title: Tuna

text: In some markets, depending upon the color of the flesh of the tuna species, the can is marked as "light" or "white" meat, with "light" meaning a greyish pink color and "white" meaning a light pink color. In the United States, only albacore can legally be sold in canned form as "white meat tuna"; in other countries, yellowfin is also acceptable.


title: Tuna

text: Ventresca tuna (from "ventre", the Italian word for belly), is a luxury canned tuna, from the fatty bluefin tuna belly, also used in sushi as toro.


title: Tuna

text: Canned light tuna in oil is 29% protein, 8% fat, 60% water, and contains no carbohydrates, while providing 200 calories in a 100 gram reference amount (table). It is a rich source (20% or more of the Daily Value, DV) of phosphorus (44% DV) and vitamin D (45% DV), and a moderate source of iron (11% DV).


title: Tuna

text: Mercury content in tuna can vary widely. Among those calling for improved warnings about mercury in tuna is the American Medical Association, which adopted a policy that physicians should help make their patients more aware of the potential risks. A study published in 2008 found that mercury distribution in the meat of farmed tuna is inversely related to the lipid content, suggesting that higher lipid concentration within edible tissues of tuna raised in captivity might, other factors remaining equal, have a diluting effect on mercury content. Mackerel tuna is one species of tuna that is lower in mercury concentration than skipjack or yellowfin, but this species is known as "black meat" or "dark meat" tuna, which is a lower grade for canning because of the color, unfavorable flavor, and poor yield.


title: Tuna

text: In March 2004, the United States FDA issued guidelines recommending that pregnant women, nursing mothers, and children limit their intake of tuna and other predatory fish. The Environmental Protection Agency provides guidelines on how much canned tuna is safe to eat. Roughly speaking, the guidelines recommend one can of light tuna per week for individuals weighing less than , and two cans per week for those who weigh more. In 2007, it was reported that some canned light tuna such as yellowfin tuna is significantly higher in mercury than skipjack, and caused Consumers Union and other activist groups to advise pregnant women to refrain from consuming canned tuna. In 2009, a California appeals court upheld a ruling that canned tuna does not need warning labels as the methylmercury is naturally occurring.


title: Tuna

text: A January 2008 report revealed potentially dangerous levels of mercury in certain varieties of sushi tuna, reporting levels "so high that the Food and Drug Administration could take legal action to remove the fish from the market."


title: Tuna

text: The main tuna fishery management bodies are the Western and Central Pacific Fisheries Commission, the Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission, the Indian Ocean Tuna Commission, the International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas, and the Commission for the Conservation of Southern Bluefin Tuna. The five gathered for the first time in Kobe, Japan in January 2007. Environmental organizations made submissions on risks to fisheries and species. The meeting concluded with an action plan drafted by some 60 countries or areas. Concrete steps include issuing certificates of origin to prevent illegal fishing and greater transparency in the setting of regional fishing quotas. The delegates were scheduled to meet at another joint meeting in January or February 2009 in Europe.


title: Tuna

text: In 2010, Greenpeace International added the albacore, bigeye tuna, Pacific bluefin tuna, Atlantic bluefin tuna, southern bluefin tuna, and yellowfin tuna to its seafood red list, which are fish "commonly sold in supermarkets around the world, and which have a very high risk of being sourced from unsustainable fisheries."


title: Tuna

text: Bluefin tuna have been widely accepted as being severely overfished, with some stocks at risk of collapse. According to the International Seafood Sustainability Foundation (a global, nonprofit partnership between the tuna industry, scientists, and the World Wide Fund for Nature), Indian Ocean yellowfin tuna, Pacific Ocean (eastern and western) bigeye tuna, and North Atlantic albacore tuna are all overfished. In April 2009, no stock of skipjack tuna (which makes up roughly 60% of all tuna fished worldwide) was considered to be overfished.


title: Tuna

text: The BBC documentary "South Pacific", which first aired in May 2009, stated that, should fishing in the Pacific continue at its current rate, populations of all tuna species could collapse within five years. It highlighted huge Japanese and European tuna fishing vessels, sent to the South Pacific international waters after overfishing their own fish stocks to the point of collapse.


title: Tuna

text: A 2010 tuna fishery assessment report, released in January 2012 by the Secretariat of the Pacific Community, supported this finding, recommending that all tuna fishing should be reduced or limited to current levels and that limits on skipjack fishing be considered.


title: Tuna

text: Research indicates that increasing ocean temperatures are taking a toll on the tuna in the Indian Ocean, where rapid warming of the ocean has resulted in a reduction of marine phytoplankton. The bigeye tuna catch rates have also declined abruptly during the past half century, mostly due to increased industrial fisheries, with the ocean warming adding further stress to the fish species.


title: Western (genre)

text: The Western is a genre set in the American frontier and commonly associated with folk tales of the Western United States, particularly the Southwestern United States, as well as Northern Mexico and Western Canada. It is commonly referred to as the "Old West" or the "Wild West" and depicted in Western media as a hostile, sparsely populated frontier in a state of near-total lawlessness patrolled by outlaws, sheriffs, and numerous other stock "gunslinger" characters. Western narratives often concern the gradual attempts to tame the crime-ridden American West using wider themes of justice, freedom, rugged individualism, Manifest Destiny, and the national history and identity of the United States.


title: Western (genre)

text: The first films that belong to the Western genre are a series of short single reel silents made in 1894 by Edison Studios at their Black Maria studio in West Orange, New Jersey. These featured veterans of "Buffalo Bill's Wild West" show exhibiting skills acquired by living in the Old West – they included Annie Oakley (shooting) and members of the Sioux (dancing).


title: Western (genre)

text: The earliest known Western narrative film is the British short "Kidnapping by Indians", made by Mitchell and Kenyon in Blackburn, England, in 1899. "The Great Train Robbery" (1903, based on the earlier British film "A Daring Daylight Burglary"), Edwin S. Porter's film starring Broncho Billy Anderson, is often erroneously cited as the first Western, though George N. Fenin and William K. Everson point out (as mentioned above) that the "Edison company had played with Western material for several years prior to "The Great Train Robbery"". Nonetheless, they concur that Porter's film "set the pattern—of crime, pursuit, and retribution—for the Western film as a genre". The film's popularity opened the door for Anderson to become the screen's first Western star; he made several hundred Western film shorts. So popular was the genre that he soon faced competition from Tom Mix and William S. Hart.


title: Western (genre)

text: The period from the late 1940s to the 1950s has been called the "Golden Age of the Western". It is epitomized by the work of several prominent directors including:


title: Western (genre)

text: Stories commonly center on the life of a nomadic, male, white American drifter, cowboy or gunfighter who rides a horse and is armed with a revolver and/or a rifle. The male characters typically wear broad-brimmed and high-crowned Stetson hats, neckerchief bandannas, vests, and cowboy boots with spurs. While many wear convention shirts and trousers, alternatives include buckskins and dusters).


title: Western (genre)

text: Women are generally cast in secondary roles as romantic interest for the male lead; or in supporting roles as saloon girls, prostitutes or as the wives of pioneers and settlers (the wife character often provides a measure of comic relief). Other recurring characters include Native Americans of various tribes, African Americans, Mexicans, lawmen, bounty hunters, outlaws, bartenders, traders, gamblers, soldiers (especially mounted cavalry), pioneers and settlers (farmers, ranchers, and townsfolk).


title: Western (genre)

text: The ambience is usually punctuated with a Western music score, including American folk music and Spanish/Mexican folk music such as country, Native American music, New Mexico music, and rancheras.


title: Western (genre)

text: Westerns often stress the harshness of the wilderness and frequently set the action in an arid, desolate landscape of deserts and mountains. Often, the vast landscape plays an important role, presenting a "mythic vision of the plains and deserts of the American West". Specific settings include ranches, small frontier towns, saloons, railways, wilderness, and isolated military forts of the Wild West. Many Westerns use a stock plot of depicting a crime, then showing the pursuit of the wrongdoer, ending in revenge and retribution, which is often dispensed through a shootout or quick-draw duel.


title: Western (genre)

text: The Western genre sometimes portrays the conquest of the wilderness and the subordination of nature in the name of civilization or the confiscation of the territorial rights of the original, Native American, inhabitants of the frontier. The Western depicts a society organized around codes of honor and personal, direct or private justice–"frontier justice"–dispensed by gunfights. These honor codes are often played out through depictions of feuds or individuals seeking personal revenge or retribution against someone who has wronged them (e.g., "True Grit" has revenge and retribution as its main themes). This Western depiction of personal justice contrasts sharply with justice systems organized around rationalistic, abstract law that exist in cities, in which social order is maintained predominantly through relatively impersonal institutions such as courtrooms. The popular perception of the Western is a story that centers on the life of a seminomadic wanderer, usually a cowboy or a gunfighter. A showdown or duel at high noon featuring two or more gunfighters is a stereotypical scene in the popular conception of Westerns.


title: Western (genre)

text: In some ways, such protagonists may be considered the literary descendants of the knights-errant, who stood at the center of earlier extensive genres such as the Arthurian romances. Like the cowboy or gunfighter of the Western, the knight-errant of the earlier European tales and poetry was wandering from place to place on his horse, fighting villains of various kinds, and bound to no fixed social structures, but only to his own innate code of honor. Like knights-errant, the heroes of Westerns frequently rescue damsels in distress. Similarly, the wandering protagonists of Westerns share many characteristics with the "ronin" in modern Japanese culture.


title: Western (genre)

text: The Western typically takes these elements and uses them to tell simple morality tales, although some notable examples (e.g. the later Westerns of John Ford or Clint Eastwood's "Unforgiven", about an old hired killer) are more morally ambiguous. Westerns often stress the harshness and isolation of the wilderness, and frequently set the action in an arid, desolate landscape. Western films generally have specific settings, such as isolated ranches, Native American villages, or small frontier towns with a saloon. Oftentimes, these settings appear deserted and without much structure. Apart from the wilderness, the saloon usually emphasizes that this is the Wild West; it is the place to go for music (raucous piano playing), women (often prostitutes), gambling (draw poker or five-card stud), drinking (beer, whiskey, or tequila if set in Mexico), brawling, and shooting. In some Westerns, where civilization has arrived, the town has a church, a general store, a bank, and a school; in others, where frontier rules still hold sway, it is, as Sergio Leone said, "where life has no value".


title: Western (genre)

text: Gruber said that good writers used dialogue and plot development to develop these basic plots into believable stories.


title: Western (genre)

text: The American Film Institute defines Western films as those "set in the American West that [embody] the spirit, the struggle, and the demise of the new frontier". The term "Western", used to describe a narrative film genre, appears to have originated with a July 1912 article in "Motion Picture World" magazine. Most of the characteristics of Western films were part of 19th-century popular Western fiction, and were firmly in place before film became a popular art form. Western films commonly feature protagonists such as cowboys, gunslingers, and bounty hunters, who are often depicted as seminomadic wanderers who wear Stetson hats, bandannas, spurs, and buckskins, use revolvers or rifles as everyday tools of survival and as a means to settle disputes using "frontier justice". Protagonists ride between dusty towns and cattle ranches on their trusty steeds.


