title: Hijra (South Asia)

text: The social status of hijra in society plays a part in their difficulty accessing healthcare services as doctors will turn hijra clients away, claiming that their presence will disturb other clients. Hijra have to hide their identities or can't disclose illnesses such as STI’s. Most medical practitioners are also not well educated and informed enough on hijra or sexuality, further contributing to this issue. Social exclusion of the "hijra" also has some severe consequences for their health.


title: Hijra (South Asia)

text: "Hijra" in Dhaka, Bangladesh were found to have the highest syphilis rates out of all at-risk groups in the city. In a study of Bangladeshi hijras, participants reported not being allowed to seek healthcare at the private chambers of doctors, and experiencing abuse if they go to government hospitals.


title: Hijra (South Asia)

text: In 2008, HIV prevalence was 27.6% amongst hijra sex workers in Larkana, Pakistan. The general prevalence of HIV among the adult Pakistani population is estimated at 0.1%.


title: Hijra (South Asia)

text: The aforementioned social inequalities and medical negligence also make hijra sex workers a more vulnerable population to HIV. Protection is not usually used in coerced sex, increasing risk of direct exposure to HIV. 40% of the sample in a Pakistan study on HIV reported experiencing forced sex or abuse. Additionally, of this sample, 58% of participants had STI's, the most common being syphilis and gonorrhoea.


title: Hijra (South Asia)

text: An Indian study consisting of 68 transgender participants reported that respondents expressed having intense feelings of low self worth, shame, depression and suicidal thoughts, internalizing the negative views the society around them holds. Many hijra experience a lack of a support system, facing rejection from family members or difficulties in terms of maintaining steady relationships with romantic partners. This rejection from society contributes to struggles with mental health as well as trans sex workers feeling obligated to accept the violence and stigmas they are subject to.


title: Hijra (South Asia)

text: After India's Supreme Court re-criminalized homosexual sex on 11 December 2013, there was a sharp increase in physical, psychological and sexual violence against the transgender community by the Indian Police Service, which often does not investigate reports of sexual assault against them. On 6 September 2018, the Supreme Court overturned India's Section 377, which criminalized anal and oral sex.


title: Hijra (South Asia)

text: In an ethnographic study on the "hijra" experience in Bangladesh, many "hijra" recounted childhood experiences of facing abuse and isolation from their peers for presenting as feminine males. Additionally, many "hijra" reported facing abuse and humiliation from their teachers as well, making school an unfriendly and uncomfortable environment for them. These experiences ultimately resulted in their reluctance to attend school or continue education. This lack of education ends up playing a role in unemployment rates of Hijra. Hijra in Bangladesh also experience sexual harassment and abuse at work, being removed from their jobs when outed as hijra or denied from jobs in general. They face accusations of disturbing the workplace environment.


title: Hijra (South Asia)

text: Being turned away from traditional careers, many hijra have become involved in sex work. However, this too has its own cons as Hijras face harassment, forced unprotected sex and assault from clients but many are not able to report it due to fear of harassment from the police as well.


title: Hijra (South Asia)

text: In 2002, nearly 5,000 people attended the All India Eunuch Conference held in Varanasi; the conference's platform demanded that universities and government open more job opportunities to this population. On 15 April 2014, in "National Legal Services Authority v. Union of India", the Supreme Court of India ruled that transgender people should be treated as a third category of gender or as a socially and economically "backward" class entitled to proportional access and representation in education and jobs.


title: Hijra (South Asia)

text: Beginning in 2006, hijras were engaged to accompany Patna city revenue officials to collect unpaid taxes, receiving a 4-percent commission.


title: Hijra (South Asia)

text: The hijra community developed a secret language known as Hijra Farsi. The language has a sentence structure loosely based on Hindustani and a unique vocabulary of at least a thousand words. Some of the kinship terms and names for rituals used by the Hindi-speaking Hijra community are different in use from those used by people outside the Hijra community. For example, "dādī", the Standard Hindi for "paternal grandmother", is used in the Hijra community to address one’s guru’s guru. Beyond the Urdu-Hindi speaking areas of subcontinent the vocabulary is still used by the hijra community within their own native languages.


title: Hijra (South Asia)

text: The governments of both India (1994) and Pakistan (2009) have recognized hijras as a "third sex", thus granting them the basic civil rights of every citizen. In India, hijras now have the option to identify as a eunuch ("E") on passports and on certain government documents. They are not, however, fully accommodated; in order to vote, for example, citizens must identify as either male or female. There is also further discrimination from the government. In the 2009 general election, India's election committee denied three hijras candidature unless they identified themselves as either male or female. In 2013, transgender people in Pakistan were given their first opportunity to stand for election. Sanam Fakir, a 32-year-old hijra, ran as an independent candidate for Sukkur, Pakistan's general election in May.


title: Hijra (South Asia)

text: In April 2014, Justice KS Radhakrishnan declared transgender to be the third gender in Indian law in National Legal Services Authority v. Union of India. The ruling said:


title: Hijra (South Asia)

text: Seldom, our society realises or cares to realise the trauma, agony and pain which the members of Transgender community undergo, nor appreciates the innate feelings of the members of the Transgender community, especially of those whose mind and body disown their biological sex. Our society often ridicules and abuses the Transgender community and in public places like railway stations, bus stands, schools, workplaces, malls, theatres,


title: Hijra (South Asia)

text: hospitals, they are sidelined and treated as untouchables, forgetting the fact that the moral failure lies in the society's unwillingness to contain or embrace different gender identities and expressions, a mindset which we have to change.


title: Hijra (South Asia)

text: Justice Radhakrishnan said that transgender people should be treated consistently with other minorities under the law, enabling them to access jobs, healthcare and education. He framed the issue as one of human rights, saying that, "These TGs, even though insignificant in numbers, are still human beings and therefore they have every right to enjoy their human rights", concluding by declaring that:


title: Hijra (South Asia)

text: A bill supported by all political parties was tabled in Indian parliament to ensure transgender people get benefits akin reserved communities like SC/STs and is taking steps to see that they get enrollment in schools and jobs in government besides protection from sexual harassment.


title: Hijra (South Asia)

text: In the 1990s, about 10,000 people belonged to a national organization called Treetiya Panthi Sanghatana (TPS). As of 2003, the president was Kajal Nayak. A younger Kajal Nayak, who was 27 years old in 2019, is the president of Jajpur's Transgender Association.


title: Hijra (South Asia)

text: Many practice a form of syncretism that draws on multiple religions; seeing themselves to be neither men nor women, hijras practice rituals for both men and women.


title: Hijra (South Asia)

text: Bahuchara Mata is a Hindu goddess with two unrelated stories both associated with transgender behavior. One story is that she appeared in the avatar of a princess who castrated her husband because he would run in the woods and act like a woman rather than have sex with her. Another story is that a man tried to rape her, so she cursed him with impotence. When the man begged her forgiveness to have the curse removed, she relented only after he agreed to run in the woods and act like a woman. The primary temple to this goddess is located in Gujarat and it is a place of pilgrimage for hijras, who see Bahuchara Mata as a patroness.


title: Hijra (South Asia)

text: One of the forms of Lord Shiva is a merging with Parvati where together they are Ardhanari, a god that is half Shiva and half Parvati. Ardhanari has special significance as a patron of hijras, who identify with the gender ambiguity. The legend includes a story where Rishi Bhrigu pleased Lord Shiva and denied to please Mata Parvati. Then Lord Shiva and Parvati merged with each other and showed their form of Ardhanari or Ardhanarishwar, meaning half man and half woman. The form represents that a man and woman has both elements of masculine and feminine.


title: Hijra (South Asia)

text: In some versions of the "Ramayana", when Rama leaves Ayodhya for his 14-year exile, a crowd of his subjects follow him into the forest because of their devotion to him. Soon Rama notices this, and gathers them to tell them not to mourn, and that all the "men and women" of his kingdom should return to their places in Ayodhya. Rama then leaves for 14 years. When he returns to Ayodhya, he finds that the hijras, being neither men nor women, have not moved from the place where he gave his speech. Impressed with their devotion, Rama grants hijras the boon to confer blessings on people during auspicious inaugural occasions like childbirth and weddings. Specifically, hijras will perform and bestow their blessings when a son is born. This boon is the origin of "badhai" in which hijras sing, dance, and give blessings.


title: Hijra (South Asia)

text: The Mahabharata includes an episode in which Arjuna, a hero of the epic, is sent into exile. There he assumes an identity of a eunuch-transvestite and performs rituals during weddings and childbirths that are now performed by hijras.


title: Hijra (South Asia)

text: In another episode, before the Kurukshetra War, Aravan offers his lifeblood to goddess Kali to ensure victory for the Pandavas, and Kali agrees. On the night before the battle, Aravan expresses a desire to get married before he dies. No woman was willing to marry a man doomed to die in a few hours, so Lord Krishna (as Mohini) marries him. In South India, hijras claim Aravan as their progenitor and call themselves "aravanis".


title: Hijra (South Asia)

text: Each year in Tamil Nadu, during April and May, hijras celebrate an eighteen-day religious festival at a temple located in the village Koovagam in the Ulundurpet taluk in Villupuram district. The temple is devoted to the deity Koothandavar, who is identified with Aravan. During the festival, the hijras reenact the wedding of Lord Krishna and Lord Aravan, followed by Aravan's subsequent sacrifice. They then mourn Aravan's death through ritualistic dances and by breaking their bangles. An annual beauty pageant is also held, as well as various health and HIV/AIDS focused seminars. Hijras from all over the country travel to this festival. BBC Three documentary "India's Ladyboys" as well as the National Geographic Channel television series "Taboo" depict personal experiences of hijras attending this festival.


title: Hijra (South Asia)

text: There is evidence that Indian hijras identifying as Muslim also incorporate aspects of Hinduism. Still, despite this syncretism, Gayatri Reddy notes that hijra do not practice Islam differently from other Muslims and argues that their syncretism does not make them any less Muslim. Reddy also documents an example of how this syncretism manifests: in Hyderabad, India, a group of Muslim converts were circumcised, something seen as the quintessential marker of male Muslim identity.


title: Hijra (South Asia)

text: "Hijras" have been portrayed on screen in Indian cinema since its inception, historically as comic relief. A notable turning point occurred in 1974 when real "hijras" appeared during a song-and-dance sequence in "Kunwaara Baap" ("The Unmarried Father"). The Hindi movie "Amar Akbar Anthony" (1977) features "hijras" who accompany one of the heroes, Akbar (Rishi Kapoor), in a song entitled ""Tayyab Ali Pyar Ka Dushman"" ("Tayyab Ali, the Enemy of Love").


title: Hijra (South Asia)

text: In the Malayalam movie "Ardhanaari", released on 23 November 2012, director Santhosh Sowparnika tries to depict the life of a transgender person. Manoj K Jayan, Thilakan, Sukumari and Maniyanpilla Raju perform leading roles.


