century, Cumberland was commonly placed alongside Alberico Gentili, Hugo Grotius and Samuel Pufendorf "in the triumvirate of seventeenth-century founders of the 'modern' school of natural law." The eighteenth-century philosophers Shaftesbury and Hutcheson "were obviously inspired in part by Cumberland." Historian Jon Parkin likewise describes Cumberland's work as "one of the most important works of ethical and political theory of the seventeenth century." Parkin observes that much of Cumberland's material "is derived from Roman Stoicism, particularly from the work of Cicero, as "Cumberland deliberately cast his engagement with Hobbes in the mould of Cicero's debate between the Stoics, who believed that nature could provide an objective morality, and Epicureans, who argued that morality was human, conventional and self-interested." In doing so, Cumberland de-emphasized the overlay of Christian dogma (in particular, the doctrine of "original sin" and the corresponding presumption that humans are incapable of "perfecting" themselves without divine intervention) that had accreted to natural law in the Middle Ages.


title: Natural law

text: By way of contrast to Hobbes's multiplicity of laws, Cumberland states in the very first sentence of his "Treatise of the Laws of Nature" that "all the Laws of Nature are reduc'd to that one, of Benevolence toward all Rationals." He later clarifies: "By the name "Rationals" I beg leave to understand, as well "God" as "Man"; and I do it upon the Authority of Cicero." Cumberland argues that the mature development ("perfection") of human nature involves the individual human willing and acting for the common good. For Cumberland, human interdependence precludes Hobbes's natural right of each individual to wage war against all the rest for personal survival. However, Haakonssen warns against reading Cumberland as a proponent of "enlightened self-interest." Rather, the "proper moral love of humanity" is "a disinterested love of God through love of humanity in ourselves as well as others." Cumberland concludes that actions "principally conducive to our Happiness" are those that promote "the Honour and Glory of God" and also "Charity and Justice towards men." Cumberland emphasizes that desiring the well-being of our fellow humans is essential to the "pursuit of our own Happiness." He cites "reason" as the authority for his conclusion that happiness consists in "the most extensive Benevolence," but he also mentions as "Essential Ingredients of Happiness" the "Benevolent Affections," meaning "Love and Benevolence towards others," as well as "that Joy, which arises from their Happiness."


title: Natural law

text: The U.S. Declaration of Independence states that it has become necessary for the people of the United States to assume "the separate and equal station to which the Laws of Nature and of Nature's God entitle them." Some early American lawyers and judges perceived natural law as too tenuous, amorphous, and evanescent a legal basis for grounding concrete rights and governmental limitations. Natural law did, however, serve as authority for legal claims and rights in some judicial decisions, legislative acts, and legal pronouncements. Robert Lowry Clinton argues that the U.S. Constitution rests on a common law foundation and the common law, in turn, rests on a classical natural law foundation.


title: Natural law

text: Liberal natural law grew out of the medieval Christian natural law theories and out of Hobbes' revision of natural law, sometimes in an uneasy balance of the two.


title: Natural law

text: Sir Alberico Gentili and Hugo Grotius based their philosophies of international law on natural law. In particular, Grotius's writings on freedom of the seas and just war theory directly appealed to natural law. About natural law itself, he wrote that "even the will of an omnipotent being cannot change or abrogate" natural law, which "would maintain its objective validity even if we should assume the impossible, that there is no God or that he does not care for human affairs." ("De iure belli ac pacis", Prolegomeni XI). This is the famous argument "etiamsi daremus" ("non esse Deum"), that made natural law no longer dependent on theology. However, German church-historians Ernst Wolf and M. Elze disagreed and claimed that Grotius' concept of natural law did have a theological basis. In Grotius' view, the Old Testament contained moral precepts (e.g. the Decalogue) which Christ confirmed and therefore were still valid. Moreover, they were useful in explaining the content of natural law. Both biblical revelation and natural law originated in God and could therefore not contradict each other.


title: Natural law

text: In a similar way, Samuel Pufendorf gave natural law a theological foundation and applied it to his concepts of government and international law.


title: Natural law

text: John Locke incorporated natural law into many of his theories and philosophy, especially in "Two Treatises of Government". There is considerable debate about whether his conception of natural law was more akin to that of Aquinas (filtered through Richard Hooker) or Hobbes' radical reinterpretation, though the effect of Locke's understanding is usually phrased in terms of a revision of Hobbes upon Hobbesian contractarian grounds. Locke turned Hobbes' prescription around, saying that if the ruler went against natural law and failed to protect "life, liberty, and property," people could justifiably overthrow the existing state and create a new one.


