title: Trial of Arne Cheyenne Johnson

text: The Discovery Channel’s paranormal series "A Haunting" produced the episode "Where Demons Dwell" which was based on David’s possession and the Warrens investigation. The episode omitted the preceding of Arne’s crimes.


title: Creative Commons

text: Creative Commons (CC) is an American non-profit organization and international network devoted to educational access and expanding the range of creative works available for others to build upon legally and to share. The organization has released several copyright licenses, known as Creative Commons licenses, free of charge to the public. These licenses allow authors of creative works to communicate which rights they reserve and which rights they waive for the benefit of recipients or other creators. An easy-to-understand one-page explanation of rights, with associated visual symbols, explains the specifics of each Creative Commons license. Content owners still maintain their copyright, but Creative Commons licenses give standard releases that replace the individual negotiations for specific rights between copyright owner (licensor) and licensee, that are necessary under an "all rights reserved" copyright management.


title: Creative Commons

text: The organization was founded in 2001 by Lawrence Lessig, Hal Abelson, and Eric Eldred with the support of Center for the Public Domain. The first article in a general interest publication about Creative Commons, written by Hal Plotkin, was published in February 2002. The first set of copyright licenses was released in December 2002. The founding management team that developed the licenses and built the Creative Commons infrastructure as it is known today included Molly Shaffer Van Houweling, Glenn Otis Brown, Neeru Paharia, and Ben Adida.


title: Creative Commons

text: In 2002, the Open Content Project, a 1998 precursor project by David A. Wiley, announced the Creative Commons as successor project and Wiley joined as CC director. Aaron Swartz played a role in the early stages of Creative Commons, as did Matthew Haughey.


title: Creative Commons

text: , there were "nearly 2 billion" works licensed under the various Creative Commons licenses. Wikipedia and its sister projects use one of these licenses. According to a 2017 report, Flickr alone hosted over 415 million cc-licensed photos, along with around 49 million works in YouTube, 40 million works in DeviantArt and 37 million works in Wikimedia Commons. The licenses are also used by Stack Exchange, MDN, Internet Archive, Khan Academy, LibreTexts, OpenStax, MIT OpenCourseWare, WikiHow, OpenStreetMap, GeoGebra, Doubtnut, Fandom, Arduino, ccmixter.org, Ninjam, etc., and formerly by Unsplash, Pixabay and Socratic.


title: Creative Commons

text: Creative Commons has been an early participant in the copyleft movement, which seeks to provide alternative solutions to copyright, and has been dubbed "some rights reserved". Creative Commons has been credited with contributing to a re-thinking of the role of the "commons" in the "information age". Their frameworks help individuals and groups distribute content more freely while still protecting themselves and their intellectual property rights legally.


title: Creative Commons

text: According to its founder Lawrence Lessig, Creative Commons' goal is to counter the dominant and increasingly restrictive permission culture that limits artistic creation to existing or powerful creators. Lessig maintains that modern culture is dominated by traditional content distributors in order to maintain and strengthen their monopolies on cultural products such as popular music and popular cinema, and that Creative Commons can provide alternatives to these restrictions.


title: Creative Commons

text: In mid‑December 2020, Creative Commons released its strategy for the upcoming five years, which will focus more on three core of goals including advocacy, infrastructure innovation, and capacity building.


title: Creative Commons

text: Until April 2018, Creative Commons had over 100 affiliates working in over 75 jurisdictions to support and promote CC activities around the world. In 2018 this affiliate network has been restructured into a network organisation. The network no longer relies on affiliate organisation but on individual membership organised in Chapter.


title: Creative Commons

text: In March 2004, CC Japan was launched by GLOCOM University. CC Japan is the world's second CC affiliated network (the first is in America).


title: Creative Commons

text: In March 2006, CC Japan become the NPO and be in motion. In the same month, the CC founder Lawrence Lessig came to Japan to be one of the main holders of the open ceremony.


title: Creative Commons

text: Within the same year, between May and June, different international events were held in Japan, including iSummit 06 and the first through third rounds of CCJP.


title: Creative Commons

text: In February 2007, the ICC x ClipLife 15 second CM competition was held. In June, iSummit 07 was held. In July, the fourth CCJP was held. On July 25, Tokyo approved to become the NGO chairman of CCJP.


title: Creative Commons

text: In 2009, INTO INFINITY shown in Tokyo and Sapporo. iPhone held the shows with Audio Visual Mixer for INTO INFINITY. (Apple joint research and development with CCJP)


title: Creative Commons

text: Creative Commons Korea (CC Korea) is the affiliated network of Creative Commons in South Korea. In March 2005, CC Korea was initiated by Jongsoo Yoon (in Korean: 윤종수), former Presiding Judge of Incheon District Court, as a project of Korea Association for Infomedia Law (KAFIL). The major Korean portal sites, including Daum and Naver, have been participating in the use of Creative Commons licences. In January 2009, the Creative Commons Korea Association was consequently founded as a non-profit incorporated association. Since then, CC Korea has been actively promoting the liberal and open culture of creation as well as leading the diffusion of Creative Common in the country.


title: Creative Commons

text: Bassel Khartabil was a Palestinian Syrian open source software developer who served as a project lead and public affiliate for Creative Commons Syria. On March 15, 2012, he was detained by the Syrian government in Damascus at Adra Prison for no crime. On October 17, 2015, Creative Commons Board of Directors passed a resolution calling for Bassel Khartabil's release. In 2017, Bassel's wife received confirmation that Bassel had been killed shortly after she lost contact with him in 2015.


title: Creative Commons

text: All current CC licenses (except the CC0 Public Domain Dedication tool) require attribution (attributing the authors of the original creative works), which can be inconvenient for works based on multiple other works. Critics feared that Creative Commons could erode the copyright system over time, or allow "some of our most precious resources – the creativity of individuals – to be simply tossed into the commons to be exploited by whomever has spare time and a magic marker."


title: Creative Commons

text: Critics also worried that the lack of rewards for content producers would dissuade artists from publishing their work, and questioned whether Creative Commons would enable the commons that it aimed to create.


title: Creative Commons

text: Creative Commons founder Lawrence Lessig countered that copyright laws have not always offered the strong and seemingly indefinite protection that today's law provides. Rather, the duration of copyright used to be limited to much shorter terms of years, and some works never gained protection because they did not follow the now-abandoned compulsory format.


title: Creative Commons

text: The maintainers of Debian, a Linux distribution known for its strict adherence to a particular definition of software freedom, rejected the Creative Commons Attribution License prior to version 3 as incompatible with the Debian Free Software Guidelines (DFSG) due to the license's anti-DRM provisions (which might, due to ambiguity, be covering more than DRM) and its requirement that downstream users remove an author's credit upon request from the author. Version 3.0 of the Creative Commons licenses addressed these concerns and, except for the non commercial and no-derivative variants, are considered to be compatible with the DFSG.


title: Creative Commons

text: Kent Anderson, writing for "The Scholarly Kitchen", a blog of the Society for Scholarly Publishing, criticized CC as being grounded on copyright principles and not really departing from it, and as being more complex and complicating than the latter – thus the public does not scrutinize CC, reflexively accepting it as one would a software license – while at the same time weakening the rights provided by copyright. Anderson ends up concluding that this is the point, and that "Creative Commons receives significant funding from large information companies like Google, Nature Publishing Group, and RedHat", and that Google money is especially linked to CC's history; for him, CC is "an organization designed to promulgate the interests of technology companies and Silicon Valley generally".


title: Creative Commons

text: According to Mako Hill, Creative Commons has established a range of licenses tailored to meet the different protection interests of authors of creative works, rather than forcing a single forced standard as a "base level of freedom" that all Creative Commons licenses must meet, and with which all licensors and users must comply. "By failing to take any firm ethical position and draw any line in the sand, CC is a missed opportunity. ...CC has replaced what could have been a call for a world where 'essential rights are unreservable' with the relatively hollow call for 'some rights reserved. He also argued that Creative Commons enables license proliferation, by providing multiple licenses that are incompatible.


title: Creative Commons

text: The Creative Commons website states, "Since each of the six CC licenses functions differently, resources placed under different licenses may not necessarily be combined with one another without violating the license terms." Works licensed under incompatible licenses may not be recombined in a derivative work without obtaining permission from the copyright owner.


title: Creative Commons

text: Richard Stallman of the Free Software Foundation stated in 2005 that he couldn't support Creative Commons as an activity because "it adopted some additional licenses which do not give everyone that minimum freedom", that freedom being "the freedom to share, noncommercially, any published work". Those licenses have since been retired by Creative Commons.


title: Creative Commons

text: Creative Commons is only a service provider for standardized license text, not a party in any agreement. No central database of Creative Commons works is controlling all licensed works and the responsibility of the Creative Commons system rests entirely with those using the licences. This situation is, however, not specific to Creative Commons. All copyright owners must individually defend their rights and no central database of copyrighted works or existing license agreements exists. The United States Copyright Office does keep a database of all works registered with it, but absence of registration does not imply absence of copyright, and CC licensed works can be registered on the same terms as unlicensed works or works licensed under any other licences.


title: Creative Commons

text: Although Creative Commons offers multiple licenses for different uses, some critics suggested that the licenses still do not address the differences among the media or among the various concerns that different authors have.


title: Creative Commons

text: Lessig wrote that the point of Creative Commons is to provide a middle ground between two extreme views of copyright protection – one demanding that all rights be controlled, and the other arguing that none should be controlled. Creative Commons provides a third option that allows authors to pick and choose which rights they want to control and which they want to grant to others. The multitude of licenses reflects the multitude of rights that can be passed on to subsequent creators.


title: Creative Commons

text: Various commentators have reported confusion in understanding what "noncommercial" use means. Creative Commons issued a report in 2009, "Defining noncommercial", which presented research and various perspectives. The report claimed that noncommercial to many people means "no exchange of money or any commerce". Beyond that simple statement, many people disagree on whether noncommercial use permits publishing on websites supported with advertising, sharing noncommercial media through nonprofit publishing for a fee, and many other practices in contemporary media distribution. Creative Commons has not sought to resolve the confusion, in part because of high consumer demand for the noncommercial license as is with its ambiguity.


title: Creative Commons

text: In 2007, Virgin Mobile Australia launched a bus stop advertising campaign which promoted its mobile phone text messaging service using the work of amateur photographers who uploaded their work to the photo-sharing site Flickr using a Creative Commons by Attribution license. Users licensing their images this way freed their work for use by any other entity, as long as the original creator was attributed credit, without any other compensation being required. Virgin upheld this single restriction by printing a URL, leading to the photographer's Flickr page, on each of their ads. However, one picture depicted 15-year-old Alison Chang posing for a photo at her church's fund-raising carwash, with the superimposed, mocking slogan "Dump Your Pen Friend". Chang sued Virgin Mobile and Creative Commons. The photo was taken by Chang's church youth counsellor, Justin Ho-Wee Wong, who uploaded the image to Flickr under the Creative Commons license.


