title: Tay-K

text: Taymor Travon McIntyre (born June 16, 2000), known professionally as Tay-K ( ) is an American rapper. He is best known for his 2017 hit song "The Race", which reached number 44 on the US "Billboard" Hot 100 and was certified platinum by the RIAA in January 2018. The song became popular following his arrest in Elizabeth, New Jersey, after a nationwide manhunt took place.


title: Tay-K

text: McIntyre was captured by U.S. marshals on June 30, 2017, the same day "The Race" was released, after a total of three months on the run. The song would later hit platinum. After being brought back to Texas for his crimes, McIntyre started to receive support from his fans on social media. While being held at Tarrant County Jail in Fort Worth, Texas, Tay-K's management team released his debut mixtape, "Santana World", on July 29, 2017, and it received a generally positive response from critics and fans.


title: Tay-K

text: In July 2019, McIntyre was found guilty of murder for his involvement in the 2016 home invasion and robbery that left 21-year-old Ethan Walker dead, and was sentenced to 55 years in prison. In November 2019, McIntyre was indicted on a second murder charge for allegedly shooting 23-year-old Mark Anthony Saldivar, an offense for which he is awaiting trial.


title: Tay-K

text: His father, Kevin Beverly, was imprisoned during McIntyre's youth. McIntyre's mother moved him and his sister to Las Vegas, Nevada, when he was eight years old. When McIntyre's father was released from prison, he moved the family to Arlington, Texas, in search of a better environment. McIntyre attended Martin High School, but dropped out in the 9th grade. He was influenced by Chief Keef, Eazy-E, Young Pappy, and his favorite rapper Soulja Boy.


title: Tay-K

text: McIntyre started his rap career as part of the rap group Daytona Boyz alongside rappers Pimpyz and Santana Sage in 2014. The group released their first track "Drift" on audio distribution platform SoundCloud on December 25, 2014. The group released a series of songs, barely getting attention as they performed at various parties attempting to create a presence in the local rap scene.


title: Tay-K

text: McIntyre released his first solo song in August 2015 titled "BIFF XANNEN" on his SoundCloud account. This and his September 2015 song "Sly Cooper" garnered local attention within the Arlington rap scene. McIntyre's song "Megaman" was released on his SoundCloud on March 16, 2016, and, along with several other songs McIntyre released, became popular after he was arrested on capital murder charges.


title: Tay-K

text: McIntyre released several songs while on the run from the police, including "The Race" which was recorded during McIntyre's stay in New Jersey and the music video was released on YouTube the same day as his capture. The song debuted at number 70 on the US "Billboard" Hot 100 after a large hashtag campaign pursuing the release of McIntyre using the hashtag "#FREETAYK". It peaked at 44 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 and has over 226 million views on YouTube. "The Race" has been remixed by numerous artists including Tyga, Lil Yachty, YBN Nahmir, Fetty Wap, and Rico Nasty among others.


title: Tay-K

text: While incarcerated, McIntyre released the mixtape "Santana World". WorldStarHipHop released "Coolin" on September 14, 2017. McIntyre's official Twitter account tweeted that the version released by WorldStarHipHop was a leak and not official saying "we have something major in store."


title: Tay-K

text: On December 14, 2017, McIntyre's debut mixtape "Santana World" was re-released by 88 Classic and RCA Records, which was updated with a remix of his single "The Race" featuring vocals from rappers 21 Savage and Young Nudy. "The Race" was certified platinum by the RIAA on January 19, 2018. On February 2, 2018, McIntyre's official Twitter account tweeted two pictures of McIntyre, the first time he had been seen since May 2017. The following day, the song "After You" was released on McIntyre's SoundCloud account.


title: Tay-K

text: It was revealed in March 2018 that McIntyre had earned around $600,000 to $700,000 with his record deal with 88 Classic and RCA Records. Following the creation of the No Jumper music label, Tay-K was featured alongside BlocBoy JB on No Jumper's song "Hard" which entered the Bubbling Under Hot 100 charts at number 14. Tay-K was featured on the shortlist for the 2018 "XXL" Freshman list.


title: Tay-K

text: McIntyre first came close to legal trouble on January 1, 2016. After performing at a New Years Eve celebration in Denton, Texas, McIntyre was in a car with U.S. Marine and fellow Daytona Boyz member Eric "Santana Sage" Johnson, who shot University of North Texas student Sara Mutschlechner in the head, killing her, following an argument between occupants of the car carrying Johnson and McIntyre and occupants of another car carrying people leaving the same party, including Mutschlechner. Witnesses stated that passengers in the car carrying Johnson and McIntyre sexually accosted Mutschlechner, while Johnson stated that passengers riding with Mutschechner called him and his fellow passengers racial and homophobic slurs, and that he had only intended to scare the passengers in the other car off after receiving threats of bodily harm. Johnson pleaded not guilty but was convicted of the murder and sentenced to 44 years in prison. McIntyre was not charged in the case.


title: Tay-K

text: In July 2016, McIntyre faced his first major legal issues when he and six other people were arrested on capital murder charges related to a home invasion which ended the life of a drug dealer in Mansfield, Texas. On July 26, 2016, Megan Holt, 19, and Ariana Bharrat, 20, conspired with McIntyre and some other friends to rob 19-year-old Zachary Beloate. The pair planned to seduce him and then let McIntyre enter the house, armed with guns, to steal drugs and money. One of the two women unlocked the door and the gunmen proceeded to rob Beloate and his friend Ethan Walker, which led to a fatal confrontation and the death of Walker as they were attempting to leave; two other non-fatal gunshot wounds were sustained. McIntyre admitted his role in the botched robbery in an approximate two-and-a-half-hour interrogation, telling detectives that he searched for drugs in the house.


title: Tay-K

text: McIntyre was placed under house arrest in January 2017 while awaiting certification hearings. A few days before said hearings were held, on March 27, 2017, McIntyre and another suspect cut off their ankle monitors and fled to San Antonio, Texas. Just before cutting his ankle monitor off and going on the run, McIntyre wrote the following on Twitter: "fuck dis house arrest shit fuck 12 they gn hav 2 catch me on hood". McIntyre made his way to Elizabeth, New Jersey where he recorded the song "The Race", which described his run from the police and his legal troubles. The song opens with "Fuck a beat, I was tryna beat a case/but I ain't beat that case, bitch I did the race". The suspect that McIntyre fled with was captured in May 2017. On June 30, 2017, McIntyre was captured by the U.S Marshal Service in Elizabeth, New Jersey. When McIntyre was captured, in order to avoid custody, he claimed to have swallowed a bottle of pills and was taken to a hospital. When nothing was found wrong with McIntyre, he claimed that he was hearing voices, and was then taken to a psychiatric ward for evaluation, where he was kept for a day and a half before being taken into custody.


title: Tay-K

text: While on the run, on April 23, 2017, McIntyre allegedly shot and killed 23-year-old Mark Anthony Saldivar while participating in a robbery outside of a Chick-fil-A in San Antonio, Texas. According to the allegations, McIntyre and two accomplices lured Saldivar into a black SUV to try to steal his photography equipment. Saldivar escaped the SUV and started to shout for help, McIntyre accelerated in an attempt to hit him. Saldivar jumped onto the hood of the SUV, kicking the windscreen until McIntyre allegedly left the car and shot him once before driving away.


title: Tay-K

text: Also while on the run, on May 25, 2017, McIntyre allegedly attacked and robbed 65-year-old Owney "Skip" Pepe in Cravens Park, Arlington, Texas. McIntyre allegedly held a gun to Pepe's head before knocking him unconscious in the park, where Pepe was later found by a jogger. Pepe later identified McIntyre during a photo lineup.


title: Tay-K

text: McIntyre was transferred to an adult jail on July 20, 2017. A preliminary certification hearing to decide McIntyre's status as a juvenile was held on August 30, 2017. Trent Loftin, a lawyer for McIntyre, said to "The New York Times" that McIntyre was optimistic and that they were confident he would be cleared of all charges. It was decided that McIntyre would be tried as an adult in the case. The trial was eventually pushed back due to lack of evidence.


title: Tay-K

text: On October 3, 2017, additional capital murder charges were added to McIntyre's case involving the incident in San Antonio. Police claim that McIntyre was in the vehicle during the shooting and that there is surveillance footage of the incident. At the time, McIntyre was held on $500,000 bail though in February 2018, the bail was set to $0.


title: Tay-K

text: On February 28, 2018, one of McIntyre's accomplices, an unnamed minor described as a "petite, pretty blonde" was sentenced to twenty years in prison after being found guilty on capital murder and aggravated robbery charges. In February 2018, accomplice Megan Holt pleaded guilty to aggravated robbery and agreed to testify against her co-defendants in exchange for a 20-year sentence. In May 2018, Latharian Merritt was sentenced to life in prison without parole after being convicted of capital murder. In August 2018, Ariana Bharrat pleaded guilty to aggravated robbery and agreed to testify against her co-defendants in exchange for a 25-year sentence. In that same month, Sean Robinson pleaded guilty to murder and was sentenced to 40 years in prison. In November 2018, McIntyre's last accomplice, Jalen Bell, pleaded guilty to aggravated robbery charges and was sentenced to 30 years in prison. McIntyre's defense attorneys argued that because McIntyre's case had started in the juvenile system — which does not have a bail or bond system in place — he was now entitled to one under Texas law (as of March 2018). State District Judge Wayne Salvant denied McIntyre's request for bond, expressing concern that McIntyre's alleged crimes had been "glorified" and that he was a "high, violent assessment".


title: Tay-K

text: On May 24, 2018, it was confirmed McIntyre was not facing the death penalty or life imprisonment without parole under "Miller v. Alabama" and "Roper v. Simmons." If convicted, he faces 40 years-to-Life.


title: Tay-K

text: McIntyre was charged with possession of a prohibited item while in jail on August 2, 2018, after a mobile phone was found hidden in his sock during a search. McIntyre was moved from Tarrant County Jail to maximum-security Lon Evans Corrections Center on August 14, 2018, where he spent 23 hours in solitary confinement with one hour allotted to go to the gym. McIntyre won a legal battle on August 16, 2018, when the Texas' Second Court of Appeals ruled that State District Judge Wayne Salvant made a mistake in refusing to set a bail for McIntyre concerning his aggravated robbery case. However, he was still denied bail for the case involving the murder of Ethan Walker. While there, McIntyre allegedly cursed at and threatened a Tarrant County Sheriff sergeant, threw his food tray and wet toilet paper, and went over his allotted phone time.


