title: Bond girl

text: The best-known characteristic of Bond girls, apart from their uniform beauty, is their pattern of sexually suggestive names, such as Pussy Galore. Names with less obvious meanings are sometimes explained in the novels. While Solitaire's real name is Simone Latrelle, she is known as Solitaire because she excludes men from her life; Gala Brand, as noted above, is named for her father's cruiser, HMS "Galatea"; and Tiffany Case received her name from her father, who was so angry that she was not a boy that he gave her mother a thousand dollars and a compact from Tiffany's and then walked out on her. Fleming's penchant for double-entendre names began with the first Bond novel "Casino Royale". Conjecture is widespread that the name of the Bond girl in that novel, "Vesper Lynd," was intended to be a pun on "West Berlin," signifying Vesper's divided loyalties as a double agent under Soviet control. Several Bond girls, however, have normal names (e.g. Tatiana Romanova, Mary Ann Russell, Judy Havelock, Viv Michel, Tracy Bond (née Teresa Draco, aka Contessa Teresa di Vicenzo).


title: Bond girl

text: Most Bond girls are apparently (and sometimes expressly) sexually experienced by the time they meet Bond. Quite often those previous experiences have not been positive, and many Bond girls have had sexual violence inflicted on them in the past, causing them to feel alienated from all men—until Bond comes along. Tiffany Case was gang-raped as a teenager; Honey Ryder was beaten and raped as a teenager by a drunken acquaintance. Pussy Galore was sexually abused at age 12 by her uncle. While there is no such clear-cut trauma in Solitaire's early life, there are suggestions that she, too, avoids men because of their unwanted sexual advances in her past. Kissy Suzuki reports to Bond that during her brief career in Hollywood, when she was 17, "They thought that because I am Japanese I am some sort of an animal and that my body is for everyone." The implication is often that these violent episodes have turned these Bond girls against men, though upon encountering Bond they overcome their earlier antipathy and sleep with him not only willingly but eagerly. The cliché reaches an extreme level in "Goldfinger", where Pussy Galore is portrayed as a lesbian when she first meets Bond, but at the end of the novel she sleeps with him. When, in bed, he says to her, "They told me you only liked women," she replies, "I never met a man before."


title: Bond girl

text: In Fleming's novels, many Bond girls have some sort of independent job or even career, often one that was considered inappropriate for women in the 1950s. Lynd, Brand, Tatiana Romanova, Mary Ann Russell, and Mary Goodnight are in intelligence or law-enforcement work. Those who are criminals, such as Case and Galore, tend to be similarly independent-minded in how they approach their work—the latter even running her own syndicate. Even those Bond girls who have more conventional or glamorous jobs show themselves to be invested in having an independent outlook on life. While the Bond girls are clearly intended as sex objects, they are nevertheless portrayed in the novels as having a high degree of independence; this is also frequently (but not always) the case in the films.


title: Bond girl

text: Most of the novels focus on one particular romance, as some of them do not begin until well into the novel ("Casino Royale" is a good example). However, several exceptions have been made: In "Goldfinger", the Masterton sisters are considered Bond girls (although Tilly is supposedly a lesbian), and after their deaths, Pussy Galore (also supposedly a lesbian) becomes the primary Bond girl. In "Thunderball", Bond romances first Patricia Fearing, then later Domino Vitali. In "On Her Majesty's Secret Service", Bond enters into a relationship and an eventual marriage with Teresa 'Tracy' di Vicenzo, and sleeps with Ruby Windsor, a patient he meets in Blofeld's hideout while posing as a genealogist. In "You Only Live Twice", Bond mainly has a relationship with Kissy Suzuki, but also romances Mariko Ichiban, as well as another girl.


title: Bond girl

text: Several Bond girls have obvious signs of inner turmoil (Vesper Lynd or Vivienne Michel), and others have traumatic pasts. Most Bond girls whose characters are allowed to develop in the course of the story are flawed, and several have unhappy sexual backgrounds (Ryder, Galore, Case, Vivienne Michel, and Suzuki, among others).


title: Bond girl

text: The inspiration for all of Fleming's Bond girls may be his onetime lover Muriel Wright, who according to "The Times":


title: Bond girl

text: Wright was 26 and "exceptionally beautiful" when she and Fleming met in 1935. A talented rider, skier, and polo player, Wright was independently wealthy and a model. She was devoted to Fleming, despite his repeated unfaithfulness. She died in an air raid in 1944, devastating Fleming, who called Wright "too good to be true".


title: Bond girl

text: Ursula Andress (as Honey Ryder) in "Dr. No" (1962) is widely regarded as the first Bond girl, although she was preceded by both Eunice Gayson as Sylvia Trench and Zena Marshall as Miss Taro in the same film. "Goldfinger" (1964), the third, established the Bond girl as regularly appearing in Bond films.


title: Bond girl

text: There have been many attempts to break down the numerous Bond girls into a top 10 list for the entire series; characters who often appear in these lists include Anya Amasova (from "The Spy Who Loved Me", portrayed by Barbara Bach); Pussy Galore (from "Goldfinger", portrayed by Honor Blackman); Contessa Teresa di Vicenzo (from "On Her Majesty's Secret Service", portrayed by Diana Rigg); and often ranked Number 1 on the list, Honey Ryder (from "Dr. No", portrayed by Ursula Andress).


title: Bond girl

text: "Entertainment Weekly" put "Bond bathing suits" on its end-of-the-decade, "best-of" list, saying, "And you thought spies were supposed to be inconspicuous! Halle Berry's orange bikini in "Die Another Day" (2002) and Daniel Craig's supersnug powder blue trunks in "Casino Royale" (2006) suggest that neither 007 star can keep a secret."


title: Bond girl

text: Monica Bellucci in "Spectre" became the oldest Bond girl at the age of 50, although she stated that she does not consider herself to be a "Bond girl", but a "Bond woman".


title: Bond girl

text: Roald Dahl said that when writing "You Only Live Twice", he was advised to use three Bond girls: The first should die "preferably in Bond's arms" early, the second a villain whom Bond seduces before she dies in an unusual and gory way midway, and the third survives to the end of the film. In several, the Bond girl is revealed, after her tryst with Bond, to be a villainess. Examples are Fatima Blush (Barbara Carrera) in "Never Say Never Again" (1983), Elektra King (Sophie Marceau) in "The World Is Not Enough" (1999), and Miranda Frost (Rosamund Pike) in "Die Another Day" (2002). The Dalton films of the 1980s introduced the "Bond woman", who is equal to and challenges Bond, but he remains the heterosexual hero; they are depicted with Dalton and later Bonds and their cars and gadgets, implying that all are possessions that Bond can use and dispose.


title: Bond girl

text: As of 2013, there have been only two films in which James Bond falls in love with the Bond girl. The first was "On Her Majesty's Secret Service" (1969), in which Countess Tracy di Vicenzo (Diana Rigg) marries Bond but is shot dead by Irma Bunt and Ernst Stavro Blofeld at the story's end. The second was Vesper Lynd (Eva Green) in "Casino Royale" (2006). Bond confesses his love to her and resigns from MI6 so that they can have a normal life together. He later learns that she had been a double agent working for his enemies. The enemy organisation Quantum had kidnapped her former lover and had been blackmailing her to secure her co-operation. She ends up actually falling in love with Bond, but dies, as Quantum is closing in on her, by drowning in a lift in a building under renovation in Venice.


title: Bond girl

text: With the exception of these two doomed Bond girls, it is never explained why Bond's love interest in one film is gone by the next, and is never mentioned or even alluded to again. This is not always the case in the novels, which do sometimes make references to the Bond girls who have appeared in previous books. Tiffany Case and Honey Ryder are revealed to have married other men (in "From Russia With Love" and "The Man With the Golden Gun" respectively), and in "Doctor No", Bond briefly wonders about Solitaire. In John Gardner's novels continuing the franchise Bond girls begin to appear in more than one book, often picking up their relationships with Bond from before, and in one case continuing a romance through two consecutive titles. In "Licence Renewed" it is specifically noted in an epilogue that Bond and Lavender Peacock stopped seeing each other after a brief romance, but Sukie Tempesta ("Nobody Lives for Ever"), Beatrice Maria da Ricci ("Win, Lose or Die"), and Fredericka von Grüsse ("Never Send Flowers") all make return appearances in later books. Anthony Horowitz's "Trigger Mortis" picks up two weeks after the events in "Goldfinger" with Bond continuing his relationship with Pussy Galore. A unique case is Mary Goodnight, who appears in the novels, "On Her Majesty's Secret Service" and "You Only Live Twice" as Bond's secretary, before becoming a full-fledged Bond girl in "The Man With the Golden Gun".


title: Bond girl

text: The role of a Bond girl, as it has evolved in the films, is typically a high-profile part that can sometimes give a major boost to the career of unestablished actresses, although a number of Bond girls were well-established beforehand. For instance, Diana Rigg and Honor Blackman were both cast as Bond girls after they had already become stars in the United Kingdom for their roles in the television series "The Avengers". In addition, Halle Berry won an Academy Award in 2002—the award was presented to her while she was filming "Die Another Day". Teri Hatcher was already known for her role as Lois Lane in the television series "" before she was cast in "Tomorrow Never Dies". A few years after playing a Bond girl, she became one of the most highly paid actresses on television, starring in "Desperate Housewives". Jane Seymour was an unknown when she was cast in "Live and Let Die" (the opening credits read "Introducing Jane Seymour"), later won an Emmy Award for playing Maria Callas in a TV movie and then became a household name playing the title role in her TV series "Dr. Quinn, Medicine Woman". Kim Basinger has had perhaps the most successful post-Bond career. After her breakout role in "Never Say Never Again", she went on to win an Academy Award for her performance in "L.A. Confidential" and to star in such notable films as "9½ Weeks", "Batman" and "8 Mile".


title: Bond girl

text: Broccoli's original choice for the role of Domino Derval was Julie Christie following her performance in "Billy Liar" in 1963. It seems he was disappointed when he met her so instead he considered Raquel Welch after seeing her on the cover of the October 1964 issue of "Life" magazine. Welch, however, was hired by Richard Zanuck of 20th Century Fox to appear in the film "Fantastic Voyage" the same year instead. French actress Claudine Auger was ultimately cast in the role. "Thunderball" launched Auger into a successful European film career but did little for her in the United States.


