title: Roger Penrose

text: Penrose and Hameroff have argued that consciousness is the result of quantum gravity effects in microtubules, which they dubbed Orch-OR (orchestrated objective reduction). Max Tegmark, in a paper in "Physical Review E", calculated that the time scale of neuron firing and excitations in microtubules is slower than the decoherence time by a factor of at least 10,000,000,000. The reception of the paper is summed up by this statement in Tegmark's support: "Physicists outside the fray, such as IBM's John A. Smolin, say the calculations confirm what they had suspected all along. 'We're not working with a brain that's near absolute zero. It's reasonably unlikely that the brain evolved quantum behavior'". Tegmark's paper has been widely cited by critics of the Penrose–Hameroff position.


title: Roger Penrose

text: In their reply to Tegmark's paper, also published in "Physical Review E", the physicists Scott Hagan, Jack Tuszyński and Hameroff claimed that Tegmark did not address the Orch-OR model, but instead a model of his own construction. This involved superpositions of quanta separated by 24 nm rather than the much smaller separations stipulated for Orch-OR. As a result, Hameroff's group claimed a decoherence time seven orders of magnitude greater than Tegmark's, but still well short of the 25 ms required if the quantum processing in the theory was to be linked to the 40 Hz gamma synchrony, as Orch-OR suggested. To bridge this gap, the group made a series of proposals. They supposed that the interiors of neurons could alternate between liquid and gel states. In the gel state, it was further hypothesized that the water electrical dipoles are oriented in the same direction, along the outer edge of the microtubule tubulin subunits. Hameroff et al. proposed that this ordered water could screen any quantum coherence within the tubulin of the microtubules from the environment of the rest of the brain. Each tubulin also has a tail extending out from the microtubules, which is negatively charged, and therefore attracts positively charged ions. It is suggested that this could provide further screening. Further to this, there was a suggestion that the microtubules could be pumped into a coherent state by biochemical energy. Finally, he suggested that the configuration of the microtubule lattice might be suitable for quantum error correction, a means of holding together quantum coherence in the face of environmental interaction.


title: Roger Penrose

text: Hameroff, in a lecture in part of a Google Tech talks series exploring quantum biology, gave an overview of current research in the area, and responded to subsequent criticisms of the Orch-OR model. In addition to this, a 2011 paper by Roger Penrose and Stuart Hameroff published in the "Journal of Cosmology" gives an updated model of their Orch-OR theory, in light of criticisms, and discusses the place of consciousness within the universe.


title: Roger Penrose

text: Phillip Tetlow, although himself supportive of Penrose's views, acknowledges that Penrose's ideas about the human thought process are at present a minority view in scientific circles, citing Minsky's criticisms and quoting science journalist Charles Seife's description of Penrose as "one of a handful of scientists" who believe that the nature of consciousness suggests a quantum process.


title: Roger Penrose

text: In January 2014, Hameroff and Penrose ventured that a discovery of quantum vibrations in microtubules by Anirban Bandyopadhyay of the National Institute for Materials Science in Japan supports the hypothesis of Orch-OR theory. A reviewed and updated version of the theory was published along with critical commentary and debate in the March 2014 issue of "Physics of Life Reviews".


title: Roger Penrose

text: In 2020, Penrose was awarded one half of the Nobel Prize in Physics for the discovery that black hole formation is a robust prediction of the general theory of relativity, a half-share also going to Reinhard Genzel and Andrea Ghez for the discovery of a supermassive compact object at the centre of our galaxy.


title: Roger Penrose

text: In 2017, he was awarded the Commandino Medal at the Urbino University for his contributions to the history of science.


title: Roger Penrose

text: In 2005, Penrose was awarded an honorary doctorate by Warsaw University and Katholieke Universiteit Leuven (Belgium), and in 2006 by the University of York. In 2006, he also won the Dirac Medal given by the University of New South Wales. In 2008, Penrose was awarded the Copley Medal. He is also a Distinguished Supporter of Humanists UK and one of the patrons of the Oxford University Scientific Society. In 2011, Penrose was awarded the Fonseca Prize by the University of Santiago de Compostela.


title: Roger Penrose

text: In 2012, Penrose was awarded the Richard R. Ernst Medal by ETH Zürich for his contributions to science and strengthening the connection between science and society. In 2015 Penrose was awarded an honorary doctorate by CINVESTAV-IPN (Mexico).


title: Roger Penrose

text: In 2004, he was awarded the De Morgan Medal for his wide and original contributions to mathematical physics. To quote the citation from the London Mathematical Society:


title: Roger Penrose

text: In 1971, he was awarded the Dannie Heineman Prize for Astrophysics. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS) in 1972. In 1975, Stephen Hawking and Penrose were jointly awarded the Eddington Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society. In 1985, he was awarded the Royal Society Royal Medal. Along with Stephen Hawking, he was awarded the prestigious Wolf Foundation Prize for Physics in 1988. In 1989, he was awarded the Dirac Medal and Prize of the British Institute of Physics. In 1990, Penrose was awarded the Albert Einstein Medal for outstanding work related to the work of Albert Einstein by the Albert Einstein Society. In 1991, he was awarded the Naylor Prize of the London Mathematical Society. From 1992 to 1995, he served as President of the International Society on General Relativity and Gravitation.


title: Roger Penrose

text: In 1994, Penrose was knighted for services to science. In the same year, he was also awarded an Honorary Degree (Doctor of Science) by the University of Bath, and became a member of Polish Academy of Sciences. In 1998, he was elected Foreign Associate of the United States National Academy of Sciences. In 2000, he was appointed to the Order of Merit. He was elected to the American Philosophical Society in 2011.


title: Roger Penrose

text: Penrose married Vanessa Thomas, director of Academic Development at Cokethorpe School and former head of mathematics at Abingdon School, with whom he has one son. He has three sons from a previous marriage to American Joan Isabel Penrose (née Wedge), whom he married in 1959.


title: Roger Penrose

text: During an interview with BBC Radio 4 on 25 September 2010, Penrose stated, "I'm not a believer myself. I don't believe in established religions of any kind." He regards himself as an agnostic. In the 1991 film "A Brief History of Time", he also said, "I think I would say that the universe has a purpose, it's not somehow just there by chance … some people, I think, take the view that the universe is just there and it runs along—it's a bit like it just sort of computes, and we happen somehow by accident to find ourselves in this thing. But I don't think that's a very fruitful or helpful way of looking at the universe, I think that there is something much deeper about it."


title: Milly Shapiro

text: Milly Shapiro is an American actress and singer. She starred in the 2018 horror film "Hereditary" and the 2013 Broadway production of "Matilda the Musical" playing the role of Matilda Wormwood. She also played Sally Brown in an Off-Broadway production of "You're a Good Man, Charlie Brown". In 2021, Shapiro and Spencer Arjang co-created the band AFTERxCLASS.


title: Milly Shapiro

text: Shapiro won a Tony Honor in 2013 with Sophia Gennusa, Bailey Ryon, and Oona Laurence for her Broadway debuts in "Matilda," making her the youngest recipients of the award in history. In 2013, Shapiro was also nominated for the Grammy for "Best Musical Theater Album" for the musical's cast album.


title: Milly Shapiro

text: Shapiro is the younger sister of Abi Monterey, who is also an actress as well as a stuntwoman. The siblings perform together as the Shapiro Sisters.


title: Jennifer Capriati

text: Jennifer Maria Capriati (born March 29, 1976) is an American former world No. 1 tennis player. A member of the International Tennis Hall of Fame, she won three singles Grand Slam titles and was the gold medalist at the 1992 Summer Olympics.


title: Jennifer Capriati

text: Capriati set a number of youngest-ever records at the start of her career. She made her professional debut in 1990 at the age of 13 years, 11 months, reaching the final of the hard-court tournament in Boca Raton, Florida. She reached the semifinals of the French Open in her debut and later became the youngest-ever player to reach the top 10, at age 14 years, 235 days, in October of that year. Following a first-round loss at the 1993 US Open, she took a 14-month break from competitive pro tennis. Her personal struggles during this time (including arrests for shoplifting and possession of marijuana) were well documented by the press.


title: Jennifer Capriati

text: In 1998, Capriati won her first Grand Slam singles match in five years at Wimbledon. During the next two years, she slowly returned to championship form, winning her first title in six years in Strasbourg in 1999 and regaining a top-20 ranking. At the 2001 Australian Open, the reinvigorated Capriati became the lowest seed ever to win the championship when she defeated Martina Hingis in straight sets for her first Grand Slam championship. She also won the French Open that year, claiming the Women's Tennis Association No. 1 ranking in October. After successfully defending her Australian Open title in 2002, she became a top-10 mainstay until injuries derailed her career in 2004. She won 14 professional singles tournaments during her career, along with one women's doubles championship.


title: Jennifer Capriati

text: Capriati won the Junior Orange Bowl in both the 12- and the 14-year categories, and is one of only nine tennis players to win the Junior Orange Bowl Championship twice in its 70-year history, which list includes Andy Murray, Jimmy Connors, Monica Seles, and Yishai Oliel.


title: Jennifer Capriati

text: Capriati made her professional debut as a 13-year-old, reaching the finals of two of her first three pro events, losing to Gabriela Sabatini and Martina Navratilova in the Boca Raton and Hilton Head tournaments respectively, earning her first two wins over top-10 players (No. 10 Helena Suková and number-five Arantxa Sánchez Vicario). She entered the rankings in April, at No. 23. Capriati made her Grand Slam debut at the French Open. She went all the way to the semifinals, losing to eventual champion Monica Seles. She then reached the fourth round at Wimbledon, losing to Steffi Graf. Later in the year Capriati won her first career title in Puerto Rico, defeating Zina Garrison. After this victory Capriati entered the world's top 10. She qualified for the WTA Championships, narrowly losing to Graf in the first round in three sets. She finished her first season as a professional at world No. 8.


title: Jennifer Capriati

text: Throughout the season Capriati set multiple "youngest ever" records. She was the youngest player to reach a tour final, the youngest player to reach the semifinals at the French Open, the youngest seed ever at Wimbledon, and the youngest player to qualify for the season-ending championships. She was also the fourth-youngest player to win a WTA title.