title: Creative Commons

text: On November 27, 2007, Chang voluntarily dismissed the lawsuit against Creative Commons, focusing the lawsuit only against Virgin Mobile. The case was thrown out of court due to lack of jurisdiction and subsequently Virgin Mobile did not incur any damages towards the plaintiff.


title: Jim Nabors

text: James Thurston Nabors (June 12, 1930 – November 30, 2017) was an American actor, singer, and comedian, widely known for his signature character, Gomer Pyle.


title: Jim Nabors

text: Nabors was discovered by Andy Griffith while working at a Santa Monica nightclub, and he later joined "The Andy Griffith Show", where he played the good-natured, unsophisticated Gomer Pyle. The character proved so popular that Nabors was given his own successful spin-off show, "Gomer Pyle, U.S.M.C."


title: Jim Nabors

text: Nabors also became a popular guest on variety shows that showcased his rich baritone singing voice in the 1960s and 1970s. He was the featured guest on every season premier of the "Carol Burnett Show" and he had two specials of his own in 1969 and 1974. He signed a recording contract with Columbia Records in 1965 and subsequently recorded numerous albums and singles, most of them containing romantic ballads. He recorded for Ranwood Records during the late 1970s.


title: Jim Nabors

text: Nabors was also known for singing "Back Home Again in Indiana" before the start of the Indianapolis 500, held annually on the Memorial Day weekend. He sang the unofficial Indiana anthem almost every year from 1972 to 2014, except for occasional absences due to illness or scheduling conflicts.


title: Jim Nabors

text: Nabors was born in Sylacauga, Alabama, on June 12, 1930, to Fred Nabors, a police officer, and Mavis Pearl (née Newman). He had two older sisters, Freddie and Annie Ruth. He sang for his high school and church. Later, he attended the University of Alabama, where he began acting in skits. While at Alabama, he became a member of Delta Tau Delta International Fraternity. After graduating, he moved to New York City, where he worked as a typist for the United Nations; after a year, he moved to Chattanooga, Tennessee, where he got his first job in television as a film cutter at NBC affiliate WRGP-TV (now WRCB-TV) and was also a substitute co-host on the show "Holiday for Housewives".


title: Jim Nabors

text: Because of his asthma, Nabors moved to Los Angeles and continued his work as a film cutter, this time for NBC. He also worked at a Santa Monica tavern, The Horn, singing and acting in cabaret theater. His act featured him as a character similar to the later Gomer Pyle. He sang in a baritone and sometimes spoke and sang in his higher-pitched comedic voice. At the club, comedian Bill Dana saw Nabors' act and invited him to appear on "The Steve Allen Show." Nabors signed on to the show, but it was soon canceled.


title: Jim Nabors

text: Nabors made his television debut as "Jimmy Nabors" on the "Today in Dixie" show on WJBF in Augusta, Georgia. He was active in the choir at Grace United Methodist Church in North Augusta.


title: Jim Nabors

text: Andy Griffith discovered Nabors at The Horn and hired him to play a one-shot role of Gomer Pyle, a dimwitted gas station attendant on "The Andy Griffith Show" (Season 3, episode 13, "The Bank Job"). Nabors' character was based on his act at The Horn, and it became so popular that he was made a regular on the show and was later given the spin-off show "Gomer Pyle, U.S.M.C.", in which his character joined the Marines. The show placed Nabors' bungling, naive character opposite Gunnery Sergeant Vince Carter (Frank Sutton).


title: Jim Nabors

text: "Gomer Pyle" remained popular despite the concurrence of the Vietnam War because the show avoided war-related themes and instead focused on the character's rural roots and the relationship between Pyle and Carter. Nabors resigned from "Gomer Pyle, U.S.M.C." after five seasons because he desired to move to something else, "reach for another rung on the ladder, either up or down."


title: Jim Nabors

text: Nabors first revealed his fine singing voice on the February 24, 1964, "The Song Festers" episode of "The Andy Griffith Show" and on April 8, 1964, on "The Danny Kaye Show," and subsequently capitalized on it with numerous successful recordings and live performances. Most of the songs were romantic ballads, though he sang pop, gospel, and country songs as well.


title: Jim Nabors

text: The climactic vocal performance on "Gomer Pyle, U.S.M.C." came in an episode titled "The Show Must Go On", aired November 3, 1967, in which Pyle sang "The Impossible Dream (The Quest)" in Washington, D.C., at a U.S. Navy relief show, accompanied by the Marine Corps Band. A clip from the show, in which Pyle says the tag-line "Surprise, surprise, surprise!" appears in the Pink Floyd album "The Wall" in the song "Nobody Home". He hosted a variety show, "The Jim Nabors Hour" (1969–1971), which featured his "Gomer Pyle" co-stars Ronnie Schell and Frank Sutton. Despite a poor critical reception, the show was popular and earned an Emmy nomination. After the cancellation of "The Jim Nabors Hour," Nabors embarked on a nationwide roadshow.


title: Jim Nabors

text: Typecast from his role as Gomer Pyle, Nabors found his subsequent roles mostly comedic. In the 1970s, he appeared in the children's television program "The Krofft Supershow". He appeared in every season premiere of "The Carol Burnett Show," because Burnett considered him a "good-luck charm". They were so close that he became the godfather to her daughter Jody.


title: Jim Nabors

text: In a 1973 episode of "The Rookies," he played his first dramatic role, a man called on to be an assassin after the death of his sister. Also in 1973, Nabors sang "The Star-Spangled Banner" before Game One of the Major League Baseball World Series. From 1977 to 1978, Nabors hosted another variety show, "The Jim Nabors Show." Though the show lasted only one season, Nabors was nominated for a Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Host or Hostess in a Talk, Service or Variety Series.


title: Jim Nabors

text: Nabors eventually grew tired of the "prime-time TV grind" and abandoned television jobs for nightclub and concert engagements and a role in a touring production of "Man of La Mancha". However, Sid and Marty Krofft persuaded Nabors to star in the Saturday-morning children's television show "The Lost Saucer," about two bumbling androids, Fi (Ruth Buzzi) and Fum (Nabors), who travel through time with two children. Nabors, whose character was described as a "Gomer Pyle in outer space", sang in a few of the episodes. Nabors also guest starred on episode 6 of season 1 of "The Muppet Show".


title: Jim Nabors

text: In the 1980s, Nabors appeared in three feature-length films starring his friend Burt Reynolds, at the latter's request. In "The Best Little Whorehouse in Texas" (1982), about a sheriff (Reynolds) who falls in love with a brothel madam (Dolly Parton), Nabors played Deputy Fred, a character similar to Gomer Pyle. Though the film was given mostly unfavorable reviews, Nabors garnered some positive comments for his performance.


title: Jim Nabors

text: In 1983, Nabors played an auto mechanic in "Stroker Ace," starring Burt Reynolds who is a NASCAR race car driver who has a contentious relationship with his team owner, a fried-chicken fast-food chain entrepreneur. The film was panned, and Nabors earned a Golden Raspberry Award for his performance. In Reynolds' star-studded "Cannonball Run II" (1984), about a cross-country car chase, Nabors made a cameo appearance alongside such celebrities as Dom DeLuise, Jackie Chan, Shirley MacLaine, Dean Martin, Frank Sinatra, and "Andy Griffith Show" co-stars Don Knotts and George Lindsey. Like the two previous Reynolds films Nabors appeared in, "Cannonball" received mostly negative reviews.


title: Jim Nabors

text: In 1986, Nabors returned to television, reprising his role as Gomer Pyle in the television movie "Return to Mayberry," in which the cast of "The Andy Griffith Show" reunited. Also in 1986, Nabors starred in the half-hour comedy pilot "Sylvan in Paradise" as the title character, Sylvan Sprayberry, an accident-prone bell captain at a Hawaiian hotel. The series was not picked up by NBC.


title: Jim Nabors

text: After moving to Hawaii from Bel Air, California, with his partner Stan Cadwallader in 1976, he launched a show, "The Jim Nabors Polynesian Extravaganza" at the Hilton Hawaiian Village, which ran for two years. Nabors eventually experienced "bright-light burnout" and disappeared from the stage, save for an occasional performance. In 1984, after a five-year hiatus, Nabors returned to performing, starring in the "Moulin Rouge" show at the Las Vegas Hilton and other shows in Reno and Las Vegas. In 1982, he made his theatrical debut as Harold Hill in "The Music Man" with Florence Henderson at the Burt Reynolds Dinner Theatre in Jupiter, Florida.


title: Jim Nabors

text: In 1994, Nabors suffered from a near-fatal case of hepatitis B. According to Nabors, he contracted the disease while traveling in India; he shaved with a straight razor and "whacked [his] face all up." The disease caused liver failure, and Nabors was given a dim prognosis; however, his friend Carol Burnett made contact with the head of the liver transplant division of University of California, Los Angeles, and gave Nabors the information. Nabors later became involved with the American Liver Foundation as a result of his experience.


title: Jim Nabors

text: Shortly after recovering from his transplant, Nabors embarked on another tour, with stops in Phoenix, St. Louis, and Washington. From 1997 to 2006, Nabors starred in the Burton White-produced "A Merry Christmas with Friends and Nabors," a live performance at the Hawaii Theatre Center in Honolulu. The production, featuring local and national artists, ran for 40 performances and was directed by Tom Hansen until Hansen's death in 2006. The final performance run was directed by John Rampage and dedicated to Hansen.


title: Jim Nabors

text: From 1972 to 2014, Nabors sang "Back Home Again in Indiana" with the Purdue All-American Marching Band before each Indianapolis 500 race. In March 2014, Nabors announced that the 2014 Indianapolis 500 would be his final appearance, because health issues were limiting his ability to travel. Since his retirement from this role, the singing of "Back Home Again in Indiana" was now done on a rotating basis (as it had been before Nabors became the regular performer), before a permanent replacement was named in Chicago Blackhawks anthem singer Jim Cornelison.


title: Jim Nabors

text: Nabors began vacationing in Hawaii in the 1960s, and in 1976, moved from Bel Air, California, to Honolulu, Hawaii. For 25 years, he owned a macadamia plantation on Maui before selling it to the National Tropical Botanical Garden, a conservationist organization, though he still retained farming rights to the land and owned a second home on the property.