title: Tay-K

text: McIntyre has been involved in two lawsuits as a result of his alleged participation in these murders. In June 2018, the family of Mark Saldivar, the victim of the San Antonio shooting, filed a wrongful death lawsuit seeking more than $1 million in damages and, in July 2018, the family of Ethan Walker and survivor Zachary Beloate sued McIntyre and his record label 88 Classic for the profits of McIntyre's music following Walker's death.


title: Tay-K

text: On July 15, 2019, on the first day of his trial, McIntyre pleaded guilty to two counts of aggravated robbery in the Mansfield home invasion case. On July 19, 2019, a jury found McIntyre guilty of murder and of a third charge of aggravated robbery. He faced 5 to 99 years or life in prison for each of the four charges. McIntyre's song "The Race", which was written while he was on the run from the U.S. Marshals Service, was introduced as evidence during the sentencing phase of the trial. On July 23, 2019, he was sentenced to 55 years in prison for the murder charge, 30 years in prison for one of the counts of aggravated robbery, and two 13-year prison sentences for the remaining two counts of aggravated robbery. The four prison terms will be served concurrently, and he will be eligible for parole after no less than 27.5 years. He was also fined $21,000 ($10,000 for the murder charge and $11,000 combined for the three aggravated robbery charges).


title: Tay-K

text: In August 2019, McIntyre was extradited to the Bexar County Jail while awaiting trial in the Mark Anthony Saldivar murder case. In November 2019, a Bexar County Grand Jury indicted him for capital murder.


title: Matrix multiplication

text: In mathematics, particularly in linear algebra, matrix multiplication is a binary operation that produces a matrix from two matrices. For matrix multiplication, the number of columns in the first matrix must be equal to the number of rows in the second matrix. The resulting matrix, known as the matrix product, has the number of rows of the first and the number of columns of the second matrix. The product of matrices and is denoted as .


title: Matrix multiplication

text: Matrix multiplication was first described by the French mathematician Jacques Philippe Marie Binet in 1812, to represent the composition of linear maps that are represented by matrices. Matrix multiplication is thus a basic tool of linear algebra, and as such has numerous applications in many areas of mathematics, as well as in applied mathematics, statistics, physics, economics, and engineering.


title: Matrix multiplication

text: Computing matrix products is a central operation in all computational applications of linear algebra.


title: Matrix multiplication

text: This article will use the following notational conventions: matrices are represented by capital letters in bold, e.g. ; vectors in lowercase bold, e.g. ; and entries of vectors and matrices are italic (they are numbers from a field), e.g. and . Index notation is often the clearest way to express definitions, and is used as standard in the literature. The entry in row , column of matrix is indicated by , or . In contrast, a single subscript, e.g. , is used to select a matrix (not a matrix entry) from a collection of matrices.


title: Matrix multiplication

text: That is, the entry of the product is obtained by multiplying term-by-term the entries of the th row of and the th column of , and summing these products. In other words, is the dot product of the th row of and the th column of .


title: Matrix multiplication

text: Thus the product is defined if and only if the number of columns in equals the number of rows in , in this case .


title: Matrix multiplication

text: In most scenarios, the entries are numbers, but they may be any kind of mathematical objects for which an addition and a multiplication are defined, that are associative, and such that the addition is commutative, and the multiplication is distributive with respect to the addition. In particular, the entries may be matrices themselves (see block matrix).


title: Matrix multiplication

text: The figure to the right illustrates diagrammatically the product of two matrices and , showing how each intersection in the product matrix corresponds to a row of and a column of .


title: Matrix multiplication

text: Historically, matrix multiplication has been introduced for facilitating and clarifying computations in linear algebra. This strong relationship between matrix multiplication and linear algebra remains fundamental in all mathematics, as well as in physics, chemistry, engineering and computer science.


title: Matrix multiplication

text: If a vector space has a finite basis, its vectors are each uniquely represented by a finite sequence of scalars, called a coordinate vector, whose elements are the coordinates of the vector on the basis. These coordinate vectors form another vector space, which is isomorphic to the original vector space. A coordinate vector is commonly organized as a column matrix (also called "column vector"), which is a matrix with only one column. So, a column vector represents both a coordinate vector, and a vector of the original vector space.


title: Matrix multiplication

text: If is another linear map from the preceding vector space of dimension , into a vector space of dimension , it is represented by a matrix formula_12 A straightforward computation shows that the matrix of the composite map is the matrix product formula_13 The general formula ) that defines the function composition is instanced here as a specific case of associativity of matrix product (see below):


title: Matrix multiplication

text: Using a Cartesian coordinate system in a Euclidean plane, the rotation by an angle formula_15 around the origin is a linear map.


title: Matrix multiplication

text: The composition of the rotation by formula_15 and that by formula_20 then corresponds to the matrix product


title: Matrix multiplication

text: As an example, a fictitious factory uses 4 kinds of , formula_23 to produce 3 kinds of intermediate goods, formula_24, which in turn are used to produce 3 kinds of final products, formula_25. The matrices


title: Matrix multiplication

text: provide the amount of basic commodities needed for a given amount of intermediate goods, and the amount of intermediate goods needed for a given amount of final products, respectively.


title: Matrix multiplication

text: For example, to produce one unit of intermediate good formula_28, one unit of basic commodity formula_29, two units of formula_30, no units of formula_31, and one unit of formula_32 are needed, corresponding to the first column of formula_33.


title: Matrix multiplication

text: this matrix directly provides the amounts of basic commodities needed for given amounts of final goods. For example, the bottom left entry of formula_35 is computed as formula_36, reflecting that formula_37 units of formula_32 are needed to produce one unit of formula_39. Indeed, one formula_32 unit is needed for formula_28, 2 for formula_42, and formula_43 for each of the two formula_44 units that go into the formula_39 unit, see picture.


title: Matrix multiplication

text: In order to produce e.g. 100 units of the final product formula_39, 80 units of formula_47, and 60 units of formula_48, the necessary amounts of basic goods can be computed as


title: Matrix multiplication

text: that is, formula_50 units of formula_29, formula_52 units of formula_30, formula_54 units of formula_31, formula_56 units of formula_32 are needed.


title: Matrix multiplication

text: Similarly, the product matrix formula_35 can be used to compute the needed amounts of basic goods for other final-good amount data.


title: Matrix multiplication

text: where formula_62 is the row vector obtained by transposing formula_10 and the resulting 1×1 matrix is identified with its unique entry.


title: Matrix multiplication

text: More generally, any bilinear form over a vector space of finite dimension may be expressed as a matrix product


title: Matrix multiplication

text: where formula_66 denotes the conjugate transpose of formula_10 (conjugate of the transpose, or equivalently transpose of the conjugate).


title: Matrix multiplication

text: Matrix multiplication shares some properties with usual multiplication. However, matrix multiplication is not defined if the number of columns of the first factor differs from the number of rows of the second factor, and it is non-commutative, even when the product remains definite after changing the order of the factors.


title: Matrix multiplication

text: An operation is commutative if, given two elements and such that the product formula_68 is defined, then formula_69 is also defined, and formula_70


title: Matrix multiplication

text: If and are matrices of respective sizes and , then formula_68 is defined if , and formula_69 is defined if . Therefore, if one of the products is defined, the other one need not be defined. If , the two products are defined, but have different sizes; thus they cannot be equal. Only if , that is, if and are square matrices of the same size, are both products defined and of the same size. Even in this case, one has in general


title: Matrix multiplication

text: This example may be expanded for showing that, if is a matrix with entries in a field , then formula_76 for every matrix with entries in , if and only if formula_77 where , and is the identity matrix. If, instead of a field, the entries are supposed to belong to a ring, then one must add the condition that belongs to the center of the ring.


title: Matrix multiplication

text: One special case where commutativity does occur is when and are two (square) diagonal matrices (of the same size); then . Again, if the matrices are over a general ring rather than a field, the corresponding entries in each must also commute with each other for this to hold.


title: Matrix multiplication

text: The matrix product is distributive with respect to matrix addition. That is, if are matrices of respective sizes , , , and , one has (left distributivity)


title: Matrix multiplication

text: If is a matrix and a scalar, then the matrices formula_82 and formula_83 are obtained by left or right multiplying all entries of by . If the scalars have the commutative property, then formula_84


title: Matrix multiplication

text: If the product formula_35 is defined (that is, the number of columns of equals the number of rows of ), then


title: Matrix multiplication

text: If the scalars have the commutative property, then all four matrices are equal. More generally, all four are equal if belongs to the center of a ring containing the entries of the matrices, because in this case, for all matrices .


title: Matrix multiplication

text: If the scalars have the commutative property, the transpose of a product of matrices is the product, in the reverse order, of the transposes of the factors. That is


title: Matrix multiplication

text: This identity does not hold for noncommutative entries, since the order between the entries of and is reversed, when one expands the definition of the matrix product.


title: Matrix multiplication

text: This results from applying to the definition of matrix product the fact that the conjugate of a sum is the sum of the conjugates of the summands and the conjugate of a product is the product of the conjugates of the factors.


title: Matrix multiplication

text: Transposition acts on the indices of the entries, while conjugation acts independently on the entries themselves. It results that, if and have complex entries, one has


title: Matrix multiplication

text: where denotes the conjugate transpose (conjugate of the transpose, or equivalently transpose of the conjugate).


title: Matrix multiplication

text: Given three matrices and , the products and are defined if and only if the number of columns of equals the number of rows of , and the number of columns of equals the number of rows of (in particular, if one of the products is defined, then the other is also defined). In this case, one has the associative property


title: Matrix multiplication

text: As for any associative operation, this allows omitting parentheses, and writing the above products as


title: Matrix multiplication

text: This extends naturally to the product of any number of matrices provided that the dimensions match. That is, if are matrices such that the number of columns of equals the number of rows of for , then the product


title: Matrix multiplication

text: is defined and does not depend on the order of the multiplications, if the order of the matrices is kept fixed.


title: Matrix multiplication

text: These properties may be proved by straightforward but complicated summation manipulations. This result also follows from the fact that matrices represent linear maps. Therefore, the associative property of matrices is simply a specific case of the associative property of function composition.


title: Matrix multiplication

text: Although the result of a sequence of matrix products does not depend on the order of operation (provided that the order of the matrices is not changed), the computational complexity may depend dramatically on this order.


title: Matrix multiplication

text: For example, if and are matrices of respective sizes , computing needs multiplications, while computing needs multiplications.


title: Matrix multiplication

text: Algorithms have been designed for choosing the best order of products, see Matrix chain multiplication. When the number of matrices increases, it has been shown that the choice of the best order has a complexity of formula_95


title: Matrix multiplication

text: Any invertible matrix formula_96 defines a similarity transformation (on square matrices of the same size as formula_96)


title: Matrix multiplication

text: Let us denote formula_101 the set of square matrices with entries in a ring , which, in practice, is often a field.