title: Hijra (South Asia)

text: Njan Marykutty is another Malayalam film about the troubles and challenges of a trans woman in Kerala.


title: Hijra (South Asia)

text: "Vaadamalli" by novelist Su. Samuthiram is the first Tamil novel about the Aravaani community in Tamil Nadu, published in 1994.


title: Hijra (South Asia)

text: Transgender activist A. Revathi became the first hijra to write about transgender issues and gender politics in Tamil. Her works have been translated into more than eight languages and act as primary resources on gender studies in Asia. Her book is part of a research project for more than 100 universities. She is the author of "Unarvum Uruvamum" (Feeling and Form), the first of its kind in English from a member of the hijra community. She acted and directed stage plays on gender and sexuality issues in Tamil and Kannada. "The Truth about Me: A Hijra Life Story" is part of the syllabus for final year students of The American College in Madurai.


title: Hijra (South Asia)

text: "Naan Saravanan Alla" (2007) and Vidya's "I Am Vidya" (2008) were the first autobiographies of trans women.


title: Hijra (South Asia)

text: The 1992 film "Immaculate Conception" by Jamil Dehlavi is based upon the culture-clash between a western Jewish couple seeking fertility at a Karachi shrine known to be blessed by a Sufi fakir called 'Gulab Shah' and the group of Pakistani eunuchs who guard it.


title: Hijra (South Asia)

text: "Murad" (, but the film's English title was "Eunuch's Motherhood"), was an award-winning biographical telefilm drama made by Evergreen Media Europe for Pakistan's television channel Indus TV that aired in 2003. It featured some of the country's top male television actors—Sohail Asghar, Nabeel, Qazi Wajid, and Kamran Jilani playing the roles of hijras. It was directed by Kamran Qureshi, written by Zafar Mairaj and produced by Iram Qureshi. It won both Best TeleFilm and Best Director awards at 2003 Indus Telefilm Festival. The story revolves around Saima, a transgender woman, who adopts a child named Murad. For the first time, influential male actors showed their support for hijra rights during interviews, pointing out that in Pakistani English at that time eunuch was the term to describe a transgender person, and "khwaja sara" had not yet replaced what is now considered a derogatory term due to decades of heckling and name calling.


title: Hijra (South Asia)

text: In 2004, Kamran Qureshi directed "Moorat" ( but released in English under the title "Eunuch's Wedding". It a 33-episode series produced by Humayun Saeed and Abdullah Kadwani with more than a dozen cast members. It was nominated for Best Drama Serial, Abid Ali for Best Actor, and Maria Wasti for Best Actress at the Lux Style Awards 2005. The show was credited with making people understand the pain and abuse that hijra constantly endure when people make fun of the way they look or dress. The story involves a young lady who is engaged to be married. It turns out her husband is transgender. The story unfolds the trans community and their deprived and isolated world. It portrays eloquently how they, too, are not far away from human emotions and feelings and their world is not much different from the heterosexual community. Even though they are in plain sight, they are taboo subjects and are not taken seriously. This makes them suffer endlessly in silence wrapped in slurs. The 33-episode series therefore touches on transgender abuse, abuse against women, poverty, the immorality of arranged marriages and child abuse.


title: Hijra (South Asia)

text: "Bol" (Urdu: بول meaning "Speak"), is a 2011 Urdu-language Pakistani social drama film. It concerns a patriarch, Hakim, who is a misogynist, a domestic abuser, a bigot and a zealot who forces religion on his family. They face financial difficulties due to Hakim wanting a son. He rejects his transgender daughter, Saifi, as he wanted an heir and she identifies as a girl. Saifi is deeply loved by the rest of her family. As she grows up, men want to take advantage of her and she does not understand at first. However, her oldest sister intervenes and teaches Saifi about what kind of touching is inappropriate. As Saifi grows older, she is not allowed to leave the house. She finds her sister's dresses compelling and tries them on, revealing her gender identity. A neighbour played by famous South Asian singer Atif Aslam, who is in love with one of the sisters, gets Saifi a job at a place where they paint trucks, with the blessing of Saifi's sisters and mother. Saifi dresses like a boy; however, other boys sense her lack of self-esteem and eventually gang-rape her. She is saved when another transgender person, played by Almas Bobby (a transgender actor), finds her and takes her home. Hakim overhears Saifi telling her mother and Zainab what happened. When everybody is asleep, Hakim locks the room and suffocates his child for luring the men for the "shame" he would have to bear if the story got out. It received several positive reviews from critics and went on to win the Best Hindi film award in IRDS Film awards 2011 by Institute for Research and Documentation in Social Sciences (IRDS).


title: Hijra (South Asia)

text: In the graphic novel "Habibi" by Craig Thompson, the protagonist, Zam, is adopted by a group of hijras.


title: Hijra (South Asia)

text: In the TV comedy "Outsourced" (2011), a hijra is hired by Charlie as a stripper for Rajiv's "bachelor party", much to Rajiv's utter horror.


title: Hijra (South Asia)

text: The novel "The Ministry of Utmost Happiness" by Arundhati Roy features a storyline involving a hijra character named Anjum.


title: Hijra (South Asia)

text: In the 2008 film 'Bride and Prejudice', directed by Gurinder Chadha, a group of hijras make an appearance during the 'A Marriage Has Come to Town' number, in which they dance and sing the following lyrics: "Who can tell you more about Yin & Yang?/Sharing one spirit between woman and man/Marriage is the path taken by he and she/May your new life be kissed by harmony."


title: Nutella

text: Nutella (; ; ) is a brand of sweetened hazelnut cocoa spread. Nutella is manufactured by the Italian company Ferrero and was first introduced in 1964, although its first iteration dates to 1963.


title: Nutella

text: Pietro Ferrero owned a bakery in Alba, an Italian town known for the production of hazelnuts. In 1946, he sold the initial batch of "Pasta Gianduja", derived from Gianduja. Originally sold as a solid block, Ferrero started to sell a creamy version in 1951 as "Supercrema gianduja".


title: Nutella

text: In 1963, Ferrero's son Michele Ferrero revamped "Supercrema gianduja" with the intention of marketing it throughout Europe. Its composition was modified, and it was renamed "Nutella". The first jar of Nutella left the factory in Alba on April 20, 1964. The product was an instant success and remains widely popular.


title: Nutella

text: In 2012, French senator Yves Daudigny proposed a tax increase on palm oil from €100 to €400 per tonne. At 20 percent, palm oil is one of Nutella's main ingredients, and the tax was dubbed "the Nutella tax" in the media.


title: Nutella

text: On 14 May 2014, Poste italiane issued a 50th anniversary Nutella commemorative stamp. The 70 Euro cent stamp was designed by Istituto Poligrafico e Zecca dello Stato and features a jar of Nutella on a golden background. Ferrero held a Nutella Day on 17 and 18 May to celebrate the anniversary.


title: Nutella

text: The main ingredients of Nutella are sugar and palm oil (greater than 50%). It also contains hazelnut at 13%, cocoa solids, and skimmed milk. In the United States and the United Kingdom, Nutella contains soy products. Nutella is marketed as "hazelnut cream" in many countries. Under Italian law, it cannot be labeled as a "chocolate cream", as it does not meet minimum cocoa solids concentration criteria. Ferrero uses 25 percent of the global supply of hazelnuts, though not all of this is used exclusively in Nutella.


title: Nutella

text: In November 2017, the company modified the recipe slightly, increasing the sugar and skimmed milk powder content. Since the colour of the product is lighter in tone, the Hamburg Consumer Protection Center estimated that the cocoa content was also reduced. Some news outlets reported that the modification of the recipe led to consumers' being "outraged" or "going nuts".


title: Nutella

text: The traditional Piedmont recipe, gianduja, was a mixture containing approximately 71.5% hazelnut paste and 19.5% chocolate. It was developed in Piedmont, Italy, due to a lack of cocoa beans after post-war rationing reduced availability of the raw material.


title: Nutella

text: Sugar, palm oil, hazelnuts (13%), skim milk powder (8.7%) cocoa powder (7.4%), non-fat milk solids, emulsifier (soy lecithin), flavour (vanillin).


title: Nutella

text: Ferrero has confirmed that it has changed the recipe of its chocolate and hazelnut spread – sparking a huge backlash among fans of the brand.


title: Nutella

text: Sugar, palm oil, hazelnuts (13%), skim cow milk powder (8.7%), low fat cocoa powder (7.4%), emulsifier (Lecithin - INS 322), contains added flavour (nature identical flavouring substance - vanillin).


title: Nutella

text: Sugar, palm oil, hazelnuts (13%), fat-reduced cocoa powder (7.4%), skimmed milk powder (5%), whey powder, emulsifier (lecithins) (soy), flavourant (vanillin).


title: Nutella

text: Sugar, palm oil, hazelnuts (13%), skimmed milk powder (8.7%), fat-reduced cocoa (7.4%), emulsifier: lecithins (soya), vanillin.


title: Nutella

text: Sugar, palm oil, hazelnuts, cocoa, skim milk, reduced minerals whey (milk), lecithin as emulsifier (soy), vanillin: an artificial flavor.


title: Nutella

text: Nutella contains 10.4 percent of saturated fat and 58% of processed sugar by weight. A two-tablespoon (37-gram) serving of Nutella contains 200 calories, including 99 calories from 11 grams of fat (3.5 g of which are saturated) and 80 calories from 21 grams of sugar. The spread also contains 15 mg of sodium and 2 g of protein per serving (for reference a Canadian serving size is 1 tablespoon or 19 grams).


title: Nutella

text: Nutella is produced in various facilities. In the North American market, it is produced at a plant in Brantford, Ontario, Canada and more recently in San José Iturbide, Guanajuato, Mexico.


title: Nutella

text: For Australia and New Zealand, Nutella has been manufactured in Lithgow, New South Wales, since the late 1970s.


title: Nutella

text: Two of the four Ferrero plants in Italy produce Nutella, in Alba, Piedmont, and in Sant'Angelo dei Lombardi in Campania. In France, a production facility is located in Villers-Écalles. For Eastern Europe (including Southeast Europe, Poland, Turkey, Czech Republic and Slovakia) and South Africa, it is produced in Warsaw and Manisa. For Germany and northern Europe, Nutella is produced at the Ferrero plant in Stadtallendorf, which has been in existence since 1956. Nutella entered the Russian market and also has a production plant in Vladimir.


title: Nutella

text: Ferrero also has a plant in Poços de Caldas, Brazil, which supplies the Brazilian market, with part of the production being exported overseas. It is also manufactured in Turkey and exported to countries like India.


