title: Gunshot wound

text: Survival rates for gunshot wounds improved among US military personnel during the Korean and Vietnam Wars, due in part to helicopter evacuation, along with improvements in resuscitation and battlefield medicine. Similar improvements were seen in US trauma practices during the Iraq War. Some military trauma care practices are disseminated by citizen soldiers who return to civilian practice. One such practice is to transfer major trauma cases to an operating theater as soon as possible, to stop internal bleeding. Within the United States, the survival rate for gunshot wounds has increased, leading to apparent declines in the gun death rate in states that have stable rates of gunshot hospitalizations.


title: Gunshot wound

text: Research into gunshot wounds in the USA is hampered by lack of funding. Federal-funded research into firearm injury, epidemiology, violence, and prevention is minimal.


title: AMC (TV channel)

text: AMC is an American multinational basic cable television channel that is the flagship property of AMC Networks. The channel's programming primarily consists of theatrically released films, along with a limited amount of original programming. The channel's name originally stood for "American Movie Classics", but since 2002 the full name has been de-emphasized as a result of a major shift in its programming.


title: AMC (TV channel)

text: As of July 2015, AMC was received by approximately 94,832,000 households in the United States that subscribe to a pay television service (81.5% of U.S. households with at least one television set). In March 2015, Dish Network's Sling TV announced it would soon begin making AMC channels available to cord cutters, including AMC, BBC America, IFC, Sundance TV, and We TV.


title: AMC (TV channel)

text: American Movie Classics, as AMC was originally known, debuted on October 1, 1984, as a premium channel by Rainbow Programming Services (a subsidiary of Cablevision). Its original format focused on classic movies – largely those made prior to the 1970s – that aired during the afternoon and early evening hours in a commercial-free, generally unedited, uncut and uncolorized format. The new network replaced Montage, a channel with a similar format that was being offered to Cablevision subscribers in the New York area.


title: AMC (TV channel)

text: In 1985, Rainbow became involved in a dispute with Ted Turner's Turner Broadcasting System over broadcast rights to the MGM/UA film library. On July 30 of that year, Rainbow had paid $45 million to license up to 800 pre-1950 films from the library. Weeks later, Turner announced an agreement to purchase the film studio with the intention of airing the films on his Superstation WTBS. Rainbow claimed it had exclusive basic cable rights to the films for the next five years. Despite its widespread cable carriage, Turner claimed that because WTBS was a broadcast station, the restriction did not apply. This led to both companies filing lawsuits in September against each other and MGM/UA terminating the agreement with Rainbow because Rainbow allegedly breached it when it announced its intention to offer AMC to cable providers as both a basic and a premium service. By October, the lawsuit were settled with Rainbow receiving $50 million and an agreement to terminate the licensing deal on December 31, 1985, before which time AMC would not be allowed to convert to a basic service. Turner would go on to complete the acquisition of MGM in early-1986, but his ownership would be very short-lived with him selling it back to the previous owner months later. However, he would retain the film library and execute his original plan to air the movies on WTBS and later on his new networks Turner Network Television and Turner Classic Movies (a direct competitor to AMC).


title: AMC (TV channel)

text: The new movie network struggled to gain carriage. By March 1986, it had only 300,000 subscribers. To solve this problem, Cablevision and CBS (which became half owner of Rainbow about a year earlier) worked out a deal with the nation's largest cable television provider, Tele-Communications Inc. (TCI). TCI gained a one-third interest in AMC (but not Bravo, Rainbow's other network) and in exchange made AMC available as an offering for most of its 3.9 million subscribers. (TCI's Liberty Media division eventually would create another premium service—Encore, which also originally focused on older films, mainly from the 1960s to the 1980s – five years later in April 1991). During its early years, it was not uncommon for AMC to host a marathon of Marx Brothers films, or show classics such as the original 1925 release of "The Phantom of the Opera". In 1987, the channel began to be carried on the basic cable tiers of many cable providers. In July 1988, AMC added its first original programming: "Classic Stories From Classic Stars" (featuring interviews), followed later that year by "Star Facts" (biographies) and a mini-documentary series "Making of a Classic". By 1989, AMC was available to 39 million subscribers in the U.S.


title: AMC (TV channel)

text: Beginning in 1993, AMC presented an annual Film Preservation Festival to raise awareness of and funding for film preservation. Coordinated with The Film Foundation, an industry group that was founded by acclaimed director Martin Scorsese, the festival was originally conceived as a multi-day marathon presenting rare and previously lost films, many airing for the first time on television, along with behind-the-scenes reports on the technical and monetary issues faced by those engaged in archival restoration. Portions of the festival were often dedicated to all-day marathons focusing on a single performer. During its fifth anniversary year in 1998, Scorsese credited the Festival for creating "not only a greater awareness, but "[...]" more of an expectation now to see restored films." In 1996, curator of the Museum of Modern Art Mary Lee Bandy called the Festival "the most important public event in support of film preservation." By its tenth anniversary in 2003, the Festival had raised $2 million from the general public, which The Film Foundation divided among its five-member archives.


title: AMC (TV channel)

text: In 1993, Cablevision's Rainbow Media division became the majority owner of the channel, when it bought out Liberty Media's 50% stake in AMC; incidentally in August of that year, Liberty announced its intent to purchase the 25% stake in the channel that Cablevision held at the time, with the Turner Broadcasting System helping to finance the buyout that included an option for TBS to eventually acquire AMC outright. The following year, Time Warner (which later purchased rival Turner Classic Movies following the company's 1996 acquisition of the Turner Broadcasting System) also attempted to acquire at least part of Liberty Media's stake in AMC.


title: AMC (TV channel)

text: In June 1995, AMC became involved with another dispute with Turner. It filed a $550 million breach of contract lawsuit against Turner Entertainment, which alleged that the company violated AMC's exclusive cable television rights to the pre-1950 Warner Bros. Pictures film library to broadcast approximately 30 times between July 1994 and April 1995, charging that Turner's objective in violating the contract was "to gain unfair advantage for the Turner Classic Movies cable network (which debuted in April 1994) at the expense of AMC."; Turner owns rights to the RKO Radio Pictures film library and licensed RKO's films to AMC in an output deal that was slated to last through 2004. Under the terms of the deal, AMC obtained the RKO titles in exclusive windows.


title: AMC (TV channel)

text: Around this time, General Electric/NBC owned a stake in AMC – which it divested in the early 2000s. From 1996 to 1998, AMC aired its first original series, "Remember WENN", a half-hour scripted series about a radio station during the peak of radio's influence in the 1930s. The show was well received by both critics and its enthusiastic fans, but was abruptly cancelled after its fourth season following management changes at the channel (WENN was followed up by "The Lot", which lasted for only 16 episodes). Despite a well publicized write-in campaign to save the series, the show was not renewed for its originally scheduled fifth season.


title: AMC (TV channel)

text: One popular AMC program was "American Pop!" (originally intended as a preview of a new 24-hour cable channel), which ran from 1998 to 2003 and featured movies from the 1950s and 1960s aimed at baby boomers (such as "Beach Blanket Bingo" and "Ski Party"). Of particular interest to movie completists were the segments that AMC played to fill out the timeslot (Saturday nights from 10:00 p.m. to 12:00 a.m. Eastern Time): classic movie trailers, drive-in movie ads and snipes (bits extolling viewers to visit the snack bar, etc.), along with music videos cribbed from movie musicals from the period.


title: AMC (TV channel)

text: The majority of the films presented on AMC during the 1990s had originally been released by Paramount Pictures, 20th Century Fox, Columbia Pictures, and Universal Pictures. The channel also occasionally showed classic silent films. The regular hosts of the telecasts were Bob Dorian and later, Nick Clooney (brother of singer Rosemary and father of actor and businessman George), as well as New York City radio personality Gene Klavan from WNEW (1130 AM, now WBBR). Another WNEW alum, Al "Jazzbo" Collins, provided his voice for the "Jazzbo's Swingin' Soundies" series of interstitials.


title: AMC (TV channel)

text: For most of its first 18 years in existence, AMC provided uncut and uncolorized films without commercial interruption. Its revenue came from carriage fees provided by the cable providers that maintained carriage agreements with the channel. However, in 1998, AMC began accepting traditional advertising, incorporating limited commercial interruptions between films (its sister movie channel Romance Classics, which had launched only one year earlier, became an entirely ad-supported channel at that point). By 2001, AMC had also incorporated commercial breaks during its movie telecasts. As a result of this move, Turner Classic Movies became the only one of the two classic film-focused networks to present their films commercial-free.


title: AMC (TV channel)

text: On September 30, 2002, AMC underwent a significant rebranding, changing its format from a classic movie channel, broadening to a more general focus on movies from all eras – as well as shortening its name to just the "AMC" abbreviation, and introducing a new logo (a rectangular outline with a lowercase and uppercase "a" text) and a new slogan that says TV for Movie people. Kate McEnroe, then-president of Rainbow Media, cited lack of subsidies from cable providers as the reason for the addition of advertising, and cited ad agencies who insist on programming relevant to their products' consumers as the reason for the shift to recent movies instead of just classics. At the time of the format switchover, the company also attempted to launch a spin-off digital cable channel, AMC's Hollywood Classics, which would have required viewers to pay an extra fee to receive the channel. This commercial-free channel would have aired black-and-white classics from the 1930s through the 1950s that American Movie Classics had been airing up until its format changeover; however, the new channel never debuted.


title: AMC (TV channel)

text: The network also gradually brought back original programming. In 2004, AMC aired its first reality series, "FilmFakers"; the show featured out-of-work actors who believed they were auditioning for a major role in a real movie, only to be told that they were the subject of a prank and no film actually existed. A "New York Times" article on the show said that ""FilmFakers" may go down as one of the meanest reality series yet." From 2003 to 2007, AMC was a channel focused on American films partially classics as well as documentaries about film history such as "Backstory" and "Movies that Shook the World".


title: AMC (TV channel)

text: On September 1, 2006, AMC officially became available in Canada for cable customers of Shaw Cable and satellite customers of Shaw Direct (formerly StarChoice), marking the first time the network was made available outside the United States.