title: Matrix multiplication

text: In formula_101, the product is defined for every pair of matrices. This makes formula_101 a ring, which has the identity matrix as identity element (the matrix whose diagonal entries are equal to 1 and all other entries are 0). This ring is also an associative -algebra.


title: Matrix multiplication

text: If , many matrices do not have a multiplicative inverse. For example, a matrix such that all entries of a row (or a column) are 0 does not have an inverse. If it exists, the inverse of a matrix is denoted , and, thus verifies


title: Matrix multiplication

text: When is commutative, and, in particular, when it is a field, the determinant of a product is the product of the determinants. As determinants are scalars, and scalars commute, one has thus


title: Matrix multiplication

text: The other matrix invariants do not behave as well with products. Nevertheless, if is commutative, and have the same trace, the same characteristic polynomial, and the same eigenvalues with the same multiplicities. However, the eigenvectors are generally different if .


title: Matrix multiplication

text: One may raise a square matrix to any nonnegative integer power multiplying it by itself repeatedly in the same way as for ordinary numbers. That is,


title: Matrix multiplication

text: Computing the th power of a matrix needs times the time of a single matrix multiplication, if it is done with the trivial algorithm (repeated multiplication). As this may be very time consuming, one generally prefers using exponentiation by squaring, which requires less than matrix multiplications, and is therefore much more efficient.


title: Matrix multiplication

text: An easy case for exponentiation is that of a diagonal matrix. Since the product of diagonal matrices amounts to simply multiplying corresponding diagonal elements together, the th power of a diagonal matrix is obtained by raising the entries to the power :


title: Matrix multiplication

text: The definition of matrix product requires that the entries belong to a semiring, and does not require multiplication of elements of the semiring to be commutative. In many applications, the matrix elements belong to a field, although the tropical semiring is also a common choice for graph shortest path problems. Even in the case of matrices over fields, the product is not commutative in general, although it is associative and is distributive over matrix addition. The identity matrices (which are the square matrices whose entries are zero outside of the main diagonal and 1 on the main diagonal) are identity elements of the matrix product. It follows that the matrices over a ring form a ring, which is noncommutative except if and the ground ring is commutative.


title: Matrix multiplication

text: A square matrix may have a multiplicative inverse, called an inverse matrix. In the common case where the entries belong to a commutative ring , a matrix has an inverse if and only if its determinant has a multiplicative inverse in . The determinant of a product of square matrices is the product of the determinants of the factors. The matrices that have an inverse form a group under matrix multiplication, the subgroups of which are called matrix groups. Many classical groups (including all finite groups) are isomorphic to matrix groups; this is the starting point of the theory of group representations.


title: Matrix multiplication

text: The matrix multiplication algorithm that results from the definition requires, in the worst case, multiplications and additions of scalars to compute the product of two square matrices. Its computational complexity is therefore , in a model of computation for which the scalar operations take constant time.


title: Matrix multiplication

text: Rather surprisingly, this complexity is not optimal, as shown in 1969 by Volker Strassen, who provided an algorithm, now called Strassen's algorithm, with a complexity of formula_111


title: Matrix multiplication

text: , the best matrix multiplication algorithm is by Josh Alman and Virginia Vassilevska Williams and has complexity .


title: Matrix multiplication

text: It is not known whether matrix multiplication can be performed in time. This would be optimal, since one must read the elements of a matrix in order to multiply it with another matrix.


title: Matrix multiplication

text: Since matrix multiplication forms the basis for many algorithms, and many operations on matrices even have the same complexity as matrix multiplication (up to a multiplicative constant), the computational complexity of matrix multiplication appears throughout numerical linear algebra and theoretical computer science.


title: Shelley Winters

text: Shelley Winters (born Shirley Schrift; August 18, 1920 – January 14, 2006) was an American actress whose career spanned seven decades. She appeared in numerous films. She won Academy Awards for "The Diary of Anne Frank" (1959) and "A Patch of Blue" (1965), and received nominations for "A Place in the Sun" (1951) and "The Poseidon Adventure" (1972). She also appeared in "A Double Life" (1947), "The Night of the Hunter" (1955), "Lolita" (1962), "Alfie" (1966), "Next Stop, Greenwich Village" (1976), and "Pete's Dragon" (1977). In addition to film, Winters appeared in television, including a tenure on the sitcom "Roseanne", and wrote three autobiographical books.


title: Shelley Winters

text: Shelley Winters was born Shirley Schrift in St. Louis, Missouri, the daughter of Rose (née Winter), a singer with St. Louis Municipal Opera Theatre ("The Muny"), and Jonas Schrift, a designer of men's clothing. Her parents were Jewish; her father migrated from Grymalow, Austria-Hungary, in what is now Ukraine, and her mother was born in St. Louis to Austrian immigrants who were also from Grymalow. Her parents were third cousins. Her Jewish education included attendance at the Jamaica Jewish Center and learning Hebrew songs at her public school. Her family moved to Brooklyn, New York, when she was nine years old, and she grew up partly in Queens, New York, as well. As a young woman, she worked as a model. Her sister Blanche Schrift later married George Boroff, who ran the Circle Theatre (now named El Centro Theatre) in Los Angeles, California. At age 16, Winters relocated to Los Angeles, and later returned to New York to study acting at The New School.


title: Shelley Winters

text: Winters made her Broadway debut in "The Night Before Christmas" (1941) which had a short run. She had a small part in "Rosalinda", an adaptation of "Die Fledermaus" (1942–44) which ran for 611 performances. Winters first received acclaim when she joined the cast of "Oklahoma!" as Ado Annie.


title: Shelley Winters

text: She received a long-term contract at Columbia and moved to Los Angeles. Winters's first film appearance was an uncredited bit in "There's Something About a Soldier" (1943) at Columbia. She had another small bit in "What a Woman!" (1943) but a bigger part in a B movie, "Sailor's Holiday" (1944). Winters was borrowed by the Producers Releasing Corporation for "Knickerbocker Holiday" (1944). Columbia put her in small bits in "She's a Soldier Too" (1944), "Dancing in Manhattan" (1944), "Together Again" (1944), "Tonight and Every Night" (1945), "Escape in the Fog" (1945), "A Thousand and One Nights" (1945), and "The Fighting Guardsman" (1946). Winters had bit parts in MGM's "Two Smart People" (1946), and a series of films for United Artists: "Susie Steps Out" (1946), "Abie's Irish Rose" (1946) and "New Orleans" (1947). She had bit parts in "Living in a Big Way" (1947) and "Killer McCoy" (1947) at MGM, "The Gangster" (1947) for King Brothers Productions and "Red River" (1948). She also played Brenda Martingale in Siodmak's Cry of the City.


title: Shelley Winters

text: Winters first achieved stardom with her breakout performance as the victim of insane actor Ronald Colman in George Cukor's "A Double Life" (1947). It was distributed by Universal which signed Winters to a long-term contract. She had a supporting role in "Larceny" (1948) then 20th Century Fox borrowed her for "Cry of the City" (1948). Winters was second-billed in "Johnny Stool Pigeon" (1949) with Howard Duff, and "Take One False Step" (1949) with William Powell. Paramount borrowed her to play Mabel in "The Great Gatsby" (1949) with Alan Ladd. Back at Universal she was in "Winchester 73" (1950), opposite James Stewart, a huge hit. Universal gave Winters top billing in "South Sea Sinner" (1950). She co starred with Joel McCrea in "Frenchie" (1950).


title: Shelley Winters

text: Winters originally broke into Hollywood films as a Blonde Bombshell type, but quickly tired of the role's limitations. She claims to have washed off her make-up to audition for the role of Alice Tripp, the factory girl, in "A Place in the Sun", directed by George Stevens, now a landmark American film. As the Associated Press reported, the general public was unaware of how serious a craftswoman Winters was. "Although she was in demand as a character actress, Winters continued to study her craft. She attended Charles Laughton's Shakespeare classes and worked at the Actors Studio, both as student and teacher." She studied in the Hollywood Studio Club, and in the late 1940s, she shared an apartment with Marilyn Monroe. Her performance in "A Place in the Sun" (1951), a departure from the sexpot image that her studio, Universal Pictures, was grooming her for at the time, brought Winters her first acclaim, earning her a nomination for the Academy Award for Best Actress. Winters went to United Artists for "He Ran All the Way" (1951) with John Garfield and RKO for "Behave Yourself!" (1951) with Farley Granger. Winters was top-billed in "The Raging Tide" (1951) at Universal. She was loaned to 20th Century Fox for "Phone Call from a Stranger" (1952), with Bette Davis.


title: Shelley Winters

text: At Universal she did "Meet Danny Wilson" (1952) with Frank Sinatra and "Untamed Frontier" (1952) with Joseph Cotten. She went to MGM for "My Man and I" (1952) with Ricardo Montalbán. She performed in "A Streetcar Named Desire" on stage in Los Angeles. Winters took off some time for the birth of her first child in 1953. She made her TV debut in "Mantrap" for "The Ford Television Theatre" in 1954. At MGM, she did "Executive Suite" (1954) and "Tennessee Champ" (1954), top-billed in the latter. Winters returned to Universal to appear in "Saskatchewan" (1954), shot on location in Canada with Alan Ladd and "Playgirl" (1954) with Barry Sullivan. She appeared in a TV version of "Sorry, Wrong Number".


title: Shelley Winters

text: Winters travelled to Europe to make "Mambo" (1954) with Vittorio Gassman who became her husband. She then shot "Cash on Delivery" (1954) in England. Winters performed in a version of "The Women" for "Producers' Showcase" then had a key role in "I Am a Camera" (1955) starring opposite Julie Harris and Laurence Harvey. Even more highly acclaimed was Charles Laughton's 1955 "Night of the Hunter" with Robert Mitchum and Lillian Gish. At Warner Bros, Winters was Jack Palance's leading lady in "I Died a Thousand Times" (1955), then for RKO she co starred with Rory Calhoun in "The Treasure of Pancho Villa" (1955). She was in "The Big Knife" (1955) for Robert Aldrich.


title: Shelley Winters

text: Winters returned to Broadway in "A Hatful of Rain", in 1955–1956, opposite Ben Gazzara and future husband Anthony Franciosa. It ran for 398 performances. "Girls of Summer" (1956–57) was directed by Jack Garfein and co-starred George Peppard but only ran for 56 performances. On TV she reprised her "Double Life" performance in "The Alcoa Hour" in 1957. She appeared in episodes of "The United States Steel Hour", "Climax!", "Wagon Train", "Schlitz Playhouse", "The DuPont Show of the Month", and "Kraft Theatre".