title: Nutella

text: Nutella is described as a chocolate and hazelnut spread, although it is mostly made of sugar and palm oil. The manufacturing process for this food item is very similar to a generic production of chocolate spread. Nutella is made from sugar, modified palm oil, hazelnuts, cocoa powder, skimmed milk powder, whey powder, soy lecithin, and vanillin.


title: Nutella

text: The process of making this spread begins with the extraction of cocoa powder from the cocoa bean. These cocoa beans are harvested from cocoa trees and are left to dry for about ten days before being shipped for processing. Typically, cocoa beans contain approximately 50 percent of cocoa butter; therefore, they must be roasted to reduce the cocoa bean into a liquid form. This step is not sufficient for turning cocoa bean into a chocolate paste because it solidifies at room temperature and would not be spreadable. After the initial roast, the liquid paste is sent to presses, which are used to squeeze the butter out of the cocoa bean. The final products are round discs of chocolate made of pure compressed cocoa. The cocoa butter is transferred elsewhere so it can be used in other products.


title: Nutella

text: The second process involves the hazelnuts. Once the hazelnuts have arrived at the processing plant, a quality control is issued to inspect the nuts so they are suitable for processing. A guillotine is used to chop the nuts to inspect the interior. After this process, the hazelnuts are cleaned and roasted. A second quality control is issued by a computer-controlled blast of air, which removes the bad nuts from the batch. This ensures that each jar of Nutella is uniform in its look and taste. Approximately 50 hazelnuts can be found in each jar of Nutella, as claimed by the company.


title: Nutella

text: The cocoa powder is then mixed with the hazelnuts along with sugar, vanillin and skim milk in a large tank, until it becomes a paste-like spread. Modified palm oil is then added to help retain the solid phase of the Nutella at room temperature, which substitutes for the butter found in the cocoa bean. Whey powder is then added to the mix to act as a binder for the paste. Whey powder is an additive commonly used in spreads to prevent the coagulation of the product, because it stabilizes the fat emulsions. Similarly, lecithin, a form of a fatty substance found in animal and plant tissues, is added to help emulsify the paste, as it promotes homogenized mixing of the different ingredients, allowing the paste to become spreadable. It also aids the lipophilic properties of the cocoa powder, which, again, keeps the product from separating. Vanillin is added to enhance the sweetness of the chocolate. The finished product is then packaged.


title: Nutella

text: The label states that Nutella does not need to be refrigerated. This is because the large quantity of sugar in the product acts as a preservative to prevent the growth of microorganisms. More specifically, the sugar acts as a preservative by binding the water in the product, which prevents the microorganisms from growing. Refrigeration causes Nutella to harden, because it contains fats from the hazelnuts. When nut fats are placed in cold temperatures, they become too hard to spread. Hazelnuts contain almost 91 percent monounsaturated fat, which are known to be liquid at room temperature and solidify at refrigerator temperatures. Room temperature allows the product to have a smooth and spreadable consistency, because the monounsaturated oils from the hazelnut are liquid in this state. In addition, the palm oil used in Nutella does not require refrigeration, because it contains high amounts of saturated fat and resists becoming rancid. The remaining ingredients in Nutella, such as cocoa, skimmed milk powder, soy lecithin, and vanillin, also do not require refrigeration.


title: Nutella

text: In the United States, Ferrero was sued in a class action for false advertising leading to consumer inferences that Nutella has nutritional and health benefits (from advertising claims that Nutella was "part of a nutritious breakfast").


title: Nutella

text: In April 2012, Ferrero agreed to pay a $3 million settlement (up to $4 per jar for up to five jars per customer). The settlement also required Ferrero to make changes to Nutella's labeling and marketing, including television commercials and their website.


title: Nayeon

text: Im Na-yeon (; born September 22, 1995), known mononymously as Nayeon, is a South Korean singer. She became a member of the South Korean girl group Twice, under JYP Entertainment, in 2015 as a winning contestant of the reality survival television show "Sixteen".


title: Nayeon

text: In 2022, her eponymous debut extended play (EP), "Im Nayeon", peaked at number 7 on the US "Billboard" 200, making her the first South Korean soloist to enter the chart's top 10.


title: Nayeon

text: As a child, Nayeon participated in a modeling contest and was cast by JYP Entertainment (JYPE). Although her mother initially prevented her from entering show business given her young age, Nayeon secretly attended the agency's open audition on September 15, 2010, after which she became a trainee. In 2013, she was added to the lineup of 6mix, a planned JYPE girl group that never debuted. She also made an appearance in the second episode of the 2012 television series "Dream High 2".


title: Nayeon

text: In 2015, Nayeon participated in the reality television show "Sixteen", a competition to determine the members of a new JYP Entertainment girl group called Twice. As one of the nine successful participants, she made the final lineup. In October, Nayeon officially debuted as a member of Twice with the release of their first extended play (EP), "The Story Begins". In Gallup Korea's annual music poll for 2017, she was voted the sixth most popular idol in South Korea. In the 2018 poll, she again ranked sixth, receiving 6.7% of the votes. In 2019, she placed fifth, receiving 8.2% of the votes, and ranked as the eighth most popular female K-pop idol in a survey of soldiers completing mandatory military service in South Korea.


title: Nayeon

text: On May 19, 2022, it was announced that Nayeon would debut as a solo artist on June 24 with her EP "Im Nayeon". On July 10, 2022, Nayeon earned her first ever music show win on SBS "Inkigayo". Nayeon won Best Female Artist at the 2022 MAMA Awards.


title: Nayeon

text: Aside from various endorsements with her Twice bandmates, Nayeon has promoted various products and featured in numerous advertisements. During her trainee years, Nayeon was a model for brands such as Smart School Uniform and TN. In May 2021, she became a model and appeared in a promotional video for Chaumet's Joséphine Collection. In August, she became a model for Biotherm Korea, a South Korean beauty brand. In September 2022, she became a model of South Korean clothing brand Olive Des Olive.


title: Nayeon

text: Nayeon has also appeared in magazines including "Nylon Korea", "Cosmopolitan Korea", "W Korea", and "Elle Korea" for fashion brands such as Ralph Lauren, Jill Stuart, Fendi, and Louis Vuitton. She featured in the April 2022 issue of "Harper's Bazaar Korea" for Chaumet's Josephine collection. The same month, she was officially named by the brand as the Friend of the Maison.


title: Nayeon

text: In March 2020, she donated KR₩50 million to the Community Chest of Korea to help the fight against COVID-19 outbreak.


title: Nayeon

text: All song credits are adapted from the Korea Music Copyright Association's database unless stated otherwise.


title: Shimla

text: Shimla (; ; also known as Simla, the official name until 1972) is the capital and the largest city of the northern Indian state of Himachal Pradesh. In 1864, Shimla was declared as the summer capital of British India. After independence, the city became the capital of East Punjab and was later made the capital city of Himachal Pradesh. It is the principal commercial, cultural and educational centre of the state.


title: Shimla

text: Small hamlets were recorded before 1815 when British forces took control of the area. The climatic conditions attracted the British to establish the city in the dense forests of the Himalayas. As the summer capital, Shimla hosted many important political meetings including the Simla Accord of 1914 and the Simla Conference of 1945. After independence, the state of Himachal Pradesh came into being in 1948 as a result of the integration of 28 princely states. Even after independence, the city remained an important political centre, hosting the Simla Agreement of 1972. After the reorganisation of the state of Himachal Pradesh, the existing Mahasu district was named Shimla.


title: Shimla

text: Shimla is home to several buildings that are styled in the Tudorbethan and neo-Gothic architectures dating from the colonial era, as well as multiple temples and churches. The colonial architecture and churches, the temples, and the natural environment of the city attract tourists. Major city centre's attractions include the "Shri Hanuman Jakhu (Statue)," Jakhu Temple, Viceregal Lodge, Christ Church, Mall Road, The Ridge and Annadale. The city centre's northernmost point is Jakhoo and the southernmost location is Annadale, the easternmost point is Sanjauli and the western point is Chotta Shimla. The Kalka–Shimla Railway line built by the British, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, is also a major tourist attraction. Owing to its steep terrain, Shimla hosts the mountain biking race MTB Himalaya, which started in 2005 and is regarded as the biggest event of its kind in South Asia. Shimla also has the largest natural ice skating rink in South Asia. Apart from being a tourism centre, the city is also an educational hub with several colleges and research institutions.


title: Shimla

text: Shimla city gets its name from Shyamala Mata, a fearless incarnation of the goddess Kali. The temple of the goddess is situated on Bantony Hill, near The Ridge, named Kali Bari temple. According to another version Shimla gets its name from the word 'Shyamalaya' meaning blue slate by faqir on Jakhu. But generally, society finds the first version more believable, acceptable and reasonable.


title: Shimla

text: In 2018, the state government decided to change the city's name from Shimla to Shyamala. However, seeing the negative response of public and the locals, state government dismissed the plan.


title: Shimla

text: Most of the area occupied by present-day Shimla city was dense forest during the 18th century. The only sign of civilisation was the Jakhu Temple and a few scattered houses. The area was called 'Shimla', named after a Hindu goddess, "Shyamala Devi", an incarnation of Kali.


title: Shimla

text: The area of present-day Shimla was invaded and captured by Bhimsen Thapa of Nepal in 1806. The British East India Company took control of the territory as per the Sugauli Treaty after the Anglo-Nepalese War (1814–16). The Gurkha leaders were quelled by storming the fort of Malaun under the command of David Ochterlony in May 1815. In a diary entry dated 30 August 1817, the Gerard brothers, who surveyed the area, describe Shimla as "a middling-sized village where a fakir is situated to give water to the travellers". In 1819, Lieutenant Ross, the Assistant Political Agent in the Hill States, set up a wood cottage in Shimla. Three years later, his successor and the Scottish civil servant Charles Pratt Kennedy built the first pucca house in the area named Kennedy Cottage in 1822, near Annadale, what is now the home for CPWD office. The accounts of the Britain-like climate started attracting several British officers to the area during the hot Indian summers. By 1826, some officers had started spending their entire vacation in Shimla. In 1827, William Amherst, the Governor-General of Bengal, visited Shimla and stayed in the Kennedy House. A year later, Stapleton Cotton, the Commander-in-Chief of the British forces in India, stayed at the same residence. During his stay, a three-mile road and a bridge were constructed near Jakhoo. In 1830, the British acquired the surrounding land from the chiefs of Keonthal and Patiala in exchange for the Rawin pargana and a portion of the Bharauli pargana. The settlement grew rapidly after this, from 30 houses in 1830 to 1,141 houses in 1881.