title: Bond girl

text: At one time, it was said that appearing as a Bond girl would damage an actress's career. Lois Chiles is often cited as a case in point, even though her career did not suffer because of her portrayal of Holly Goodhead, but rather because, after she lost her younger brother to non-Hodgkin lymphoma, she decided to take a three-year break from acting, from which her career never recovered. Casting for the female lead in "Casino Royale" (2006) was hindered by potential actresses' concerns about the effect that playing the role might have on their careers. At that point, some thought that the Bond series had become stale and would therefore be a less desirable vehicle for young actresses. Nevertheless, the up-and-coming actress Eva Green agreed to play the role of Vesper Lynd, and showed those fears to be unfounded when she won BAFTA's Rising Star Award for her performance. Rosamund Pike, who made her feature film debut as Miranda Frost in "Die Another Day" (2002), went on to earn an Academy Award Nomination for "Gone Girl".


title: Bond girl

text: Prior to the series being rebooted in 2006 with "Casino Royale", Sylvia Trench was the only Bond girl character to appear in more than one film ("Dr. No" in 1962 and "From Russia with Love" in 1963). She was meant to be Bond's regular girlfriend, but was dropped after her appearance in the second film. After the series was rebooted, Moneypenny was re-introduced in "Skyfall" (2012) as an agent assisting Bond in his mission and her characterisation was closer to that of a Bond girl; following her demotion at the end of "Skyfall" the character returned for the next film, "Spectre" (2015), as M's personal assistant and the characterisation of Moneypenny was closer to that of the original series. Léa Seydoux, who played Madeleine Swann in "Spectre", reprised her role in "No Time to Die" (2021).


title: Bond girl

text: In the Eon series, six actresses have made reappearances as different Bond girls: Martine Beswick and Nadja Regin both first appeared in "From Russia with Love", and then appeared in "Thunderball" and "Goldfinger" respectively. Maud Adams played Andrea Anders in "The Man with the Golden Gun" (1974) and the eponymous character in "Octopussy" (1983).


title: Bond girl

text: If the non-Eon produced films, "Casino Royale" and "Never Say Never Again", are included, several actresses have also been a Bond girl more than once: Ursula Andress in "Dr. No" (1962) and "Casino Royale"; Angela Scoular in "On Her Majesty's Secret Service" (1969) and "Casino Royale"; Valerie Leon in "The Spy Who Loved Me" (1977) and "Never Say Never Again" (1983).


title: Bond girl

text: Mary Goodnight was a supporting character in several Bond novels before graduating to full Bond girl in "The Man with the Golden Gun". Several short stories, such as "Quantum of Solace", "The Hildebrand Rarity", "The Living Daylights", and "The Property of a Lady" feature female characters in prominent roles, but none of these women interact with Bond in a romantic way.


title: Bond girl

text: There are several different archetypes for Bond girls: romantic interests, those who assist him, femme fatales (who invariably make an attempt on Bond's life), and sacrificial lambs (female associates of Bond who wind up dead). Since it is debatable whether certain girls fulfil certain tropes (e.g. If Bond kisses a girl, does that make her a romantic interest? Is Pussy Galore a "femme fatale" due to her being in league with Goldfinger?) the following criteria are used for determining inclusion: women with whom sexual encounters are implied; the woman who principally assists Bond; femme fatales are taken to be women who attempt to kill Bond; sacrificial lambs are taken to be women with an allegiance to Bond whose death is instigated by the main villain or his henchmen.


title: Bond girl

text: In addition to the Eon Productions films, there have been two Bond films produced by independent studios and one television production. The roles are not as easily categorized.


title: Bond girl

text: In 2002 former Bond girl Maryam d'Abo co-wrote the book "Bond Girls Are Forever: The Women of James Bond". This book later became a DVD exclusive documentary featuring d'Abo and other Bond girls, including Ursula Andress. In some locations, the documentary was released as a gift with the purchase of "Die Another Day" on DVD. The featurette was included on the DVD release of "Casino Royale" (2006).


title: Christopher Tolkien

text: Christopher John Reuel Tolkien (21 November 1924 – 16 January 2020) was an English academic editor, becoming a French citizen in later life. The son of author and academic J. R. R. Tolkien, Christopher Tolkien edited much of his father's posthumously published work, including "The Silmarillion" and the 12-volume (plus one volume of indexes) series "The History of Middle-Earth". Tolkien also drew the original maps for his father's "The Lord of the Rings".


title: Christopher Tolkien

text: Outside his father's unfinished works, he edited three tales by Geoffrey Chaucer (with Nevill Coghill) and his father's translation of "Sir Gawain and the Green Knight".


title: Christopher Tolkien

text: Tolkien was born in Leeds, England, the third of four children and youngest son of John Ronald Reuel and Edith Mary Tolkien ("née" Bratt). He was educated at the Dragon School (Oxford) and later at The Oratory School.


title: Christopher Tolkien

text: He entered the Royal Air Force in mid-1943 and was sent to South Africa for flight training, completing the elementary flying course at 7 Air School, Kroonstad, and the service flying course at 25 Air School, Standerton. He was commissioned into the general duties branch of the Royal Air Force Volunteer Reserve on 27 January 1945 as a pilot officer on probation (emergency) and was given the service number 193121. He briefly served as an RAF pilot before transferring to the Royal Navy Volunteer Reserve on 28 June 1945. His commission was confirmed and he was promoted to flying officer (war substantive) on 27 July 1945.


title: Christopher Tolkien

text: After the war, he studied English at Trinity College, Oxford, taking his B.A. in 1949 and his B.Litt. a few years later.


title: Christopher Tolkien

text: Tolkien had long been part of the critical audience for his father's fiction, first as a child listening to tales of Bilbo Baggins (which were published as "The Hobbit"), and then as a teenager and young adult offering much feedback on "The Lord of the Rings" during its 15-year gestation. He had the task of interpreting his father's sometimes self-contradictory maps of Middle-earth in order to produce the versions used in the books, and he re-drew the main map in the late 1970s to clarify the lettering and correct some errors and omissions. Tolkien was invited by his father to join the Inklings when he was 21 years old, making him the youngest member of the informal literary discussion society that included C. S. Lewis, Owen Barfield, Charles Williams, Warren Lewis, Lord David Cecil, and Nevill Coghill.


title: Christopher Tolkien

text: He published "The Saga of King Heidrek the Wise": "Translated from the Icelandic with Introduction, Notes and Appendices by Christopher Tolkien" in 1960. Later, Tolkien followed in his father's footsteps, becoming a lecturer and tutor in English Language at New College, Oxford, from 1964 to 1975.


title: Christopher Tolkien

text: In 2016, he was given the Bodley Medal, an award that recognises outstanding contributions to literature, culture, science, and communication.


title: Christopher Tolkien

text: His father wrote a great deal of material connected to the Middle-earth legendarium that was not published in his lifetime. J. R. R. Tolkien had originally intended to publish "The Silmarillion" along with "The Lord of the Rings", and parts of it were in a finished state when he died in 1973, but the project was incomplete. Tolkien once referred to his son as his "chief critic and collaborator", and named him his literary executor in his will. The younger Tolkien organised the masses of his father's unpublished writings, some of them written on odd scraps of paper half a century earlier. Much of the material was handwritten; frequently a fair draft was written over a half-erased first draft, and names of characters routinely changed between the beginning and end of the same draft. In the years following, Tolkien worked on the manuscripts and was able to produce an edition of "The Silmarillion" for publication in 1977 (a very young Guy Gavriel Kay served as his assistant for part of this time).


title: Christopher Tolkien

text: "The Silmarillion" was followed by "Unfinished Tales" in 1980, and "The History of Middle-earth" in 12 volumes between 1983 and 1996. Most of the original source-texts have been made public from which "The Silmarillion" was constructed. In April 2007, Tolkien published "The Children of Húrin", whose story his father had brought to a relatively complete stage between 1951 and 1957 before abandoning it. This was one of his father's earliest stories, its first version dating back to 1918; several versions are published in "The Silmarillion", "Unfinished Tales", and "The History of Middle-earth". "The Children of Húrin" is a synthesis of these and other sources. "Beren and Lúthien" is an editorial work and was published as a stand-alone book in 2017.


title: Christopher Tolkien

text: The next year, "The Fall of Gondolin" was published, also as an editorial work. "The Children of Húrin", "Beren and Lúthien", and "The Fall of Gondolin" make up the three "Great Tales" of the Elder Days which J. R. R. Tolkien considered to be the biggest stories of the First Age.


title: Christopher Tolkien

text: HarperCollins published other J. R. R. Tolkien work edited by Christopher that is not connected to the Middle-earth legendarium. "The Legend of Sigurd and Gudrún" appeared in May 2009, a verse retelling of the Norse Völsung cycle, followed by "The Fall of Arthur" in May 2013, and by "" in May 2014.


title: Christopher Tolkien

text: Tolkien served as chairman of the Tolkien Estate, Ltd, the entity formed to handle the business side of his father's literary legacy, and as a trustee of the Tolkien Charitable Trust. He resigned as director of the estate in 2017.


title: Christopher Tolkien

text: In 2001, he expressed doubts over "The Lord of the Rings" film trilogy directed by Peter Jackson, questioning the viability of a film interpretation that retained the essence of the work, but stressed that this was just his opinion. In a 2012 interview with "Le Monde," he criticised the films, saying: "They gutted the book, making an action film for 15 to 25-year-olds."


title: Christopher Tolkien

text: In 2008, Tolkien commenced legal proceedings against New Line Cinema, which he claimed owed his family £80 million in unpaid royalties. In September 2009, he and New Line reached an undisclosed settlement, and he withdrew his legal objection to "The Hobbit" films.


title: Christopher Tolkien

text: His first marriage in 1951 was to sculptor Faith Lucy Tilly Tolkien (née Faulconbridge) (1928–2017). After their separation in 1964, they divorced in 1967. Her work is featured in the National Portrait gallery. Their son is barrister and novelist Simon Mario Reuel Tolkien.


title: Christopher Tolkien

text: Christopher Tolkien and Baillie Tolkien (née Klass) married in 1967. In 1975 they moved to the French countryside where she edited her father-in-law's "The Father Christmas Letters" for posthumous publication. They had two children, Adam Reuel Tolkien and Rachel Clare Reuel Tolkien.


title: Christopher Tolkien

text: In the wake of a dispute surrounding the making of "The Lord of the Rings" film trilogy, Christopher is said to have disapproved of the views of his son, Simon Tolkien. Christopher felt that "The Lord of the Rings" was "peculiarly unsuitable for transformation into visual dramatic form" whilst his son became involved as an advisor with the series. They later reconciled, with Simon dedicating one of his novels to his father.


title: Behind Her Eyes (TV series)

text: Behind Her Eyes is a British noir supernatural psychological thriller web series created by Steve Lightfoot, based on the 2017 novel of the same name by Sarah Pinborough, that premiered on Netflix on 17 February 2021. The limited series stars Simona Brown, Tom Bateman, Eve Hewson and Robert Aramayo.