title: Shelley Winters

text: In 1960, she won a Best Supporting Actress Oscar for her role as Mrs. Van Daan in George Stevens' film adaptation of "The Diary of Anne Frank" (1959). She donated her award statuette to the Anne Frank House in Amsterdam. Winters was in much demand as a character actor now, getting good roles in "Odds Against Tomorrow" (1959), "Let No Man Write My Epitaph" (1960) and "The Young Savages" (1961). She received excellent reviews for her performance as the man-hungry Charlotte Haze in Stanley Kubrick's "Lolita" (1962).


title: Shelley Winters

text: Winters returned to Broadway on "The Night of the Iguana" (1962), playing Bette Davis's role. She performed Off Broadway in "Cages" by Lewis John Carlino in 1963. Many of her roles now had a sexual component: in "The Chapman Report" (1962) she played an unfaithful housewife and she played madams in "The Balcony" (1963) and "A House Is Not a Home" (1964). She appeared in "Wives and Lovers" (1963) and episodes of shows such as "Alcoa Theatre", "Ben Casey", and "Thirty-Minute Theatre". Winters was featured in the Italian film "Time of Indifference" (1964) with Rod Steiger and Claudia Cardinale, and had one of the many cameos in the religious epic "The Greatest Story Ever Told" (1965), again for George Stevens.


title: Shelley Winters

text: Winters won another Best Supporting Actress Oscar in "A Patch of Blue" (1965). She had supporting roles opposite Michael Caine in "Alfie" (1966) and as the fading, alcoholic former starlet Fay Estabrook in "Harper" (1966). She returned to Broadway in "Under the Weather" (1966) by Saul Bellow which ran for 12 performances. Winters played "Ma Parker" the villain in "Batman". She was in a TV version of "The Three Sisters" (1966) and had roles in "Enter Laughing" (1967) for Carl Reiner, "Armchair Theatre", "Bob Hope Presents the Chrysler Theatre" (several episodes), "The Scalphunters" (1968) for Sydney Pollack, "Wild in the Streets" (1968), "Buona Sera, Mrs. Campbell" (1968), "Arthur? Arthur!" (1969), and "The Mad Room" (1969).


title: Shelley Winters

text: Winters played Ma Barker in "Bloody Mama" (1970) a big hit for Roger Corman. She had roles in "How Do I Love Thee?" (1970) and "Flap" (1970) for Carol Reed. She returned to the stage to play Minnie Marx, mother of the Marx Brothers in the Broadway musical "Minnie's Boys" (1970), which ran for 80 performances. Winters wrote an evening of three one act plays titled "One Night Stands of a Noisy Passenger" (1970–1971), which ran for seven performances; the cast included Robert De Niro and Diane Ladd. Winters had the lead in two horror films, "Whoever Slew Auntie Roo?" (1971), and "What's the Matter with Helen?" (1971), and two TV movies, "Revenge!" (1971), and "A Death of Innocence" (1971). She had supporting roles in "Adventures of Nick Carter" (1972) and had a coleading role in "Something to Hide" (1972) with Peter Finch. She starred in "The Vamp" for "ITV Sunday Night Theatre". In "The Poseidon Adventure" (1972), she was the ill-fated Belle Rosen (for which she received her final Oscar nomination). She put on weight for the role and never got rid of it.


title: Shelley Winters

text: Winters was top-billed in "The Devil's Daughter" (1973) for TV. She had a supporting role in "Blume in Love" (1973) for Paul Mazursky and "Cleopatra Jones" (1973) and leading parts in "Big Rose: Double Trouble" (1974) and "The Sex Symbol" (1974). Winters guest-starred on "McCloud" and "Chico and the Man" and was seen in "Poor Pretty Eddie" (1975), "That Lucky Touch" (1975), "Journey Into Fear" (1975), "Diamonds" (1975), "Next Stop, Greenwich Village" (1976) for Paul Mazursky, "The Tenant" (1976) for Roman Polanski, "Mimì Bluette... fiore del mio giardino" (1977) with Monica Vitti, "Tentacles" (1977), "An Average Little Man" (1977) with Alberto Sordi, "Pete's Dragon" (1977), "The Initiation of Sarah" (1978), and "King of the Gypsies" (1978). She starred in a 1978 Broadway production of Paul Zindel's "The Effect of Gamma Rays on Man-in-the-Moon Marigolds", which only had a short run. Winters starred in the Italian horror film "Gran bollito" (1979) and played Gladys Presley in "Elvis" (1979) for TV. She was in "The Visitor" (1979), "City on Fire" (1979), "The Magician of Lublin" (1979) for Menahem Golan, "The French Atlantic Affair" (1979) and an episode of the ABC series "Vega$", with Vega$ star Robert Urich . In 1980, Winters published the best-selling autobiography "Shelley: Also Known As Shirley" She followed it up in 1989 with a second memoir, "Shelley II: The Middle of My Century".


title: Shelley Winters

text: Winters's 1980s performances included "Looping" (1981), "S.O.B.", episodes of "The Love Boat", "Sex, Lies and Renaissance" (1983), "Over the Brooklyn Bridge" (1984), "Ellie" (1984), "Déjà Vu" (1985), "Alice in Wonderland" (1985), and "The Delta Force" (1986). She did "The Gingerbread Lady" on stage. She had a starring role in "Witchfire" (1986) and was credited as executive producer. She was in "Very Close Quarters" (1986), "Purple People Eater" (1988), and "An Unremarkable Life" (1989).


title: Shelley Winters

text: Her final performances included "Touch of a Stranger" (1990), "Stepping Out" (1991) with Liza Minnelli, "Weep No More, My Lady" (1992), "The Pickle" (1993) for Mazursky, and "The Silence of the Hams" (1994). Later audiences knew her primarily for her autobiographies and for her television work, in which she usually played a humorous parody of her public persona. In a recurring role in the 1990s, Winters played the title character's grandmother on the sitcom "Roseanne". Her final film roles were supporting ones: She played a restaurant owner and mother of an overweight cook in "Heavy" (1995) with Liv Tyler and Debbie Harry for James Mangold; an aristocrat in "The Portrait of a Lady" (1996), starring Nicole Kidman and John Malkovich; and an embittered nursing home administrator in 1999's "Gideon". She was in comedies such as "Backfire!" (1995), "Jury Duty" (1995), and "Mrs. Munck" (1995) as well as "Raging Angels" (1995). Winters made an appearance at the 1998 Academy Awards telecast, which featured a tribute to Oscar winners past and present.


title: Shelley Winters

text: The Associated Press reported: "During her 50 years as a widely known personality, Winters was rarely out of the news. Her stormy marriages, her romances with famous stars, her forays into politics and feminist causes kept her name before the public. She delighted in giving provocative interviews and seemed to have an opinion on everything." That led to a second career as a writer. Though not a conventional beauty, she claimed that her acting, wit, and "chutzpah" gave her a love life to rival Monroe's. Her alleged "conquests" included William Holden, Sean Connery, Burt Lancaster, Errol Flynn, and Marlon Brando.


title: Shelley Winters

text: Hours before her death, Winters married long-time companion Gerry DeFord, with whom she had lived for 19 years. Though Winters's daughter objected to the marriage, the actress Sally Kirkland performed the wedding ceremony for the two at Winters's deathbed. Kirkland, a minister of the Movement of Spiritual Inner Awareness, also performed non-denominational last rites for Winters. Winters had a much-publicized romance with Farley Granger that became a long-term friendship (according to their respective autobiographies). She starred with him in the 1951 film "Behave Yourself!" as well as in a 1957 television production of A. J. Cronin's novel "Beyond This Place".


title: Shelley Winters

text: Winters was a Democrat and attended the 1960 Democratic National Convention. In 1965, she addressed the Selma Marchers briefly outside Montgomery, Alabama on the night before they marched into the state capitol. She became friendly with rock singer Janis Joplin shortly before Joplin died in 1970. Winters invited Joplin to sit in on a class session at the Actors' Studio at its Los Angeles location. Joplin never did.


title: Shelley Winters

text: Winters died at the age of 85 on January 14, 2006, of heart failure at the Rehabilitation Center of Beverly Hills; she had suffered a heart attack on October 14, 2005. She is interred at Hillside Memorial Park Cemetery in Culver City, California. Her third husband, Anthony Franciosa, had a stroke on the same day she died, and he died five days later.


title: Armenian language

text: Armenian (classical: , reformed: , , ) is an Indo-European language and an independent branch of that family of languages. It is the official language of Armenia. Historically spoken in the Armenian Highlands, today Armenian is widely spoken throughout the Armenian diaspora. Armenian is written in its own writing system, the Armenian alphabet, introduced in 405 AD by the priest Mesrop Mashtots. The total number of Armenian speakers worldwide is estimated between 5 and 7 million.


title: Armenian language

text: Armenian is an independent branch of the Indo-European languages. It is of interest to linguists for its distinctive phonological changes within that family. Armenian exhibits more satemization than centumization, although it is not classified as belonging to either of these subgroups. Some linguists tentatively conclude that Armenian, Greek (and Phrygian) and Indo-Iranian were dialectally close to each other; within this hypothetical dialect group, Proto-Armenian was situated between Proto-Greek (centum subgroup) and Proto-Indo-Iranian (satem subgroup). Ronald I. Kim has noted unique morphological developments connecting Armenian to Balto-Slavic languages.


title: Armenian language

text: Armenia was a monolingual country by the 2nd century BC at the latest. Its language has a long literary history, with a 5th-century Bible translation as its oldest surviving text. Its vocabulary has historically been influenced by Western Middle Iranian languages, particularly Parthian; its derivational morphology and syntax were also affected by language contact with Parthian, but to a lesser extent. Contact with Greek, Persian, and Syriac also resulted in a number of loanwords. There are two standardized modern literary forms, Eastern Armenian and Western Armenian, with which most contemporary dialects are mutually intelligible.


title: Armenian language

text: Although Armenians were known to history much earlier (for example, they were mentioned in the 6th-century BC Behistun Inscription and in Xenophon's 4th century BC history, "The Anabasis"), the oldest surviving Armenian-language writing is etched in stone on Armenian temples and is called Mehenagir. The Armenian alphabet was created by Mesrop Mashtots in 405, at which time it had 36 letters. He is also credited by some with the creation of the Georgian alphabet and the Caucasian Albanian alphabet.


title: Armenian language

text: While Armenian constitutes the sole member of the Armenian branch of the Indo-European family, Aram Kossian has suggested that the hypothetical Mushki language may have been a (now extinct) Armenic language.