title: Western (genre)

text: Western films were enormously popular in the silent-film era (1894–1927). With the advent of sound in 1927–28, the major Hollywood studios rapidly abandoned Westerns, leaving the genre to smaller studios and producers. These smaller organizations churned out countless low-budget features and serials in the 1930s. By the late 1930s, the Western film was widely regarded as a "pulp" genre in Hollywood, but its popularity was dramatically revived in 1939 by major studio productions such as "Dodge City" starring Errol Flynn, "Jesse James" with Tyrone Power, "Union Pacific" with Joel McCrea, "Destry Rides Again" featuring James Stewart and Marlene Dietrich, and especially John Ford's landmark Western adventure "Stagecoach " starring John Wayne, which became one of the biggest hits of the year. Released through United Artists, "Stagecoach" made John Wayne a mainstream screen star in the wake of a decade of headlining B Westerns. Wayne had been introduced to the screen 10 years earlier as the leading man in director Raoul Walsh's spectacular widescreen "The Big Trail", which failed at the box office in spite of being shot on location across the American West, including the Grand Canyon, Yosemite, and the giant redwoods, due in part to exhibitors' inability to switch over to widescreen during the Great Depression. After the Westerns' renewed commercial successes in the late 1930s, their popularity continued to rise until its peak in the 1950s, when the number of Western films produced outnumbered all other genres combined.


title: Western (genre)

text: Screenwriter and scholar Eric R. Williams identifies western films as one of eleven super-genres in his screenwriters' taxonomy, claiming that all feature length narrative films can be classified by these super-genres. The other ten super-genres are action, crime, fantasy, horror, romance, science fiction, slice of life, sports, thriller, and war. Western films often depict conflicts with Native Americans. While early Eurocentric Westerns frequently portray the "Injuns" as dishonorable villains, the later and more culturally neutral Westerns gave Native Americans a more sympathetic treatment. Other recurring themes of Westerns include treks (e.g. "The Big Trail") or perilous journeys (e.g. "Stagecoach") or groups of bandits terrorizing small towns such as in "The Magnificent Seven".


title: Western (genre)

text: Early Westerns were mostly filmed in the studio, as in other early Hollywood films, but when location shooting became more common from the 1930s, producers of Westerns used desolate corners of Arizona, California, Colorado, Kansas, Montana, Nevada, New Mexico, Oklahoma, Texas, Utah, or Wyoming. These settings gave filmmakers the ability to depict vast plains, looming mountains, and epic canyons. Productions were also filmed on location at movie ranches.


title: Western (genre)

text: Often, the vast landscape becomes more than a vivid backdrop; it becomes a character in the film. After the early 1950s, various widescreen formats such as Cinemascope (1953) and VistaVision used the expanded width of the screen to display spectacular western landscapes. John Ford's use of Monument Valley as an expressive landscape in his films from "Stagecoach" to "Cheyenne Autumn" (1965), "present us with a mythic vision of the plains and deserts of the American West, embodied most memorably in Monument Valley, with its buttes and mesas that tower above the men on horseback, whether they be settlers, soldiers, or Native Americans".


title: Western (genre)

text: When television became popular in the late 1940s and 1950s, Television Westerns quickly became an audience favorite. Beginning with rebroadcasts of existing films, a number of movie cowboys had their own TV shows. As demand for the Western increased, new stories and stars were introduced. A number of long-running TV Westerns became classics in their own right, such as: "The Lone Ranger" (1949–1957), "Death Valley Days" (1952–1970), "The Life and Legend of Wyatt Earp" (1955–1961), "Cheyenne" (1955–1962), "Gunsmoke" (1955–1975), "Maverick" (1957–1962), "Have Gun – Will Travel" (1957–1963), "Wagon Train" (1957–1965), "The Rifleman" (1958–1963), "Rawhide" (1959–1966), "Bonanza" (1959–1973), "The Virginian" (1962–1971), and "The Big Valley" (1965–1969). "The Life and Legend of Wyatt Earp" was the first Western television series written for adults, premiering four days before "Gunsmoke" on September 6, 1955.


title: Western (genre)

text: The peak year for television Westerns was 1959, with 26 such shows airing during primetime. At least six of them were connected in some extent to Wyatt Earp: "The Life and Legend of Wyatt Earp", "Bat Masterson", "Tombstone Territory", "Broken Arrow", "Johnny Ringo", and "Gunsmoke". Increasing costs of American television production weeded out most action half-hour series in the early 1960s, and their replacement by hour-long television shows, increasingly in color. Traditional Westerns died out in the late 1960s as a result of network changes in demographic targeting along with pressure from parental television groups. Future entries in the genre would incorporate elements from other genera, such as crime drama and mystery whodunit elements. Western shows from the 1970s included "Hec Ramsey", "Kung Fu", "Little House on the Prairie", "McCloud", "The Life and Times of Grizzly Adams", and the short-lived but highly acclaimed "How the West Was Won" that originated from a miniseries with the same name. In the 1990s and 2000s, hour-long Westerns and slickly packaged made-for-TV movie Westerns were introduced, such as "Lonesome Dove" (1989) and "Dr. Quinn, Medicine Woman". Also, new elements were once again added to the Western formula, such as science-fiction Western "Firefly", created by Joss Whedon in 2002. "Deadwood" was a critically acclaimed Western series that aired on HBO from 2004 through 2006. "Hell on Wheels", a fictionalized story of the construction of the first transcontinental railroad, aired on AMC for five seasons between 2011 and 2016. "Longmire" is a Western series that centered on Walt Longmire, a sheriff in fictional Absaroka County, Wyoming. Originally aired on the A&E network from 2012 to 2014, it was picked up by Netflix in 2015 until the show's conclusion in 2017.


title: Western (genre)

text: AMC and Vince Gilligan’s critically-acclaimed "Breaking Bad" is a much more modern take on the western genre. Set in New Mexico from 2008 through 2013, it follows Walter White (Bryan Cranston), a chemistry teacher diagnosed with Stage III Lung Cancer who cooks and sells crystal meth to provide money for his family after he dies, while slowly growing further and further into the illicit drug market, eventually turning into a ruthless drug dealer and killer. While the show has scenes in a populated suburban neighborhood and nearby Albuquerque, much of the show takes place in the desert, where Walter often takes his RV car out into the open desert to cook his meth, and most action sequences occur in the desert, similar to old-fashioned western movies. The clash between the Wild West and modern technology like cars and cellphones, while also focusing primarily on being a Crime drama makes the show a unique spin on both genres. Walter’s reliance on the desert environment makes the western-feel a pivotal role in the show, and would continue to be used in the spinoff series "Better Call Saul".


title: Western (genre)

text: Western fiction is a genre of literature set in the American Old West, most commonly between 1860 and 1900. The first critically recognized Western was "The Virginian" (1902) by Owen Wister. Other well-known writers of Western fiction include Zane Grey, from the early 1900s, Ernest Haycox, Luke Short, and Louis L'Amour, from the mid 20th century. Many writers better known in other genres, such as Leigh Brackett, Elmore Leonard, and Larry McMurtry, have also written Western novels. The genre's popularity peaked in the 1960s, due in part to the shuttering of many pulp magazines, the popularity of televised Westerns, and the rise of the spy novel. Readership began to drop off in the mid- to late 1970s and reached a new low in the 2000s. Most bookstores, outside of a few Western states, now only carry a small number of Western novels and short-story collections.


title: Western (genre)

text: Literary forms that share similar themes include stories of the American frontier, the "gaucho" literature of Argentina, and tales of the settlement of the Australian Outback.


title: Western (genre)

text: A number of visual artists focused their work on representations of the American Old West. American West-oriented art is sometimes referred to as "Western Art" by Americans. This relatively new category of art includes paintings, sculptures, and sometimes Native American crafts. Initially, subjects included exploration of the Western states and cowboy themes. Frederic Remington and Charles M. Russell are two artists who captured the "Wild West" in paintings and sculpture. After the death of Remington Richard Lorenz became the preeminent artist painting in the western genre.


title: Western (genre)

text: Some art museums, such as the Buffalo Bill Center of the West in Wyoming and the Autry National Center in Los Angeles, feature American Western Art.


title: Western (genre)

text: The popularity of Westerns extends beyond films, literature, television, and visual art to include numerous other media.


title: Western (genre)

text: With anime and manga, the genre tends towards the science-fiction Western – e.g., "Cowboy Bebop" (1998 anime), "Trigun" (1995–2007 manga), and "Outlaw Star" (1996–1999 manga). Although contemporary Westerns also appear, such as "Koya no Shonen Isamu", a 1971 "shonen "manga about a boy with a Japanese father and a Native American mother, or "El Cazador de la Bruja", a 2007 anime television series set in modern-day Mexico. Part 7 of the manga series "JoJo's Bizarre Adventure" is based in the American Western setting. The story follows racers in a transcontinental horse race, the "Steel Ball Run". "Golden Kamuy" (2014–2022) shifts its setting to the fallout of the Russo-Japanese War, specifically focusing on Hokkaido and Sakhalin, and featuring the Ainu people and other local tribes instead of Native Americans, as well other recognizable western tropes.


title: Western (genre)

text: Western comics have included serious entries, (such as the classic comics of the late 1940s and early 1950s (namely "Kid Colt, Outlaw", "Rawhide Kid", and "Red Ryder") or more modern ones as "Blueberry"), cartoons, and parodies (such as "Cocco Bill" and "Lucky Luke"). In the 1990s and 2000s, Western comics leaned towards the fantasy, horror and science fiction genres, usually involving supernatural monsters, or Christian iconography as in "Preacher". More traditional Western comics are found throughout this period, though (e.g., "Jonah Hex" and "Loveless").


title: Western (genre)

text: Western arcade games, computer games, role-playing games, and video games are often either straightforward Westerns or Western-horror hybrids. Some Western-themed computer games include "The Oregon Trail" (1971), "Mad Dog McCree" (1990), "Sunset Riders" (1991), "Outlaws" (1997), "" series (2001–), "Red Dead" series (2004–), "Gun" (2005), and "Call of Juarez" series (2007–). Other video games adapt the "weird West" concept – e.g., "Fallout" (1997), "Gunman Chronicles" (2000), "Darkwatch" (2005), the "Borderlands" series (2009–)", " (2010), and "Hard West" (2015).


title: Western (genre)

text: Western radio dramas were very popular from the 1930s to the 1960s. Some popular shows include "The Lone Ranger" (first broadcast in 1933), "The Cisco Kid" (first broadcast in 1942), "Dr. Sixgun" (first broadcast in 1954), "Have Gun–Will Travel" (first broadcast in 1958), and "Gunsmoke" (first broadcast in 1952).


title: Western (genre)

text: Westerns have been showcased in short-episodic web series. Examples include "League of STEAM", "Red Bird", and "Arkansas Traveler".


