title: Rich Paul

text: In August 2019, the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) changed its regulations for agents, requiring them to hold a bachelor's degree. Called the "Rich Paul Rule" by the media, it was widely seen as a swipe at Paul for having not graduated from college and for working with a high school prospect Darius Bazley who decided to work as an intern for New Balance rather than attend Syracuse. Paul argued in an op-ed in "The Athletic" that the rule would prevent people from less prestigious backgrounds, people of color, and those without the funds to attend college from working as agents in the future so NCAA executives could have more control. The NCAA later backed down from the regulation change.


title: Rich Paul

text: In 2020, Paul launched "Klutch Conversations" during the NBA All-Star Weekend with SocialWorks and General Mills to encourage financial literacy among young people.


title: Rich Paul

text: In August 2021, Rich Paul was reportedly being sued by Nerlens Noel on the grounds of a breach of fiduciary duty, breach of contract, and negligence for his role in turning down a $70 million contract offer from the Dallas Mavericks in the offseason preceding the 2017–18 season.


title: Rich Paul

text: Paul was included in the 2020 "Ebony Power 100 List". In 2020, Paul was listed at number nine in "Forbes" list of the "World's Most Powerful Sports Agents".


title: Ryan Hurst

text: Ryan Douglas Hurst (born June 19, 1976) is an American actor, known for his roles as Gerry Bertier in "Remember the Titans" (2000), Sgt. Ernie Savage in "We Were Soldiers" (2002), Tom Clarke in "Taken" (2002), Opie Winston in the FX drama series "Sons of Anarchy" (2008–2012), Chick Hogan in "Bates Motel" (2015–2017), Li'l "Foster" Farrell in "Outsiders" (2016–2017), Beta in "The Walking Dead" (2019–2020), and Hector Bonner in "Bosch" (2019–2021). He portrayed the Norse god Thor in the 2022 video game "God of War Ragnarök".


title: Ryan Hurst

text: Hurst was born in Santa Monica, California, the son of Candace Kaniecki, an acting coach, who currently runs the Candace Kaniecki (Herman) Acting School, and Rick Hurst, an actor best known for playing "Deputy Cletus Hogg" in the "Dukes of Hazard". He attended Santa Monica High School.


title: Ryan Hurst

text: Growing up in a Hollywood family, Hurst made a very early start in show business, with a recurring role in the NBC teen situation comedy series "". In the 1998 epic war film "Saving Private Ryan", Hurst portrayed Michaelson, a paratrooper who, despite a temporary hearing loss, is able to communicate to Captain John H. Miller (Tom Hanks) the approximate location of Private Ryan. In 2000, Hurst followed this with a role in "Rules of Engagement" and the central supporting role of Gerry Bertier in "Remember the Titans". Additionally, he appeared in the war film "We Were Soldiers" (2002) as Sgt. Ernie Savage, played the football player Lump Hudson in the black comedy thriller film "The Ladykillers" (2004), and starred in the TNT police drama series "Wanted" (2005). From 2005 to 2007, Hurst gained recognition for portraying the recurring role of Allison DuBois' half-brother, Michael Benoit, in NBC's supernatural procedural drama series "Medium".


title: Ryan Hurst

text: Hurst's big break came when he was cast as Opie Winston in the FX crime drama series "Sons of Anarchy". Originally a recurring cast member in the first season, he was promoted to main cast member for the following season and went on to become a fan favorite. His character, newly released from a five-year prison stint and "living right", but not making ends meet, goes back to SAMCRO to provide for his family, despite his wife's objections and his knowing the risks. Hurst's portrayal of Opie earned him the Satellite Award for Best Supporting Actor – Series, Miniseries or Television Film in 2011. Also in 2011, Hurst voiced Jedidiah in the animated box office hit "Rango". He also stars in the WGN America series "Outsiders". In August 2018, it was announced that he would star as Beta on AMC's "The Walking Dead". His debut episode, "Guardians", premiered on March 3, 2019.


title: Ryan Hurst

text: Hurst and Molly Cookson met in 1994 and married in May 2005. Together, they founded the production company Fast Shoes. In April 2013, Hurst purchased a 3,400 square-foot home in Woodland Hills, California for $1.71 million.