title: Armenian language

text: W. M. Austin (1942) concluded that there was early contact between Armenian and Anatolian languages, based on what he considered common archaisms, such as the lack of a feminine gender and the absence of inherited long vowels. However, unlike shared innovations (or "synapomorphies"), the common retention of archaisms (or "symplesiomorphy") is not considered conclusive evidence of a period of common isolated development. There are words used in Armenian that are generally believed to have been borrowed from Anatolian languages, particularly from Luwian, although some researchers have identified possible Hittite loanwords as well. One notable loanword from Anatolian is Armenian "xalam", "skull", cognate to Hittite "ḫalanta", "head".


title: Armenian language

text: In 1985, the Soviet linguist Igor M. Diakonoff noted the presence in Classical Armenian of what he calls a "Caucasian substratum" identified by earlier scholars, consisting of loans from the Kartvelian and Northeast Caucasian languages. Noting that Hurro-Urartian-speaking peoples inhabited the Armenian homeland in the second millennium BC, Diakonoff identifies in Armenian a Hurro-Urartian substratum of social, cultural, and animal and plant terms such as "ałaxin" "slave girl" ( ← Hurr. "al(l)a(e)ḫḫenne"), "cov" "sea" ( ← Urart. "ṣûǝ" "(inland) sea"), "ułt" "camel" ( ← Hurr. "uḷtu"), and "xnjor" "apple (tree)" ( ← Hurr. "ḫinzuri"). Some of the terms he gives admittedly have an Akkadian or Sumerian provenance, but he suggests they were borrowed through Hurrian or Urartian. Given that these borrowings do not undergo sound changes characteristic of the development of Armenian from Proto-Indo-European, he dates their borrowing to a time before the written record but after the Proto-Armenian language stage.


title: Armenian language

text: Contemporary linguists, such as Hrach Martirosyan, have rejected many of the Hurro-Urartian and Northeast Caucasian origins for these words and instead suggest native Armenian etymologies, leaving the possibility that these words may have been loaned into Hurro-Urartian and Caucasian languages from Armenian, and not vice versa. A notable example is "arciv", meaning "eagle," believed to have been the origin of Urartian "Arṣibi" and Northeast Caucasian "arzu". This word is derived from Proto-Indo-European "*h₂r̥ǵipyós", with cognates in Sanskrit (ऋजिप्य, "ṛjipyá"), Avestan ("erezef"), and Greek (αἰγίπιος, "aigípios"). Hrach Martirosyan and Armen Petrosyan propose additional borrowed words of Armenian origin loaned into Urartian and vice versa, including grammatical words and parts of speech, such as Urartian "eue" ("and"), attested in the earliest Urartian texts and likely a loan from Armenian (compare to Armenian , ultimately from Proto-Indo-European "*h₁epi"). Other loans from Armenian into Urartian includes personal names, toponyms, and names of deities.


title: Armenian language

text: Loan words from Iranian languages, along with the other ancient accounts such as that of Xenophon above, initially led linguists to erroneously classify Armenian as an Iranian language. Scholars such as Paul de Lagarde and F. Müller believed that the similarities between the two languages meant that Armenian belonged to the Iranian language family. The distinctness of Armenian was recognized when philologist Heinrich Hübschmann (1875) used the comparative method to distinguish two layers of Iranian words from the older Armenian vocabulary. He showed that Armenian often had two morphemes for one concept, that the non-Iranian components yielded a consistent Proto-Indo-European pattern distinct from Iranian, and that the inflectional morphology was different from that of Iranian languages.


title: Armenian language

text: The hypothesis that Greek is Armenian's closest living relative originates with Holger Pedersen (1924), who noted that the number of Greek-Armenian lexical cognates is greater than that of agreements between Armenian and any other Indo-European language. Antoine Meillet (1925, 1927) further investigated morphological and phonological agreement and postulated that the parent languages of Greek and Armenian were dialects in immediate geographical proximity during the Proto-Indo-European period. Meillet's hypothesis became popular in the wake of his book "Esquisse d'une histoire de la langue latine" (1936). Georg Renatus Solta (1960) does not go as far as postulating a Proto-Graeco-Armenian stage, but he concludes that considering both the lexicon and morphology, Greek is clearly the dialect to be most closely related to Armenian. Eric P. Hamp (1976, 91) supports the Graeco-Armenian thesis and even anticipates a time "when we should speak of Helleno-Armenian" (meaning the postulate of a Graeco-Armenian proto-language). Armenian shares the augment and a negator derived from the set phrase in the Proto-Indo-European language ("never anything" or "always nothing"), the representation of word-initial laryngeals by prothetic vowels, and other phonological and morphological peculiarities with Greek. Nevertheless, as Fortson (2004) comments, "by the time we reach our earliest Armenian records in the 5th century AD, the evidence of any such early kinship has been reduced to a few tantalizing pieces".


title: Armenian language

text: Graeco-(Armeno)-Aryan is a hypothetical clade within the Indo-European family, ancestral to the Greek language, the Armenian language, and the Indo-Iranian languages. Graeco-Aryan unity would have become divided into Proto-Greek and Proto-Indo-Iranian by the mid-3rd millennium BC. Conceivably, Proto-Armenian would have been located between Proto-Greek and Proto-Indo-Iranian, consistent with the fact that Armenian shares certain features only with Indo-Iranian (the "satem" change) but others only with Greek ("s" > "h").


title: Armenian language

text: Graeco-Aryan has comparatively wide support among Indo-Europeanists who believe the Indo-European homeland to be located in the Armenian Highlands, the "Armenian hypothesis". Early and strong evidence was given by Euler's 1979 examination on shared features in Greek and Sanskrit nominal flection.


title: Armenian language

text: Used in tandem with the Graeco-Armenian hypothesis, the Armenian language would also be included under the label Aryano-Greco-Armenic, splitting into Proto-Greek/Phrygian and "Armeno-Aryan" (ancestor of Armenian and Indo-Iranian).


title: Armenian language

text: Classical Armenian (Arm: "grabar"), attested from the 5th century to the 19th century as the literary standard (up to the 11th century also as a spoken language with different varieties), was partially superseded by Middle Armenian, attested from the 12th century to the 18th century. Specialized literature prefers "Old Armenian" for "grabar" as a whole, and designates as "Classical" the language used in the 5th century literature, "Post-Classical" from the late 5th to 8th centuries, and "Late Grabar" that of the period covering the 8th to 11th centuries. Later, it was used mainly in religious and specialized literature, with the exception of a revival during the early modern period, when attempts were made to establish it as the language of a literary renaissance, with neoclassical inclinations, through the creation and dissemination of literature in varied genres, especially by the Mekhitarists. The first Armenian periodical, "Azdarar", was published in "grabar" in 1794.


title: Armenian language

text: The classical form borrowed numerous words from Middle Iranian languages, primarily Parthian, and contains smaller inventories of loanwords from Greek, Syriac, Aramaic, Arabic, Mongol, Persian, and indigenous languages such as Urartian. An effort to modernize the language in Bagratid Armenia and the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia (11–14th centuries) resulted in the addition of two more characters to the alphabet ("" and ""), bringing the total number to 38.


title: Armenian language

text: The "Book of Lamentations" by Gregory of Narek (951–1003) is an example of the development of a literature and writing style of Old Armenian by the 10th century. In addition to elevating the literary style and vocabulary of the Armenian language by adding well above a thousand new words, through his other hymns and poems Gregory paved the way for his successors to include secular themes and vernacular language in their writings. The thematic shift from mainly religious texts to writings with secular outlooks further enhanced and enriched the vocabulary. “A Word of Wisdom”, a poem by Hovhannes Sargavak devoted to a starling, legitimizes poetry devoted to nature, love, or female beauty. Gradually, the interests of the population at large were reflected in other literary works as well. Konsdantin Yerzinkatsi and several others even take the unusual step of criticizing the ecclesiastic establishment and addressing the social issues of the Armenian homeland. However, these changes represented the nature of the literary style and syntax, but they did not constitute immense changes to the fundamentals of the grammar or the morphology of the language. Often, when writers codify a spoken dialect, other language users are then encouraged to imitate that structure through the literary device known as parallelism.


title: Armenian language

text: In the 19th century, the traditional Armenian homeland was once again divided. This time Eastern Armenia was conquered from Qajar Iran by the Russian Empire, while Western Armenia, containing two thirds of historical Armenia, remained under Ottoman control. The antagonistic relationship between the Russian and Ottoman empires led to creation of two separate and different environments under which Armenians lived. Halfway through the 19th century, two important concentrations of Armenian communities were further consolidated. Because of persecutions or the search for better economic opportunities, many Armenians living under Ottoman rule gradually moved to Istanbul, whereas Tbilisi became the center of Armenians living under Russian rule. These two cosmopolitan cities very soon became the primary poles of Armenian intellectual and cultural life.


title: Armenian language

text: The introduction of new literary forms and styles, as well as many new ideas sweeping Europe, reached Armenians living in both regions. This created an ever-growing need to elevate the vernacular, Ashkharhabar, to the dignity of a modern literary language, in contrast to the now-anachronistic Grabar. Numerous dialects existed in the traditional Armenian regions, which, different as they were, had certain morphological and phonetic features in common. On the basis of these features two major standards emerged:


title: Armenian language

text: Both centers vigorously pursued the promotion of Ashkharhabar. The proliferation of newspapers in both versions (Eastern & Western) and the development of a network of schools where modern Armenian was taught, dramatically increased the rate of literacy (in spite of the obstacles by the colonial administrators), even in remote rural areas. The emergence of literary works entirely written in the modern versions increasingly legitimized the language's existence. By the turn of the 20th century both varieties of the one modern Armenian language prevailed over Grabar and opened the path to a new and simplified grammatical structure of the language in the two different cultural spheres. Apart from several morphological, phonetic, and grammatical differences, the largely common vocabulary and generally analogous rules of grammatical fundamentals allows users of one variant to understand the other as long as they are fluent in one of the literary standards.


title: Armenian language

text: After World War I, the existence of the two modern versions of the same language was sanctioned even more clearly. The Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic (1920–1990) used Eastern Armenian as its official language, whereas the diaspora created after the Armenian genocide preserved the Western Armenian dialect.


title: Armenian language

text: The two modern literary dialects, Western (originally associated with writers in the Ottoman Empire) and Eastern (originally associated with writers in the Russian Empire), removed almost all of their Turkish lexical influences in the 20th century, primarily following the Armenian genocide.