title: Jennifer Capriati

text: In her second season as a touring pro, Capriati established herself as a consistent top-10 player. She won two singles titles during the summer hard court circuit, defeating world No. 1, Monica Seles, in a third set tie-breaker in final of San Diego, and Katerina Maleeva in straight sets in the final of Toronto. She also reached two Grand Slam semifinals, at Wimbledon and the US Open. At Wimbledon, the 15-year-old Capriati stunned nine-time champion Martina Navratilova, defeating her in the quarterfinals in straight sets. Capriati became the youngest person to ever reach the semifinal round of the tournament, losing to Sabatini. At the US Open, Capriati defeated Sabatini in the quarters but lost in the semis to eventual champion Seles in a third-set tiebreak after serving for the match twice. Capriati qualified for the year-end championships for the second time, reaching the quarterfinals. She ended the year at No. 6, which would be a career high until 2001.


title: Jennifer Capriati

text: Capriati's 1992 season was highlighted by her victory at the Summer Olympics. She defeated second-seeded Arantxa Sánchez Vicario in the semifinals and came from a set down to defeat top-seeded Steffi Graf in the gold-medal match. Capriati next defended her title in San Diego, defeating Conchita Martínez in the final, the only time that Capriati won back-to-back singles titles during her career. She reached the quarter-finals at the Australian Open (in her debut), at the French Open, and at Wimbledon, and then she lost in the third round at the US Open. In Miami, Capriati ended Monica Seles's streak of 21 consecutive finals by defeating her in the quarterfinals. Capriati finished the year ranked in the top 10 for the third straight year, at No. 7. She also became the youngest player to surpass $1 million in prize money (Martina Hingis would later break this record). Also in 1992, a Sega Genesis video game titled "Jennifer Capriati Tennis" was released by Renovation Products.


title: Jennifer Capriati

text: At her first tournament (Sydney 1993), Capriati defeated third-ranked Sabatini in the semifinals before defeating Anke Huber in the final. For the second straight year, she reached the quarterfinals at the first three majors of the year. She reached the final of the Rogers Cup in Montreal, losing to Steffi Graf. At the US Open, the seventh-seeded Capriati lost her opening match to former top 15-player Leila Meskhi, her first loss in the first round of any pro tournament. Following this loss, Capriati decided to take a break from tennis. She finished the year ranked ninth.


title: Jennifer Capriati

text: Capriati only played one match in 1994, losing in the first round of Philadelphia to Anke Huber. She fell off the rankings in June. She did not play at all in 1995.


title: Jennifer Capriati

text: Capriati, unranked, played her first match in 15 months in Essen, where she reached the quarterfinals, losing to Jana Novotná in three sets. She reached her first final in more than three years at Chicago, defeating Monica Seles en route, before losing again to Novotná in three sets. Capriati also reached the quarters in the fall at the Zurich Open, defeating Sabatini in the opening round in what would be the last singles match of Sabatini's career. Capriati competed in her first Grand Slam tournaments since 1993 at the French Open and the US Open, losing in the first round of both. Capriati re-appeared on the rankings in April at No. 103, and finished the year inside the top 25, at No. 24.


title: Jennifer Capriati

text: In January 1997, Capriati reached the final in Sydney for the second time in her career, defeating world No. 9, Lindsay Davenport, en route to her only top-10 win of the year, losing to Martina Hingis in the final. She only reached the quarterfinals at one other tournament, Oklahoma City, where she lost to Davenport. Capriati finished the year at No. 66, having played in just three tournaments.


title: Jennifer Capriati

text: Capriati did not play the first half of 1998. By the spring, she was ranked below the top 200. She accepted a wildcard entry into the clay-court tournament in Hamburg, Germany, where she reached the quarterfinals, but then lost to Martina Hingis. Capriati was also a quarterfinalist in Palermo, Italy. In the first round at Wimbledon, Capriati won her first Grand Slam singles match in five years, before losing to Lori McNeil in the second round. Capriati finished 1998 ranked 101.


title: Jennifer Capriati

text: 1999 was Capriati's best season in several years. She won her first title in six years at Strasbourg, defeating ninth ranked Nathalie Tauziat in a quarterfinal for her first win over a top-10 player in two years. She defeated Russian Elena Likhovtseva in the final. She won her second title of the year at Quebec City, defeating American Chanda Rubin in the final. She also reached the round of 16 at both Roland Garros and US Open. She finished the year at No. 23.


title: Jennifer Capriati

text: At the 2000 Australian Open, Capriati reached her first Grand Slam semifinal in nine years before losing to eventual champion Lindsay Davenport in straight sets.


title: Jennifer Capriati

text: At the Miami Masters, Capriati defeated world No. 6, Serena Williams, for her first win over a player ranked in the top six in four years en route to a quarterfinal finish. Shortly after, Capriati was sidelined with right Achilles tendonitis in April and an elbow injury in June.


title: Jennifer Capriati

text: Capriati had a strong fall season, winning her ninth career title at Luxembourg, defeating Magdalena Maleeva. She also finished runner up in Quebec City to Chanda Rubin and was a semifinalist in Zürich. These results propelled Capriati back into the top 20 for the first time since April 1994. She qualified for the season-ending championships for the first time in seven years. Her year-end ranking was 14, her highest in seven years. Capriati was also a member of the United States Fed Cup team, winning a singles and doubles rubber in the U.S.' victory over Spain in the final.


title: Jennifer Capriati

text: Capriati was seeded 12th at the Australian Open. She rallied from a set and a break down to defeat Monica Seles to reach the semis for the second consecutive year, beating world No. 2 Davenport. In her first Grand Slam final, she defeated top seed and world No. 1, Martina Hingis, in straight sets to win her first Grand Slam singles title. She was the lowest seed to ever win the title, and also the first player since Tracy Austin in 1979 to defeat the top two ranked players in straight sets at a major. As a result of this triumph, Capriati re-entered the top 10 in the rankings at No. 7, the longest absence (nearly eight years) from the top 10 in WTA history.


title: Jennifer Capriati

text: Capriati then reached the finals of the Cellular Cup in Oklahoma City, losing to Seles. After electing not to participate in the Indian Wells Open, Capriati reached the final in Miami, losing to Venus Williams after having failed to convert on eight championship points.


title: Jennifer Capriati

text: Capriati then embarked on a remarkably successful clay court campaign. She won her second title of the year at the Family Circle Cup in Charleston, South Carolina, defeating Hingis in three sets in the final. She then lost in the final of Berlin to Amélie Mauresmo, also in three sets. Seeded fourth at the French Open, Capriati defeated top seed Hingis in the semifinals and the 12th seeded Kim Clijsters in the final to win her second consecutive Grand Slam title. Her 1–6, 6–4, 12–10 win over Clijsters had the longest-ever third set in a women's final in the French Open; four times in the match, Capriati was two points away from being defeated. She was only the fifth woman in history to win the Australian Open and the French Open consecutively.


title: Jennifer Capriati

text: At Wimbledon, Capriati rallied from 7–6, 5–3, 30–0 down in the quarterfinals to defeat Serena Williams. Capriati's 19-match Grand Slam win streak ended in the semis at the hands of eighth seeded Justine Henin. Capriati rebounded at the Rogers Cup in Toronto, making it to the final before losing to Serena Williams after saving match point in the second set. Capriati then lost in the semifinals of the US Open to Venus Williams. Despite the loss, Capriati accumulated the best Grand Slam record of 2001, and she was the only player to reach at least the semifinals of all four of the Grand Slam tournaments.


title: Jennifer Capriati

text: Despite playing very little in the fall, Capriati became ranked world No. 1 on October 15. She lost her opening match at the WTA Tour Championships to Maleeva. Capriati would have finished the year ranked No. 1 had she reached the semifinals. Instead, she finished No. 2, behind Lindsay Davenport, with a 56–14 record.


title: Jennifer Capriati

text: As a result of Davenport's withdrawal from the Australian Open due to an injury, Capriati was the top seed. She defeated the sixth-seeded Amélie Mauresmo and the fourth-seeded Kim Clijsters en route to her second consecutive final there, where she once again faced Martina Hingis. The match was played in very hot conditions, with the temperature exceeding 35 degrees Celsius. Capriati fought back from 6–4, 4–0 down and four championship points to eventually prevail 4–6, 7–6, 6–2. This was Capriati's third and final Grand Slam title.


title: Jennifer Capriati

text: In the spring, Capriati reached finals in Scottsdale and Miami losing to Serena Williams on both occasions. Capriati prepared for her French Open title defense by participating in events in Charleston, Berlin, and Rome, losing in the semifinals of all three. As the top seed at the French Open, Capriati reached the semifinals—before losing to the eventual champion Serena Williams in three sets. Capriati surrendered her No. 1 ranking to Venus Williams as a result of this loss. Capriati's streak of six consecutive Grand Slam semifinals was broken at Wimbledon, where she lost to Amélie Mauresmo in three sets in the quarterfinals. She also lost to Mauresmo in the finals of the Canadian Open, and in the quarterfinals of the US Open after having served for the match.


title: Jennifer Capriati

text: Capriati won only one match in the three European indoor events she played. She rebounded at the year-ending championships, reaching the semifinals for the first time, losing to Serena Williams. Capriati finished the year ranked third.


title: Jennifer Capriati

text: A week after the 2002 WTA Championships, Capriati had eye surgery in order to remove pterygiums (sun spots) from both eyes. Recovery from the surgery hampered Capriati's off-season preparation.


title: Jennifer Capriati

text: In the opening round of the 2003 Australian Open Capriati lost to unseeded and unheralded Marlene Weingärtner. Capriati was the first Australian Open title-holder to lose in the first round. She withdrew from the Pan Pacific Open to further recover from her surgery.


title: Jennifer Capriati

text: Capriati rebounded by reaching at least semifinals of the next five tournaments she played. She lost to Lindsay Davenport in the semifinals of the Indian Wells tournament. She then reached the final of the Miami Open for the third consecutive year before losing to world No. 1, Serena Williams. Capriati lost in the round of 16 of the French Open to unseeded Nadia Petrova. She reached the quarters of Wimbledon for the sixth time, losing to Serena Williams in three sets, her eighth consecutive loss to her compatriot.


title: Jennifer Capriati

text: Capriati then reached her second final of 2003 in Stanford, losing to Kim Clijsters in three sets. A pectoral strain forced Capriati to retire from her opening match in San Diego and pull out of Montreal. Capriati won her first title of 2003 in New Haven after Davenport retired in the final while trailing. This ended a 28-tournament title drought for Capriati, and was her first tour victory since she won the 2002 Australian Open. Seeded sixth at the US Open, Capriati reached the semifinal where she lost to second-seeded Justine Henin in a tight third-set tiebreak many experts believed she should have won. Capriati served for the match twice and was two points away from victory eleven times, but Henin prevailed in a three-hour marathon, despite of Henin's serve being visibly affected by muscle cramps in her left leg throughout much of the last half hour of the match.