title: Shimla

text: In 1832, Shimla saw its first political meeting: between the Governor-General Lord William Bentinck and the emissaries of Maharaja Ranjit Singh. In a letter to Colonel Churchill, he wrote:


title: Shimla

text: Combermere's successor Earl Dalhousie visited Shimla in the same year. After this, the town was under Nawab (King) Kumar Ghosal of Bally, West Bengal, and saw regular visits from the Governors-General and Commanders-in-Chief of British India. Several young British officers started visiting the area to socialise with the higher-ups; they were followed by ladies looking for marriage alliances for their relatives. Shimla thus became a hill station famous for balls, parties, and other festivities. Subsequently, residential schools for pupils from upper-class families were established nearby. By the late 1830s, the city also became a centre for theatre and art exhibitions. As the population increased, several bungalows were built and a big bazaar was established in the town. The Indian businessmen, mainly from Sood and Parsi communities, arrived in the area to cater to the needs of the growing European population. On 9 September 1844, the foundation of the Christ Church was laid. Subsequently, several roads were widened and the construction of the Hindustan-Tibet road with a 560-feet tunnel was taken up in 1851–52. This tunnel, now known as the Dhalli Tunnel, was started by Major Briggs in 1850 and completed in the winter of 1851–52. The 1857 uprising caused a panic among the European residents of the town, but Shimla remained largely unaffected by the rebellion.


title: Shimla

text: In 1863, the Viceroy of India, John Lawrence, decided to shift the summer capital of the British Raj to Shimla. He took the trouble of moving the administration twice a year between Calcutta and this separate centre over 1,000 miles away, even though it was difficult to reach. Robert Bulwer-Lytton (Viceroy of India 1876–1880) made efforts to plan the town from 1876, when he first stayed in a rented house, but began plans for a Viceregal Lodge, later built on Observatory Hill. A fire cleared much of the area where the native Indian population lived (the "Upper Bazaar" nowadays known as the Ridge), and the planning of the eastern end to become the centre of the European town forced them to live in the Middle and Lower Bazaars on the lower terraces descending the steep slopes from the Ridge. The Upper Bazaar was cleared for a town hall, with many facilities such as a library and theatre, as well as offices for police and military volunteers as well as municipal administration.


title: Shimla

text: During the "Hot Weather", Shimla was also the headquarters of the Commander-in-Chief, India, the head of the Indian Army, and many departments of the government. The summer capital of the regional Government of the Punjab moved from Murree, in modern-day Pakistan, to Shimla in 1876. They were joined by many of the British wives and daughters of the men who remained on the plains. Together these formed the Shimla Society, which, according to Charles Allen, "was as close as British India ever came to having an upper crust." This may have been helped by the fact that it was very expensive, having an ideal climate and thus being desirable, as well as having limited accommodation. British soldiers, merchants, and civil servants moved here each year to escape from the heat during summer in the Indo-Gangetic plain. The presence of many bachelors and unattached men, as well as the many women passing the hot weather there, gave Shimla a reputation for adultery, and at least gossip about adultery: as Rudyard Kipling said in a letter cited by Allen, it had a reputation for "frivolity, gossip, and intrigue".


title: Shimla

text: The Lower Bazaar tunnel was built in 1905 and christened Khachhar Surang. The Elysium Tunnel (now known as the Auckland Tunnel), about in length, was also built in 1905.


title: Shimla

text: The Simla Convention, an ambiguous treaty concerning the status of Tibet negotiated by representatives of the Republic of China, Tibet and Great Britain was signed in Simla in 1913 and 1914. At the convention a demarcation line between Tibet and the North-east region of India was proposed by Sir Henry McMahon. The line came to be known as McMahon Line and is currently the effective boundary between China and India, although its legal status is disputed by the Chinese government. This was also the site of a series of talks held by Viceroy Wavell to discuss a plan for the independence of India with the Indian political leaders of the time. Known as the Simla Conference, the talks failed to bring about a resolution.


title: Shimla

text: The Kalka–Shimla railway line, opened in 1903, added to Shimla's accessibility and popularity. The railway route from Kalka to Shimla, with more than 806 bridges and 103 tunnels, was touted as an engineering feat and came to be known as the "British Jewel of the Orient". In 2008, it became part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site. Following the partition of India, it briefly served as the capital of East Punjab, until construction of the new city of Chandigarh (the present-day capital of the Indian states of Punjab and Haryana). Upon the formation of the state of Himachal Pradesh in 1971, Shimla was named its capital.


title: Shimla

text: After independence, the Chief Commissioner's Province of H.P. came into being on 15 April 1948 as a result of the integration of 28 petty princely states (including feudatory princes and zaildars) in the promontories of the western Himalaya, known in full as the Shimla Hills States and four Punjab southern hill states by the issue of the Himachal Pradesh (Administration) Order, 1948 under Sections 3 and 4 of the Extra-Provincial Jurisdiction Act, 1947 (later renamed as the Foreign Jurisdiction Act, 1947 vide A.O. of 1950). The State of Bilaspur was merged into the Himachal Pradesh on 1 April 1954 by the Himachal Pradesh and Bilaspur (New State) Act, 1954. Himachal became a part C state on 26 January 1950 with the implementation of the Constitution of India and the Lt. Governor was appointed. The legislative assembly was elected in 1952. Himachal Pradesh became a Union Territory on 1 November 1956. Following areas of Punjab State namely Shimla, Kangra, Kulu and Lahul and Spiti Districts, Nalagarh tehsil of Ambala District, Lohara, Amb and Una kanungo circles, some areas of Santokhgarh kanungo circle and some other specified area of Una tehsil of Hoshiarpur District besides some parts of Dhar Kalan Tehsil of Pathankot district; were merged with Himachal Pradesh on 1 November 1966 on the enactment of Punjab Reorganisation Act, 1966 by the Parliament. On 18 December 1970, the State of Himachal Pradesh Act was passed by Parliament and the new state came into being on 25 January 1971. Thus Himachal emerged as the eighteenth state of the Indian Union.


title: Shimla

text: The Simla Agreement treaty was signed in Shimla by Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto, the President of Pakistan, and Indira Gandhi, the Prime Minister of India. The agreement paved the way for diplomatic recognition of Bangladesh by Pakistan. Technically the document was signed at 0040 hours on the night of 3 July; despite this official documents are dated 2 July 1972.


title: Shimla

text: Pre-independence structures still dot Shimla; buildings such as the former Viceregal Lodge, Assembly Chamber, Auckland House, Christ Church, Gorton Castle, Shimla Town Hall and the Gaiety Theatre are reminders of British rule in India. The original Peterhoff, another Viceregal residence, burned down in 1981. British Shimla extended about a mile and a half along the ridge between Jakhoo Hill and Prospect Hill. The central spine was the Mall Road, which ran along the length of the Ridge, with a Mall Extension southwards, closed to all carriages except those of the viceroy and his wife.


title: Shimla

text: Shimla is on the south-western ranges of the Himalayas at . It has an average altitude of above mean sea level and extends along a ridge with seven spurs. The city stretches nearly from east to west.


title: Shimla

text: The city is a Zone IV (High Damage Risk Zone) per the Earthquake hazard zoning of India. Weak construction techniques and an increasing population pose a serious threat to the already earthquake prone region. There are no water bodies near the main city and the closest river, the Sutlej, is about away. Other rivers that flow through the Shimla district, although further from the city, are the Giri, and Pabbar (both tributaries of Yamuna).


title: Shimla

text: The green belt in the Shimla planning area is spread over . The main forests in and around the city are of Pine, Deodar, Oak and Rhododendron. Environmental degradation due to the increasing number of tourists every year without the infrastructure to support them has resulted in Shimla losing its popular appeal as an ecotourism spot. Another rising concern in the region are the frequent number of landslides that often take place after heavy rains.


title: Shimla

text: The city is situated 88 km (55 miles) northeast of Kalka, 116 km (72 miles) northeast of Chandigarh, 247 km (154 miles) south of Manali and 350 km (219 miles) northeast of Delhi, the national capital. Kalka can be reached within 2.5 hours, and Chandigarh can be reached in 3 hours and 15 minutes. Delhi and Manali are both around 7 hours away from Shimla.


title: Shimla

text: To the east of Shimla stand the Choor Mountains (Chuor, 3647m). A passage over these mountains, from the Tons River to Shimla is described in "Views in India, chiefly among the Himalaya Mountains", by George Francis White with accompanying drawings, "Village of Khandoo, on the Ascent to the Choor", and two that were subsequently the subject of poetical illustrations by Letitia Elizabeth Landon, namely "Crossing the Choor Mountains", and "Village of Koghera and Deodar Forest, near the Choor"


title: Shimla

text: The accompanying notes record that "During a considerable part of the year, the Choor is hoary with snow; and when moonlight falls upon the scene, an effect is produced as if floods of molten silver were poured over the surface. Moonlight in these regions assumes a novel charm."


title: Shimla

text: Shimla was built on top of seven hills: Inverarm Hill, Observatory Hill, Prospect Hill, Summer Hill, Bantony Hill, Elysium Hill and Jakhu Hill. The highest point in Shimla is the Jakhu hill, which is at a height of . In recent times the city has spread past the initial seven hills.


title: Shimla

text: Shimla features a subtropical highland climate (Cwb) under the Köppen climate classification. The climate in Shimla is predominantly cool during winters and moderately warm during summer. Temperatures typically range from to over the course of a year.


title: Shimla

text: The average temperature during summer is between , and between in winter. Monthly precipitation varies between in November and in August. It is typically around per month during winter and spring, and around in June as the monsoon approaches.


title: Shimla

text: The average total annual precipitation is , which is much less than most other hill stations but still much heavier than on the plains. Snowfall in the region, which historically has taken place in December, has lately (over the last fifteen years) been happening in January or early February every year.


title: Shimla

text: The maximum snowfall received in recent times was on 18 January 2013. On two consecutive days (17 and 18 January 2013), the town received of snow.


title: Shimla

text: Employment is largely driven by the government and tourism sectors. Education sector and horticultural produce processing comprise most of the remainder. Recently a Model Career Centre has been set-up at Regional Employment Exchange, Shimla to enable bridging the gap between job-seekers and employers.


title: Shimla

text: In addition to being the local hub of transport and trade, Shimla is the area's healthcare centre, hosting a medical college and four major hospitals: Indira Gandhi Hospital (Snowdown Hospital,) Deen Dayal Upadhyay Hospital (formerly called Ripon Hospital), Kamla Nehru Hospital and Indus Hospital. The city's development plan aims to make Shimla an attractive health tourism spot. Major departmental headquarters of the state are also located in Shimla such as Himachal Pradesh Government Printing and Stationery Press, Himachal Pradesh State Electricity Board, and Himachal Pradesh Police Headquarters.


title: Shimla

text: The hotel industry is one of the major sources of income generation for the city. Shimla has up to 6500 hotels, including 5-star hotels, most popular is Oberoi Cecil, Peterhoff, Wildflower Hall and Hotel Holiday Home. Shimla leads the list of Indian cities with the highest-ranked hotels.