title: Natural law

text: While Locke spoke in the language of natural law, the content of this law was by and large protective of natural rights, and it was this language that later liberal thinkers preferred. Political philosopher Jeremy Waldron has pointed out that Locke's political thought was based on "a particular set of Protestant Christian assumptions." To Locke, the content of natural law was identical with biblical ethics as laid down especially in the Decalogue, Christ's teaching and exemplary life, and St. Paul's admonitions. Locke derived the concept of basic human equality, including the equality of the sexes ("Adam and Eve"), from Genesis 1, 26–28, the starting-point of the theological doctrine of Imago Dei. One of the consequences is that as all humans are created equally free, governments need the consent of the governed. Thomas Jefferson, arguably echoing Locke, appealed to unalienable rights in the "Declaration of Independence", "We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are "created" equal, that they are endowed by their "Creator" with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness." The Lockean idea that governments need the consent of the governed was also fundamental to the Declaration of Independence, as the American Revolutionaries used it as justification for their separation from the British crown.


title: Natural law

text: The Belgian philosopher of law Frank van Dun is one among those who are elaborating a secular conception of natural law in the liberal tradition. Anarcho-capitalist theorist Murray Rothbard argues that "the very existence of a natural law discoverable by reason is a potentially powerful threat to the status quo and a standing reproach to the reign of blindly traditional custom or the arbitrary will of the State apparatus." Austrian school economist Ludwig von Mises states that he relaid the general sociological and economic foundations of the liberal doctrine upon utilitarianism, rather than natural law, but R. A. Gonce argues that "the reality of the argument constituting his system overwhelms his denial." Murray Rothbard, however, says that Gonce makes a lot of errors and distortions in the analysis of Mises's works, including making confusions about the term which Mises uses to refer to scientific laws, "laws of nature," saying it characterizes Mises as a natural law philosopher. David Gordon notes, "When most people speak of natural law, what they have in mind is the contention that morality can be derived from human nature. If human beings are rational animals of such-and-such a sort, then the moral virtues are...(filling in the blanks is the difficult part)."


title: Natural law

text: Nobel Prize winning Austrian economist and social theorist F. A. Hayek said that, originally, "the term 'natural' was used to describe an orderliness or regularity that was not the product of deliberate human will. Together with 'organism' it was one of the two terms generally understood to refer to the spontaneously grown in contrast to the invented or designed. Its use in this sense had been inherited from the stoic philosophy, had been revived in the twelfth century, and it was finally under its flag that the late Spanish Schoolmen developed the foundations of the genesis and functioning of spontaneously formed social institutions." The idea that 'natural' was "the product of designing reason" is a product of a seventeenth century rationalist reinterpretation of the law of nature. Luis Molina, for example, when referred to the 'natural' price, explained that it is "so called because 'it results from the thing itself without regard to laws and decrees, but is dependent on many circumstances which alter it, such as the sentiments of men, their estimation of different uses, often even in consequence of whims and pleasures." And even John Locke, when talking about the foundations of natural law and explaining what he thought when citing "reason," said: "By reason, however, I do not think is meant here that faculty of the understanding which forms traint of thought and deduces proofs, but certain definite principles of action from which spring all virtues and whatever is necessary for the proper moulding of morals."


title: Natural law

text: This anti-rationalist approach to human affairs, for Hayek, was the same which guided Scottish enlightenment thinkers, such as Adam Smith, David Hume and Adam Ferguson, to make their case for liberty. For them, no one can have the knowledge necessary to plan society, and this "natural" or "spontaneous" order of society shows how it can efficiently "plan" bottom-up. Also, the idea that law is just a product of deliberate design, denied by natural law and linked to legal positivism, can easily generate totalitarianism: "If law is wholly the product of deliberate design, whatever the designer decrees to be law is just by definition and unjust law becomes a contradiction in terms. The will of the duly authorized legislator is then wholly unfettered and guided solely by his concrete interests." This idea is wrong because law cannot be just a product of "reason": "no system of articulated law can be applied except within a framework of generally recognized but often unarticulated rules of justice."


title: Natural law

text: However, a secular critique of the natural law doctrine was stated by Pierre Charron in his "De la sagesse" (1601): "The sign of a natural law must be the universal respect in which it is held, for if there was anything that nature had truly commanded us to do, we would undoubtedly obey it universally: not only would every nation respect it, but every individual. Instead there is nothing in the world that is not subject to contradiction and dispute, nothing that is not rejected, not just by one nation, but by many; equally, there is nothing that is strange and (in the opinion of many) unnatural that is not approved in many countries, and authorized by their customs."