title: Behind Her Eyes (TV series)

text: "Behind Her Eyes" follows the story of Louise, a single mother, whose world is thrown off kilter when she begins an affair with her new boss, David, and matters take an even stranger turn when she’s drawn into an unlikely friendship with his wife, Adele. What starts as an unconventional love triangle soon becomes a dark, psychological tale of suspense and twisted revelations, as Louise finds herself caught in a dangerous web of secrets where nothing and no one is what they seem".


title: Behind Her Eyes (TV series)

text: On 25 January 2019, it was announced that Netflix had given the production a series order for a six-episode first season. Steve Lightfoot is credited as the creator and executive producer of the series. In August 2019, it was announced that Erik Richter Strand would direct the limited series.


title: Behind Her Eyes (TV series)

text: In August 2019, it was confirmed that Simona Brown, Eve Hewson, Tom Bateman and Robert Aramayo would star in the limited series.


title: Behind Her Eyes (TV series)

text: Principal photography for the limited series took place in London and Scotland, from June to October 2019.


title: Behind Her Eyes (TV series)

text: On 4 February 2021, Netflix released the official trailer for the limited series. The limited series was released on 17 February 2021.


title: Behind Her Eyes (TV series)

text: The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 62% approval rating for the first season with an average rating of 5.7/10, based on 37 reviews. The website's critical consensus reads, ""Behind Her Eyes"' many twists may be unexpected, but limited character development also leaves them feeling unearned - still, it may be just bonkers enough to keep forgiving viewers entertained." On Metacritic, it has a weighted average score of 54 out of 100, based on 15 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".


title: Behind Her Eyes (TV series)

text: "The Guardian" stated in their review of the series, “Who knew threesomes could be so boring?”, giving the series a 2 star rating. "Rolling Stone" stated “Netflix’s new erotic thriller self-destructs with a series of needlessly crazy twists”. "The Independent" gave the series a 2 star rating, stating “One bizarre twist can’t make up for the yawning lulls”. "The Irish Times" gave a mostly negative review stating “You may be charmed. Or it’s possible you will wonder why you wasted six hours of your life.” Patrick Cremona from "Radio Times" said of the series, that it “flits from the bland to the bizarre without being particularly convincing or compelling”.


title: Rachel Maddow

text: Rachel Anne Maddow (, ; born April 1, 1973) is an American television news program host and liberal political commentator. Maddow hosts "The Rachel Maddow Show", a weekly television show on MSNBC, and serves as the cable network's special event co-anchor. Her syndicated talk radio program of the same name aired on Air America Radio from 2005 to 2010. Maddow has received multiple Emmy Awards for her broadcasting work and in 2021 received a Grammy Award for Best Spoken Word Album for her book "Blowout" (2019).


title: Rachel Maddow

text: Maddow holds a bachelor's degree in public policy from Stanford University and a doctorate in political science from the University of Oxford and is the first openly lesbian anchor to host a major prime-time news program in the United States.


title: Rachel Maddow

text: Maddow was born in Castro Valley, California. Her father, Robert B. Maddow, is a former United States Air Force captain who resigned his commission the year before her birth and then worked as a lawyer for the East Bay Municipal Utility District. Her mother, Elaine (née Gosse), was a school program administrator. She has one older brother, David. Her paternal grandfather was from a family of Jews (the original family surname being "Medvedof"), who arrived in the United States from the Russian Empire. Her paternal grandmother was of Dutch descent. Maddow's Canadian mother, originally from Newfoundland and Labrador, has English and Irish ancestry.


title: Rachel Maddow

text: Maddow has said her family is "very, very Catholic" and she grew up in a community that her mother has described as "very conservative". Maddow was a competitive athlete and participated in high school volleyball, basketball, and swimming.


title: Rachel Maddow

text: Referring to John Hughes films, Maddow has described herself as being "a cross between the jock and the antisocial girl" in high school. She is a graduate of Castro Valley High School and attended Stanford University. While a freshman, she was outed as a lesbian by the college newspaper when an interview with her was published before she could tell her parents.


title: Rachel Maddow

text: She earned a degree in public policy at Stanford in 1994. At graduation, she was awarded the John Gardner Fellowship. She was the recipient of a Rhodes Scholarship and began her postgraduate study in 1995 at Lincoln College, Oxford. She had also been awarded a Marshall Scholarship the same year but turned it down in favor of the Rhodes. This made her the first openly lesbian winner of the Rhodes Scholarship. In 2001, she earned a Doctor of Philosophy (DPhil) in politics at the University of Oxford. Her thesis is titled "HIV/AIDS and Health Care Reform in British and American Prisons;" her supervisor was Lucia Zedner.


title: Rachel Maddow

text: Maddow's first job as a radio host was in 1999 at WRNX (100.9 FM) in Holyoke, Massachusetts, then home to "The Dave in the Morning Show". She entered and won a contest the station held to find a new second lead for the show's principal host, Dave Brinnel. After the WRNX show, she hosted "Big Breakfast" on WRSI in Northampton, Massachusetts, for two years, leaving in 2004 to join the new Air America. There she hosted "Unfiltered" along with Chuck D (of the hip hop group Public Enemy) and Lizz Winstead (co-creator of "The Daily Show") until its cancellation in March 2005. Two weeks after the cancellation of "Unfiltered" in April 2005, Maddow's weekday two-hour radio program, "The Rachel Maddow Show", began airing; in March 2008 it gained a third hour, broadcasting from 6:00 to 9:00 p.m. EST, with David Bender filling in the third hour for the call-in section, when Maddow was on TV assignment. In 2008, the show's length returned to two hours when Maddow began a nightly MSNBC television program. In 2009, after renewing her contract with Air America, Maddow returned to the 5:00 a.m. hour-long slot.


title: Rachel Maddow

text: In June 2005, Maddow became a regular panelist on the MSNBC show "Tucker," hosted by Tucker Carlson. During and after the November 2006 election, she was a guest on CNN's "Paula Zahn Now"; she was also a correspondent for "The Advocate Newsmagazine", an LGBT-oriented short-form newsmagazine for Logo deriving from news items published by "The Advocate". In January 2008, Maddow became an MSNBC political analyst and was a regular panelist on MSNBC's "Race for the White House" with David Gregory and MSNBC's election coverage as well as a frequent contributor on "Countdown with Keith Olbermann."


title: Rachel Maddow

text: In 2008, Maddow was the substitute host for "Countdown with Keith Olbermann", her first time hosting a program on MSNBC. Maddow described herself on-air as "nervous". Keith Olbermann complimented her work, and she was brought back to host "Countdown" the next month. The show she hosted was the highest-rated news program among people aged 25 to 54. For her success, Olbermann ranked Maddow third in his show's segment "World's Best Persons". In July 2008, Maddow filled in again for several broadcasts. Maddow also filled in for David Gregory as host of "Race for the White House".


title: Rachel Maddow

text: Olbermann began to push for Maddow to gain her own show at MSNBC, and he was eventually able to persuade Phil Griffin to give her Dan Abrams' time slot.


title: Rachel Maddow

text: In August 2008, MSNBC announced "The Rachel Maddow Show" would replace "Verdict with Dan Abrams" in the network's 9:00 p.m. slot the following month. Following its debut, the show topped "Countdown" as the highest-rated show on MSNBC on several occasions. After being on air for more than a month, Maddow's program doubled the audience that hour. This show made Maddow the first openly gay or lesbian host of a primetime news program in the United States.


title: Rachel Maddow

text: The initial reviews for the show were positive. "Los Angeles Times" journalist Matea Gold wrote that Maddow "finds the right formula on MSNBC", and "The Guardian" wrote that Maddow had become the "star of America's cable news". Associated Press columnist David Bauder saw her as "[Keith] Olbermann's political soul mate", and he described the Olbermann-Maddow shows as a "liberal two-hour block".


title: Rachel Maddow

text: Of her collegial relationship with Roger Ailes of Fox News, whom she sought out for technical advice, Maddow said she does not want to talk about it because "I don't want anybody else to use it. It was a nice thing that he did for me, and it's been valuable for me; it helped me get an advantage over my competitors."


title: Rachel Maddow

text: In mid-May 2017, amid multiple controversies surrounding the Trump administration, MSNBC surpassed CNN and Fox News in the news ratings. For the week of May 15, "The Rachel Maddow Show" was the No. 1 non-sports program on cable for the first time. She has been called by "Rolling Stone" as "America's wonkiest anchor" who "cut through the chaos of the Trump administrationand became the most trusted name in the news." Maddow has argued that these issues "are the most serious scandals that any president has ever faced."


title: Rachel Maddow

text: Maddow has stated that her show's mission is to "[i]ncrease the amount of useful information in the world". She said her rule for covering the Trump administration is: "Don't pay attention to what they say, focus on what they do ... because it's easier to cover a fast-moving story when you're not distracted by whatever the White House denials are."


title: Rachel Maddow

text: Maddow often begins a broadcast with a lengthy story, sometimes longer than 20 minutes, which she has referred to on-air as the "A-block." This often begins with film clips and other media from events in past years or decades which she eventually connects with the news of the day. About this process, she has said: "The thing that defines whether or not you're good at this work is whether you have something to say when it's time to say something. Because you're going to have to say something when that light goes on ... I want to have something to say that people don't already know every single night, every single segment, and that makes it hard to get the process right because that's the only thing I care about."


title: Rachel Maddow

text: Maddow took a hiatus from her show from February to April 2022 to coincide with production on the film adaptation of "Bag Man". As of May 2022, her show has moved to a weekly broadcast on Mondays.


title: Rachel Maddow

text: On September 10, 2019, the One America News Network (OAN) filed suit in the United States District Court for the Southern District of California against Maddow for $10 million, after Maddow described the network as "paid Russian propaganda" on her program on July 22. Maddow had repeated a "Daily Beast" story which identified an OAN employee as also working for Sputnik News, which is owned by the Russian government-owned news agency Rossiya Segodnya, and has been accused of deliberately disseminating disinformation, and is often described as an outlet for propaganda. Also named in the suit were Comcast, MSNBC, and NBCUniversal Media.


title: Rachel Maddow

text: On May 22, 2020, the case was dismissed by Judge Cynthia Bashant, who found that "the contested statement is an opinion that cannot serve as the basis for a defamation". OAN parent company Herring Networks said they planned to appeal.


title: Rachel Maddow

text: After considering Herring's appeal, in August 2021 the decision in favor of Maddow was affirmed by the United States Court of Appeal for the Ninth Circuit. The Court of Appeals also affirmed a trial court ruling that requires Herring to pay Maddow's attorneys' fees.