title: Jim Nabors

text: On January 15, 2013, Nabors married his partner of 38 years, Stan Cadwallader, at the Fairmont Olympic Hotel in Seattle, Washington, a month after same-sex marriage became legal in Washington. They had met in the 1970s, when Cadwallader was a fireman in Honolulu, and began dating in 1975. Although Nabors's homosexuality was not widely known before this, it was also not completely secret. For instance, Nabors brought his then-partner Cadwallader along to his Indy 500 performance in 1978.


title: Jim Nabors

text: A longstanding rumor maintains that Nabors married actor Rock Hudson in the early 1970s, shortly before Nabors began his relationship with Cadwallader.


title: Jim Nabors

text: Not only was same-sex marriage not yet legal anywhere in the United States at the time, but the two closeted gay actors were, according to each other, never more than casual friends. According to Hudson, the story originated with a group of "middle-aged homosexuals who live in Huntington Beach", who sent out joke invitations for their annual get-together. One year, the group invited its members to witness "the marriage of Rock Hudson and Jim Nabors", at which Hudson would take the surname of Nabors' most famous character, Gomer Pyle, becoming "Rock Pyle". The rumors spread, and because of this the two made sure they were never seen in public together.


title: Jim Nabors

text: The United States Marine Corps released a statement on Nabors: "Semper Fi, Gomer Pyle. Rest in peace Jim Nabors, one of the few to ever be named an Honorary Marine." Second Lady of the United States and former First Lady of Indiana Karen Pence wrote a statement on Twitter: "So sad to hear about the passing of Jim Nabors. We heard him sing 'Back Home Again in Indiana' at the Indianapolis 500 countless times. We will miss his beautiful voice."


title: Jim Nabors

text: In an interview with "The Hollywood Reporter", Carol Burnett paid tribute to Nabors saying they were "close friends for 52 years. ... My heart is heavy. I'm grateful he was a large part of my life. I miss him. I love him." IndyCar driver Tony Kanaan praised Nabors's performance of "Back Home Again in Indiana". Journalist Larry King praised Nabors as a "gentle man with immense talent" while sending condolences to his family.


title: Jim Nabors

text: Nabors recorded 28 albums and numerous singles; three have been certified either gold or platinum by the RIAA.


title: Chi-squared distribution

text: In probability theory and statistics, the chi-squared distribution (also chi-square or formula_1-distribution) with formula_2 degrees of freedom is the distribution of a sum of the squares of formula_2 independent standard normal random variables. The chi-squared distribution is a special case of the gamma distribution and is one of the most widely used probability distributions in inferential statistics, notably in hypothesis testing and in construction of confidence intervals. This distribution is sometimes called the central chi-squared distribution, a special case of the more general noncentral chi-squared distribution.


title: Chi-squared distribution

text: The chi-squared distribution is used in the common chi-squared tests for goodness of fit of an observed distribution to a theoretical one, the independence of two criteria of classification of qualitative data, and in confidence interval estimation for a population standard deviation of a normal distribution from a sample standard deviation. Many other statistical tests also use this distribution, such as Friedman's analysis of variance by ranks.


title: Chi-squared distribution

text: is distributed according to the chi-squared distribution with degrees of freedom. This is usually denoted as


title: Chi-squared distribution

text: The chi-squared distribution has one parameter: a positive integer that specifies the number of degrees of freedom (the number of random variables being summed, "Z" s).


title: Chi-squared distribution

text: The chi-squared distribution is used primarily in hypothesis testing, and to a lesser extent for confidence intervals for population variance when the underlying distribution is normal. Unlike more widely known distributions such as the normal distribution and the exponential distribution, the chi-squared distribution is not as often applied in the direct modeling of natural phenomena. It arises in the following hypothesis tests, among others:


title: Chi-squared distribution

text: It is also a component of the definition of the "t"-distribution and the "F"-distribution used in "t"-tests, analysis of variance, and regression analysis.


title: Chi-squared distribution

text: The primary reason for which the chi-squared distribution is extensively used in hypothesis testing is its relationship to the normal distribution. Many hypothesis tests use a test statistic, such as the "t"-statistic in a "t"-test. For these hypothesis tests, as the sample size, , increases, the sampling distribution of the test statistic approaches the normal distribution (central limit theorem). Because the test statistic (such as ) is asymptotically normally distributed, provided the sample size is sufficiently large, the distribution used for hypothesis testing may be approximated by a normal distribution. Testing hypotheses using a normal distribution is well understood and relatively easy. The simplest chi-squared distribution is the square of a standard normal distribution. So wherever a normal distribution could be used for a hypothesis test, a chi-squared distribution could be used.


title: Chi-squared distribution

text: Suppose that formula_6 is a random variable sampled from the standard normal distribution, where the mean is formula_7 and the variance is formula_8: formula_9. Now, consider the random variable formula_10. The distribution of the random variable formula_11 is an example of a chi-squared distribution: formula_12. The subscript 1 indicates that this particular chi-squared distribution is constructed from only 1 standard normal distribution. A chi-squared distribution constructed by squaring a single standard normal distribution is said to have 1 degree of freedom. Thus, as the sample size for a hypothesis test increases, the distribution of the test statistic approaches a normal distribution. Just as extreme values of the normal distribution have low probability (and give small p-values), extreme values of the chi-squared distribution have low probability.


title: Chi-squared distribution

text: An additional reason that the chi-squared distribution is widely used is that it turns up as the large sample distribution of generalized likelihood ratio tests (LRT). LRTs have several desirable properties; in particular, simple LRTs commonly provide the highest power to reject the null hypothesis (Neyman–Pearson lemma) and this leads also to optimality properties of generalised LRTs. However, the normal and chi-squared approximations are only valid asymptotically. For this reason, it is preferable to use the "t" distribution rather than the normal approximation or the chi-squared approximation for a small sample size. Similarly, in analyses of contingency tables, the chi-squared approximation will be poor for a small sample size, and it is preferable to use Fisher's exact test. Ramsey shows that the exact binomial test is always more powerful than the normal approximation.


title: Chi-squared distribution

text: Lancaster shows the connections among the binomial, normal, and chi-squared distributions, as follows. De Moivre and Laplace established that a binomial distribution could be approximated by a normal distribution. Specifically they showed the asymptotic normality of the random variable


title: Chi-squared distribution

text: where formula_14 is the observed number of successes in formula_15 trials, where the probability of success is formula_16, and formula_17.


title: Chi-squared distribution

text: formula_24 = Pearson's cumulative test statistic, which asymptotically approaches a formula_1 distribution;


title: Chi-squared distribution

text: formula_28 = the expected (theoretical) frequency of type formula_27, asserted by the null hypothesis that the fraction of type formula_27 in the population is formula_31; and


title: Chi-squared distribution

text: In the case of a binomial outcome (flipping a coin), the binomial distribution may be approximated by a normal distribution (for sufficiently large formula_33). Because the square of a standard normal distribution is the chi-squared distribution with one degree of freedom, the probability of a result such as 1 heads in 10 trials can be approximated either by using the normal distribution directly, or the chi-squared distribution for the normalised, squared difference between observed and expected value. However, many problems involve more than the two possible outcomes of a binomial, and instead require 3 or more categories, which leads to the multinomial distribution. Just as de Moivre and Laplace sought for and found the normal approximation to the binomial, Pearson sought for and found a degenerate multivariate normal approximation to the multinomial distribution (the numbers in each category add up to the total sample size, which is considered fixed). Pearson showed that the chi-squared distribution arose from such a multivariate normal approximation to the multinomial distribution, taking careful account of the statistical dependence (negative correlations) between numbers of observations in different categories.


title: Chi-squared distribution

text: For derivations of the pdf in the cases of one, two and formula_2 degrees of freedom, see Proofs related to chi-squared distribution.


title: Chi-squared distribution

text: where formula_39 is the lower incomplete gamma function and formula_40 is the regularized gamma function.


title: Chi-squared distribution

text: which can be easily derived by integrating formula_43 directly. The integer recurrence of the gamma function makes it easy to compute formula_44 for other small, even formula_2.


title: Chi-squared distribution

text: Tables of the chi-squared cumulative distribution function are widely available and the function is included in many spreadsheets and all statistical packages.


title: Chi-squared distribution

text: Letting formula_46, Chernoff bounds on the lower and upper tails of the CDF may be obtained. For the cases when formula_47 (which include all of the cases when this CDF is less than half):


title: Chi-squared distribution

text: For another approximation for the CDF modeled after the cube of a Gaussian, see under Noncentral chi-squared distribution.


title: Chi-squared distribution

text: It follows from the definition of the chi-squared distribution that the sum of independent chi-squared variables is also chi-squared distributed. Specifically, if formula_53 are independent chi-squared variables with formula_54, formula_55 degrees of freedom, respectively, then formula_56 is chi-squared distributed with formula_57 degrees of freedom.


title: Chi-squared distribution

text: The sample mean of formula_33 i.i.d. chi-squared variables of degree formula_2 is distributed according to a gamma distribution with shape formula_60 and scale formula_61 parameters:


title: Chi-squared distribution

text: Asymptotically, given that for a scale parameter formula_63 going to infinity, a Gamma distribution converges towards a normal distribution with expectation formula_64 and variance formula_65, the sample mean converges towards:


title: Chi-squared distribution

text: Note that we would have obtained the same result invoking instead the central limit theorem, noting that for each chi-squared variable of degree formula_2 the expectation is formula_68 , and its variance formula_69 (and hence the variance of the sample mean formula_70 being formula_71).


title: Chi-squared distribution

text: The chi-squared distribution is the maximum entropy probability distribution for a random variate formula_74 for which formula_75 and formula_76 are fixed. Since the chi-squared is in the family of gamma distributions, this can be derived by substituting appropriate values in the Expectation of the log moment of gamma. For derivation from more basic principles, see the derivation in moment-generating function of the sufficient statistic.


title: Chi-squared distribution

text: The cumulants are readily obtained by a (formal) power series expansion of the logarithm of the characteristic function:


title: Chi-squared distribution

text: The chi-squared distribution exhibits strong concentration around its mean. The standard Laurent-Massart bounds are:


title: Chi-squared distribution

text: By the central limit theorem, because the chi-squared distribution is the sum of formula_2 independent random variables with finite mean and variance, it converges to a normal distribution for large formula_2. For many practical purposes, for formula_84 the distribution is sufficiently close to a normal distribution, so the difference is ignorable. Specifically, if formula_85, then as formula_2 tends to infinity, the distribution of formula_87 tends to a standard normal distribution. However, convergence is slow as the skewness is formula_88 and the excess kurtosis is formula_89.


