title: Square root

text: A positive number has two square roots, one positive, and one negative, which are opposite to each other. When talking of "the" square root of a positive integer, it is usually the positive square root that is meant.


title: Square root

text: The square root of a positive integer is the product of the roots of its prime factors, because the square root of a product is the product of the square roots of the factors. Since formula_17 only roots of those primes having an odd power in the factorization are necessary. More precisely, the square root of a prime factorization is


title: Square root

text: The square roots of the perfect squares (e.g., 0, 1, 4, 9, 16) are integers. In all other cases, the square roots of positive integers are irrational numbers, and hence have non-repeating decimals in their decimal representations. Decimal approximations of the square roots of the first few natural numbers are given in the following table.


title: Square root

text: As with before, the square roots of the perfect squares (e.g., 0, 1, 4, 9, 16) are integers. In all other cases, the square roots of positive integers are irrational numbers, and therefore have non-repeating digits in any standard positional notation system.


title: Square root

text: The square roots of small integers are used in both the SHA-1 and SHA-2 hash function designs to provide nothing up my sleeve numbers.


title: Square root

text: One of the most intriguing results from the study of irrational numbers as continued fractions was obtained by Joseph Louis Lagrange 1780. Lagrange found that the representation of the square root of any non-square positive integer as a continued fraction is periodic. That is, a certain pattern of partial denominators repeats indefinitely in the continued fraction. In a sense these square roots are the very simplest irrational numbers, because they can be represented with a simple repeating pattern of integers.


title: Square root

text: The square bracket notation used above is a short form for a continued fraction. Written in the more suggestive algebraic form, the simple continued fraction for the square root of 11, [3; 3, 6, 3, 6, ...], looks like this:


title: Square root

text: where the two-digit pattern {3, 6} repeats over and over again in the partial denominators. Since , the above is also identical to the following generalized continued fractions:


title: Square root

text: Square roots of positive numbers are not in general rational numbers, and so cannot be written as a terminating or recurring decimal expression. Therefore in general any attempt to compute a square root expressed in decimal form can only yield an approximation, though a sequence of increasingly accurate approximations can be obtained.


title: Square root

text: Most pocket calculators have a square root key. Computer spreadsheets and other software are also frequently used to calculate square roots. Pocket calculators typically implement efficient routines, such as the Newton's method (frequently with an initial guess of 1), to compute the square root of a positive real number. When computing square roots with logarithm tables or slide rules, one can exploit the identities


title: Square root

text: By trial-and-error, one can square an estimate for formula_22 and raise or lower the estimate until it agrees to sufficient accuracy. For this technique it is prudent to use the identity


title: Square root

text: as it allows one to adjust the estimate "x" by some amount "c" and measure the square of the adjustment in terms of the original estimate and its square. Furthermore, ("x" + "c") ≈ "x" + 2"xc" when "c" is close to 0, because the tangent line to the graph of "x" + 2"xc" + "c" at "c" = 0, as a function of "c" alone, is "y" = 2"xc" + "x". Thus, small adjustments to "x" can be planned out by setting 2"xc" to "a", or "c" = "a"/(2"x").


title: Square root

text: The most common iterative method of square root calculation by hand is known as the "Babylonian method" or "Heron's method" after the first-century Greek philosopher Heron of Alexandria, who first described it.


title: Square root

text: The method uses the same iterative scheme as the Newton–Raphson method yields when applied to the function y = "f"("x") = "x" − "a", using the fact that its slope at any point is "dy"/"dx" = ""("x") = 2"x", but predates it by many centuries.


title: Square root

text: The algorithm is to repeat a simple calculation that results in a number closer to the actual square root each time it is repeated with its result as the new input. The motivation is that if "x" is an overestimate to the square root of a nonnegative real number "a" then "a"/"x" will be an underestimate and so the average of these two numbers is a better approximation than either of them. However, the inequality of arithmetic and geometric means shows this average is always an overestimate of the square root (as noted below), and so it can serve as a new overestimate with which to repeat the process, which converges as a consequence of the successive overestimates and underestimates being closer to each other after each iteration. To find "x":


title: Square root

text: That is, if an arbitrary guess for formula_22 is "x", and , then each x is an approximation of formula_22 which is better for large "n" than for small "n". If "a" is positive, the convergence is quadratic, which means that in approaching the limit, the number of correct digits roughly doubles in each next iteration. If , the convergence is only linear.


title: Square root

text: the computation of the square root of a positive number can be reduced to that of a number in the range . This simplifies finding a start value for the iterative method that is close to the square root, for which a polynomial or piecewise-linear approximation can be used.


title: Square root

text: The time complexity for computing a square root with "n" digits of precision is equivalent to that of multiplying two "n"-digit numbers.


title: Square root

text: Another useful method for calculating the square root is the shifting nth root algorithm, applied for .


title: Square root

text: The name of the square root function varies from programming language to programming language, with codice_1 (often pronounced "squirt" ) being common, used in C, C++, and derived languages like JavaScript, PHP, and Python.


title: Square root

text: The square of any positive or negative number is positive, and the square of 0 is 0. Therefore, no negative number can have a real square root. However, it is possible to work with a more inclusive set of numbers, called the complex numbers, that does contain solutions to the square root of a negative number. This is done by introducing a new number, denoted by "i" (sometimes written as "j", especially in the context of electricity where ""i"" traditionally represents electric current) and called the imaginary unit, which is "defined" such that . Using this notation, we can think of "i" as the square root of −1, but we also have and so −"i" is also a square root of −1. By convention, the principal square root of −1 is "i", or more generally, if "x" is any nonnegative number, then the principal square root of −"x" is


title: Square root

text: For every non-zero complex number "z" there exist precisely two numbers "w" such that : the principal square root of "z" (defined below), and its negative.


title: Square root

text: To find a definition for the square root that allows us to consistently choose a single value, called the principal value, we start by observing that any complex number formula_29 can be viewed as a point in the plane, formula_30 expressed using Cartesian coordinates. The same point may be reinterpreted using polar coordinates as the pair formula_31 where formula_32 is the distance of the point from the origin, and formula_33 is the angle that the line from the origin to the point makes with the positive real (formula_34) axis. In complex analysis, the location of this point is conventionally written formula_35 If


title: Square root

text: If formula_37 is a non-negative real number (which happens if and only if formula_40) then the principal square root of formula_37 is formula_42 in other words, the principal square root of a non-negative real number is just the usual non-negative square root.


title: Square root

text: It is important that formula_43 because if, for example, formula_44 (so formula_45) then the principal square root is formula_46 but using formula_47 would instead produce the other square root formula_48


title: Square root

text: The principal square root function is holomorphic everywhere except on the set of non-positive real numbers (on strictly negative reals it is not even continuous). The above Taylor series for formula_15 remains valid for complex numbers formula_34 with formula_51


title: Square root

text: When the number is expressed using its real and imaginary parts, the following formula can be used for the principal square root:


title: Square root

text: where is the sign of (except that, here, sgn(0) = 1). In particular, the imaginary parts of the original number and the principal value of its square root have the same sign. The real part of the principal value of the square root is always nonnegative.


title: Square root

text: Because of the discontinuous nature of the square root function in the complex plane, the following laws are not true in general.


title: Square root

text: A similar problem appears with other complex functions with branch cuts, e.g., the complex logarithm and the relations or which are not true in general.


title: Square root

text: Wrongly assuming one of these laws underlies several faulty "proofs", for instance the following one showing that :


title: Square root

text: The third equality cannot be justified (see invalid proof). It can be made to hold by changing the meaning of √ so that this no longer represents the principal square root (see above) but selects a branch for the square root that contains formula_66 The left-hand side becomes either


title: Square root

text: where the last equality, formula_70 is a consequence of the choice of branch in the redefinition of √.


title: Square root

text: The definition of a square root of formula_34 as a number formula_72 such that formula_73 has been generalized in the following way.


title: Square root

text: If is an integer greater than two, a th root of formula_34 is a number formula_72 such that formula_80; it is denoted formula_81


title: Square root

text: Given any polynomial , a root of is a number such that . For example, the th roots of are the roots of the polynomial (in ) formula_82


title: Square root

text: Abel–Ruffini theorem states that, in general, the roots of a polynomial of degree five or higher cannot be expressed in terms of th roots.


title: Square root

text: If "A" is a positive-definite matrix or operator, then there exists precisely one positive definite matrix or operator "B" with ; we then define . In general matrices may have multiple square roots or even an infinitude of them. For example, the identity matrix has an infinity of square roots, though only one of them is positive definite.


title: Square root

text: Each element of an integral domain has no more than 2 square roots. The difference of two squares identity is proved using the commutativity of multiplication. If and are square roots of the same element, then . Because there are no zero divisors this implies or , where the latter means that two roots are additive inverses of each other. In other words if an element a square root of an element exists, then the only square roots of are and . The only square root of 0 in an integral domain is 0 itself.


title: Square root

text: In a field of characteristic 2, an element either has one square root or does not have any at all, because each element is its own additive inverse, so that . If the field is finite of characteristic 2 then every element has a unique square root. In a field of any other characteristic, any non-zero element either has two square roots, as explained above, or does not have any.


title: Square root

text: Given an odd prime number , let for some positive integer . A non-zero element of the field with elements is a quadratic residue if it has a square root in . Otherwise, it is a quadratic non-residue. There are quadratic residues and quadratic non-residues; zero is not counted in either class. The quadratic residues form a group under multiplication. The properties of quadratic residues are widely used in number theory.


title: Square root

text: Unlike in an integral domain, a square root in an arbitrary (unital) ring need not be unique up to sign. For example, in the ring formula_83 of integers modulo 8 (which is commutative, but has zero divisors), the element 1 has four distinct square roots: ±1 and ±3.


title: Square root

text: Another example is provided by the ring of quaternions formula_84 which has no zero divisors, but is not commutative. Here, the element −1 has infinitely many square roots, including , , and . In fact, the set of square roots of −1 is exactly


title: Square root

text: A square root of 0 is either 0 or a zero divisor. Thus in rings where zero divisors do not exist, it is uniquely 0. However, rings with zero divisors may have multiple square roots of 0. For example, in formula_86 any multiple of is a square root of 0.


title: Square root

text: The square root of a positive number is usually defined as the side length of a square with the area equal to the given number. But the square shape is not necessary for it: if one of two similar planar Euclidean objects has the area "a" times greater than another, then the ratio of their linear sizes is formula_22.