title: Natural law

text: "By constant repetition, those practices develop into structures in the form of discourses which can become so natural that we abstract from their societal origins, that the latter are forgotten and seem to be natural laws."


title: Natural law

text: These meanings can either oppose or complement each other, although they share the common trait that they rely on inherence as opposed to design in finding just laws.


title: Natural law

text: Whereas legal positivism would say that a law can be unjust without it being any less a law, a natural law jurisprudence would say that there is something legally deficient about an unjust norm.


title: Natural law

text: Besides utilitarianism and Kantianism, natural law jurisprudence has in common with virtue ethics that it is a live option for a first principles ethics theory in analytic philosophy.


title: Natural law

text: The concept of natural law was very important in the development of the English common law. In the struggles between Parliament and the monarch, Parliament often made reference to the Fundamental Laws of England, which were at times said to embody natural law principles since time immemorial and set limits on the power of the monarchy. According to William Blackstone, however, natural law might be useful in determining the content of the common law and in deciding cases of equity, but was not itself identical with the laws of England. Nonetheless, the implication of natural law in the common law tradition has meant that the great opponents of natural law and advocates of legal positivism, like Jeremy Bentham, have also been staunch critics of the common law.


title: Natural law

text: Natural law jurisprudence is currently undergoing a period of reformulation (as is legal positivism). The most prominent contemporary natural law jurist, Australian John Finnis, is based in Oxford, but there are also Americans Germain Grisez, Robert P. George, and Canadian Joseph Boyle and Brazilian Emídio Brasileiro. All have tried to construct a new version of natural law. The 19th-century anarchist and legal theorist Lysander Spooner was also a figure in the expression of modern natural law.


title: Natural law

text: "New Natural Law" as it is sometimes called, originated with Grisez. It focuses on "basic human goods," such as human life, knowledge, and aesthetic experience, which are self-evidently and intrinsically worthwhile, and states that these goods reveal themselves as being incommensurable with one another.


title: Natural law

text: The tensions between natural law and positive law have played, and continue to play, a key role in the development of international law.


title: Specific heat capacity

text: In thermodynamics, the specific heat capacity (symbol ) of a substance is the heat capacity of a sample of the substance divided by the mass of the sample, also sometimes referred to as massic heat capacity. Informally, it is the amount of heat that must be added to one unit of mass of the substance in order to cause an increase of one unit in temperature. The SI unit of specific heat capacity is joule per kelvin per kilogram, J⋅kg⋅K. For example, the heat required to raise the temperature of of water by is , so the specific heat capacity of water is .


title: Specific heat capacity

text: Specific heat capacity often varies with temperature, and is different for each state of matter. Liquid water has one of the highest specific heat capacities among common substances, about at 20 °C; but that of ice, just below 0 °C, is only . The specific heat capacities of iron, granite, and hydrogen gas are about 449 J⋅kg⋅K, 790 J⋅kg⋅K, and 14300 J⋅kg⋅K, respectively. While the substance is undergoing a phase transition, such as melting or boiling, its specific heat capacity is technically infinite, because the heat goes into changing its state rather than raising its temperature.


title: Specific heat capacity

text: The specific heat capacity of a substance, especially a gas, may be significantly higher when it is allowed to expand as it is heated (specific heat capacity "at constant pressure") than when it is heated in a closed vessel that prevents expansion (specific heat capacity "at constant volume"). These two values are usually denoted by formula_1 and formula_2, respectively; their quotient formula_3is the heat capacity ratio.


title: Specific heat capacity

text: The term "specific heat" may also refer to the ratio between the specific heat capacities of a substance at a given temperature and of a reference substance at a reference temperature, such as water at 15 °C; much in the fashion of specific gravity. Specific heat capacity is also related to other intensive measures of heat capacity with other denominators. If the amount of substance is measured as a number of moles, one gets the molar heat capacity instead, whose SI unit is joule per kelvin per mole, J⋅mol⋅K. If the amount is taken to be the volume of the sample (as is sometimes done in engineering), one gets the volumetric heat capacity, whose SI unit is joule per kelvin per cubic meter, J⋅m⋅K.


title: Specific heat capacity

text: One of the first scientists to use the concept was Joseph Black, an 18th-century medical doctor and professor of medicine at Glasgow University. He measured the specific heat capacities of many substances, using the term "capacity for heat".


title: Specific heat capacity

text: The specific heat capacity of a substance, usually denoted by formula_4 or , is the heat capacity formula_5 of a sample of the substance, divided by the mass formula_6 of the sample:


title: Specific heat capacity

text: where formula_8 represents the amount of heat needed to uniformly raise the temperature of the sample by a small increment formula_9.