title: Necrotizing fasciitis

text: Necrotizing fasciitis (NF), also known as flesh-eating disease, is a bacterial infection that results in the death of parts of the body's soft tissue. It is a severe disease of sudden onset that spreads rapidly. Symptoms usually include red or purple skin in the affected area, severe pain, fever, and vomiting. The most commonly affected areas are the limbs and perineum.


title: Necrotizing fasciitis

text: Typically, the infection enters the body through a break in the skin such as a cut or burn. Risk factors include poor immune function such as from diabetes or cancer, obesity, alcoholism, intravenous drug use, and peripheral artery disease. It does not typically spread between people. The disease is classified into four types, depending on the infecting organism. Between 55 and 80% of cases involve more than one type of bacteria. Methicillin-resistant "Staphylococcus aureus" (MRSA) is involved in up to a third of cases. Medical imaging is often helpful to confirm the diagnosis.


title: Necrotizing fasciitis

text: Necrotizing fasciitis may be prevented with proper wound care and handwashing. It is usually treated with surgery to remove the infected tissue, and intravenous antibiotics. Often, a combination of antibiotics is used, such as penicillin G, clindamycin, IV vancomycin, and gentamicin. Delays in surgery are associated with a much higher risk of death. Despite high-quality treatment, the risk of death is between 25 and 35%.


title: Necrotizing fasciitis

text: Necrotizing fasciitis occurs in about 0.4 people per 100,000 per year in the U.S., and about 1 per 100,000 in Western Europe. Both sexes are affected equally. It becomes more common among older people and is rare in children. It has been described at least since the time of Hippocrates. The term "necrotizing fasciitis" first came into use in 1952.


title: Necrotizing fasciitis

text: Symptoms may include fever, swelling, and complaints of excessive pain. The initial skin changes are similar to cellulitis or abscess, thus making the diagnosis at early stages difficult. Hardening of the skin and soft tissue and swelling beyond the area of skin changes are commonly present in those with early necrotizing changes. The redness and swelling usually blend into surrounding normal tissues. The overlying skin may appear shiny and tense. Other signs which are more suggestive of necrotizing changes (but present in later stages in 7 to 44% of the cases) are: formation of bullae, bleeding into the skin which is present before skin necrosis (skin turning from red to purple and black due to thrombosis of blood vessels), presence of gas in tissues, and reduced or absent sensation over the skin (due to the necrosis of the underlying nerves). Rapid progression to shock despite antibiotic therapy is another indication of necrotizing fasciitis. Necrotizing changes affecting the groin are known as Fournier gangrene.


title: Necrotizing fasciitis

text: However, those who are immunocompromised (have cancer, use corticosteroid, on radiotherapy, chemotherapy, HIV/AIDS, or prior organ or bone marrow transplantation) may not show typical symptoms. Immunocompromised persons also have twice the risk of death from necrotizing infections, so higher suspicion should be maintained in this group.


title: Necrotizing fasciitis

text: More than 70% of cases are recorded in people with at least one of these clinical situations: immunosuppression, diabetes, alcoholism/drug abuse/smoking, malignancies, and chronic systemic diseases. For reasons that are unclear, it occasionally occurs in people with an apparently normal general condition.


title: Necrotizing fasciitis

text: Necrotizing fasciitis can occur at any part of the body, but it is more commonly seen at the extremities, perineum, and genitals. Only a few of such cases arise from the chest and abdomen. Trauma is the usual cause of the infection, such as from intravenous drug injection, insulin injection, animal and insect bites, catheter insertion over the skin, or a fistula connecting skin to the internal body organs. Skin infections such as abscess and ulcers can also complicate necrotizing fasciitis. Spreading of infection through blood has been suggested for those with streptococcal pharyngitis. For infection of the perineum and genitals (Fournier gangrene), trauma, surgery, urinary tract infection, stones, and Bartholin gland abscess are the usual causes.


title: Necrotizing fasciitis

text: The risk of developing necrotizing fasciitis from a wound can be reduced by good wound care and handwashing.


title: Necrotizing fasciitis

text: Types of soft-tissue necrotizing infection can be divided into four classes according to the types of bacteria infecting the soft tissue. This classification system was first described by Giuliano and his colleagues in 1977.