title: Chi-squared distribution

text: The sampling distribution of formula_90 converges to normality much faster than the sampling distribution of formula_1, as the logarithmic transform removes much of the asymmetry.


title: Chi-squared distribution

text: Other functions of the chi-squared distribution converge more rapidly to a normal distribution. Some examples are:


title: Chi-squared distribution

text: A chi-squared variable with formula_2 degrees of freedom is defined as the sum of the squares of formula_2 independent standard normal random variables.


title: Chi-squared distribution

text: If formula_140 is a formula_2-dimensional Gaussian random vector with mean vector formula_142 and rank formula_2 covariance matrix formula_144, then formula_145 is chi-squared distributed with formula_2 degrees of freedom.


title: Chi-squared distribution

text: The sum of squares of statistically independent unit-variance Gaussian variables which do "not" have mean zero yields a generalization of the chi-squared distribution called the noncentral chi-squared distribution.


title: Chi-squared distribution

text: If formula_140 is a vector of formula_2 i.i.d. standard normal random variables and formula_149 is a formula_150 symmetric, idempotent matrix with rank formula_151, then the quadratic form formula_152 is chi-square distributed with formula_151 degrees of freedom.


title: Chi-squared distribution

text: If formula_154 is a formula_155 positive-semidefinite covariance matrix with strictly positive diagonal entries, then for formula_156 and formula_157 a random formula_16-vector independent of formula_74 such that formula_160 and formula_161 it holds that


title: Chi-squared distribution

text: The chi-squared distribution is also naturally related to other distributions arising from the Gaussian. In particular,


title: Chi-squared distribution

text: The chi-squared distribution is obtained as the sum of the squares of independent, zero-mean, unit-variance Gaussian random variables. Generalizations of this distribution can be obtained by summing the squares of other types of Gaussian random variables. Several such distributions are described below.


title: Chi-squared distribution

text: If formula_174 are chi square random variables and formula_175, then a closed expression for the distribution of formula_176 is not known. It may be, however, approximated efficiently using the property of characteristic functions of chi-square random variables.


title: Chi-squared distribution

text: The noncentral chi-squared distribution is obtained from the sum of the squares of independent Gaussian random variables having unit variance and "nonzero" means.


title: Chi-squared distribution

text: The generalized chi-squared distribution is obtained from the quadratic form where is a zero-mean Gaussian vector having an arbitrary covariance matrix, and is an arbitrary matrix.


title: Chi-squared distribution

text: The chi-squared distribution formula_177 is a special case of the gamma distribution, in that formula_178 using the rate parameterization of the gamma distribution (or


title: Chi-squared distribution

text: Because the exponential distribution is also a special case of the gamma distribution, we also have that if formula_180, then formula_181 is an exponential distribution.


title: Chi-squared distribution

text: The Erlang distribution is also a special case of the gamma distribution and thus we also have that if formula_182 with even formula_183, then formula_184 is Erlang distributed with shape parameter formula_185 and scale parameter formula_186.


title: Chi-squared distribution

text: The chi-squared distribution has numerous applications in inferential statistics, for instance in chi-squared tests and in estimating variances. It enters the problem of estimating the mean of a normally distributed population and the problem of estimating the slope of a regression line via its role in Student's t-distribution. It enters all analysis of variance problems via its role in the F-distribution, which is the distribution of the ratio of two independent chi-squared random variables, each divided by their respective degrees of freedom.


title: Chi-squared distribution

text: Following are some of the most common situations in which the chi-squared distribution arises from a Gaussian-distributed sample.


title: Chi-squared distribution

text: The "p"-value is the probability of observing a test statistic "at least" as extreme in a chi-squared distribution. Accordingly, since the cumulative distribution function (CDF) for the appropriate degrees of freedom "(df)" gives the probability of having obtained a value "less extreme" than this point, subtracting the CDF value from 1 gives the "p"-value. A low "p"-value, below the chosen significance level, indicates statistical significance, i.e., sufficient evidence to reject the null hypothesis. A significance level of 0.05 is often used as the cutoff between significant and non-significant results.


title: Chi-squared distribution

text: The table below gives a number of "p"-values matching to formula_192 for the first 10 degrees of freedom.


title: Chi-squared distribution

text: These values can be calculated evaluating the quantile function (also known as "inverse CDF" or "ICDF") of the chi-squared distribution; e. g., the ICDF for and yields as in the table above, noticing that is the "p"-value from the table.


title: Chi-squared distribution

text: This distribution was first described by the German geodesist and statistician Friedrich Robert Helmert in papers of 1875–6, where he computed the sampling distribution of the sample variance of a normal population. Thus in German this was traditionally known as the "Helmert'sche" ("Helmertian") or "Helmert distribution".


title: Chi-squared distribution

text: The distribution was independently rediscovered by the English mathematician Karl Pearson in the context of goodness of fit, for which he developed his Pearson's chi-squared test, published in 1900, with computed table of values published in , collected in .


title: Chi-squared distribution

text: The name "chi-square" ultimately derives from Pearson's shorthand for the exponent in a multivariate normal distribution with the Greek letter Chi, writing for what would appear in modern notation as (Σ being the covariance matrix). The idea of a family of "chi-squared distributions", however, is not due to Pearson but arose as a further development due to Fisher in the 1920s.


title: Burn Gorman

text: Burn Hugh Winchester Gorman (born 1 September 1974) is an English actor and musician. He is known for his roles as Owen Harper in the BBC series "Torchwood" (2006–2008), Phillip Stryver in "The Dark Knight Rises" (2012), Karl Tanner in the HBO series "Game of Thrones" (2013–2014), Hermann Gottlieb in "Pacific Rim" (2013) and its sequel "" (2018) and Major Edmund Hewlett in the AMC series "" (2014). Gorman portrayed 'The Marshal' in the first season of the Amazon drama "The Man in the High Castle".


title: Burn Gorman

text: Burn Hugh Winchester Gorman was born on 1 September 1974 in Los Angeles, California, the son of English parents. His father was a professor of linguistics at UCLA. He has three older sisters. He has reportedly claimed to be the nephew of Bartley Gorman, considered "King of the Gypsies". At the age of 7, he moved with his family back to England, where they settled in London. He later trained at the Manchester School of Theatre at Manchester Metropolitan University.


title: Burn Gorman

text: One of Gorman's earliest television roles was in 1998 as Etheric Foundation cult leader Ben Andrews in Granada TV's "Coronation Street". He played William Guppy in the 2005 BBC One adaptation of Charles Dickens' "Bleak House", and then appeared as Owen Harper in the first two seasons of the BBC science fiction series "Torchwood". Other BBC television roles include "Lark Rise to Candleford", "Funland" and "Bonekickers"; he also appeared in Channel 4's political thriller "Low Winter Sun".


title: Burn Gorman

text: Gorman played scriptwriter Ray Galton in the BBC Four television play "The Curse of Steptoe". He has also appeared in television series such as "Dalziel and Pascoe", "Casualty", "Merseybeat" and "The Inspector Lynley Mysteries".


title: Burn Gorman

text: Gorman played Jed on the soap opera "EastEnders" in March 2007. He starred as Hindley Earnshaw in the ITV adaptation of Emily Brontë's "Wuthering Heights". In 2011, he starred in Sky1's second Martina Cole adaptation, "The Runaway" and in 2014, portrayed Adam, the lead character's stalker and fellow immortal, in ABC's "Forever". He played Karl Tanner in seasons 3 and 4 of HBO's "Game of Thrones", Major Hewlett in the AMC miniseries "" and Nicholas Farlow on the BBC miniseries "Jamestown".


title: Burn Gorman

text: On film, Gorman has had roles in "Layer Cake", "The Best Man", "Penelope", "Fred Claus", "Cemetery Junction" and "The Dark Knight Rises". He also appeared as Dr. Hermann Gottlieb in the film "Pacific Rim" and its sequel "".


title: Burn Gorman

text: On radio, Gorman played Elizabethan spy Robert Poley in Michael Butt's "The Babington Plot" (2008) and "Unauthorized History: The Killing" (2010) and Mike Walker's "The Reckoning: The Death of Christopher Marlowe" (2022).


title: Burn Gorman

text: Gorman's stage credits include "Ladybird" (Royal Court), "Flush" (Soho Theatre), and "Gong Donkeys" (Bush Theatre), prompting Michael Billington of "The Guardian" to write that "Gorman proves that he is one of the best young actors in Britain". He has performed in readings, workshops, and development initiatives with the National Theatre Studio, Young Vic, Royal Court, Oxford Stage Company, Paines Plough and Soho Theatre. Outside London, he has worked with Nottingham Playhouse, the Theatre Royal, Plymouth and the Royal Exchange and Contact Theatres, where he was nominated for a "Manchester Evening News" Best Newcomer Award.


title: Burn Gorman

text: From 2008 to 2009, Gorman played Bill Sikes in the West End revival of the musical "Oliver!" for which he was nominated for Best Supporting Actor in a Musical in the 2010 Whatsonstage Theatre Awards.


title: Burn Gorman

text: Gorman married schoolteacher Sarah Beard on 17 July 2004. They have three children, two girls and a boy. Their first child, Max, was born in Cardiff, where Gorman was filming the first series of "Torchwood". They separated and divorced in 2017.


title: Chalino Sánchez

text: Rosalino "Chalino" Sánchez Félix (30 August 1960 – 16 May 1992), was a Mexican singer-songwriter. Posthumously called "El Rey del Corrido", he is widely considered one of the most influential narcocorrido singers of the late 20th century. Chalino was an initial pioneer in the narcocorrido genre. His songs mostly contend stories of murder and organized crime in nineteenth and twenty century Northern Mexico, including topics such as the Mexican Revolution, drug cartels, drug trafficking, murders, serial killers, Mexican standoffs, gambling, and murder-suicides. During a stint at La Mesa Prison, Chalino began composing songs for inmates that had stories they wanted to preserve in a ballad. Chalino also composed and sang romantic and radio-friendly songs.


title: Chalino Sánchez

text: Sánchez was born in Sinaloa to Santos Sánchez and Sannorina Félix. The youngest of the Sánchez family, Rosalino had aspirations of musical notoriety from a young age. In 1984, Armando, Chalino's brother, was murdered in a hotel in Tijuana, inspiring him to compose his first corrido "Recordando A Armando Sánchez". Eventually, Chalino began to profit via his compositions and would often be gifted with guns and 'presents' by his customers. Prior to his brothers' murder, Chalino was introduced to Ángel Parra, who became interested in his musical talents after hearing a performance. Ángel Parra arranged for Chalino to have a meeting at his studio Angel Studios and began recording his first demo cassette with a norteño group named Los Cuatro de la Frontera. By 1989, Sánchez was recognized throughout California and received many requests to sing in various music venues.