title: Jennifer Capriati

text: Capriati did not play again until the WTA Tour Championships when she lost in the semifinal to Justine Henin again, now the world No. 1.


title: Jennifer Capriati

text: Injuries plagued Capriati's 2004 season. A back injury suffered during the 2003 WTA Tour Championships forced Capriati to withdraw from the 2004 Australian Open and the Pan Pacific Open in Tokyo. Capriati advanced beyond the quarterfinals just once in her first four events of the year in Doha, losing to Anastasia Myskina in the semifinals. Her back continued to be an issue, forcing her out of Indian Wells and Miami. Her ranking dropped to No. 10 as a result of her injuries.


title: Jennifer Capriati

text: Capriati produced her best results of the year during the European clay-court season. She reached the semis of Berlin, defeating world No. 5 Myskina in the quarterfinals for her first top-5 win of the season, before losing to Mauresmo in the semifinals. At the Italian Open, Capriati defeated top seed Serena Williams in the quarterfinals, her first win over the American since Wimbledon 2001. Capriati moved on to the final, where she lost to Mauresmo in a three-hour struggle. Seeded seventh at the French Open, Capriati went on to the semifinals, before losing to sixth seeded and eventual champion Myskina in straight sets.


title: Jennifer Capriati

text: At Wimbledon, Capriati reached the quarters for the fourth straight year, where she lost to Serena Williams in 45 minutes, the most lopsided result of their 17-match rivalry. A hamstring injury forced her to withdraw from Los Angeles and San Diego, but she reached the quarterfinals of both Montreal and New Haven. Seeded eighth at the US Open, Capriati defeated Williams in a controversial line call quarterfinal match by the chair umpire, Mariana Alves, to reach her fourth US Open semifinal. The call was shown repeatedly on TV via video replay to be clearly wrong, which had renewed calls and subsequently successful implementation of line-call technology such as MacCam and then Hawk-Eye. Capriati then lost to fifth seed Elena Dementieva in the last four in yet another, her third, tight US Open semifinal tiebreak, replicating the result in the tournament from the year before.


title: Jennifer Capriati

text: Capriati had reached the semifinals of the US Open four times in her career (1991, 2001, 2003 and 2004), losing to a different opponent each time. Three of those times (1991, 2003 and 2004), she had lost in tough third-set tiebreaks, and two of those three opponents (Seles in 1991, and Henin in 2003) had then gone on to win the final and US Open championships easily in straight sets thereafter.


title: Jennifer Capriati

text: Following the US Open, Capriati lost in the quarterfinals of Philadelphia to world No. 11, Vera Zvonareva, her worst loss since 1999 (where she won only one game against Graf in Miami). Capriati failed to qualify for the season-ending championships for the first time since 1999 and finished the year World No. 10.


title: Jennifer Capriati

text: Capriati was one of the first power players to emerge on the women's circuit in the early-to-mid-1990s, along with Monica Seles, Lindsay Davenport, and Mary Pierce. Her style of play was characterized by taking the ball early and on the rise, powerful ground-strokes, and an aggressive mindset on the return of service.


title: Jennifer Capriati

text: Capriati's game was built around her groundstrokes and movement. Her flat forehand, devastating when hit hard, was considered her biggest weapon, especially when she was stretched out wide. She also possessed a solid backhand. She was quick around the court, able to play defense as well as offense. Her biggest weakness was considered to be her serve. Her first serve was powerful but offset by a wandering ball-toss which often was thrown too far right, and her second serve was considered to be the most vulnerable part of her game. However, Capriati was known to counter her inconsistent serve with her exceptional return of serve.


title: Jennifer Capriati

text: In the 1990s, she signed a reported $3 million contract with Diadora, and a $1 million contract with Prince tennis rackets.


title: Jennifer Capriati

text: In the early 2000s, Capriati's apparel on court was manufactured by Fila. She used a Prince Precision Retro 27 Midplus racket.


title: Jennifer Capriati

text: Capriati was inducted into the International Tennis Hall of Fame in 2012 at the age of just 36, and is generally considered one of the greatest tennis players of all time. A video game titled "Jennifer Capriati Tennis" was released for the Sega Genesis in 1992. In 2001, ESPN named Capriati one of the world's sexiest athletes.


title: Jennifer Capriati

text: In April 2009, the media announced that Capriati would appear on the ABC television reality series "The Superstars". The show, described as a revival of the 1970s series of the same name, premiered on June 23, 2009, in a co-ed format, with Capriati paired with singer and actor David Charvet, best known for his role as a lifeguard on the television show "Baywatch". In the first episode of the show, they were one of the lower-performing teams and were sent into a run-off in an obstacle course race against basketball player Lisa Leslie and actor Dan Cortese. Capriati/Charvet won their race and avoided elimination. At the start of the next episode, however, which aired on June 30, 2009, came the sudden announcement that Capriati had re-aggravated a previous injury during the first episode's events, and that as a result she and her partner were eliminated from the competition.


title: Jennifer Capriati

text: Capriati appeared in an Oil of Olay commercial in the early 1990s. She also appeared in an American Express commercial during the US Open.


title: Jennifer Capriati

text: Capriati was born in New York City, the daughter of Denise and Stefano Capriati. She is of Italian descent.


title: Jennifer Capriati

text: In 1993, at the age of 17, Capriati was charged with shoplifting a $15 ring from a mall kiosk, which she has described as accidental.


title: Jennifer Capriati

text: She was arrested on May 16, 1994, and charged with misdemeanor marijuana possession. She agreed to enter a drug counselling program. In 1994, Capriati admitted that she had contemplated suicide because of tennis burnout and issues over her appearance and relationships. In 2010, she required treatment for a drug overdose.


title: Jennifer Capriati

text: In 2013, Capriati was charged with battery and stalking after reportedly following and striking former boyfriend Ivan Brennan on Valentine's Day. The charges were later dropped. In 2014, the state attorney's office in Palm Beach County, Florida, announced that Capriati had completed 30 hours of community service and four hours of anger management counseling in connection with the incident.


title: Loona

text: Loona (commonly stylized in all caps or as LOOΠΔ; ; ) is a South Korean girl group formed by Blockberry Creative. The group was introduced to the public through a pre-debut project that began in October 2016, where each of the 12 members was revealed in a periodic fashion by releasing a promotional single over the following 18 months. They debuted as a full ensemble with the extended play, "[+ +]" (2018), supported by the lead single "Favorite" and the title track "Hi High". In November 2022, Chuu was removed from the line-up.


title: Loona

text: Loona's English name is derived from the Hangul letters ㅇㄷㅇㅅㄴ, each an initial consonant in the syllabic blocks that make ("Idarui Sonyeo"). When rearranged to ㄴㅇㅇㄷㅅ, it resembles LOONA in the Latin alphabet.


title: Loona

text: On October 2, 2016, Blockberry Creative announced through Naver that they would be debuting their first girl group through an 18-month-long pre-debut project. Jaden Jeong served as the group's creative director until August 2019, when he parted ways because of creative differences with the company. Between October 2016 and January 2017, four members (HeeJin, HyunJin, HaSeul, and YeoJin) were revealed. Each member released a single album, typically consisting of a solo track and another track performed with other revealed members, under the group's Korean name "Idarui Sonyeo" (). In March 2017, the group's first sub-unit, Loona 1/3, was introduced, consisting of previously revealed members HeeJin, HyunJin, HaSeul, and a new member, ViVi. Loona 1/3 released the extended play "Love & Live" and an accompanying single of the same name on March 13, 2017, with a television promotion on SBS's "Inkigayo." On April 27, they released a repackaged edition of the extended play, titled "Love & Evil", accompanied by the single "Sonatine". "Love & Live" and its reissued edition reached number 10 and 24, respectively, on South Korea's Gaon Album Chart.


title: Loona

text: Between April 2017 and July 2017, members ViVi, Kim Lip, JinSoul, and Choerry released their single albums, continuing the same "Girl of the Month" pattern. In September 2017, three members, HeeJin, HyunJin, and HaSeul, auditioned for JTBC's reality show "Mix Nine"; HeeJin and HyunJin passed the audition stage making it onto the show, where HyunJin placed Top 18 and HeeJin placed fourth in the finale. The group's second sub-unit, Loona Odd Eye Circle, consisting of JinSoul, Kim Lip, and Choerry, released the extended play "Mix & Match" and its single "Girl Front" on September 21, 2017, and began promotions on Mnet's "M Countdown". The English version of their song "Loonatic" was released on October 23. On October 31, they released a repackaged edition of the extended play, titled "Mix & Match", with three new songs including the single "Sweet Crazy Love". "Mix & Match" and the repackaged edition peaked at number 16 and 7, respectively, on the Gaon Album Chart.


title: Loona

text: Between November 2017 and January 2018, they released the solo single albums for new members Yves, Chuu, and Go Won, continuing the monthly pattern along with the digital single "The Carol 2.0" sung by Yves, Vivi, and Choerry. In March 2018, they released the solo single album for the final member, Olivia Hye. On May 30, 2018, the group's third sub-unit, Loona yyxy, made their debut with the extended play "Beauty & the Beat". The single "love4eva" featuring Canadian musician Grimes was released the same day with an accompanying music video. The extended play reached number 4 on the Gaon Album Chart.


title: Loona

text: On August 7, 2018, Loona released a pre-debut digital single titled "Favorite", the group's first song to feature all twelve members, accompanied by a music video focusing on the group's choreography. The pre-debut single was later revealed to be the lead single of Loona's debut EP "[+ +]".


title: Loona

text: On August 20, Loona officially debuted as a full assemble with the release of the extended-play "[+ +]" (read as "plus plus"). The album included "Favorite" as the lead single while "Hi High" served as its title track. It debuted at number 2 on South Korea's Gaon Album Chart and was the second best-selling debut album by a girl group in 2018. "[+ +]" was repackaged as "[X X]" (read as "multiply multiply") on February 19, 2019, with six additional tracks, including a new single, "Butterfly". On August 17, 2019, Loona made their first appearance in the United States, performing at KCON 2019 in Los Angeles. On December 13, 2019, Loona released a single called "365" as an appreciation song for their fans.


title: Loona

text: On January 7, 2020, Blockberry Creative announced that leader HaSeul would not participate in the promotion for Loona's next album because of mental health concerns. She was said to be diagnosed with "intermittent anxiety symptoms" and would be taking time to focus on her health. On February 5, 2020, Loona released their second EP titled "[#]" (read as "hash"), along with the title track "So What". Although HaSeul did not appear in the title track, her vocals are featured on three other songs on the album, including "365". Once peaked at number 1 on the daily Gaon Retail Album Chart, the EP then debuted at number 2 on the weekly Gaon Album Chart. On March 12, 2020, Loona won their first music show trophy with "So What" on Mnet's "M Countdown".