title: Square root

text: A square root can be constructed with a compass and straightedge. In his Elements, Euclid (fl. 300 BC) gave the construction of the geometric mean of two quantities in two different places: Proposition II.14 and Proposition VI.13. Since the geometric mean of "a" and "b" is formula_88, one can construct formula_22 simply by taking .


title: Square root

text: The construction is also given by Descartes in his "La Géométrie", see figure 2 on page 2. However, Descartes made no claim to originality and his audience would have been quite familiar with Euclid.


title: Square root

text: Euclid's second proof in Book VI depends on the theory of similar triangles. Let AHB be a line segment of length with and . Construct the circle with AB as diameter and let C be one of the two intersections of the perpendicular chord at H with the circle and denote the length CH as "h". Then, using Thales' theorem and, as in the proof of Pythagoras' theorem by similar triangles, triangle AHC is similar to triangle CHB (as indeed both are to triangle ACB, though we don't need that, but it is the essence of the proof of Pythagoras' theorem) so that AH:CH is as HC:HB, i.e. , from which we conclude by cross-multiplication that , and finally that formula_90. When marking the midpoint O of the line segment AB and drawing the radius OC of length , then clearly OC > CH, i.e. formula_91 (with equality if and only if ), which is the arithmetic–geometric mean inequality for two variables and, as noted above, is the basis of the Ancient Greek understanding of "Heron's method".


title: Square root

text: Another method of geometric construction uses right triangles and induction: formula_92 can be constructed, and once formula_93 has been constructed, the right triangle with legs 1 and formula_93 has a hypotenuse of formula_95. Constructing successive square roots in this manner yields the Spiral of Theodorus depicted above.


title: Lakota people

text: The Lakota (pronounced ; ) are a Native American people. Also known as the Teton Sioux (from "Thítȟuŋwaŋ"), they are one of the three prominent subcultures of the Sioux people. Their current lands are in North and South Dakota. They speak "Lakȟótiyapi"—the Lakota language, the westernmost of three closely related languages that belong to the Siouan language family.


title: Lakota people

text: Notable Lakota persons include Tȟatȟáŋka Íyotake (Sitting Bull) from the Húnkpapȟa, Maȟpíya Ičáȟtagya (Touch the Clouds) from the Miniconjou, Heȟáka Sápa (Black Elk) from the Oglála, Maȟpíya Lúta (Red Cloud) from the Oglála, Billy Mills from the Oglála, Tȟašúŋke Witkó (Crazy Horse) from the Oglála and Miniconjou, and Siŋté Glešká (Spotted Tail) from the Brulé. More recent activists include Russell Means from the Oglála.


title: Lakota people

text: Siouan language speakers may have originated in the lower Mississippi River region and then migrated to or originated in the Ohio Valley. They were agriculturalists and may have been part of the Mound Builder civilization during the 9th–12th centuries CE. Lakota legend and other sources state they originally lived near the Great Lakes: "The tribes of the Dakota before European contact in the 1600s lived in the region around Lake Superior. In this forest environment, they lived by hunting, fishing, and gathering wild rice. They also grew some corn, but their locale was near the limit of where corn could be grown." This may be conflation with the Algonquian-speaking groups typically in that region, though Siouan peoples probably migrated there later. In the late 16th and early 17th centuries, Dakota-Lakota speakers lived in the upper Mississippi Region in what is now organized as the states of Minnesota, Wisconsin, Iowa, and the Dakotas. Conflicts with Anishnaabe and Cree peoples pushed the Lakota west onto the Great Plains in the mid- to late-17th century.


title: Lakota people

text: Early Lakota history is recorded in their winter counts (Lakota: "waníyetu wówapi"), pictorial calendars painted on hides, or later recorded on paper. The 'Battiste Good winter count' records Lakota history back to 900 CE when White Buffalo Calf Woman gave the Lakota people the White Buffalo Calf Pipe.


title: Lakota people

text: Around 1730 Cheyenne people introduced the Lakota to horses, which they called "šuŋkawakaŋ" ("dog [of] power/mystery/wonder"). After they adopted horse culture, Lakota society centered on the buffalo hunt on horseback. The total population of the Sioux (Lakota, Santee, Yankton, and Yanktonai) was estimated at 28,000 in 1660 by French explorers. The Lakota population was estimated at 8,500 in 1805; it grew steadily and reached 16,110 in 1881, one of the few Native American tribes to increase in population in the 19th century. The number of Lakota has increased to more than 170,000 in 2010, of whom about 2,000 still speak the Lakota language ("Lakȟótiyapi").


title: Lakota people

text: After 1720, the Lakota branch of the Seven Council Fires split into two major sects, the Saône, who moved to the Lake Traverse area on the South Dakota–North Dakota–Minnesota border, and the Oglála-Sičháŋǧu, who occupied the James River valley. However, by about 1750 the Saône had moved to the east bank of the Missouri River, followed 10 years later by the Oglála and Brulé (Sičháŋǧu).


title: Lakota people

text: The large and powerful Arikara, Mandan, and Hidatsa villages had long prevented the Lakota from crossing Missouri. However, the great smallpox epidemic of 1772–1780 destroyed three-quarters of these tribes. The Lakota crossed the river into the drier, short-grass prairies of the High Plains. These newcomers were the Saône, well-mounted and increasingly confident, who spread out quickly. In 1765, a Saône exploring and raiding party led by Chief Standing Bear discovered the Black Hills (the "Paha Sapa"), then the territory of the Cheyenne. Ten years later, the Oglála and Brulé also crossed the Missouri. Under pressure from the Lakota, the Cheyenne moved west to the Powder River country. The Lakota made the Black Hills their home.


title: Lakota people

text: Initial United States contact with the Lakota during the Lewis and Clark Expedition of 1804–1806 was marked by a standoff. Lakota bands refused to allow the explorers to continue upstream, and the expedition prepared for battle, which never came.


title: Lakota people

text: Some bands of Lakota became the first indigenous people to help the United States Army in an inter-tribal war west of the Missouri, during the Arikara War in 1823.


title: Lakota people

text: In 1843, the southern Lakota attacked Pawnee Chief Blue Coat's village near the Loup in Nebraska, killing many and burning half of the earth lodges. Next time the Lakota inflicted a blow so severe to the Pawnee would be in 1873, during the Massacre Canyon battle near Republican River.


title: Lakota people

text: Nearly half a century later, after the United States had built Fort Laramie without permission on Lakota land, it negotiated the Fort Laramie Treaty of 1851 to protect European-American travelers on the Oregon Trail. The Cheyenne and Lakota had previously attacked emigrant parties in a competition for resources, and also because some settlers had encroached on their lands. The Fort Laramie Treaty acknowledged Lakota sovereignty over the Great Plains in exchange for free passage for European Americans on the Oregon Trail for "as long as the river flows and the eagle flies".


title: Lakota people

text: The US government did not enforce the treaty restriction against unauthorized settlement, and Lakota and other bands attacked settlers and even emigrant trains as part of their resistance to this encroachment, resulting in public pressure on the U.S. Army to punish them. On September 3, 1855, 700 soldiers under U.S. General William S. Harney avenged the Grattan Massacre by attacking a Lakota village in Nebraska, killing about 100 men, women, and children. A series of short "wars" followed, and in 1862–1864, as Native American refugees from the "Dakota War of 1862" in Minnesota fled west to their allies in Montana and Dakota Territory. Increasing illegal settlement after the American Civil War resulted in war on the Plains again.


title: Lakota people

text: The Black Hills were considered sacred by the Lakota, and they objected to mining. Between 1866 and 1868 the U.S. Army fought the Lakota and their allies along the Bozeman Trail over U.S. forts built to protect miners traveling along the trail. Oglala Chief Red Cloud led his people to victory in Red Cloud's War. In 1868, the United States signed the Fort Laramie Treaty of 1868, exempting the Black Hills from all white settlement forever. Four years later gold was discovered there, and prospectors descended on the area.


title: Lakota people

text: The attacks on settlers and miners were met by military force conducted by army commanders such as Lieutenant Colonel George Armstrong Custer. General Philip Sheridan encouraged his troops to hunt and kill the buffalo as a means of "destroying the Indians' commissary."


title: Lakota people

text: The allied Lakota and Arapaho bands and the unified Northern Cheyenne were involved in much of the warfare after 1860. They fought a successful delaying action against General George Crook's army at the Battle of the Rosebud, preventing Crook from locating and attacking their camp. A week later they defeated the U.S. 7th Cavalry in 1876 at the Battle of the Greasy Grass at the Crow Indian Reservation (1868 boundaries). Custer attacked a camp of several tribes, much larger than he realized. Their combined forces, led by Chief Crazy Horse, killed 258 soldiers, wiping out the entire Custer battalion in the Battle of the Little Bighorn, and inflicting more than 50% casualties on the regiment.


title: Lakota people

text: The Lakota and their allies did not get to enjoy their victory over the U.S. Army for long. The U.S. Congress authorized funds to expand the army by 2,500 men. The reinforced US Army defeated the Lakota bands in a series of battles, finally ending the Great Sioux War in 1877. The Lakota were eventually confined to reservations, prevented from hunting buffalo beyond those territories, and forced to accept government food distribution.


title: Lakota people

text: In 1877, some of the Lakota bands signed a treaty that ceded the Black Hills to the United States; however, the nature of this treaty and its passage were controversial. The number of Lakota leaders who backed the treaty is highly disputed. Low-intensity conflicts continued in the Black Hills. Fourteen years later, Sitting Bull was killed at Standing Rock reservation on December 15, 1890. The U.S. Army attacked Spotted Elk (aka Bigfoot)'s Mnicoujou band of Lakota on December 29, 1890, at Pine Ridge, killing 153 Lakota (tribal estimates are higher), including numerous women and children, in the Wounded Knee Massacre .


title: Lakota people

text: Lakota also live on the Fort Peck Indian Reservation in northeastern Montana, the Fort Berthold Indian Reservation of northwestern North Dakota, and several small reserves in Saskatchewan and Manitoba. During the Minnesota and Black Hills wars, their ancestors fled for refuge to "Grandmother's [i.e. Queen Victoria's] Land" (Canada).


title: Lakota people

text: Large numbers of Lakota live in Rapid City and other towns in the Black Hills, and in metro Denver. Lakota elders joined the Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization (UNPO) to seek protection and recognition for their cultural and land rights.