title: Chalino Sánchez

text: Chalino performed in various venues in California, such as the El Parral Nightclub in South Gate, California, El Puma De Sinaloa, and El Farallón. He also performed at the Keystone Ford Show and Noches de Taconazo. Around this time, he formed Los Amables del Norte, arguably producing his most acclaimed music while associated with them. He signed with numerous record labels, such as Discos Linda, Cintas Acuario, RR, Balboa Records Edimusa, and Musart. It was during the early 1990s that Sánchez received the nickname "Rey de Los Corridos" (King of the Corridos) and was regarded as one of Mexico's greatest singers. On January 25, 1992, Sánchez was attacked by Eduardo Gallegos (32) while performing at the Plaza Los Arcos restaurant and nightclub. Sánchez was shot twice near his armpit, striking his lung, ensuing a gunfight. Chalino initially missed Gallegos and accidentally struck 20-year-old Claudio Rene Carranza in the right leg striking the main artery, later killing him. The shooting made headlines in regional English-language newspapers and "ABC World News Tonight". After the shooting, Chalino saw success with his sales and began getting airplay.


title: Chalino Sánchez

text: Rosalino was shot and killed on May 16, 1992, by unidentified assailants, presumably hours after a performance at the Salon Bugambilias in Culiacán.


title: Chalino Sánchez

text: Rosalino Sánchez Félix was born on "Las Flechas", a small ranch in Sinaloa. He was the youngest of 7 children. His parents were Santos Sanchez (?–1964) and Senorina Felix (?–1991). Chalino grew up poor and lived a difficult life. His sister, Juana, called him a curious and mischievous child who always dreamed about becoming a singer. His birth name is Rosalino, but he preferred his nickname Chalino. since Rosalino sounded too feminine for Sanchez.


title: Chalino Sánchez

text: In 1975 when he was 15, his sister was raped by "Chapo" Perez. Two years later in 1977, a 17-year-old Chalino saw the man at a party and allegedly shot him in revenge, killing him. After committing this act, Sanchez left for Tijuana with his gun and a Jesús Malverde chain. During his time in Tijuana, he worked as a "coyote" (an immigrant smuggler), taking immigrants into the United States.


title: Chalino Sánchez

text: The same year, Chalino himself crossed into the United States as an undocumented migrant worker. He began in Oregon and later moved to Los Angeles to live with his aunt in Inglewood, California. He washed dishes, sold cars, and, according to his friends, dealt small quantities of marijuana and cocaine. He also helped his older brother, Armando, run an immigrant-smuggling operation.


title: Chalino Sánchez

text: Chalino met Marisela Vallejos through his cousin, Rosalba; in 1984 they married in a simple and intimate wedding. They married with their son, Adán Sánchez, on the way and had a second child, Cynthia Sanchez. They were married until Chalino Sanchez's death in 1992.


title: Chalino Sánchez

text: In 1984, Armando was shot and killed in a hotel in Tijuana, which inspired Chalino to compose his first corrido or ballad. Around this time, Chalino was arrested. He began composing songs for his fellow inmates and anyone withd a story worth telling. Chalino began to earn money through his compositions and would be gifted with guns and 'presents' by his customers. Among his many customers are Lucio Villareal, El Pelavacas, and Jorge "El Coquio" Castro. A small group known as "Los Cuatro de la Frontera" recommended Chalino go to a recording studio in Olympic Boulevard in Los Angeles. The studio was called San Angel Records and was owned by Angel Mariscal. Originally another artist was meant to sing Chalino's songs, but he canceled, so Chalino sang his own songs.


title: Chalino Sánchez

text: In 1989, Chalino recorded his first cassette of 15 songs. While selling his cassettes out of his car trunk, Chalino stocked tapes at local swapmeets, bakeries, and various other businesses across South Central Los Angeles. Chalino connected with another Mexican immigrant, Pedro Rivera, who had set up a small recording studio in Long Beach, California. Called Cintas Acuario, this studio allowed aspiring musicians to record for cheap.


title: Chalino Sánchez

text: Chalino and Rivera pioneered the "prohibited corridos" (corrido prohibido), songs that mythologized drug smugglers, murderers, or "valientes". The Cintas Acuario roster (which later included Pedro’s children, Lupillo, Juan, and the late Jenni Rivera) was not initially aired on radio, but they became the foundation of the Latino genre in Los Angeles.


title: Chalino Sánchez

text: Promoters across the Southland quickly sought to book Chalino at their clubs. Chalino sang his songs in his cadence and Sinaoloan slang, something no big singer had ever tried to do.


title: Chalino Sánchez

text: On 25 January 1992, Chalino was performing at the Plaza Los Arcos restaurant and nightclub in the desert city of Coachella, 120 miles east of Los Angeles. Reportedly Chalino was set to perform at 10 pm on the main stage. At around 7 pm, the event center was at maximum capacity as four hundred people were in attendance.


title: Chalino Sánchez

text: During his performance, Chalino began taking song requests from the audience. Shortly before midnight, Eduardo Gallegos, 32, a local unemployed mechanic from Thermal, California, under the influence of heroin and alcohol, requested "El Gallo de Sinaloa". Immediately afterwards, Gallegos jumped up on stage and pointed a .25 caliber pistol at Chalino. In retaliation, Chalino pulled his 10 mm pistol from his waistband and began a gun battle.


title: Chalino Sánchez

text: Gallegos' first four shots hit Chalino twice in the chest near his armpit striking his lung, and one bullet hit accordionist Ignacio "Nacho" Hernandez in the thigh. Chalino's shots missed Gallegos and accidentally struck 20-year-old Claudio Rene Carranza in the right leg hitting the main artery. He was later pronounced dead at John F. Kennedy Memorial Hospital. Sanchez and Gallegos opened fire at each other while ensuing in a brief chase into the crowd below. Nine to fifteen shots were fired and around seven more people were reportedly hit in the exchange as well. Gallegos was wrestled to the floor by a bystander until Gallegos was eventually shot in the face with his own pistol. Gallegos and Sanchez were both listed as critical and both transported to Desert Regional Hospital, in Palm Springs.


title: Chalino Sánchez

text: Chalino Sanchez, was in the Hospital for 11 days and was released home without any charges due to a self-defense claim.


title: Chalino Sánchez

text: Eduardo Gallegos, who survived his wounds, was convicted of attempted murder and was sentenced to 15 years to life in prison.


title: Chalino Sánchez

text: The shooting made "ABC World News Tonight" as well as both English- and Spanish-language newspapers. Chalino saw success with his sales and began getting airplay, although it was a single, old-fashioned, non-narco song called “Nieves de Enero”. For his next Los Angeles appearance at El Parral, doors had to close at 6 pm, 5–6 hours before he was due on stage.


title: Chalino Sánchez

text: On 15 May 1992, four months after the Coachella incident and during a performance at the Salon Bugambilias in Culiacán, Chalino was handed a note from someone in the crowd. The note is believed to have been a death threat. A video recording of the song "Alma Enamorada" shows Chalino crumpling up the note before singing the song. After midnight, Chalino drove away from the club with two of his brothers, a cousin, and several young women. They were pulled over by a group of armed men in black Chevrolet Suburbans. They showed state police ID cards and told Chalino their commandant wanted to see him. Chalino agreed and got into one of their cars while the others followed behind.


title: Chalino Sánchez

text: The following day, at six in the morning, two farmers found Chalino's body by an irrigation canal near Highway 15, near the neighborhood of Los Laureles, Culiacán. He was blindfolded and his wrists had rope marks. He had been shot in the back of the head twice.


title: Chalino Sánchez

text: Chalino's son Adán Sánchez followed his father's footsteps and was also a successful Regional Mexican singer; he passed away suddenly due to injuries sustained in a car accident at the age of 19.


title: Chalino Sánchez

text: Since his death, his fame and recordings have grown in popularity. Chalino still amasses millions of streams 3 decades after his death and remains popular with young Hispanic listeners.


title: Oscar (footballer, born 1991)

text: Oscar dos Santos Emboaba Júnior (; born 9 September 1991), known mononymously as Oscar, is a Brazilian professional footballer who plays an attacking midfielder for Chinese Super League club Shanghai Port.


title: Oscar (footballer, born 1991)

text: Oscar began his career at São Paulo, and in 2009, he went to court against the club due to irregularities in his contract. After a series of controversies, he left for Internacional, where he spent the next three years of his career. His displays for club and country led to him signing for Chelsea for a fee of R$61.575 million. After four-and-a-half years with Chelsea, he signed for Chinese Super League side then known as Shanghai SIPG for an Asian transfer record £67 million in January 2017.


title: Oscar (footballer, born 1991)

text: He is a Brazilian international and has represented his country at the under-20 level, at the 2012 London Olympics and at senior level. On 20 August 2011, Oscar scored three goals in the 2011 FIFA U-20 World Cup final win against Portugal, becoming the first player to score a hat-trick in the FIFA U-20 World Cup final. Oscar later described his performances at the tournament as being a "gateway to the senior side." His playing style and ability have drawn comparison to compatriot Kaká. He made his senior debut for Brazil in 2011 and was a member of the team that won the 2013 FIFA Confederations Cup and that finished fourth at the 2014 FIFA World Cup, both on home soil.


title: Oscar (footballer, born 1991)

text: Born in Americana, Oscar came through the youth academy at União Barbarense and impressed from an early age. Oscar was spotted by talent scouts who took him to the state capital where he subsequently joined São Paulo in 2004 at the age of 13.


title: Oscar (footballer, born 1991)

text: He made his professional debut on 28 August 2008, in the second leg of the first stage of the Copa Sudamericana. He played the full 90 minutes of the goalless draw with Atlético Paranaense at the Arena da Baixada, but he and Juninho had their attempts saved by Vinícius in the penalty shootout, eliminating their team. His domestic debut came on 13 March 2009, filling in for Jean for the final eight minutes of a 5–0 home win over Mirassol in the Campeonato Paulista. That year, he also made 11 substitute appearances for the team in the Campeonato Brasileiro Série A.


title: Oscar (footballer, born 1991)

text: Initially, Oscar joined Internacional after a contractual dispute with his former club São Paulo, with Oscar's agent claiming that the club had not paid salaries as promised. Oscar's representatives argued that his contract with São Paulo was null and void whereupon Oscar joined Internacional as a free agent. São Paulo continued to claim that Oscar belonged to them and lodged legal appeals which prevented Oscar from playing for Internacional in vital Copa Libertadores fixtures. Eventually, a settlement was agreed upon between São Paulo and Internacional on 30 May 2012, severing his contract for a fee of €6 million.