title: Loona

text: On October 19, 2020, Loona released their third EP titled "]" (read as "midnight"), accompanied by its first single "Why Not?". HaSeul was again not involved in the album, out of her own decision to focus on the recovery of her health. The EP then became their first album to enter the "Billboard" 200, debuting at number 112. On November 18, Loona released the music video for "Star", another song on "[12:00]". Peaking at number 40, "Star" is Loona's first entry on the "Billboard" Mainstream Top 40, making them the second K-pop girl group to enter the chart.


title: Loona

text: On June 1, 2021, Loona announced that they would be having a comeback on June 28, with their fourth EP, "[&]" (read as "and"). The following day, on June 2, a teaser was posted to Loona's official social media accounts showing twelve sets of eyes, confirming the return of member HaSeul who had been on hiatus since early 2020. On June 12, group members YeoJin, Kim Lip, Choerry, and Go Won released the song "Yum-Yum" as a collaboration with Cocomong. On September 8, they released another collaboration song named "Yummy-Yummy". On June 27, 2021, Loona announced at the end of their special clip that they are making their Japanese debut on September 15 under Universal Music Japan sublabel EMI Records. On August 27, it was announced that Loona will release the double A-side single, "Hula Hoop / Star Seed" on September 15, with a physical CD release on October 20.


title: Loona

text: On February 11 and 12, 2022, Loonaverse: From was held at Jangchung Arena. However, Chuu was absent for health reasons. On February 21, Mnet announced that Loona would participate in "Queendom 2". On February 28, it was announced that Loona would not be participating in the recording for the first round held on same day as HaSeul, YeoJin, and ViVi were diagnosed with COVID-19 few days prior to the recording. On June 2, Loona finished as runner-up in the live finale of the show. The following day, Loona announced that they would be releasing their special summer EP, "Flip That", on June 20.


title: Loona

text: On November 25, 2022, Blockberry Creative announced that Chuu had been removed from the group. Three days later, JTBC Entertainment News reported that all of the members except for ViVi and HyunJin had subsequently filed an application for a provisional injunction to suspend their exclusive contracts with BlockBerry Creative. However, when the JTBC Entertainment News team asked Blockberry Creative for confirmation, they denied the statement.


title: Loona

text: On December 12, 2022, their agency Blockberry Creative released a teaser image announcing Loona's comeback with their 6th EP titled "[0]" on January 3, 2023.


title: Loona

text: In May 2021 Loona was named the new ambassadors of Korean culture abroad. South Korea's Ministry of Culture, Sports and Tourism announced the ambassadorship on May 10 in celebration of the ministry's affiliate Korean Culture And Information Service's (KOCIS) 50th anniversary. The group was selected to promote Hallyu and Korean culture overseas with this new appointment.


title: Novel

text: A novel is a relatively long work of narrative fiction, typically written in prose and published as a book. The present English word for a long work of prose fiction derives from the for "new", "news", or "short story of something new", itself from the , a singular noun use of the neuter plural of "novellus", diminutive of "novus", meaning "new". Some novelists, including Nathaniel Hawthorne, Herman Melville, Ann Radcliffe, John Cowper Powys, preferred the term "romance" to describe their novels.


title: Novel

text: According to Margaret Doody, the novel has "a continuous and comprehensive history of about two thousand years", with its origins in the Ancient Greek and Roman novel, in Chivalric romance, and in the tradition of the Italian renaissance novella. The ancient romance form was revived by Romanticism, especially the historical romances of Walter Scott and the Gothic novel. Some, including M. H. Abrams and Walter Scott, have argued that a novel is a fiction narrative that displays a realistic depiction of the state of a society, while the romance encompasses any fictitious narrative that emphasizes marvellous or uncommon incidents.


title: Novel

text: Works of fiction that include marvellous or uncommon incidents are also novels, including "The Lord of the Rings", "To Kill a Mockingbird", and "Frankenstein". "Romances" are works of fiction whose main emphasis is on marvellous or unusual incidents, and should not be confused with the romance novel, a type of genre fiction that focuses on romantic love.


title: Novel

text: Murasaki Shikibu's "Tale of Genji", an early 11th-century Japanese text, has sometimes been described as the world's first novel based on its early use of the experience of intimacy in a narrative form, but there is considerable debate over this — there were certainly long fictional prose works that preceded it. Spread of printed books in China led to the appearance of classical Chinese novels by the Ming dynasty (1368–1644) and Qing dynasty (1616-1911). An early example from Europe was written in Muslim Spain by the Sufi writer Ibn Tufayl entitled "Hayy ibn Yaqdhan". Later developments occurred after the invention of the printing press. Miguel de Cervantes, author of "Don Quixote" (the first part of which was published in 1605), is frequently cited as the first significant European novelist of the modern era. Literary historian Ian Watt, in "The Rise of the Novel" (1957), argued that the modern novel was born in the early 18th century.


title: Novel

text: Recent technological developments have led to many novels also being published in non-print media: this includes audio books, web novels, and ebooks. Another non-traditional fiction format can be found in some graphic novels. While these comic book versions of works of fiction have their origins in the 19th century, they have only become popular more recently.


title: Novel

text: A novel is a long, fictional narrative. The novel in the modern era usually makes use of a literary prose style. The development of the prose novel at this time was encouraged by innovations in printing, and the introduction of cheap paper in the 15th century.


title: Novel

text: East Asian countries, like China, Korea, Vietnam and Japan, use the word 小說 (pinyin: "xiǎoshuō"), which literally means "small talks", to refer works of fiction of whatever length. In Chinese, Japanese and Korean cultures, the concept of novel as it is known in the western/anglophone world was and still is termed as "long length small talk" (長篇小說), novella as “middle length small talk” (中篇小說, and short stories as "short length small talk" (短篇小說). However, in Vietnamese culture, the term 小說 exclusively refers to 長篇小說 (long-length small talk), i.e. standard novel, while different terms are used to refer to novella and short stories.


title: Novel

text: Such terms originated from ancient Chinese classification of literature works into "small talks" (tales of daily life and trivial issues), "average talks" (academic works such as history) and "great talks" ("sacred" classic works of great thinkers like Confucius). In other words, ancient definition of "small talks" merely refer to trivial affairs, trivial facts, and is very different from modern concept of novel. According to Lu Xun, the word "small talks" fisrtly appeared in the works of Zhuang Zhou which such meaning. Laters scholars also provided similar definition, such as Han dynasty historian Ban Gu categorized all the trivial stories and gossips collected by local government magistrates as "small talks". Hồ Nguyên Trừng classified his memoir collection Nam Ông mộng lục as "small talks" clearly with the meaning of "trivial facts" rather than the modern definition of novel. Such classification and also left strong legacy in several East Asian interpretations of Western definition of novel at the time when Western literature was first introduced to East Asian countries. For example, Thanh Lãng and Nhất Linh classified the epic poems such as The Tale of Kiều as "novel", while Trần Chánh Chiếu emphasized the "belongs to the commoners", "trivial daily talks" aspect in one of his work.


title: Novel

text: The earliest novels include classical Greek and Latin prose narratives from the first century BC to the second century AD, such as Chariton's "Callirhoe" (mid 1st century), which is "arguably the earliest surviving Western novel", as well as Petronius' "Satyricon", Lucian's "True Story", Apuleius' "The Golden Ass", and the anonymous "Aesop Romance" and "Alexander Romance." The style of these works was later adapted in later Byzantine novels such as "Hysimine and Hysimines" by Eustathios Makrembolites Narrative forms were also developed in Classical Sanskrit in the 5th through 8th centuries, such as "Vasavadatta" by Subandhu, "Daśakumāracarita and Avantisundarīkathā" by Daṇḍin, "Kadambari" by Banabhatta.


title: Novel

text: Urbanization and the spread of printed books in Song Dynasty (960–1279) China led to the evolution of oral storytelling into fictional novels by the Ming dynasty (1368–1644). Parallel European developments did not occur until after the invention of the printing press by Johannes Gutenberg in 1439, and the rise of the publishing industry over a century later allowed for similar opportunities. The modern European novel is often said to have begun with "Don Quixote" in 1605.


title: Novel

text: Romance or chivalric romance is a type of narrative in prose or verse popular in the aristocratic circles of High Medieval and Early Modern Europe. They were marvel-filled adventures, often of a knight-errant with heroic qualities, who undertakes a quest, yet it is "the emphasis on heterosexual love and courtly manners distinguishes it from the "chanson de geste" and other kinds of epic, which involve heroism." In later romances, particularly those of French origin, there is a marked tendency to emphasize themes of courtly love.


title: Novel

text: Originally, romance literature was written in Old French, Anglo-Norman and Occitan, later, in English, Italian and German. During the early 13th century, romances were increasingly written as prose.


title: Novel

text: The shift from verse to prose dates from the early 13th century. The "Prose Lancelot" or "Vulgate Cycle" includes passages from that period. This collection indirectly led to Thomas Malory's "Le Morte d'Arthur" of the early 1470s. Prose became increasingly attractive because it enabled writers to associate popular stories with serious histories traditionally composed in prose, and could also be more easily translated.


title: Novel

text: Popular literature also drew on themes of romance, but with ironic, satiric or burlesque intent. Romances reworked legends, fairy tales, and history, but by about 1600 they were out of fashion, and Miguel de Cervantes famously burlesqued them in "Don Quixote" (1605). Still, the modern image of the medieval is more influenced by the romance than by any other medieval genre, and the word "medieval" evokes knights, distressed damsels, dragons, and such tropes.


title: Novel

text: The term "novel" originates from the production of short stories, or novella that remained part of a European oral culture of storytelling into the late 19th century. Fairy tales, jokes, and humorous stories designed to make a point in a conversation, and the exemplum a priest would insert in a sermon belong into this tradition. Written collections of such stories circulated in a wide range of products from practical compilations of examples designed for the use of clerics to compilations of various stories such as Boccaccio's "Decameron" (1354) and Geoffrey Chaucer's "Canterbury Tales" (1386–1400). The "Decameron" was a compilation of one hundred novelle told by ten people—seven women and three men—fleeing the Black Death by escaping from Florence to the Fiesole hills, in 1348.