title: Shimla

text: Along with schools of higher education, several institutes are also present, namely Himachal Pradesh University and Indian Institute of Advanced Study. Recruitment to the IAAS is through the joint competitive examinations (the Civil Services Examination) and promotion from the subordinate cadre. Once recruited to IAAS, the directly recruited officers are trained mainly at the National Academy of Audit and Accounts, Shimla. Students from across India prefer to study in Shimla because of its climate and Queen of Hill Stations status. These have added to the economy of the district as well as the state.


title: Shimla

text: The government is trying to promote the technology and IT sector as the new area for growth and promotion although not many companies have yet settled in Shimla. There are many new startups in and around Shimla. There are over six call centres in Shimla.


title: Shimla

text: The administrative responsibilities of the city of Shimla and merged areas of Dhalli, Totu, and New Shimla reside with the Shimla Municipal Corporation (SMC). All three areas were taken under SMC in 2006–07. Established in 1851, the Shimla Municipal Corporation is an elected body comprising 41 councillors, three of whom are nominated by the government of Himachal Pradesh. The nominations are based on prominence in the fields of social service, academics, and other activities. Thirty-three per cent of the seats are reserved for women. The elections take place every five years and the mayor and deputy mayor are elected by and amongst the councillors themselves.


title: Shimla

text: The administrative head of the corporation is the Commissioner who is appointed by the state government.


title: Shimla

text: The two major political parties are the Bharatiya Janata Party and Indian National Congress with a third party, Communist Party of India (Marxist), emerging.


title: Shimla

text: The city contributes one seat to the state assembly (Vidhan Sabha) and one seat to the lower house of parliament (Lok Sabha). Law and order in the city is collectively maintained by the Police Force, Vigilance Department, enforcement directorate, forensics, fire brigade, prisons service and Home Guard. There are five police stations and three fire stations in Shimla. The Superintendent of Police, Shimla heads the police force. The First Armed Police Battalion, one of the four armed police battalions in the state, is available for assistance to the local police.


title: Shimla

text: According to 2011 census, Shimla city spread over an area of 35.34 km had a population of 169,578 with 93,152 males and 76,426 females. Shimla urban agglomeration had a population of 171,817 as per provisional data of 2011 census, out of which males were 94,797 and females were 77,020. The effective literacy rate of city was 93.63 percent and that of urban agglomeration was 94.14 per cent.


title: Shimla

text: The city area has increased considerably along with time. It has stretched from Hiranagar to Dhalli from one side & Tara Devi to Malyana in the other. As per the 2001 India Census, the city has a population of 142,161 spread over an area of 19.55 km. A floating population of 75,000 is attributed to service industries such as tourism. The largest demographic, 55%, is 16–45 years of age. A further 28% of the population is younger than 15 years. The low sex ratio – 930 girls for every 1,000 boys in 2001 – is cause for concern, and much lower than the 974 versus 1,000 for Himachal Pradesh state as a whole.


title: Shimla

text: The unemployment rate in the city has come down from 36% in 1992 to 22.6% in 2006. This drop is attributed to recent industrialisation, the growth of service industries, and knowledge development.


title: Shimla

text: Hindi is the "lingua franca" of the city, it is the principal spoken language of the city and also the most commonly used language for official purposes. English is also spoken by a sizeable population and is the second official language of the city. Other than Hindi, Pahari languages are spoken by the ethnic Pahari people, who form a major part of the population in the city. Punjabi language is prevalent among the ethnic Punjabi migrant population of the city, most of whom are refugees from West Punjab, who settled in the city after the Partition of India in 1947.


title: Shimla

text: According to 2011 census, the majority religion of the city is Hinduism practised by 93.5% of the population, followed by Islam (2.29%), Sikhism (1.95%), Buddhism (1.33%), Christianity (0.62%), and Jainism (0.10%).


title: Shimla

text: The people of Shimla are informally called Shimlaites. With largely cosmopolitan crowds, a variety of festivals are celebrated here. The Shimla Summer Festival, held every year during peak tourist season, and lasting 3–4 days, is celebrated on the Ridge. The highlights of this event include performances by popular singers from all over the country. Since 2015, 95.0 BIG FM and Himachal Tourism have been jointly organising a seven-day long winter carnival on the Ridge from Christmas to New Year's.


title: Shimla

text: Shimla has several places to visit. Local hangouts like the Mall and the Ridge area in the heart of the city. Most of the heritage buildings in the city are preserved in their original 'Tudorbethan' architecture. The former Viceregal Lodge, which now houses the Indian Institute of Advanced Study, and Wildflower Hall, now a luxury hotel, are some of the famous ones. A collection of paintings, jewellery, and textiles of the region can be found at the State Museum (built-in 1974).


title: Shimla

text: Lakkar Bazaar, a market extending off the Ridge, sells souvenirs and crafts made of wood. Tatta Pani, from the main city, is the name of hot sulphur springs that are believed to have medicinal value located on the banks of the River Satluj. Shimla is also home to South Asia's only natural ice skating rink. State and national level competitions are often held at this venue. Shimla Ice Skating Club, which manages the rink, hosts a carnival every year in January, which includes a fancy dress competition and figures skating events. Due to the effects of global warming and increasing urban development in and around Shimla, the number of sessions on the ice every winter has been decreasing in the past few years.


title: Shimla

text: Shimla has many temples and is often visited by devotees from nearby towns and cities. The Kali Bari temple, dedicated to the Hindu goddess Kali is near the mall. Jakhoo Temple, for the Hindu god Hanuman, is located at the highest point in Shimla. Sankat Mochan, another Hanuman temple, is famous for the numerous monkeys that are always found in its vicinity. It is located on Shimla-Kalka Highway about from the city. The nearby temple of Tara Devi is a place for performing rituals and festivals. Other prominent places of worship include a Gurudwara near the bus terminus and Christ Church on the Ridge.


title: Shimla

text: Shimla arts and crafts are highly in demand by tourists. They range from excellent pieces of jewellery, embroidered shawls and garments to leather made articles and sculptures. Shimla is full of pine and deodar trees. The wood has been extensively used in all major buildings of Shimla. The various kinds of crafts of Shimla made out of wood include small boxes, utensils, image carvings, and souvenirs.


title: Shimla

text: The carpet-making of Shimla is a great attraction for tourists. Different floral and other motifs are used. Wool is used to making blankets and rugs. The embroidery includes handkerchiefs, hand fans, gloves, and caps.


title: Shimla

text: The shawls of Shimla are very well known for their fine quality. The leathercraft of Shimla comprises shoes, slippers, and belts. The other arts and crafts of Shimla include a huge collection of beaded and metal jewellery.


title: Shimla

text: The culture of Shimla throwbacks religious, agnostic Kumauni people with a simple lifestyle living away from the hustle and bustle of metro cities.


title: Shimla

text: Shimla has the largest natural ice skating rink in South Asia. The ice skating season usually begins at the start of December and goes on until the end of February. The city has sporting venues like the Indira Gandhi Rajya Khel Parisar, the main sports complex, a golf course at Annadale and further out from the city is another nine-hole golf course at Naldehra, the oldest of its kind in India. Kufri is a ski resort (winter only) located from the main city.


title: Shimla

text: The city has 13 anganwadis and 64 primary schools. There are many schools from the British era. Some of the popular convent schools in the city are Bishop Cotton School, Convent of Jesus and Mary (Chelsea), St. Edward's School, Auckland House School, Loreto Convent (Tara Hall). Bishop Cotton School and St. Edward's School, Shimla are for boys only, whereas, Loreto Convent, Tara Hall and Convent of Jesus and Mary, Chelsea is for girls only. Other public schools include DAV Public School New Shimla, Shimla Public School, Himalayan International School and S.D. Senior Secondary School.


title: Shimla

text: The medical institutes in Shimla include Indira Gandhi Medical College and St. Bede's, a girls-only college. Government College, Sanjauli is also located in the city. The Indian Institute of Advanced Study, housed in the Viceregal Lodge, is a residential centre for research in Humanities, Indian culture, religion, and social and natural sciences. The Himachal Pradesh University (state university of Himachal Pradesh) is also located in Shimla. Himachal Pradesh University Business School (HPUBS) and University Institute of Information Technology, Himachal Pradesh University (UIIT), a premier technical education institute, Himachal Pradesh National Law University, Shimla are also located here.


title: Shimla

text: There is one private university, APG (Alakh Prakash Goyal) Shimla University. It was named the Best University in Hills by Assocham India.


title: Shimla

text: Shimla has two state libraries with a collection of over 47,000 old books divided between them. The one at Gandhi Bhavan in the university has over 40,000 books and the other library, also a heritage building on the ridge has 7,000.


title: Shimla

text: Other institutes of higher education and research located in Shimla are the Central Potato Research Institute, a member of Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) and the National Academy of Audit and Accounts for the training of officers of the Indian Audits and Accounts Service (IA&AS).


title: Shimla

text: Local transport in Shimla is by bus or private vehicles. Buses ply frequently on the circular road surrounding the city centre. Like any other growing city, Shimla is also expanding with new habitats in the vicinity. Transport services in these areas are also expanding rapidly. Tourist taxis are also an option for out of town trips. Locals typically traverse the city on foot. Private vehicles are prohibited at the Mall, Ridge, and nearby markets. Due to narrow roads and steep slopes, the auto rickshaws which are common in other Indian cities are largely absent.


title: Shimla

text: Shimla is well-connected by road network to all major cities in north India and all major towns and district headquarters within the state. National Highway 5 (formerly NH 22) connects Shimla to the nearest big city of Chandigarh. This road is being upgraded by four-laning as part of the Shimla-Chandigarh Expressway project, and has been completed until Solan as of July 2021.


title: Shimla

text: Shimla Airport is situated at Jubbarhatti, from the city. Regular flights to Delhi operate from the airport. The nearest major airport is Chandigarh Airport in Chandigarh about 116 km away.


title: Shimla

text: The scenic Kalka Shimla Railway, a narrow gauge track, is listed in the "Guinness Book of Records" for the steepest rise in altitude in a distance of 96 km. Kalka, the plains rail terminus, has daily departures to major Indian cities. The city has a total of three railway stations with Shimla the main station and two others located at Summer Hill and Totu (Jutogh) respectively. It was built to connect Shimla, the summer capital of India during the British Raj, with the Indian rail system.


title: Shimla

text: In 2007, the government of Himachal Pradesh declared the railway a heritage property. For about a week starting on 11 September 2007, an expert team from UNESCO visited the railway to review and inspect it for possible selection as a World Heritage Site. On 8 July 2008, the Kalka–Shimla Railway was listed as a World Heritage Site, alongside Darjeeling Himalayan Railway, Nilgiri Mountain Railway, and Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus.