title: Oscar (footballer, born 1991)

text: Oscar's first season at Internacional was blighted by injury. On 23 February 2011, as an 80th-minute substitute for Leandro Damião, he scored his first goal for the club to conclude a 4–0 home win over Jaguares de Chiapas at the start of Inter's defence of the Copa Libertadores. He added two more goals in the competition before their elimination in the last 16 by Peñarol. His first goals in domestic football came on 5 June, a brace in a 4–2 win over América-MG in the third game of the Série A season; he finished the season with 10 goals from 26 games.


title: Oscar (footballer, born 1991)

text: On 16 July 2012, Chelsea agreed on a fee of R$61.575 million for Oscar. (according to several media, the fee was estimated for £19 million or £25 million) On 25 July, Chelsea announced the signing of Oscar on a five-year contract. On 19 August 2012, Oscar made his debut for Chelsea by coming on in the 64th minute for fellow debutant, Eden Hazard in their opening game of the 2012–13 season against Wigan Athletic.


title: Oscar (footballer, born 1991)

text: Oscar made his first start of the season on 19 September in Chelsea's first Champions League match against Juventus. After making the match 1–0 in favour of Chelsea with a deflected effort, he added a second, which curled over Juventus keeper Gianluigi Buffon, to make it 2–0 at Stamford Bridge. However the game ended in a 2–2 draw, but he was awarded Man of the Match. He commented on his second goal, saying, "I am very happy with two goals on my debut but I would have been much happier if the team had won the game. In Brazil, young boys dream of playing in the Champions League and I'm very proud to have realised my dream."


title: Oscar (footballer, born 1991)

text: Three days later, Oscar then made his first Premier League start in a 1–0 victory over Stoke City. Following his good performances, Oscar became a regular starter in Roberto Di Matteo's creative midfield triumvirate with Juan Mata and Eden Hazard. He scored his third goal of the season, in the Champions League, in Chelsea's 2–1 away defeat away to Shakhtar Donetsk in Donetsk, and continued his scoring record in Europe by scoring into an open net from 40 yards out in the reverse fixture against Shakhtar at Stamford Bridge, a match which Chelsea won 3–2. Oscar also scored in Europe in ultimately Chelsea's last Champions League fixture, making the score 6–1 for Chelsea against debutants Nordsjælland.


title: Oscar (footballer, born 1991)

text: After the sacking of manager Di Matteo on 21 November, interim manager Rafael Benítez only started Oscar three times in his first seven games. Benítez praised Oscar's attitude after dropping him for the FIFA Club World Cup Final against Corinthians and believed there was no rift between himself and the player. He scored his first Premier League goal for the club on 23 December, scoring a penalty during an 8–0 win against Aston Villa.


title: Oscar (footballer, born 1991)

text: On 14 February 2013, less than a minute after coming off the bench to replace Mata, Oscar exchanged passes with Hazard before finishing past Tomáš Vaclík, breaking the deadlock and handing Chelsea a 1–0 away victory over Sparta Praha in the first leg of their Europa League Round of 32 clash. On 15 May, Oscar played the full ninety minutes as Chelsea defeated Benfica 2–1 in the Europa League final in Amsterdam, securing his first piece of silverware with the London club. The following day, his goal against Juventus in the Champions League was named the Chelsea "Goal of the Season."


title: Oscar (footballer, born 1991)

text: In the first match of the 2013–14 season on 18 August, Oscar scored Chelsea's opening goal in a 2–0 win over Hull City. He opened the scoring against local rivals Fulham in a 2–1 win on 21 September. On 1 January 2014 Oscar put in a match-winning performance against Southampton at St Mary's Stadium, scoring one and assisting two as Chelsea won the match 0–3. However, he was booked in that match for diving. Oscar scored fourth and fifth goals in Chelsea's 6–0 victory over Arsenal on 23 March, which was Arsène Wenger's 1000th match in charge of the club.


title: Oscar (footballer, born 1991)

text: Before the start of the 2014–15 season, Oscar's shirt number 11 was given back to the returning Didier Drogba, and he instead took the number 8 vacated by Frank Lampard earlier in the summer. He said "Didier is a Chelsea legend and a senior player. I am happy for him to take the 11 and for me to take the 8. Lamps is another legend at this club and I hope I will be as successful in the shirt as he was." His early season success was rewarded in November as he signed a new contract with the club keeping him with the Blues until the end of the 2018–19 season. Oscar scored twice in the first half of Chelsea's 5–0 away win at Swansea City on 17 January 2015, exploiting a wayward pass by Gylfi Sigurðsson to open the scoring after 50 seconds. On 26 April, he was hospitalised after suffering a head injury following a collision with opposing goalkeeper David Ospina in a 0–0 away draw against Arsenal in the Premier League; he was released the following day.


title: Oscar (footballer, born 1991)

text: Oscar scored Chelsea's first goal of the next season in an eventual 2–2 home draw with Swansea, being substituted early in the second half after the dismissal of goalkeeper Thibaut Courtois. On 16 September, he scored a penalty in a 4–0 win over Maccabi Tel Aviv in the first game of the Champions League group stage. He, Diego Costa and Cesc Fàbregas were abused by supporters who believed that the trio's slump in form had cost the job of popular manager José Mourinho; in the first game since his dismissal, on 26 December, Oscar slipped and missed a spot kick in a 2–2 home draw against Watford. The following 31 January, Oscar scored a first-half hat-trick in a 5–1 win at Milton Keynes Dons in the fourth round of the FA Cup.


title: Oscar (footballer, born 1991)

text: On 26 October 2016, Oscar made his 200th appearance for Chelsea in a 2–1 League Cup defeat to West Ham United.


title: Oscar (footballer, born 1991)

text: On 23 December 2016, Chinese Super League side Shanghai SIPG officially confirmed that the club had agreed on terms with Chelsea for the transfer of Oscar, to be completed during the January transfer window for a reported £67 million. The fee represented an Asian transfer record. Oscar was reported to have signed a four-year contract with a weekly salary of £400,000, equivalent to an annual salary of £20.8 million (US$26.5 million). The contract placed Oscar amongst the highest paid footballers in the world, annually during his 4-year tenure with the club. After signing for Shanghai SIPG, Oscar revealed that various European clubs were interested in signing him but decided to play in China as “China has incredible financial power and sometimes makes offers that players can’t refuse.” He subsequently mentioned that he was more concerned about his family, than of his own career. Furthermore, he added that after completing his contract with Shanghai SIPG, he was interested in returning to Europe as he remained motivated to play football at a high level.


title: Oscar (footballer, born 1991)

text: The Brazilian made an immediate impression for his new club, scoring on his friendly debut against Saudi Arabian side Al-Batin. Oscar made his official debut on 7 February 2017 and scored the first goal of a 3–0 win over Thai club Sukhothai in the 2017 AFC Champions League qualifying play-off. On 11 April 2017, Oscar missed two penalty kicks as his team lost 1–0 in an AFC Champions League match against Urawa Red Diamonds. He scored his first domestic league goal for SIPG with a penalty on 21 April 2017 in a 3–0 home win against Hebei China Fortune. In a league match between Shanghai SIPG and Guangzhou R&F on 18 June 2017, Oscar assisted Hulk's equaliser in the 45+1 minute, however, afterwards as the opposition players complained to the referee that Hulk had been offside, Oscar twice purposely kicked the ball into Guangzhou players. In the ensuing brawl, both Li Tixiang and Fu Huan were sent off. Although Oscar himself was not booked for his role, he was later banned for 8 matches and fined 40,000 RMB for his role in starting the incident.


title: Oscar (footballer, born 1991)

text: In his second season, Oscar scored 12 goals as Shanghai won the league for the first time. In January 2022, Oscar was linked with a return to Europe and a move to FC Barcelona.


title: Oscar (footballer, born 1991)

text: During the summer transfer window 2022 Oscar was denied a move to Brazilian club Clube de Regatas do Flamengo. It was said that Shanghai Port F.C. blocked the move "last-minute". Oscar had taken a photo with a Flamengo shirt on but the transfer collapsed.


title: Oscar (footballer, born 1991)

text: On 20 August 2011, Oscar scored three goals in the 2011 FIFA U-20 World Cup final win against Portugal, becoming the first player to score a hat-trick in the FIFA U-20 World Cup final. This performance was immediately compared to the 1966 hat trick by Geoff Hurst as only the second time a single player scored three goals in a World Cup final match.


title: Oscar (footballer, born 1991)

text: Oscar was named into the Brazilian squad to compete at the Olympics in London. Oscar starred in Brazil's 3–2 victory over Egypt in the opening game, providing the assists for goals by Rafael and Leandro Damião. In Brazil's next game, a 3–1 victory over Belarus, Oscar netted the "<nowiki>Seleção'</nowiki>"s third goal in injury time, after being played through by Neymar, to send the Brazilians into the quarter-finals. All goals in the Olympics was assisted or scored by Oscar and Neymar, the two prodigies who are both regarded as the exceptional talents coming from Brazil. Oscar provided two assists, one to Rômulo and another for Leandro Damião, as the "Seleção" defeated South Korea 3–0 in the semi-finals at Old Trafford on 7 August. Brazil went on to lose the gold medal match against Mexico 2–1.


title: Oscar (footballer, born 1991)

text: Oscar was given his first senior call-up as a substitute in a 0–0 draw against Argentina. Due to injuries to the attacking midfielder Ganso, he saw his national team opportunities increase and was even preferred over more experienced playmakers on a number of occasions. In June 2012, Oscar scored his first international goal in a friendly match in New York City against Argentina, which Brazil went on to lose 4–3. He also scored a penalty kick against China as well as recording three assists in the 8–0 rout, before firing a brace against Iraq one month later.


title: Oscar (footballer, born 1991)

text: On 25 March 2013 Oscar played against Russia at Stamford Bridge with fellow Chelsea teammates David Luiz and Ramires. He wore the nation's iconic 10 number shirt.


title: Oscar (footballer, born 1991)

text: Oscar played and started in all of Brazil's games in the 2013 FIFA Confederations Cup as they beat Spain 3–0 in the final to claim the trophy. He provided the assist for the second goal in the final, scored by Neymar.


title: Oscar (footballer, born 1991)

text: In the opening match of the 2014 FIFA World Cup, on 12 June against Croatia in São Paulo, Oscar scored in injury time with a toe-poke from outside the box for the last goal in a 3–1 win. In Brazil's record-breaking 7–1 semi-final defeat to Germany on 8 July, Oscar scored the only goal for Brazil in the 90th minute. Alongside Thiago Silva, he was one of two Brazilians included in the Team of the Tournament. He also played and started every game.