title: Novel

text: The modern distinction between history and fiction did not exist in the early sixteenth century and the grossest improbabilities pervade many historical accounts found in the early modern print market. William Caxton's 1485 edition of Thomas Malory's "Le Morte d'Arthur" (1471) was sold as a true history, though the story unfolded in a series of magical incidents and historical improbabilities. Sir John Mandeville's "Voyages", written in the 14th century, but circulated in printed editions throughout the 18th century, was filled with natural wonders, which were accepted as fact, like the one-footed Ethiopians who use their extremity as an umbrella against the desert sun. Both works eventually came to be viewed as works of fiction.


title: Novel

text: In the 16th and 17th centuries two factors led to the separation of history and fiction. The invention of printing immediately created a new market of comparatively cheap entertainment and knowledge in the form of chapbooks. The more elegant production of this genre by 17th- and 18th-century authors were "belles lettres—"that is, a market that would be neither low nor academic. The second major development was the first best-seller of modern fiction, the Spanish "Amadis de Gaula", by García Montalvo. However, it was not accepted as an example of "belles lettres". The "Amadis" eventually became the archetypical romance, in contrast with the modern novel which began to be developed in the 17th century.


title: Novel

text: A chapbook is an early type of popular literature printed in early modern Europe. Produced cheaply, chapbooks were commonly small, paper-covered booklets, usually printed on a single sheet folded into books of 8, 12, 16 and 24 pages. They were often illustrated with crude woodcuts, which sometimes bore no relation to the text. When illustrations were included in chapbooks, they were considered popular prints. The tradition arose in the 16th century, as soon as printed books became affordable, and rose to its height during the 17th and 18th centuries. Many different kinds of ephemera and popular or folk literature were published as chapbooks, such as almanacs, children's literature, folk tales, nursery rhymes, pamphlets, poetry, and political and religious tracts.


title: Novel

text: The term "chapbook" for this type of literature was coined in the 19th century. The corresponding French and German terms are "bibliothèque bleue" (blue book) and "Volksbuch", respectively. The principal historical subject matter of chapbooks was abridgements of ancient historians, popular medieval histories of knights, stories of comical heroes, religious legends, and collections of jests and fables. The new printed books reached the households of urban citizens and country merchants who visited the cities as traders. Cheap printed histories were, in the 17th and 18th centuries, especially popular among apprentices and younger urban readers of both sexes.


title: Novel

text: The early modern market, from the 1530s and 1540s, divided into low chapbooks and high market expensive, fashionable, elegant belles lettres. The "Amadis" and Rabelais' "Gargantua and Pantagruel" were important publications with respect to this divide. Both books specifically addressed the new customers of popular histories, rather than readers of "belles lettres". The Amadis was a multi–volume fictional history of style, that aroused a debate about style and elegance as it became the first best-seller of popular fiction. On the other hand, "Gargantua and Pantagruel", while it adopted the form of modern popular history, in fact satirized that genre's stylistic achievements. The division, between low and high literature, became especially visible with books that appeared on both the popular and "belles lettres" markets in the course of the 17th and 18th centuries: low chapbooks included abridgments of books such as "Don Quixote".


title: Novel

text: The term "chapbook" is also in use for present-day publications, commonly short, inexpensive booklets.


title: Novel

text: Heroic Romance is a genre of imaginative literature, which flourished in the 17th century, principally in France.


title: Novel

text: The beginnings of modern fiction in France took a pseudo-bucolic form, and the celebrated "L'Astrée", (1610) of Honore d'Urfe (1568–1625), which is the earliest French novel, is properly styled a pastoral. Although its action was, in the main, languid and sentimental, there was a side of the Astree which encouraged that extravagant love of glory, that spirit of " panache", which was now rising to its height in France. That spirit it was which animated Marin le Roy de Gomberville (1603–1674), who was the inventor of what have since been known as the Heroical Romances. In these there was experienced a violent recrudescence of the old medieval elements of romance, the impossible valour devoted to a pursuit of the impossible beauty, but the whole clothed in the language and feeling and atmosphere of the age in which the books were written. In order to give point to the chivalrous actions of the heroes, it was always hinted that they were well-known public characters of the day in a romantic disguise.


title: Novel

text: Stories of witty cheats were an integral part of the European novella with its tradition of fabliaux. Significant examples include "Till Eulenspiegel" (1510), "Lazarillo de Tormes" (1554), Grimmelshausen's "Simplicissimus Teutsch" (1666–1668) and in England Richard Head's "The English Rogue" (1665). The tradition that developed with these titles focused on a hero and his life. The adventures led to satirical encounters with the real world with the hero either becoming the pitiable victim or the rogue who exploited the vices of those he met.


title: Novel

text: A second tradition of satirical romances can be traced back to Heinrich Wittenwiler's "Ring" (c. 1410) and to François Rabelais' "Gargantua and Pantagruel" (1532–1564), which parodied and satirized heroic romances, and did this mostly by dragging them into the low realm of the burlesque. "Don Quixote" modified the satire of romances: its hero lost contact with reality by reading too many romances in the Amadisian tradition.


title: Novel

text: Other important works of the tradition are Paul Scarron's "Roman Comique" (1651–57), the anonymous French "Rozelli" with its satire on Europe's religions, Alain-René Lesage's "Gil Blas" (1715–1735), Henry Fielding's "Joseph Andrews" (1742) and "Tom Jones" (1749), and Denis Diderot's "Jacques the Fatalist" (1773, printed posthumously in 1796).


title: Novel

text: A market of literature in the modern sense of the word, that is a separate market for fiction and poetry, did not exist until the late seventeenth century. All books were sold under the rubric of "History and politicks" in the early 18th century, including pamphlets, memoirs, travel literature, political analysis, serious histories, romances, poetry, and novels.


title: Novel

text: That fictional histories shared the same space with academic histories and modern journalism had been criticized by historians since the end of the Middle Ages: fictions were "lies" and therefore hardly justifiable at all. The climate, however, changed in the 1670s.


title: Novel

text: The romance format of the quasi–historical works of Madame d'Aulnoy, César Vichard de Saint-Réal, Gatien de Courtilz de Sandras, and Anne-Marguerite Petit du Noyer, allowed the publication of histories that dared not risk an unambiguous assertion of their truth. The literary market-place of the late 17th and early 18th century employed a simple pattern of options whereby fictions could reach out into the sphere of true histories. This permitted its authors to claim they had published fiction, not truth, if they ever faced allegations of libel.


title: Novel

text: Prefaces and title pages of seventeenth and early eighteenth century fiction acknowledged this pattern: histories could claim to be romances, but threaten to relate true events, as in the "Roman à clef". Other works could, conversely, claim to be factual histories, yet earn the suspicion that they were wholly invented. A further differentiation was made between private and public history: Daniel Defoe's "Robinson Crusoe" was, within this pattern, neither a "romance" nor a "novel". It smelled of romance, yet the preface stated that it should most certainly be read as a true private history.


title: Novel

text: The rise of the modern novel as an alternative to the chivalric romance began with the publication of Miguel de Cervantes' "Novelas Exemplares" (1613). It continued with Scarron's "Roman Comique" (the first part of which appeared in 1651), whose heroes noted the rivalry between French romances and the new Spanish genre.


title: Novel

text: Late 17th-century critics looked back on the history of prose fiction, proud of the generic shift that had taken place, leading towards the modern novel/novella. The first perfect works in French were those of Scarron and Madame de La Fayette's "Spanish history" "Zayde" (1670). The development finally led to her "Princesse de Clèves" (1678), the first novel with what would become characteristic French subject matter.


title: Novel

text: Europe witnessed the generic shift in the titles of works in French published in Holland, which supplied the international market and English publishers exploited the novel/romance controversy in the 1670s and 1680s. Contemporary critics listed the advantages of the new genre: brevity, a lack of ambition to produce epic poetry in prose; the style was fresh and plain; the focus was on modern life, and on heroes who were neither good nor bad. The novel's potential to become the medium of urban gossip and scandal fuelled the rise of the novel/novella. Stories were offered as allegedly true recent histories, not for the sake of scandal but strictly for the moral lessons they gave. To prove this, fictionalized names were used with the true names in a separate key. The "Mercure Gallant" set the fashion in the 1670s. Collections of letters and memoirs appeared, and were filled with the intriguing new subject matter and the epistolary novel grew from this and led to the first full blown example of scandalous fiction in Aphra Behn's "Love-Letters Between a Nobleman and His Sister" (1684/ 1685/ 1687). Before the rise of the literary novel, reading novels had only been a form of entertainment.


title: Novel

text: However, one of the earliest English novels, Daniel Defoe's "Robinson Crusoe" (1719), has elements of the romance, unlike these novels, because of its exotic setting and story of survival in isolation. "Crusoe" lacks almost all of the elements found in these new novels: wit, a fast narration evolving around a group of young fashionable urban heroes, along with their intrigues, a scandalous moral, gallant talk to be imitated, and a brief, concise plot. The new developments did, however, lead to Eliza Haywood's epic length novel, "Love in Excess" (1719/20) and to Samuel Richardson's "Pamela, or Virtue Rewarded" (1741). Some literary historians date the beginning of the English novel with Richardson's "Pamela", rather than "Crusoe."


title: Novel

text: The idea of the "rise of the novel" in the 18th century is especially associated with Ian Watt's influential study "The Rise of the Novel" (1957). In Watt's conception, a rise in fictional realism during the 18th century came to distinguish the novel from earlier prose narratives.


title: Novel

text: The rising status of the novel in eighteenth century can be seen in the development of philosophical and experimental novels.


title: Novel

text: Philosophical fiction was not exactly new. Plato's dialogues were embedded in fictional narratives and his "Republic" is an early example of a Utopia. Ibn Tufail's 12th century "Philosophus Autodidacticus" with its story of a human outcast surviving on an island, and the 13th century response by Ibn al-Nafis, "Theologus Autodidactus" are both didactic narrative works that can be though of as early examples of a philosophical and a theological novel, respectively.


title: Novel

text: The tradition of works of fiction that were also philosophical texts continued with Thomas More's "Utopia" (1516) and Tommaso Campanella's "City of the Sun" (1602). However, the actual tradition of the philosophical novel came into being in the 1740s with new editions of More's work under the title "Utopia: or the happy republic; a philosophical romance" (1743). Voltaire wrote in this genre in "Micromegas: a comic romance, which is a biting satire on philosophy, ignorance, and the self-conceit of mankind" (1752, English 1753). His "Zadig" (1747) and "Candide" (1759) became central texts of the French Enlightenment and of the modern novel.