title: Shimla

text: State-owned All India Radio and Reliance Broadcast owned 95.0 BIG FM have local radio stations in Shimla, which transmit various programmes of mass interest. Apart from a wide range of other national and international TV channels of different languages, the national TV broadcaster Doordarshan also broadcast channels like DD Shimla, DD National and DD Sports in the city. There are several private FM radio channels like 95.0 BIG FM and Radio Mirchi.


title: Shimla

text: "Amar Ujala", "Punjab Kesari", and "Dainik Bhaskar" are the widely circulated Hindi dailies while "The Tribune", "The Times of India", "Hindustan Times" and "Indian Express" are popular English newspapers in the city. Other notable newspapers are "Devbhumi Mirror" and "Divya Himachal". "ShimlaNow" and "Himachal Abhi Abhi, We Are Himachali" are the online news portals published from Shimla.


title: 2C-B

text: 2C-B (4-Bromo-2,5-dimethoxyphenethylamine) is a psychedelic drug of the 2C family. It was first synthesized by Alexander Shulgin in 1974. In Shulgin's book "PiHKAL", the dosage range is listed as 12–24 mg. As a recreational drug, 2C-B is sold as a white powder sometimes pressed in tablets or gel caps. It is also referred to by a number of street names. The drug is usually taken orally, but can also be insufflated or vaporized. While being primarily a psychedelic it is also a mild entactogen.


title: 2C-B

text: 2C-B was synthesized from 2,5-dimethoxybenzaldehyde by Alexander Shulgin in 1974. It first saw use among the psychiatric community as an aid during therapy. 2C-B was first sold commercially as a purported aphrodisiac under the trade name "Erox", which was manufactured by the German pharmaceutical company Drittewelle. For several years, it was available as tablets in Dutch smart shops under the name "Nexus" and "B-Dub".


title: 2C-B

text: 2C-B first became popularized in the United States as a short-lived substitute for the street drug Ecstasy when MDMA became illegal in 1985. Many 2C-B users are young adults who attend raves. Though 2C-B is still used in the rave subculture, commonly mistaken for and/or sold as Ecstasy, its intentional use has become more common in the 2000s.


title: 2C-B

text: Street prices range between $10 and $30 per tablet in the United States in 2011 when purchased in small quantities. The current street price in the Netherlands ranges between €3 and €5 per tablet. Larger retail purchases cost between $200 and $500 per gram. Wholesale purchases of 2C-B can lower the price ($100 to $300 per gram in 2001, $30 to $100 on the darknet in 2020).


title: 2C-B

text: A powder which has been dyed pink may be sold as "tucibi", "tuci", "tussi" or "pink cocaine". This is not synonymous with 2C-B and instead refers to a mixture of drugs with pink dye. It is a more recent innovation from Colombia with large consumption groups in Europe and the United States. It is very rare for tusi to contain any actual 2C-B, with the most common ingredients being ketamine, MDMA, and caffeine. Fentanyl and other opioids are also relatively common to see in it.


title: 2C-B

text: The September 1998 issue of "Journal of Analytical Toxicology" reported that very little data exists about the pharmacological properties, metabolism, and toxicity of 2C-B. The relationship between its use and death are unknown. The common oral recreational dose is around 15–25 mg,<ref name="urlErowid 2C-B Vault : Dose/Dosage"></ref> at which visual and auditory effects are experienced. Severe adverse reactions are extremely rare, but use of 2C-B was linked to significant brain injury in one case report; the alleged "2C-B" was never actually discovered by testing so the only evidence suggesting 2C-B was the cause was the victim's own words, and drug adulteration and toxic impurities are very common in illegal drugs.


title: 2C-B

text: The lethal dosage is unknown. It was reported in "PiHKAL", by Alexander Shulgin, that a psychologist had accidentally taken a 100 mg dose orally without apparent harm.


title: 2C-B

text: When sold as "Ecstasy", tablets containing 2C-B often contain about 5 mg of the drug, an amount which produces stimulatory effects that mimic the effects of MDMA; in contrast, tablets marketed as 2C-B have larger quantities of the drug (10–20 mg) which cause hallucinogenic effects. Street purity of 2C-B, when tested, has been found to be relatively high. Researchers in Spain found that 2C-B samples in the country doubled between 2006 and 2009, switched from primarily powder form to tablets, and exhibited "low falsification rates". An analysis of street samples in the Netherlands found impurities "in small percentages"; only one of the impurities, the N-acetyl derivative of 2C-B, could be identified, and comprised 1.3% of the sample. The authors suggested that this compound was a by-product of 2C-B synthesis.


title: 2C-B

text: Little academic research has been conducted on the effects of 2C-B in humans. The information available is largely anecdotal and limited. Effects are often described as being more easily managed than other psychedelics; it is often compared to a mixture of a serotonergic psychedelic and MDMA. At 5–10 mg, experiments with young chickens have shown it to produce effects similar to a low dosage of amphetamines.


title: 2C-B

text: When orally consumed, 2C-B has a much longer delay before the onset of effects than when it is insufflated. Oral ingestion generally takes roughly 45–75 minutes for the effects to be felt, plateau lasts 2–4 hours, and coming down lasts 1–2 hours. Rectal administration onset varies from 5–20 minutes. Insufflated onset takes 1–10 minutes for effects to be felt. The duration can last from 4 to 12 hours depending on route of administration, dose, and other factors.


title: 2C-B

text: With insufflation, the effects are more abrupt and intense but have a significantly shorter duration, while oral usage results in a milder, longer experience. When insufflated, the onset happens very rapidly, usually reaching the peak at about 20–40 minutes and plateauing for 2–3 hours. 2C-B is also considered one of the most painful drugs to insufflate, with users reporting intense nasal burning. The sudden intensity of the experience combined with the pain can often start the experience with a negative imprint and nausea is also increased with insufflation, compounding the issue.


title: 2C-B

text: Unlike most psychedelics, 2C-B has been shown to be a low efficacy serotonin 5-HT receptor partial agonist, but antagonist at the 5-HT receptor. This suggests that activation of the 5-HT-coupled phospholipase D pathway or functional antagonism of 5-HT may also play a role. The rank order of 5-HT receptor antagonist potency for this family of drugs is 2C-I > 2C-B > 2C-D > 2C-H.


title: 2C-B

text: Research suggests that 2C-B increases dopamine levels in the brains of rats, which may contribute to its psychoactivity.


title: 2C-B

text: 2C-B has been shown to be metabolized by liver hepatocytes, resulting in deamination and demethylation that produces several products. Oxidative deamination results in the 2-(4-bromo-2,5-dimethoxyphenyl)-ethanol (BDMPE) and 4-bromo-2,5-dimethoxyphenylacetic acid (BDMPAA) metabolites. Additionally, 4-bromo-2,5-dimethoxybenzoic acid (BDMBA) can also be produced by oxidative deamination. Further metabolism of BDMPE and BDMPAA may occur by demethylation. Alternatively, the later metabolites can be generated by demethylation of 2C-B followed by oxidative deamination.


title: 2C-B

text: There is species differentiation in the metabolism of 2C-B. Mice hepatocytes produce 4-bromo-2,5-dimethoxy-phenol (BDMP), a previously unknown metabolite. Meanwhile, human, monkey and rabbit hepatocytes produce 2-(4-bromo-2-hydroxy-5-methoxyphenyl)-ethanol (B-2-HMPE), but dog, rat and mouse hepatocytes do not. 2C-B also reduces aggressive responses in drugged rats.


title: 2C-B

text: A variety of N-substituted derivatives of 2C-B have been tested, including N-methyl-2CB, N,N-dimethyl-2CB, N-ethyl-2CB and N-benzyl-2CB. Most simple alkyl derivatives were considerably less potent than 2C-B, with N-ethyl-2CB for instance having a 40 times lower affinity for the 5-HT receptor. The N-benzyl derivative however was found to have higher binding affinity than 2C-B itself, with N-(4-bromobenzyl)-2CB binding even more tightly. This initial research did not include functional assays of activity, but later led to the development of potent substituted N-benzyl derivatives such as 25B-NBOMe, and 25B-NBOH.


title: 2C-B

text: 2C-B was used as entheogen by the Sangoma, Nyanga, and Amagqirha people in place of their traditional plants; they refer to the chemical as "Ubulawu Nomathotholo", which roughly translates to ""Medicine of the Singing Ancestors"".


title: 2C-B

text: Exposing compounds to the reagents gives a colour change which is indicative of the compound under test.


title: 2C-B

text: The UN Commission on Narcotic Drugs added 2C-B to Schedule II of the Convention on Psychotropic Substances in March 2001.


title: 2C-B

text: 2C-B was mislabelled "2 C-B" in the "Green List 26th edition, 2015". However, this was corrected in "Green List 27th edition, 2016".


title: 2C-B

text: 2C-B is a scheduled drug in most jurisdictions. The following is a partial list of territories where the substance has been scheduled.


title: 2C-B

text: 2C-B is controlled in Australia and on the list of substances subject to import and export controls (Appendix B). It was placed on Schedule One of the Drugs Misuse and Trafficking Act when it first came to notice in 1994, when in a showcase legal battle chemist R. Simpson was charged with manufacturing the substance in Sydney. Alexander Shulgin came to Australia to testify on behalf of the defense, to no avail.


title: 2C-B

text: 2C-B is not specifically listed in the Australia Poisons Standard (October 2015), however similar drugs such as 2C-T-2 and 2C-I are making 2C-B fall under the Australian analogue act.


title: 2C-B

text: In Canada, 2C-B is classified under Controlled Drugs and Substances Act as Schedule III as "4-bromo-2,5-dimethoxybenzeneethanamine and any salt, isomer or salt of isomer thereof".


title: 2C-B

text: 2C-B has been rescheduled (Schedule III), in a new amendment, taking effect on October 31, 2016. This is to include the other 2C-x analogues.


title: 2C-B

text: In August 2007, 2C-B, along with many other psychologically active substances, was added to Ley 20.000, known as the .


title: 2C-B

text: Possession of more than 200 mg of 2C-B is punishable with a two years jail sentence. Smaller amount is punishable by a fine. The 200 mg threshold is merely a guideline which the court can reconsider depending on circumstances.


title: 2C-B

text: In Germany, 2C-B is controlled in the Betäubungsmittelgesetz (BtMG) Anlage I as "Bromdimethoxyphenethylamin" (BDMPEA).


title: 2C-B

text: In the Netherlands, 2C-B became a list I substance of the Opium Law despite no health incidents occurring. Following the ban, other phenethylamines were sold in place of 2C-B until the Netherlands became the first country in the world to ban 2C-I, 2C-T-2 and 2C-T-7 alongside 2C-B.


title: 2C-B

text: In Norway, 2C-B was classified as Schedule II on March 22, 2004, listed as 4-bromo-2,5-dimethoxyphenethylamine.