title: Necrotizing fasciitis

text: Type I infection: This is the most common type of infection, and accounts for 70 to 80% of cases. It is caused by a mixture of bacterial types, usually in abdominal or groin areas. This type of infection is usually caused by various species of Gram-positive cocci, ("Staphylococcus aureus", "Streptococcus pyogenes", and enterococci), Gram-negative rods, ("Escherichia coli", "Pseudomonas aeruginosa"), and anaerobes, ("Bacteroides" and "Clostridium" species). Populations of those affected are typically older with medical comorbidities such as diabetes mellitus, obesity, and immunodeficiency. Usually, trauma is not the cause of such infections. Previous history of abscess infection or gut perforation with bacterial translocation may be elicited. Clostridial infection accounts for 10% of type I infection. "Clostridium" species involved are "Clostridium perfringens", "Clostridium septicum", and "Clostridium sordellii", which typically cause gas gangrene (also known as myonecrosis). "Clostridium perfringens" produces two deadly toxins: alpha-toxin and theta-toxin. Alpha-toxin causes excessive platelet aggregation which blocks blood vessels and deprives the vital organs of oxygen supply. This creates an acidic, oxygen-deficient environment for the proliferation of bacteria. When alpha-toxin is absorbed by soft tissues, it can inhibit the migration of white blood cells from blood vessels into the soft tissue, thus impairing phagocyte function. The two toxins together can cause destruction of red blood cells in blood vessels, damage to the integrity of the blood vessels, and suppression of heart function.


title: Necrotizing fasciitis

text: "Clostridium sordellii" can also produce two major toxins: all known virulent strains produce the essential virulence factor lethal toxin (TcsL), and a number also produce haemorrhagic toxin (TcsH). TcsL and TcsH are both members of the large clostridial cytotoxin (LCC) family. The key "Clostridium septicum" virulence factor is a pore-forming toxin called alpha-toxin, though it is unrelated to the "Clostridium perfringens" alpha-toxin. Myonecrotic infections caused by these clostridial species commonly occur in injecting heroin users. Those with clostridial infections typically have severe pain at the wound site, where the wound typically drains foul-smelling blood mixed with serum (serosanguinous discharge). Shock can progress rapidly after initial injury or infection, and once the state of shock is established, the chance of dying exceeds 50%. Another bacterium associated with similar rapid disease progression is group A streptococcal infection (mostly "Streptococcus pyogenes"). Meanwhile, other bacterial infections require two or more days to become symptomatic.


title: Necrotizing fasciitis

text: Type II infection: This infection accounts for 20 to 30% of cases, mainly involving the extremities. This mainly involves "Streptococcus pyogenes" bacteria, alone or in combination with staphylococcal infections. Both types of bacteria can progress rapidly and manifest as toxic shock syndrome. "Streptococcus" species produce M protein, which acts as a superantigen, stimulating a massive systemic immune response which is not effective against the bacterial antigen, precipitating shock. Type II infection more commonly affects young, healthy adults with a history of injury.


title: Necrotizing fasciitis

text: Type III infection: "Vibrio vulnificus", a bacterium found in saltwater, is a rare cause of this infection, which occurs through a break in the skin. Disease progression is similar to type II but sometimes with little visible skin changes.


title: Necrotizing fasciitis

text: Early diagnosis is difficult, as the disease often looks early on like a simple superficial skin infection. While a number of laboratory and imaging modalities can raise the suspicion for necrotizing fasciitis, none can rule it out. The gold standard for diagnosis is a surgical exploration in a setting of high suspicion. When in doubt, a small incision can be made into the affected tissue, and if a finger easily separates the tissue along the fascial plane, the diagnosis is confirmed and an extensive debridement should be performed.