title: AMC (TV channel)

text: In late 2007 the network debuted its first original drama series "Mad Men", a period piece about Madison Avenue advertising executives in the 1960s. The show was immediately lauded by critics, and won 16 Primetime Emmy Awards and a Peabody Award. "Breaking Bad", a drama about a cancer-stricken chemistry teacher involved in making and dealing methamphetamine (played by Bryan Cranston, who had been known primarily for comedic roles in series such as "Malcolm in the Middle" prior to the series), premiered in 2008; also garnering critical acclaim, winning 16 Primetime Emmy Awards. "Breaking Bad" and "Mad Men" ended their runs in 2013 and 2015, respectively, with the former receiving a spin-off in the form of "Better Call Saul".


title: AMC (TV channel)

text: On May 31, 2009, during the second-season finale of "Breaking Bad", AMC rebranded with the introduction of a new slogan, "Story Matters Here". Later that year, the network premiered its second miniseries, "The Prisoner". On January 4, 2010, AMC began airing infomercials on Monday through Saturday mornings from 6:00 to 9:00 a.m. Eastern Time; the Saturday morning infomercial block was eliminated after its March 25, 2011, airing as AMC added a Saturday block of western series and films the following week. 2010 also saw the premieres of "Rubicon" and "The Walking Dead". While "Rubicon" was cancelled, "The Walking Dead" became an enormous success and has become the most watched scripted program in basic cable history.


title: AMC (TV channel)

text: In 2011, Cablevision spun off Rainbow Media into a separate company, which was renamed AMC Networks, after its flagship cable network. Cablevision founder Charles Dolan and his family continue to retain a controlling interest in the company. Also during this year, the network introduced two new dramas ("The Killing" and "Hell on Wheels"), two original web series ("The Trivial Pursuits of Arthur Banks" and ""), and the "Walking Dead" discussion series "Talking Dead". In 2012, AMC premiered three original reality series: "The Pitch", "Comic Book Men" and "Small Town Security"; along with a second web series spun off from "The Walking Dead", "".


title: AMC (TV channel)

text: On March 31, 2013, during the third-season finale of "The Walking Dead", AMC unveiled a rebranding campaign with the new slogan "Something More", and inverted the logo from a rectangular outlined box to a solid gold block with the network's acronymic name retained in the center. 2013 saw the channel's unscripted slate double with the additions of "Owner's Manual", "Showville", the second part of the final season of "Breaking Bad", the "Breaking Bad" discussion series "Talking Bad", and the second season of the unscripted series "Freakshow", before being cancelled.


title: AMC (TV channel)

text: Also in April, "Rectify", which was originally developed for AMC, premiered on AMC's sister channel Sundance Channel to jump-start that network's emerging slate of original scripted programming. It was then followed by the July announcement that fellow sister channel WE tv had picked up another series originally developed for AMC for the 2012-13 development slate, "The Divide", to series. During this timeframe, AMC had started to run marathons of certain shows and cross-promote programs from its co-owned sister channels.


title: AMC (TV channel)

text: In July 2013, the network announced that it had given series orders for two dramas: "" (which premiered on April 6, 2014) and "Halt and Catch Fire" (which premiered on June 1, 2014). This marked the first time that AMC had four pilot orders picked up to series in the same cycle, the other two being "The Divide" and "Low Winter Sun" (the latter premiered on August 11, 2013, after the season premiere of the final season of "Breaking Bad"). The former two would both be renewed for second seasons while the latter two were cancelled after their first seasons. AMC would then pick up "Into the Badlands" up for a six episode first season and "Breaking Bad" spinoff "Better Call Saul" for two seasons.


title: AMC (TV channel)

text: On October 9, 2014, it was announced that AMC would scrap its entire current and future unscripted slate outside "Talking Dead" and "Comic Book Men". This announcement came shortly after AMC took over the United States co-production of the sci-fi drama "Humans" from Xbox Entertainment Studios. AMC Media recently bought the European media giant Chello Media from Liberty Global. At the end of October, it was announced that AMC had won the bidding war to air the miniseries "The Night Manager". In November, AMC Networks renamed the European MGM Channel to AMC. In January 2015, the Asian MGM channel also became AMC as well. Also in January 2015, AMC announced that they would be airing the eight part miniseries "".


title: AMC (TV channel)

text: In 2016, AMC introduced a new slate of original unscripted series, including "Ride with Norman Reedus", "Geeking Out", and new expansions of the "Talking Dead" format with "Talking Saul", "Talking Preacher", and "Talking with Chris Hardwick".


title: AMC (TV channel)

text: Although movies remain an integral part of AMC's schedule, the network has garnered attention in recent years for its original series. The channel's first original series was the game show "The Movie Masters", which ran from 1989 to 1990 and was otherwise notable for being Gene Rayburn's last hosting role; outside "Remember WENN" and "Filmfakers", most of AMC's original programming prior to September 2007 consisted of film history-related documentary and review programs. The establishment of "Mad Men" in 2007, followed by that of "Breaking Bad" in 2008, and Better Call Saul in 2015 , has given AMC a reputation on par with premium cable networks HBO and Showtime, both of which rejected "Mad Men" before it came to AMC.


title: AMC (TV channel)

text: AMC also airs acquired programming, ranging from black-and-white filmed shows (such as "The Rifleman" and shorts from "The Three Stooges") to contemporary series (such as "").


title: AMC (TV channel)

text: AMC maintains movie licensing rights agreements with Warner Bros. Entertainment, Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer (including films from United Artists and library content from The Samuel Goldwyn Company, Orion Pictures, and Cannon Group), Universal Studios (including some films from DreamWorks Animation as titles from Illumination Entertainment and most from Focus Features are absent), Paramount Pictures (including films from DreamWorks Pictures), Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures (primarily film content from Touchstone Pictures, 20th Century Studios, Searchlight Pictures, Disney, Walt Disney Animation Studios, and Buena Vista International, while titles from Pixar, Lucasfilm, much of Marvel Studios, and the defunct Blue Sky Studios are not included because of other channels' agreements, including those owned by Disney themselves) and Sony Pictures Entertainment (including Columbia Pictures, TriStar Pictures, Sony Pictures Classics, Screen Gems, and Triumph Films). Since the 2003 format change, the network's film telecasts usually are "television" cuts meant for basic cable, which feature content edits, dubbing of profanities, and some time edits by removing some superfluous plotting or toning down scenes with adult content inappropriate for basic cable broadcast to fit within a set timeslot with commercials added.


title: AMC (TV channel)

text: In 1997, AMC launched "Monsterfest", a popular week-long marathon of horror movies and thrillers that aired from mid- or late October every year for Halloween until the day after Halloween. In the mid-2000s, AMC started a Monsterfest blog on its website, which chronicled news on horror-related film and television productions. In addition, AMC presented "Fear Friday," a horror movie double feature on late Friday evenings. On September 26, 2008, AMC announced the launch of a new horror-themed movie marathon for its October schedule called "Fearfest" (which replaced Monsterfest); coinciding with this, the "Monsterfest" blog was renamed as the "Horror Hacker" blog. "Fearfest" also runs from mid- or late October every year for Halloween until the day after Halloween too and it also sometimes runs throughout the whole month of October during certain years too as well.


title: AMC (TV channel)

text: AMC had typically aired a rotating lineup of five to six Christmas movies during the holiday season. In 2018, the channel introduced a more extensive holiday lineup branded as Best Christmas Ever, running from November 26 to December 25, featuring a mix of popular Christmas and family films, along with other acquired specials. The schedule included notable acquisitions from Warner Bros., including "Elf", "National Lampoon's Christmas Vacation", "The Polar Express", "I'll Be Home for Christmas", and 12 Rankin/Bass specials (the films had been recent mainstays of Freeform's competing "25 Days of Christmas" schedule, with "Elf" in particular having received extensive airplay and high viewership during the event), as well as other specials from DreamWorks Animation. As expected, AMC saw ratings gains over the holiday season; primetime viewership for the first two weeks of the event was up 40% year-over-year, airings of "Elf" and "Christmas Vacation" both peaked at 1.5 million viewers, and average viewership of feature films on Freeform fell by 36% year-over-year in the same period.


title: AMC (TV channel)

text: AMC Premiere is an add-on subscription service only available as an extra to those already normally subscribed to AMC. It involves access to an expanded On-Demand library compared to the standard "AMC OnDemand" library packaged with the usual cable service. This is necessary to view many "locked" programs on the AMC website (such as complete availability to The Walking Dead all ten seasons) which prompts someone to subscribe for ~$5/mo or ~$30/yr. For currently-airing programs it sometimes gives early access to viewing them before they debut on the main AMC channel.


title: AMC (TV channel)

text: AMC+ is a premium, commercial-free streaming bundle that includes the same benefits of AMC Premiere, early access to additional AMC series, as well as additional library content from sister networks BBC America, IFC, and SundanceTV, and the complete collections of fellow AMC Networks streaming services including Shudder, Sundance Now and IFC Films Unlimited. The service is available through most streaming services for $8.99 per month like Apple TV, Amazon Prime Video and Roku and it's also at a reduced price for existing AMC channel subscribers too like Xfinity, Dish Network and Sling TV. Like AMC Premiere, it is currently only available in the United States.


title: Classical conditioning

text: Classical conditioning (also known as Pavlovian or respondent conditioning) is a behavioral procedure in which a biologically potent stimulus (e.g. food) is paired with a previously neutral stimulus (e.g. a triangle). It also refers to the learning process that results from this pairing, through which the neutral stimulus comes to elicit a response (e.g. salivation) that is usually similar to the one elicited by the potent stimulus.


title: Classical conditioning

text: Classical conditioning is distinct from operant conditioning (also called instrumental conditioning), through which the strength of a voluntary behavior is modified by reinforcement or punishment. However, classical conditioning can affect operant conditioning in various ways; notably, classically conditioned stimuli may serve to reinforce operant responses.


title: Classical conditioning

text: Classical conditioning was first studied in detail by Ivan Pavlov, who conducted experiments with dogs and published his findings in 1897. During the Russian physiologist's study of digestion, Pavlov observed that the dogs serving as his subjects drooled when they were being served meat.