title: Specific heat capacity

text: Like the heat capacity of an object, the specific heat capacity of a substance may vary, sometimes substantially, depending on the starting temperature formula_10 of the sample and the pressure formula_11 applied to it. Therefore, it should be considered a function formula_12 of those two variables.


title: Specific heat capacity

text: These parameters are usually specified when giving the specific heat capacity of a substance. For example, "Water (liquid): formula_1 = 4187 J⋅kg⋅K (15 °C)" When not specified, published values of the specific heat capacity formula_4 generally are valid for some standard conditions for temperature and pressure.


title: Specific heat capacity

text: However, the dependency of formula_4 on starting temperature and pressure can often be ignored in practical contexts, e.g. when working in narrow ranges of those variables. In those contexts one usually omits the qualifier formula_16, and approximates the specific heat capacity by a constant formula_4 suitable for those ranges.


title: Specific heat capacity

text: Specific heat capacity is an intensive property of a substance, an intrinsic characteristic that does not depend on the size or shape of the amount in consideration. (The qualifier "specific" in front of an extensive property often indicates an intensive property derived from it.)


title: Specific heat capacity

text: The injection of heat energy into a substance, besides raising its temperature, usually causes an increase in its volume and/or its pressure, depending on how the sample is confined. The choice made about the latter affects the measured specific heat capacity, even for the same starting pressure formula_11 and starting temperature formula_10. Two particular choices are widely used:


title: Specific heat capacity

text: The value of formula_20 is usually less than the value of formula_1. This difference is particularly notable in gases where values under constant pressure are typically 30% to 66.7% greater than those at constant volume. Hence the heat capacity ratio of gases is typically between 1.3 and 1.67.


title: Specific heat capacity

text: The specific heat capacity can be defined and measured for gases, liquids, and solids of fairly general composition and molecular structure. These include gas mixtures, solutions and alloys, or heterogenous materials such as milk, sand, granite, and concrete, if considered at a sufficiently large scale.


title: Specific heat capacity

text: The specific heat capacity can be defined also for materials that change state or composition as the temperature and pressure change, as long as the changes are reversible and gradual. Thus, for example, the concepts are definable for a gas or liquid that dissociates as the temperature increases, as long as the products of the dissociation promptly and completely recombine when it drops.


title: Specific heat capacity

text: The specific heat capacity is not meaningful if the substance undergoes irreversible chemical changes, or if there is a phase change, such as melting or boiling, at a sharp temperature within the range of temperatures spanned by the measurement.


title: Specific heat capacity

text: The specific heat capacity of a substance is typically determined according to the definition; namely, by measuring the heat capacity of a sample of the substance, usually with a calorimeter, and dividing by the sample's mass . Several techniques can be applied for estimating the heat capacity of a substance as for example fast differential scanning calorimetry.


title: Specific heat capacity

text: The specific heat capacities of gases can be measured at constant volume, by enclosing the sample in a rigid container. On the other hand, measuring the specific heat capacity at constant volume can be prohibitively difficult for liquids and solids, since one often would need impractical pressures in order to prevent the expansion that would be caused by even small increases in temperature. Instead, the common practice is to measure the specific heat capacity at constant pressure (allowing the material to expand or contract as it wishes), determine separately the coefficient of thermal expansion and the compressibility of the material, and compute the specific heat capacity at constant volume from these data according to the laws of thermodynamics.


title: Specific heat capacity

text: The SI unit for specific heat capacity is joule per kelvin per kilogram , J⋅K⋅kg. Since an increment of temperature of one degree Celsius is the same as an increment of one kelvin, that is the same as joule per degree Celsius per kilogram: J/(kg⋅°C). Sometimes the gram is used instead of kilogram for the unit of mass: 1 J⋅g⋅K = 0.001 J⋅kg⋅K.


title: Specific heat capacity

text: The specific heat capacity of a substance (per unit of mass) has dimension L⋅Θ⋅T, or (L/T)/Θ. Therefore, the SI unit J⋅kg⋅K is equivalent to metre squared per second squared per kelvin (m⋅K⋅s).


title: Specific heat capacity

text: Professionals in construction, civil engineering, chemical engineering, and other technical disciplines, especially in the United States, may use English Engineering units including the pound (lb = 0.45359237 kg) as the unit of mass, the degree Fahrenheit or Rankine (°R = K, about 0.555556 K) as the unit of temperature increment, and the British thermal unit (BTU ≈ 1055.056 J), as the unit of heat.