title: Western (genre)

text: Within the larger scope of the Western genre, there are several recognized subgenres. Some subgenres, such as spaghetti Westerns, maintain standard Western settings and plots, while others take the Western theme and archetypes into different supergenres, such as Neo-Westerns or Space Westerns.


title: Western (genre)

text: Being period drama pieces, both the Western and samurai genre influenced each other in style and themes throughout the years. "The Magnificent Seven" was a remake of Akira Kurosawa's film "Seven Samurai", and "A Fistful of Dollars" was a remake of Kurosawa's "Yojimbo", which itself was inspired by "Red Harvest", an American detective novel by Dashiell Hammett. Kurosawa was influenced by American Westerns and was a fan of the genre, most especially John Ford.


title: Western (genre)

text: Despite the Cold War, the Western was a strong influence on Eastern Bloc cinema, which had its own take on the genre, the so-called "Red Western" or "Ostern". Generally these took two forms: either straight Westerns shot in the Eastern Bloc, or action films involving the Russian Revolution and civil war and the Basmachi rebellion.


title: Western (genre)

text: Many elements of space-travel series and films borrow extensively from the conventions of the Western genre. This is particularly the case in the space Western subgenre of science fiction. Peter Hyams' "Outland" transferred the plot of "High Noon" to Io, moon of Jupiter. More recently, the space opera series "Firefly" used an explicitly Western theme for its portrayal of frontier worlds. Anime shows such as "Cowboy Bebop", "Trigun" and "Outlaw Star" have been similar mixes of science-fiction and Western elements. The science fiction Western can be seen as a subgenre of either Westerns or science fiction. Elements of Western films can be found also in some films belonging essentially to other genres. For example, "Kelly's Heroes" is a war film, but its action and characters are Western-like.


title: Western (genre)

text: The character played by Humphrey Bogart in noir films such as "Casablanca" and "To Have and Have Not"—an individual bound only by his own private code of honor—has a lot in common with the classic Western hero. In turn, the Western has also explored noir elements, as with the films "Pursued" and "Sugar Creek".


title: Western (genre)

text: In many of Robert A. Heinlein's books, the settlement of other planets is depicted in ways explicitly modeled on American settlement of the West. For example, in his "Tunnel in the Sky", settlers set out to the planet "New Canaan", via an interstellar teleporter portal across the galaxy, in Conestoga wagons, their captain sporting mustaches and a little goatee and riding a Palomino horse—with Heinlein explaining that the colonists would need to survive on their own for some years, so horses are more practical than machines.


title: Western (genre)

text: Stephen King's "The Dark Tower" is a series of seven books that meshes themes of Westerns, high fantasy, science fiction, and horror. The protagonist Roland Deschain is a gunslinger whose image and personality are largely inspired by the Man with No Name from Sergio Leone's films. In addition, the superhero fantasy genre has been described as having been derived from the cowboy hero, only powered up to omnipotence in a primarily urban setting. The Western genre has been parodied on a number of occasions, famous examples being "Support Your Local Sheriff!", "Cat Ballou", Mel Brooks's "Blazing Saddles", and "Rustler's Rhapsody".


title: Western (genre)

text: George Lucas's "Star Wars" films use many elements of a Western, and Lucas has said he intended for "Star Wars" to revitalize cinematic mythology, a part the Western once held. The Jedi, who take their name from Jidaigeki, are modeled after samurai, showing the influence of Kurosawa. The character Han Solo dressed like an archetypal gunslinger, and the Mos Eisley cantina is much like an Old West saloon.


title: Western (genre)

text: Meanwhile, films such as "The Big Lebowski", which plucked actor Sam Elliott out of the Old West and into a Los Angeles bowling alley, and "Midnight Cowboy", about a Southern-boy-turned-gigolo in New York (who disappoints a client when he does not measure up to Gary Cooper), transplanted Western themes into modern settings for both purposes of parody and homage.


title: The Hunchback of Notre-Dame

text: The Hunchback of Notre-Dame (, originally titled Notre-Dame de Paris. 1482) is a French Gothic novel by Victor Hugo, published in 1831. It focuses on the unfortunate story of Quasimodo, the Gypsy street dancer Esmeralda and Quasimodo's guardian the Archdeacon Claude Frollo in 15th-century Paris. All its elements—Renaissance setting, impossible love affairs, marginalized characters—make the work a model of the literary themes of Romanticism.


title: The Hunchback of Notre-Dame

text: The novel has been described as a key text in French literature and has been adapted for film over a dozen times, in addition to numerous television and stage adaptations, such as a 1923 silent film with Lon Chaney, a 1939 sound film with Charles Laughton, and a 1996 Disney animated film with Tom Hulce.


title: The Hunchback of Notre-Dame

text: The novel sought to preserve values of French culture in a time period of great change, which resulted in the destruction of many French Gothic structures. The novel made Notre-Dame de Paris a national icon and served as a catalyst for renewed interest in the restoration of Gothic form.


title: The Hunchback of Notre-Dame

text: The novel's French title, "Notre-Dame de Paris", refers to Notre-Dame Cathedral. Frederic Shoberl's 1833 English translation was published as "The Hunchback of Notre-Dame", which became the generally used title in English, referring to Quasimodo, Notre-Dame's bell-ringer.


title: The Hunchback of Notre-Dame

text: Victor Hugo began writing "Notre-Dame de Paris" in 1829, largely to make his contemporaries more aware of the value of the Gothic architecture, which was neglected and often destroyed to be replaced by new buildings or defaced by replacement of parts of buildings in a newer style. For instance, the medieval stained glass panels of Notre-Dame de Paris had been replaced by white glass to let more light into the church. This explains the large descriptive sections of the book, which far exceed the requirements of the story. A few years earlier, Hugo had already published a paper entitled "Guerre aux Démolisseurs" ("War [declared] on the Demolishers") specifically aimed at saving Paris' medieval architecture. The agreement with his original publisher, Gosselin, was that the book would be finished that same year, but Hugo was constantly delayed due to the demands of other projects. In the summer of 1830, Gosselin demanded that Hugo complete the book by February 1831. Beginning in September 1830, Hugo worked nonstop on the project thereafter.


title: The Hunchback of Notre-Dame

text: Legend has it that Hugo locked himself in his room, getting rid of his clothes to write the novel on time, the idea being he couldn't go outside without clothes. However, the validity of the truth of the story has muddled down over time.


title: The Hunchback of Notre-Dame

text: The story is set in Paris in 1482 during the reign of Louis XI. Esmeralda, a beautiful, sixteen-year-old Romani dancer, is the romantic and sexual interest of many men; including Captain Phoebus de Chateaupers; poet Pierre Gringoire; the hunchbacked cathedral bell-ringer Quasimodo, and his guardian Archdeacon Claude Frollo. Frollo is torn between his obsessive lust for Esmeralda and the rules of Notre-Dame Cathedral. He orders Quasimodo to kidnap her, but Quasimodo is captured by Phoebus and his guards. After he saves her, Esmeralda becomes besotted with Phoebus. Gringoire, who attempted to help Esmeralda but was knocked out by Quasimodo, unwittingly wanders into the "Court of Miracles", populated by the Romani and the truands. They are about to hang him for being an outsider, but Esmeralda saves him by agreeing to marry him for four years.


title: The Hunchback of Notre-Dame

text: The following day, Quasimodo is sentenced to be flogged and turned on the pillory for two hours, followed by another hour's public exposure. He calls for water. Esmeralda, seeing his thirst, approaches the public stocks and offers him a drink of water. It saves him, and she captures his heart.


title: The Hunchback of Notre-Dame

text: Later, Frollo follows Phoebus to an inn where he plans to meet Esmeralda, and watches as Phoebus seduces her. Inflamed with jealousy, Frollo stabs Phoebus. Esmeralda is arrested and charged with the attempted murder of Phoebus and also with witchcraft, and is sentenced to death by hanging. While imprisoned, awaiting her execution, Esmeralda is visited by Frollo. The Archdeacon professes his love for her and promises to help her escape if she reciprocates. However, recognizing him as Phoebus' true attacker, she angrily rebuffs him. As Esmeralda is being led to the gallows, Quasimodo swings down from Notre-Dame and carries her off to the cathedral, temporarily protecting herunder the law of sanctuaryfrom arrest.


title: The Hunchback of Notre-Dame

text: Frollo later informs Gringoire that the Court of Parlement has voted to remove Esmeralda's right to sanctuary so she can no longer seek shelter in the cathedral, and will be taken away to be executed. Clopin Trouillefou, the leader of the Romani, hears the news from Gringoire and rallies the Court of Miracles to charge Notre-Dame and rescue Esmeralda.


title: The Hunchback of Notre-Dame

text: Quasimodo incorrectly assumes the approaching Romani intend to harm Esmeralda, and drives them off. As Quasimodo defends the cathedral against the invaders, the uproar reaches the king, who is incorrectly informed that those attacking the cathedral are eager for Esmeralda's hanging rather than trying to rescue her. The king orders the authorities to dispatch the invaders and calls for Esmeralda's immediate execution to settle the unrest. In the chaos Esmeralda is taken from the cathedral by Frollo and Gringoire.


title: The Hunchback of Notre-Dame

text: Frollo once again attempts to win Esmeralda's love, but she asserts that she would rather die than be with him. Frollo goes to alert the authorities while trapping Esmeralda with Sister Gudule, a reclusive anchoress who bears an extreme hatred for the Romani as she believes they cannibalized her infant daughter. However, it is revealed that Gudule is really Esmeralda's birth mother, and that Esmeralda is Gudule's long-lost daughter Agnes, abducted and raised by the Romani. The two women's joyous reunion is cut short when the king's men arrive to take Esmeralda to the gallows. A desperate Gudule clings to Esmeralda even as she is taken to the place of execution. The guards pull the old woman off her daughter; and she falls to the pavement and dies from the harsh impact.


title: The Hunchback of Notre-Dame

text: From the tower of Notre-Dame, Frollo and Quasimodo witness as Esmeralda is hanged. Frollo laughs triumphantly at Esmeralda's death; upon observing this, Quasimodo pushes the Archdeacon from the height of cathedral to his death. With nothing left to live for, Quasimodo vanishes and is never seen again.


title: The Hunchback of Notre-Dame

text: In the epilogue, a deformed skeleton is found many years later embracing another in the charnel house, implying that Quasimodo had sought Esmeralda among the decaying corpses and laid down to die while holding her. As the guards attempt to pull the skeletons apart, his skeleton crumbles to dust.


title: The Hunchback of Notre-Dame

text: The novel's original French title, "Notre-Dame de Paris", indicates that the cathedral itself is the most significant aspect of the novel, both the main setting and the focus of the story's themes. The building had fallen into disrepair at the time of writing, which was something Hugo felt strongly about. The book portrays the Romantic era as one of extremes in architecture, passion, and religion. The theme of determinism (fate and destiny, as set up in the preface of the novel through the introduction of the word "ANANKE") is explored, as well as revolution and social strife.