title: Armenian language

text: The number of Armenian-speakers by country according to official government sources, including censuses and estimates:


title: Armenian language

text: Proto-Indo-European voiceless stop consonants are aspirated in the Proto-Armenian language, one of the circumstances that is often linked to the glottalic theory, a version of which postulated that some voiceless occlusives of Proto-Indo-European were aspirated.


title: Armenian language

text: In Armenian, the stress falls on the last syllable unless the last syllable contains the definite article or , and the possessive articles and , in which case it falls on the penultimate one. For instance, , , but and . Exceptions to this rule are some words with the final letter ( in the reformed orthography) () and sometimes the ordinal numerals (, etc.), as well as , and a small number of other words.


title: Armenian language

text: Modern Armenian has six monophthongs. Each vowel phoneme in the table is represented by three symbols. The first is the sounds transcription in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). After that appears the corresponding letter of the Armenian alphabet. The last symbol is its Latin transliteration.


title: Armenian language

text: The following table lists the Eastern Armenian consonantal system. The occlusives and affricates have an aspirated series, commonly transcribed with a reversed apostrophe after the letter. Each phoneme in the table is represented by IPA, Armenian script and romanization.


title: Armenian language

text: The major phonetic difference between dialects is in the reflexes of Classical Armenian voice-onset time. The seven dialect types have the following correspondences, illustrated with the t–d series:


title: Armenian language

text: Armenian corresponds with other Indo-European languages in its structure, but it shares distinctive sounds and features of its grammar with neighboring languages of the Caucasus region. The Armenian orthography is rich in combinations of consonants, but in pronunciation, this is broken up with schwas. Both classical Armenian and the modern spoken and literary dialects have a complicated system of noun declension, with six or seven noun cases but no gender. In modern Armenian, the use of auxiliary verbs to show tense (comparable to will in "he will go") has generally supplemented the inflected verbs of Classical Armenian. Negative verbs are conjugated differently from positive ones (as in English "he goes" and "he does not go") in many tenses, otherwise adding only the negative to the positive conjugation. Grammatically, early forms of Armenian had much in common with classical Greek and Latin, but the modern language, like modern Greek, has undergone many transformations, adding some analytic features.


title: Armenian language

text: Classical Armenian has no grammatical gender, not even in the pronoun, but there is a feminine suffix ( "-uhi"). For example, ("usucʻičʻ", "teacher") becomes ("usucʻčʻuhi", female teacher). This suffix, however, does not have a grammatical effect on the sentence. The nominal inflection, however, preserves several types of inherited stem classes. Historically, nouns were declined for one of seven cases: nominative (ուղղական "uġġakan"), accusative (հայցական "haycʻakan"), locative (ներգոյական "nergoyakan"), genitive (սեռական "seṙakan"), dative (տրական "trakan"), ablative (բացառական "bacʻaṙakan"), or instrumental (գործիական "gorciakan"), but in the modern language, the nominative and accusative cases, as well as the dative and genitive cases have merged.


title: Armenian language

text: Which case the direct object takes is split based on animacy (a phenomen more generally known as differential object marking). Inanimate nouns take the nominative, while animate nouns take the dative. Additionally, animate nouns can never take the locative case.


title: Armenian language

text: Verbs in Armenian have an expansive system of conjugation with two main verb types in Eastern Armenian and three in Western Armenian changing form based on tense, mood and aspect.


title: Armenian language

text: Armenian is a pluricentric language, having two modern standardized forms: Eastern Armenian and Western Armenian. The most distinctive feature of Western Armenian is that it has undergone several phonetic mergers; these may be due to proximity to Arabic- and Turkish-speaking communities.


title: Armenian language

text: Classical Armenian (Grabar), which remained the standard until the 18th century, was quite homogeneous across the different regions that works in it were written; it may have been a cross-regional standard. The Middle Armenian variety used in the court of Cilician Armenia (1080–1375) provides a window into the development of Western Armenian, which came to be based on what became the dialect of Istanbul, while the standard for Eastern Armenian was based on the dialect around Mount Ararat and Yerevan. Although the Armenian language is often divided into "east" and "west", the two standards are actually relatively close to each other in light of wealth of the diversity present among regional non-standard Armenian dialects. The different dialects have experienced different degrees of language contact effects, often with Turkic and Caucasian languages; for some, the result has been significant phonological and syntactic changes. Fortson notes that the modern standard as well has now attained a subordinate clausal structure that greatly resembles a Turkic language.


title: Armenian language

text: Eastern Armenian speakers pronounce () as [tʰ], () as [d], and () as a tenuis occlusive [t˭]. Western Armenian has simplified the occlusive system into a simple division between voiced occlusives and aspirated ones; the first series corresponds to the tenuis series of Eastern Armenian, and the second corresponds to the Eastern voiced and aspirated series. Thus, the Western dialect pronounces both () and () as [tʰ], and the () letter as [d].


title: Armenian language

text: There is no precise linguistic border between one dialect and another because there is nearly always a dialect transition zone of some size between pairs of geographically identified dialects.


title: Armenian language

text: Armenian can be divided into two major dialectal blocks and those blocks into individual dialects, though many of the Western Armenian dialects have become extinct due to the effects of the Armenian genocide. In addition, neither dialect is completely homogeneous: any dialect can be subdivided into several subdialects. Although Western and Eastern Armenian are often described as different dialects of the same language, many subdialects are not readily mutually intelligible. Nevertheless, a fluent speaker of one of two greatly varying dialects who is also literate in one of the standards, when exposed to the other dialect for a period of time will be able to understand the other with relative ease.


title: Armenian language

text: Distinct Western Armenian varieties currently in use include Homshetsi, spoken by the Hemshin peoples; the dialects of Armenians of Kessab (), Latakia and Jisr al-Shughur (Syria), Anjar, Lebanon, and Vakıflı, Samandağ (Turkey), part of the "Sueidia" dialect ().


title: Armenian language

text: Forms of the Karin dialect of Western Armenian are spoken by several hundred thousand people in Northern Armenia, mostly in Gyumri, Artik, Akhuryan, and around 130 villages in Shirak Province, and by Armenians in Samtskhe–Javakheti province of Georgia (Akhalkalaki, Akhaltsikhe).


title: Armenian language

text: Nakhichevan-on-Don Armenians speak another Western Armenian variety based on the dialect of Armenians in Crimea, where they came from in order to establish the town and surrounding villages in 1779 ().


title: Armenian language

text: Western Armenian dialects are currently spoken also in Gavar (formerly Nor Bayazet and Kamo, on the west of Lake Sevan), Aparan, and Talin in Armenia (Mush dialect), and by the large Armenian population residing in Abkhazia, where they are considered to be the first or second ethnic minority, or even equal in number to the local Abkhaz population


title: Armenian language

text: The Armenian alphabet ( or ) is a graphically unique alphabetical writing system that is used to write the Armenian language. It was introduced around AD 405 by Mesrop Mashtots, an Armenian linguist and ecclesiastical leader, and originally contained 36 letters. Two more letters, օ (ō) and ֆ (f), were added in the Middle Ages.


title: Armenian language

text: During the 1920s orthography reform in Soviet Armenia, a new letter և (capital ԵՎ) was added, which was a ligature before ե+ւ, whereas the letter Ւ ւ was discarded and reintroduced as part of a new letter ՈՒ ու (which was a digraph before). This alphabet and associated orthography is used by most Armenian speakers of Armenia and the countries of the former Soviet Union. Neither the alphabet nor the orthography has been adopted by Diaspora Armenians, including Eastern Armenian speakers of Iran and all Western Armenian speakers, who keep using the traditional alphabet and spelling.


title: Armenian language

text: Armenian is an Indo-European language, so many of its Proto-Indo-European-descended words are cognates of words in other Indo-European languages such as English, Latin, Greek, and Sanskrit.


title: Armenian language

text: However, due to extensive loaning, only around 1,500 words (G. Jahukyan) are known to have been inherited from Indo-European by the Classical Armenian stage; the rest were lost, a fact that presents a major challenge to endeavors to better understand Proto-Armenian and its place within the family, especially as many of the sound changes along the way from Indo-European to Armenian remain quite difficult to analyze.


title: Armenian language

text: This table lists some of the more recognizable cognates that Armenian shares with English words descended from Old English.


title: Liam O'Brien

text: Liam Christopher O'Brien (born May 28, 1976) is an American voice actor, writer, and director. He is a regular cast member of the "Dungeons & Dragons" actual play series "Critical Role," playing Vax'ildan ("Vax"), Caleb Widogast, and Orym. He has been involved in many video games, cartoons, and English-language adaptations of Japanese anime. His major anime roles include Gaara in "Naruto", Vincent Law in "Ergo Proxy", Captain Jushiro Ukitake in "Bleach", Lloyd in "Code Geass", Kenzo Tenma in "Monster", Akihiko Sanada in "Persona 3", and Nephrite in the Viz Media dub of "Sailor Moon".


title: Liam O'Brien

text: In cartoons, O'Brien has voiced characters in shows such as "Star Wars Rebels", "", "Avengers Assemble", "Wolverine and the X-Men", and "Hulk and the Agents of S.M.A.S.H.". In video games, he voiced Gollum in "" and "", Caius Ballad in "Final Fantasy XIII-2" and "", War in "Darksiders", Asura in "Asura's Wrath", Ieyasu Tokugawa in "", Illidan Stormrage in "World of Warcraft" and "Heroes of the Storm", Yasuo in "League of Legends", Grimoire Weiss in "NieR" and "Nier Replicant ver.1.22474487139...", the Warden in "For Honor", and Barker in "Titanfall 2".


title: Liam O'Brien

text: He is an automated dialog replacement writer for anime and has provided voice direction for over 300 episodes of anime such as "Naruto". He has also voice directed for video games such as "The Last of Us", "Evolve", "Resident Evil 5", and "Resident Evil 6".


title: Liam O'Brien

text: Liam Christopher O'Brien was born in Weehawken, New Jersey, on May 28, 1976. His mother, Lois Wiltse O'Brien, worked as an educator as well as a quality assurance trainer and consultant. He has a sister named Cara. His family were Reformed Christians, and he was "raised by a Christian mother and attended 15 years of Christian schooling", but would later describe himself as agnostic. He began acting in high school at St. Peter's Preparatory School. After moving to New York City to attend the New York University Tisch School of the Arts, he worked in theater on various productions around the country. He met Crispin Freeman while working on a production of "Romeo & Juliet" in Cincinnati, Ohio, which helped him get voice-over work back in New York.