title: Lakota people

text: Legally and by treaty classified as a semi-autonomous "nation" within the United States, the federally recognized Lakota Sioux are represented locally by officials elected to councils for the several reservations and communities in the Dakotas, Minnesota, and Nebraska. These tribes have direct relationships with the federal government, primarily through the Bureau of Indian Affairs in the Department of Interior.


title: Lakota people

text: In addition, their residents can vote in local, state and federal elections. They are represented at the state and national level by officials elected from the political districts of their respective states and Congressional Districts.


title: Lakota people

text: Band or reservation members living both on and off the individual reservations are eligible to vote in periodic elections for that reservation. Each reservation has its own requirements for tribal membership or citizenship, as well as a unique local government style and election cycle based on its own constitution or articles of incorporation. Most follow a multi-member tribal council model, with a chairman or president elected at-large, directly by the voters.


title: Lakota people

text: As semi-autonomous political entities, tribal governments have certain rights to independence from state laws. For instance, they may operate Indian gaming on their reservation if the state has passed related gaming laws. They are ultimately subject to supervisory oversight by the United States Congress and executive regulation through the Bureau of Indian Affairs. The nature and legitimacy of those relationships continue to be a matter of dispute.


title: Lakota people

text: Nine bands of Dakota and Lakota reside in Manitoba and southern Saskatchewan, with a total of 6,000 registered members. They are recognized as First Nations but are not considered "treaty Indians". As First Nations they receive rights and entitlements through the Indian and Northern Affairs Canada department. But because they are not recognized as treaty Indians, they did not participate in the land settlement and natural resource revenues. The Dakota rejected a $60-million land-rights settlement in 2008.


title: Lakota people

text: The Lakota are among tribal nations that have taken actions, participated in occupations, and proposed independence movements, particularly since the era of rising activism since the mid to late 20th century. They filed land claims against the federal government for what they defined as illegal taking of the Black Hills in the nineteenth century.


title: Lakota people

text: In 1980, the Supreme Court ruled in their favor and decided in "United States v. Sioux Nation of Indians" to award US$122 million to eight bands of Sioux Indians as compensation for their Black Hills land claims. The Sioux have refused the money, because accepting the settlement would legally terminate their demands for return of the Black Hills. The money remains in a Bureau of Indian Affairs account, accruing compound interest. As of 2011, the account has grown to over $1 billion.


title: Lakota people

text: In September 2007, the United Nations passed a non-binding Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples. Canada, the United States, Australia, and New Zealand refused to sign.


title: Lakota people

text: On December 20, 2007, a small group of people led by American Indian Movement activist Russell Means, under the name Lakota Freedom Delegation, traveled to Washington D.C. to announce a withdrawal of the Lakota Sioux from all treaties with the United States government. These activists had no standing under any elected tribal government.


title: Lakota people

text: Official Lakota tribal leaders issued public responses to the effect that, in the words of Rosebud Lakota tribal chairman Rodney Bordeaux, "We do not support what Means and his group are doing and they don't have any support from any tribal government I know of. They don't speak for us."


title: Lakota people

text: Means declared "The Republic of Lakotah", defining it as a sovereign nation with property rights over thousands of square miles in South Dakota, North Dakota, Nebraska, Wyoming and Montana. The group stated that they do not act for or represent the tribal governments "set up by the BIA or those Lakota who support the BIA system of government".


title: Lakota people

text: "The Lakota Freedom Delegation" did not include any elected leaders from any of the tribes. Means had previously run for president of the Oglala Sioux tribe and twice been defeated. Several tribal governments – elected by tribal members – issued statements distancing themselves from the independence declaration. Some said that they were watching the independent movement closely. No elected tribal governments endorsed the declaration.


title: Lakota people

text: The Lakota People made national news when NPR's "Lost Children, Shattered Families" investigative story aired regarding issues related to foster care for Native American children. It exposed what many critics consider to be the "kidnapping" of Lakota children from their homes by the state of South Dakota's Department of Social Services (D.S.S.). Lakota activists such as Madonna Thunder Hawk and Chase Iron Eyes, along with the "Lakota People’s Law Project", have alleged that Lakota grandmothers are illegally denied the right to foster their own grandchildren. They are working to redirect federal funding away from the state of South Dakota's D.S.S. to new tribal foster care programs. This would be an historic shift away from the state's traditional control over Lakota foster children.


title: Lakota people

text: A short film, "Lakota in America", was produced by Square. The film features Genevieve Iron Lightning, a young Lakota dancer on the Cheyenne River Reservation, one of the poorest communities in the United States. Unemployment, addiction, alcoholism, and suicide are all challenges for Lakota on the reservation.


title: Lakota people

text: The name "Lakota" comes from the Lakota autonym, "Lakota" "feeling affection, friendly, united, allied". The early French historic documents did not distinguish a separate Teton division, instead grouping them with other "Sioux of the West," Santee and Yankton bands.


title: Lakota people

text: The names "Teton" and "Tetuwan" come from the Lakota name "thítȟuŋwaŋ", the meaning of which is obscure. This term was used to refer to the Lakota by non-Lakota Sioux groups. Other derivations and spelling variations include: ti tanka, Tintonyanyan, Titon, Tintonha, Thintohas, Tinthenha, Tinton, Thuntotas, Tintones, Tintoner, Tintinhos, Ten-ton-ha, Thinthonha, Tinthonha, Tentouha, Tintonwans, Tindaw, Tinthow, Atintons, Anthontans, Atentons, Atintans, Atrutons, Titoba, Tetongues, Teton Sioux, Teeton, Ti toan, Teetwawn, Teetwans, Ti-t’-wawn, Ti-twans, Tit’wan, Tetans, Tieton, and Teetonwan.


title: Lakota people

text: Early French sources call the Lakota "Sioux" with an additional modifier, such as Sioux of the West, West Schious, Sioux des prairies, Sioux occidentaux, Sioux of the Meadows, Nadooessis of the Plains, Prairie Indians, Sioux of the Plain, Maskoutens-Nadouessians, Mascouteins Nadouessi, and Sioux nomades.


title: Lakota people

text: Today many of the tribes continue to officially call themselves "Sioux". In the 19th and 20th centuries, this was the name which the US government applied to all Dakota/Lakota people. However, some tribes have formally or informally adopted traditional names: the Rosebud Sioux Tribe is also known as the "Sičháŋǧu Oyáte" (Brulé Nation), and the Oglala often use the name "Oglála Lakȟóta Oyáte", rather than the English "Oglala Sioux Tribe" or OST. (The alternate English spelling of Ogallala is deprecated, even though it is closer to the correct pronunciation.) The Lakota have names for their own subdivisions. The Lakota also are the most western of the three Sioux groups, occupying lands in both North and South Dakota.


title: Lakota people

text: In addition, several Lakota live on the Wood Mountain First Nation reserve, near Wood Mountain Regional Park in Saskatchewan, Canada.


title: Turkish invasion of Cyprus

text: The Turkish invasion of Cyprus began on 20 July 1974 and progressed in two phases over the following month. Taking place upon a background of intercommunal violence between Greek and Turkish Cypriots, and in response to a Greek junta-sponsored Cypriot coup d'état five days earlier, it led to the Turkish capture and occupation of the northern part of the island.


title: Turkish invasion of Cyprus

text: The coup was ordered by the military junta in Greece and staged by the Cypriot National Guard in conjunction with EOKA B. It deposed the Cypriot president Archbishop Makarios III and installed Nikos Sampson. The aim of the coup was the union ("enosis") of Cyprus with Greece, and the Hellenic Republic of Cyprus to be declared.


title: Turkish invasion of Cyprus

text: The Turkish forces landed in Cyprus on 20 July and captured 3% of the island before a ceasefire was declared. The Greek military junta collapsed and was replaced by a civilian government. Following the breakdown of peace talks, another Turkish invasion in August 1974 resulted in the capture of approximately 36% of the island. The ceasefire line from August 1974 became the United Nations Buffer Zone in Cyprus and is commonly referred to as the Green Line.


title: Turkish invasion of Cyprus

text: Around 150,000 people (amounting to more than one-quarter of the total population of Cyprus, and to one-third of its Greek Cypriot population) were expelled from the northern part of the island, where Greek Cypriots had constituted 80% of the population. Over the course of the next year, roughly 60,000 Turkish Cypriots, amounting to half the Turkish Cypriot population, were displaced from the south to the north. The Turkish invasion ended in the partition of Cyprus along the UN-monitored Green Line, which still divides Cyprus, and the formation of a "de facto" Autonomous Turkish Cypriot Administration in the north. In 1983, the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC) declared independence, although Turkey is the only country that recognises it. The international community considers the TRNC's territory as Turkish-occupied territory of the Republic of Cyprus. The occupation is viewed as illegal under international law, amounting to illegal occupation of European Union territory since Cyprus became a member.


title: Turkish invasion of Cyprus

text: In 1571 the mostly Greek-populated island of Cyprus was conquered by the Ottoman Empire, following the Ottoman–Venetian War (1570–1573). After 300 years of Ottoman rule the island and its population was leased to Britain by the Cyprus Convention, an agreement reached during the Congress of Berlin in 1878 between the United Kingdom and the Ottoman Empire. On 5 November 1914, in response to the Ottoman Empire's entry into the First World War on the side of the Central Powers, the United Kingdom formally declared Cyprus (together with Egypt and Sudan) a protectorate of the British Empire and later a Crown colony, known as British Cyprus. Article 20 of the Treaty of Lausanne in 1923 marked the end of the Turkish claim to the island. Article 21 of the treaty gave Turkish nationals ordinarily resident in Cyprus the choice of leaving the island within 2 years or to remain as British subjects.


title: Turkish invasion of Cyprus

text: At this time the population of Cyprus was composed of both Greeks and Turks, who identified themselves with their respective homeland. However, the elites of both communities shared the belief that they were socially more progressive and better educated, and therefore distinct from the mainlanders. Greek and Turkish Cypriots lived quietly side by side for many years.


title: Turkish invasion of Cyprus

text: Broadly, three main forces can be held responsible for transforming two ethnic communities into two national ones: education, British colonial practices, and insular religious teachings accompanying economic development. Formal education was perhaps the most important as it affected Cypriots during childhood and youth; education has been a main vehicle of transferring inter-communal hostility.


title: Turkish invasion of Cyprus

text: British colonial policies, such as the principle of "divide and rule", promoted ethnic polarisation as a strategy to reduce the threat to colonial control. For example, when Greek Cypriots rebelled in the 1950s, the Colonial Office expanded the size of the Auxiliary Police and in September 1955, established the Special Mobile Reserve which was made up exclusively of Turkish Cypriots, to combat EOKA. This and similar practices contributed to inter-communal animosity.