title: The Hunchback of Notre-Dame

text: Architecture is a major concern of Hugo's in "Notre-Dame de Paris", not just as embodied in the cathedral itself, but as representing throughout Paris and the rest of Europe an artistic genre which, Hugo argued, was about to disappear with the arrival of the printing press. Claude Frollo's portentous phrase, " ("This will kill that", as he looks from a printed book to the cathedral building), sums up this thesis, which is expounded on in Book V, chapter 2. Hugo writes that " ("whoever was born a poet became an architect"), arguing that while the written word was heavily censored and difficult to reproduce, architecture was extremely prominent and enjoyed considerable freedom.


title: The Hunchback of Notre-Dame

text: With the recent introduction of the printing press, it became possible to reproduce one's ideas much more easily on paper, and Hugo considered this period to represent the last flowering of architecture as a great art form. As with many of his books, Hugo was interested in a time that seemed to him to be on the cusp of two types of society.


title: The Hunchback of Notre-Dame

text: The major theme of the third book is that over time the cathedral has been repaired, but the repairs and additions have made the cathedral worse: "And who put the cold, white panes in the place of those windows" and "...who substituted for the ancient Gothic altar, splendidly encumbered with shrines and reliquaries, that heavy marble sarcophagus, with angels' heads and clouds" are a few examples of this. This chapter also discusses how, after repairs to the cathedral after the French Revolution, there was not a significant style in what was added. It seems as if the new architecture is now uglier and worse than it was before the repair.


title: The Hunchback of Notre-Dame

text: Hugo introduced with this work the concept of the novel as Epic Theatre. A giant epic about the history of a whole people, incarnated in the figure of the great cathedral as witness and silent protagonist of that history, and the whole idea of time and life as an ongoing, organic panorama centered on dozens of characters caught in the middle of that history. It is the first novel to have beggars as protagonists.


title: The Hunchback of Notre-Dame

text: A significant aspect of "Notre-Dame de Paris" is that it encompasses the whole of life, from the King of France to Paris sewer rats, in a manner later used by Honoré de Balzac, Gustave Flaubert and many others, including Charles Dickens. The enormous popularity of the book in France spurred the nascent historical preservation movement in that country and strongly encouraged Gothic revival architecture. Ultimately it led to major renovations at Notre-Dame in the 19th century led by Eugène Viollet-le-Duc. Much of the cathedral's present appearance is a result of this renovation.


title: The Hunchback of Notre-Dame

text: In "The Hunchback of Notre-Dame", Victor Hugo makes frequent reference to the architecture of the Cathedral of Notre-Dame in Paris. He also mentions the invention of the printing press, when the bookmaker near the beginning of the work speaks of "the German pest."


title: The Hunchback of Notre-Dame

text: In 2010, British archivist Adrian Glew discovered references to a real-life man called "Hunchback" who was a foreman of a government sculpting studio in Paris in the 1820s who worked on post-Revolution restorations to the cathedral.


title: The Hunchback of Notre-Dame

text: To date, all of the film and TV adaptations have strayed somewhat from the original plot, some going as far as to give it a happy ending, including in the classic 1939 film and the 1996 Disney animated film. The 1956 French film is one of the few versions to end almost exactly like the novel, although it changes other sections of the story. The 1996 Disney version has an ending that is inspired by an opera created by Hugo himself.


title: The Hunchback of Notre-Dame

text: Idris Elba is slated to not only play the title character but also to direct and produce music for a modern retelling to be broadcast on Netflix.


title: The Hunchback of Notre-Dame

text: John Carradine starred in an hour-long adaptation broadcast on a 1946 episode of "Your Playhouse of Favorites".


title: The Hunchback of Notre-Dame

text: Artists like Noel Gloesner, Andrew Dickson, Robin Recht, Tim Conrad, Gilbert Bloch, George Evans Dick Briefer have all created comic strip and book adaptations of "The Hunchback of Notre Dame". Paulo Borges, Gustavo Machado and Dan Spiegle have drawn comic strip versions based on the 1996 Disney movie adaptation.


title: The Hunchback of Notre-Dame

text: "The Hunchback of Notre-Dame" has been translated into English many times. Translations are often reprinted in various imprints. Some translations have been revised over time.


title: Thomas Gibson

text: Thomas Ellis Gibson (born July 3, 1962) is an American actor and director. He is best known for his television roles as Daniel Nyland on "Chicago Hope" (1994–1997), Greg Montgomery on "Dharma & Greg" (1997–2002) and Aaron Hotchner on "Criminal Minds" (2005–2016).


title: Thomas Gibson

text: Gibson was born in Charleston, South Carolina, to Charles M. "Mac" and Beth Gibson. His mother was a social worker, and his father was a lawyer and liberal Democrat who served in the South Carolina state Senate and House. He is Catholic. Gibson's interest in the performing arts began at a young age. Gibson was fascinated by Louis Armstrong. He and his sister were on a swim team together, and they frequented a pizza parlor after their swim meets. It was at this pizza parlor that Gibson would sing along with a Dixieland band, complete with his attempt to impersonate Armstrong's singing voice.


title: Thomas Gibson

text: As a child, Gibson enrolled in Little Theater School and later graduated from Bishop England High School. He then attended the College of Charleston (1979–1981) and became an intern at the Alabama Shakespeare Festival, where he was encouraged to apply to the Juilliard School. After a year and a half at Charleston, Gibson won a scholarship to Juilliard's Drama Division ("Group 14": 1981–1985), where he graduated with a Bachelor of Fine Arts degree in 1985.


title: Thomas Gibson

text: Gibson started acting when he was nine years old, in children's theater. He appeared in Julian Wiles' "Seize the Street: the Skateboard Musical", a Young Charleston Theater Company (now Charleston Stage) production. As a teenager, he began his classical theater training by becoming a member of the Young Charleston Theater Company and the Footlight Players, often performing at the historic Dock Street Theatre. During his time at College of Charleston, Gibson was an intern at the Alabama Shakespeare Festival. Gibson made his stage debut in David Hare's "A Map of the World" in the New York Shakespeare Festival. He subsequently appeared in more plays for producer Joe Papp, both in Public Theater and in Central Park. He worked on and off Broadway for the next 10 years in a range of plays by Shakespeare, Christopher Marlowe, Molière, Tennessee Williams, Howard Brenton, Romulus Linney, Noël Coward, and Alan Ball. Gibson also waited tables at Tavern on the Green.


title: Thomas Gibson

text: Gibson's first television appearance was in 1987, in a guest role on the legal drama "Leg Work", followed by stints on the daytime dramas "As the World Turns" and "Another World". In 1992, Gibson made his movie debut in Ron Howard's "Far and Away", in which he portrayed Stephen Chase. Chase was the villainous rival of Joseph Donnelly (Tom Cruise) for Shannon Christie's (Nicole Kidman) affections. His next lead role was in 1993 as David, a gay waiter, in Denys Arcand's "Love and Human Remains". Also in 1993, he played bisexual businessman misanthrope Beauchamp Day in the television version of Armistead Maupin's "Tales of the City" (1993). At the time, "Tales of the City" was highly controversial for its gay, transgender, bisexual, and drag-queen characters along with nudity, sexual situations, drug use, and explicit language. Gibson later reunited with Arcand in "Stardom" (2000). Gibson then returned to television, portraying Dr. Danny Nyland on the medical drama "Chicago Hope" from 1994 to 1998. From 1997 to 2002, Gibson portrayed Greg Montgomery in the sitcom "Dharma & Greg", for which he was nominated twice for a Golden Globe Award. After "Dharma & Greg", Gibson appeared in various TV movies.


title: Thomas Gibson

text: In 2005, he was cast as Supervisory Special Agent Aaron "Hotch" Hotchner, the unit chief of the Behavioral Analysis Unit (BAU), in the series "Criminal Minds".


title: Thomas Gibson

text: On August 11, 2016, Gibson was suspended (after appearing in two episodes of the 12th season of "Criminal Minds") following an on-set altercation with a writer-producer; he apologized for the confrontation in a statement, claiming the dispute arose from creative differences in an episode he was directing.


title: Thomas Gibson

text: Gibson previously directed six episodes of "Criminal Minds" since 2013, along with two last season episodes of "Dharma & Greg" in 2001. Gibson had a prior altercation with an assistant director and had undergone anger-management counseling at that time.


title: Thomas Gibson

text: The following day, ABC Studios and CBS Studios (which co-distribute "Criminal Minds") issued a statement announcing that Gibson's contract with the series had been terminated. The statement included the information that his character's exit story from the series had yet to be determined. In the October 12, 2016, episode "Taboo", the absence of Gibson's character is explained as being away on special assignment; however, in the episode "Elliot's Pond", it is revealed that he resigned and went into the Witness Protection Program after noticing a serial killer stalking his son.


title: Thomas Gibson

text: Gibson resides in San Antonio, Texas. His son, Travis Carter, was featured in the Season 10 episode "Boxed In" (#5) of "Criminal Minds" as a friend of a kidnapped child. Gibson and his wife Christine separated in 2011, and he filed for divorce in 2014. The divorce was final on February 14, 2018.


title: Thomas Gibson

text: Gibson enjoys golf. He plays at the AT&T Pebble Beach Pro-Am every year, as well as other golfing events, and is friends with golfer Corey Pavin. He was part of the 2010 Host Committee for the Inaugural SAG Foundation Golf Classic, and he co-hosted the 2nd Annual SAG Foundation Golf Classic with "Criminal Minds" castmate Joe Mantegna.


title: Samoyed dog

text: The Samoyed ( or ; ) is a breed of medium-sized herding dogs with thick, white, double-layer coats. They are a spitz-type dog which takes its name from the Samoyedic peoples of Siberia. Descending from the Nenets Herding Laika, they are a domesticated animal that assists in herding, hunting, protection and sled-pulling.


title: Samoyed dog

text: Samoyed dogs are most often white, and can have a brown tint to their double-layer coat which is naturally dirt repellent. They are known to be used in expeditions in both Arctic and Antarctic regions and have a friendly and agreeable disposition.


title: Samoyed dog

text: The progenitor of the Samoyeds was the Nenets Herding Laika, a reindeer herding spitz commonly used throughout northern Siberia, especially the Nenets people who were pejoratively referred to as Samoyeds at that time. DNA evidence confirms that Samoyeds are a basal breed that predates the emergence of the modern breeds in the 19th century. A genomic study of two dog specimens that are nearly 100 years old and obtained from the Nenets people on the Yamal Peninsula found that these are related to two specimens dated 2,000 years old and 850 years old, which suggests continuity of the lineage in this region. The two 100 year old dogs were closely related with the Samoyed breed, which indicates that the ancient arctic lineage lives on in the modern Samoyed dog.