title: 2C-B

text: 2C-B was first classified as "health hazard" under the act (Act on the Prohibition of Certain Goods Dangerous to Health) as of April 1, 1999, under SFS 1999:58 that made it illegal to sell or possess. Then it became schedule I as of June 1, 2002, published in LVFS 2002:4 but mislabeled "2-CB" in the document. However, this was corrected in a new document, LVFS 2009:22 effective December 9, 2009.


title: 2C-B

text: All drugs in the 2C family are Class A under the Misuse of Drugs Act which means they are illegal to produce, supply or possess. Possession carries a maximum sentence of seven years imprisonment while supply is punishable by life imprisonment and an unlimited fine.


title: 2C-B

text: In the United States, 2C-B is classified as CSA Schedule I Section (d) Subsection (3) 4-Bromo-2,5-dimethoxyphenethylamine.


title: 2C-B

text: In the United States, a notice of proposed rulemaking published on December 20, 1994, in the "Federal Register" and after a review of relevant data, the Deputy Administrator of the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) proposed to place 4-bromo-2,5-DMPEA into Schedule I, making 2C-B illegal in the United States. This became permanent law on July 2, 1995.


title: Gale Anne Hurd

text: Gale Anne Hurd (born October 25, 1955) is an American film and television producer, the founder of Valhalla Entertainment (formerly Pacific Western Productions), and a former recording secretary for the Producers Guild of America.


title: Gale Anne Hurd

text: Hurd was born in Los Angeles, the daughter of Lolita (née Espiau) and Frank E. Hurd, an investor. Her father was Jewish, and her mother was Catholic. She grew up in Palm Springs, California and graduated from Palm Springs High School in 1973. She graduated from Stanford University with a BA in economics and communications, and a minor in political science, in 1977.


title: Gale Anne Hurd

text: She joined New World Pictures as executive assistant to Roger Corman, the company president. She worked her way up through various administrative positions and eventually became involved in production. She formed her own production company, Pacific Western Productions, in 1982 and went on to produce a number of box-office hits including the James Cameron films "The Terminator" (1984, the screenplay for which she co-wrote with Cameron, her sole screenwriting credit), "Aliens" (1986), and "The Abyss" (1989).


title: Gale Anne Hurd

text: In 1998, she was awarded the Women in Film Crystal Award for outstanding women who, through their endurance and the excellence of their work, have helped to expand the role of women within the entertainment industry.


title: Gale Anne Hurd

text: In 2003, she was awarded the Telluride Tech Festival Award of Technology at Telluride, Colorado, along with Arthur C. Clarke.


title: Gale Anne Hurd

text: In 2013, Hurd was awarded the Laura Ziskin Lifetime Achievement Award from the Athena Film Festival, at Barnard College in New York City. The award honors her as a woman in the film industry whose leadership demonstrates vision and courage and sets a standard for other women to emulate.


title: Gale Anne Hurd

text: Hurd was awarded the Fangoria Lifetime Achievement Award in 2017 for her body of work in the horror and science fiction genres.


title: Gale Anne Hurd

text: Hurd was married to James Cameron from 1985 to 1989; to director Brian De Palma from 1991 to 1993, with whom she had one daughter, Lolita de Palma, in 1991; and to screenwriter/director Jonathan Hensleigh since 1995.


title: Julia Ormond

text: Julia Karin Ormond (born 4 January 1965) is an English actress. She rose to prominence by appearing in "The Baby of Mâcon" (1993), "Legends of the Fall" (1994), "First Knight" (1995), "Sabrina" (1995), "Smilla's Sense of Snow" (1997) and "The Barber of Siberia" (1998). She won an Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Miniseries or a Movie for her role in the HBO film "Temple Grandin" (2010). She is also known for her role in "" (2020) as a main antagonist.


title: Julia Ormond

text: Ormond was born in Epsom, Surrey, the daughter of Josephine, a laboratory technician, and John Ormond, a stockbroker. She is the second of five children born to her parents. She attended independent schools, first Guildford High School and then Cranleigh School, where early lead performances in "Guys and Dolls" and "My Fair Lady" began to draw attention.


title: Julia Ormond

text: After one year of art school, she transferred to Webber-Douglas Academy of Dramatic Art, where she graduated in 1988.


title: Julia Ormond

text: Ormond first appeared on British television in the 1989 serial "Traffik", about the illegal heroin trade from the far East to the streets of Europe. Ormond played the drug addicted daughter of the lead character, a Home Office minister in the UK government engaged in combating heroin importation. This early role won glowing reviews.


title: Julia Ormond

text: Ormond appeared in several television films early in her career, such as "Young Catherine" (1991) and "Stalin" (1992). In 1993, she made her film debut in the lead role of an international movie, "The Baby of Mâcon", and the following year co-starred in "Legends of the Fall".


title: Julia Ormond

text: In 1995, Ormond played Queen Guinevere in "First Knight" and the title role in "Sabrina". In 1997, she played a lead role in the thriller" Smilla's Sense of Snow" and, in 1998, she starred in the Russian film "The Barber of Siberia".


title: Julia Ormond

text: Since the late 1990s Ormond has appeared in indie and television movies and played supporting roles in films, such as "Iron Jawed Angels" (2004), "The Curious Case of Benjamin Button" (2008), "Che: Part One" (2008), "Albatross" (2011), and "My Week with Marilyn" (2011).


title: Julia Ormond

text: Ormond has an independent production company, Indican Productions, based in New York City, and she executive-produced the Cinemax Reel Life documentary "Calling the Ghosts: A Story about Rape, War and Women", which won a CableACE Award and a Robert F. Kennedy Journalism Award, and was an official selection of the Toronto and Berlin International Film Festivals. On stage, she appeared in David Hare's "My Zinc Bed", for which she received a 2001 Olivier Award nomination for Best Actress.


title: Julia Ormond

text: On television, Ormond appeared as a guest star during the 2008–09 season of the CBS series "". In 2010, she won an Emmy Award for her supporting role in the television film "Temple Grandin". In 2011, Ormond in the of the series "". In 2012, she played the part of Marie Calvet, mother to Megan Draper, in the series "Mad Men", for which she was nominated for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Drama Series.


title: Julia Ormond

text: From 6 October 2013 to 5 October 2014 Ormond starred in the television series "Witches of East End" as Joanna Beauchamp, one of the lead characters.


title: Julia Ormond

text: Since 2020 she has portrayed the primary antagonist, Elizabeth Kublek, in the AMC television series "".


title: Julia Ormond

text: In 1988, Ormond married Rory Edwards, an actor she had met while performing in a production of "Wuthering Heights". The marriage ended in 1994. In 1999, she married political activist Jon Rubin. The couple's daughter, Sophie, was born in the autumn of 2004. The couple divorced in 2008.


title: Julia Ormond

text: Ormond has been fighting human trafficking since the mid-1990s, and in 2006 she entered into a partnership with the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime to redouble her efforts. She is also an advocate for Transatlantic Partners Against AIDS, which attempts to raise awareness about AIDS in Russia and Ukraine, and is founding co-chairman of FilmAid International.


title: Julia Ormond

text: On 2 December 2005, Ormond was appointed a United Nations Goodwill Ambassador. Her focus has been on anti-human-trafficking initiatives, raising awareness about this modern form of slavery and promoting efforts to combat it. In her capacity as ambassador, Ormond has appeared as counsel to the United States House of Representatives, Committee on International Relations, Subcommittee on Africa, Global Human Rights and International Operations, and has travelled the world as an ambassador.


title: Nithiin

text: Nithin Kumar Reddy (born 30 March 1983 ), known professionally as Nithiin, is an Indian actor and producer who works predominantly in Telugu cinema. Nithiin's work has earned him one Filmfare Award and two nominations for the Filmfare Award for Best Actor – Telugu.


title: Nithiin

text: Nithiin made his acting debut in 2002 with the romantic action film "Jayam" (2002). He won the Filmfare Award for Best Male Debut – South for his performance. Nithiin then appeared in "Dil" (2003), "Sri Anjaneyam" (2004), and "Sye" (2004). After a series of failures at the box office, Nithiin achieved success with the romance film "Ishq" (2012). His other successful films include "Gunde Jaari Gallanthayyinde" (2013), "Heart Attack" (2014), "A Aa" (2016), and "Bheeshma" (2020).


title: Nithiin

text: In 2013, Nithiin established his own film production studio, Shresht Movies. Nithiin is a brand ambassador for the Swachh Bharat campaign for the state of Telangana.


title: Nithiin

text: Nithin Kumar Reddy was born on 30 March 1983 to film distributor Sudhakar Reddy and Laxmi Reddy. He has an elder sister named Nikitha Reddy. He completed his education at Geetanjali School, Begumpet and did his intermediate education from Ratna Junior College and pursued his graduation at Shadan College of Engineering and Technology, Gandipet. His father later turned a producer and produced two movies with him, "Gunde Jaari Gallanthayyinde" and "Chinnadana Nee Kosam". Nithin has added at extra "i" in his name and spells it as Nithiin.


title: Nithiin

text: In 2020, Nithiin was engaged to his girlfriend Shalini Kandukuri. On 26 July, they married at Falaknuma Palace, Hyderabad. The marriage was originally scheduled to be held on 16 April, the same year, in Dubai, but was postponed due to the lockdown restrictions imposed in response to COVID-19 pandemic.


title: Nithiin

text: Nithiin started his career with the movie "Jayam" in 2002, directed by Teja. Director Teja saw him at Sudarshan 35 mm theatre at a screening of his film "Nuvvu Nenu" on two occasions, Teja then enquired him about his acting interest and did a screen test and photo session and selected him as the lead for his directorial and production venture "Jayam," also starring Sadha and Gopichand. In 2003, Nithiin acted in the film "Dil", directed by V. V. Vinayak. produced by Dil Raju. Later in the same year, Nithiin acted in the film "Sambaram", directed by Dasarath. K. In 2004, Nithiin starred in "Sri Anjaneyam", directed by Krishna Vamsi, where he played the role as a devotee of Lord Hanuman. This is also the first film where Nithiin dubbed his dialogues, who until then was voiced by Sivaji.


title: Nithiin

text: Following his 2004 film "Sye", directed by S. S. Rajamouli, Nithin appeared in a number of films, some of which are "Dhairyam", "Agyaat" and "Seeta Ramula Kalyanam". However, none of these films were commercially successful. Nithiin also has the distinction of most consecutive flops (12) by any actor in Telugu cinema. He tasted success after many years with 2012 Vikram Kumar-directed romantic drama film "Ishq".