title: Necrotizing fasciitis

text: Imaging has a limited role in the diagnosis of necrotizing fasciitis. The time delay in performing imaging is a major concern. Plain radiography may show subcutaneous emphysema (gas in the subcutaneous tissue), which is strongly suggestive of necrotizing changes, but it is not sensitive enough to detect all the cases, because necrotizing skin infections caused by bacteria other than clostridial infections usually do not show subcutaneous emphysema. If the diagnosis is still in doubt, computed tomography (CT) scans and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) are more sensitive modalities than plain radiography. However, both the CT scan and MRI are not sensitive enough to rule out necrotizing changes completely. CT scan may show fascial thickening, edema, subcutaneous gas, and abscess formation. In MRI, when fluid collection with deep fascia involvement occurs, thickening or enhancement with contrast injection, necrotizing fasciitis should be strongly suspected. Meanwhile, ultrasonography can show superficial abscess formation, but is not sensitive enough to diagnose necrotizing fasciitis. CT scan is able to detect about 80% of cases, while MRI may pick up slightly more.


title: Necrotizing fasciitis

text: A white blood cell count greater than 15,000 cells/mm and serum sodium level less than 135 mmol/L have a sensitivity of 90% in detecting the necrotizing soft tissue infection. It also has a 99% chance of ruling out necrotizing changes if the values have shown otherwise. Various scoring systems are being developed to determine the likelihood of getting necrotizing fasciitis, but a scoring system developed by Wong and colleagues in 2004 is the most commonly used. It is the laboratory risk indicator for necrotizing fasciitis (LRINEC) score, which can be used to stratify by risk those people having signs of severe cellulitis or abscess to determine the likelihood of necrotizing fasciitis being present. It uses six laboratory values: C-reactive protein, total white blood cell count, hemoglobin, sodium, creatinine, and blood glucose. A score of 6 or more indicates that necrotizing fasciitis should be seriously considered. The scoring criteria are:


title: Necrotizing fasciitis

text: However, the scoring system has not been validated. The values would be falsely positive if any other inflammatory conditions are present. Therefore, the values derived from this scoring system should be interpreted with caution. About 10% of patients with necrotizing fasciitis in the original study still had a LRINEC score <6. A validation study showed that patients with a LRINEC score ≥6 have a higher rate of both death and amputation.


title: Necrotizing fasciitis

text: Surgical debridement (cutting away affected tissue) is the mainstay of treatment for necrotizing fasciitis. Early medical treatment is often presumptive; thus, antibiotics should be started as soon as this condition is suspected. Tissue cultures (rather than wound swabs) are taken to determine appropriate antibiotic coverage, and antibiotics may be changed in light of results. Besides blood pressure control and hydration, support should be initiated for those with unstable vital signs and low urine output.


title: Necrotizing fasciitis

text: Aggressive wound debridement should be performed early, usually as soon as the diagnosis of necrotizing soft tissue infection (NSTI) is made. Surgical incisions often extend beyond the areas of induration (the hardened tissue) to remove the damaged blood vessels that are responsible for the induration. However, cellulitic soft tissues are sometimes spared from debridement for later skin coverage of the wound. More than one operation may be used to remove additional necrotic tissue. In some cases when an extremity is affected by a NSTI, amputation may be the surgical treatment of choice. After the wound debridement, adequate dressings should be applied to prevent exposure of bones, tendons, and cartilage so that such structures do not dry out and to promote wound healing.


title: Necrotizing fasciitis

text: For necrotizing infection of the perineal area (Fournier's gangrene), wound debridement and wound care in this area can be difficult because of the excretory products that often render this area dirty and affect the wound-healing process. Therefore, regular dressing changes with a fecal management system can help to keep the wound at the perineal area clean. Sometimes, colostomy may be necessary to divert the excretory products to keep the wound at the perineal area clean.


title: Necrotizing fasciitis

text: Empiric antibiotics are usually initiated as soon as the diagnosis of NSTI has been made, and then later changed to culture-guided antibiotic therapy. In the case of NSTIs, empiric antibiotics are broad-spectrum, covering gram-positive (including MRSA), gram-negative, and anaerobic bacteria.


title: Necrotizing fasciitis

text: While studies have compared moxifloxacin (a fluoroquinolone) and amoxicillin-clavulanate (a penicillin) and evaluated appropriate duration of treatment (varying from 7 to 21 days), no definitive conclusions on the efficacy of treatment, ideal duration of treatment, or the adverse effects could be made due to poor-quality evidence.


title: Necrotizing fasciitis

text: Necrotizing fasciitis affects about 0.4 in every 100,000 people per year in the United States. About 1,000 cases of necrotizing fasciitis occur per year in the United States, but the rates have been increasing. This could be due to increasing awareness of this condition, leading to increased reporting, or bacterial virulence or increasing bacterial resistance against antibiotics. In some areas of the world, it is as common as one in every 100,000 people.