title: Specific heat capacity

text: In those contexts, the unit of specific heat capacity is BTU/lb⋅°R, or 1 = 4186.68. The BTU was originally defined so that the average specific heat capacity of water would be 1 BTU/lb⋅°F. Note the value's similarity to that of the calorie - 4187 J/kg⋅°C ≈ 4184 J/kg⋅°C (~.07%) - as they are essentially measuring the same energy, using water as a basis reference, scaled to their systems' respective lbs and °F, or kg and °C.


title: Specific heat capacity

text: In chemistry, heat amounts were often measured in calories. Confusingly, two units with that name, denoted "cal" or "Cal", have been commonly used to measure amounts of heat:


title: Specific heat capacity

text: While these units are still used in some contexts (such as kilogram calorie in nutrition), their use is now deprecated in technical and scientific fields. When heat is measured in these units, the unit of specific heat capacity is usually


title: Specific heat capacity

text: Note that while cal is ' of a Cal or kcal, it is also per "gram" instead of "'kilogram": ergo, in either unit, the specific heat capacity of water is approximately 1.


title: Specific heat capacity

text: The temperature of a sample of a substance reflects the average kinetic energy of its constituent particles (atoms or molecules) relative to its center of mass. However, not all energy provided to a sample of a substance will go into raising its temperature, exemplified via the equipartition theorem.


title: Specific heat capacity

text: Quantum mechanics predicts that, at room temperature and ordinary pressures, an isolated atom in a gas cannot store any significant amount of energy except in the form of kinetic energy. Thus, heat capacity per mole is the same for all monatomic gases (such as the noble gases). More precisely, formula_22 and formula_23, where formula_24 is the ideal gas unit (which is the product of Boltzmann conversion constant from kelvin microscopic energy unit to the macroscopic energy unit joule, and the Avogadro number).


title: Specific heat capacity

text: Therefore, the specific heat capacity (per unit of mass, not per mole) of a monatomic gas will be inversely proportional to its (adimensional) atomic weight formula_25. That is, approximately,


title: Specific heat capacity

text: On the other hand, a polyatomic gas molecule (consisting of two or more atoms bound together) can store heat energy in other forms besides its kinetic energy. These forms include rotation of the molecule, and vibration of the atoms relative to its center of mass.


title: Specific heat capacity

text: These extra degrees of freedom or "modes" contribute to the specific heat capacity of the substance. Namely, when heat energy is injected into a gas with polyatomic molecules, only part of it will go into increasing their kinetic energy, and hence the temperature; the rest will go to into those other degrees of freedom. In order to achieve the same increase in temperature, more heat energy will have to be provided to a mol of that substance than to a mol of a monatomic gas. Therefore, the specific heat capacity of a polyatomic gas depends not only on its molecular mass, but also on the number of degrees of freedom that the molecules have.


title: Specific heat capacity

text: Quantum mechanics further says that each rotational or vibrational mode can only take or lose energy in certain discrete amount (quanta). Depending on the temperature, the average heat energy per molecule may be too small compared to the quanta needed to activate some of those degrees of freedom. Those modes are said to be "frozen out". In that case, the specific heat capacity of the substance is going to increase with temperature, sometimes in a step-like fashion, as more modes become unfrozen and start absorbing part of the input heat energy.


title: Specific heat capacity

text: For example, the molar heat capacity of nitrogen at constant volume is formula_27 (at 15 °C, 1 atm), which is formula_28. That is the value expected from theory if each molecule had 5 degrees of freedom. These turn out to be three degrees of the molecule's velocity vector, plus two degrees from its rotation about an axis through the center of mass and perpendicular to the line of the two atoms. Because of those two extra degrees of freedom, the specific heat capacity formula_2 of (736 J⋅K⋅kg) is greater than that of an hypothetical monatomic gas with the same molecular mass 28 (445 J⋅K⋅kg), by a factor of .


title: Specific heat capacity

text: This value for the specific heat capacity of nitrogen is practically constant from below −150 °C to about 300 °C. In that temperature range, the two additional degrees of freedom that correspond to vibrations of the atoms, stretching and compressing the bond, are still "frozen out". At about that temperature, those modes begin to "un-freeze", and as a result formula_2 starts to increase rapidly at first, then slower as it tends to another constant value. It is 35.5 J⋅K⋅mol at 1500 °C, 36.9 at 2500 °C, and 37.5 at 3500 °C. The last value corresponds almost exactly to the predicted value for 7 degrees of freedom per molecule.


title: Specific heat capacity

text: For an ideal gas, if formula_35 is expressed as molar density in the above equation, this equation reduces simply to Mayer's relation,


title: Specific heat capacity

text: where formula_37 and formula_38 are intensive property heat capacities expressed on a per mole basis at constant pressure and constant volume, respectively.