title: Samoyed dog

text: During preparation for the Fram expedition to the North Pole in 1893–1896, 33 dogs were purchased from the Nenets people. While 28 of these dogs would go to the North Pole, none of them survived. The remaining dogs, including pups born during the voyage, were left aboard the ship. In April of 1893 the bitch had another litter, most of them white. According to Nansen's notes "...all the dogs were strong, tough and excellent at pulling sleds; they worked very well in hunting Polar bears [as well]." These dogs would become the original Samoyeds.


title: Samoyed dog

text: The AKC Standard requires and at the shoulder for males, and and for females. The UK Kennel Club Standard requires for males, and for females.


title: Samoyed dog

text: Samoyed eyes are usually black or brown and are almond in shape. Samoyeds with eyes of other colors like blue exist but are not allowed in the show ring. The Samoyed is in the "brown and black section" in its family, the Spitz family.


title: Samoyed dog

text: Samoyed ears are thick and covered with fur, triangular in shape, and erect. They are almost always white but have a light to dark brown tint (known as "biscuit") to a greater or lesser extent. The tint is usually on the ears but can be visible on the whole body.


title: Samoyed dog

text: The Samoyed tail is one of the breed's distinguishing features. Like the Alaskan Malamute, the tail is carried curled over the back; however, unlike the Alaskan Malamute, the Samoyed tail is held actually touching the back. It is not usually held in a tight curl, or held flag-like; it is usually carried lying over the back and to one side. In cold weather, Samoyeds may sleep with their tails over their noses to provide additional warmth. Almost all Samoyeds will allow their tails to fall when they are relaxed and at ease, as when being stroked or while eating, but will return their tails to a curl when more alert.


title: Samoyed dog

text: Samoyeds have a dense, double layer coat. The topcoat contains long, coarse, and straight guard hairs, which appear white but have a hint of silver coloring. This top layer keeps the undercoat relatively clean and free of debris. The under layer, or undercoat, consists of a dense, soft, and short fur that keeps the dog warm. The undercoat typically sheds heavily once or twice a year, and this seasonal process is sometimes referred to as "blowing coat". This does not mean the Samoyed will shed only during that time however; fine hairs (versus the dense clumps shed during seasonal shedding) will be shed all year round, and have a tendency to stick to cloth and float in the air. The standard Samoyed may come in a mixture of biscuit and white coloring, although pure white and all biscuit dogs are common. Males typically have larger ruffs than females. While this breed is touted as "hypoallergenic", it does shed a fair amount and needs frequent grooming. While the breed may produce fewer allergens, care should be taken for severe allergies.


title: Samoyed dog

text: Shed Samoyed fur is sometimes used as an alternative to wool in knitting, with a texture similar to angora. The fur is sometimes also used for the creation of artificial flies for fly fishing.


title: Samoyed dog

text: Samoyeds' friendly and affable disposition makes them poor guard dogs; an aggressive Samoyed is rare. The breed is characterized by an alert and happy expression which has earned the nicknames "Sammie smile" and "smiley dog". With their tendency to bark, however, they can be diligent watch dogs, barking whenever something approaches their territory. Samoyeds are excellent companions, especially for small children or even other dogs, and they remain playful into old age. According to the Samoyed Club of America, when Samoyeds become bored, they may become destructive or start to dig. With their sled dog heritage, a Samoyed is not averse to pulling things, and an untrained Samoyed has no problem pulling its owner on a leash rather than walking alongside.


title: Samoyed dog

text: Samoyeds can compete in dog agility trials, carting, obedience, showmanship, flyball, tracking, mushing and herding events. Herding instincts and trainability can be measured at non-competitive herding tests. Samoyeds exhibiting basic herding instincts can be trained to compete in herding trials.


title: Samoyed dog

text: The breed can be affected by a genetic disease known as Samoyed hereditary glomerulopathy, a kidney disease. The disease is known to be caused by an X-linked dominant faulty allele and therefore the disease is more severe in male Samoyeds. Also known as hereditary nephritis, it is caused by a nonsense mutation in codon 1027 of the COL4A5 gene on the X chromosome (glycine to stop codon), which is similar to Alport's syndrome in humans.


title: Samoyed dog

text: Carrier females do develop mild symptoms after 2–3 months of age, but mostly do not go on to develop kidney failure. The disease is caused by a defect in the structure of the type-IV collagen fibrils of the glomerular basement membrane. As a consequence, the collagen fibrils of the glomerular basement membrane are unable to form cross-links, so the structural integrity is weakened and the membrane is more susceptible to "wear-and-tear" damage. As the structure of the basement membrane begins to degenerate, plasma proteins are lost in the urine and symptoms begin to appear. Affected males appear healthy for the first three months of life, but then symptoms start to appear and worsen as the disease progresses: the dog becomes lethargic and muscle wastage occurs, as a result of proteinuria. From three months of age onwards, a reduced glomerular filtration rate is detected, indicative of progressive kidney failure.


title: Samoyed dog

text: Clinically, proteinuria is found in both sexes from the age of three to four months; in dogs older than this, kidney failure in combination with more or less pronounced hearing loss occurs swiftly and death at the age of 8 to 15 months is expected. In heterozygous females, the disease develops slowly. The disease can be treated to slow down the development by use of cyclosporine A and ACE inhibitors, but not be stopped.


title: Samoyed dog

text: If a carrier female is mated with a healthy stud dog, the female offspring have a 50% chance of being carriers for the disease, and any male offspring have a 50% chance of being affected by the disease. A genetic test is available for this disease.


title: Samoyed dog

text: For the Samoyeds several breed-specific hereditary diseases are described in the veterinary literature:


title: Billy Wilder

text: Billy Wilder (; ; born Samuel Wilder; June 22, 1906 – March 27, 2002) was an Austrian-American filmmaker. His career in Hollywood spanned five decades, and he is regarded as one of the most brilliant and versatile filmmakers of Classic Hollywood cinema. He was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Director eight times, winning twice, and for a screenplay Academy Award 13 times, winning three times.


title: Billy Wilder

text: Wilder became a screenwriter while living in Berlin. The rise of the Nazi Party and antisemitism in Germany saw him move to Paris. He then moved to Hollywood in 1933, and had a major hit when he, Charles Brackett and Walter Reisch wrote the screenplay for the Academy Award-nominated film "Ninotchka" (1939). Wilder established his directorial reputation and received his first nomination for the Academy Award for Best Director with the film noir adaptation of the novel "Double Indemnity" (1944), for which he co-wrote the screenplay with Raymond Chandler. Wilder won the Best Director and Best Screenplay Academy Awards for the film adaptation of the novel "The Lost Weekend" (1945), which also won the Academy Award for Best Picture.


title: Billy Wilder

text: In the 1950s, Wilder directed and co-wrote a string of critically acclaimed films, including the Hollywood drama "Sunset Boulevard" (1950), for which he won his second screenplay Academy Award, "Ace in the Hole" (1951), "Stalag 17" (1953) and "Sabrina" (1954). Wilder directed and co-wrote three films in 1957, including "The Spirit of St. Louis", "Love in the Afternoon" and "Witness for the Prosecution". Wilder directed Marilyn Monroe in two films, "The Seven Year Itch" (1955) and "Some Like It Hot" (1959). In 1960, Wilder co-wrote, directed and produced the critically acclaimed film "The Apartment". It won Wilder Academy Awards for Best Picture, Best Director and Best Original Screenplay. Beginning with "Some Like It Hot" and "The Apartment", he made seven films with Jack Lemmon, four of which co-starred Walter Matthau; the threesome's first collaboration was "The Fortune Cookie" (1966). Other notable films Wilder directed include "One, Two, Three" (1961), "Irma la Douce" (1963), "Kiss Me, Stupid" (1964) and "Avanti!" (1972). Wilder directed fourteen actors in Oscar-nominated performances.


title: Billy Wilder

text: Wilder received various honors over his distinguished career between the late 1980s and 1990s. He received the British Academy Film Award Fellowship Award, the Directors Guild of America's Lifetime Achievement Award, the Laurel Award for Screenwriting Achievement, and the Producers Guild of America's Lifetime Achievement Award. "Double Indemnity", "Sunset Boulevard", "Some Like It Hot", and "The Apartment" are included in the AFI's greatest American films of all time. , seven of his films are preserved in the United States National Film Registry of the Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically or aesthetically significant".


title: Billy Wilder

text: Samuel Wilder ( "Shmuel Vildr") was born on June 22, 1906 to a family of Polish Jews in Sucha Beskidzka, a small town which, at that time, belonged to the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Years later in Hollywood, he would describe it as being "Half an hour from Vienna. By telegraph." His parents were Eugenia ("née" Dittler) and Max Wilder. He was nicknamed "Billie" by his mother (he changed this to "Billy" after arriving in America). Eugenia Wilder has described her young son as a "rambunctious kid" and has been inspired by the Buffalo Bill's Wild West Shows that she saw while living briefly in New York.


title: Billy Wilder

text: His elder brother, W. Lee Wilder, was also a filmmaker. His parents had a successful and well-known cake shop in Sucha's train station that flourished into a chain of railroad cafes. Eugenia and Max Wilder did not persuade their son to join the family business. Furthermore, Max Wilder moved to Kraków to manage a hotel before moving to Vienna. Max died when Billy was 22 years old. After the family moved to Vienna, Wilder became a journalist, instead of attending the University of Vienna. In 1926, jazz band leader Paul Whiteman was on tour in Vienna when he met and was interviewed by Wilder, a fan of Whiteman's band. Whiteman liked young Wilder enough that he took him with the band to Berlin, where Wilder was able to make more connections in the entertainment field. Before achieving success as a writer, he was a taxi dancer in Berlin.


title: Billy Wilder

text: After writing crime and sports stories as a stringer for local newspapers, he was eventually offered a regular job at a Berlin tabloid. Developing an interest in film, he began working as a screenwriter. From 1929 to 1933 he produced twelve German films. He collaborated with several other novices (Fred Zinnemann and Robert Siodmak) on the 1930 film "People on Sunday". Replacing the 1920s German Expressionism cinematic styles of F. W. Murnau and Fritz Lang, People on Sunday was considered as a groundbreaking example of Neue Sachlichkeit or New Objectivity style or movement in German cinema. Furthermore, this genre of Strassenfilm ("street film") paved way to the birth of Italian neorealism and the French New Wave. He wrote the screenplay for the 1931 film adaptation of a novel by Erich Kästner, "Emil and the Detectives", also screenplays for the comedy "The Man in Search of His Murderer" (1931), the operetta "Her Grace Commands" (1931) and the comedy "A Blonde Dream" (1932), all of them produced in the Babelsberg Studios in Potsdam near Berlin. In 1932 Wilder collaborated with the writer and journalist Felix Salten on the screenplay for "Scampolo". After Adolf Hitler's rise to power, Wilder went to Paris, where he made his directorial debut film "Mauvaise Graine" (1934). He relocated to Hollywood prior to its release. Wilder's mother, grandmother and stepfather were all victims of the Holocaust. For decades it was assumed that it happened at Auschwitz Concentration Camp, but while researching Polish and Israeli archives, his Austrian biographer Andreas Hutter discovered in 2011 that they were murdered in different locations: his mother, Eugenia "Gitla" Siedlisker, in 1943 at Plaszow; his stepfather, Bernard "Berl" Siedlisker, in 1942 at Belzec; and his grandmother, Balbina Baldinger, died in 1943 in the ghetto in Nowy Targ.