title: Rachel Maddow

text: Maddow wrote "" (2012) about the role of the military in postwar American politics. Upon its release, "Drift" reached the first position of "The New York Times" Best Seller list for hardcover nonfiction.


title: Rachel Maddow

text: In December 2013, "The Washington Post" announced that Maddow would write a monthly opinion column for the paper, contributing one article per month over a period of six months.


title: Rachel Maddow

text: On March 2, 2018, "The New York Times" published Maddow's first crossword puzzle, in collaboration with Joe DiPietro. On the eve of its publication, she said: "This is kind of it, like there will never be a baby, but there's this freaking crossword puzzle, and I am very, very excited about it."


title: Rachel Maddow

text: Maddow's second book "Blowout: Corrupted Democracy, Rogue State Russia, and the Richest, Most Destructive Industry on Earth" was published in October 2019. In March 2021, the audiobook version of "Blowout", recorded by Maddow, won the Grammy Award for Best Spoken Word Album at the 63rd Annual Grammy Awards.


title: Rachel Maddow

text: Her third book, "Bag Man: The Wild Crimes, Audacious Cover-up, and Spectacular Downfall of a Brazen Crook in the White House", written with Michael Yarvitz, was published in December 2020.


title: Rachel Maddow

text: In October 2018, Maddow launched the podcast "Bag Man", produced with MSNBC and focusing on the 1973 political scandal surrounding Vice President Spiro Agnew. A film adaptation of the podcast was announced to be in production in 2022, with Ben Stiller attached to direct and Lorne Michaels to produce, with Maddow set to be an executive producer.


title: Rachel Maddow

text: In October 2022, Maddow and MSNBC launched "Ultra", a podcast chronicling U.S. right-wing extremism during the 1940s and World War II, including the 1944 sedition trial.


title: Rachel Maddow

text: A 2011 "Hollywood Reporter" profile of Maddow said she was able to deliver news "with agenda, but not hysteria". A "Newsweek" profile said, "At her best, Maddow debates ideological opponents with civility and persistence ... but for all her eloquence, she can get so wound up ripping Republicans that she sounds like another smug cable partisan." "The Baltimore Sun" critic David Zurawik accused Maddow of acting like "a lockstep party member". The editors of "The New Republic" similarly criticized hernaming her among the "most over-rated thinkers" of 2011, they called her program "a textbook example of the intellectual limitations of a perfectly settled perspective".


title: Rachel Maddow

text: On awarding her the Interfaith Alliance's Faith and Freedom Award named for Walter Cronkite, Rev. Dr. C. Welton Gaddy remarked that "Rachel's passionate coverage of the intersection of religion and politics exhibits a strong personal intellect coupled with constitutional sensitivity to the proper boundaries between religion and government."


title: Rachel Maddow

text: Similarly, a 2008 "Time" profile described Maddow a "whip-smart, button-cute leftie". It said she radiates an essential decency and suggested her career rise might signify that "nice is the new nasty".


title: Rachel Maddow

text: Distinguishing herself from others on the left, Maddow has said she is a "national security liberal" and, in a different interview, that she is not "a partisan". "The New York Times" called her a "defense policy wonk".


title: Rachel Maddow

text: When asked about her political views in 2010 by the "Valley Advocate", Maddow replied, "I'm undoubtedly a liberal, which means that I'm in almost total agreement with the Eisenhower-era Republican Party platform."


title: Rachel Maddow

text: We say that Vietnam changed our politics forever. But less than 40 years after this, again, a campaign directed at the highest levels of government to get us to agree to a war based on something that did not happen the way they said it happened. It was a months-long campaign in 2002 and 2003, and it worked ... In three weeks, the CIA pulls together what normally takes months. It is delivered just seven days before the congressional vote ... By the end of 2002, the U.S. military is headed to the Gulf. Congress is on board, as are British Prime Minister Tony Blair and most of the mainstream media. The stage is set for war.


title: Rachel Maddow

text: During the 2008 presidential election, Maddow did not formally support any candidate. Concerning Barack Obama's candidacy, Maddow said: "I have never and still don't think of myself as an Obama supporter, either professionally or actually."


title: Rachel Maddow

text: In 2010, Republican Senator Scott Brown speculated that Maddow was going to run against him in the 2012 Senate election. His campaign used this premise for a fundraising email, although Maddow repeatedly said Brown's speculation was false. Brown continued to make his claims in the Boston media, so Maddow ran a full-page advertisement in "The Boston Globe" confirming that she was not running and separately demanded Brown's apology. She added that, despite repeated invitations over the months, Brown had refused to appear on her TV program. Ultimately, it was Elizabeth Warren who ran in 2012, defeating Brown.


title: Rachel Maddow

text: Maddow has suggested that the alleged Trump-Russia collusion has continued beyond the 2016 presidential election. In March 2017, she blamed Russia for WikiLeaks' Vault 7 disclosure of the CIA's hacking tools, saying: "Consider what the other U.S. agency is besides the State Department that Putin most hates? That Putin most feels competitive with? That Putin most wants to beat? It's the CIA, right? ... Smart observers say this is the largest dump of classified CIA material maybe ever, and it really could be a devastating blow to the CIA's cyber war and flat-out spying capabilities, and that dump was released by WikiLeaks." Regarding the Trump-Russia investigation, Maddow said: "If the Trump presidency is knowingly the product of a foreign-intelligence operation, that is a full-stop national crisis." Concerning "alternative facts" and fake news, Maddow said: "The president denigrating the press is important in terms of his behavior as an increasingly authoritarian-style leader, period."


title: Rachel Maddow

text: Following the October 2018 murder of Saudi Arabian dissident journalist and "Washington Post" columnist Jamal Khashoggi, Maddow argued that Donald Trump's business ties to Saudi Arabia are raising some troubling questions.


title: Rachel Maddow

text: In July 2020, Maddow predicted that unemployment figures covering the previous month would be "absolutely terrible"; after the figures were released, showing the largest growth in employment in a single month in U.S. history, "Politico" named Maddow's prediction one of "the most audacious, confident and spectacularly incorrect prognostications about the year".


title: Rachel Maddow

text: In May 2021, former "New York Times" reporter Barry Meier published "Spooked: The Trump Dossier, Black Cube, and the Rise of Private Spies", which cited the Steele dossier as a case study in how reporters can be manipulated by private intelligence sources. Meier named Maddow as one example.


title: Rachel Maddow

text: Maddow splits her time between Manhattan, New York and West Cummington, Massachusetts with her partner, artist Susan Mikula. They met in 1999, when Maddow was working on her doctoral dissertation.


title: Rachel Maddow

text: Maddow has dealt with cyclical depression since puberty. In a 2012 interview, she stated, "It doesn't take away from my joy or my work or my energy, but coping with depression is something that is part of the everyday way that I live and have lived for as long as I can remember." She has explained why she decided to speak about it in interviews: "It was a hard call ... Because it was nobody's business. But it had been helpful to me to learn about the people who were surviving, were leading good lives, even though they were dealing with depression. So I felt it was a bit of a responsibility to pay that back."


title: Rachel Maddow

text: Maddow said, "There are three things I do to stay sane: I exercise, I sleepI'm a good sleeperand I fish."


title: Rachel Maddow

text: Tracey Ullman played Maddow in her Showtime comedy series "Tracey Ullman's State of the Union". Maddow invited Ullman on her show and interviewed her in January 2010.


title: Rachel Maddow

text: Maddow appeared as a character on the November 3, 2013 episode of "The Simpsons", "Four Regrettings and a Funeral".


title: Rachel Maddow

text: Maddow appeared at the start of "" on "RuPaul's Drag Race" season 11 as the star of a mini-challenge where the contestants had to dress up as Maddow and read from a teleprompter.


title: Rachel Maddow

text: Maddow is the voice of Vesper Fairchild in the television series "Batwoman". She appeared as herself on the Netflix series "House of Cards".


title: SIG Sauer P226

text: The SIG Sauer P226 is a full-sized service pistol made by SIG Sauer. This model is sold with a choice of four chambers to choose from: the 9×19mm Parabellum, .40 S&W, .357 SIG, or .22 Long Rifle. It has essentially the same basic design as the SIG Sauer P220, but is developed to use higher capacity, double stack magazines in place of the single stack magazines of the P220.


title: SIG Sauer P226

text: The P226 itself has spawned further sub-variants; the P228 and P229 are both compact versions of the double stack P226 design, while the P224 is a subcompact variant. The SIG Sauer P226 and its variants are in service with numerous law enforcement and military organizations worldwide.


title: SIG Sauer P226

text: Schweizerische Industrie Gesellschaft (SIG) is a Swiss company, now known as Swiss Arms. In 1975, SIG entered into an agreement with German gun manufacturer J.P. Sauer & Sohn to develop and market a new handgun which became the P220. The P220 was the first SIG Sauer handgun sold in the US. It was marketed initially by Browning as the Browning BDA. The SIG Sauer P220 is a refinement of the Petter-Browning design used in the SIG P210. The locked breech design is very different and was pioneered by SIG Sauer. See also The first SIG Sauer Handgun.


title: SIG Sauer P226

text: The P226 was designed for entry into the XM9 Service Pistol Trials (see also Joint Service Small Arms Program) that were held by the US Army in 1984 on behalf of the US armed forces to find a replacement for the M1911A1 and 24 other makes of handgun in US military service. Only the Beretta 92SBF and the SIG P226 satisfactorily completed the trials. According to a GAO report, Beretta was awarded the M9 contract for the 92F due to a lower total package price. The P226 cost less per pistol than the 92F, but SIG's package price with magazines and spare parts was higher than Beretta's. The Navy SEALs, however, later chose to adopt the P226 as the P226 MK25 with special corrosion protection.


title: SIG Sauer P226

text: For the U.S. military XM9 trials, the P226 was imported by Saco Defense. Interarms took over importing when the pistol was introduced for civilian sales. SIG Sauer eventually founded SIGARMS, Inc. (now SIG Sauer) in the United States to handle importation of their products. In 2000, SIG Holding AG sold J.P. Sauer & Sohn GmbH to two German businessmen. The brand name SIG Sauer remained at J.P. Sauer & Sohn GmbH.


title: SIG Sauer P226

text: SIG Sauer firearms are manufactured in Eckernförde, Germany by Sig Sauer, GmbH and in Newington, New Hampshire, United States by SIG Sauer Inc., (formerly SIGARMS Inc.). Both of these companies along with Swiss Arms AG, Mauser Jagdwaffen GmbH, J.P. Sauer & Sohn, John Rigby & Company, German Sport Guns GmbH and Blaser Jagdwaffen Gmbh are subsidiaries of Luke and Ortmeier Gruppe of Emsdetten, Germany.