title: Specific heat capacity

text: For gases, and also for other materials under high pressures, there is need to distinguish between different boundary conditions for the processes under consideration (since values differ significantly between different conditions). Typical processes for which a heat capacity may be defined include isobaric (constant pressure, formula_45) or isochoric (constant volume, formula_46) processes. The corresponding specific heat capacities are expressed as


title: Specific heat capacity

text: A related parameter to formula_4 is formula_50, the volumetric heat capacity. In engineering practice, formula_2 for solids or liquids often signifies a volumetric heat capacity, rather than a constant-volume one. In such cases, the mass-specific heat capacity is often explicitly written with the subscript formula_42, as formula_53. Of course, from the above relationships, for solids one writes


title: Specific heat capacity

text: For pure homogeneous chemical compounds with established molecular or molar mass or a molar quantity is established, heat capacity as an intensive property can be expressed on a per mole basis instead of a per mass basis by the following equations analogous to the per mass equations:


title: Specific heat capacity

text: where "n" = number of moles in the body or thermodynamic system. One may refer to such a "per mole" quantity as molar heat capacity to distinguish it from specific heat capacity on a per-mass basis.


title: Specific heat capacity

text: The polytropic heat capacity is calculated at processes if all the thermodynamic properties (pressure, volume, temperature) change


title: Specific heat capacity

text: The most important polytropic processes run between the adiabatic and the isotherm functions, the polytropic index is between 1 and the adiabatic exponent ("γ" or "κ")


title: Specific heat capacity

text: the absolute entropy can be calculated by integrating from zero kelvins temperature to the final temperature "T"


title: Specific heat capacity

text: The heat capacity must be zero at zero temperature in order for the above integral not to yield an infinite absolute entropy, thus violating the third law of thermodynamics. One of the strengths of the Debye model is that (unlike the preceding Einstein model) it predicts the proper mathematical form of the approach of heat capacity toward zero, as absolute zero temperature is approached.


title: Specific heat capacity

text: The theoretical maximum heat capacity for larger and larger multi-atomic gases at higher temperatures, also approaches the Dulong–Petit limit of 3"R", so long as this is calculated per mole of atoms, not molecules. The reason is that gases with very large molecules, in theory have almost the same high-temperature heat capacity as solids, lacking only the (small) heat capacity contribution that comes from potential energy that cannot be stored between separate molecules in a gas.


title: Specific heat capacity

text: The Dulong–Petit limit results from the equipartition theorem, and as such is only valid in the classical limit of a microstate continuum, which is a high temperature limit. For light and non-metallic elements, as well as most of the common molecular solids based on carbon compounds at standard ambient temperature, quantum effects may also play an important role, as they do in multi-atomic gases. These effects usually combine to give heat capacities lower than 3"R" per mole of "atoms" in the solid, although in molecular solids, heat capacities calculated "per mole of molecules" in molecular solids may be more than 3"R". For example, the heat capacity of water ice at the melting point is about 4.6"R" per mole of molecules, but only 1.5"R" per mole of atoms. The lower than 3"R" number "per atom" (as is the case with diamond and beryllium) results from the “freezing out” of possible vibration modes for light atoms at suitably low temperatures, just as in many low-mass-atom gases at room temperatures. Because of high crystal binding energies, these effects are seen in solids more often than liquids: for example the heat capacity of liquid water is twice that of ice at near the same temperature, and is again close to the 3"R" per mole of atoms of the Dulong–Petit theoretical maximum.


title: Specific heat capacity

text: For a more modern and precise analysis of the heat capacities of solids, especially at low temperatures, it is useful to use the idea of phonons. See Debye model.


title: Specific heat capacity

text: The path integral Monte Carlo method is a numerical approach for determining the values of heat capacity, based on quantum dynamical principles. However, good approximations can be made for gases in many states using simpler methods outlined below. For many solids composed of relatively heavy atoms (atomic number > iron), at non-cryogenic temperatures, the heat capacity at room temperature approaches 3R = 24.94 joules per kelvin per mole of atoms (Dulong–Petit law, R is the gas constant). Low temperature approximations for both gases and solids at temperatures less than their characteristic Einstein temperatures or Debye temperatures can be made by the methods of Einstein and Debye discussed below.


title: Specific heat capacity

text: For liquids and gases, it is important to know the pressure to which given heat capacity data refer. Most published data are given for standard pressure. However, different standard conditions for temperature and pressure have been defined by different organizations. The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) changed its recommendation from one atmosphere to the round value 100 kPa (≈750.062 Torr).