title: Liam O'Brien

text: O'Brien affirms that he often plays characters that are insane or evil geniuses, although he has also voiced comedic characters such as Fukuyama in "Girls Bravo". He describes Cumore from "Tales of Vesperia" as "slightly unhinged". In "Darksiders", he voices the lead character War, one of the Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse. He describes his voicing as deeper than his usual voice, and that he portrayed War as a fairly old soul who isn't surprised at the events around him. In the video game-based film "", he voiced Red XIII. In addition to voice acting, he has worked as a voice director and writer on various video games and anime shows.


title: Liam O'Brien

text: He is also a cast member of the popular web series "Critical Role", in which he and other voice actors play "Dungeons & Dragons". "Critical Role" was both the Webby Winner and the People's Voice Winner in the "Games (Video Series & Channels)" category at the 2019 Webby Awards; the show was also both a Finalist and the Audience Honor Winner at the 2019 Shorty Awards. After becoming hugely successful, the "Critical Role" cast left the Geek & Sundry network in early 2019 and set up their own production company, Critical Role Productions. Soon after, they aimed to raise $750,000 on Kickstarter to create an animated series of their first campaign, but ended up raising over $11 million. In November 2019, Amazon Prime Video announced that they had acquired the streaming rights to this animated series, now titled "The Legend of Vox Machina;" O'Brien reprised his role as Vax'ildan. In June 2021, O'Brien was added to the cast of "Exandria Unlimited", a spinoff of "Critical Role". O'Brien is also one of the narrators for the audiobook edition of the novel "" (2021).


title: Liam O'Brien

text: O'Brien married voice actress Amy Kincaid in 2002. The couple have two children: a daughter and a son. They live in Los Angeles.


title: Liam O'Brien

text: He suffers from hyperacusis, a hearing disorder that makes him unusually sensitive to everyday noises.


title: Flip-flop (electronics)

text: In electronics, a flip-flop or latch is a circuit that has two stable states and can be used to store state information – a bistable multivibrator. The circuit can be made to change state by signals applied to one or more control inputs and will have one or two outputs. It is the basic storage element in sequential logic. Flip-flops and latches are fundamental building blocks of digital electronics systems used in computers, communications, and many other types of systems.


title: Flip-flop (electronics)

text: Flip-flops and latches are used as data storage elements. A flip-flop is a device which stores a single "bit" (binary digit) of data; one of its two states represents a "one" and the other represents a "zero". Such data storage can be used for storage of "state", and such a circuit is described as sequential logic in electronics. When used in a finite-state machine, the output and next state depend not only on its current input, but also on its current state (and hence, previous inputs). It can also be used for counting of pulses, and for synchronizing variably-timed input signals to some reference timing signal.


title: Flip-flop (electronics)

text: Flip-flops can be either level-triggered (asynchronous, transparent or opaque) or edge-triggered (synchronous, or clocked). The term flip-flop has historically referred generically to both level-triggered and edge-triggered circuits that store a single bit of data using gates. Recently, some authors reserve the term "flip-flop" exclusively for discussing clocked circuits; the simple ones are commonly called "transparent latches". Using this terminology, a level-sensitive flip-flop is called a transparent latch, whereas an edge-triggered flip-flop is simply called a flip-flop. Using either terminology, the term "flip-flop" refers to a device that stores a single bit of data, but the term "latch" may also refer to a device that stores any number of bits of data using a single trigger. The terms "edge-triggered", and "level-triggered" may be used to avoid ambiguity.


title: Flip-flop (electronics)

text: When a level-triggered latch is enabled it becomes transparent, but an edge-triggered flip-flop's output only changes on a single type (positive going or negative going) of clock edge.


title: Flip-flop (electronics)

text: The first electronic flip-flop was invented in 1918 by the British physicists William Eccles and F. W. Jordan. It was initially called the "Eccles–Jordan trigger circuit" and consisted of two active elements (vacuum tubes). The design was used in the 1943 British Colossus codebreaking computer and such circuits and their transistorized versions were common in computers even after the introduction of integrated circuits, though flip-flops made from logic gates are also common now. Early flip-flops were known variously as trigger circuits or multivibrators.


title: Flip-flop (electronics)

text: According to P. L. Lindley, an engineer at the US Jet Propulsion Laboratory, the flip-flop types detailed below (SR, D, T, JK) were first discussed in a 1954 UCLA course on computer design by Montgomery Phister, and then appeared in his book "Logical Design of Digital Computers." Lindley was at the time working at Hughes Aircraft under Eldred Nelson, who had coined the term JK for a flip-flop which changed states when both inputs were on (a logical "one"). The other names were coined by Phister. They differ slightly from some of the definitions given below. Lindley explains that he heard the story of the JK flip-flop from Eldred Nelson, who is responsible for coining the term while working at Hughes Aircraft. Flip-flops in use at Hughes at the time were all of the type that came to be known as J-K. In designing a logical system, Nelson assigned letters to flip-flop inputs as follows: #1: A & B, #2: C & D, #3: E & F, #4: G & H, #5: J & K. Nelson used the notations ""j"-input" and ""k"-input" in a patent application filed in 1953.


title: Flip-flop (electronics)

text: Flip-flops can be either simple (transparent or asynchronous) or clocked (synchronous). In the context of hardware description languages, the simple ones are commonly described as "latches", while the clocked ones are described as "flip-flops".


title: Flip-flop (electronics)

text: Simple flip-flops can be built around a single pair of cross-coupled inverting elements: vacuum tubes, bipolar transistors, field effect transistors, inverters, and inverting logic gates have all been used in practical circuits.


title: Flip-flop (electronics)

text: Clocked devices are specially designed for synchronous systems; such devices ignore their inputs except at the transition of a dedicated clock signal (known as clocking, pulsing, or strobing). Clocking causes the flip-flop either to change or to retain its output signal based upon the values of the input signals at the transition. Some flip-flops change output on the rising edge of the clock, others on the falling edge.


title: Flip-flop (electronics)

text: Since the elementary amplifying stages are inverting, two stages can be connected in succession (as a cascade) to form the needed non-inverting amplifier. In this configuration, each amplifier may be considered as an active inverting feedback network for the other inverting amplifier. Thus the two stages are connected in a non-inverting loop although the circuit diagram is usually drawn as a symmetric cross-coupled pair (both the are initially introduced in the Eccles–Jordan patent).


title: Flip-flop (electronics)

text: Flip-flops can be divided into common types: the SR ("set-reset"), D ("data" or "delay"), T ("toggle"), and JK. The behavior of a particular type can be described by what is termed the characteristic equation, which derives the "next" (i.e., after the next clock pulse) output, in terms of the input signal(s) and/or the current output, formula_1.


title: Flip-flop (electronics)

text: When using static gates as building blocks, the most fundamental latch is the simple "SR latch", where S and R stand for "set" and "reset". It can be constructed from a pair of cross-coupled NOR or NAND logic gates. The stored bit is present on the output marked Q.


title: Flip-flop (electronics)

text: While the R and S inputs are both low, feedback maintains the Q and outputs in a constant state, with the complement of Q. If S ("Set") is pulsed high while R ("Reset") is held low, then the Q output is forced high, and stays high when S returns to low; similarly, if R is pulsed high while S is held low, then the Q output is forced low, and stays low when R returns to low.


title: Flip-flop (electronics)

text: The R = S = 1 combination is called a restricted combination or a forbidden state because, as both NOR gates then output zeros, it breaks the logical equation Q = not . The combination is also inappropriate in circuits where "both" inputs may go low "simultaneously" (i.e. a transition from "restricted" to "keep"). The output would lock at either 1 or 0 depending on the propagation time relations between the gates (a race condition).


title: Flip-flop (electronics)

text: To overcome the restricted combination, one can add gates to the inputs that would convert codice_1 to one of the non-restricted combinations. That can be:


title: Flip-flop (electronics)

text: Alternatively, the restricted combination can be made to "toggle" the output. The result is the JK latch.


title: Flip-flop (electronics)

text: The circuit shown below is a basic NAND latch. The inputs are generally designated S and R for Set and Reset respectively. Because the NAND inputs must normally be logic 1 to avoid affecting the latching action, the inputs are considered to be inverted in this circuit (or active low).


title: Flip-flop (electronics)

text: The circuit uses feedback to "remember" and retain its logical state even after the controlling input signals have changed. When the S and R inputs are both high, feedback maintains the Q outputs to the previous state.


title: Flip-flop (electronics)

text: From a teaching point of view, SR latches drawn as a pair of cross-coupled components (transistors, gates, tubes, etc.) are often hard to understand for beginners. A didactically easier to understand way is to draw the latch as a single feedback loop instead of the cross-coupling. The following is an SR latch built with an AND gate with one inverted input and an OR gate. Note that the inverter is not needed for the latch functionality, but rather to make both inputs High-active.


title: Flip-flop (electronics)

text: Note that the SR AND-OR latch has the benefit that S = 1, R = 1 is well defined. In above version of the SR AND-OR latch it gives priority to the R signal over the S signal. If priority of S over R is needed, this can be achieved by connecting output Q to the output of the OR gate instead of the output of the AND gate.


title: Flip-flop (electronics)

text: The SR AND-OR latch is easier to understand, because both gates can be explained in isolation. When neither S or R is set, then both the OR gate and the AND gate are in "hold mode", i.e., their output is the input from the feedback loop. When input S = 1, then the output of the OR gate becomes 1, regardless of the other input from the feedback loop ("set mode"). When input R = 1 then the output of the AND gate becomes 0, regardless of the other input from the feedback loop ("reset mode"). And since the output Q is directly connected to the output of the AND gate, R has priority over S. Latches drawn as cross-coupled gates may look less intuitive, as the behaviour of one gate appears to be intertwined with the other gate.


title: Flip-flop (electronics)

text: Note that the SR AND-OR latch can be transformed into the SR NOR latch using logic transformations: inverting the output of the OR gate and also the 2nd input of the AND gate and connecting the inverted Q output between these two added inverters; with the AND gate with both inputs inverted being equivalent to a NOR gate according to De Morgan's laws.


title: Flip-flop (electronics)

text: The JK latch is much less frequently used than the JK flip-flop. The JK latch follows the following state table:


title: Flip-flop (electronics)

text: Hence, the JK latch is an SR latch that is made to "toggle" its output (oscillate between 0 and 1) when passed the input combination of 11. Unlike the JK flip-flop, the 11 input combination for the JK latch is not very useful because there is no clock that directs toggling.


title: Flip-flop (electronics)

text: Latches are designed to be "transparent." That is, input signal changes cause immediate changes in output. Additional logic can be added to a simple transparent latch to make it "non-transparent" or "opaque" when another input (an "enable" input) is not asserted. When several "transparent" latches follow each other, using the same enable signal, signals can propagate through all of them at once. However, by following a "transparent-high" latch with a "transparent-low" (or "opaque-high") latch, a master–slave flip-flop is implemented.