title: Novel

text: An example of the experimental novel is Laurence Sterne's "The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman" (1759–1767), with its rejection of continuous narration. In it the author not only addresses readers in his preface but speaks directly to them in his fictional narrative. In addition to Sterne's narrative experiments, there has visual experiments, such as a marbled page, a black page to express sorrow, and a page of lines to show the plot lines of the book. The novel as a whole focuses on the problems of language, with constant regard to John Locke's theories in "An Essay Concerning Human Understanding".


title: Novel

text: The rise of the word novel at the cost of its rival, the romance, remained a Spanish and English phenomenon, and though readers all over Western Europe had welcomed the novel(la) or short history as an alternative in the second half of the 17th century, only the English and the Spanish had, however, openly discredited the romance.


title: Novel

text: But the change of taste was brief and Fénelon's "Telemachus" ["Les Aventures de Télémaque"] (1699/1700) already exploited a nostalgia for the old romances with their heroism and professed virtue. Jane Barker explicitly advertised her "Exilius" as "A new Romance", "written after the Manner of Telemachus", in 1715. Robinson Crusoe spoke of his own story as a "romance", though in the preface to the third volume, published in 1720, Defoe attacks all who said "that [...] the Story is feign'd, that the Names are borrow'd, and that it is all a Romance; that there never were any such Man or Place".


title: Novel

text: The late 18th century brought an answer with the Romantic Movement's readiness to reclaim the word romance, with the gothic romance, and the historical novels of Walter Scott. "Robinson Crusoe" now became a "novel" in this period, that is a work of the new realistic fiction created in the 18th century.


title: Novel

text: Sentimental novels relied on emotional responses, and feature scenes of distress and tenderness, and the plot is arranged to advance emotions rather than action. The result is a valorization of "fine feeling", displaying the characters as models of refined, sensitive emotional affect. The ability to display such feelings was thought at this time to show character and experience, and to help shape positive social life and relationships.


title: Novel

text: An example of this genre is Samuel Richardson's "Pamela, or Virtue Rewarded" (1740), composed "to cultivate the Principles of Virtue and Religion in the Minds of the Youth of Both Sexes", which focuses on a potential victim, a heroine that has all the modern virtues and who is vulnerable because her low social status and her occupation as servant of a libertine who falls in love with her. She, however, ends in reforming her antagonist.


title: Novel

text: Male heroes adopted the new sentimental character traits in the 1760s. Laurence Sterne's Yorick, the hero of the "Sentimental Journey" (1768) did so with an enormous amount of humour. Oliver Goldsmith's "Vicar of Wakefield" (1766) and Henry Mackenzie's "Man of Feeling" (1771) produced the far more serious role models.


title: Novel

text: These works inspired a sub- and counterculture of pornographic novels, for which Greek and Latin authors in translations had provided elegant models from the last century. Pornography includes John Cleland's "Fanny Hill" (1748), which offered an almost exact reversal of the plot of novels that emphasised virtue. The prostitute Fanny Hill learns to enjoy her work and establishes herself as a free and economically independent individual, in editions one could only expect to buy under the counter.


title: Novel

text: Less virtuous protagonists can also be found in satirical novels, like Richard Head's "English Rogue" (1665), that feature brothels, while women authors like Aphra Behn had offered their heroines alternative careers as precursors of the 19th-century femmes fatales.


title: Novel

text: The genre evolves in the 1770s with, for example, Werther in Johann Wolfgang von Goethe's "The Sorrows of Young Werther" (1774) realising that it is impossible for him to integrate into the new conformist society, and Pierre Choderlos de Laclos in "Les Liaisons dangereuses" (1782) showing a group of aristocrats playing games of intrigue and amorality..


title: Novel

text: By around 1700, fiction was no longer a predominantly aristocratic entertainment, and printed books had soon gained the power to reach readers of almost all classes, though the reading habits differed and to follow fashions remained a privilege. Spain was a trendsetter into the 1630s but French authors superseded Cervantes, de Quevedo, and Alemán in the 1640s. As Huet was to note in 1670, the change was one of manners. The new French works taught a new, on the surface freer, gallant exchange between the sexes as the essence of life at the French court.


title: Novel

text: The situation changed again from 1660s into the 1690s when works by French authors were published in Holland out of the reach of French censors. Dutch publishing houses pirated fashionable books from France and created a new market of political and scandalous fiction. This led to a market of European rather than French fashions in the early 18th century.


title: Novel

text: By the 1680s fashionable political European novels had inspired a second wave of private scandalous publications and generated new productions of local importance. Women authors reported on politics and on their private love affairs in The Hague and in London. German students imitated them to boast of their private amours in fiction. The London, the anonymous international market of the Netherlands, publishers in Hamburg and Leipzig generated new public spheres. Once private individuals, such as students in university towns and daughters of London's upper class began to write novels based on questionable reputations, the public began to call for a reformation of manners.


title: Novel

text: An important development in Britain, at the beginning of the century, was that new journals like "The Spectator" and "The Tatler" reviewed novels. In Germany Gotthold Ephraim Lessing's "Briefe, die neuste Literatur betreffend" (1758) appeared in the middle of the century with reviews of art and fiction. By the 1780s such reviews played had an important role in introducing new works of fiction to the public.


title: Novel

text: Influenced by the new journals, reform became the main goal of the second generation of eighteenth century novelists. "The Spectator" Number 10 had stated that the aim was now "to enliven morality with wit, and to temper wit with morality […] to bring philosophy out of the closets and libraries, schools and colleges, to dwell in clubs and assemblies, at tea-tables and coffeehouses"). Constructive criticism of novels had until then been rare. The first treatise on the history of the novel was a preface to Marie de La Fayette's novel "Zayde" (1670).


title: Novel

text: The French churchman and scholar Pierre Daniel Huet's "Traitté de l'origine des romans" (1670) laid the ground for a greater acceptance of the novel as literature, that is comparable to the classics, in the early 18th century. The theologian had not only dared to praise fictions, but he had also explained techniques of theological interpretation of fiction, which was a novelty. Furthermore, readers of novels and romances could gain insight not only into their own culture, but also that of distant, exotic countries.


title: Novel

text: When the decades around 1700 saw the appearance of new editions of the classical authors Petronius, Lucian, and Heliodorus of Emesa. the publishers equipped them with prefaces that referred to Huet's treatise. and the canon it had established. Also exotic works of Middle Eastern fiction entered the market that gave insight into Islamic culture. "The Book of One Thousand and One Nights" was first published in Europe from 1704 to 1715 in French, and then translated immediately into English and German, and was seen as a contribution to Huet's history of romances.


title: Novel

text: The English, "Select Collection of Novels in six volumes" (1720–22), is a milestone in this development of the novel's prestige. It included Huet's "Treatise", along with the European tradition of the modern novel of the day: that is, novella from Machiavelli's to Marie de La Fayette's masterpieces. Aphra Behn's novels had appeared in the 1680s but became classics when reprinted in collections. Fénelon's "Telemachus" (1699/1700) became a classic three years after its publication. New authors entering the market were now ready to use their personal names rather than pseudonyms, including Eliza Haywood, who in 1719 following in the footsteps of Aphra Behn used her name with unprecedented pride.


title: Novel

text: The very word romanticism is connected to the idea of romance, and the romance genre experienced a revival, at the end of the 18th century, with gothic fiction, that began in 1764 with Horace Walpole's "The Castle of Otranto", subtitled (in its second edition) "A Gothic Story". Subsequent important gothic works are Ann Radcliffe's "The Mysteries of Udolpho" (1794) and 'Monk' Lewis's "The Monk" (1795).


title: Novel

text: The new romances challenged the idea that the novel involved a realistic depiction of life, and destabilized the difference the critics had been trying to establish, between serious classical art and popular fiction. Gothic romances exploited the grotesque, and some critics thought that their subject matter deserved less credit than the worst medieval tales of Arthurian knighthood.


title: Novel

text: The authors of this new type of fiction were accused of exploiting all available topics to thrill, arouse, or horrify their audience. These new romantic novelists, however, claimed that they were exploring the entire realm of fictionality. And psychological interpreters, in the early 19th century, read these works as encounters with the deeper hidden truth of the human imagination: this included sexuality, anxieties, and insatiable desires. Under such readings, novels were described as exploring deeper human motives, and it was suggested that such artistic freedom would reveal what had not previously been openly visible.


title: Novel

text: The romances of de Sade, "Les 120 Journées de Sodome" (1785), Poe's "Tales of the Grotesque and Arabesque" (1840), Mary Shelley, "Frankenstein" (1818), and E.T.A. Hoffmann, "Die Elixiere des Teufels" (1815), would later attract 20th-century psychoanalysts and supply the images for 20th- and 21st-century horror films, love romances, fantasy novels, role-playing computer games, and the surrealists.


title: Novel

text: The historical romance was also important at this time. But, while earlier writers of these romances paid little attention to historical reality, Walter Scott's historical novel "Waverley" (1814) broke with this tradition, and he invented "the true historical novel". At the same time he was influenced by gothic romance, and had collaborated in 1801 with 'Monk' Lewis on "Tales of Wonder". With his Waverley novels Scott "hoped to do for the Scottish border" what Goethe and other German poets "had done for the Middle Ages, "and make its past live again in modern romance". Scott's novels "are in the mode he himself defined as romance, 'the interest of which turns upon marvelous and uncommon incidents'". He used his imagination to re-evaluate history by rendering things, incidents and protagonists in the way only the novelist could do. His work remained historical fiction, yet it questioned existing historical perceptions. The use of historical research was an important tool: Scott, the novelist, resorted to documentary sources as any historian would have done, but as a romantic he gave his subject a deeper imaginative and emotional significance. By combining research with "marvelous and uncommon incidents", Scott attracted a far wider market than any historian could, and was the most famous novelist of his generation, throughout Europe.


title: Novel

text: In the 19th century the relationship between authors, publishers, and readers, changed. Authors originally had only received payment for their manuscript, however, changes in copyright laws, which began in 18th and continued into the 19th century promised royalties on all future editions. Another change in the 19th century was that novelists began to read their works in theaters, halls, and bookshops. Also during the nineteenth century the market for popular fiction grew, and competed with works of literature. New institutions like the circulating library created a new market with a mass reading public.


title: Novel

text: Another difference was that novels began to deal with more difficult subjects, including current political and social issues, that were being discussed in newspapers and magazines. The idea of social responsibility became a key subject, whether of the citizen, or of the artist, with the theoretical debate concentrating on questions around the moral soundness of the modern novel. Questions about artistic integrity, as well as aesthetics, including, for example. the idea of "art for art's sake", proposed by writers like Oscar Wilde and Algernon Charles Swinburne, were also important.