title: Necrotizing fasciitis

text: Higher rates of necrotizing fasciitis are seen in those with obesity or diabetes, and those who are immunocompromised or alcoholic, or have peripheral artery disease. However, the disease may also occur in young, healthy adults with no underlying illnesses. NSAIDs may increase the rates of necrotizing infections due to the modification of immune response in the body, because NSAIDs inhibit the cycloxygenase-1 and cycloxygenase-2 enzymes which are important in producing thromboxane and prostaglandin E2. Prostaglandin has been responsible for fever, inflammation, and pain. The inhibition of prostaglandin E2 production reduces inflammatory response and leukocyte adhesion, and thus reduces immune response against bacterial invasion, giving rise to soft-tissue infection.


title: Necrotizing fasciitis

text: In the fifth century BCE, Hippocrates described necrotizing soft tissue infection as a disease where those affected would have "erysipelas all over the body while the cause was only a trivial accident. Bones, flesh, and sinew (cord, tendon, or nerve) would fall off from the body and there were many deaths". The first English description for necrotizing soft-tissue infection was by British surgeon Leonard Gillespie and British physicians Gilbert Blaine and Thomas Trotter in the 18th century. At that time, necrotizing soft-tissue infections were known variously as "phagedaenic ulcer" (ulceration that spreads and destroys surrounding tissue), "gangrenous phagedena", "gangrenous ulcer", "malignant ulcer", "putrid ulcer", "fulminating gangrene", "necrotizing erysipelas", "gangrenous erysipelas", "crepitant cellulitis", "gangrenous cellulitis", "Meleney cellulitis", "necrotizing synergistic cellulitis", "hemolytic streptococcal gangrene", "progressive bacterial synergistic gangrene", "necrotizing abscess", "galloping gangrene", or "hospital gangrene". Later, "hospital gangrene" became more commonly used. In 1871 Confederate States Army surgeon Joseph Jones reported 2,642 cases of hospital gangrene with a mortality rate of 46%. In 1883, Dr Jean-Alfred Fournier described the necrotizing infection of the perineum and scrotum, now called Fournier gangrene. The term "necrotizing fasciitis" was first coined by Wilson in 1952. Its definition has become broader, to include not only infection of fascia, but also other soft-tissue infection. Despite being disfavored by the medical community, the term "galloping gangrene" is frequently used in sensationalistic news media to refer to outbreaks of necrotizing fasciitis.


title: Kelvin

text: The kelvin, symbol K, is the primary unit of temperature in the International System of Units (SI), used alongside its prefixed forms and the degree Celsius. It is named after the Belfast-born and University of Glasgow-based engineer and physicist William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin (1824–1907). The Kelvin scale is an absolute thermodynamic temperature scale, meaning it uses absolute zero as its null (zero) point.


title: Kelvin

text: Historically, the Kelvin scale was developed by shifting the starting point of the much-older Celsius scale down from the melting point of water to absolute zero, and its increments still closely approximate the historic definition of a degree Celsius, but since 2019 the scale has been defined by fixing the Boltzmann constant to be exactly . Hence, one kelvin is equal to a change in the thermodynamic temperature that results in a change of thermal energy by . The temperature in degree Celsius is now defined as the temperature in kelvins minus 273.15, meaning that a "change" or "difference" in temperature has the same value when expressed in degrees Celsius as in kelvins, and that 0 °C is equal to 273.15 K.


title: Kelvin

text: The kelvin is the primary unit of temperature for engineering and the physical sciences, while in most countries Celsius remains the dominant scale outside of these fields. In the United States, outside of the physical sciences the Fahrenheit scale predominates, with the kelvin or Rankine scale employed for absolute temperature. Those are defined using the kelvin.


title: Kelvin

text: The kelvin is never referred to nor written as a "degree". The word "kelvin" is not capitalised, but is pluralised as appropriate. The unit symbol K is a capital letter. For example, "It is 50 degrees Fahrenheit outside" vs "It is 10 degrees Celsius outside" vs "It is 283 kelvins outside".