title: Classical conditioning

text: Classical conditioning is a basic behavioral mechanism, and its neural substrates are now beginning to be understood. Though it is sometimes hard to distinguish classical conditioning from other forms of associative learning (e.g. instrumental learning and human associative memory), a number of observations differentiate them, especially the contingencies whereby learning occurs.


title: Classical conditioning

text: Together with operant conditioning, classical conditioning became the foundation of behaviorism, a school of psychology which was dominant in the mid-20th century and is still an important influence on the practice of psychological therapy and the study of animal behavior. Classical conditioning has been applied in other areas as well. For example, it may affect the body's response to psychoactive drugs, the regulation of hunger, research on the neural basis of learning and memory, and in certain social phenomena such as the false consensus effect.


title: Classical conditioning

text: Classical conditioning occurs when a conditioned stimulus (CS) is paired with an unconditioned stimulus (US). Usually, the conditioned stimulus is a neutral stimulus (e.g., the sound of a tuning fork), the unconditioned stimulus is biologically potent (e.g., the taste of food) and the unconditioned response (UR) to the unconditioned stimulus is an unlearned reflex response (e.g., salivation). After pairing is repeated the organism exhibits a conditioned response (CR) to the conditioned stimulus when the conditioned stimulus is presented alone. (A conditioned response may occur after only one pairing.) Thus, unlike the UR, the CR is acquired through experience, and it is also less permanent than the UR.


title: Classical conditioning

text: Usually the conditioned response is similar to the unconditioned response, but sometimes it is quite different. For this and other reasons, most learning theorists suggest that the conditioned stimulus comes to signal or predict the unconditioned stimulus, and go on to analyze the consequences of this signal. Robert A. Rescorla provided a clear summary of this change in thinking, and its implications, in his 1988 article "Pavlovian conditioning: It's not what you think it is". Despite its widespread acceptance, Rescorla's thesis may not be defensible.


title: Classical conditioning

text: Classical conditioning differs from "operant" or "instrumental" conditioning: in classical conditioning, behaviors are modified through the association of stimuli as described above, whereas in operant conditioning behaviors are modified by the effect they produce (i.e., reward or punishment).


title: Classical conditioning

text: The best-known and most thorough early work on classical conditioning was done by Ivan Pavlov, although Edwin Twitmyer published some related findings a year earlier. During his research on the physiology of digestion in dogs, Pavlov developed a procedure that enabled him to study the digestive processes of animals over long periods of time. He redirected the animal's digestive fluids outside the body, where they could be measured. Pavlov noticed that his dogs began to salivate in the presence of the technician who normally fed them, rather than simply salivating in the presence of food. Pavlov called the dogs' anticipatory salivation "psychic secretion". Putting these informal observations to an experimental test, Pavlov presented a stimulus (e.g. the sound of a metronome) and then gave the dog food; after a few repetitions, the dogs started to salivate in response to the stimulus. Pavlov concluded that if a particular stimulus in the dog's surroundings was present when the dog was given food then that stimulus could become associated with food and cause salivation on its own.


title: Classical conditioning

text: In Pavlov's experiments the unconditioned stimulus (US) was the food because its effects did not depend on previous experience. The metronome's sound is originally a neutral stimulus (NS) because it does not elicit salivation in the dogs. After conditioning, the metronome's sound becomes the conditioned stimulus (CS) or conditional stimulus; because its effects depend on its association with food. Likewise, the responses of the dog follow the same conditioned-versus-unconditioned arrangement. The conditioned response (CR) is the response to the conditioned stimulus, whereas the unconditioned response (UR) corresponds to the unconditioned stimulus.


title: Classical conditioning

text: Pavlov reported many basic facts about conditioning; for example, he found that learning occurred most rapidly when the interval between the CS and the appearance of the US was relatively short.


title: Classical conditioning

text: As noted earlier, it is often thought that the conditioned response is a replica of the unconditioned response, but Pavlov noted that saliva produced by the CS differs in composition from that produced by the US. In fact, the CR may be any new response to the previously neutral CS that can be clearly linked to experience with the conditional relationship of CS and US. It was also thought that repeated pairings are necessary for conditioning to emerge, but many CRs can be learned with a single trial, especially in fear conditioning and taste aversion learning.


title: Classical conditioning

text: Learning is fastest in forward conditioning. During forward conditioning, the onset of the CS precedes the onset of the US in order to signal that the US will follow. Two common forms of forward conditioning are delay and trace conditioning.


title: Classical conditioning

text: During simultaneous conditioning, the CS and US are presented and terminated at the same time. For example: If a person hears a bell and has air puffed into their eye at the same time, and repeated pairings like this led to the person blinking when they hear the bell despite the puff of air being absent, this demonstrates that simultaneous conditioning has occurred.


title: Classical conditioning

text: Second-order or higher-order conditioning follow a two-step procedure. First a neutral stimulus ("CS1") comes to signal a US through forward conditioning. Then a second neutral stimulus ("CS2") is paired with the first (CS1) and comes to yield its own conditioned response. For example: A bell might be paired with food until the bell elicits salivation. If a light is then paired with the bell, then the light may come to elicit salivation as well. The bell is the CS1 and the food is the US. The light becomes the CS2 once it is paired with the CS1.


title: Classical conditioning

text: Backward conditioning occurs when a CS immediately follows a US. Unlike the usual conditioning procedure, in which the CS precedes the US, the conditioned response given to the CS tends to be inhibitory. This presumably happens because the CS serves as a signal that the US has ended, rather than as a signal that the US is about to appear. For example, a puff of air directed at a person's eye could be followed by the sound of a buzzer.


title: Classical conditioning

text: In temporal conditioning, a US is presented at regular intervals, for instance every 10 minutes. Conditioning is said to have occurred when the CR tends to occur shortly before each US. This suggests that animals have a biological clock that can serve as a CS. This method has also been used to study timing ability in animals (see Animal cognition).


title: Classical conditioning

text: The example below shows the temporal conditioning, as US such as food to a hungry mouse is simply delivered on a regular time schedule such as every thirty seconds. After sufficient exposure the mouse will begin to salivate just before the food delivery. This then makes it temporal conditioning as it would appear that the mouse is conditioned to the passage of time.


title: Classical conditioning

text: In this procedure, the CS is paired with the US, but the US also occurs at other times. If this occurs, it is predicted that the US is likely to happen in the absence of the CS. In other words, the CS does not "predict" the US. In this case, conditioning fails and the CS does not come to elicit a CR. This finding – that "prediction" rather than CS-US pairing is the key to conditioning – greatly influenced subsequent conditioning research and theory.


title: Classical conditioning

text: In the extinction procedure, the CS is presented repeatedly in the absence of a US. This is done after a CS has been conditioned by one of the methods above. When this is done, the CR frequency eventually returns to pre-training levels. However, extinction does not eliminate the effects of the prior conditioning. This is demonstrated by spontaneous recovery – when there is a sudden appearance of the (CR) after extinction occurs – and other related phenomena (see "Recovery from extinction" below). These phenomena can be explained by postulating accumulation of inhibition when a weak stimulus is presented.


title: Classical conditioning

text: During acquisition, the CS and US are paired as described above. The extent of conditioning may be tracked by test trials. In these test trials, the CS is presented alone and the CR is measured. A single CS-US pairing may suffice to yield a CR on a test, but usually a number of pairings are necessary and there is a gradual increase in the conditioned response to the CS. This repeated number of trials increase the strength and/or frequency of the CR gradually. The speed of conditioning depends on a number of factors, such as the nature and strength of both the CS and the US, previous experience and the animal's motivational state. The process slows down as it nears completion.


title: Classical conditioning

text: If the CS is presented without the US, and this process is repeated often enough, the CS will eventually stop eliciting a CR. At this point the CR is said to be "extinguished."


title: Classical conditioning

text: External inhibition may be observed if a strong or unfamiliar stimulus is presented just before, or at the same time as, the CS. This causes a reduction in the conditioned response to the CS.


title: Classical conditioning

text: Several procedures lead to the recovery of a CR that had been first conditioned and then extinguished. This illustrates that the extinction procedure does not eliminate the effect of conditioning. These procedures are the following:


title: Classical conditioning

text: "Stimulus generalization" is said to occur if, after a particular CS has come to elicit a CR, a similar test stimulus is found to elicit the same CR. Usually the more similar the test stimulus is to the CS the stronger the CR will be to the test stimulus. Conversely, the more the test stimulus differs from the CS, the weaker the CR will be, or the more it will differ from that previously observed.


title: Classical conditioning

text: One observes "stimulus discrimination" when one stimulus ("CS1") elicits one CR and another stimulus ("CS2") elicits either another CR or no CR at all. This can be brought about by, for example, pairing CS1 with an effective US and presenting CS2 with no US.


title: Classical conditioning

text: Latent inhibition refers to the observation that it takes longer for a familiar stimulus to become a CS than it does for a novel stimulus to become a CS, when the stimulus is paired with an effective US.


title: Classical conditioning

text: This is one of the most common ways to measure the strength of learning in classical conditioning. A typical example of this procedure is as follows: a rat first learns to press a lever through operant conditioning. Then, in a series of trials, the rat is exposed to a CS, a light or a noise, followed by the US, a mild electric shock. An association between the CS and US develops, and the rat slows or stops its lever pressing when the CS comes on. The rate of pressing during the CS measures the strength of classical conditioning; that is, the slower the rat presses, the stronger the association of the CS and the US. (Slow pressing indicates a "fear" conditioned response, and it is an example of a conditioned emotional response; see section below.)


title: Classical conditioning

text: CS+/US trials are continued, but these are interspersed with trials on which the CS+ is paired with a second CS, (the CS-) but not with the US (i.e. CS+/CS- trials). Typically, organisms show CRs on CS+/US trials, but stop responding on CS+/CS− trials.


title: Classical conditioning

text: A separate test for each CS (CS1 and CS2) is performed. The blocking effect is observed in a lack of conditional response to CS2, suggesting that the first phase of training blocked the acquisition of the second CS.