title: Billy Wilder

text: After arriving in Hollywood in 1933, Wilder continued working as a screenwriter. He became a naturalized citizen of the United States in 1939, having spent time in Mexico waiting for the government after his six-month card expired in 1934, an episode reflected in his 1941 "Hold Back the Dawn". Wilder's first significant success was "Ninotchka", a collaboration with fellow German immigrant Ernst Lubitsch. The romantic comedy starred Greta Garbo (generally known as a tragic heroine in film melodramas), and was popularly and critically acclaimed. With the byline, "Garbo Laughs!", it also took Garbo's career in a new direction. The film marked Wilder's first Academy Award nomination, which he shared with co-writer Charles Brackett (although their collaboration on "Bluebeard's Eighth Wife" and "Midnight" had been well received). Wilder co-wrote many of his films with Brackett from 1938 to 1950. Brackett described their collaboration process: "The thing to do was suggest an idea, have it torn apart and despised. In a few days it would be apt to turn up, slightly changed, as Wilder's idea. Once I got adjusted to that way of working, our lives were simpler." "Wilder followed "Ninotchka" with a series of box office hits in 1942, including "Hold Back the Dawn", "Ball of Fire", and his directorial debut film "The Major and the Minor".


title: Billy Wilder

text: His third film as director, the film noir "Double Indemnity", starring Fred MacMurray, Barbara Stanwyck and Edward G. Robinson was a major hit. It was nominated for seven Academy Awards including Best Picture, Director, Screenplay and Actress; Wilder co-wrote it with Raymond Chandler. The film not only set conventions for the noir genre (such as "venetian blind" lighting and voice-over narration), but is a landmark in the battle against Hollywood censorship. Based on James M. Cain's novel, it featured two love triangles and a murder plotted for insurance money. While the book was popular with the reading public, it had been considered unfilmable under the Hays Code because adultery was central to the plot.


title: Billy Wilder

text: In 1945, the Psychological Warfare Department of the United States Department of War produced an American documentary film directed by Wilder. The film known as "Death Mills", or , was intended for German audiences to educate them about the atrocities committed by the Nazi regime. For the German version, "Die Todesmühlen", Hanuš Burger is credited as the writer and director, while Wilder supervised the editing. Wilder is credited with the English-language version.


title: Billy Wilder

text: Two years later, Wilder adapted from Charles R. Jackson's novel The Lost Weekend into a film of the same name. It was the first major American film with a serious examination of alcoholism, another difficult theme under the Production Code. It follows an alcoholic writer (Ray Milland) opposing the protestations of his girlfriend (Jane Wyman). The film earned critical acclaim, after it premiered at the Cannes Film Festival and competed in the main competition, where it received the Festival's top prize, the Palme d'Or, and four Academy Awards including for Best Picture. Wilder earned the Oscars for Best Director and Best Screenplay and Milland won Best Actor. The film remained to be one of the three films, winning both the Academy Award for Best Picture and the Cannes Film Festival's Palme d' Or, alongside "Marty" and "Parasite".


title: Billy Wilder

text: In 1950, Wilder co-wrote and directed the cynical dark noir comedy film "Sunset Boulevard". It follows a reclusive silent film actress (Gloria Swanson), who dreams of a comeback with delusions of her greatness from a bygone era. She accompanies an aspiring screenwriter (William Holden), who becomes her gigolo partner. This critically acclaimed film was the final film Wilder collaborated with Brackett. The film was nominated for eleven Academy Awards; together Wilder and Brackett won the Academy Award for Best Original Screenplay.


title: Billy Wilder

text: In 1951, Wilder directed "Ace in the Hole" (a.k.a. "The Big Carnival") starring Kirk Douglas in a tale of media exploitation of a caving accident. The idea had been pitched over the phone to Wilder's secretary by Victor Desny. Desny sued Wilder for breach of an implied contract in the California copyright case "Wilder v Desny", ultimately receiving a settlement of $14,350. Although a critical and commercial failure at the time, its reputation has grown over the years. Wilder then directed three adaptations of Broadway plays, war drama "Stalag 17", for which William Holden won the Best Actor Academy Award, romantic comedy "Sabrina", for which Audrey Hepburn was nominated for Best Actress, and romantic comedy "The Seven Year Itch", which features the iconic image of Marilyn Monroe standing on a subway grate as her white dress is blown upwards by a passing train. Wilder was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Director for the first two films and shared a nomination for Best Screenplay for the second. He was interested in doing a film with one of the classic slapstick comedy acts of the Hollywood Golden Age. He first considered, and rejected, a project to star Laurel and Hardy. He held discussions with Groucho Marx concerning a new Marx Brothers comedy, tentatively titled "A Day at the U.N". The project was abandoned after Chico Marx died in 1961.


title: Billy Wilder

text: In 1957, three films Wilder directed were released: biopic "The Spirit of St. Louis", starring James Stewart as Charles Lindbergh, romantic comedy "Love In The Afternoon"--Wilder's first screenplay with I. A. L. Diamond, who'd become his regular partner--featuring Gary Cooper, Maurice Chevalier and Audrey Hepburn, and courtroom drama "Witness for the Prosecution", featuring Tyrone Power, Marlene Dietrich and Charles Laughton. Wilder received an Academy Award nomination for Best Director for the last film.


title: Billy Wilder

text: In 1959, Wilder reunited with Monroe in the United Artists released Prohibition-era farce film "Some Like It Hot". It was released without however, a Production Code seal of approval, withheld due to the film's unabashed sexual comedy, including a central cross-dressing theme. Jack Lemmon and Tony Curtis played musicians disguised as women to escape pursuit by a Chicago gang. Curtis's character courts a singer (Monroe), while Lemmon is wooed by Joe E. Brownsetting up the film's final joke in which Lemmon reveals that his character is a man and Brown blandly replies "Well, nobody's perfect". A box office success, the film was lightly regarded by film critics during its original release, although it did receive six Academy Award nominations, including for Best Director and Best Screenplay. But its critical reputation grew prodigiously; in 2000, the American Film Institute selected it as the best American comedy ever made. In 2012, the British Film Institute decennial Sight and Sound poll of the world's film critics rated it as the 43rd best movie ever made, and the second-highest-ranking comedy.


title: Billy Wilder

text: In 1960, Wilder directed the comedy romance film "The Apartment". It follows an insurance clerk (Lemmon), who allows his coworkers to use his apartment to conduct extra-marital affairs until he meets an elevator woman (Shirley MacLaine). The film was a critical success with "The New York Times" film critic Bosley Crowther, who called the film "gleeful, tender, and even sentimental" and Wilder's direction "ingenious". The film received ten Academy Awards nominations and won five awards, including three for Wilder: Best Picture, Best Director and Best Screenplay.


title: Billy Wilder

text: Wilder directed the Cold War political farce film "One, Two, Three" (1961), starring James Cagney, which won critical praise with "Variety" writing, "Billy Wilder's "One, Two, Three" is a fast-paced, high-pitched, hard-hitting, lighthearted farce crammed with topical gags and spiced with satirical overtones. Story is so furiously quick-witted that some of its wit gets snarled and smothered in overlap." It was followed by the romantic comedy "Irma la Douce" (1963) starring Lemmon and MacLaine. The film was the fifth highest-grossing film of the year. Wilder received a Writers Guild of America Award nomination for his screenplay. Wilder then wrote and directed the sex comedy film "Kiss Me, Stupid", starring Dean Martin, Kim Novak, and Ray Walston, who was a last minute replacement for ailing Peter Sellers. The film was criticized by some critics for vulgarity, with Bosley Crowther blaming the film for giving American movies the reputation of "deliberate and degenerate corruptors of public taste and morals". A. H. Weiler of the "New York Times" called the film "pitifully unfunny". Wilder gained his final Academy Award nomination and a Writers Guild of America Award nomination for the screenplay of "The Fortune Cookie". It was the first film pairing Jack Lemmon with Walter Matthau. (The film was titled "Meet Whiplash Willie" in the United Kingdom.) In 1970, he directed "The Private Life of Sherlock Holmes", which was intended as a major roadshow theatrical release, but to Wilder's dismay was heavily cut by the studio.


title: Billy Wilder

text: He directed the comedy film "Avanti!", which follows a businessman (Lemmon) attempting to retrieve the body of his deceased father from Italy. Wilder received two Golden Globe Award nominations for Best Director and Best Screenplay, and a Writers Guild of America Award nomination. Wilder directed "The Front Page" based on a Broadway play of the same name. It was a significant financial success with low budget. His final films, "Fedora" and "Buddy Buddy", failed to impress critics or the public, although "Fedora" has since been re-evaluated and is now considered favorably. Wilder had hoped to make "Schindler's List" as his final film, saying "I wanted to do it as a kind of memorial to my mother and my grandmother and my stepfather," who had all been murdered in the Holocaust.


title: Billy Wilder

text: Wilder's directorial choices reflected his belief in the primacy of writing. He avoided, especially in the second half of his career, the exuberant cinematography of Alfred Hitchcock and Orson Welles because, in Wilder's opinion, shots that called attention to themselves would distract the audience from the story. Wilder's films have tight plotting and memorable dialogue. Despite his conservative directorial style, his subject matter often pushed the boundaries of mainstream entertainment. Once a subject was chosen, he would begin to visualize in terms of specific artists. His belief was that no matter how talented the actor, none were without limitations and the result would be better if you bent the script to their personality rather than force a performance beyond their limitations. Wilder was skilled at working with actors, coaxing silent era legends Gloria Swanson and Erich von Stroheim out of retirement for roles in "Sunset Boulevard". Regarding Wilder's more comedic films, critic Roger Ebert wrote: "he took the characters seriously, or at least as seriously as the material allowed, and got a lot of the laughs by playing scenes straight."


title: Billy Wilder

text: For "Stalag 17", Wilder squeezed an Oscar-winning performance out of a reluctant William Holden (Holden had wanted to make his character more likable; Wilder refused). At a casting meeting, Wilder reportedly said, "I'm tired of clichéd typecasting—the same people in every film." An example of this is Wilder's casting of Fred MacMurray in "Double Indemnity" and "The Apartment". MacMurray had become Hollywood's highest-paid actor portraying a decent, thoughtful character in light comedies, melodramas, and musicals; Wilder cast him as a womanizing schemer. Humphrey Bogart shed his tough-guy image to give one of his warmest performances in "Sabrina". James Cagney, not usually known for comedy, was memorable in a high-octane comic role for Wilder's "One, Two, Three". Wilder coaxed a very effective performance out of Monroe in "Some Like It Hot".