title: Novel

text: Major British writers such as Charles Dickens and Thomas Hardy were influenced by the romance genre tradition of the novel, which had been revitalized during the Romantic period. The Brontë sisters were notable mid-19th-century authors in this tradition, with Anne Brontë's "The Tenant of Wildfell Hall", Charlotte Brontë's "Jane Eyre" and Emily Brontë's "Wuthering Heights". Publishing at the very end of the 19th century, Joseph Conrad has been called "a supreme 'romancer.'" In America "the romance ... proved to be a serious, flexible, and successful medium for the exploration of philosophical ideas and attitudes." Notable examples include Nathaniel Hawthorne's "The Scarlet Letter", and Herman Melville's "Moby-Dick".


title: Novel

text: A number of European novelists were similarly influenced during this period by the earlier romance tradition, along with the Romanticism, including Victor Hugo, with novels like "The Hunchback of Notre-Dame" (1831) and "Les Misérables" (1862), and Mikhail Yuryevich Lermontov with "A Hero of Our Time" (1840).


title: Novel

text: Many 19th-century authors dealt with significant social matters. Émile Zola's novels depicted the world of the working classes, which Marx and Engels's non-fiction explores. In the United States slavery and racism became topics of far broader public debate thanks to Harriet Beecher Stowe's "Uncle Tom's Cabin" (1852), which dramatizes topics that had previously been discussed mainly in the abstract. Charles Dickens' novels led his readers into contemporary workhouses, and provided first-hand accounts of child labor. The treatment of the subject of war changed with Leo Tolstoy's "War and Peace" (1868/69), where he questions the facts provided by historians. Similarly the treatment of crime is very different in Fyodor Dostoyevsky's "Crime and Punishment" (1866), where the point of view is that of a criminal. Women authors had dominated fiction from the 1640s into the early 18th century, but few before George Eliot so openly questioned the role, education, and status of women in society, as she did.


title: Novel

text: As the novel became a platform of modern debate, national literatures were developed that link the present with the past in the form of the historical novel. Alessandro Manzoni's "I Promessi Sposi" (1827) did this for Italy, while novelists in Russia and the surrounding Slavonic countries, as well as Scandinavia, did likewise.


title: Novel

text: Along with this new appreciation of history, the future also became a topic for fiction. This had been done earlier in works like Samuel Madden's "Memoirs of the Twentieth Century" (1733) and Mary Shelley's "The Last Man" (1826), a work whose plot culminated in the catastrophic last days of a mankind extinguished by the plague. Edward Bellamy's "Looking Backward" (1887) and H.G. Wells's "The Time Machine" (1895) were concerned with technological and biological developments. Industrialization, Darwin's theory of evolution and Marx's theory of class divisions shaped these works and turned historical processes into a subject of wide debate. Bellamy's "Looking Backward" became the second best-selling book of the 19th century after Harriet Beecher Stowe's "Uncle Tom's Cabin". Such works led to the development of a whole genre of popular science fiction as the 20th century approached.


title: Novel

text: James Joyce's "Ulysses" (1922) had a major influence on modern novelists, in the way that it replaced the 18th- and 19th-century narrator with a text that attempted to record inner thoughts, or a "stream of consciousness". This term was first used by William James in 1890 and, along with the related term interior monologue, is used by modernists like Dorothy Richardson, Marcel Proust, Virginia Woolf, and William Faulkner. Also in the 1920s expressionist Alfred Döblin went in a different direction with "Berlin Alexanderplatz" (1929), where interspersed non-fictional text fragments exist alongside the fictional material to create another new form of realism, which differs from that of stream-of-consciousness.


title: Novel

text: Later works like Samuel Beckett's trilogy "Molloy" (1951), "Malone Dies" (1951) and "The Unnamable" (1953), as well as Julio Cortázar's "Rayuela" (1963) and Thomas Pynchon's "Gravity's Rainbow" (1973) all make use of the stream-of-consciousness technique. On the other hand, Robert Coover is an example of those authors who, in the 1960s, fragmented their stories and challenged time and sequentiality as fundamental structural concepts.


title: Novel

text: The 20th century novel deals with a wide range of subject matter. Erich Maria Remarque's "All Quiet on the Western Front" (1928) focusses on a young German's experiences of World War I. The Jazz Age is explored by American F. Scott Fitzgerald, and the Great Depression by fellow American John Steinbeck. Totalitarianism is the subject of British writer George Orwell's most famous novels. Existentialism is the focus of two writers from France: Jean-Paul Sartre with "Nausea" (1938) and Albert Camus with "The Stranger" (1942). The counterculture of the 1960s, with its exploration of altered states of consciousness, led to revived interest in the mystical works of Hermann Hesse", such as Steppenwolf" (1927), and produced iconic works of its own, for example Ken Kesey's "One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest" and Thomas Pynchon's "Gravity's Rainbow". Novelists have also been interested in the subject of racial and gender identity in recent decades. Jesse Kavadlo of Maryville University of St. Louis has described Chuck Palahniuk's "Fight Club" (1996) as "a closeted feminist critique". Virginia Woolf, Simone de Beauvoir, Doris Lessing, Elfriede Jelinek were feminist voices during this period.


title: Novel

text: Furthermore, the major political and military confrontations of the 20th and 21st centuries have also influenced novelists. The events of World War II, from a German perspective, are dealt with by Günter Grass' "The Tin Drum" (1959) and an American by Joseph Heller's "Catch-22" (1961). The subsequent Cold War influenced popular spy novels. Latin American self-awareness in the wake of the (failing) leftist revolutions of the 1960s and 1970s resulted in a "Latin American Boom", linked to the names of novelists Julio Cortázar, Mario Vargas Llosa, Carlos Fuentes and Gabriel García Márquez, along with the invention of a special brand of postmodern magic realism.


title: Novel

text: Another major 20th-century social event, the so-called sexual revolution is reflected in the modern novel. D.H. Lawrence's "Lady Chatterley's Lover" had to be published in Italy in 1928 with British censorship only lifting its ban as late as 1960. Henry Miller's "Tropic of Cancer" (1934) created a comparable US scandal. Transgressive fiction from Vladimir Nabokov's "Lolita" (1955) to Michel Houellebecq's "Les Particules élémentaires" (1998) pushed the boundaries, leading to the mainstream publication of explicitly erotic works such as Anne Desclos' "Story of O" (1954) and Anaïs Nin's "Delta of Venus" (1978).


title: Novel

text: In the second half of the 20th century, Postmodern authors subverted serious debate with playfulness, claiming that art could never be original, that it always plays with existing materials. The idea that language is self-referential was already an accepted truth in the world of pulp fiction. A postmodernist re-reads popular literature as an essential cultural production. Novels from Thomas Pynchon's "The Crying of Lot 49" (1966), to Umberto Eco's "The Name of the Rose" (1980) and "Foucault's Pendulum" (1989) made use of intertextual references.


title: Novel

text: While the reader of so-called serious literature will follow public discussions of novels, popular fiction production employs more direct and short-term marketing strategies by openly declaring a work's genre. Popular novels are based entirely on the expectations for the particular genre, and this includes the creation of a series of novels with an identifiable brand name. e.g. the Sherlock Holmes series by Arthur Conan Doyle.


title: Novel

text: Popular literature holds a larger market share. Romance fiction had an estimated $1.375 billion share in the US book market in 2007. Inspirational literature/religious literature followed with $819 million, science fiction/fantasy with $700 million, mystery with $650 million and then classic literary fiction with $466 million.


title: Novel

text: Genre literature might be seen as the successor of the early modern chapbook. Both fields share a focus on readers who are in search of accessible reading satisfaction. The twentieth century love romance is a successor of the novels Madeleine de Scudéry, Marie de La Fayette, Aphra Behn, and Eliza Haywood wrote from the 1640s into the 1740s. The modern adventure novel goes back to Daniel Defoe's "Robinson Crusoe" (1719) and its immediate successors. Modern pornography has no precedent in the chapbook market but originates in libertine and hedonistic belles lettres, of works like John Cleland's "Fanny Hill" (1749) and similar eighteenth century novels. Ian Fleming's "James Bond" is a descendant of the anonymous yet extremely sophisticated and stylish narrator who mixed his love affairs with his political missions in "La Guerre d'Espagne" (1707). Marion Zimmer Bradley's "The Mists of Avalon" is influenced by Tolkien, as well as Arthurian literature, including its nineteenth century successors. Modern horror fiction also has no precedent on the market of chapbooks but goes back to the elitist market of early nineteenth century Romantic literature. Modern popular science fiction has an even shorter history, from the 1860s.


title: Novel

text: The authors of popular fiction tend to advertise that they have exploited a controversial topic and this is a major difference between them and so-called elitist literature. Dan Brown, for example, discusses, on his website, the question whether his "Da Vinci Code" is an anti-Christian novel. And because authors of popular fiction have a fan community to serve, they can risk offending literary critics. However, the boundaries between popular and serious literature have blurred in recent years, with postmodernism and poststructuralism, as well as by adaptation of popular literary classics by the film and television industries.


title: Novel

text: Crime became a major subject of 20th and 21st century genre novelists and crime fiction reflects the realities of modern industrialized societies. Crime is both a personal and public subject: criminals each have their personal motivations; detectives, see their moral codes challenged. Patricia Highsmith's thrillers became a medium of new psychological explorations. Paul Auster's "New York Trilogy" (1985–1986) is an example of experimental postmodernist literature based on this genre.


title: Novel

text: Fantasy is another major area of commercial fiction, and a major example is J. R. R. Tolkien's "The Lord of the Rings" (1954/55), a work originally written for young readers that became a major cultural artefact. Tolkien in fact revived the tradition of European epic literature in the tradition of Beowulf, the North Germanic Edda and the Arthurian Cycles.


title: Novel

text: Science fiction is another important type of genre fiction and has developed in a variety of ways, ranging from the early, technological adventure Jules Verne had made fashionable in the 1860s, to Aldous Huxley's "Brave New World" (1932) about Western consumerism and technology. George Orwell's "Nineteen Eighty-Four" (1949) deals with totalitarianism and surveillance, among other matters, while Stanisław Lem, Isaac Asimov and Arthur C. Clarke produced modern classics which focus on the interaction between humans and machines. The surreal novels of Philip K Dick such as "The Three Stigmata of Palmer Eldritch" explore the nature of reality, reflecting the widespread recreational experimentation with drugs and cold-war paranoia of the 60's and 70's. Writers such as Ursula le Guin and Margaret Atwood explore feminist and broader social issues in their works. William Gibson, author of the cult classic "Neuromancer" (1984), is one of a new wave of authors who explore post-apocalyptic fantasies and virtual reality.