title: Classical conditioning

text: Experiments on theoretical issues in conditioning have mostly been done on vertebrates, especially rats and pigeons. However, conditioning has also been studied in invertebrates, and very important data on the neural basis of conditioning has come from experiments on the sea slug, "Aplysia". Most relevant experiments have used the classical conditioning procedure, although instrumental (operant) conditioning experiments have also been used, and the strength of classical conditioning is often measured through its operant effects, as in "conditioned suppression" (see Phenomena section above) and autoshaping.


title: Classical conditioning

text: According to Pavlov, conditioning does not involve the acquisition of any new behavior, but rather the tendency to respond in old ways to new stimuli. Thus, he theorized that the CS merely substitutes for the US in evoking the reflex response. This explanation is called the stimulus-substitution theory of conditioning. A critical problem with the stimulus-substitution theory is that the CR and UR are not always the same. Pavlov himself observed that a dog's saliva produced as a CR differed in composition from that produced as a UR. The CR is sometimes even the opposite of the UR. For example: the unconditional response to electric shock is an increase in heart rate, whereas a CS that has been paired with the electric shock elicits a decrease in heart rate. (However, it has been proposed that only when the UR does not involve the central nervous system are the CR and the UR opposites.)


title: Classical conditioning

text: The Rescorla–Wagner (R–W) model is a relatively simple yet powerful model of conditioning. The model predicts a number of important phenomena, but it also fails in important ways, thus leading to a number of modifications and alternative models. However, because much of the theoretical research on conditioning in the past 40 years has been instigated by this model or reactions to it, the R–W model deserves a brief description here.


title: Classical conditioning

text: The Rescorla-Wagner model argues that there is a limit to the amount of conditioning that can occur in the pairing of two stimuli. One determinant of this limit is the nature of the US. For example: pairing a bell with a juicy steak is more likely to produce salivation than pairing the bell with a piece of dry bread, and dry bread is likely to work better than a piece of cardboard. A key idea behind the R–W model is that a CS signals or predicts the US. One might say that before conditioning, the subject is surprised by the US. However, after conditioning, the subject is no longer surprised, because the CS predicts the coming of the US. (Note that the model can be described mathematically and that words like predict, surprise, and expect are only used to help explain the model.) Here the workings of the model are illustrated with brief accounts of acquisition, extinction, and blocking. The model also predicts a number of other phenomena, see main article on the model.


title: Classical conditioning

text: This is the Rescorla-Wagner equation. It specifies the amount of learning that will occur on a single pairing of a conditioning stimulus (CS) with an unconditioned stimulus (US). The above equation is solved repeatedly to predict the course of learning over many such trials.


title: Classical conditioning

text: In this model the degree of learning is measured by how well the CS predicts the US, which is given by the "associative strength" of the CS. In the equation, V represents the current associative strength of the CS, and ∆V is the change in this strength that happens on a given trial. ΣV is the sum of the strengths of all stimuli present in the situation. λ is the maximum associative strength that a given US will support; its value is usually set to 1 on trials when the US is present, and 0 when the US is absent. α and β are constants related to the salience of the CS and the speed of learning for a given US. How the equation predicts various experimental results is explained in following sections. For further details, see the main article on the model.


title: Classical conditioning

text: The R–W model measures conditioning by assigning an "associative strength" to the CS and other local stimuli. Before a CS is conditioned it has an associative strength of zero. Pairing the CS and the US causes a gradual increase in the associative strength of the CS. This increase is determined by the nature of the US (e.g. its intensity). The amount of learning that happens during any single CS-US pairing depends on the difference between the total associative strengths of CS and other stimuli present in the situation (ΣV in the equation), and a maximum set by the US (λ in the equation). On the first pairing of the CS and US, this difference is large and the associative strength of the CS takes a big step up. As CS-US pairings accumulate, the US becomes more predictable, and the increase in associative strength on each trial becomes smaller and smaller. Finally, the difference between the associative strength of the CS (plus any that may accrue to other stimuli) and the maximum strength reaches zero. That is, the US is fully predicted, the associative strength of the CS stops growing, and conditioning is complete.


title: Classical conditioning

text: The associative process described by the R–W model also accounts for extinction (see "procedures" above). The extinction procedure starts with a positive associative strength of the CS, which means that the CS predicts that the US will occur. On an extinction trial the US fails to occur after the CS. As a result of this "surprising" outcome, the associative strength of the CS takes a step down. Extinction is complete when the strength of the CS reaches zero; no US is predicted, and no US occurs. However, if that same CS is presented without the US but accompanied by a well-established conditioned inhibitor (CI), that is, a stimulus that predicts the absence of a US (in R-W terms, a stimulus with a negative associate strength) then R-W predicts that the CS will not undergo extinction (its V will not decrease in size).


title: Classical conditioning

text: The most important and novel contribution of the R–W model is its assumption that the conditioning of a CS depends not just on that CS alone, and its relationship to the US, but also on all other stimuli present in the conditioning situation. In particular, the model states that the US is predicted by the sum of the associative strengths of all stimuli present in the conditioning situation. Learning is controlled by the difference between this total associative strength and the strength supported by the US. When this sum of strengths reaches a maximum set by the US, conditioning ends as just described.


title: Classical conditioning

text: The R–W explanation of the blocking phenomenon illustrates one consequence of the assumption just stated. In blocking (see "phenomena" above), CS1 is paired with a US until conditioning is complete. Then on additional conditioning trials a second stimulus (CS2) appears together with CS1, and both are followed by the US. Finally CS2 is tested and shown to produce no response because learning about CS2 was "blocked" by the initial learning about CS1. The R–W model explains this by saying that after the initial conditioning, CS1 fully predicts the US. Since there is no difference between what is predicted and what happens, no new learning happens on the additional trials with CS1+CS2, hence CS2 later yields no response.


title: Classical conditioning

text: One of the main reasons for the importance of the R–W model is that it is relatively simple and makes clear predictions. Tests of these predictions have led to a number of important new findings and a considerably increased understanding of conditioning. Some new information has supported the theory, but much has not, and it is generally agreed that the theory is, at best, too simple. However, no single model seems to account for all the phenomena that experiments have produced. Following are brief summaries of some related theoretical issues.


title: Classical conditioning

text: The R–W model reduces conditioning to the association of a CS and US, and measures this with a single number, the associative strength of the CS. A number of experimental findings indicate that more is learned than this. Among these are two phenomena described earlier in this article


title: Classical conditioning

text: Latent inhibition might happen because a subject stops focusing on a CS that is seen frequently before it is paired with a US. In fact, changes in attention to the CS are at the heart of two prominent theories that try to cope with experimental results that give the R–W model difficulty. In one of these, proposed by Nicholas Mackintosh, the speed of conditioning depends on the amount of attention devoted to the CS, and this amount of attention depends in turn on how well the CS predicts the US. Pearce and Hall proposed a related model based on a different attentional principle Both models have been extensively tested, and neither explains all the experimental results. Consequently, various authors have attempted hybrid models that combine the two attentional processes. Pearce and Hall in 2010 integrated their attentional ideas and even suggested the possibility of incorporating the Rescorla-Wagner equation into an integrated model.


title: Classical conditioning

text: As stated earlier, a key idea in conditioning is that the CS signals or predicts the US (see "zero contingency procedure" above). However, for example, the room in which conditioning takes place also "predicts" that the US may occur. Still, the room predicts with much less certainty than does the experimental CS itself, because the room is also there between experimental trials, when the US is absent. The role of such context is illustrated by the fact that the dogs in Pavlov's experiment would sometimes start salivating as they approached the experimental apparatus, before they saw or heard any CS. Such so-called "context" stimuli are always present, and their influence helps to account for some otherwise puzzling experimental findings. The associative strength of context stimuli can be entered into the Rescorla-Wagner equation, and they play an important role in the "comparator" and "computational" theories outlined below.


title: Classical conditioning

text: To find out what has been learned, we must somehow measure behavior ("performance") in a test situation. However, as students know all too well, performance in a test situation is not always a good measure of what has been learned. As for conditioning, there is evidence that subjects in a blocking experiment do learn something about the "blocked" CS, but fail to show this learning because of the way that they are usually tested.


title: Classical conditioning

text: "Comparator" theories of conditioning are "performance based", that is, they stress what is going on at the time of the test. In particular, they look at all the stimuli that are present during testing and at how the associations acquired by these stimuli may interact. To oversimplify somewhat, comparator theories assume that during conditioning the subject acquires both CS-US and context-US associations. At the time of the test, these associations are compared, and a response to the CS occurs only if the CS-US association is stronger than the context-US association. After a CS and US are repeatedly paired in simple acquisition, the CS-US association is strong and the context-US association is relatively weak. This means that the CS elicits a strong CR. In "zero contingency" (see above), the conditioned response is weak or absent because the context-US association is about as strong as the CS-US association. Blocking and other more subtle phenomena can also be explained by comparator theories, though, again, they cannot explain everything.


title: Classical conditioning

text: An organism's need to predict future events is central to modern theories of conditioning. Most theories use associations between stimuli to take care of these predictions. For example: In the R–W model, the associative strength of a CS tells us how strongly that CS predicts a US. A different approach to prediction is suggested by models such as that proposed by Gallistel & Gibbon (2000, 2002). Here the response is not determined by associative strengths. Instead, the organism records the times of onset and offset of CSs and USs and uses these to calculate the probability that the US will follow the CS. A number of experiments have shown that humans and animals can learn to time events (see Animal cognition), and the Gallistel & Gibbon model yields very good quantitative fits to a variety of experimental data. However, recent studies have suggested that duration-based models cannot account for some empirical findings as well as associative models.


title: Classical conditioning

text: The Rescorla-Wagner model treats a stimulus as a single entity, and it represents the associative strength of a stimulus with one number, with no record of how that number was reached. As noted above, this makes it hard for the model to account for a number of experimental results. More flexibility is provided by assuming that a stimulus is internally represented by a collection of elements, each of which may change from one associative state to another. For example, the similarity of one stimulus to another may be represented by saying that the two stimuli share elements in common. These shared elements help to account for stimulus generalization and other phenomena that may depend upon generalization. Also, different elements within the same set may have different associations, and their activations and associations may change at different times and at different rates. This allows element-based models to handle some otherwise inexplicable results.