title: Billy Wilder

text: In total, he directed fourteen different actors in Oscar-nominated performances: Barbara Stanwyck in "Double Indemnity", Ray Milland in "The Lost Weekend", William Holden in "Sunset Boulevard" and "Stalag 17", Gloria Swanson, Erich von Stroheim and Nancy Olson in "Sunset Boulevard", Robert Strauss in "Stalag 17", Audrey Hepburn in "Sabrina", Charles Laughton in "Witness for the Prosecution", Elsa Lanchester in "Witness for the Prosecution", Jack Lemmon in "Some Like It Hot" and "The Apartment", Jack Kruschen in "The Apartment", Shirley MacLaine in "The Apartment" and "Irma la Douce" and Walter Matthau in "The Fortune Cookie". Wilder mentioned Lemmon, and was the first director to pair him and Matthau in "The Fortune Cookie". Wilder and Lemmon worked on seven films.


title: Billy Wilder

text: Wilder opposed the House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC). He co-created the “Committee for the First Amendment”, of 500 Hollywood personalities and stars to “support those professionals called upon to testify before the HUAC who had classified themselves as hostile with regard to the interrogations and the interrogators”. Some anti-Communists wanted those in the cinema industry to take oaths of allegiance. The Screen Directors Guild had a vote by show of hands. Only John Huston and Wilder opposed. Huston said, "I am sure it was one of the bravest things that Billy, as a naturalized German, had ever done. There were 150 to 200 directors at this meeting, and here Billy and I sat alone with our hands raised in protest against the loyalty oath."


title: Billy Wilder

text: Wilder was not affected by the Hollywood blacklist. Of the blacklisted 'Hollywood Ten' he said, "Of the ten, two had talent, and the rest were just unfriendly." In general, Wilder disliked formula and genre films. Wilder reveled in poking fun at those who took politics too seriously. In "Ball of Fire", his burlesque queen 'Sugarpuss' points at her sore throat and complains "Pink? It's as red as the "Daily Worker" and just as sore." Later, she gives the overbearing and unsmiling housemaid the name "Franco".


title: Billy Wilder

text: Wilder is sometimes confused with director William Wyler. Both were German-speaking Jews with similar backgrounds and names. However, their output as directors was quite different: Wyler preferred to direct epics and heavy dramas, while Wilder was noted for comedies and film noir type dramas.


title: Billy Wilder

text: Wilder received the American Film Institute Life Achievement Award in 1986. He received the Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award in 1988, the Kennedy Center Honors in 1990 and the National Medal of Arts in 1993. He has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. Wilder became well known for owning one of the finest and most extensive art collections in Hollywood, mainly collecting modern art. As he described it in the mid-80s, "It's a sickness. I don't know how to stop myself. Call it bulimia if you want – or curiosity or passion. I have some Impressionists, some Picassos from every period, some mobiles by Calder. I also collect tiny Japanese trees, glass paperweights, and Chinese vases. Name an object and I collect it." Wilder's artistic ambitions led him to create a series of works of his own. By the early '90s, Wilder had amassed many plastic-artistic constructions, many of which were made in collaboration with artist Bruce Houston. In 1993, art dealer Louis Stern, a longtime friend, helped organize an exhibition of Wilder's work at his Beverly Hills gallery. The exhibition was titled "Billy Wilder's Marché aux Puces" and the "Variations on the Theme of Queen Nefertete" segment was an unqualified crowd pleaser. This series featured busts of the Egyptian queen wrapped "à la" Christo, or splattered "à la" Jackson Pollock, or sporting a Campbell's soup can in homage to Andy Warhol.


title: Billy Wilder

text: Wilder married Judith Coppicus on December 22, 1936. The couple had twins, Victoria and Vincent (born 1939), but Vincent died shortly after birth. They divorced in 1946. Wilder met Audrey Young while filming "The Lost Weekend". They were married on June 30, 1949.


title: Billy Wilder

text: Wilder died of pneumonia on March 27, 2002. He was buried at Pierce Brothers Westwood Village Memorial Park and Mortuary. A French newspaper, "Le Monde", titled the front-page obituary: “Billy Wilder is dead. Nobody is perfect”, a reference to the last line of "Some Like It Hot".


title: Billy Wilder

text: Wilder holds a significant place in the history of Hollywood censorship for expanding the range of acceptable subject matter. He is responsible for two of the film noir era's most definitive films in "Double Indemnity" and "Sunset Boulevard". Along with Woody Allen and the Marx Brothers, he leads the list of films on the American Film Institute's list of 100 funniest American films with five films written as well as having the honor of holding the top spot on it with "Some Like it Hot". Also on the list are "The Apartment" and "The Seven Year Itch" which he directed, and "Ball of Fire" and "Ninotchka" which he co-wrote. The American Film Institute has ranked four of Wilder's films among their top 100 American films of the 20th century: "Sunset Boulevard" (no. 12), "Some Like It Hot" (no. 14), "Double Indemnity" (no. 38) and "The Apartment" (no. 93). For the tenth anniversary edition of their list, the AFI moved "Sunset Boulevard" to No. 16, "Some Like it Hot" to No. 22, "Double Indemnity" to No. 29 and "The Apartment" to No. 80. Wilder was ranked 6th in director's poll on Sight & Sound's 2002 list of "The Greatest Directors of All Time". In 1996, "Entertainment Weekly" ranked Wilder at No. 24 in its "50 Greatest Directors" list. Wilder was ranked at No. 19 on Empire magazine's "Top 40 Greatest Directors of All-Time" list in 2005. In 2007, "Total Film" magazine ranked Wilder at No. 13 on its "100 Greatest Film Directors Ever" list. Wilder was voted at No. 4 on the "Greatest Directors of 20th Century" poll conducted by Japanese film magazine "kinema Junpo".


title: Billy Wilder

text: Spanish filmmaker Fernando Trueba said in his acceptance speech when "Belle Époque" won the 1993 Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film: "I would like to believe in God in order to thank him. But I just believe in Billy Wilder... so thank you, Mr. Wilder." According to Trueba, Wilder called him the day after and told him: "Fernando, it's God." French filmmaker Michel Hazanavicius also thanked Billy Wilder in the 2012 Best Picture Oscar acceptance speech for "The Artist" by saying "I would like to thank the following three people, I would like to thank Billy Wilder, I would like to thank Billy Wilder, and I would like to thank Billy Wilder." Wilder's 12 Academy Award nominations for screenwriting were a record until 1997 when Woody Allen received a 13th nomination for "Deconstructing Harry". In 2017, Vulture.com named Wilder the greatest screenwriter of all time.


title: Billy Wilder

text: Wilder received twenty-one nominations at the Academy Awards, winning six. In total, he received thirteen nominations for his screenwriting, and eight for his direction. He won both the Academy Award for Best Director and the Academy Award for Best Original Screenplay for both "The Lost Weekend" (1945) and "The Apartment" (1960). The former was awarded the Grand Prix du Festival International du Film at the Cannes Film Festival, and the latter also won him the BAFTA Award for Best Film. Wilder garnered eight Directors Guild of America Award nominations, with the sole win for his work on "The Apartment". He received seven nominations at the Golden Globe Awards, winning Best Director for "The Lost Weekend" and "Sunset Boulevard" (1950). He won seven Writers Guild of America Awards including two Laurel Awards for Screenwriting Achievement. He garnered a number of lifetime achievement awards including the Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award, the BAFTA Fellowship, the David O. Selznick Achievement Award in Theatrical Motion Pictures, and the Honorary Golden Bear from the Berlin International Film Festival.


title: Delta Air Lines fleet

text: Delta Air Lines operates 899 commercial aircraft, making it the second largest airline fleet in the world. In the past, Delta used to purchase or lease older generation aircraft and fly them for sometimes up to an age of over 30 years, much longer than most other major airlines. In 2011 however, Delta began a massive fleet-renewal effort with orders for new and modern narrow- and wide-body aircraft. As a result, Delta today still flies the second-oldest fleet among US big 4 international airlines (American, Delta, Southwest & United), however with the average fleet age reduced to 14.8 years.


title: Delta Air Lines fleet

text: Delta's fleet consists of 899 Airbus and Boeing aircraft. 493 Boeing aircraft make up about 56% of Delta's fleet, while its 406 Airbus aircraft make about 44%. Its 342 aircraft on order, are both for Airbus and Boeing aircraft types. Its 735 narrow-body aircraft comprise about 83% of its fleet, while its 151 wide-body aircraft comprise the remaining 17%.


title: Delta Air Lines fleet

text: Delta operates the largest fleets of the Airbus A220, the Boeing 717, the Boeing 757, and the largest passenger fleet of the Boeing 767 worldwide. Alongside United Airlines, it is one of only two airlines worldwide operating the Boeing 767-400ER.


title: Delta Air Lines fleet

text: Delta primarily uses narrow-body aircraft for its domestic flights within the United States and international flights from the United States to Canada, Mexico, the Caribbean, and some European destinations. Most of its Boeing 717 aircraft are based in Hartsfield–Jackson Atlanta International Airport and are mainly used for short-haul flights. Its Airbus A220, Airbus A320, Boeing 737 and Boeing 757 aircraft are used for short-haul flights and medium-haul transcontinental flights, while some of its Boeing 757-200 aircraft are used on long and thin flights to Europe. Delta primarily uses its wide-body aircraft on long-haul flights to Africa, Asia, Europe, Oceania, and South America. Its Airbus A330s, Boeing 767-300ERs, and Boeing 767-400ERs mainly operate on flights to Europe, while the Airbus A350-900 mainly operates on flights to Asia and Oceania.


title: Delta Air Lines fleet

text: Delta has one of the oldest fleets of any United States airline, with an average fleet age of 14.8 years as of December 2022. Its oldest aircraft types are the Airbus A320-200, Boeing 767-300ER, and Boeing 757-200, which have an average age of 26, 25.4, and 24.4 years, respectively. Its youngest aircraft types are the Boeing 737-900ER, Airbus A350-900, Airbus A321-200, Airbus A330-900, and Airbus A220-300, which have an average age of 5.6, 3.7, 3.1, 1.6, and 1 years respectively.


title: Delta Air Lines fleet

text: In 2012, Delta began fleet renewal with an agreement to lease all 88 of AirTran's Boeing 717s from their parent company Southwest, with deliveries between 2013 and 2015. These aircraft would allow Delta to retire DC-9s and smaller regional jets and turboprops.


title: Delta Air Lines fleet

text: In September 2013, Delta ordered 30 A321, its first order with Airbus in more than two decades. This order would later be incrementally increased with 15 more in 2014, an additional 37 in 2016, and 40 more in 2017. In addition, Delta ordered 100 A321neo aircraft in December 2017 to replace its aging McDonnell Douglas MD-80/90 series and Boeing 757s.


title: Delta Air Lines fleet

text: Delta continued its fleet renewal project with orders for 25 A350-900s and 25 A330-900s aircraft (ordered November 2014) and 95 Airbus A220 (both the -100 and -300 variant) aircraft. In September 2019, Delta assumed purchase rights for 10 A350-900s from LATAM as part of a deal to acquire a 20% equity stake in LATAM Airlines Group.