title: Turkish invasion of Cyprus

text: Although economic development and increased education reduced the explicitly religious characteristics of the two communities, the growth of nationalism on the two mainlands increased the significance of other differences. Turkish nationalism was at the core of the revolutionary programme promoted by the father of modern Turkey, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk (1881–1938) and affected Turkish Cypriots who followed his principles. President of the Republic of Turkey from 1923 to 1938, Atatürk attempted to build a new nation on the ruins of the Ottoman Empire and elaborated the programme of "six principles" (the "Six Arrows") to do so.


title: Turkish invasion of Cyprus

text: These principles of secularism (laicism) and nationalism reduced Islam's role in the everyday life of individuals and emphasised Turkish identity as the main source of nationalism. Traditional education with a religious foundation was discarded and replaced with one that followed secular principles and, shorn of Arab and Persian influences, was purely Turkish. Turkish Cypriots quickly adopted the secular programme of Turkish nationalism.


title: Turkish invasion of Cyprus

text: Under Ottoman rule Turkish Cypriots had been classified as Muslims, a distinction based on religion. Being thoroughly secular, Atatürk's programme made their Turkish identity paramount, and may have further reinforced their division from their Greek Cypriot neighbours.


title: Turkish invasion of Cyprus

text: In the early 1950s, a Greek nationalist group was formed called the "Ethniki Organosis Kyprion Agoniston" (EOKA, or "National Organisation of Cypriot Fighters"). Their objective was to drive the British out of the island first, and then to integrate the island with Greece. EOKA wished to remove all obstacles from their path to independence, or union with Greece.


title: Turkish invasion of Cyprus

text: The first secret talks for EOKA, as a nationalist organisation established to integrate the island with Greece, were started under the chairmanship of Archbishop Makarios III in Athens on 2 July 1952. In the aftermath of these meetings a "Council of Revolution" was established on 7 March 1953. In early 1954 secret weaponry shipments to Cyprus started with the knowledge of the Greek government. Lt. Georgios Grivas, formerly an officer in the Greek army, covertly disembarked on the island on 9 November 1954 and EOKA's campaign against the British forces began to grow.


title: Turkish invasion of Cyprus

text: The first Turk to be killed by EOKA on 21 June 1955 was a policeman. EOKA also killed Greek Cypriot leftists. After the September 1955 Istanbul Pogrom, EOKA started its activity against Turkish Cypriots.


title: Turkish invasion of Cyprus

text: A year later EOKA revived its attempts to achieve the union of Cyprus with Greece. Turkish Cypriots were recruited into the police by the British forces to fight against Greek Cypriots, but EOKA initially did not want to open up a second front against Turkish Cypriots. However, in January 1957, EOKA forces began targeting and killing Turkish Cypriot police deliberately to provoke Turkish Cypriot riots in Nicosia, which diverted the British army's attention away from their positions in the mountains. In the riots, at least one Greek Cypriot was killed, which was presented by the Greek Cypriot leadership as an act of Turkish aggression.


title: Turkish invasion of Cyprus

text: The Turkish Resistance Organisation (TMT, "Türk Mukavemet Teşkilatı") was formed initially as a local initiative to prevent the union with Greece which was viewed by Turkish Cypriots as an existential threat due to the exodus of Cretan Turks from Crete once the union with Greece was achieved. It was later supported and organised directly by the Turkish government, and the TMT declared war on the Greek Cypriot rebels as well.


title: Turkish invasion of Cyprus

text: On 12 June 1958, eight Greek Cypriot men from Kondemenos village, who were arrested by the British police as part of an armed group suspected of preparing an attack against the Turkish Cypriot quarter of Skylloura, were killed by the TMT near the Turkish Cypriot populated village of Gönyeli, after being dropped off there by the British authorities. TMT also blew up the offices of the Turkish press office in Nicosia in a false flag operation to attach blame to Greek Cypriots. It also began a string of assassinations of prominent Turkish Cypriot supporters of independence. The following year, after the conclusion of the independence agreements on Cyprus, the Turkish Navy sent a ship to Cyprus fully loaded with arms for the TMT. The ship was stopped and the crew was caught red-handed in the infamous "Deniz" incident.


title: Turkish invasion of Cyprus

text: British rule lasted until 1960 when the island was declared an independent state under the London-Zurich agreements. The agreement created a foundation for the Republic of Cyprus by the Turkish Cypriot and Greek Cypriot communities, although the republic was seen as a necessary compromise between the two reluctant communities.


title: Turkish invasion of Cyprus

text: The 1960 Constitution of the Cyprus Republic proved unworkable however, lasting only three years. Greek Cypriots wanted to end the separate Turkish Cypriot municipal councils permitted by the British in 1958, made subject to review under the 1960 agreements. For many Greek Cypriots these municipalities were the first stage on the way to the partition they feared. The Greek Cypriots wanted "enosis", integration with Greece, while Turkish Cypriots wanted "taksim", partition between Greece and Turkey.


title: Turkish invasion of Cyprus

text: Resentment also rose within the Greek Cypriot community because Turkish Cypriots had been given a larger share of governmental posts than the size of their population warranted. In accordance with the constitution 30% of civil service jobs were allocated to the Turkish community despite being only 18.3% of the population. Additionally, the position of vice president was reserved for the Turkish population, and both the president and vice president were given veto power over crucial issues.


title: Turkish invasion of Cyprus

text: In December 1963, the President of the Republic Makarios proposed thirteen constitutional amendments after the government was blocked by Turkish Cypriot legislators. Frustrated by these impasses and believing that the constitution prevented enosis, the Greek Cypriot leadership believed that the rights given to Turkish Cypriots under the 1960 constitution were too extensive and had designed the Akritas plan, which was aimed at reforming the constitution in favour of Greek Cypriots, persuading the international community about the correctness of the changes and violently subjugating Turkish Cypriots in a few days should they not accept the plan. The amendments would have involved the Turkish community giving up many of their protections as a minority, including adjusting ethnic quotas in the government and revoking the presidential and vice presidential veto power.


title: Turkish invasion of Cyprus

text: These amendments were rejected by the Turkish side and the Turkish representation left the government, although there is some dispute over whether they left in protest or were forced out by the National Guard. The 1960 constitution fell apart and communal violence erupted on 21 December 1963, when two Turkish Cypriots were killed at an incident involving the Greek Cypriot police. Turkey, the UK and Greece, the guarantors of the Zürich and London Agreements which had led to Cyprus' independence, wanted to send a NATO force to the island under the command of General Peter Young.


title: Turkish invasion of Cyprus

text: Both President Makarios and Dr. Küçük issued calls for peace, but these were ignored. Meanwhile, within a week of the violence flaring up, the Turkish army contingent had moved out of its barracks and seized the most strategic position on the island across the Nicosia to Kyrenia road, the historic jugular vein of the island. They retained control of that road until 1974, at which time it acted as a crucial link in Turkey's military invasion. From 1963 up to the point of the Turkish invasion of 20 July 1974, Greek Cypriots who wanted to use the road could only do so if accompanied by a UN convoy.


title: Turkish invasion of Cyprus

text: 700 Turkish residents of northern Nicosia, among them women and children, were taken hostage. The violence resulted in the death of 364 Turkish and 174 Greek Cypriots, destruction of 109 Turkish Cypriot or mixed villages and displacement of 25,000–30,000 Turkish Cypriots. The British "Daily Telegraph" later called it an "anti Turkish pogrom".


title: Turkish invasion of Cyprus

text: Thereafter Turkey once again put forward the idea of partition. The intensified fighting especially around areas under the control of Turkish Cypriot militias, as well as the failure of the constitution were used as justification for a possible Turkish invasion. Turkey was on the brink of invading when US president Johnson stated, in his famous letter of 5 June 1964, that the US was against a possible invasion and stated that he would not come to the aid of Turkey if an invasion of Cyprus led to conflict with the Soviet Union. One month later, within the framework of a plan prepared by the US Secretary of State, Dean Rusk, negotiations with Greece and Turkey began.


title: Turkish invasion of Cyprus

text: The crisis resulted in the end of the Turkish Cypriot involvement in the administration and their claiming that it had lost its legitimacy; the nature of this event is still controversial. In some areas, Greek Cypriots prevented Turkish Cypriots from travelling and entering government buildings, while some Turkish Cypriots willingly refused to withdraw due to the calls of the Turkish Cypriot administration. They started living in enclaves in different areas that were blockaded by the National Guard and were directly supported by Turkey. The republic's structure was changed unilaterally by Makarios and Nicosia was divided by the Green Line, with the deployment of UNFICYP troops. In response to this, their movement and access to basic supplies became more restricted by Greek forces.


title: Turkish invasion of Cyprus

text: Fighting broke out again in 1967, as the Turkish Cypriots pushed for more freedom of movement. Once again, the situation was not settled until Turkey threatened to invade on the basis that it would be protecting the Turkish population from ethnic cleansing by Greek Cypriot forces. To avoid that, a compromise was reached for Greece to be forced to remove some of its troops from the island; for Georgios Grivas, EOKA leader, to be forced to leave Cyprus and for the Cypriot government to lift some restrictions of movement and access to supplies of the Turkish populations.


title: Turkish invasion of Cyprus

text: In the spring of 1974, Greek Cypriot intelligence discovered that EOKA-B was planning a coup against President Makarios which was sponsored by the military junta of Athens.


title: Turkish invasion of Cyprus

text: The junta had come to power in a military coup in Athens in 1967. In the autumn of 1973 after the 17 November student uprising there had been a further coup in Athens in which the original Greek junta had been replaced by one still more obscurantist headed by the Chief of Military Police, Brigadier Ioannides, though the actual head was General Phaedon Gizikis. Ioannides believed that Makarios was no longer a true supporter of enosis, and suspected him of being a communist sympathiser. This led Ioannides to support the EOKA-B and National Guard as they tried to undermine Makarios.


title: Turkish invasion of Cyprus

text: On 2 July 1974, Makarios wrote an open letter to President Gizikis complaining bluntly that 'cadres of the Greek military regime support and direct the activities of the 'EOKA-B' terrorist organisation'. He also ordered that Greece remove some 600 Greek officers in the Cypriot National Guard from Cyprus. The Greek Government's immediate reply was to order the go-ahead of the coup. On 15 July 1974 sections of the Cypriot National Guard, led by its Greek officers, overthrew the government.