title: Classical conditioning

text: A prominent example of the element approach is the "SOP" model of Wagner. The model has been elaborated in various ways since its introduction, and it can now account in principle for a very wide variety of experimental findings. The model represents any given stimulus with a large collection of elements. The time of presentation of various stimuli, the state of their elements, and the interactions between the elements, all determine the course of associative processes and the behaviors observed during conditioning experiments.


title: Classical conditioning

text: The SOP account of simple conditioning exemplifies some essentials of the SOP model. To begin with, the model assumes that the CS and US are each represented by a large group of elements. Each of these stimulus elements can be in one of three states:


title: Classical conditioning

text: Of the elements that represent a single stimulus at a given moment, some may be in state A1, some in state A2, and some in state I.


title: Classical conditioning

text: When a stimulus first appears, some of its elements jump from inactivity I to primary activity A1. From the A1 state they gradually decay to A2, and finally back to I. Element activity can only change in this way; in particular, elements in A2 cannot go directly back to A1. If the elements of both the CS and the US are in the A1 state at the same time, an association is learned between the two stimuli. This means that if, at a later time, the CS is presented ahead of the US, and some CS elements enter A1, these elements will activate some US elements. However, US elements activated indirectly in this way only get boosted to the A2 state. (This can be thought of the CS arousing a memory of the US, which will not be as strong as the real thing.) With repeated CS-US trials, more and more elements are associated, and more and more US elements go to A2 when the CS comes on. This gradually leaves fewer and fewer US elements that can enter A1 when the US itself appears. In consequence, learning slows down and approaches a limit. One might say that the US is "fully predicted" or "not surprising" because almost all of its elements can only enter A2 when the CS comes on, leaving few to form new associations.


title: Classical conditioning

text: The model can explain the findings that are accounted for by the Rescorla-Wagner model and a number of additional findings as well. For example, unlike most other models, SOP takes time into account. The rise and decay of element activation enables the model to explain time-dependent effects such as the fact that conditioning is strongest when the CS comes just before the US, and that when the CS comes after the US ("backward conditioning") the result is often an inhibitory CS. Many other more subtle phenomena are explained as well.


title: Classical conditioning

text: A number of other powerful models have appeared in recent years which incorporate element representations. These often include the assumption that associations involve a network of connections between "nodes" that represent stimuli, responses, and perhaps one or more "hidden" layers of intermediate interconnections. Such models make contact with a current explosion of research on neural networks, artificial intelligence and machine learning.


title: Classical conditioning

text: Pavlov proposed that conditioning involved a connection between brain centers for conditioned and unconditioned stimuli. His physiological account of conditioning has been abandoned, but classical conditioning continues to be used to study the neural structures and functions that underlie learning and memory. Forms of classical conditioning that are used for this purpose include, among others, fear conditioning, eyeblink conditioning, and the foot contraction conditioning of "Hermissenda crassicornis", a sea-slug. Both fear and eyeblink conditioning involve a neutral stimulus, frequently a tone, becoming paired with an unconditioned stimulus. In the case of eyeblink conditioning, the US is an air-puff, while in fear conditioning the US is threatening or aversive such as a foot shock.


title: Classical conditioning

text: "Available data demonstrate that discrete regions of the cerebellum and associated brainstem areas contain neurons that alter their activity during conditioning – these regions are critical for the acquisition and performance of this simple learning task. It appears that other regions of the brain, including the hippocampus, amygdala, and prefrontal cortex, contribute to the conditioning process, especially when the demands of the task get more complex."


title: Classical conditioning

text: Fear and eyeblink conditioning involve generally non overlapping neural circuitry, but share molecular mechanisms.


title: Classical conditioning

text: Fear conditioning occurs in the basolateral amygdala, which receives glutaminergic input directly from thalamic afferents, as well as indirectly from prefrontal projections. The direct projections are sufficient for delay conditioning, but in the case of trace conditioning, where the CS needs to be internally represented despite a lack of external stimulus, indirect pathways are necessary. The anterior cingulate is one candidate for intermediate trace conditioning, but the hippocampus may also play a major role. Presynaptic activation of protein kinase A and postsynaptic activation of NMDA receptors and its signal transduction pathway are necessary for conditioning related plasticity. CREB is also necessary for conditioning related plasticity, and it may induce downstream synthesis of proteins necessary for this to occur. As NMDA receptors are only activated after an increase in presynaptic calcium(thereby releasing the Mg2+ block), they are a potential coincidence detector that could mediate spike timing dependent plasticity. STDP constrains LTP to situations where the CS predicts the US, and LTD to the reverse.


title: Classical conditioning

text: Some therapies associated with classical conditioning are aversion therapy, systematic desensitization and flooding.


title: Classical conditioning

text: Aversion therapy is a type of behavior therapy designed to make patients cease an undesirable habit by associating the habit with a strong unpleasant unconditioned stimulus. For example, a medication might be used to associate the taste of alcohol with stomach upset. Systematic desensitization is a treatment for phobias in which the patient is trained to relax while being exposed to progressively more anxiety-provoking stimuli (e.g. angry words). This is an example of counterconditioning, intended to associate the feared stimuli with a response (relaxation) that is incompatible with anxiety Flooding is a form of desensitization that attempts to eliminate phobias and anxieties by repeated exposure to highly distressing stimuli until the lack of reinforcement of the anxiety response causes its extinction. "Flooding" usually involves actual exposure to the stimuli, whereas the term "implosion" refers to imagined exposure, but the two terms are sometimes used synonymously.


title: Classical conditioning

text: A stimulus that is present when a drug is administered or consumed may eventually evoke a conditioned physiological response that mimics the effect of the drug. This is sometimes the case with caffeine; habitual coffee drinkers may find that the smell of coffee gives them a feeling of alertness. In other cases, the conditioned response is a compensatory reaction that tends to offset the effects of the drug. For example, if a drug causes the body to become less sensitive to pain, the compensatory conditioned reaction may be one that makes the user more sensitive to pain. This compensatory reaction may contribute to drug tolerance. If so, a drug user may increase the amount of drug consumed in order to feel its effects, and end up taking very large amounts of the drug. In this case a dangerous overdose reaction may occur if the CS happens to be absent, so that the conditioned compensatory effect fails to occur. For example, if the drug has always been administered in the same room, the stimuli provided by that room may produce a conditioned compensatory effect; then an overdose reaction may happen if the drug is administered in a different location where the conditioned stimuli are absent.


title: Classical conditioning

text: Signals that consistently precede food intake can become conditioned stimuli for a set of bodily responses that prepares the body for food and digestion. These reflexive responses include the secretion of digestive juices into the stomach and the secretion of certain hormones into the blood stream, and they induce a state of hunger. An example of conditioned hunger is the "appetizer effect." Any signal that consistently precedes a meal, such as a clock indicating that it is time for dinner, can cause people to feel hungrier than before the signal. The lateral hypothalamus (LH) is involved in the initiation of eating. The nigrostriatal pathway, which includes the substantia nigra, the lateral hypothalamus, and the basal ganglia have been shown to be involved in hunger motivation.


title: Classical conditioning

text: The influence of classical conditioning can be seen in emotional responses such as phobia, disgust, nausea, anger, and sexual arousal. A familiar example is conditioned nausea, in which the CS is the sight or smell of a particular food that in the past has resulted in an unconditioned stomach upset. Similarly, when the CS is the sight of a dog and the US is the pain of being bitten, the result may be a conditioned fear of dogs. An example of conditioned emotional response is conditioned suppression.


title: Classical conditioning

text: As an adaptive mechanism, emotional conditioning helps shield an individual from harm or prepare it for important biological events such as sexual activity. Thus, a stimulus that has occurred before sexual interaction comes to cause sexual arousal, which prepares the individual for sexual contact. For example, sexual arousal has been conditioned in human subjects by pairing a stimulus like a picture of a jar of pennies with views of an erotic film clip. Similar experiments involving blue gourami fish and domesticated quail have shown that such conditioning can increase the number of offspring. These results suggest that conditioning techniques might help to increase fertility rates in infertile individuals and endangered species.


title: Classical conditioning

text: Pavlovian-instrumental transfer is a phenomenon that occurs when a conditioned stimulus (CS, also known as a "cue") that has been associated with rewarding or aversive stimuli via classical conditioning alters motivational salience and operant behavior. In a typical experiment, a rat is presented with sound-food pairings (classical conditioning). Separately, the rat learns to press a lever to get food (operant conditioning). Test sessions now show that the rat presses the lever faster in the presence of the sound than in silence, although the sound has never been associated with lever pressing.


title: Classical conditioning

text: Pavlovian-instrumental transfer is suggested to play a role in the differential outcomes effect, a procedure which enhances operant discrimination by pairing stimuli with specific outcomes.


title: Old fashioned (cocktail)

text: The old fashioned is a cocktail made by muddling sugar with bitters and water, adding whiskey (typically rye or bourbon), and garnishing with an orange slice or zest and a cocktail cherry. It is traditionally served with ice in an old fashioned glass (also known as a rocks glass).


title: Old fashioned (cocktail)

text: Developed during the 19th century and given its name in the 1880s, it is an IBA Official Cocktail. It is also one of six basic drinks listed in David A. Embury's "The Fine Art of Mixing Drinks".


title: Old fashioned (cocktail)

text: An old fashioned was one of the simpler and earlier versions of cocktails, before the development of advanced bartending techniques and recipes in the later part of the 19th century. The first documented definition of the word "cocktail" was in response to a reader's letter asking to define the word in the 6 May 1806, issue of "The Balance and Columbian Repository" in Hudson, New York. In the 13 May 1806, issue, the paper's editor wrote that it was a potent concoction of spirits, bitters, water, and sugar; it was also referred to at the time as a bittered sling and is essentially the recipe for an old fashioned.


title: Old fashioned (cocktail)

text: J.E. Alexander describes the cocktail similarly in 1833, as he encountered it in New York City, as being rum, gin, or brandy, significant water, bitters, and sugar, though he includes a nutmeg garnish as well.