title: Kelvin

text: During the 18th century, multiple temperature scales were developed, notably Fahrenheit and centigrade (later Celsius). These scales predated much of the modern science of thermodynamics, including atomic theory and the kinetic theory of gases which underpin the concept of absolute zero. Instead, they chose defining points within the range of human experience that could be reproduced easily and with reasonable accuracy, but lacked any deep significance in thermal physics. In the case of the Celsius scale (and the long since defunct Newton scale and Réaumur scale) the melting point of water served as such a starting point, with Celsius being defined, from the 1740s up until the 1940s, by calibrating a thermometer such that:


title: Kelvin

text: This definition assumes pure water at a specific pressure chosen to approximate the natural air pressure at sea level. Thus an increment of 1 °C equals of the temperature difference between the melting and boiling points. This temperature interval would go on to become the template for the kelvin.


title: Kelvin

text: In 1848, William Thomson, who was later ennobled as Lord Kelvin, published a paper "On an Absolute Thermometric Scale". Using the soon-to-be-defunct caloric theory, he proposed an "absolute" scale based on the following parameters:


title: Kelvin

text: "The characteristic property of the scale which I now propose is, that all degrees have the same value; that is, that a unit of heat descending from a body at the temperature ° of this scale, to a body at the temperature ( − 1)°, would give out the same mechanical effect, whatever be the number . This may justly be termed an absolute scale, since its characteristic is quite independent of the physical properties of any specific substance."


title: Kelvin

text: As Carnot's theorem is understood in modern thermodynamics to simply describe the maximum efficiency with which thermal energy can be converted to mechanical energy and the predicted maximum efficiency is a function of the "ratio" between the absolute temperatures of the heat source and heat sink:


title: Kelvin

text: It follows that increments of equal numbers of degrees on this scale must always represent equal "proportional" increases in absolute temperature. The numerical value of an absolute temperature, , on the 1848 scale is related to the absolute temperature of the melting point of water, , and the absolute temperature of the boiling point of water, , by:


title: Kelvin

text: On this scale, an increase of 222 degrees always means an approximate doubling of absolute temperature regardless of the starting temperature.


title: Kelvin

text: In a footnote Thomson calculated that "infinite cold" (absolute zero, which would have a numerical value of negative infinity on this scale) was equivalent to −273 °C using the air thermometers of the time. This value of "−273" was the negative reciprocal of 0.00366—the accepted coefficient of thermal expansion of an ideal gas per degree Celsius relative to the ice point, giving a remarkable consistency to the currently accepted value.


title: Kelvin

text: Within a decade, Thomson had abandoned caloric theory and superseded the 1848 scale with a new one based on the 2 features that would characterise all future versions of the kelvin scale:


title: Kelvin

text: In 1892, Thomson was awarded the noble title 1st Baron Kelvin of Largs, or more succinctly Lord Kelvin. This name was a reference to the River Kelvin which flows through the grounds of Glasgow University.


title: Kelvin

text: In the early decades of the 20th century, the Kelvin scale was often called the "absolute Celsius" scale, indicating Celsius degrees counted from absolute zero rather than the freezing point of water, and using the same symbol for regular Celsius degrees, °C.


title: Kelvin

text: In 1873, William Thomson's older brother James coined the term "triple point" to describe the combination of temperature and pressure at which the solid, liquid, and gas phases of a substance were capable of coexisting in thermodynamic equilibrium. While any two phases could coexist along a range of temperature-pressure combinations (e.g. the boiling point of water can be affected quite dramatically by raising or lowering the pressure), the triple point condition for a given substance can occur only at a single pressure and only at a single temperature. By the 1940s, the triple point of water had been experimentally measured to be about 0.6% of standard atmospheric pressure and very close to 0.01 °C per the historical definition of Celsius then in use.


title: Kelvin

text: In 1948, the Celsius scale was recalibrated by assigning the triple point temperature of water the value of 0.01 °C exactly and allowing the melting point at standard atmospheric pressure to have an empirically determined value (and the actual melting point at ambient pressure to have a fluctuating value) close to 0 °C. This was justified on the grounds that the triple point was judged to give a more accurately reproducible reference temperature than the melting point.