title: Novel

text: A major development in this century has been novels published as ebooks, and the growth of web fiction, which is available primarily or solely on the Internet. A common type is the web serial: unlike most modern novels, web fiction novels are frequently published in parts over time. Ebooks are often published with a paper version. Audio books (a recording of a book reading) have also become common this century.


title: Novel

text: Another non-traditional format, popular this century, is the graphic novel. However, though a graphic novel may be "a fictional story that is presented in comic-strip format and published as a book", it can also refers to non-fiction and collections of short works. While the term graphic novel was coined in the 1960s there were precursors in the 19th century. The author John Updike, when he spoke to the Bristol Literary Society in 1969, on "the death of the novel", declared that he saw "no intrinsic reason why a doubly talented artist might not arise and create a comic strip novel masterpiece". A popular Japanese version of the graphic novel can be found in manga, and such works of fiction can be published in online versions.


title: Novel

text: Audiobooks have been available since the 1930s in schools and public libraries, and to a lesser extent in music shops. Since the 1980s this medium has become more widely available, including more recently online.


title: Novel

text: Web fiction is especially popular in China, with revenues topping US$2.5 billion, as well as in South Korea. Online literature such as web fiction inside China has over 500 million readers, therefore, online literature in China plays a much more important role than in the United States and the rest of the world. Most books are available online, where the most popular novels find millions of readers. Joara is S. Korea's largest web novel platform with 140,000 writers, with an average of 2,400 serials per day and 420,000 works. The company posted 12.5 billion won in sales in 2015 as profits were generated from 2009. Its membership is 1.1 million, and it uses 8.6 million cases a day on average (2016). Since Joara's users have almost the same gender ratio, both fantasy and romance forms of genre fiction are in high demand.


title: Novel

text: The development of ebooks and web novels has led to a rapid expansion of self-published works in recent years. Authors who self-publish can make more money than through a traditional publisher.


title: Novel

text: However, despite the challenges from digital media print remains "the most popular book format among U.S. consumers, with more than 60 percent of adults having read a print book in the last twelve months".


title: Jim Gaffigan

text: James Christopher Gaffigan (born July 7, 1966) is an American stand-up comedian, actor, writer, and producer. His material often addresses fatherhood, laziness, food, religion, and general observations. He is regarded as a "clean" comic, using little profanity in his routines. He has released several successful comedy specials, including "", "Obsessed", "Cinco", and "Quality Time", all of which have received Grammy nominations.


title: Jim Gaffigan

text: Gaffigan's memoir "Dad Is Fat" (2013) and his most recent book "Food: A Love Story" (2014) were both published by Crown Publishers. He co-created and starred in the TV Land series "The Jim Gaffigan Show", based on his life. He collaborates extensively with his wife, actress Jeannie Gaffigan, with whom he has five children. They are Catholic, a topic that frequently comes up in his comedy shows.


title: Jim Gaffigan

text: James Christopher Gaffigan was born in Elgin, Illinois, on July 7, 1966, the youngest of six children born to charity worker and fundraiser Marcia Miriam (née Mitchell) and banker Michael Ambrose Gaffigan. He is of Irish descent, with his family's surname originally being Gavahan. His maternal grandfather was Iowa Supreme Court Justice Richard F. Mitchell. Gaffigan was raised in Chesterton, Indiana, and often jokes about growing up in a large family. His mother was accomplished at needlework and received a national award for original design and craftsmanship from the American Needlepoint Guild in 1985. She died of cancer in 1990, aged 53.


title: Jim Gaffigan

text: Gaffigan's father was the president and CEO of the Mercantile National Bank of Indiana for 15 years until his retirement in 1991. A former seminarian, he was also actively involved in local charity work. He died of lung cancer in 1999. Gaffigan's father was the first in his family to attend college, and encouraged his children to seek careers that promised job security. However, at about the age of five, Gaffigan announced that he wanted to be an actor when he grew up.


title: Jim Gaffigan

text: As a teenager, Gaffigan watched "Saturday Night Live". He attended La Lumiere School in La Porte, Indiana, where he played on the school's football team. He attended Purdue University for one year, where he was a member of the Phi Gamma Delta fraternity, before transferring to Georgetown University's McDonough School of Business, where he graduated in 1988 with a degree in finance. He played football at Georgetown and Purdue. Although he hated studying finance, he worked as a litigation consultant for a short time after graduating and "was horrible at it".


title: Jim Gaffigan

text: Gaffigan moved to New York in 1990 to pursue comedy, a move that was inspired by his admiration for fellow Hoosier David Letterman. He found a job in advertising, and he would work during the day and take acting classes at night. During this time, he was cast in Blockbuster Video's "Entertainment Squad" series of commercials. His career began in earnest when a friend from the class dared him to take a stand-up seminar that required a live set at the end. He fell in love with stand-up, and began to play comedy clubs nightly—after his evening acting classes—until the wee hours of the morning. He was often found sleeping on the job; his boss had to wake him up to fire him.


title: Jim Gaffigan

text: For the first seven years of his career, he tried various styles, ranging from angry comedy to impressions and voices. Also, live comedy was in decline following its peak of the 1980s, further affected by the increased popularity of cable television. After periodically auditioning for "The Late Show with David Letterman" for six years, he then had a successful stand-up routine on the show in 1999, and his career took off.


title: Jim Gaffigan

text: Gaffigan's style is largely observational, and his principal topics relate to laziness, eating, and parenthood. He is famous for his Hot Pocket routine, which was inspired by a commercial he saw that he mistook for a "Saturday Night Live" sketch. Also, during his routines, he will sometimes perform soliloquies by using a high-pitched voice and—in the third-person—deliver negative feedback on his own performance, such as after making a diarrhea joke in his 2012 special "Mr. Universe" using the voice and saying "Really, he’s using diarrhea jokes?" He says "that inside voice is my connection with the audience".


title: Jim Gaffigan

text: In an interview with the "Duluth News-Tribune", he explained that the voice was developed over time, beginning as a teenager when he would disarm people by talking for them in their presence. He also used it as a way to fend off hecklers earlier in his career, when he says that comedy clubs were more combative. He cursed early in his career, and he added cursing to his comedy album "Doing My Time", at the request of his label, in the hopes of drawing more teenagers. However, he has largely removed profanity from his routine, as he feels that his subject matter doesn't lend itself to cursing and that it reduced the effort he put into crafting his jokes.


title: Jim Gaffigan

text: In 2004, Gaffigan's stand-up material was featured in Comedy Central's animated series "Shorties Watchin' Shorties." In October 2005, he filmed a live Comedy Central special that aired for the following January, and became the comedy album/DVD "Beyond the Pale". The routine consisted primarily of material regarding food and American eating habits, and the comedian unknowingly predicted a future menu item at Dunkin Donuts—the 'glazed donut breakfast sandwich'—while commenting on the future of America's eating habits. His 2009 album "King Baby" was also a television special filmed in Austin, Texas, at the end of his "The Sexy Tour." Comedy Central released "King Baby" on DVD. In a March 2009 interview on "Anytime with Bob Kushell", Gaffigan defended his naming of the tour, stating that he thought it would be funny that parents would be unsure about whether to bring their teenage children to the show. Four years later, on March 14, 2013, Gaffigan was named the "King of Clean" by the "Wall Street Journal".


title: Jim Gaffigan

text: On February 25, 2012, Gaffigan taped a one-hour stand-up special—""—at the Warner Theater in Washington, D.C.; it was nominated for a Grammy. He announced that, based on the business model used by Louis C.K.'s "Live at the Beacon Theater", the stand-up would be available online through his website for $5, with 20% of the total proceeds going to the Bob Woodruff Foundation, an organization that provides support to military veterans. In 2012, he was among the top-ten grossing comics in the US, according to Pollstar.


title: Jim Gaffigan

text: Gaffigan filmed his 2014 comedy special titled "" at Boston's Wilbur Theater on January 18, 2014. "Obsessed" premiered on Comedy Central on April 27 becoming the most watched stand-up comedy special of the year for the network. The accompanying album, also titled "Obsessed", debuted at number 11 on the "Billboard" 200 and number 1 on the Billboard Comedy Album charts. 2015 saw him embark on a headlining tour, culminating in a winter show at Madison Square Garden.


title: Jim Gaffigan

text: Gaffigan has performed stand-up to support charitable causes as well. In 2002, he was part of a United Service Organization event at Guantanamo Bay Naval Base. Gaffigan performed at the 2013 Stand Up for Heroes charity event benefitting the Bob Woodruff Foundation alongside fellow stand-up comedians Jerry Seinfeld, Bill Cosby and Jon Stewart. Gaffigan also performed at the 2013 CNN Heroes event, which celebrates everyday heroes doing extraordinary work around the world. In May 2014, Gaffigan performed at the Make It Right Gala, an organization founded by Brad Pitt, which builds sustainable homes and buildings for communities in need. On September 26, 2015, he performed at the Festival of Families, a Catholic event held in Philadelphia. Gaffigan was the only comedian on the bill at the festival, and the event was visited by Pope Francis. The event had more than one million attendees.


title: Jim Gaffigan

text: As of June 2016, Gaffigan was the most popular comic on all of Pandora.com with over 647 million spins.


title: Jim Gaffigan

text: In 2016, Gaffigan embarked on his Fully Dressed Tour, performing in the United States, Canada, and the UK.


title: Jim Gaffigan

text: Gaffigan credits David Letterman and Bill Murray as influences, and he has asserted that Richard Pryor was the greatest stand-up comedian ever. His comedy mentor was Dave Attell, who he asserted was the only person who thought he was funny in his early stand-up years.


title: Jim Gaffigan

text: On the episode of "Comedians in Cars Getting Coffee" which featured Gaffigan, he admitted that the show's host Jerry Seinfeld was a big influence for him.


title: Jim Gaffigan

text: Gaffigan is widely noted for being an everyman and a clean comic, and signature routines regard Hot Pockets, cake, and bacon. His tendency to avoid profanity has drawn mixed responses from audiences and critics. One critic compared him to "Full House"-era Bob Saget (who starred in the 1990s family show), which Gaffigan took as an insult. However, Hampton Stevens in "The Atlantic" wrote that the comic champions "a vital element to standup that [Lenny] Bruce had taken away—the indispensable, but apparently forgotten idea that comedians have no obligation to be provocative, topical, socially conscious, or anything else but funny".