title: Old fashioned (cocktail)

text: By the 1860s, it was common for orange curaçao, absinthe, and other liqueurs to be added to the cocktail. As cocktails became more complex, drinkers accustomed to simpler cocktails began to ask bartenders for something akin to the pre-1850s drinks. The original concoction, albeit in different proportions, came back into vogue, and was referred to as "old-fashioned". The most popular of the in-vogue "old-fashioned" cocktails were made with whiskey, according to a Chicago barman, quoted in the "Chicago Daily Tribune" in 1882, with rye being more popular than Bourbon. The recipe he describes is a similar combination of spirits, bitters, water, and sugar of seventy-six years earlier.


title: Old fashioned (cocktail)

text: The Pendennis Club, a gentlemen's club founded in 1881 in Louisville, Kentucky, claims the old-fashioned cocktail was invented there. The recipe was said to have been invented by a bartender at that club in honor of Colonel James E. Pepper, a prominent bourbon distiller, who brought it to the Waldorf-Astoria Hotel bar in New York City. Cocktail critic David Wonderich finds this origin story unlikely, however, as the first mention in print of "old fashioned cocktails" was in the "Chicago Daily Tribune" in February 1880, before the Pendennis Club was opened; this in addition to the fact that the old fashioned was simply a re-packaging of a drink that had long existed.


title: Old fashioned (cocktail)

text: With its purported conception rooted in the city's history, in 2015 the city of Louisville named the old fashioned as its official cocktail. Each year, during the first two weeks of June, Louisville celebrates "Old Fashioned Fortnight", which encompasses bourbon events, cocktail specials, and National Bourbon Day which is always celebrated on 14 June.


title: Old fashioned (cocktail)

text: In January 2020, drinks journal "Drinks International" reported the old fashioned to be the top selling classic cocktail internationally, for the 6th straight year, based on its annual poll of 100 global bars.


title: Old fashioned (cocktail)

text: George Kappeler provides several of the earliest published recipes for old-fashioned cocktails in his 1895 book. Recipes are given for whiskey, brandy, Holland gin, and Old Tom gin. The whiskey old fashioned recipe specifies the following (with a jigger being ):


title: Old fashioned (cocktail)

text: By the 1860s, as illustrated by Jerry Thomas's 1862 book, basic cocktail recipes included Curaçao or other liqueurs. These liqueurs were not mentioned in the early 19th century descriptions, nor the "Chicago Daily Tribune" descriptions of the "old-fashioned" cocktails of the early 1880s; they were absent from Kappeler's old-fashioned recipes as well. The differences of the old-fashioned cocktail recipes from the cocktail recipes of the late 19th Century are mainly preparation methods, the use of sugar and water in lieu of simple or gomme syrup, and the absence of additional liqueurs. These old-fashioned cocktail recipes are literally for cocktails done the old-fashioned way.


title: Old fashioned (cocktail)

text: A book by David Embury published in 1948 provides a slight variation, specifying 12 parts American whiskey, 1 part simple syrup, 1–3 dashes Angostura bitters, a twist of lemon peel over the top, and serve garnished with the lemon peel. Two additional recipes from the 1900s vary in the precise ingredients but omit the cherry which was introduced after 1930 as well as the soda water which the occasional recipe calls for. Orange bitters were a popular ingredient in the late 19th century.


title: Old fashioned (cocktail)

text: The original old fashioned recipe would have showcased the whiskey available in America in the 19th century: Irish, Bourbon or rye whiskey. But in some regions, especially Wisconsin, brandy is substituted for whiskey (sometimes called a brandy old fashioned). Eventually the use of other spirits became common, such as a gin recipe becoming popularized in the late 1940s.


title: Old fashioned (cocktail)

text: Common garnishes for an old fashioned include an orange slice or a maraschino cherry or both, although these modifications came around 1930, some time after the original recipe was invented. While some recipes began making sparse use of the orange zest for flavor, the practice of muddling orange and other fruit gained prevalence as late as the 1990s.


title: Old fashioned (cocktail)

text: Some modern variants have greatly sweetened the old-fashioned, e.g. by adding blood orange soda to make a fizzy old-fashioned, or muddled strawberries to make a strawberry old-fashioned.


title: Old fashioned (cocktail)

text: Modern versions may also include elaborately carved ice; though cocktail critic David Wondrich notes that this, along with essentially all other adornments or additions, goes against the simple spirit of the old-fashioned.


title: Old fashioned (cocktail)

text: The old fashioned is the cocktail of choice of Don Draper, the lead character on the "Mad Men" television series, set in the 1960s. The use of the drink in the series coincided with a renewed interest in this and other classic cocktails in the 2000s.


title: Old fashioned (cocktail)

text: It was also the basis of an oft-quoted line from the movie "It's a Mad, Mad, Mad, Mad World", when boozy pilot Jim Backus decides to make the cocktail and leaves passenger Buddy Hackett to fly the plane. When Hackett asks, "What if something happens?", Backus replies, "What could happen to an old-fashioned?" This scene is satirized in "Archer" season 3 episode 1 ("Heart of Archness") when Sterling Archer attempts to make an old fashioned on Rip Riley's seaplane but lacks the basic ingredients.


title: Old fashioned (cocktail)

text: The cocktail is the subject of the Cole Porter song ”Make It Another Old-Fashioned, Please”, although the song asks to leave out the cherries, orange and bitters, making it simply a straight round of whisky.


title: High School DxD

text: An anime adaptation by TNK aired on TV Tokyo's satellite channel AT-X and other networks from January 6 to March 23, 2012. The anime is licensed in North America by Crunchyroll, in the United Kingdom by Manga Entertainment, and in Australia by Madman Entertainment. A second season called aired from July 7 to September 22, 2013. A third season called aired from April 4 to June 20, 2015. A fourth season called aired from April 10 to July 3, 2018.


title: High School DxD

text: is a former all-girls school that has recently turned co-ed, but it has a secret. Unknown to normal humans, , and comprise part of the student population. One of these students, Issei Hyodo, is a lecherous second-year human student who lives a peaceful life. After an ordinary school day, Issei is suddenly asked out on a date by a girl named Yuma Amano. After their date, Yuuma brings Issei to a local park and makes a startling request that she wants him to die for her. She reveals herself as Raynare, a fallen angel, and she tries to kill him. Using her summoning card, Rias Gremory, a buxom third-year student at Kuoh Academy, revives him. Issei wakes up the next morning, thinking that the events that occurred were all just a dream. Immediately after being attacked by another fallen angel and waking up, he notices Rias naked in his room. Rias reveals to Issei her true identity as a devil and says that as a result of his death at the hands of Yuuma, she has reincarnated him as a devil, making him her faithful servant in the process.


title: High School DxD

text: Ishibumi has grouped the light novels into story arcs. The first arc, titled , ran through the first two volumes. is the second story arc and follows volumes three through six. follows volumes seven through twelve. The fourth arc, , follows volumes fourteen through twenty-one. The fifth and final arc of the series, , starts at volume twenty-two and ends at volume twenty-five. The author has announced a sequel to the series, which began on July 20, 2018.


title: High School DxD

text: The light novels also feature a series of side stories set in between the main storyline and are often compiled into volumes. So far, three short story collections (Volume 8, Volume 13 and Volume 15) have been published.


title: High School DxD

text: Ishibumi had previously worked on a horror genre series two years prior to the publishing of the first light novel for "High School DxD". In the volume 1 afterword, he mentions that he changed his writing style, and wanted to develop one in the school-life, love-comedy, battle, and fantasy genre. His main character Issei was made into a lecherous guy at the request of his editor. For the first volume, he made Rias a second lead character and heroine, and Asia to be the second heroine. Some of his characters are loosely referenced from the Bible, non-fiction books, and mythology. He created a world where the war between the three main factions (Angels, Devils, and Fallen Angels) is over, and where many famous angels and devils have already ceased to exist. He also added characters and legendary beasts from a variety of places from Norse mythology to Japanese Youkai. The concept of Balance Breaker was to represent a super-powered version of the character's Boosted Gear, and he likens this to the Super Saiyan in "Dragon Ball" and the Bankai in "Bleach".


title: High School DxD

text: Ishibumi intended to make the shounen-style light novel series that teenagers would be embarrassed to buy, yet was concerned that it might get an age restriction. In each of his afterword sections in the light novels, he makes numerous references to "Oppai" (breasts) and notes when he tries to make his characters more erotic.


title: High School DxD

text: "High School DxD" began as a light novel series written by Ichiei Ishibumi, with illustrations provided by Miyama-Zero. "High School DxD" was published from September 20, 2008 to March 20, 2018 across 25 volumes. A bonus story, called , was released with the July 2012 issue of "Dragon Magazine" (released on May 19, 2012) as a bunkobon volume. The story takes place after Volume 12, and centers on Ophis' first shopping trip in the human world.


title: High School DxD

text: After the release of Volume 25, Ishibumi announced a sequel, "". Continuing from where "DxD" left off, the first volume of the series was released on July 20, 2018.


title: High School DxD

text: A manga adaptation illustrated by Hiroji Mishima began ñ. Ñl.lserialization in the July 2010 issue of "Dragon Magazine", and later in "Monthly Dragon Age" in its March 2011 issue. It ended on April 9, 2018. The first volume was published by Fujimi Shobo on June 9, 2011, with a total of eleven volumes published under their Dragon Comics Age imprint. A spinoff manga, called , illustrated by Hiroichi, was serialized in "Monthly Dragon Age" from the October 2011 issue (Released on September 9, 2011) to the April 2012 issue (Released on March 9, 2012). Serving as a side story, the manga takes place after chapter 10 of the main manga, and centers on Asia Argento's first duties as a Devil. It was later released as a "tankōbon" volume on March 9, 2012. Yen Press had licensed the spin-off for an English release and released the volume on December 16, 2014. A second spin-off series, titled , was published between April and August 2013 issues of "Monthly Dragon Age" and was collected into one volume. Illustrated by SODA, it adapted the short stories found in the light novels.