title: Specific heat capacity

text: The path integral Monte Carlo method is a numerical approach for determining the values of heat capacity, based on quantum dynamical principles. However, good approximations can be made for gases in many states using simpler methods outlined below. For many solids composed of relatively heavy atoms (atomic number > iron), at non-cryogenic temperatures, the heat capacity at room temperature approaches 3"R" = 24.94 joules per kelvin per mole of atoms (Dulong–Petit law, "R" is the gas constant). Low temperature approximations for both gases and solids at temperatures less than their characteristic Einstein temperatures or Debye temperatures can be made by the methods of Einstein and Debye discussed below.


title: Specific heat capacity

text: Measuring the specific heat capacity at constant volume can be prohibitively difficult for liquids and solids. That is, small temperature changes typically require large pressures to maintain a liquid or solid at constant volume, implying that the containing vessel must be nearly rigid or at least very strong (see coefficient of thermal expansion and compressibility). Instead, it is easier to measure the heat capacity at constant pressure (allowing the material to expand or contract freely) and solve for the heat capacity at constant volume using mathematical relationships derived from the basic thermodynamic laws.


title: Specific heat capacity

text: The heat capacity ratio, or adiabatic index, is the ratio of the heat capacity at constant pressure to heat capacity at constant volume. It is sometimes also known as the isentropic expansion factor.


title: Specific heat capacity

text: For an ideal gas, evaluating the partial derivatives above according to the equation of state, where "R" is the gas constant, for an ideal gas


title: Specific heat capacity

text: The differences in heat capacities as defined by the above Mayer relation is only exact for an ideal gas and would be different for any real gas.


title: Specific heat capacity

text: For gases, and also for other materials under high pressures, there is need to distinguish between different boundary conditions for the processes under consideration (since values differ significantly between different conditions). Typical processes for which a heat capacity may be defined include isobaric (constant pressure, formula_75) or isochoric (constant volume, formula_76) processes. The corresponding specific heat capacities are expressed as


title: Specific heat capacity

text: A related parameter to formula_4 is formula_81, the volumetric heat capacity. In engineering practice, formula_2 for solids or liquids often signifies a volumetric heat capacity, rather than a constant-volume one. In such cases, the specific heat capacity is often explicitly written with the subscript formula_42, as formula_53. Of course, from the above relationships, for solids one writes


title: Specific heat capacity

text: For pure homogeneous chemical compounds with established molecular or molar mass, or a molar quantity, heat capacity as an intensive property can be expressed on a per-mole basis instead of a per-mass basis by the following equations analogous to the per mass equations:


title: Specific heat capacity

text: where "n" is the number of moles in the body or thermodynamic system. One may refer to such a per-mole quantity as molar heat capacity to distinguish it from specific heat capacity on a per-mass basis.


title: Specific heat capacity

text: The polytropic heat capacity is calculated at processes if all the thermodynamic properties (pressure, volume, temperature) change:


title: Specific heat capacity

text: The most important polytropic processes run between the adiabatic and the isotherm functions, the polytropic index is between 1 and the adiabatic exponent ("γ" or "κ").


title: Specific heat capacity

text: In the ideal gas article, dimensionless heat capacity formula_91 is expressed as formula_92 and is related there directly to half the number of degrees of freedom per particle. This holds true for quadratic degrees of freedom, a consequence of the equipartition theorem.


title: Specific heat capacity

text: More generally, the dimensionless heat capacity relates the logarithmic increase in temperature to the increase in the dimensionless entropy per particle formula_93, measured in nats.


title: Specific heat capacity

text: Alternatively, using base-2 logarithms, formula_91 relates the base-2 logarithmic increase in temperature to the increase in the dimensionless entropy measured in bits.


title: Specific heat capacity

text: In theory, the specific heat capacity of a substance can also be derived from its abstract thermodynamic modeling by an equation of state and an internal energy function.


title: Specific heat capacity

text: To apply the theory, one considers the sample of the substance (solid, liquid, or gas) for which the specific heat capacity can be defined; in particular, that it has homogeneous composition and fixed mass formula_6. Assume that the evolution of the system is always slow enough for the internal pressure formula_99 and temperature formula_10 be considered uniform throughout. The pressure formula_99 would be equal to the pressure applied to it by the enclosure or some surrounding fluid, such as air.


title: Specific heat capacity

text: The state of the material can then be specified by three parameters: its temperature formula_10, the pressure formula_99, and its specific volume formula_104, where formula_43 is the volume of the sample. (This quantity is the reciprocal formula_106 of the material's density formula_107.) Like formula_10 and formula_99, the specific volume formula_110 is an intensive property of the material and its state, that does not depend on the amount of substance in the sample.