title: Kelvin

text: In 1954, with absolute zero having been experimentally determined to be about −273.15 °C per the definition of °C then in use, Resolution 3 of the 10th General Conference on Weights and Measures (CGPM) introduced a new internationally standardised Kelvin scale which defined the triple point as exactly: 273.15 + 0.01 = 273.16 "degrees Kelvin".


title: Kelvin

text: In 1967/1968, Resolution 3 of the 13th CGPM renamed the unit increment of thermodynamic temperature "kelvin", symbol K, replacing "degree Kelvin", symbol °K. The 13th CGPM also held in Resolution 4 that "The kelvin, unit of thermodynamic temperature, is equal to the fraction of the thermodynamic temperature of the triple point of water."


title: Kelvin

text: After the 1983 redefinition of the metre, this left the kelvin, the second, and the kilogram as the only SI units not defined with reference to any other unit.


title: Kelvin

text: In 2005, noting that the triple point could be influenced by the isotopic ratio of the hydrogen and oxygen making up a water sample and that this was "now one of the major sources of the observed variability between different realizations of the water triple point", the International Committee for Weights and Measures (CIPM), a committee of the CGPM, affirmed that for the purposes of delineating the temperature of the triple point of water, the definition of the kelvin would refer to water having the isotopic composition specified for Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water.


title: Kelvin

text: In 2005, the CIPM began a programme to redefine the kelvin (along with the other SI units) using a more experimentally rigorous method. In particular, the committee proposed redefining the kelvin such that the Boltzmann constant takes the exact value . The committee had hoped that the program would be completed in time for its adoption by the CGPM at its 2011 meeting, but at the 2011 meeting the decision was postponed to the 2014 meeting when it would be considered as part of a larger program.


title: Kelvin

text: The redefinition was further postponed in 2014, pending more accurate measurements of the Boltzmann constant in terms of the current definition,


title: Kelvin

text: For scientific purposes, the main advantage is that this allows measurements at very low and very high temperatures to be made more accurately, as the techniques used depend on the Boltzmann constant. It also has the philosophical advantage of being independent of any particular substance. The unit J/K is equal to kg⋅m⋅s⋅K, where the kilogram, metre and second are defined in terms of the Planck constant, the speed of light, and the duration of the caesium-133 ground-state hyperfine transition respectively. Thus, this definition depends only on universal constants, and not on any physical artifacts as practiced previously. The challenge was to avoid degrading the accuracy of measurements close to the triple point. For practical purposes, the redefinition was unnoticed; water still freezes at 273.15 K (0 °C), and the triple point of water continues to be a commonly used laboratory reference temperature.


title: Kelvin

text: The difference is that, before the redefinition, the triple point of water was exact and the Boltzmann constant had a measured value of , with a relative standard uncertainty of . Afterward, the Boltzmann constant is exact and the uncertainty is transferred to the triple point of water, which is now .


title: Kelvin

text: The new definition officially came into force on 20 May 2019, the 144th anniversary of the Metre Convention.


title: Kelvin

text: The kelvin is often used as a measure of the colour temperature of light sources. Colour temperature is based upon the principle that a black body radiator emits light with a frequency distribution characteristic of its temperature. Black bodies at temperatures below about appear reddish, whereas those above about appear bluish. Colour temperature is important in the fields of image projection and photography, where a colour temperature of approximately is required to match "daylight" film emulsions. In astronomy, the stellar classification of stars and their place on the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram are based, in part, upon their surface temperature, known as effective temperature. The photosphere of the Sun, for instance, has an effective temperature of .


title: Kelvin

text: Digital cameras and photographic software often use colour temperature in K in edit and setup menus. The simple guide is that higher colour temperature produces an image with enhanced white and blue hues. The reduction in colour temperature produces an image more dominated by reddish, "warmer" colours.


title: Kelvin

text: For electronics, the kelvin is used as an indicator of how noisy a circuit is in relation to an ultimate noise floor, i.e. the noise temperature. The so-called Johnson–Nyquist noise of discrete resistors and capacitors is a type of thermal noise derived from the Boltzmann constant and can be used to determine the noise temperature of a circuit using the Friis formulas for noise.