title: High School DxD

text: An anime adaptation produced by TNK and directed by Tetsuya Yanagisawa aired on TV Tokyo's satellite channel AT-X between January 6 and March 23, 2012. AT-X airings of the series are uncensored, while the airings on TV Kanagawa (which began on January 11, 2012) and other networks are heavily censored. Six DVD and Blu-ray compilation volumes were released by Media Factory between March 21 and August 29, 2012, each containing an OVA short entitled . An OVA episode that is listed as episode 13 was bundled with the limited edition of the 13th light novel on September 6, 2012 on Blu-ray. The script for the episode was handled by Ichiei Ishibumi, who is the author of the light novels. Another OVA episode of the first season that is listed as episode 14 is written by Ishibumi and was bundled with the limited edition release of the 15th light novel on May 31, 2013 on Blu-ray.


title: High School DxD

text: A second season of "High School DxD", titled , was announced at the post-end credits of the 13th episode, and premiered on AT-X and Chiba TV on July 7, 2013. The second season adapts volumes three and four of the light novels and is split into two arcs: and . As with the first season, AT-X airings are uncensored, while airings on all other channels are heavily censored.


title: High School DxD

text: In June 2014, Fujimi Shobo announced plans to produce a third anime season. It was announced on December 6, 2014 that the third season is titled "High School DxD BorN", and aired from April to June 2015, with the same staff and voice cast. The series loosely adapts volumes five through seven of the light novels for the first 9 episodes, with the last two and a half episodes comprising a completely original story; the second half of the season finale incorporates elements from both Volume 6 and Volume 7.


title: High School DxD

text: At the 2016 Fantasia Bunko Daikanshasai, Fujimi Shobo announced that a new anime series was in production. In October 2017, it was announced that the fourth season is titled and it aired from April to July 2018. The season was produced by Passione, replacing TNK.


title: High School DxD

text: In North America, all four seasons are licensed by Funimation for simulcast on their video website before releasing the series on DVD and Blu-ray and in Australia by Madman Entertainment. Manga Entertainment have licensed the series in the UK for a DVD and Blu-ray release in 2014. Funimation released the first season of "High School DxD" on DVD and Blu-ray on August 20, 2013. Funimation released the second season of "High School DxD" titled "High School DXD New" on DVD and Blu-ray on November 11, 2014. Funimation released the third season of "High School DxD" titled "High School DXD BorN" on DVD and Blu-ray on September 6, 2016. Funimation has also licensed "High School DxD Hero" and streamed it with a simuldub on May 1, 2018. The series has also been simulcast by Crunchyroll. Following Sony's acquisition of Crunchyroll, the series was moved to Crunchyroll.


title: High School DxD

text: The series is licensed in Australia by Madman Entertainment, but it was not released in New Zealand after the Office of Film and Literature Classification (OFLC) classified it objectionable it because "it encourages and legitimizes the pursuit of young persons as viable adult sexual partners". The series was reclassified R16 in 2022. "High School DxD Hero" is licensed by Funimation in Australia and New Zealand, with Madman Entertainment handling distribution.


title: High School DxD

text: The music of the "High School DxD" series was composed by Ryosuke Nakanishi. Eight pieces of theme music are used for the three seasons. The opening theme for the first season is "Trip -Innocent of D-", performed by Larval Stage Planning, while the ending theme song is "STUDYxSTUDY" by the voice actress unit StylipS, consisting of Arisa Noto, Yui Ogura, Kaori Ishihara, and Maho Matsunaga, who all had voice roles in the anime. The songs were released as CD singles on January 25 and February 5, 2012, respectively, under the Lantis label. An original soundtrack was released on March 21, 2012, also under the Lantis label. A character song mini-album, called , featuring the main female cast from the anime series, was released on June 27, 2012 under the Lantis label.


title: High School DxD

text: The second season featured an opening and ending theme for the two arcs. The opening theme for the first arc is "Sympathy" by Larval Stage Planning. The ending theme for the first arc is by the , featuring Yōko Hikasa, Shizuka Itō, Azumi Asakura, and Ayana Taketatsu as the respective voices of Rias Gremory, Akeno Himejima, Asia Argento, and Koneko Toujou. The opening theme for the second arc is by Zaq. The ending theme for the second arc is by the Occult Research Club Girls, featuring the main female voice cast from the first season with the additions of Risa Taneda and Ayane Sakura as the respective voices of Xenovia and Gasper.


title: High School DxD

text: For the third season, the opening theme is "Bless Your Name" by ChouCho. The ending theme is "Give Me Secret" by StylipS.


title: High School DxD

text: For the fourth season, the opening theme is "Switch" by Minami and the ending theme is "Mote nai Kuse ni(｀;ω;´)" by Tapimiru.


title: High School DxD

text: Kadokawa Games announced in July 2013 that a videogame adaptation of "High School DxD" was in development for Nintendo 3DS. Originally scheduled to be released in Japan on November 28, 2013, it was delayed in order to "improve the product's quality", and was instead released on December 19, 2013. Described as an "erotic battle adventure", the game features a visual novel and turn-based battle system. A PlayStation Vita game titled "High School DxD New Fight" was released on August 28, 2014 in Japan.


title: High School DxD

text: A trading card game by Prism Connect featuring characters from the series was released on July 27, 2012 in a starter deck and booster pack.


title: High School DxD

text: According to Oricon, "High School DxD" was the sixth top-selling light novel series in Japan for 2012, selling a total of 654,224 units. Also, in 2013 "High School DxD" sold over 346,173 copies according to Oricon. The English version of the first manga volume reached No. 2 in the New York Times best-seller list. As of March 20, 2018, the first 25 volumes had 4 million copies in print.


title: High School DxD

text: The anime adaptation of "High School DxD" received mixed reviews, with critics praising the visuals, musical score, and sometimes the fanservice. The plot left critics divided. Sequential Tart, in a review of the anime, praised the animation quality, voice acting, and fanservice scenes, as well as the depth of the "actually really engaging" plot. Finding the animation "to die for" and the music "fun throughout", Active Anime lauded "DxD" as "a kick ass action comedy that's crazy sexy", with "sexy devil ladies, a hero with heart, and exhilarating action mak[ing] this a win-win!" Stig Høgset of THEM Anime Reviews agreed on "DxD" being "a whole lot of fun", praising the characters, fanservice, and visuals. Writing that ""High School DxD" turned out to be a really pleasant surprise", Høgset continued that "I will certainly look into the sequel if FUNimation ever gets it out the door on disc."


title: High School DxD

text: Anime News Network's Theron Martin in his official series review of "High School DxD", praised the color, musical, fanservice and character developments, but criticized the lack o"f freshness of the show", concluding that "Evaluated as a general release series, "High School DxD" has enough going for it to be a little better than average. Evaluate it as a fan service-focused series, though, and it is one of the top recent titles of its type."


title: Kenjiro Tsuda

text: Tsuda lived in Jakarta until he was seven years old. He is a graduate of Meiji University, where he studied theater literature in the department of literature; originally, he had considered wanting to make films as a movie director, when he also had an interest in the field of performing. At the En • Theater Research Institute, he took and passed a non-degree course, being enthusiastic about theater work.


title: Kenjiro Tsuda

text: After his graduation from a trading school, Tsuda had belonged to a theatre group office. In so doing, there was talk of auditions, and Tsuda made his debut in voice acting as Atsushi Noda in the 1995 animated television series "H2." Since then, Tsuda's work has centered around voice acting, as he's worked in theater, television dramas, and movie appearances, among others; furthermore, he has been active at many levels, including as a narrator and radio personality, in television programs, commercials, and the like.


title: Kenjiro Tsuda

text: Tsuda likes both filming and watching movies. He began attending movie theaters in junior high; though he had watched old Western movies until senior high and focused on artistic films after entering college, fundamentally his interest lies, evidently, in non-genres.


title: Kenjiro Tsuda

text: In 2017, when Keiji Fujiwara was recovering from illness, Tsuda took charge as a substitute actor for a few roles (those of Isami Enomoto in "," Hannes in "Attack on Titan").


title: Kenjiro Tsuda

text: On February 2, 2019, Tsuda debuted as a film director with his release of "Documentertainment AD-LIVE" (the term being a portmanteau of "documentary" and "entertainment").


title: Kenjiro Tsuda

text: On November 24, 2020, "Actor's Short Film" — a project launched by WOWOW to commemorate the station's 30th year since its opening: Five actors (facing the same conditions, such as budget and time) would individually direct short films up to 25 minutes long each; one of those five films will be chosen, based on the votes of viewers and film critics, to be presented at the Short Shorts Film Festival & Asia held in 2021 — was announced on Twitter; Tsuda took part with his own short film, "GET SET GO," which cast actors Ryou Ryuusei and Shunsuke Daitou. As the film's director and screenwriter, Tsuda also made an appearance in the film as an actor. On January 13, 2021, distribution of these five films began.


title: Kenjiro Tsuda

text: Tsuda revealed on his Twitter that he has been called "Kenbou" (literally, "Ken Sonny," which is actually a pet form based on his given name's meaning, "Healthy Second Son") by, among others, game designer Hideo Kojima and voice actor Akio Ōtsuka — working for the general manager — at the recording location of the game "Death Stranding." Several days later, in the form of a reply Tweeted to Tsuda, voice actor Akihiko Ishizumi, who had been with the actor at the same game recording location, wrote "Kenbou."


title: Kenjiro Tsuda

text: Tsuda married a woman he encountered around when he was starting out as a stage actor (she is not a celebrity, as Tsuda mentioned it in his Instagram announcement), and currently is the father of two children. By not officially announcing his marriage, Tsuda thought, he could protect his family's safety; another reason for this approach is the large appeal that Tsuda's favorite actors have carried as figures who have not displayed their private lives — he, too, had thoughts of wanting to become an expressive person like that, so he hadn't made his getting married public. However, in July 2020, he received notice that a news story about his marriage had been published in one section of a weekly magazine (Shūkanshi) and decided to bring these facts to light via his Instagram.