title: Nithiin

text: In "Ishq", Nithiin paired opposite Nithya Menen, which was also co-produced by his father Sudhakar Reddy. He acted in the film "Gunde Jaari Gallanthayyinde" in 2013. Isha Talwar and Nithya Menen played the lead roles along with Nithiin. Later, he acted in "Chinnadana Nee Kosam", a film written and directed by A. Karunakaran in 2014, also produced by N. Sudhakar Reddy and sister Nikhita Reddy under their home banner Sresht Movies. Later the year, he played the lead in "Heart Attack", directed by Puri Jagannadh. He made the role of a hippie and the movie got a mixed reviews. He acted in the role of a courier boy in the movie "Courier Boy Kalyan", released in 2015, directed by Premsai and produced by Gautham Vasudev Menon. Nithiin acted in the film "A Aa" (2016), written and directed by Trivikram Srinivas, opposite Samantha Ruth Prabhu and Anupama Parameswaran. The film became the biggest grosser in Nithin's career.


title: Nithiin

text: In 2017, Nithiin acted in the film "LIE" which was directed by Hanu Raghavapudi. It garnered average reviews from critics and could not perform well at the box office. In 2018, Nithiin's "Chal Mohan Ranga" directed by Krishna Chaitanya with co-star Megha Akash. The film performed poorly at the box office. Later the year, he starred in "Srinivasa Kalyanam" opposite Raashi Khanna and directed by Satish Vegesna. His 2020 film "Bheeshma", directed by Venky Kudumula and starring alongside Rashmika Mandanna was a commercial success.


title: Nithiin

text: Nithiin collaborated with director Chandra Sekhar Yeleti for "Check" (2021), co-starring Rakul Preet Singh and Priya Prakash Varrier. His second release of the year was "Rang De", directed by Venky Atluri and starred alongside Keerthy Suresh. His third release of the year was the black comedy crime thriller "Maestro" which had a direct-to-streaming release on Disney+ Hotstar on 17 September 2021. He played the role of a pianist, with critics praising his performance in the film and this is remake of Hindi film Andhadhun. In September 2021, he started filming was for his next film "Macherla Niyojakavargam".


title: Fair use

text: Fair use is a doctrine in United States law that permits limited use of copyrighted material without having to first acquire permission from the copyright holder. Fair use is one of the limitations to copyright intended to balance the interests of copyright holders with the public interest in the wider distribution and use of creative works by allowing as a defense to copyright infringement claims certain limited uses that might otherwise be considered infringement. Unlike "fair dealing" rights that exist in most countries with a British legal history, the fair use right is a general exception that applies to all different kinds of uses with all types of works and turns on a flexible proportionality test that examines the purpose of the use, the amount used, and the impact on the market of the original work.


title: Fair use

text: The doctrine of "fair use" originated in the Anglo-American common law during the 18th and 19th centuries as a way of preventing copyright law from being too rigidly applied and "stifling the very creativity which [copyright] law is designed to foster." Though originally a common law doctrine, it was enshrined in statutory law when the U.S. Congress passed the Copyright Act of 1976. The U.S. Supreme Court has issued several major decisions clarifying and reaffirming the fair use doctrine since the 1980s, most recently in the 2021 decision "Google LLC v. Oracle America, Inc."


title: Fair use

text: The 1710 Statute of Anne, an act of the Parliament of Great Britain, created copyright law to replace a system of private ordering enforced by the Stationers' Company. The Statute of Anne did not provide for legal unauthorized use of material protected by copyright. In "Gyles v Wilcox", the Court of Chancery established the doctrine of "fair abridgement", which permitted unauthorized abridgement of copyrighted works under certain circumstances. Over time, this doctrine evolved into the modern concepts of fair use and fair dealing. Fair use was a common-law doctrine in the U.S. until it was incorporated into the Copyright Act of 1976, .


title: Fair use

text: The term "fair use" originated in the United States. Although related, the limitations and exceptions to copyright for teaching and library archiving in the U.S. are located in a different section of the statute. A similar-sounding principle, fair dealing, exists in some other common law jurisdictions but in fact it is more similar in principle to the enumerated exceptions found under civil law systems. Civil law jurisdictions have other limitations and exceptions to copyright.


title: Fair use

text: In response to perceived over-expansion of copyrights, several electronic civil liberties and free expression organizations began in the 1990s to add fair use cases to their dockets and concerns. These include the Electronic Frontier Foundation ("EFF"), the American Civil Liberties Union, the National Coalition Against Censorship, the American Library Association, numerous clinical programs at law schools, and others. The "Chilling Effects" archive was established in 2002 as a coalition of several law school clinics and the EFF to document the use of cease and desist letters. In 2006 Stanford University began an initiative called "The Fair Use Project" (FUP) to help artists, particularly filmmakers, fight lawsuits brought against them by large corporations.


title: Fair use

text: Examples of fair use in United States copyright law include commentary, search engines, criticism, parody, news reporting, research, and scholarship. Fair use provides for the legal, unlicensed citation or incorporation of copyrighted material in another author's work under a four-factor test.


title: Fair use

text: The U.S. Supreme Court has traditionally characterized fair use as an affirmative defense, but in "Lenz v. Universal Music Corp." (2015) (the "dancing baby" case), the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit concluded that fair use was not merely a defense to an infringement claim, but was an expressly authorized right, and an exception to the exclusive rights granted to the author of a creative work by copyright law: "Fair use is therefore distinct from affirmative defenses where a use infringes a copyright, but there is no liability due to a valid excuse, e.g., misuse of a copyright."


title: Fair use

text: The four factors of analysis for fair use set forth above derive from the opinion of Joseph Story in "Folsom v. Marsh", in which the defendant had copied 353 pages from the plaintiff's 12-volume biography of George Washington in order to produce a separate two-volume work of his own. The court rejected the defendant's fair use defense with the following explanation:


title: Fair use

text: The statutory fair use factors quoted above come from the Copyright Act of 1976, which is codified at . They were intended by Congress to restate, but not replace, the prior judge-made law. As Judge Pierre N. Leval has written, the statute does not "define or explain [fair use's] contours or objectives." While it "leav[es] open the possibility that other factors may bear on the question, the statute identifies none." That is, courts are entitled to consider other factors in addition to the four statutory factors.


title: Fair use

text: The first factor is "the purpose and character of the use, including whether such use is of a commercial nature or is for nonprofit educational purposes." To justify the use as fair, one must demonstrate how it either advances knowledge or the progress of the arts through the addition of something new.


title: Fair use

text: A key consideration in later fair use cases is the extent to which the use is "transformative". In the 1994 decision "Campbell v. Acuff-Rose Music Inc", the U.S. Supreme Court held that when the purpose of the use is transformative, this makes the first factor more likely to favor fair use. Before the "Campbell" decision, federal Judge Pierre Leval argued that transformativeness is central to the fair use analysis in his 1990 article, Toward a Fair Use Standard. "Blanch v. Koons" is another example of a fair use case that focused on transformativeness. In 2006, Jeff Koons used a photograph taken by commercial photographer Andrea Blanch in a collage painting. Koons appropriated a central portion of an advertisement she had been commissioned to shoot for a magazine. Koons prevailed in part because his use was found transformative under the first fair use factor.


title: Fair use

text: The "Campbell" case also addressed the subfactor mentioned in the quotation above, "whether such use is of a commercial nature or is for nonprofit educational purposes." In an earlier case, "Sony Corp. of America v. Universal City Studios, Inc.", the Supreme Court had stated that "every commercial use of copyrighted material is presumptively ... unfair." In "Campbell", the court clarified that this is not a "hard evidentiary presumption" and that even the tendency that commercial purpose will "weigh against a finding of fair use ... will vary with the context." The "Campbell" court held that hip-hop group 2 Live Crew's parody of the song "Oh, Pretty Woman" was fair use, even though the parody was sold for profit. Thus, having a commercial purpose does not preclude a use from being found fair, even though it makes it less likely.


title: Fair use

text: Likewise, the noncommercial purpose of a use makes it more likely to be found a fair use, but it does not make it a fair use automatically. For instance, in "L.A. Times v. Free Republic", the court found that the noncommercial use of "Los Angeles Times" content by the Free Republic website was not fair use, since it allowed the public to obtain material at no cost that they would otherwise pay for. Richard Story similarly ruled in "Code Revision Commission and State of Georgia v. Public.Resource.Org, Inc." that despite the fact that it is a non-profit and didn't sell the work, the service profited from its unauthorized publication of the Official Code of Georgia Annotated because of "the attention, recognition, and contributions" it received in association with the work.


title: Fair use

text: Another factor is whether the use fulfills any of the preamble purposes, also mentioned in the legislation above, as these have been interpreted as "illustrative" of transformative use.


title: Fair use

text: In determining that Prince's appropriation art could constitute fair use and that many of his works were transformative fair uses of Cariou's photographs, the Second Circuit in "Cariou v. Prince", 714 F.3d 694 (2d. Cir. 2013) shed light on the lens which transformative use is determined from. “What is critical is how the work in question appears to the reasonable observer, not simply what an artist might say about a particular piece or body of work.” Yet, the district court based its conclusion that Prince’s work was not transformative in large part on Prince’s deposition testimony that he “do[es]n’t really have a message,” and that he was not “trying to create anything with a new meaning or a new message.” However, the artist’s subjective message “is not dispositive.” Instead, how the artworks are “reasonably be perceived” is the focus of the transformative use inquiry.


title: Fair use

text: The transformativeness inquiry is a deceptively simple test to determine whether a new work has a different purpose and character from an original work. However, courts have not been consistent in deciding whether something is transformative. For instance, in Seltzer v. Green Day, Inc., 725 F.3d 1170 (9th Cir. 2013), the court found that Green Day's use of Seltzer's copyrighted Scream Icon was transformative. The court held that Green Day's modifications to the original Scream Icon conveyed new information and aesthetics from the original piece.


title: Fair use

text: Conversely, the Second Circuit came to the opposite conclusion in a similar situation in Andy Warhol Foundation for the Visual Arts, Inc. v. Goldsmith, 11 F.4th 26 (2d. Cir. 2021). In that case, the Warhol Foundation sought a declaratory judgment that Warhol's use of one of Goldsmith's celebrity photographs was fair use. The court held that Warhol's use was not transformative because Warhol merely imposed his own style on Goldsmith's photograph and retained the photograph's essential elements.


title: Fair use

text: Although the Supreme Court has ruled that the availability of copyright protection should not depend on the artistic quality or merit of a work, fair use analyses consider certain aspects of the work to be relevant, such as whether it is fictional or non-fictional.


title: Fair use

text: To prevent the private ownership of work that rightfully belongs in the public domain, facts and ideas are not protected by copyright—only their particular expression or fixation merits such protection. On the other hand, the social usefulness of freely available information can weigh against the appropriateness of copyright for certain fixations. The Zapruder film of the assassination of President Kennedy, for example, was purchased and copyrighted by "Time" magazine. Yet its copyright was not upheld, in the name of the public interest, when "Time" tried to enjoin the reproduction of stills from the film in a history book on the subject in "Time Inc v. Bernard Geis Associates".