title: Oscar (footballer, born 1991)

text: Due to an injury in training, Oscar was not included in Brazil's squad for the 2015 Copa América in Chile. He was last recalled to the squad in October 2016, for Brazil's qualifiers of the 2018 World Cup qualifiers.


title: Oscar (footballer, born 1991)

text: Considered to be a highly talented and promising player in his youth, Oscar has drawn comparisons to players such as Mesut Özil and fellow Brazilian teammate Kaká due to his playmaking abilities. A quick, agile, and technically gifted player, with superb dribbling skills and an excellent first touch, Oscar is very fluid and creative in his runs. As an offensive playmaker, Oscar has great vision and is able to deliver precise short passes to his teammates, which enables him to play "killer balls." Oscar is also extremely effective in building up play in areas higher up the pitch. His cunning runs, as well as his skills, range of passing and finishing ability, make him a threat inside or near the opposing penalty area, and allow him to score goals in addition to creating goalscoring opportunities. Although he typically played either as a second striker or in a central attacking midfield position for Internacional, since his transfer to Chelsea, Oscar has been deployed in all three attacking midfield positions behind the central striker, in the centre as well as on either flank. Known for his vision, ability to pick out teammates in tight positions, and carve out chances in difficult situations, Oscar often acted as the catalyst in Chelsea's attacks during his time with the club, and was widely praised for his role in the team's Europa League success in 2013. Under Mourinho, Oscar was used as Chelsea's primary playmaker in midfield. A versatile player, he has also been praised by managers for being capable of playing in wider positions, as well as in his favoured role in the centre of the pitch. Oscar's energy, work-rate, tenacity, and ability to press opponents high up the pitch made him a favorite of his former Chelsea manager Mourinho, and also allowed him to play in deeper midfield positions, or even in a box-to-box role on occasion, in particular during his time with São Paulo and under his former Chelsea manager Antonio Conte. Despite his talent, however, he has accused by certain pundits – such as Nizaar Kinsella of "Goal.com" – of being inconsistent, and of failing to live up to his potential, in particular during his later Chelsea career, where he struggled to adapt to different systems and retain his place in the team's starting line-up.


title: Oscar (footballer, born 1991)

text: Oscar's father was killed in a traffic accident in 1994. At the time, Oscar's mother was pregnant with his sister, Gabriela. Oscar said that while growing up, he remembered little of his father and wished his dad could have watched him play football during his childhood. Oscar also said he grew up in poverty and that his family had nothing. Oscar attributed his footballing success to his mother Sueli, who raised three children (including Oscar) alone. She earned money by making and selling clothes in the family's hometown, as she was unable to work for a company.


title: Oscar (footballer, born 1991)

text: Oscar is married to his childhood sweetheart, Ludmila, who is a Japanese Brazilian. They have been together since 2009. They were married in 2011. Oscar is a Catholic who prays before each game to relax and get confidence for the match. He started taking English classes when he moved to London and became neighbors with former teammate Juan Mata and retired midfielder Giorgos Karagounis upon his arrival at the club. Oscar and his wife have a daughter, Júlia, who was born in 2014, and son, Caio, who was born in 2016.


title: Aphantasia

text: The phenomenon was first described by Francis Galton in 1880 but has since remained relatively unstudied. Interest in the phenomenon renewed after the publication of a study in 2015 conducted by a team led by Professor Adam Zeman of the University of Exeter. Zeman's team coined the term "aphantasia", derived from the ancient Greek word (), which means "imagination", and the prefix (), which means "without".


title: Aphantasia

text: Research on the condition is still scarce. Hyperphantasia, the condition of having extremely vivid mental imagery, is the opposite of aphantasia.


title: Aphantasia

text: The phenomenon was first described by Francis Galton in 1880 in a statistical study about mental imagery. Galton found it was a common phenomenon among his peers. He wrote:


title: Aphantasia

text: In 1897, Théodule-Armand Ribot reported a kind of "typographic visual type" imagination, consisting in mentally seeing ideas in the form of corresponding printed words. As paraphrased by Jacques Hadamard,


title: Aphantasia

text: The phenomenon remained largely unstudied until 2005, when Professor Adam Zeman of the University of Exeter was approached by a man who seemed to have lost the ability to visualize after undergoing minor surgery. Following the publication of this patient's case in 2010, a number of people approached Zeman reporting a lifelong inability to visualize. In 2015, Zeman's team published a paper on what they termed "congenital aphantasia", sparking renewed interest in the phenomenon.


title: Aphantasia

text: Zeman's 2015 paper used the Vividness of Visual Imagery Questionnaire (VVIQ), developed by David Marks in 1973, to evaluate the quality of the mental image of 21 self-diagnosed and self-selected participants. He identified that aphantasics lack voluntary visualizations only; they are still able to have involuntary visualizations such as dreams.


title: Aphantasia

text: In 2017, a paper published by Rebecca Keogh and Joel Pearson, researchers at University of New South Wales, measured the sensory capacity of mental imagery using binocular-rivalry (BR) and imagery-based priming and found that when asked to imagine a stimulus, the self-reported aphantasics experienced almost no perceptual priming, compared to those who reported higher imagery scores where perceptual priming had an effect. In 2020, Keogh and Pearson published another paper illustrating measurable differences correlated with visual imagery, this time by indirectly measuring cortical excitability in the primary visual cortex (V1).


title: Aphantasia

text: A 2020 study concluded that those who experience aphantasia also experience reduced imagery in other senses, and have less vivid autobiographical memories.


title: Aphantasia

text: In 2021, a study that measured the perspiration (via skin conductance levels) of participants in response to reading a frightening story and then viewing fear-inducing images found that participants with aphantasia, but not the general population, experienced a flat-line physiological response during the reading experiment, but found no difference in physiological responses between the groups when participants viewed fear-inducing images. The study concluded the evidence supported the emotional amplification theory of visual imagery.


title: Aphantasia

text: The same year, a study relating aphantasia, synesthesia, and autism was published, pinpointing that aphantasics reported more autistic traits than controls, with weaknesses in imagination and social skills.


title: Aphantasia

text: In addition to congenital aphantasia, there have been cases reported of acquired aphantasia, due either to brain injury or psychological causes.


title: Aphantasia

text: A 2022 study estimated the prevalence of aphantasia among the general population by screening undergraduate students and people from an online crowdsourcing marketplace through the Vividness of Visual Imagery Questionnaire. They found that 0.8% of the population was unable to form visual mental images, and 3.9% of the population was either unable to form mental images or had dim or vague mental imagery. Sitek and Konieczna have shown that its progressive form may be a harbinger of dementia. A group of authors interviewed aphantasics about their lives and found that they generated fewer episodic details than controls for both past and future events, indicating that visual imagery is an important cognitive tool for dynamic retrieval and recombination of episodic details.


title: Aphantasia

text: There have been various approaches to find a general theory of aphantasia or incorporate it into current philosophical, psychological and linguistic research. Blomkvist has suggested that aphantasia is best explained as a malfunction of processes in the episodic system and sees it as an episodic system condition. Aphantasia also has been studied from philosophical perspectives. Šekrst proposed that a gradual range of perceptions and mental images, from aphantasia to hyperphantasia, influences philosophical analysis of mental imagery from a fuzzy standpoint, along with influence on linguistics and semiotics. Whiteley argues that a modified theory of dreaming has to incorporate aphantasia, by involving the claim that dreams are a non-voluntary form of imagination.


title: The Bachelor (American TV series)

text: The Bachelor is an American dating and relationship reality television series that debuted on March 25, 2002, on ABC. For its first 25 seasons, the show was hosted by Chris Harrison. As the flagship of the original "The Bachelor" franchise, its success resulted in several spin-offs including "The Bachelorette", "Bachelor Pad", "Bachelor in Paradise", "", "The Bachelor Winter Games", "", and "The Bachelor: The Greatest Seasons – Ever!", as well as spawning many international editions of the shows.


title: The Bachelor (American TV series)

text: On September 28, 2021, the series was renewed for a twenty-sixth season with season five bachelor Jesse Palmer returning to the "Bachelor" franchise, this time as host. On May 13, 2022, ABC renewed the series for a twenty-seventh season.


title: The Bachelor (American TV series)

text: The series was created by Mike Fleiss. The "After The Final Rose" and other reunion specials were originally produced at Victory Studios in Los Angeles, California and CBS Studio Center in Studio City, but are now taped at Warner Bros. Studios in Burbank.


title: The Bachelor (American TV series)

text: The series revolves around a single bachelor who begins with a pool of romantic interests from whom he is expected to select a wife. During the course of the season, the bachelor eliminates candidates (see The elimination process) each week eventually culminating in a marriage proposal to his final selection. The participants travel to romantic and exotic locations for their dates, and the conflicts in the series, both internal and external, stem from the elimination-style format of the show.


title: The Bachelor (American TV series)

text: The above description is simply a general guideline. In practice, the show does not always follow its designed structure, and those variations are often a source of drama and conflict. They may include, among other events:


title: The Bachelor (American TV series)

text: Season six was the only season to feature a twist in casting. Since producers could not decide between Byron Velvick and Jay Overbye for the next Bachelor, the 25 women at the time participating had to decide which bachelor would make the best husband. At the end of the first episode, Velvick was chosen.


title: The Bachelor (American TV series)

text: Notable cases where the bachelor violated the premise of the show are Brad Womack, who selected neither of his final two women on his first season, and Jason Mesnick, who broke off his engagement in the "After the Final Rose" episode and several months later proposed (offscreen) to the first runner-up (Molly Malaney)—who he later married. Like Mesnick, Arie Luyendyk Jr. also broke off his engagement and during the "After the Final Rose" episode, he proposed to the first runner-up (Lauren Burnham)—to whom he is now married.


title: The Bachelor (American TV series)

text: For the first two weeks of filming, the contestants stay in "Villa De La Vina," a , six-bedroom, nine-bath home in Agoura Hills, California. The custom home, built in 2005, is located on 10 acres at 2351 Kanan Road, and it is owned by Marshall Haraden. As of October 10, 2008, the home was listed for sale at a price of US$8.75 million. The final third of the episodes within a season are filmed traveling the world. Episodes have been filmed throughout the United States, Canada, England, New Zealand, Vietnam, Thailand, and Korea to name just a few locations. The Agoura Hills, California mansion became the primary residence for the contestants since the eleventh season though it was not used in seasons eight and nine, where they mainly shot in Paris and Rome, respectively. During the COVID-19 pandemic, the mansion was strictly restricted for filming purposes in season 25, the contestants being housed on the isolated bubble at Nemacolin Woodlands Resort in Farmington, Pennsylvania.