title: SIG Sauer P226

text: Copies of the P226 are produced in China by Norinco, under the name of NP22. These were subcontracted to the Zhejiang Xinhua Machinery Manufacturing Co., Ltd. (浙江省机电集团), known as State Factory 972 or known as the Xinhua Factory and Zhejiang Factory.


title: SIG Sauer P226

text: The variants consist of the NP22, NP22A, NP34, NP56 and the NP58. The SDM XM9 is a variant of the NP22 chambered in 9x21mm for countries that don't allow any pistol calibers that are only for the military and police. The LP3 and LP4 are versions of the NP22 and NP34 with manual safeties on the slide. The NP762 is chambered to fire 7.62x25mm bullets, which were exported in 2019. They were first made by Xinhua in 1999 and were known then as the NP2000 for potential contracts in China for the PLA and various law enforcement agencies.


title: SIG Sauer P226

text: U.S. Navy SEAL teams started using the SIG P226 in the 1980s, after German Kampfschwimmer tested them successfully. In 1989, the P226 was adopted by the U.S. Navy SEALs and DEVGRU under the name Mk25 Mod 0.


title: SIG Sauer P226

text: The first Naval Special Warfare inspired P226 pistols to be offered to the public were the NSW Commemoratives, issued in early 2004. The SIG P226-9-NAVY is a version of the SIG P226 produced that features a stainless steel slide engraved with an anchor to designate them as Naval Special Warfare pistols. SIGARMS raised $100,000 for the Special Operations Warrior Foundation through the sale of these NSW serialized pistols. The pistol with the serial number NSW0001 was sold during a live auction on the US-wide syndicated Laura Ingraham radio show for an additional $25,000. Later produced commercial versions added a universal rail for accessory attachments while retaining the anchor of previous models, but do not have the SIGLITE Night Sights.


title: SIG Sauer P226

text: Introduced at the 2010 SHOT Show, the P226 E2 at the time was a significant update to the P226 line. 'E2' (pronounced 'E-squared'), or otherwise known as "Enhanced Ergonomics", is SIG Sauer's attempt to make the large frame gun more ergonomic for persons with small and medium-sized hands. A reduced grip size and reduced reach trigger bring the trigger face back more than , thus potentially allowing better trigger manipulation and control for a greater number of shooters. Other standard features include the Short Reset Trigger, aggressive grip finish texture, and a new wrap-around, one-piece grip panel configuration. The gun was discontinued from the P226 model lineup at the end of 2010 but the E2-style grip system has been adopted on and carried over to other P226 variants.


title: SIG Sauer P226

text: A compact version of the P226, the P228 is in use with various law enforcement agencies and also with the United States Armed Forces, where it is designated as the M11. The P228 has a shorter slide and barrel than the P226. Unlike the P226, the P228 is available only in 9×19mm Parabellum with a 13-round magazine, but can also use P226 15- or 20-round magazines. Aftermarket magazines extend the capacity of the P228 to 15 rounds.


title: SIG Sauer P226

text: From a distance, the P228 can be differentiated from the P226 by comparing the trigger guards (the P228's is curved, while the P226's is slightly hooked) and the barrel and slide lengths (the P228's barrel , thus having a corresponding shorter slide). Also in a side-by-side comparison the P228 would appear slightly shorter ( shorter) than the P226. The larger capacity P226 magazine can also be employed in the P228 although it extends from the base of the grip. Civilian sales of the P228 were discontinued with the introduction of 9mm chambering in the P229 but were recently reintroduced in limited quantities to civilians with an accessory rail and hooked trigger guard, designated the P228R.


title: SIG Sauer P226

text: The P229 is nearly identical to the P228, however its slide is made from milled stainless steel (versus the P228's folded carbon steel slide) and is available in 9mm, .40 S&W, and .357 SIG. In the summer of 2012, SIG Sauer announced they were releasing the M11A1, which is essentially the milled-slide P229 chambered in 9mm with P228-labeled grips, a short reset trigger, SIGLITE tritium night sights, Mec-Gar 15-round magazines, and a military style smart tag and serial number. Later in 2012, U.S. Air Force M11b versions of the P228 were released for civilian sale. The M11 is to be replaced in the Army and Air Force through the Modular Handgun System program.


title: SIG Sauer P226

text: On January 19, 2017, it was announced that the SIG Sauer P320 Compact (M18) had been selected to replace the M11 as the U.S military service pistol. One factor in winning the Modular Handgun System competition was the ability to employ 9mm Parabellum, .357 Sig or .40 S&W cartridges within the same basic frame.


title: SIG Sauer P226

text: Introduced in 1992, the P229 is an upgrade to the P228 being an identical compact firearm often used for duty or concealed carry purposes. Developed specifically for the US market and assembled with both German and US-made parts, the P229 features a heavier slide to tolerate more powerful rounds the P228 is incapable of. The standard version features a DA/SA trigger. The pistol has also been made available in a Double Action Kellerman (DAK) model, which is a DAO system with two trigger reset points, and a lighter, smoother pull than that of traditional DAO handguns. Most of the above-mentioned factory variants of the P226 are also available for the P229, including the Equinox option, Elite lineup, as well as a SAS GEN 2 model.


title: SIG Sauer P226

text: The P229 differs from its cousin the P226 in several respects, and was originally introduced to supplement and then replace the P228 by adding the .357 SIG and .40 S&W as available chamberings. The P229 was the first production handgun introduced that could chamber the .357 SIG round. The P226 and P228 were originally manufactured using a stamped-steel slide on an aluminum alloy frame. The P229 consists of a CNC-milled stainless steel slide, typically colored black with a Nitron finish. The P229's milled steel slide was introduced to handle the higher slide velocities created by the .357 SIG and .40 S&W loads, which the stamped slide of the P228 could not handle without the use of a much stiffer recoil spring. This would have made manual slide-retraction much more difficult and the use of a milled stainless slide (coupled with the new milling and stainless production capabilities found in the U.S. factory) with a standard weight recoil spring made more sense.


title: SIG Sauer P226

text: A standard weight recoil spring for the P229 is . A spring weight of or higher would have been required if a stamped slide was used for the .40 S&W or .357 SIG chamberings. The SAAMI maximum chamber pressures of 9mm, 9mm +P, .40 S&W, and .357 SIG are as follows: ; ; ; and . The slide on the P226 was redesigned in a similar fashion, and civilian sales of the P228 were discontinued in early 2005 due to declining sales and the advent of the P229 in 9mm. The P226 and P229 are both available with optional accessory rails and optional forged stainless steel frames.


title: SIG Sauer P226

text: The P229 can be chambered in .22 LR, 9mm, .40 S&W or .357 SIG. Changing between .40 S&W and .357 SIG is as simple as switching out the barrel; both calibers use the same magazine. Conversion barrels also allow a P229 or P226 to change between a .40 S&W/.357 SIG to a 9mm caliber. The 9mm model (both railed and non-railed) can be converted to .22 LR, but in the past its receivers were not designed to provide the space needed for handling the larger rounds of .357 SIG and .40 S&W. As SIG Sauer has slowly begun adopting the E2-style grip system across the P229 model range in 2011—a move similar to what is also happening to the larger P226—they have also begun using the .357 SIG/.40 S&W spec frame dimensions for their factory 9mm P229s, presumably to streamline the number of variations in parts needed to be kept in inventory. Although the manufacturer has announced that older-configuration magazines will continue to operate in the new receiver configuration, SIG Sauer has nonetheless revised new P229 9mm factory magazines to a design that is specific to the resized magazine well of the newly reconfigured receiver/frame. As a consequence, the newer magazines are not back-compatible, due to their larger width.


title: SIG Sauer P226

text: The P224 is a subcompact variant of the series. It has a barrel length of and an unloaded weight of . It has a 12-round capacity when chambered in 9mm; it is also available in .357 SIG and .40 S&W. The P224 was introduced in 2012 as double-action only (DAO); it was reintroduced in 2013 as double action / single action (DA/SA) with a decocking lever. The P224 was discontinued in 2016.


title: Robinho

text: Robson de Souza (, born 25 January 1984), known as Robinho (), is a Brazilian former professional footballer who played as a forward.


title: Robinho

text: In 1999, at 15 years of age, Robinho was picked by Brazil legend Pelé as his heir apparent and, in 2002, went on to lead Santos to their first Campeonato Brasileiro title since Pelé himself played for the club. Afterwards he went on to win a second title with Santos, two more with Spanish club Real Madrid, and the Italian Serie A title in his first season at Milan. At international level, Robinho has won one Copa América title and two FIFA Confederations Cups with the Brazilian national team, and played at two FIFA World Cups.


title: Robinho

text: In 2017, an Italian court convicted Robinho of sexual assault in the 2013 gang rape of a 23-year-old Albanian woman at a Milan nightclub. This conviction was upheld by the Milan Court of Appeals in December 2020, and subsequently upheld by Italy's top court in January 2022. Italy's request for extradition has been rejected by Brazil, because the Constitution of Brazil does not allow extradition of Brazilian nationals.


title: Robinho

text: Robinho was born in São Vicente, São Paulo State. In his early years, Robinho played a lot of futsal which was responsible for developing his dribbling and acceleration skills. He signed his first professional contract with Santos in 2002 at the age of 18. He made 24 appearances in his debut season and scored one goal as Santos won the 2002 Campeonato Brasileiro. He reached the final of the 2003 Copa Libertadores with Santos, but lost in the final to Boca Juniors. In 2004, Robinho finished with 21 goals in 37 games and led Santos to win another Campeonato Brasileiro.


title: Robinho

text: His form had brought him to the attention of many European clubs in the summer of 2004, but Robinho remained with Santos after the Brazilian club rejected all offers. His form suffered in the 2005 season, however, after his mother, Marina da Silva Souza, was kidnapped by gunmen at her Praia Grande home on 6 November; she was released unharmed six weeks later after a ransom was paid.


title: Robinho

text: Robinho scored nine goals in 12 league games, and his value continued to increase as his talent became more and more apparent to the powers of European football. Santos began to realise it would become increasingly difficult to hold on to their star player. In July 2005, Spanish giants Real Madrid signed Robinho by agreeing to pay a fee equal to 60% of the buyout clause in his contract belonging to Santos (€24 million).