title: Turkish invasion of Cyprus

text: Makarios narrowly escaped death in the attack. He fled the presidential palace from its back door and went to Paphos, where the British managed to retrieve him by Westland Whirlwind helicopter in the afternoon of 16 July and flew him from Akrotiri to Malta in a Royal Air Force Armstrong Whitworth Argosy transport aircraft and from there to London by de Havilland Comet the next morning.


title: Turkish invasion of Cyprus

text: In the meantime, Nikos Sampson was declared provisional president of the new government. Sampson was an ultra-nationalist, pro-"Enosis" combatant who was known to be fanatically anti-Turkish and had taken part in violence against Turkish civilians in earlier conflicts.


title: Turkish invasion of Cyprus

text: The Sampson regime took over radio stations and declared that Makarios had been killed; but Makarios, safe in London, was soon able to counteract these reports. The Turkish-Cypriots were not affected by the coup against Makarios; one of the reasons was that Ioannides did not want to provoke a Turkish reaction.


title: Turkish invasion of Cyprus

text: In response to the coup, US Secretary of State Henry Kissinger sent Joseph Sisco to try to mediate the conflict. Turkey issued a list of demands to Greece via a US negotiator. These demands included the immediate removal of Nikos Sampson, the withdrawal of 650 Greek officers from the Cypriot National Guard, the admission of Turkish troops to protect their population, equal rights for both populations, and access to the sea from the northern coast for Turkish Cypriots. Turkey, led by Prime Minister Bülent Ecevit, then appealed to the UK as a signatory of the Treaty of Guarantee to take action to return Cyprus to its neutral status. The UK declined this offer, and refused to let Turkey use its bases on Cyprus as part of the operation.


title: Turkish invasion of Cyprus

text: According to American diplomat James W. Spain, on the eve of the Turkish invasion US president Richard Nixon sent a letter to


title: Turkish invasion of Cyprus

text: Bülent Ecevit that was not just reminiscent of Lyndon B. Johnson's letter to İsmet İnönü in the Cyprus crisis of 1963–64, but even harsher. However, Nixon's letter never reached the hands of the Turkish prime minister, and no one ever heard anything about it.


title: Turkish invasion of Cyprus

text: Turkey invaded Cyprus on Saturday, 20 July 1974. Heavily armed troops landed shortly before dawn at Kyrenia (Girne) on the northern coast meeting resistance from Greek and Greek Cypriot forces. Ankara said that it was invoking its right under the Treaty of Guarantee to protect the Turkish Cypriots and guarantee the independence of Cyprus.


title: Turkish invasion of Cyprus

text: By the time the UN Security Council was able to obtain a ceasefire on 22 July the Turkish forces were in command of a narrow path between Kyrenia and Nicosia, 3% of the territory of Cyprus,


title: Turkish invasion of Cyprus

text: On 20 July, the 10,000 inhabitants of the Turkish Cypriot enclave of Limassol surrendered to the Cypriot National Guard. Following this, according to Turkish Cypriot and Greek Cypriot eyewitness accounts, the Turkish Cypriot quarter was burned, women raped and children shot. 1,300 Turkish Cypriots were confined in a prison camp afterwards. The enclave in Famagusta was subjected to shelling and the Turkish Cypriot town of Lefka was occupied by Greek Cypriot troops.


title: Turkish invasion of Cyprus

text: According to the International Committee of the Red Cross, the prisoners of war taken at this stage and before the second invasion included 385 Greek Cypriots in Adana, 63 Greek Cypriots in the Saray Prison and 3,268 Turkish Cypriots in various camps in Cyprus.


title: Turkish invasion of Cyprus

text: On the night of 21 to 22 July 1974, a battalion of Greek commandos was transported to Nicosia from Crete in a clandestine airlift operation.


title: Turkish invasion of Cyprus

text: On 23 July 1974 the Greek military junta collapsed mainly because of the events in Cyprus. Greek political leaders in exile started returning to the country. On 24 July 1974 Constantine Karamanlis returned from Paris and was sworn in as Prime Minister. He kept Greece from entering the war, an act that was highly criticised as an act of treason. Shortly after this Nikos Sampson renounced the presidency and Glafcos Clerides temporarily took the role of president.


title: Turkish invasion of Cyprus

text: The first round of peace talks took place in Geneva, Switzerland between 25 and 30 July 1974, James Callaghan, the British Foreign Secretary, having summoned a conference of the three guarantor powers. There they issued a declaration that the Turkish occupation zone should not be extended, that the Turkish enclaves should immediately be evacuated by the Greeks, and that a further conference should be held at Geneva with the two Cypriot communities present to restore peace and re-establish constitutional government. In advance of this they made two observations, one upholding the 1960 constitution, the other appearing to abandon it. They called for the Turkish Vice-President to resume his functions, but they also noted 'the existence in practice of two autonomous administrations, that of the Greek Cypriot community and that of the Turkish Cypriot community'.


title: Turkish invasion of Cyprus

text: By the time that the second Geneva conference met on 14 August 1974, international sympathy (which had been with the Turks in their first attack) was swinging back towards Greece now that it had restored democracy. At the second round of peace talks, Turkey demanded that the Cypriot government accept its plan for a federal state, and population transfer. When the Cypriot acting president Clerides asked for 36 to 48 hours in order to consult with Athens and with Greek Cypriot leaders, the Turkish Foreign Minister denied Clerides that opportunity on the grounds that Makarios and others would use it to play for more time.


title: Turkish invasion of Cyprus

text: The Turkish Foreign Minister Turan Güneş had said to the Prime Minister Bülent Ecevit, "When I say 'Ayşe should go on vacation' (Turkish: ""Ayşe Tatile Çıksın""), it will mean that our armed forces are ready to go into action. Even if the telephone line is tapped, that would rouse no suspicion." An hour and a half after the conference broke up, Turan Güneş called Ecevit and said the code phrase. On 14 August Turkey launched its "Second Peace Operation", which eventually resulted in the Turkish occupation of 37% of Cyprus. Turkish occupation reached as far south as the Louroujina Salient.


title: Turkish invasion of Cyprus

text: In the process, many Greek Cypriots became refugees. The number of refugees is estimated to be between 140,000 and 160,000. The ceasefire line from 1974 separates the two communities on the island, and is commonly referred to as the Green Line.


title: Turkish invasion of Cyprus

text: After the conflict, Cypriot representatives and the United Nations consented to the transfer of the remainder of the 51,000 Turkish Cypriots that had not left their homes in the south to settle in the north, if they wished to do so.


title: Turkish invasion of Cyprus

text: The United Nations Security Council has challenged the legality of Turkey's action, because Article Four of the Treaty of Guarantee gives the right to guarantors to take action with the sole aim of re-establishing the state of affairs. The aftermath of Turkey's invasion, however, did not safeguard the Republic's sovereignty and territorial integrity, but had the opposite effect: the "de facto" partition of the Republic and the creation of a separate political entity in the north. On 13 February 1975, Turkey declared the occupied areas of the Republic of Cyprus to be a "Federated Turkish State", to the universal condemnation of the international community (see United Nations Security Council Resolution 367). The United Nations recognises the sovereignty of the Republic of Cyprus according to the terms of its independence in 1960. The conflict continues to affect Turkey's relations with Cyprus, Greece, and the European Union.


title: Turkish invasion of Cyprus

text: Turkey was found guilty by the European Commission of Human Rights for displacement of persons, deprivation of liberty, ill treatment, deprivation of life and deprivation of possessions. The Turkish policy of violently forcing a third of the island's Greek population from their homes in the occupied North, preventing their return and settling Turks from mainland Turkey is considered an example of ethnic cleansing.


title: Turkish invasion of Cyprus

text: In 1976 and again in 1983, the European Commission of Human Rights found Turkey guilty of repeated violations of the European Convention of Human Rights. Turkey has been condemned for preventing the return of Greek Cypriot refugees to their properties. The European Commission of Human Rights reports of 1976 and 1983 state the following:


title: Turkish invasion of Cyprus

text: Enclaved Greek Cypriots in the Karpass Peninsula in 1975 were subjected by the Turks to violations of their human rights so that by 2001 when the European Court of Human Rights found Turkey guilty of the violation of 14 articles of the European Convention of Human Rights in its judgement of Cyprus v. Turkey (application no. 25781/94), less than 600 still remained. In the same judgement, Turkey was found guilty of violating the rights of the Turkish Cypriots by authorising the trial of civilians by a military court.


title: Turkish invasion of Cyprus

text: The European commission of Human Rights with 12 votes against 1, accepted evidence from the Republic of Cyprus, concerning the rapes of various Greek-Cypriot women by Turkish soldiers and the torture of many Greek-Cypriot prisoners during the invasion of the island. The high rate of rape reportedly resulted in the temporary permission of abortion in Cyprus by the conservative Cypriot Orthodox Church. According to Paul Sant Cassia, rape was used systematically to "soften" resistance and clear civilian areas through fear. Many of the atrocities were seen as revenge for the atrocities against Turkish Cypriots in 1963–64 and the massacres during the first invasion. It has been suggested that many of the atrocities were revenge killings, committed by Turkish Cypriot fighters in military uniform who might have been mistaken for Turkish soldiers. In the Karpass Peninsula, a group of Turkish Cypriots reportedly chose young girls to rape and impregnated teenage girls. There were cases of rapes, which included gang rapes, of teenage girls by Turkish soldiers and Turkish Cypriot men in the peninsula, and one case involved the rape of an old Greek Cypriot man by a Turkish Cypriot. The man was reportedly identified by the victim and two other rapists were also arrested. Raped women were sometimes outcast from society.


title: Turkish invasion of Cyprus

text: During the Maratha, Santalaris and Aloda massacre by EOKA B, 126 people were killed on 14 August 1974. The United Nations described the massacre as a crime against humanity, by saying "constituting a further crime against humanity committed by the Greek and Greek Cypriot gunmen." In the Tochni massacre, 85 Turkish Cypriot inhabitants were massacred.


title: Turkish invasion of Cyprus

text: The "Washington Post" covered another news of atrocity in which it is written that: "In a Greek raid on a small Turkish village near Limassol, 36 people out of a population of 200 were killed. The Greeks said that they had been given orders to kill the inhabitants of the Turkish villages before the Turkish forces arrived."


title: Turkish invasion of Cyprus

text: In Limassol, upon the fall of the Turkish Cypriot enclave to the Cypriot National Guard, the Turkish Cypriot quarter was burned, women raped and children shot, according to Turkish Cypriot and Greek Cypriot eyewitness accounts. 1300 people were then led to a prison camp.