title: UEFA Euro 2028

text: The 2028 UEFA European Football Championship, commonly referred to as UEFA Euro 2028 or simply Euro 2028, will be the 18th UEFA European Championship, the quadrennial international football championship organised by UEFA for the senior men's national teams of its member associations. The tournament is scheduled to be played from June to July 2028. The host – which will be either Turkey or a shared bid from England, Northern Ireland, Scotland, Wales and the Republic of Ireland – is expected to be chosen at the end of 2023.


title: UEFA Euro 2028

text: Countries must submit a bid with 10 stadiums, one of which must have 60,000 seats, one of which (preferably two) must have 50,000 seats, four of which must have 40,000 seats and three of which must have 30,000 seats.


title: UEFA Euro 2028

text: On 16 December 2021, the UEFA Executive Committee announced the bidding process would be held in parallel with that of UEFA Euro 2032. Interested bidders can bid for either one of the tournaments. The bidding timeline is as follows:


title: UEFA Euro 2028

text: Three declarations of interest to host the tournament (one later deemed ineligible) were received by UEFA before the deadline of 23 March 2022.


title: Aachen

text: Aachen ( ; ; Aachen dialect: "Oche" ; French and traditional English: Aix-la-Chapelle;) is, with around 249,000 inhabitants, the 13th-largest city in North Rhine-Westphalia, and the 28th-largest city of Germany.


title: Aachen

text: It is the westernmost city in Germany, and borders Belgium and the Netherlands to the west, the triborder area. It is located between Maastricht (NL) and Liège (BE) in the west, and Bonn and Cologne in the east. The Wurm River flows through the city, and together with Mönchengladbach, Aachen is the only larger German city in the drainage basin of the Meuse. Aachen is the seat of the City Region Aachen ().


title: Aachen

text: Aachen developed from a Roman settlement and (bath complex), subsequently becoming the preferred medieval Imperial residence of Emperor Charlemagne of the Frankish Empire, and, from 936 to 1531, the place where 31 Holy Roman Emperors were crowned Kings of the Germans.


title: Aachen

text: One of Germany's leading institutes of higher education in technology, the RWTH Aachen University (), is located in the city. Its university hospital Uniklinikum Aachen is Europe's largest single-building hospital. Aachen's industries include science, engineering and information technology. In 2009, Aachen was ranked eighth among cities in Germany for innovation.


title: Aachen

text: The regional dialect spoken in the city is a Central Franconian, Ripuarian variant with strong Limburgish influences from the dialects in the neighbouring Netherlands. As a Rhenish city, Aachen is one of the main centres of carnival celebrations in Germany, along with Cologne, Mainz and Düsseldorf. The culinary specialty for which the city is best known is Aachener Printen, a type of gingerbread.


title: Aachen

text: Flint quarries on the Lousberg, Schneeberg, and Königshügel, first used during Neolithic times (3000–2500 BC), attest to the long occupation of the site of Aachen, as do recent finds under the modern city's "Elisengarten" pointing to a former settlement from the same period. Bronze Age (around 1600 BC) settlement is evidenced by the remains of barrows (burial mounds) found, for example, on the Klausberg. During the Iron Age, the area was settled by Celtic peoples who were perhaps drawn by the marshy Aachen basin's hot sulphur springs where they worshipped Grannus, god of light and healing.


title: Aachen

text: Later, the 25-hectare Roman spa resort town of Aquae Granni was, according to legend, founded by Grenus, under Hadrian, around 124 AD. Instead, the fictitious founder refers to the Celtic god, and it seems it was the Roman 6th Legion at the start of the 1st century AD that first channelled the hot springs into a spa at Büchel, adding at the end of the same century the "Münstertherme" spa, two water pipelines, and a probable sanctuary dedicated to Grannus. A kind of forum, surrounded by colonnades, connected the two spa complexes. There was also an extensive residential area. The Romans built bathhouses near Burtscheid. A temple precinct called "Vernenum" was built near the modern Kornelimünster/Walheim. Today, remains have been found of three bathhouses, including two fountains in the "Elisenbrunnen" and the Burtscheid bathhouse.


title: Aachen

text: Roman civil administration in Aachen eventually broke down as the baths and other public buildings (along with most of the villae rusticae of the surrounding countryside) were destroyed around AD 375 at the start of the migration period. The last Roman coin finds are from the time of Emperor Gratian (AD 375–383). Rome withdrew its troops from the area, but the town remained populated. By 470, the town came to be ruled by the Ripuarian Franks and subordinated to their capital, Cologne.


title: Aachen

text: The name "Aachen" is a modern descendant, like southern German , , meaning "river" or "stream", from Old High German , meaning "water" or "stream", which directly translates (and etymologically corresponds) to Latin , referring to the springs. The location has been inhabited by humans since the Neolithic era, about 5,000 years ago, attracted to its warm mineral springs. Latin figures in Aachen's Roman name , which meant "waters of Grannus", referring to the Celtic god of healing who was worshipped at the springs. This word became in Walloon and in French, and subsequently after Charlemagne had his palatine chapel built there in the late 8th century and then made the city his empire's capital.


title: Aachen

text: As a spa city, Aachen has the right to name itself "Bad Aachen", but chooses not to, so it remains on the top of alphabetical lists.


title: Aachen

text: Aachen's name in French and German evolved in parallel. The city is known by a variety of different names in other languages:


title: Aachen

text: Aachen is at the western end of the Benrath line that divides High German to the south from the rest of the West Germanic speech area to the north. Aachen's local dialect is called and belongs to the Ripuarian language.


title: Aachen

text: After Roman times, Pepin the Short had a castle residence built in the town, due to the proximity of the hot springs and also for strategic reasons as it is located between the Rhineland and northern France. Einhard mentions that in 765–766 Pepin spent both Christmas and Easter at "Aquis villa" (""), ("and [he] celebrated Christmas in the town Aquis, and similarly Easter") which must have been sufficiently equipped to support the royal household for several months. In the year of his coronation as king of the Franks, 768, Charlemagne came to spend Christmas at Aachen for the first time. He remained there in a mansion which he may have extended, although there is no source attesting to any significant building activity at Aachen in his time, apart from the building of the Palatine Chapel (since 1930, cathedral) and the Palace. Charlemagne spent most winters in Aachen between 792 and his death in 814. Aachen became the focus of his court and the political centre of his empire. After his death, the king was buried in the church which he had built; his original tomb has been lost, while his alleged remains are preserved in the "Karlsschrein", the shrine where he was reburied after being declared a saint; his saintliness, however, was never officially acknowledged by the Roman Curia as such.


title: Aachen

text: In 936, Otto I was crowned king of East Francia in the collegiate church built by Charlemagne. During the reign of Otto II, the nobles revolted and the West Franks under Lothair raided Aachen in 978. Aachen was attacked again by Odo of Champagne, who attacked the imperial palace while Conrad II was absent. Odo relinquished it quickly and was killed soon afterwards. The palace and town of Aachen had fortifying walls built by order of Emperor Frederick Barbarossa between 1172 and 1176. Over the next 500 years, most kings of Germany destined to reign over the Holy Roman Empire were crowned in Aachen. The original audience hall built by Charlemagne was torn down and replaced by the current city hall in 1330. The last king to be crowned here was Ferdinand I in 1531. During the Middle Ages, Aachen remained a city of regional importance, due to its proximity to Flanders; it achieved a modest position in the trade in woollen cloths, favoured by imperial privilege. The city remained a free imperial city, subject to the emperor only, but was politically far too weak to influence the policies of any of its neighbours. The only dominion it had was over Burtscheid, a neighbouring territory ruled by a Benedictine abbess. It was forced to accept that all of its traffic must pass through the "Aachener Reich". Even in the late 18th century the Abbess of Burtscheid was prevented from building a road linking her territory to the neighbouring estates of the duke of Jülich; the city of Aachen even deployed its handful of soldiers to chase away the road-diggers.


title: Aachen

text: As an imperial city, Aachen held certain political privileges that allowed it to remain independent of the troubles of Europe for many years. It remained a direct vassal of the Holy Roman Empire throughout most of the Middle Ages. It was also the site of many important church councils, including the Council of 837 and the Council of 1166, a council convened by the antipope Paschal III.


title: Aachen

text: Aachen has proved an important site for the production of historical manuscripts. Under Charlemagne's purview, both the Ada Gospels and the Coronation Gospels may have been produced in Aachen. In addition, quantities of the other texts in the court library were also produced locally. During the reign of Louis the Pious (814–840), substantial quantities of ancient texts were produced at Aachen, including legal manuscripts such as the leges scriptorium group, patristic texts including the five manuscripts of the Bamberg Pliny Group. Finally, under Lothair I (840–855), texts of outstanding quality were still being produced. This however marked the end of the period of manuscript production at Aachen.


title: Aachen

text: In 1598, following the invasion of Spanish troops from the Netherlands, Rudolf deposed all Protestant office holders in Aachen and even went as far as expelling them from the city. From the early 16th century, Aachen started to lose its power and influence. First the coronations of emperors were moved from Aachen to Frankfurt. This was followed by the religious wars and the great fire of 1656. After the destruction of most of the city in 1656, the rebuilding was mostly in the Baroque style. The decline of Aachen culminated in 1794, when the French, led by General Charles Dumouriez, occupied Aachen.


title: Aachen

text: In 1542, the Dutch humanist and physician Francis Fabricius published his study of the health benefits of the hot springs in Aachen. By the middle of the 17th century, the city had developed a considerable reputation as a spa, although this was in part because Aachen was then – and remained well into the 19th century – a place of high-level prostitution. Traces of this hidden agenda of the city's history are found in the 18th-century guidebooks to Aachen as well as to the other spas.


title: Aachen

text: The main indication for visiting patients, ironically, was syphilis; only by the end of the 19th century had rheumatism become the most important object of cures at Aachen and Burtscheid.


title: Aachen

text: Aachen was chosen as the site of several important congresses and peace treaties: the first congress of Aachen (often referred to as the Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle in English) on 2 May 1668, leading to the First Treaty of Aachen in the same year which ended the War of Devolution. The second congress ended with the second treaty in 1748, ending the War of the Austrian Succession. In 1789, there was a constitutional crisis in the Aachen government, and in 1794 Aachen lost its status as a free imperial city.