title: Robinho

text: Robinho was given the number 10 shirt for Real Madrid, previously worn by Luís Figo. Robinho ended up making 37 appearances and scored 14 goals in his first season. At the start of the 2006–07 season, Robinho spent much of the first few months of the season selected as a substitute by manager Fabio Capello, even after being Man of the Match in the first "Clásico" against Barcelona that year. Only after the winter break did Robinho find himself in the starting XI, later playing a crucial role as Real Madrid won their 30th La Liga title that year. The title was the third league championship of his career.


title: Robinho

text: Capello was subsequently fired, however, and Bernd Schuster was appointed as head coach of Real Madrid. Robinho finished with 11 league goals and eight assists for Madrid in the 2007–08 La Liga season, as well as four goals during Real Madrid's Champions League campaign. Robinho then got injured at the beginning of the second half of the season. He did not recover fully enough to help Madrid against Roma in the Champions League. The week before, however, Robinho saved Real Madrid's La Liga title hopes with a two-goal performance on 3 March 2008 as Madrid defeated Recreativo de Huelva away from home. That game kept a resurgent Barcelona at bay and ultimately secured Real Madrid's 31st league title and Robinho's fourth.


title: Robinho

text: Robinho was Real Madrid's third-highest scorer during his Madrid years, behind strikers Raúl and Ruud van Nistelrooy. He was also the player with the second-most assists, behind Guti, and the only Madrid player, along with goalkeeper Iker Casillas, to finish in the top ten of the Ballon d'Or and FIFA World Player of the Year nominations for 2007–08.


title: Robinho

text: Real Madrid president Ramón Calderón had promised to negotiate a new contract with Robinho at the midpoint of the 2007–08 season, which never materialised. Calderón, however, insisted talks would occur in the summer; again Calderón went back on his word. Robinho subsequently revealed talks never began because Madrid hoped to use him as part of the deal to bring Cristiano Ronaldo to Real Madrid in the summer of 2008. After the failed move for Ronaldo, Madrid finally attempted to negotiate a new contract with Robinho, which he rejected and led to him wanting a transfer to Chelsea.


title: Robinho

text: On 1 September 2008, the final day of the Premier League summer transfer window, Robinho completed a €41–42 million (£32.5M) move to Manchester City on a four-year deal. This occurred on the same day the club was bought out by the Arab investment company Abu Dhabi United Group.


title: Robinho

text: Robinho had previously been linked with a transfer to Chelsea, and he had emphasised his desire to play for the London club up to the eve of the transfer. On 27 August, Chelsea chief executive Peter Kenyon said that the club were "confident" that the transaction would go through, and Madrid had also given their consent for the player to leave. Robinho's expectancy to move to Chelsea was such that upon signing for Manchester City he accidentally stated, "On the last day, Chelsea made a great proposal and I accepted." To this comment, a reporter then replied, "You mean Manchester, right?" "Yeah, Manchester, sorry!" answered Robinho.


title: Robinho

text: In an interview with "The Guardian", Robinho stated that Manchester City being a big club and the presence of Brazilian friends Jô and Elano were incentives for him to join the team. He made his team debut and scored his first Premier League goal on 13 September 2008, coincidentally in a 3–1 home defeat to Chelsea.


title: Robinho

text: On 26 October, he scored his first Premier League hat-trick against Stoke City, and he scored his first European goal for Manchester City in a 3–2 UEFA Cup group stage win over Twente on 6 November. He was given the captain's armband for the match against Hull City, due to Richard Dunne's suspension, which ended in a 2–2 draw.


title: Robinho

text: On 19 April, Robinho scored his 13th league goal for Manchester City in the 2–1 win away at Everton on 25 April, City's first away win since 31 August 2008. The following week, he scored his third consecutive goal in three games, against Blackburn Rovers, to help Manchester City to a 3–1 win. Robinho finished the season as City's top goalscorer with 14 and the fourth top scorer in the league.


title: Robinho

text: His second season at Manchester City did not go as well. He missed three months of the season due to injury and only played 12 games in total (ten in the Premier League), and scored one goal (against lower league club Scunthorpe United in the FA Cup). Due to this, he fell down the pecking order and sought a move away from the club in the January transfer window.


title: Robinho

text: On 28 January 2010, Robinho returned to his home club Santos due to moving down the pecking order at Manchester City, joining them on a six-month loan deal. He had publicly stated that at Manchester City he would play every other game, and because of the upcoming World Cup, he wanted to play every game, and so returned to Brazil with Santos after declining a move to São Paulo. On his return to Santos, Robinho scored a backheel against aforementioned admirers São Paulo with five minutes to spare to complete a 2–1 victory for the "Peixe". In the final match of his loan deal on 4 August, Robinho helped Santos win the Copa do Brasil. Although Santos lost 2–1 to Vitória, they won the tie 3–2 on aggregate to win the competition for the first time in their history. Shortly afterwards, Robinho stated that he wanted to remain with Santos rather than return to England. Manchester City, however, refused to extend the loan deal and Santos failed to make a transfer bid.


title: Robinho

text: Robinho returned to training with Manchester City in August 2010, but stated that he was seeking a move away from the club before the end of the summer transfer window on 31 August. Turkish clubs Fenerbahçe and Beşiktaş opened transfer negotiations with City, but Robinho rejected a move to Turkey, declaring that he would rather move to a club in Spain or Italy.


title: Robinho

text: On 31 August 2010, Robinho moved to AC Milan from Manchester City for a fee of £15 million (€18M), signing a four-year contract. He made his debut as a substitute in a 2–0 defeat to newly promoted Cesena. He started his first game with Milan in their 1–0 win over Genoa. He scored his first goal in injury time against Chievo to make the score 3–1 on 16 October 2010. He continued his goalscoring form with a goal the following week in a Serie A match against Napoli on 25 October 2010. He then scored the first goal for Milan against Sampdoria, but Giampaolo Pazzini equalised on the hour mark to end as a draw.


title: Robinho

text: On 4 December 2010, Robinho scored the second goal for Milan against Brescia in their 3–0 win at the San Siro. Eight days later, on 12 December, he again scored the second goal in a 3–0 victory for Milan against Bologna. He scored his first goal of 2011 against Bari to give Milan another 3–0 victory. On 29 January, he scored against Catania following a deflection from a Zlatan Ibrahimović free-kick to give Milan a 1–0 lead, then assisted Ibrahimović to give Milan a 2–0 win. On 12 February 2011, he scored his first brace for Milan against Parma to help Milan to a 4–0 win. Against Cagliari, Robinho scored a brace in the 37th week of Serie-A on 14 May 2011, leading to celebrations of the "Scudetto" winners after the match.


title: Robinho

text: He started the 2011–12 Serie A season well, taking part in Milan's win over Inter Milan in the Supercoppa Italiana. Scoring 11 goals in all competitions, Robinho helped Milan to a second-place finish in the Serie A.


title: Robinho

text: After Alexandre Pato took the number 9 jersey at Milan following the departure of club legend Filippo Inzaghi, Robinho was handed the number 7 jersey that previously belonged to Pato. Robinho started in Milan's first game of the 2012–13 Serie A against Sampdoria, but was replaced by Urby Emanuelson due to an injury. Robinho made his comeback as a substitute against Cagliari, where Milan won 2–0. Four days later, Milan drew against Parma in an away match where Robinho came on as a substitute. Robinho came on as a substitute again against Inter, but Milan eventually lost 1–0. Robinho was then injured in training and was sidelined for the next five games. He made his comeback against Málaga as a substitute in the 80th minute; the game ended as a draw. He scored his first goal of the season against Juventus, which was the winner in a 1–0 victory on 25 November 2012.


title: Robinho

text: Robinho was close to signing with old club Santos in both January 2013 and July 2013, but the move fell through on both occasions due to the player's wage demands. On both occasions, Santos managed to reach an agreement with Milan over the transfer fee.


title: Robinho

text: On 18 July 2013, Robinho signed a new contract with Milan on a reduced wage, keeping him with the "Rossoneri" until 2016. His previous deal was set to expire on 30 June 2014.


title: Robinho

text: Robinho suffered a groin strain early in the pre-season against Valencia on 27 July 2013, which disrupted his preparation for the upcoming season. Before he suffered the injury in the match, he missed a penalty, but scored a goal from open play less than a minute later.


title: Robinho

text: On 22 October, Robinho scored the opening goal in the 2013–14 Champions League match against Group H favourites Barcelona, from a pass by his compatriot Kaká. After Lionel Messi's equaliser, however, he missed an excellent opportunity to score another goal in the second half, after which the match ended in a 1–1 draw. In November, he was sidelined again, this time due to a dislocated shoulder, an injury he picked up during the match against Celtic in the Champions League.


title: Robinho

text: Robinho scored his only goal in Milan's Coppa Italia campaign at the San Siro in the quarter-finals against Spezia on 15 January 2014. He opened the scoring with a close-range header in a 3–1 victory against the Serie B club. In February, an injury of his left thigh prevented him from playing in the first leg of the Champions League first knockout round against Atlético Madrid. He made a substitute appearance during the second leg in Spain, but was unable to prevent a 5–1 aggregate defeat against the "Rojiblancos".


title: Robinho

text: On 6 August 2014, Robinho arrived in São Paulo–Guarulhos International Airport and subsequently returned to Santos in a one-year loan deal. Despite being out of new coach Filippo Inzaghi's plans, the Italian side still will pay Robinho's wages—while "Peixe" pays R$600,000 per month, Milan will pay another R$400,000.


title: Robinho

text: Robinho was presented on the following day, stating a desire to play in the following match against fierce rivals Corinthians. He made his re-debut for "Peixe" on 10 August, starting in a 0–1 eventual home loss.


title: Robinho

text: Robinho scored his first goal after his return four days later, netting the first and assisting Rildo in a 2–0 home success over Londrina in the Copa do Brasil championship. His second goal came on the 29th, in a 2–0 away win over Grêmio in the same tournament.


title: Robinho

text: On 13 September, Robinho scored his first Brasileirão goal, netting his side's second in a 2–1 home win over Coritiba. He scored again on 21 September with a left-footed strike in a 3–1 victory over Figueirense. On 30 June 2015, after already rescinding his link with Milan in May, he left "Peixe" after his contract expired.


title: Robinho

text: On 16 July 2015, Robinho signed a six-month contract with Chinese Super League side Guangzhou Evergrande Taobao, managed by compatriot Luiz Felipe Scolari and linking up with his international teammate Paulinho. On 23 July 2015, he made his unofficial debut for Guangzhou in an international friendly against Bayern Munich. He won the Chinese Super League in the 2015 season.


title: Robinho

text: On 11 February 2016, after 10 days being released Robinho signed a two-year contract with Atlético Mineiro.