title: Turkish invasion of Cyprus

text: The issue of missing persons in Cyprus took a new turn in the summer of 2007 when the UN-sponsored Committee on Missing Persons (CMP) began returning remains of identified missing individuals to their families (see end of section).


title: Turkish invasion of Cyprus

text: However, since 2004, the whole issue of missing persons in Cyprus took a new turn after the Committee on Missing Persons (CMP) designed and started to implement (as from August 2006) its project on the Exhumation, Identification and Return of Remains of Missing Persons. The whole project is being implemented by bi-communal teams of Greek Cypriots and Turkish Cypriot scientists (archaeologists, anthropologists and geneticists) under the overall responsibility of the CMP. By the end of 2007, 57 individuals had been identified and their remains returned to their families.


title: Turkish invasion of Cyprus

text: The missing persons list of the Republic of Cyprus confirms that 83 Turkish Cypriots disappeared in Tochni on 14 August 1974. Also, as a result of the invasion, over 2000 Greek-Cypriot prisoners of war were taken to Turkey and detained in Turkish prisons. Some of them were not released and are still missing. In particular, the Committee on Missing Persons (CMP) in Cyprus, which operates under the auspices of the United Nations, is mandated to investigate approximately 1600 cases of Greek Cypriot and Greek missing persons.


title: Turkish invasion of Cyprus

text: In 1989, the government of Cyprus took an American art dealer to court for the return of four rare 6th-century Byzantine mosaics that survived an edict by the Byzantine Emperor, imposing the destruction of all images of sacred figures. Cyprus won the case, and the mosaics were eventually returned. In October 1997, Aydın Dikmen, who had sold the mosaics, was arrested in Germany in a police raid and found to be in possession of a stash consisting of mosaics, frescoes and icons dating back to the 6th, 12th and 15th centuries, worth over $50 million. The mosaics, depicting Saints Thaddeus and Thomas, are two more sections from the apse of the Kanakaria Church, while the frescoes, including the Last Judgement and the Tree of Jesse, were taken off the north and south walls of the Monastery of Antiphonitis, built between the 12th and 15th centuries. Frescoes found in possession of Dikmen included those from the 11th–12th century Church of Panagia Pergaminiotisa in Akanthou, which had been completely stripped of its ornate frescoes.


title: Turkish invasion of Cyprus

text: According to a Greek Cypriot claim, since 1974, at least 55 churches have been converted into mosques and another 50 churches and monasteries have been converted into stables, stores, hostels, or museums, or have been demolished. According to the government spokesman of the "de facto" Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus, this has been done to keep the buildings from falling into ruin.


title: Turkish invasion of Cyprus

text: In January 2011, the British singer Boy George returned an 18th-century icon of Christ to the Church of Cyprus that he had bought without knowing the origin. The icon, which had adorned his home for 26 years, had been looted from the church of St Charalampus from the village of New Chorio, near Kythrea, in 1974. The icon was noticed by church officials during a television interview of Boy George at his home. The church contacted the singer who agreed to return the icon at Saints Anargyroi Church, Highgate, north London.


title: Turkish invasion of Cyprus

text: Greek Cypriots have claimed that the invasion and subsequent actions by Turkey have been diplomatic ploys, furthered by ultranationalist Turkish militants to justify expansionist Pan-Turkism. They have also criticised the perceived failure of Turkish intervention to achieve or justify its stated goals (protecting the sovereignty, integrity, and independence of the Republic of Cyprus), claiming that Turkey's intentions from the beginning were to create the state of Northern Cyprus.


title: Turkish invasion of Cyprus

text: Greek Cypriots condemn the brutality of the Turkish invasion, including but not limited to the high levels of rape, child rape and torture. Greek Cypriots emphasise that in 1976 and 1983 Turkey was found guilty by the European Commission of Human Rights of repeated violations of the European Convention of Human Rights.


title: Turkish invasion of Cyprus

text: Greek Cypriots have also claimed that the second wave of the Turkish invasion that occurred in August 1974, even after the Greek Junta had collapsed on 24 July 1974 and the democratic government of the Republic of Cyprus had been restored under Glafkos Clerides, did not constitute a justified intervention as had been the case with the first wave of the Turkish invasion that led to the Junta's collapse.


title: Turkish invasion of Cyprus

text: The stationing of 40,000 Turkish troops on Northern Cyprus after the invasion in violation of resolutions by the United Nations has also been criticised.


title: Turkish invasion of Cyprus

text: The United Nations Security Council Resolution 353, adopted unanimously on 20 July 1974, in response to the Turkish invasion of Cyprus, the Council demanded the immediate withdrawal of all foreign military personnel present in the Republic of Cyprus in contravention of paragraph 1 of the United Nations Charter.


title: Turkish invasion of Cyprus

text: The United Nations Security Council Resolution 360 adopted on 16 August 1974 declared their respect for the sovereignty, independence and territorial integrity of the Republic of Cyprus, and formally recorded its disapproval of the unilateral military actions taken against it by Turkey.


title: Turkish invasion of Cyprus

text: Turkish Cypriot opinion quotes President Archbishop Makarios III, overthrown by the Greek Junta in the 1974 coup, who opposed immediate Enosis (union between Cyprus and Greece). Makarios described the coup which replaced him as "an invasion of Cyprus by Greece" in his speech to the UN security council and stated that there were "no prospects" of success in the talks aimed at resolving the situation between Greek and Turkish Cypriots, as long as the leaders of the coup, sponsored and supported by Greece, were in power.


title: Turkish invasion of Cyprus

text: In Resolution 573, the Council of Europe supported the legality of the first wave of the Turkish invasion that occurred in July 1974, as per Article 4 of the Guarantee Treaty of 1960, which allows Turkey, Greece, and the United Kingdom to unilaterally intervene militarily in failure of a multilateral response to crisis in Cyprus.


title: Turkish invasion of Cyprus

text: Greek Cypriots who were unhappy with the United States not stopping the Turkish invasion took part in protests and riots in front of the American embassy. Ambassador Rodger Davies was assassinated during the protests by a sniper from the extremist EOKA-B group.


title: Turkish invasion of Cyprus

text: In 1983 the Turkish Cypriot assembly declared independence of the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus. Immediately upon this declaration Britain convened a meeting of the United Nations Security Council to condemn the declaration as "legally invalid". United Nations Security Council Resolution 541 (1983) considered the "attempt to create the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus is invalid, and will contribute to a worsening of the situation in Cyprus". It went on to state that it "considers the declaration referred to above as legally invalid and calls for its withdrawal".


title: Turkish invasion of Cyprus

text: In the following year UN resolution 550 (1984) condemned the "exchange of Ambassadors" between Turkey and the TRNC and went on to add that the Security Council "considers attempts to settle any part of Varosha by people other than its inhabitants as inadmissible and calls for the transfer of this area to the administration of the United Nations".


title: Turkish invasion of Cyprus

text: Neither Turkey nor the TRNC have complied with the above resolutions and Varosha remains uninhabited. In 2017, Varosha's beach was opened to be exclusively used by Turks (Turkish-Cypriots and Turkish nationals).


title: Turkish invasion of Cyprus

text: On 22 July 2010, United Nations' International Court of Justice decided that "International law contains no prohibition on declarations of independence". In response to this non-legally-binding direction, German Foreign Minister Guido Westerwelle said it "has nothing to do with any other cases in the world" including Cyprus, whereas some researchers stated the decision of ICJ provided the Turkish Cypriots an option to be used.


title: Turkish invasion of Cyprus

text: The United Nations Security Council decisions for the immediate unconditional withdrawal of all foreign troops from Cyprus soil and the safe return of the refugees to their homes have not been implemented by Turkey and the TRNC. Turkey and TRNC defend their position, stating that any such withdrawal would have led to a resumption of intercommunal fighting and killing.


title: Turkish invasion of Cyprus

text: Negotiations to find a solution to the Cyprus problem have been taking place on and off since 1964. Between 1974 and 2002, the Turkish Cypriot side was seen by the international community as the side refusing a balanced solution. Since 2002, the situation has been reversed according to US and UK officials, and the Greek Cypriot side rejected a plan which would have called for the dissolution of the Republic of Cyprus without guarantees that the Turkish occupation forces would be removed. The latest Annan Plan to reunify the island which was endorsed by the United States, United Kingdom, and Turkey was accepted by a referendum by Turkish Cypriots but overwhelmingly rejected in parallel referendum by Greek Cypriots, after the Greek Cypriot Leadership and Greek Orthodox Church urged the Greek population to vote "no".


title: Turkish invasion of Cyprus

text: Greek Cypriots rejected the UN settlement plan in an April 2004 referendum. On 24 April 2004, the Greek Cypriots rejected by a three-to-one margin the plan proposed by UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan for the settlement of the Cyprus dispute. The plan, which was approved by a two-to-one margin by the Turkish Cypriots in a separate but simultaneous referendum, would have created a United Cyprus Republic and ensured that the entire island would reap the benefits of Cyprus's entry into the European Union on 1 May. The plan would have created a United Cyprus Republic consisting of a Greek Cypriot constituent state and a Turkish Cypriot constituent state linked by a federal government. More than half of the Greek Cypriots who were displaced in 1974 and their descendants would have had their properties returned to them and would have lived in them under Greek Cypriot administration within a period of 3.5 to 42 months after the entry into force of the settlement. For those whose property could not be returned, they would have received monetary compensation.


title: Turkish invasion of Cyprus

text: The entire island entered the EU on 1 May 2004 still divided, although the EU acquis communautaire – the body of common rights and obligations – applies only to the areas under direct government control, and is suspended in the areas occupied by the Turkish military and administered by Turkish Cypriots. However, individual Turkish Cypriots able to document their eligibility for Republic of Cyprus citizenship legally enjoy the same rights accorded to other citizens of European Union states. The Greek Cypriot government in Nicosia continues to oppose EU efforts to establish direct trade and economic links to TRNC as a way of encouraging the Turkish Cypriot community to continue to support the resolution of the Cyprus dispute.


title: Turkish invasion of Cyprus

text: As a result of the Turkish invasion, the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe stated that the demographic structure of the island has been continuously modified as a result of the deliberate policies of the Turks. Following the occupation of Northern Cyprus, civilian settlers from Turkey began arriving on the island. Despite the lack of consensus on the exact figures, all parties concerned admitted that Turkish nationals began arriving in the northern part of the island in 1975. It was suggested that over 120,000 settlers came to Cyprus from mainland Turkey. This was a violation of the Article 49 of the Fourth Geneva Convention, which prohibits an occupier from transferring or deporting parts of its own civilian population into an occupied territory.