title: Delta Air Lines fleet

text: In a memo on March 18, 2020, to company employees, Delta CEO Ed Bastian announced that as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic impact on airline operations, the company would accelerate the retirement of the remaining MD-88 and MD-90 aircraft, as well as some older Boeing 767s. All the MD-88 and MD-90 aircraft were retired on June 2, 2020, with its final revenue flight from Washington-Dulles to Atlanta on MD-88 (DL88), and from Houston to Atlanta on MD-90 (DL90), becoming the last operator to fly the MD-90 and as well the last major U.S. airline to fly the MD-88. The retirement of its MD-88s and MD-90s officially ended Delta's 80-year era of flying Douglas and McDonnell Douglas aircraft, which started in 1940 with the DC-3.


title: Delta Air Lines fleet

text: Furthermore, on May 14, 2020, Delta announced that the airline would be retiring its Boeing 777s as a result of the pandemic, and to further simplify its wide-body fleet in favor of the Airbus A350-900s. The final 777 revenue flight was from New York-JFK to Los Angeles (DL8777) on October 31, 2020. When Delta announced its June quarter results, it revealed plans to retire the 737-700, as well as accelerate 767-300ER and A320-200 retirements. In September 2020, Delta announced through its SEC filing its plan to retire all Boeing 717-200 and will be phasing out their Delta Connection Bombardier CRJ-200s aircraft, by the year 2025. Delta's Boeing 767-300ER aircraft were also set to be retired by 2025, but this date has not been commented on.


title: Delta Air Lines fleet

text: In April 2021, Delta added 25 incremental A321neo orders for a total of 125 firm orders and 100 options to begin delivery in 2022. They also accelerated delivery dates for two A350-900s and one A330-900 to 2022. In July 2021, Delta entered into agreements to lease 7 used A350-900s and acquire 29 used Boeing 737-900ERs to complement fleet renewal, with aircraft entering service from 2022 after modifications to Delta cabin configurations. In August 2021, Delta increased its A321neo firm order by another 30 for a total of 155 firm orders and 70 options.


title: Diesel fuel

text: Diesel fuel , also called diesel oil, is any liquid fuel specifically designed for use in a diesel engine, a type of internal combustion engine in which fuel ignition takes place without a spark as a result of compression of the inlet air and then injection of fuel. Therefore, diesel fuel needs good compression ignition characteristics.


title: Diesel fuel

text: The most common type of diesel fuel is a specific fractional distillate of petroleum fuel oil, but alternatives that are not derived from petroleum, such as biodiesel, biomass to liquid (BTL) or gas to liquid (GTL) diesel are increasingly being developed and adopted. To distinguish these types, petroleum-derived diesel is sometimes called petrodiesel in some academic circles.


title: Diesel fuel

text: In many countries, diesel fuel is standardised. For example, in the European Union, the standard for diesel fuel is EN 590. Diesel fuel has many colloquial names; most commonly, it is simply referred to as "diesel". In the United Kingdom, diesel fuel for on-road use is commonly called "diesel" or sometimes "white diesel" if required to differentiate it from a tax-advantaged agricultural-only product containing an identifying coloured dye known as "red diesel". The official term for white diesel is "DERV", standing for "diesel-engine road vehicle". In Australia, diesel fuel is also known as distillate (not to be confused with "distillate" in an older sense referring to a different motor fuel), and in Indonesia, it is known as Solar, a trademarked name from the country's national petroleum company Pertamina. The term gas oil (French: "gazole") is sometimes also used to refer to diesel fuel.


title: Diesel fuel

text: Ultra-low-sulfur diesel (ULSD) is a diesel fuel with substantially lowered sulfur contents. As of 2016, almost all of the petroleum-based diesel fuel available in the United Kingdom, mainland Europe, and North America is of a ULSD type.


title: Diesel fuel

text: Before diesel fuel had been standardised, the majority of diesel engines typically ran on cheap fuel oils. These fuel oils are still used in watercraft diesel engines. Despite being specifically designed for diesel engines, diesel fuel can also be used as fuel for several non-diesel engines, for example the Akroyd engine, the Stirling engine, or boilers for steam engines.


title: Diesel fuel

text: Diesel fuel originated from experiments conducted by German scientist and inventor Rudolf Diesel for his compression-ignition engine he invented in 1892. Originally, Diesel did not consider using any specific type of fuel, instead, he claimed that the operating principle of his rational heat motor would work with any kind of fuel in any state of matter. However, both the first diesel engine prototype and the first functional Diesel engine were only designed for liquid fuels.


title: Diesel fuel

text: At first, Diesel tested crude oil from Pechelbronn, but soon replaced it with petrol and kerosene, because crude oil proved to be too viscous, with the main testing fuel for the Diesel engine being kerosene. In addition to that, Diesel experimented with different types of lamp oil from various sources, as well as different types of petrol and ligroin, which all worked well as Diesel engine fuels. Later, Diesel tested coal tar creosote, paraffin oil, crude oil, gasoil, and fuel oil, which eventually worked as well. In Scotland and France, shale oil was used as fuel for the first 1898 production Diesel engines because other fuels were too expensive. In 1900, the French Otto society built a Diesel engine for the use with crude oil, which was exhibited at the 1900 Paris Exposition and the 1911 World's Fair in Paris. The engine actually ran on peanut oil instead of crude oil, and no modifications were necessary for peanut oil operation.


title: Diesel fuel

text: During his first Diesel engine tests, Diesel also used illuminating gas as fuel, and managed to build functional designs, both with and without pilot injection. According to Diesel, neither was a coal-dust–producing industry existent, nor was fine, high quality coal-dust commercially available in the late 1890s. This is the reason why the Diesel engine was never designed or planned as a coal-dust engine. Only in December 1899, did Diesel test a coal-dust prototype, which used external mixture formation and liquid fuel pilot injection. This engine proved to be functional, but suffered from piston ring failure after a very few minutes due to coal dust deposition.


title: Diesel fuel

text: Before diesel fuel had been standardised, diesel engines typically ran on cheap fuel oils. In the United States, these were distilled from petroleum, whereas in Europe, coal-tar creosote oil was used. Some diesel engines were fuelled with mixtures of several different fuels, such as petrol, kerosine, rapeseed oil, or lubricating oil, because they were untaxed and thus cheap. The introduction of motor-vehicle diesel engines, such as the Mercedes-Benz OM 138, in the 1930s meant that higher quality fuels with proper ignition characteristics were needed. At first no improvements were made to motor-vehicle diesel fuel quality. After World War II, the first modern high quality diesel fuels were standardised. These standards were, for instance, the DIN 51601, VTL 9140-001, and NATO F 54 standards. In 1993, the DIN 51601 was rendered obsolete by the new EN 590 standard, which has been used in the European Union ever since. In sea-going watercraft, where diesel propulsion had gained prevalence by the late 1970s due to increasing fuel costs caused by the 1970s energy crisis, cheap heavy fuel oils are still used instead of conventional motor-vehicle diesel fuel. These heavy fuel oils (often called Bunker C) can be used in diesel-powered and steam-powered vessels.


title: Diesel fuel

text: Diesel fuel is produced from various sources, the most common being petroleum. Other sources include biomass, animal fat, biogas, natural gas, and coal liquefaction.


title: Diesel fuel

text: Petroleum diesel, also called petrodiesel, fossil diesel, or mineral diesel, is the most common type of diesel fuel. It is produced from the fractional distillation of crude oil between at atmospheric pressure, resulting in a mixture of carbon chains that typically contain between 9 and 25 carbon atoms per molecule.


title: Diesel fuel

text: Synthetic diesel can be produced from any carbonaceous material, including biomass, biogas, natural gas, coal and many others. The raw material is gasified into synthesis gas, which after purification is converted by the Fischer–Tropsch process to a synthetic diesel.


title: Diesel fuel

text: The process is typically referred to as biomass-to-liquid (BTL), gas-to-liquid (GTL) or coal-to-liquid (CTL), depending on the raw material used.


title: Diesel fuel

text: Paraffinic synthetic diesel generally has a near-zero content of sulfur and very low aromatics content, reducing unregulated emissions of toxic hydrocarbons, nitrous oxides and particulate matter (PM).


title: Diesel fuel

text: Biodiesel is obtained from vegetable oil or animal fats (biolipids) which are mainly fatty acid methyl esters (FAME), and transesterified with methanol. It can be produced from many types of oils, the most common being rapeseed oil (rapeseed methyl ester, RME) in Europe and soybean oil (soy methyl ester, SME) in the US. Methanol can also be replaced with ethanol for the transesterification process, which results in the production of ethyl esters. The transesterification processes use catalysts, such as sodium or potassium hydroxide, to convert vegetable oil and methanol into biodiesel and the undesirable byproducts glycerine and water, which will need to be removed from the fuel along with methanol traces. Biodiesel can be used pure (B100) in engines where the manufacturer approves such use, but it is more often used as a mix with diesel, BXX where XX is the biodiesel content in percent.


title: Diesel fuel

text: Fuel Injection Equipment (FIE) manufacturers have raised several concerns regarding biodiesel, identifying FAME as being the cause of the following problems: corrosion of fuel injection components, low-pressure fuel system blockage, increased dilution and polymerization of engine sump oil, pump seizures due to high fuel viscosity at low temperature, increased injection pressure, elastomeric seal failures and fuel injector spray blockage. Pure biodiesel has an energy content about 5–10% lower than petroleum diesel. The loss in power when using pure biodiesel is 5–7%.


title: Diesel fuel

text: Unsaturated fatty acids are the source for the lower oxidation stability. They react with oxygen and form peroxides and result in degradation byproducts, which can cause sludge and lacquer in the fuel system.


title: Diesel fuel

text: As biodiesel contains low levels of sulfur, the emissions of sulfur oxides and sulfates, major components of acid rain, are low. Use of biodiesel also results in reductions of unburned hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide (CO), and particulate matter. CO emissions using biodiesel are substantially reduced, on the order of 50% compared to most petrodiesel fuels. The exhaust emissions of particulate matter from biodiesel have been found to be 30% lower than overall particulate matter emissions from petrodiesel. The exhaust emissions of total hydrocarbons (a contributing factor in the localized formation of smog and ozone) are up to 93% lower for biodiesel than diesel fuel.


title: Diesel fuel

text: Biodiesel also may reduce health risks associated with petroleum diesel. Biodiesel emissions showed decreased levels of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) and nitrated PAH compounds, which have been identified as potential carcinogens. In recent testing, PAH compounds were reduced by 75–85%, except for benz(a)anthracene, which was reduced by roughly 50%. Targeted nPAH compounds were also reduced dramatically with biodiesel fuel, with 2-nitrofluorene and 1-nitropyrene reduced by 90%, and the rest of the nPAH compounds reduced to only trace levels.