title: Robinho

text: Robinho was the highest goal scorer in Brazil in 2016, with 25 goals. He was selected for the Campeonato Brasileiro team of the year, in both the Craque do Brasileirão and the Bola de Prata awards.


title: Robinho

text: Robinho scored a goal in the 2017 Campeonato Mineiro final over rivals Cruzeiro, which secured Atlético the title.


title: Robinho

text: He left the club at the expiry of his contract in December 2017, having scored a total of 38 goals in 109 matches.


title: Robinho

text: On 23 January 2018, Robinho signed for Turkish Süper Lig club Sivasspor. On 1 January 2019, he signed for İstanbul Başakşehir in the same league for a fee of $2.78m. He was a member of the 2019–20 Süper Lig winning squad, the first top flight title in the club's history.


title: Robinho

text: On 10 October 2020, Robinho rejoined Santos on a deal running until February 2021, with the option for an extension until December 2022. The announcement was met with criticism due to Robinho's trial court conviction of sexual assault in Italy. One of Santos' sponsors ended their deal with the club, stating that the signing was 'disrespectful to women', while others also pressed against it. On 16 October, Santos announced the suspension of his contract, stating that he would focus exclusively on his defence.


title: Robinho

text: In July 2003, Robinho was called up for the 2003 CONCACAF Gold Cup, along with his Santos teammates Alex and Diego. Although Brazil chose to send their under-23 team, the CONCACAF Gold Cup matches are considered as full international matches by FIFA. He earned his first cap in the opening match on 13 July, which Brazil lost 1–0 to Mexico, and played four further matches including the golden goal defeat to the same team in the final.


title: Robinho

text: Robinho's first cap with the full Brazil team came on 4 September 2004, as a 74th-minute substitute for Edu in a 3–1 home win over Bolivia in 2006 FIFA World Cup qualification. The following 9 February, he scored his first international goal in a 7–1 win away to Hong Kong. He went to the 2005 FIFA Confederations Cup in Germany, which Brazil went on to win. During the tournament, he partnered Adriano in attack and scored in group matches against Greece and Japan.


title: Robinho

text: Robinho was named in Brazil's squad for the 2006 FIFA World Cup in Germany. During the tournament, he was mainly used as a substitute, with the established forwards Ronaldo, Ronaldinho, Adriano and Kaká starting in attack. However, he was named in the starting line-up for Brazil's third group match; a 4–1 defeat of Japan. He made a third substitute appearance of the tournament in Brazil's 1–0 quarter-final defeat by France.


title: Robinho

text: In the absence of Brazil's World Cup forwards, Robinho was a regular starter for the team at the 2007 Copa América a year later. For the tournament, he wore the number 11 shirt, the same number that his childhood hero Romário wore. He scored all four of Brazil's group stage goals via a hat-trick in the 3–0 win against Chile, and a penalty in a 1–0 win over Ecuador. He then scored two goals in a 6–1 quarter-final win over Chile. Brazil went on to win the tournament, beating Argentina 3–0 in the final. Robinho finished as the Golden Boot winner in addition to being named the best player of the tournament.


title: Robinho

text: In 2009, he was a member of the Brazil team that won the 2009 Confederations Cup in South Africa. He played in every game in the competition, as Brazil defeated the United States 3–2 in the final to win the tournament.


title: Robinho

text: Robinho was named in Brazil's squad for the 2010 World Cup, where he played alongside Luís Fabiano in attack. He scored in the second round match against Chile as Brazil won 3–0 to advance to the quarter-finals. He then scored the opener in the quarter-final match against the Netherlands, but Brazil eventually lost 2–1 and was eliminated. A poor performance at the 2011 Copa América saw Robinho dropped and replaced by Jádson in the Brazilian line-up.


title: Robinho

text: On 31 October 2013, after a hiatus of two years, Robinho was recalled to the "Seleção" by coach Luiz Felipe Scolari. He took part in two games against Honduras and Chile on 16 and 19 November respectively. During the game against Chile, he scored his first international goal since 2011. However, he was not included in Scolari's squad for the 2014 World Cup.


title: Robinho

text: After the World Cup, returning coach Dunga recalled Robinho to the Brazilian national squad. On 6 September 2014, he played 13 minutes as a substitute in Brazil's 1–0 win against Colombia in Miami. In May 2015, Robinho was included in Brazil's 23-man squad for the 2015 Copa América held in Chile. He started their final group game against Venezuela after Neymar was suspended for the entire tournament. In the ninth minute, Robinho sent in the corner from which Thiago Silva volleyed Brazil into the lead in an eventual 2–1 victory which sent them into the quarter-finals as group winners. On 27 June, Robinho scored the opening goal of the quarter-final with Paraguay, which Brazil eventually lost 4–3 in a penalty shootout.


title: Robinho

text: Eighteen months after his 99th game, Robinho won his 100th international cap on 25 January 2017 in a 1–0 win against Colombia at the Olympic Stadium in Rio de Janeiro. An entirely home-based squad was chosen in tribute to the Chapecoense squad killed in LaMia Flight 2933 in Colombia weeks earlier, and Robinho lined up alongside his former Santos partner Diego.


title: Robinho

text: A quick, creative, agile and technically gifted player, Robinho is mainly known for his flair, ball control, attacking instinct and dribbling skills, as well as his use of tricks and feints, such as the step over and the flip flap, due to his quick feet; his precocious performances and ability on the ball drew comparisons with compatriot Pelé in his youth. Usually deployed in a free role, he was capable of playing in several offensive positions, and often played as a winger, although he has also been used as a supporting forward, as a main striker, and even as an attacking midfielder on occasion, due to his tendency to be involved in the buildup of his teams' attacking plays, as well as his capacity to both score and create goals. Robinho has been criticised for his poor work-rate, lack of tactical discipline, and for his slender physique, which often leads him to go to ground easily. Despite the talent he demonstrated in his youth, his career has also been marked by inconsistency, and he has been accused by some in the sport of failing to live up to his potential.


title: Robinho

text: In November 2004, Robinho's mother was kidnapped at gunpoint. She was released unharmed the following month.


title: Robinho

text: On 23 November 2017, an Italian court sentenced Robinho to nine years in prison after he and five other males were convicted of sexual assault in the January 2013 gang rape of a 23-year-old Albanian woman at a Milan nightclub. As part of the judgment, transcripts of Robinho's messages intercepted by police were released, including one from Robinho to a friend in January 2013 that said: "I'm laughing because I couldn't care less, the woman was completely drunk, she has no idea what happened." In a different chat, a friend of Robinho sent the message "I saw you when you put your penis inside her mouth", to which Robinho replied: "That doesn't mean having sex." Under Italian law, his sentencing would not be enforced until after the completion of the appeal process. At the time of the sentencing, Robinho was in Brazil, and under Brazilian law, a Brazilian citizen cannot be extradited to a foreign country.


title: Robinho

text: On 10 December 2020, Robinho's nine-year prison sentence was upheld by the Italian courts after appeal. The Milan Court of Appeals found that Robinho had "belittled" and "brutally humiliated" the victim, while he also tried to mislead investigators from the onset by providing a false version of events he had agreed upon with his friend. Italy's highest court, the Supreme Court of Cassation, upheld the conviction again in January 2022. In February 2022, an arrest warrant was given internationally against Robinho by the Ministry of Justice of Italy.


title: Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug

text: Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAID) are members of a therapeutic drug class which reduces pain, decreases inflammation, decreases fever, and prevents blood clots. Side effects depend on the specific drug, its dose and duration of use, but largely include an increased risk of gastrointestinal ulcers and bleeds, heart attack, and kidney disease.


title: Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug

text: The term "non-steroidal", common from around 1960, distinguishes these drugs from corticosteroids, which during the 1950s had acquired a bad reputation due to overuse and side-effect problems after their initial introduction in 1948.


title: Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug

text: NSAIDs work by inhibiting the activity of cyclooxygenase enzymes (the COX-1 and COX-2 isoenzymes). In cells, these enzymes are involved in the synthesis of key biological mediators, namely prostaglandins, which are involved in inflammation, and thromboxanes, which are involved in blood clotting.


title: Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug

text: There are two general types of NSAIDs available: non-selective, and COX-2 selective. Most NSAIDs are non-selective, and inhibit the activity of both COX-1 and COX-2. These NSAIDs, while reducing inflammation, also inhibit platelet aggregation and increase the risk of gastrointestinal ulcers and bleeds. COX-2 selective inhibitors have fewer gastrointestinal side effects, but promote thrombosis, and some of these agents substantially increase the risk of heart attack. As a result, certain older COX-2 selective inhibitors are no longer used due to the high risk of undiagnosed vascular disease. These differential effects are due to the different roles and tissue localisations of each COX isoenzyme. By inhibiting physiological COX activity, all NSAIDs increase the risk of kidney disease and, through a related mechanism, heart attack. In addition, NSAIDs can blunt the production of erythropoietin, resulting in anaemia, since haemoglobin needs this hormone to be produced.


title: Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug

text: The most prominent NSAIDs are aspirin, ibuprofen, and naproxen; all available over the counter (OTC) in most countries. Paracetamol (acetaminophen) is generally not considered an NSAID because it has only minor anti-inflammatory activity. Paracetamol treats pain mainly by blocking COX-2 and inhibiting endocannabinoid reuptake almost exclusively within the brain, and only minimally in the rest of the body.


title: Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug

text: NSAIDs are often suggested for the treatment of acute or chronic conditions where pain and inflammation are present. NSAIDs are generally used for the symptomatic relief of the following conditions:


title: Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug

text: The effectiveness of NSAIDs for treating non-cancer chronic pain and cancer-related pain in children and adolescents is not clear. There have not been sufficient numbers of high-quality randomised controlled trials conducted.


title: Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug

text: Differences in anti-inflammatory activity between the various individual NSAIDs are small, but there is considerable variation in individual patient response, and tolerance to these drugs. About 60% of patients will respond to any NSAID; of the others, those who do not respond to one may well respond to another. Pain relief starts soon after taking the first dose, and a full analgesic effect should normally be obtained within a week, whereas an anti-inflammatory effect may not be achieved (or may not be clinically assessable) for up to three weeks. If appropriate responses are not obtained within these times, another NSAID should be tried.


title: Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug

text: Pain following surgery can be significant, and many people require strong pain medications such as opioids. There is some low-certainty evidence that starting NSAID painkiller medications in adults early, before surgery, may help reduce post-operative pain, and also reduce the dose or quantity of opioid medications required after surgery. Any increase risk of surgical bleeding, bleeding in the gastrointestinal system, myocardial infarctions, or injury to the kidneys has not been well studied. When used in combination with paracetamol, the analgesic effect on post-operative pain may be improved.