title: Turkish invasion of Cyprus

text: UN Resolution 1987/19 (1987) of the "Sub-Commission On Prevention Of Discrimination And Protection Of Minorities", which was adopted on 2 September 1987, demanded "the full restoration of all human rights to the whole population of Cyprus, including the freedom of movement, the freedom of settlement and the right to property" and also expressed "its concern also at the policy and practice of the implantation of settlers in the occupied territories of Cyprus which constitute a form of colonialism and attempt to change illegally the demographic structure of Cyprus."


title: Turkish invasion of Cyprus

text: In a report prepared by Mete Hatay on behalf of PRIO (Peace Research Institute Oslo), it was estimated that the number of Turkish mainlanders in the north who have been granted the right to vote is 37,000. This figure however excludes mainlanders who are married to Turkish Cypriots or adult children of mainland settlers as well as all minors. The report also estimates the number of Turkish mainlanders who have not been granted the right to vote, whom it labels as "transients", at a further 105,000.


title: Turkish invasion of Cyprus

text: After the hostilities of 1974, the United States applied an arms embargo on both Turkey and Cyprus. The embargo on Turkey was lifted after three years by President Jimmy Carter, whereas the embargo on Cyprus remained in place for longer, having most recently been enforced on 18 November 1992. In December 2019, the US Congress lifted a decades-old arms embargo on Cyprus. On 2 September 2020, United States decided to lift embargo on selling "non-lethal" military goods to Cyprus for one year starting from 1 October.


title: Alessia Cara

text: Alessia Caracciolo (born July 11, 1996), known professionally as Alessia Cara (), is a Canadian singer-songwriter. Born in Mississauga, Ontario, to Italian Canadian parents, she began posting covers of songs on YouTube at age 13. After uploading acoustic covers of songs such as "Love Yourself" and "Sweater Weather" online, she signed with EP Entertainment and Def Jam Recordings in 2014 and released her debut single, "Here", the following year. It peaked at number 19 on the Canadian Hot 100 chart and was a sleeper hit in the US, peaking at number 5 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 chart.


title: Alessia Cara

text: Cara's debut studio album, "Know-It-All" (2015), peaked at number 8 on the Canadian Albums Chart and at number 9 on the "Billboard" 200. The album's third single, "Scars to Your Beautiful", peaked at number 8 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 in 2016. In 2017, Cara collaborated with DJ and producer Zedd on the single "Stay", which is certified seven-times platinum in Canada, and featured alongside Khalid on rapper Logic's song .


title: Alessia Cara

text: Cara has received nominations for four Grammy Awards, winning the Best New Artist in 2018. She was nominated for Song of the Year and Record of the Year at the 2019 Latin Grammys for her collaboration with Juanes on "Querer Mejor". Her second studio album, "The Pains of Growing" (2018), saw the moderate commercial success of the singles "Growing Pains" and "Trust My Lonely". The album won Juno Award for Album of the Year and Juno Award for Pop Album of the Year while she went on to win Juno Award for Songwriter of the Year. Her third album, "In the Meantime" (2021), was met with generally positive reviews from critics.


title: Alessia Cara

text: Alessia Cara was born on July 11, 1996, in Mississauga, Ontario, and grew up in Brampton, where she attended Cardinal Ambrozic Catholic Secondary School. Her family is from Calabria, Italy; her father was born in Canada to Italian parents, and her mother is an Italian immigrant. Cara is the second of four children. She can speak Italian fluently. As a child, she wrote poetry and performed in theatre. She began playing guitar at the age of 10 and taught herself how to play various songs. At the age of 13, she began her own YouTube channel where she posted covers of songs that she performed. She saw Justin Bieber as a career model at the time.


title: Alessia Cara

text: In July 2014, Cara, accompanied by her father, went to New York, where she signed a management deal with EP Entertainment, and began work on her debut studio album later that same year. She briefly took the professional mononym of Alessia before adding a clipping of her surname to become known as Alessia Cara. In April 2015, Cara released her official debut single through Def Jam. Titled "Here", it was described by MTV as "a song for everyone who secretly hates parties." Produced by Pop & Oak and Sebastian Kole, the song is about her personal experience with going to a party and being uncomfortable at it. On May 5, 2015, the song was chosen as the "can't-miss" track by "Spin", as well as being listed as a "must hear song" by "Cosmopolitan". The song was also named one of the best Canadian songs of April by "Complex" and included on "Billboard"s "20 Pop Songs You Need For Your Summer Playlist" in June 2015. "Rolling Stone" later ranked "Here" at number 21 on its year-end list of the 50 best songs of 2015. On July 29, 2015, Cara made her television debut on "The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon". "Here" then received a nomination for "Original Song" at the Streamy Awards. She released the EP "Four Pink Walls", containing five songs, including her debut single. Her debut album, "Know-It-All", was released on November 13, 2015.


title: Alessia Cara

text: From January to April 2016, Cara embarked on her first headlining tour, the "Know-It-All Tour", performing in various US and Canadian cities. She was short-listed for the BBC Music Sound of... award for 2016 and finished as the runner-up. Cara was awarded as Breakthrough Artist of the Year at the 2016 Juno Awards. On March 7, 2016, Cara released a music video for "Wild Things." In April 2016, Cara was announced to be one of the supporting acts of British alternative rock band Coldplay in the European and North American legs of their A Head Full of Dreams Tour, alongside British singer songwriter and Grammy winner Foxes. On June 23, 2016, Cara was featured in a re-released version of the song "Wild" by Troye Sivan. The music video was released on July 22, 2016. She played Glastonbury Festival on June 24, 2016, in the John Peel tent. The music video for Cara's version of the single "How Far I'll Go", from the Disney film "Moana", was released on November 3, 2016, and since then has received over 270 million views on YouTube. The song was written by Lin-Manuel Miranda, produced by Oak Felder, and the video was directed by Aya Tanimura. On December 15, 2016, Cara released a music video for "Seventeen".


title: Alessia Cara

text: Cara performed as the musical guest on "Saturday Night Live" on February 4, 2017. On April 18, 2017, the music video of the song "Stay" by Zedd featuring Cara was released. Cara was also featured on the song "1-800-273-8255" from Logic's "Everybody" album. The song was released as a single on April 28, 2017, and also features American singer-songwriter Khalid. Cara also made an appearance in the video, which was released on August 17, 2017.


title: Alessia Cara

text: On January 28, 2018, Cara was named the Best New Artist at the 2018 Grammy Awards, making her the first Canadian artist to win this award. On June 1, 2018, Cara released a teaser video following a week of cryptic Twitter posts. On June 9, she posted lyrics to a new song on her social media accounts for fans to piece together. Once completed, she announced the single's cover and name on June 11. The single, entitled "Growing Pains", was released on June 15, 2018. Its music video was released on June 20, 2018, and was nominated for Best Cinematography at the 2018 MTV VMAS.


title: Alessia Cara

text: On July 10, 2018, Cara announced that she would be releasing a song she made in her basement, written and produced by her, the next day, as a small gift for her birthday. The single, titled "A Little More", was released on July 11, 2018, with the music video also released the same day. On September 29, 2018, the Canadian Football League announced that Cara would be the halftime performer at the 106th Grey Cup. In October 2018, she collaborated with Italian singer Eros Ramazzotti for the song "Vale per sempre", from the album "Vita ce n'è". On October 5, 2018, Cara released another song, entitled "Trust My Lonely". A music video for the song was released the same day. On November 8, 2018, a music video for the song "Babies" by Kyle featuring Cara was released. On November 13, 2018, Cara released another song, entitled "Not Today". The release date coincides with the three-year anniversary of the release of her debut album. Cara's second studio album, "The Pains of Growing", was released on November 30, 2018. It debuted at number 1 on the US iTunes Pop Charts, in less than two hours after its release. Despite the successful position on iTunes, the album debuted at number 71 on the Billboard 200; 62 positions lower than her debut album in 2015. "Out of Love" was eventually serviced to contemporary hit radio as the album's third single in January 2019. Cara also collaborated with Alec Benjamin on "Let Me Down Slowly", which was released on January 7, 2019. On February 21, Cara announced she would join Shawn Mendes as the opening act on his for the European, United Kingdom, and United States legs. In May, she headlined "The Pains of Growing Tour," visiting Canadian cities in the month of May.


title: Alessia Cara

text: In July 2019, Cara announced the release of an EP, "This Summer", with tracks to be issued "every couple of weeks" leading up to its release on September 6, 2019. She also announced that she would be adding a new leg of "The Pains of Growing Tour," visiting various US cities in October and November. The first single of the EP, "Ready", was released on July 22. The second single, "Rooting for You", was released on August 9. The third single, "OKAY OKAY", was released on August 23. The fourth single, "October", was released on September 3. The music video for "October" was released on October 1, 2019.


title: Alessia Cara

text: Cara was featured in Bastille's song "Another Place" with a music video released on November 1. The song peaked the number 18 at Billboard Hot Rock Songs.


title: Alessia Cara

text: On March 6, 2020, Cara collaborated with American singer and songwriter Lauv for the song "Canada" on Lauv's debut album, "How I'm Feeling". On April 3, 2020, Cara released "I Choose", for the 2020 Netflix animated movie "The Willoughbys", where she made her debut voice-role on a film for the character "Jane Willoughby".


title: Alessia Cara

text: On July 17, 2020, Cara released her first live EP, "This Summer: Live Off The Floor", which features live, reimagined performances of the songs off of "This Summer", as well as three bonus tracks and an intro that interpolates Summertime by George Gershwin. All of Cara's proceeds from the EP for the next 21 years are going to Save The Children.


title: Alessia Cara

text: On July 2, 2021, Cara announced that the lead singles "Sweet Dream" and "Shapeshifter" from her third studio album would be released on July 15, 2021. The announcement of this release came after five days of cryptic posts on Instagram and Twitter, each with pictures that would turn out to be related to the music videos for the singles. The music video for "Sweet Dream" was released that same day, while the music video for "Shapeshifter" was released on July 23, 2021. A riddle to help fans decode the title of the album was sent to Cara's emailing list the day before.