title: Specific heat capacity

text: Those variables are not independent. The allowed states are defined by an equation of state relating those three variables: formula_111 The function formula_112 depends on the material under consideration. The specific internal energy stored internally in the sample, per unit of mass, will then be another function formula_113 of these state variables, that is also specific of the material. The total internal energy in the sample then will be formula_114.


title: Specific heat capacity

text: For some simple materials, like an ideal gas, one can derive from basic theory the equation of state formula_115 and even the specific internal energy formula_116 In general, these functions must be determined experimentally for each substance.


title: Specific heat capacity

text: The absolute value of this quantity is undefined, and (for the purposes of thermodynamics) the state of "zero internal energy" can be chosen arbitrarily. However, by the law of conservation of energy, any infinitesimal increase formula_117 in the total internal energy formula_118 must be matched by the net flow of heat energy formula_119 into the sample, plus any net mechanical energy provided to it by enclosure or surrounding medium on it. The latter is formula_120, where formula_121 is the change in the sample's volume in that infinitesimal step. Therefore


title: Specific heat capacity

text: If the volume of the sample (hence the specific volume of the material) is kept constant during the injection of the heat amount formula_119, then the term formula_125 is zero (no mechanical work is done). Then, dividing by formula_9,


title: Specific heat capacity

text: where formula_128 is the change in temperature that resulted from the heat input. The left-hand side is the specific heat capacity at constant volume formula_2 of the material.


title: Specific heat capacity

text: For the heat capacity at constant pressure, it is useful to define the specific enthalpy of the system as the sum formula_130. An infinitesimal change in the specific enthalpy will then be


title: Specific heat capacity

text: In general, the infinitesimal quantities formula_135 are constrained by the equation of state and the specific internal energy function. Namely,


title: Specific heat capacity

text: Here formula_137 denotes the (partial) derivative of the state equation formula_112 with respect to its formula_10 argument, keeping the other two arguments fixed, evaluated at the state formula_140 in question. The other partial derivatives are defined in the same way. These two equations on the four infinitesimal increments normally constrain them to a two-dimensional linear subspace space of possible infinitesimal state changes, that depends on the material and on the state. The constant-volume and constant-pressure changes are only two particular directions in this space.


title: Specific heat capacity

text: This analysis also holds no matter how the energy increment formula_119 is injected into the sample, namely by heat conduction, irradiation, electromagnetic induction, radioactive decay, etc.


title: Specific heat capacity

text: For any specific volume formula_110, denote formula_143 the function that describes how the pressure varies with the temperature formula_10, as allowed by the equation of state, when the specific volume of the material is forcefully kept constant at formula_110. Analogously, for any pressure formula_99, let formula_147 be the function that describes how the specific volume varies with the temperature, when the pressure is kept constant at formula_99. Namely, those functions are such that


title: Specific heat capacity

text: for any values of formula_151. In other words, the graphs of formula_143 and formula_147 are slices of the surface defined by the state equation, cut by planes of constant formula_110 and constant formula_99, respectively.


title: Specific heat capacity

text: The heat capacity ratio, or adiabatic index, is the ratio formula_161 of the heat capacity at constant pressure to heat capacity at constant volume. It is sometimes also known as the isentropic expansion factor.


title: Specific heat capacity

text: The path integral Monte Carlo method is a numerical approach for determining the values of heat capacity, based on quantum dynamical principles. However, good approximations can be made for gases in many states using simpler methods outlined below. For many solids composed of relatively heavy atoms (atomic number > iron), at non-cryogenic temperatures, the heat capacity at room temperature approaches 3"R" = 24.94 joules per kelvin per mole of atoms (Dulong–Petit law, "R" is the gas constant). Low temperature approximations for both gases and solids at temperatures less than their characteristic Einstein temperatures or Debye temperatures can be made by the methods of Einstein and Debye discussed below. However, attention should be made for the consistency of such ab-initio considerations when used along with an equation of state for the considered material.


title: Specific heat capacity

text: For an ideal gas, evaluating the partial derivatives above according to the equation of state, where "R" is the gas constant, for an ideal gas


title: Specific heat capacity

text: The differences in heat capacities as defined by the above Mayer relation is only exact for an ideal gas and would be different for any real gas.


title: Detroit Red Wings

text: The Detroit Red Wings (colloquially referred to as the Wings) are a professional ice hockey team based in Detroit. The Red Wings compete in the National Hockey League (NHL) as a member of the Atlantic Division in the Eastern Conference, and are one of the Original Six teams of the league. Founded in 1926, the team was known as the Detroit Cougars until 1930. For the 1930–31 and 1931–32 seasons, the team was named the Detroit Falcons, before changing their name to the Red Wings in 1932.