title: Flip-flop (electronics)

text: A "synchronous SR latch" (sometimes "clocked SR flip-flop") can be made by adding a second level of NAND gates to the inverted SR latch (or a second level of AND gates to the direct SR latch). The extra NAND gates further invert the inputs so latch becomes a gated SR latch (and a SR latch would transform into a gated latch with inverted enable).


title: Flip-flop (electronics)

text: With E high ("enable" true), the signals can pass through the input gates to the encapsulated latch; all signal combinations except for (0, 0) = "hold" then immediately reproduce on the (Q, ) output, i.e. the latch is "transparent".


title: Flip-flop (electronics)

text: With E low ("enable" false) the latch is "closed (opaque)" and remains in the state it was left the last time E was high.


title: Flip-flop (electronics)

text: The "enable" input is sometimes a clock signal, but more often a read or write strobe. When the "enable" input is a clock signal, the latch is said to be level-sensitive (to the level of the clock signal), as opposed to edge-sensitive like flip-flops below.


title: Flip-flop (electronics)

text: This latch exploits the fact that, in the two active input combinations (01 and 10) of a gated SR latch, R is the complement of S. The input NAND stage converts the two D input states (0 and 1) to these two input combinations for the next latch by inverting the data input signal. The low state of the "enable" signal produces the inactive "11" combination. Thus a gated D-latch may be considered as a "one-input synchronous SR latch". This configuration prevents application of the restricted input combination. It is also known as "transparent latch", "data latch", or simply "gated latch". It has a "data" input and an "enable" signal (sometimes named "clock", or "control"). The word "transparent" comes from the fact that, when the enable input is on, the signal propagates directly through the circuit, from the input D to the output Q. Gated D-latches are also level-sensitive with respect to the level of the clock or enable signal.


title: Flip-flop (electronics)

text: Transparent latches are typically used as I/O ports or in asynchronous systems, or in synchronous two-phase systems (synchronous systems that use a two-phase clock), where two latches operating on different clock phases prevent data transparency as in a master–slave flip-flop.


title: Flip-flop (electronics)

text: Latches are available as integrated circuits, usually with multiple latches per chip. For example, 74HC75 is a quadruple transparent latch in the 7400 series.


title: Flip-flop (electronics)

text: The truth table below shows that when the "e"nable/"c"lock input is 0, the D input has no effect on the output. When E/C is high, the output equals D.


title: Flip-flop (electronics)

text: The classic gated latch designs have some undesirable characteristics. They require double-rail logic or an inverter. The input-to-output propagation may take up to three gate delays. The input-to-output propagation is not constant – some outputs take two gate delays while others take three.


title: Flip-flop (electronics)

text: Designers looked for alternatives. A successful alternative is the Earle latch. It requires only a single data input, and its output takes a constant two gate delays. In addition, the two gate levels of the Earle latch can, in some cases, be merged with the last two gate levels of the circuits driving the latch because many common computational circuits have an OR layer followed by an AND layer as their last two levels. Merging the latch function can implement the latch with no additional gate delays. The merge is commonly exploited in the design of pipelined computers, and, in fact, was originally developed by John G. Earle to be used in the IBM System/360 Model 91 for that purpose.


title: Flip-flop (electronics)

text: The Earle latch is hazard free. If the middle NAND gate is omitted, then one gets the polarity hold latch, which is commonly used because it demands less logic. However, it is susceptible to logic hazard. Intentionally skewing the clock signal can avoid the hazard.


title: Flip-flop (electronics)

text: The D flip-flop captures the value of the D-input at a definite portion of the clock cycle (such as the rising edge of the clock). That captured value becomes the Q output. At other times, the output Q does not change. The D flip-flop can be viewed as a memory cell, a zero-order hold, or a delay line.


title: Flip-flop (electronics)

text: Most D-type flip-flops in ICs have the capability to be forced to the set or reset state (which ignores the D and clock inputs), much like an SR flip-flop. Usually, the illegal S = R = 1 condition is resolved in D-type flip-flops. Setting S = R = 0 makes the flip-flop behave as described above. Here is the truth table for the other possible S and R configurations:


title: Flip-flop (electronics)

text: These flip-flops are very useful, as they form the basis for shift registers, which are an essential part of many electronic devices. The advantage of the D flip-flop over the D-type "transparent latch" is that the signal on the D input pin is captured the moment the flip-flop is clocked, and subsequent changes on the D input will be ignored until the next clock event. An exception is that some flip-flops have a "reset" signal input, which will reset Q (to zero), and may be either asynchronous or synchronous with the clock.


title: Flip-flop (electronics)

text: The above circuit shifts the contents of the register to the right, one bit position on each active transition of the clock. The input X is shifted into the leftmost bit position.


title: Flip-flop (electronics)

text: This circuit consists of two stages implemented by NAND latches. The input stage (the two latches on the left) processes the clock and data signals to ensure correct input signals for the output stage (the single latch on the right). If the clock is low, both the output signals of the input stage are high regardless of the data input; the output latch is unaffected and it stores the previous state. When the clock signal changes from low to high, only one of the output voltages (depending on the data signal) goes low and sets/resets the output latch: if D = 0, the lower output becomes low; if D = 1, the upper output becomes low. If the clock signal continues staying high, the outputs keep their states regardless of the data input and force the output latch to stay in the corresponding state as the input logical zero (of the output stage) remains active while the clock is high. Hence the role of the output latch is to store the data only while the clock is low.


title: Flip-flop (electronics)

text: The circuit is closely related to the gated D latch as both the circuits convert the two D input states (0 and 1) to two input combinations (01 and 10) for the output latch by inverting the data input signal (both the circuits split the single D signal in two complementary and signals). The difference is that in the gated D latch simple NAND logical gates are used while in the positive-edge-triggered D flip-flop NAND latches are used for this purpose. The role of these latches is to "lock" the active output producing low voltage (a logical zero); thus the positive-edge-triggered D flip-flop can also be thought of as a gated D latch with latched input gates.


title: Flip-flop (electronics)

text: A master–slave D flip-flop is created by connecting two gated D latches in series, and inverting the "enable" input to one of them. It is called master–slave because the master latch controls the slave latch's output value Q and forces the slave latch to hold its value whenever the slave latch is enabled, as the slave latch always copies its new value from the master latch and changes its value only in response to a change in the value of the master latch and clock signal.


title: Flip-flop (electronics)

text: For a positive-edge triggered master–slave D flip-flop, when the clock signal is low (logical 0) the "enable" seen by the first or "master" D latch (the inverted clock signal) is high (logical 1). This allows the "master" latch to store the input value when the clock signal transitions from low to high. As the clock signal goes high (0 to 1) the inverted "enable" of the first latch goes low (1 to 0) and the value seen at the input to the master latch is "locked". Nearly simultaneously, the twice inverted "enable" of the second or "slave" D latch transitions from low to high (0 to 1) with the clock signal. This allows the signal captured at the rising edge of the clock by the now "locked" master latch to pass through the "slave" latch. When the clock signal returns to low (1 to 0), the output of the "slave" latch is "locked", and the value seen at the last rising edge of the clock is held while the "master" latch begins to accept new values in preparation for the next rising clock edge.


title: Flip-flop (electronics)

text: Removing the leftmost inverter in the circuit creates a D-type flip-flop that strobes on the "falling edge" of a clock signal. This has a truth table like this:


title: Flip-flop (electronics)

text: Flip-Flops that read in a new value on the rising and the falling edge of the clock are called dual-edge-triggered flip-flops. Such a flip-flop may be built using two single-edge-triggered D-type flip-flops and a multiplexer as shown in the image.


title: Flip-flop (electronics)

text: An efficient functional alternative to a D flip-flop can be made with dynamic circuits (where information is stored in a capacitance) as long as it is clocked often enough; while not a true flip-flop, it is still called a flip-flop for its functional role. While the master–slave D element is triggered on the edge of a clock, its components are each triggered by clock levels. The "edge-triggered D flip-flop", as it is called even though it is not a true flip-flop, does not have the master–slave properties.


title: Flip-flop (electronics)

text: Edge-triggered D flip-flops are often implemented in integrated high-speed operations using dynamic logic. This means that the digital output is stored on parasitic device capacitance while the device is not transitioning. This design of dynamic flip flops also enables simple resetting since the reset operation can be performed by simply discharging one or more internal nodes. A common dynamic flip-flop variety is the true single-phase clock (TSPC) type which performs the flip-flop operation with little power and at high speeds. However, dynamic flip-flops will typically not work at static or low clock speeds: given enough time, leakage paths may discharge the parasitic capacitance enough to cause the flip-flop to enter invalid states.


title: Flip-flop (electronics)

text: If the T input is high, the T flip-flop changes state ("toggles") whenever the clock input is strobed. If the T input is low, the flip-flop holds the previous value. This behavior is described by the characteristic equation:


title: Flip-flop (electronics)

text: When T is held high, the toggle flip-flop divides the clock frequency by two; that is, if clock frequency is 4 MHz, the output frequency obtained from the flip-flop will be 2 MHz. This "divide by" feature has application in various types of digital counters. A T flip-flop can also be built using a JK flip-flop (J & K pins are connected together and act as T) or a D flip-flop (T input XOR Q drives the D input).


title: Flip-flop (electronics)

text: The JK flip-flop augments the behavior of the SR flip-flop (J: Set, K: Reset) by interpreting the J = K = 1 condition as a "flip" or toggle command. Specifically, the combination J = 1, K = 0 is a command to set the flip-flop; the combination J = 0, K = 1 is a command to reset the flip-flop; and the combination J = K = 1 is a command to toggle the flip-flop, i.e., change its output to the logical complement of its current value. Setting J = K = 0 maintains the current state. To synthesize a D flip-flop, simply set K equal to the complement of J (input J will act as input D). Similarly, to synthesize a T flip-flop, set K equal to J. The JK flip-flop is therefore a universal flip-flop, because it can be configured to work as an SR flip-flop, a D flip-flop, or a T flip-flop.


title: Flip-flop (electronics)

text: The input must be held steady in a period around the rising edge of the clock known as the aperture. Imagine taking a picture of a frog on a lily-pad. Suppose the frog then jumps into the water. If you take a picture of the frog as it jumps into the water, you will get a blurry picture of the frog jumping into the water—it's not clear which state the frog was in. But if you take a picture while the frog sits steadily on the pad (or is steadily in the water), you will get a clear picture. In the same way, the input to a flip-flop must be held steady during the aperture of the flip-flop.