title: Alessia Cara

text: On August 2, 2021, it was announced that Cara would be releasing "The Use In Trying", an original song for the 2021 animated movie "", on August 10, 2021. On August 5, 2021, it was announced that Cara wrote and sang "Feel You Now", the theme song for "".


title: Alessia Cara

text: On August 31, 2021, another clue about the album was sent to Cara's emailing list, this time an image of five clocks all pointing towards 9:24. On September 2, 2021, Cara revealed the album's cover and announced that it is titled "In the Meantime" and would be released on September 24, 2021. On September 10, 2021, Cara collaborated with the Mexican rock band The Warning, on a cover of "Enter Sandman", which was released on the charity tribute album "The Metallica Blacklist".


title: Alessia Cara

text: On September 24, 2021, Cara's album "In the Meantime" was released alongside the music video for the song "Best Days". The album was met with critical acclaim from music critics, praising Cara's introspective and vulnerable lyricism.


title: Alessia Cara

text: On December 23, 2021, the 2021 edition of "Yearly Departed" was released on Amazon Prime Video, featuring Cara performing "My Heart Will Go On" at the end of the production.


title: Alessia Cara

text: Cara lives in Toronto. She has revealed on separate occasions that she experiences synesthesia, and also has keratosis pilaris and alopecia areata. She has also been open about her struggles with mental health and insomnia. Cara has dual Canadian and Italian citizenship.


title: Alessia Cara

text: Cara is a pop, R&B, alternative R&B, indie pop and soul singer. Her influences include Lauryn Hill, Amy Winehouse, Pink, Fergie, Christina Aguilera, Drake, Ed Sheeran, and Taylor Swift.


title: Alessia Cara

text: She has also received nominations at the American Music Awards and Billboard Music Awards, and won an iHeartRadio Music Award, five Juno Awards, two MTV Video Music Awards, and an MTV Europe Music Award.


title: Jeep Grand Cherokee

text: The Jeep Grand Cherokee is a range of mid-size SUVs produced by the American manufacturer Jeep. At its introduction, while most SUVs were still manufactured with body-on-frame construction, the Grand Cherokee has used a unibody chassis from the start.


title: Jeep Grand Cherokee

text: The Grand Cherokee's origins date back to 1983 when American Motors Corporation (AMC) was designing a successor to the smaller Jeep Cherokee (XJ). Three outside (non-AMC) designers—Larry Shinoda, Alain Clenet, and Giorgetto Giugiaro—were also under contract with AMC to create and build a clay model of the Cherokee XJ replacement, then known as the "XJC" project. However, the basic design for the Cherokee's replacement was well under way by AMC's in-house designers and the 1989 Jeep Concept 1 show car foretold the basic design.


title: Jeep Grand Cherokee

text: As AMC began development of the next Jeep in 1985, management created a business process that is now known as product lifecycle management (PLM). According to François Castaing, Vice President for Product Engineering and Development, the smallest U.S. automaker was looking for a way to speed up its product development process to compete better against its larger competitors. The XJC's development was aided by computer-aided design (CAD) software systems making the engineers more productive. Meanwhile, new communication systems allowed potential conflicts to be resolved faster, thus reducing costly engineering changes, because all drawings and documents were in a central database. The system was so effective that after Chrysler purchased AMC in 1987, it expanded the system throughout its enterprise, thus connecting everyone involved in designing and building products.


title: Jeep Grand Cherokee

text: The Grand Cherokee thus became the first Chrysler-badged Jeep product. Development work for the new Jeep model continued and Chrysler's employees (after the 1987 buyout of AMC) were eager for a late-1980s release date; however, CEO Lee Iacocca was pushing for redesigned Chrysler minivans, thus delaying the Grand Cherokee's release until late 1992 as an Explorer competitor. Unlike the Explorer, the Grand Cherokee utilized monocoque (unibody) construction, whereas the Explorer was a derivative of the Ranger pickup with a separate body-on-frame. A Dodge branded version was designed as a precaution should Jeep dealers struggle handling so many Grand Cherokee units.


title: Jeep Grand Cherokee

text: The Grand Cherokee debuted in grand fashion at the 1992 North American International Auto Show in Detroit, Michigan. The vehicle that was driven was a Poppy Red Clear Coat 1993 Grand Cherokee ZJ Laredo with a quartz cloth interior and high-back bucket seats. Then Chrysler president Robert Lutz drove Detroit mayor, Coleman Young, from the Jefferson North Assembly Plant on North Jefferson Avenue via a police escort to Cobo Hall, up the steps of Cobo Hall and through a plate glass window to show off the new vehicle. Sales of the 1993 model year Grand Cherokee began in April 1992.


title: Jeep Grand Cherokee

text: Production of the Grand Cherokee started shortly afterward in the purpose-built Jefferson North Assembly in Detroit, Michigan. European Grand Cherokees are manufactured in Austria by Magna Steyr. The Grand Cherokee "played a significant part in reviving Chrysler's fortunes by moving it into the then nascent market for high-margin sports utility vehicles."


title: Jeep Grand Cherokee

text: Upon its introduction, it was the first full-scale manufacture of an automobile in the US using HFC-134a refrigerant in place of HCFC-12 for the HVAC system.


title: Jeep Grand Cherokee

text: The original Grand Cherokee was launched in 1992 as a 1993 model year vehicle in the luxury SUV segment. The "ZJ" models, manufactured from 1992 to 1998, originally came in three trim levels: base (also known as SE), Laredo, and Limited, subsequent trims were added, included Orvis (MY 95–98), TSI (MY97–98). The base model included features such as full instrumentation, cloth interior, and a standard five-speed manual transmission, while gaining the moniker "SE" name for the 1994 model year. Power windows and locks were not standard equipment on the base trim. The minimal price tag differential resulted in low consumer demand, and as a result, the low-line model was eventually discontinued. Additional standard features included a driver-side airbag and four-wheel anti-lock braking system (ABS). The Laredo was the mid-scale model with standard features that included power windows, power door locks, cruise control, and a leather-wrapped steering wheel. Exterior features included medium-grey plastic paneling on the lower body and five-spoke alloy wheels. The Limited was the premium model, featuring body-color lower body paneling, and gold exterior accents. The Limited also boasted standard features such as leather seating, heated mirrors, front power seats, a keyless entry system, woodgrain interior appliqué, lace style alloy wheels, a driver information center with a compass, digitized climate control, an electrochromic rearview mirror, and Jensen brand stereo with multi-band equalizer. By 1996 the options list grew to include heated seats. Standard was the 4.0, with the 5.2 V8 (and 5.9 in 1998) being optional, as with other models. Package groups with the various trim levels included: fog lamps, skid plates, as well as convenience, lighting, luxury, power, security, and trailer towing packages.


title: Jeep Grand Cherokee

text: When it was first introduced in April 1992 as an early 1993 model year vehicle, the Grand Cherokee only had one powertrain choice: the 4.0-liter AMC-derived straight-six engine that made . This became the "volume" engine for the Grand Cherokee. Transmission choices included a four-speed automatic transmission (early production ZJs used the AW4—the A500SE (later 42RE) replaced the AW4 during the latter half of the 1993 model year) or an Aisin AX15 manual transmission. Low demand for the manual transmission resulted in its discontinuation after 1994, but European-market ZJs retained it when coupled to the diesel engine (which was unavailable in North America). The drive train choices included rear-wheel drive or four-wheel-drive. In 1995, the engine dropped to due to new EPA regulations imposed on the 1996 model year.


title: Jeep Grand Cherokee

text: In 1997, for the 1998 model year, a variant of the top-level Grand Cherokee Limited, the "5.9 Limited" was introduced. Jeep ads claimed it to be the "world's fastest sport utility vehicle", verified by third-party testing. The primary improvements in the 5.9 Limited version included a 5.9-liter OHV V8 engine, heavy-duty 46RE automatic transmission, functional heat-extracting hood louvers, unique wide-slot body-colored grille with mesh inserts, special rocker moldings, low-restriction exhaust with three-inch chrome tip, a low-profile roof rack, and special 16" Ultra-Star wheels. The 5.9 Limited also received a 150 amp alternator and a 2-speed electric cooling fan. Other features include a standard 180-watt, 10-speaker Infinity Gold sound system with rear roof-mounted soundbar, standard sunroof, and an interior swaddled with unique "calf's nap" soft leather and faux wood trim. The 5.9 Limited was awarded "4×4 of the Year" for 1998 by "Petersen's 4-Wheel & Off-Road" magazine. The production of this model was 14,286 units.


title: Jeep Grand Cherokee

text: Launched in September 1998, the redesigned WJ 1999 Grand Cherokee shared just 127 parts with its predecessor (mostly fasteners). The European model was coded WG. The spare tire was relocated from the side of the cargo compartment to under the floor. (Like the 1998MY ZJ, the rear tailgate glass opened separately.) The two heavy pushrod V8 engines were replaced by Chrysler's then-new PowerTech. The new V8 engine produced less torque than the old pushrods, but was lighter, offered better fuel economy, and provided similar on-road performance figures (the fuel tank was replaced with one of a capacity). The straight-six engine was also updated. A redesign of the intake manifold added . While other Jeep vehicles used the Mopar 5 × 4.5 bolt circle, this was the first Jeep following the 1987 Chrysler buyout to receive a wider bolt pattern—5 × 5.


title: Jeep Grand Cherokee

text: A notable feature available in this generation was the automatic four-wheel drive option called "Quadra-Drive", which employed the New Venture Gear NV247 transfer case. This two-speed chain-driven transfer case uses a gerotor, a clutch pack coupled to a hydraulic pump, to transfer torque between the front and rear axles. The transfer case contains three modes, 4-All Time, Neutral, and 4-Lo. In 4-All Time, 100% of torque is sent to the rear axle in normal conditions. If the rear axle starts spinning at a higher rate than the front axle, hydraulic pressure builds up in the gerotor and causes the clutch pack to progressively transfer torque to the front axle until both axles return to the same speed. A neutral mode is intended for towing the vehicle. In 4-Lo, the front and rear axles are locked together through a 2.72 reduction gear ratio. The NV247 transfer case is mated to front and rear axles containing Jeep's Vari-Lok differentials. Vari-Lok differentials also use a gerotor to transfer torque between the wheels on either side of the axle. The major advantage of Quadra-Drive was that the combined transfer case and progressive locking differentials in each axle could automatically control traction between all four wheels. However, only the center differential could be permanently locked, and only in 4Lo. The Quadra-Trac II system included the NV247 transfer case with the standard open front and rear differentials.