title: Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug

text: Aspirin, the only NSAID able to irreversibly inhibit COX-1, is also indicated for antithrombosis through inhibition of platelet aggregation. This is useful for the management of arterial thrombosis, and prevention of adverse cardiovascular events like heart attacks. Aspirin inhibits platelet aggregation by inhibiting the action of thromboxane A.


title: Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug

text: NSAIDs are useful in the management of post-operative dental pain following invasive dental procedures such as dental extraction. When not contra-indicated, they are favoured over the use of paracetamol alone due to the anti-inflammatory effect they provide. There is weak evidence suggesting that taking pre-operative analgesia can reduce the length of post operative pain associated with placing orthodontic spacers under local anaesthetic.


title: Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug

text: The widespread use of NSAIDs has meant that the adverse effects of these drugs have become increasingly common. Use of NSAIDs increases risk of a range of gastrointestinal (GI) problems, kidney disease and adverse cardiovascular events. As commonly used for post-operative pain, there is evidence of increased risk of kidney complications. Their use following gastrointestinal surgery remains controversial, given mixed evidence of increased risk of leakage from any bowel anastomosis created.


title: Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug

text: An estimated 10–20% of people taking NSAIDs experience indigestion. In the 1990s high doses of prescription NSAIDs were associated with serious upper gastrointestinal adverse events, including bleeding.


title: Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug

text: NSAIDs, like all medications, may interact with other medications. For example, concurrent use of NSAIDs and quinolone antibiotics may increase the risk of quinolones' adverse central nervous system effects, including seizure.


title: Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug

text: There is an argument over the benefits and risks of NSAIDs for treating chronic musculoskeletal pain. Each drug has a benefit-risk profile and balancing the risk of no treatment with the competing potential risks of various therapies should be considered. For people over the age of 65 years old, the balance between the benefits of pain-relief medications such as NSAIDS and the potential for adverse effects has not been well determined.


title: Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug

text: There is some evidence suggesting that, for some people, use of NSAIDS (or other anti-inflammatories) may contribute to the initiation of chronic pain.


title: Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug

text: In October 2020, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) required the drug label to be updated for all nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory medications to describe the risk of kidney problems in unborn babies that result in low amniotic fluid. They are recommending avoiding NSAIDs in pregnant women at 20 weeks or later in pregnancy.


title: Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug

text: If a COX-2 inhibitor is taken, a traditional NSAID (prescription or over-the-counter) should not be taken at the same time.


title: Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug

text: Rofecoxib (Vioxx) was shown to produce significantly fewer gastrointestinal adverse drug reactions (ADRs) compared with naproxen. The study, the VIGOR trial, raised the issue of the cardiovascular safety of the coxibs (COX-2 inhibitors). A statistically significant increase in the incidence of myocardial infarctions was observed in patients on rofecoxib. Further data, from the APPROVe trial, showed a statistically significant relative risk of cardiovascular events of 1.97 versus placebo—which caused a worldwide withdrawal of rofecoxib in October 2004.


title: Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug

text: Use of methotrexate together with NSAIDs in rheumatoid arthritis is safe, if adequate monitoring is done.


title: Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug

text: NSAIDs, aside from aspirin, increase the risk of myocardial infarction and stroke. This occurs at least within a week of use. They are not recommended in those who have had a previous heart attack as they increase the risk of death or recurrent MI. Evidence indicates that naproxen may be the least harmful out of these.


title: Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug

text: NSAIDs aside from (low-dose) aspirin are associated with a doubled risk of heart failure in people without a history of cardiac disease. In people with such a history, use of NSAIDs (aside from low-dose aspirin) was associated with a more than 10-fold increase in heart failure. If this link is proven causal, researchers estimate that NSAIDs would be responsible for up to 20 percent of hospital admissions for congestive heart failure. In people with heart failure, NSAIDs increase mortality risk (hazard ratio) by approximately 1.2–1.3 for naproxen and ibuprofen, 1.7 for rofecoxib and celecoxib, and 2.1 for diclofenac.


title: Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug

text: On 9 July 2015, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) toughened warnings of increased heart attack and stroke risk associated with nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) "other than aspirin".


title: Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug

text: A 2005 Finnish survey study found an association between long term (over 3 months) use of NSAIDs and erectile dysfunction.


title: Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug

text: A 2011 publication in "The Journal of Urology" received widespread publicity. According to the study, men who used NSAIDs regularly were at significantly increased risk of erectile dysfunction. A link between NSAID use and erectile dysfunction still existed after controlling for several conditions. However, the study was observational and not controlled, with low original participation rate, potential participation bias, and other uncontrolled factors. The authors warned against drawing any conclusion regarding cause.


title: Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug

text: The main adverse drug reactions (ADRs) associated with NSAID use relate to direct and indirect irritation of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract. NSAIDs cause a dual assault on the GI tract: the acidic molecules directly irritate the gastric mucosa, and inhibition of COX-1 and COX-2 reduces the levels of protective prostaglandins. Inhibition of prostaglandin synthesis in the GI tract causes increased gastric acid secretion, diminished bicarbonate secretion, diminished mucus secretion and diminished trophic effects on the epithelial mucosa.


title: Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug

text: Clinical NSAID ulcers are related to the systemic effects of NSAID administration. Such damage occurs irrespective of the route of administration of the NSAID (e.g., oral, rectal, or parenteral) and can occur even in people who have achlorhydria.


title: Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug

text: Ulceration risk increases with therapy duration, and with higher doses. To minimize GI side effects, it is prudent to use the lowest effective dose for the shortest period of time—a practice that studies show is often not followed. Over 50% of patients who take NSAIDs have sustained some mucosal damage to their small intestine.


title: Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug

text: The risk and rate of gastric adverse effects is different depending on the type of NSAID medication a person is taking. Indomethacin, ketoprofen, and piroxicam use appear to lead to the highest rate of gastric adverse effects, while ibuprofen (lower doses) and diclofenac appear to have lower rates.


title: Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug

text: Certain NSAIDs, such as aspirin, have been marketed in enteric-coated formulations that manufacturers claim reduce the incidence of gastrointestinal ADRs. Similarly, some believe that rectal formulations may reduce gastrointestinal ADRs. However, consistent with the systemic mechanism of such ADRs, and in clinical practice, these formulations have not demonstrated a reduced risk of GI ulceration.


title: Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug

text: Numerous "gastro-protective" drugs have been developed with the goal of preventing gastrointestinal toxicity in people who need to take NSAIDs on a regular basis. Gastric adverse effects may be reduced by taking medications that suppress acid production such as proton pump inhibitors (e.g.: omeprazole and esomeprazole), or by treatment with a drug that mimics prostaglandin in order to restore the lining of the GI tract (e.g.: a prostaglandin analog misoprostol). Diarrhea is a common side effect of misoprostol, however, higher doses of misoprostol have been shown to reduce the risk of a person having a complication related to a gastric ulcer while taking NSAIDs. While these techniques may be effective, they are expensive for maintenance therapy.


title: Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug

text: Hydrogen sulfide NSAID hybrids prevent the gastric ulceration/bleeding associated with taking the NSAIDs alone. Hydrogen sulfide is known to have a protective effect on the cardiovascular and gastrointestinal system.


title: Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug

text: NSAIDs should be used with caution in individuals with inflammatory bowel disease (e.g., Crohn's disease or ulcerative colitis) due to their tendency to cause gastric bleeding and form ulceration in the gastric lining.


title: Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug

text: NSAIDs are also associated with a fairly high incidence of adverse drug reactions (ADRs) on the kidney and over time can lead to chronic kidney disease. The mechanism of these kidney ADRs is due to changes in kidney blood flow. Prostaglandins normally dilate the afferent arterioles of the glomeruli. This helps maintain normal glomerular perfusion and glomerular filtration rate (GFR), an indicator of kidney function. This is particularly important in kidney failure where the kidney is trying to maintain renal perfusion pressure by elevated angiotensin II levels. At these elevated levels, angiotensin II also constricts the afferent arteriole into the glomerulus in addition to the efferent arteriole it normally constricts. Since NSAIDs block this prostaglandin-mediated effect of afferent arteriole dilation, particularly in kidney failure, NSAIDs cause unopposed constriction of the afferent arteriole and decreased RPF (renal perfusion flow) and GFR.


title: Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug

text: These agents may also cause kidney impairment, especially in combination with other nephrotoxic agents. Kidney failure is especially a risk if the patient is also concomitantly taking an ACE inhibitor (which removes angiotensin II's vasoconstriction of the efferent arteriole) and a diuretic (which drops plasma volume, and thereby RPF)—the so-called "triple whammy" effect.


title: Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug

text: NSAIDs in combination with excessive use of phenacetin or paracetamol (acetaminophen) may lead to analgesic nephropathy.


title: Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug

text: Photosensitivity is a commonly overlooked adverse effect of many of the NSAIDs. The 2-arylpropionic acids are the most likely to produce photosensitivity reactions, but other NSAIDs have also been implicated including piroxicam, diclofenac, and benzydamine.


title: Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug

text: Benoxaprofen, since withdrawn due to its liver toxicity, was the most photoactive NSAID observed. The mechanism of photosensitivity, responsible for the high photoactivity of the 2-arylpropionic acids, is the ready decarboxylation of the carboxylic acid moiety. The specific absorbance characteristics of the different chromophoric 2-aryl substituents, affects the decarboxylation mechanism.


title: Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug

text: While NSAIDs as a class are not direct teratogens, use of NSAIDs in late pregnancy can cause premature closure of the fetal ductus arteriosus and kidney ADRs in the fetus. Thus, NSAIDs are not recommended during the third trimester of pregnancy because of the increased risk of premature constriction of the ductus arteriosus. Additionally, they are linked with premature birth and miscarriage. Aspirin, however, is used together with heparin in pregnant women with antiphospholipid syndrome. Additionally, indomethacin can be used in pregnancy to treat polyhydramnios by reducing fetal urine production via inhibiting fetal renal blood flow.


title: Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug

text: In contrast, paracetamol (acetaminophen) is regarded as being safe and well tolerated during pregnancy, but Leffers et al. released a study in 2010, indicating that there may be associated male infertility in the unborn. Doses should be taken as prescribed, due to risk of liver toxicity with overdoses.


title: Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug

text: In France, the country's health agency contraindicates the use of NSAIDs, including aspirin, after the sixth month of pregnancy.


title: Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug

text: In October 2020, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) required the drug label to be updated for all nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory medications to describe the risk of kidney problems in unborn babies that result in low amniotic fluid. They are recommending avoiding NSAIDs in pregnant women at 20 weeks or later in pregnancy.