title: The Bachelor (American TV series)

text: On each "Bachelor" episode, the bachelor interacts with the women and presents a rose to each woman he wishes to remain on the show. Those who do not receive a rose are eliminated. Eliminations are based upon the bachelor's personal feelings about each contestant, guided primarily by the impression made by each woman during dates or other events of the week. Most roses are presented at a rose ceremony at the end of each episode, but roses can also be bestowed on dates. However, if a contestant went on a 1 on 1 date with the Bachelor or Bachelorette, they have to receive a rose. If they do not receive one, then they will have to go home immediately. Typical activities include:


title: The Bachelor (American TV series)

text: If a rose is at stake on a date, the participating women pack their suitcases in case they fail to receive a rose. The other women learn that a woman has been eliminated when that woman's suitcase is taken away by a crew member.


title: The Bachelor (American TV series)

text: A woman may withdraw from the competition at any time if she finds herself no longer interested in the bachelor. On rare occasions, a woman is removed from the show for breaking one of the rules.


title: The Bachelor (American TV series)

text: The bachelor has wide discretion in choosing how many and when to present the roses. For example, Sean Lowe presented several roses at his initial cocktail party.


title: The Bachelor (American TV series)

text: It is common to accuse a contestant of not being on the show "for the right reasons", meaning that her aim is not to establish a relationship with the bachelor, but rather to garner publicity for her own career, induce jealousy in an ex-boyfriend, become selected as the next Bachelorette, or simply to get free trips to exotic locations.


title: The Bachelor (American TV series)

text: On February 26, 2009, in an exclusive interview between "The Bachelor" season 13 contestant Megan Parris, and Steve Carbone, Megan commented that the producers edit the footage to create a fictional storyline:


title: The Bachelor (American TV series)

text: On March 26, 2009, Megan Parris argued that not only was the show scripted, but that producers bullied contestants into saying things to the camera that contestants did not want to say. "There's nothing real about it," she said of the show's trademark "confessionals," in which contestants talk to the camera about the latest goings-on. "It is scripted," she said. "They basically will call you names, berate you, curse at you until they get you to say what they want you to say." Both ABC and Warner Bros., the studio that produces "The Bachelor," had no comment.


title: The Bachelor (American TV series)

text: On March 15, 2010, Mike Fleiss appeared on "20/20" and said that he develops contestants into characters that will cater to his audience's tastes and that they "need [their] fair share of villains every season." Fleiss has come under fire for admitting that "The Bachelor" has less to do with reality than it does making good television.


title: The Bachelor (American TV series)

text: On February 24, 2012, during the taping of "The Women Tell All" episode of "The Bachelor," a private conversation between contestant Courtney Robertson and a show producer went public when microphones were accidentally left on in between camera takes. The conversation revealed the producer had a role as a coach, encouraging Robertson to fake certain emotions for the camera.


title: The Bachelor (American TV series)

text: The audience reactions for "The Women Tell All" episode are pre-recorded and inserted into the show later.


title: The Bachelor (American TV series)

text: In December 2011, a producer of "The Bachelor" sued Steve Carbone, the proprietor of the website RealitySteve.com, for leaking unreleased information about the show, claiming Carbone encouraged contestants of both "The Bachelor" and "The Bachelorette" to break their confidentiality agreements. Carbone has denied that the source of the leaks are current contestants. Despite the first two lawsuits in 2012 being settled out of court, a further lawsuit was presented against Carbone in 2017.


title: The Bachelor (American TV series)

text: The franchise has long been criticized for its lack of ethnic and cultural diversity, eventually prompting petitions and threats of boycott from the franchise's only black lead at the time, Rachel Lindsay.


title: The Bachelor (American TV series)

text: In June 2020, the show cast Matt James as its first black male lead for season 25. James was initially cast for Clare Crawley's season of Bachelorette, which was delayed due to COVID−19. In June 2021, it was announced that long-time host Chris Harrison was stepping down permanently after widespread criticism of comments he had made which excused the past behavior of a cast member who had been accused of racism, saying he was not the ""woke" police". Harrison acknowledged, "By excusing historical racism, I defended it."


title: The Bachelor (American TV series)

text: The show has been criticized for stigmatizing virginity, thus reflecting the patriarchal masculinity stereotypes. (The target of anti-virginity stigma, Colton Underwood, came out as gay in 2021.)


title: The Bachelor (American TV series)

text: In 2013, ABC's late-night talk show "Jimmy Kimmel Live!" has parodied the series as "The Baby Bachelor", a sketch where the titular role is given to host Jimmy Kimmel's three-year-old nephew Wesley. Later episodes featured follow-up sketches with similar parodies of "The Bachelorette" and "Bachelor in Paradise".


title: The Bachelor (American TV series)

text: The Fox network produced a show, "Joe Millionaire", based on the premise that the bachelor was a millionaire heir, when in reality, he was not.


title: The Bachelor (American TV series)

text: On June 1, 2015, Lifetime began airing "Unreal", a scripted drama about a producer who works on "Everlasting", a fictional reality series similar to "The Bachelor". It is based on Sarah Gertrude Shapiro's short film "Sequin Raze" and her experience as a field producer on "The Bachelor".


title: The Bachelor (American TV series)

text: The series was parodied in the third season of the reality series "RuPaul's Drag Race All Stars" as "The Bitchelor", where a titular challenge featured the drag performers portraying contestants on a "Bachelor"-like show with Jeffrey Bowyer-Chapman playing the bachelor.


title: ʻOumuamua

text: Oumuamua is the first interstellar object detected passing through the Solar System. Formally designated 1I/2017 U1, Oumuamua was discovered by Robert Weryk using the Pan-STARRS telescope at Haleakalā Observatory, Hawaii, on 19 October 2017, approximately 40 days after it passed its closest point to the Sun on 9 September. When it was first observed, it was about from Earth (about 85 times as far away as the Moon), and already heading away from the Sun.


title: ʻOumuamua

text: Oumuamua is a small object estimated to be between long, with its width and thickness both estimated to range between . It has a red color, similar to objects in the outer Solar System. Despite its close approach to the Sun, Oumuamua showed no signs of having a coma. It has exhibited nongravitational acceleration, potentially due to outgassing or a push from solar radiation pressure. The object has a rotation rate similar to the average spin rate seen in Solar System asteroids, but many valid models permit it to be more elongated than all but a few other natural bodies. Oumuamua's light curve, assuming little systematic error, presents its motion as "tumbling", rather than "spinning", and moving sufficiently fast relative to the Sun that it is likely of an extrasolar origin. Extrapolated and without further deceleration, Oumuamua's path cannot be captured into a solar orbit, so it would eventually leave the Solar System and continue into interstellar space. Oumuamua's planetary system of origin and the age of its excursion are unknown.


title: ʻOumuamua

text: Oumuamua would be remarkable for extrasolar origin, high obliqueness, and observed acceleration without an apparent coma. By July 2019, most astronomers concluded that Oumuamua is a natural object, but its exact characterization is contentious given the limited observation window. While an unconsolidated object (rubble pile) would require Oumuamua to be of a density similar to rocky asteroids, a small amount of internal strength similar to icy comets would allow a relatively low density. Proposed explanations include the remnant of a disintegrated rogue comet or a piece of an exoplanet rich in nitrogen ice, similar to Pluto. A small number of astronomers have suggested that Oumuamua could be a product of alien technology, but there is insufficient evidence in support of this hypothesis for the object "despite all [its] strangeness". In January 2022, researchers proposed Project Lyra, which presented the notion that a spacecraft launched from Earth could catch up to 'Oumuamua in 26 years for further close-up studies.


title: ʻOumuamua

text: As the first known object of its type, Oumuamua presented a unique case for the International Astronomical Union, which assigns designations for astronomical objects. Originally classified as comet C/2017 U1, it was later reclassified as asteroid A/2017 U1 due to the absence of a coma. Once it was unambiguously identified as coming from outside the Solar System, a new designation was created: I, for Interstellar object. As the first object so identified, Oumuamua was designated 1I, with rules for the eligibility of objects for I-numbers and the names to be assigned to these interstellar objects yet to be codified. The object may be called 1I; 1I/2017 U1; 1I/Oumuamua; or 1I/2017 U1 (Oumuamua).


title: ʻOumuamua

text: The name comes (), and reflects the way the object is like a scout or messenger sent from the distant past to reach out to humanity. It roughly translates to 'first distant messenger'. The first character diacritic is a Hawaiian okina, not an apostrophe, and is pronounced as a glottal stop; the Pan-STARRS team chose the name in consultation with Ka‘iu Kimura and Larry Kimura of the University of Hawaii at Hilo.


title: ʻOumuamua

text: Before the official name was decided, "Rama" was suggested, the name given to an alien spacecraft discovered under similar circumstances in the 1973 science fiction novel "Rendezvous with Rama" by Arthur C. Clarke.


title: ʻOumuamua

text: Observations and conclusions concerning the trajectory of Oumuamua were primarily obtained with data from the Pan-STARRS1 Telescope, part of the Spaceguard Survey, and the Canada–France–Hawaii Telescope (CFHT), and its composition and shape from the Very Large Telescope and the Gemini South telescope in Chile, as well as the Keck II telescope in Hawaii. These were collected by Karen J. Meech, Robert Weryk and their colleagues and published in "Nature" on 20 November 2017. After the announcement, the space-based telescopes Hubble and Spitzer joined in the observations.


title: ʻOumuamua

text: Oumuamua is small and not very luminous. It was not seen in STEREO HI-1A observations near its perihelion on 9 September 2017, limiting its brightness to approximately 13.5 mag. By the end of October, Oumuamua had already faded to about apparent magnitude 23, and in mid-December 2017, it was too faint and fast moving to be studied by even the largest ground-based telescopes.


title: ʻOumuamua

text: Oumuamua was compared to the fictional alien spacecraft "Rama" due to its interstellar origin. Adding to the coincidence, both the real and the fictional objects are unusually elongated. Oumuamua has a reddish hue and unsteady brightness, which are typical of asteroids.


title: ʻOumuamua

text: The SETI Institute's radio telescope, the Allen Telescope Array, examined Oumuamua, but detected no unusual radio emissions. More detailed observations, using the Breakthrough Listen hardware and the Green Bank Telescope, were performed; the data were searched for narrowband signals and none were found. Given the close proximity to this interstellar object, limits were placed to putative transmitters with the extremely low effective isotropically radiated power of 0.08 watts.