title: Kelvin

text: The only SI derived unit with a special name derived from the kelvin is the degree Celsius. Like other SI units, the kelvin can also be modified by adding a metric prefix that multiplies it by a power of 10:


title: Kelvin

text: The symbol is encoded in Unicode at code point . However, this is a compatibility character provided for compatibility with legacy encodings. The Unicode standard recommends using instead; that is, a normal capital K. "Three letterlike symbols have been given canonical equivalence to regular letters: , , and . In all three instances, the regular letter should be used."


title: David Warner (actor)

text: David Hattersley Warner (29 July 1941 – 24 July 2022) was an English actor who worked in film, television and theatre. He attended the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art; after making his stage debut in 1962 he joined the Royal Shakespeare Company (RSC), with whom he played Henry VI in "The Wars of the Roses" cycle at the West End's Aldwych Theatre in 1964. The RSC then cast him as Prince Hamlet in Peter Hall's 1965 production of "Hamlet". He attained prominence on screen in 1966 through his lead performance in the Karel Reisz film "Morgan: A Suitable Case for Treatment", for which he was nominated for the BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role.


title: David Warner (actor)

text: Warner's lanky, often haggard appearance lent itself to a variety of villainous characters as well as more sympathetic roles across a range of media, often in science fiction or fantasy titles or period dramas, including "The Omen", "Time After Time" (as Jack the Ripper), "A Christmas Carol" (as Bob Cratchit opposite George C. Scott's Ebenezer Scrooge), "Titanic", the personification of Evil in "Time Bandits" and various characters in the "Star Trek" franchise.


title: David Warner (actor)

text: In 1981, he won an Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Miniseries or Special for his portrayal of the barbaric commander of a Roman legion in the television miniseries "Masada".


title: David Warner (actor)

text: Warner was born on 29 July 1941 in Manchester, Lancashire, the son of Ada Doreen Hattersley and Herbert Simon Warner, a nursing home proprietor. He was born out of wedlock and frequently taken to be brought up by each of his parents, eventually settling with his Russian Jewish father and his stepmother.


title: David Warner (actor)

text: Warner made his professional stage debut at the Royal Court Theatre in January 1962, playing Snout, a minor role in Shakespeare's "A Midsummer Night's Dream", directed by Tony Richardson for the English Stage Company. In March 1962, at the Belgrade Theatre, Coventry, he played Conrad in "Much Ado About Nothing", following which in June he appeared as Jim in "Afore Night Come" at the New Arts Theatre in London.


title: David Warner (actor)

text: He joined the Royal Shakespeare Company in Stratford-upon-Avon in April 1963 to play Trinculo in "The Tempest" and Cinna the Poet in "Julius Caesar", and in July was cast as Henry VI in the John Barton adaptation of "Henry VI", Parts I, II and III, which comprised the first two plays from "The Wars of the Roses" trilogy. At the West End's Aldwych Theatre in January 1964, he again played Henry VI in the complete "The Wars of the Roses" history cycle (1964). Returning to Stratford in April, he performed the title role in "Richard II", Mouldy in "Henry IV, Part 1" and Henry VI. At the Aldwych in October 1964, he was cast as Valentine Brose in the play "Eh?" by Henry Livings, a role he reprised in the 1968 film adaptation "Work Is a Four-Letter Word".


title: David Warner (actor)

text: He first played the title role in "Hamlet" for the RSC in Stratford-upon-Avon in 1965. This production transferred to the Aldwych Theatre in December of that year. In the 1966, Stratford season, his Hamlet was revived and he also played Sir Andrew Aguecheek in "Twelfth Night". Finally at the Aldwych in January 1970, he played Julian in "Tiny Alice".


title: David Warner (actor)

text: According to his 2007 programme CV, Warner's other work for the theatre included "The Great Exhibition" at Hampstead Theatre (February 1972); "I, Claudius" at the Queen's Theatre (July 1972); "A Feast of Snails" at the Lyric Theatre (February 2002); "Where There's a Will" at the Theatre Royal, Bath; "King Lear" at Chichester Festival Theatre (in 2005, see details below); and also "Major Barbara" on Broadway.


title: David Warner (actor)

text: In 1963, he made his film debut as the villainous Blifil in "Tom Jones", and in 1965, starred as Henry VI in the BBC television version of the RSC's "The Wars of the Roses" cycle of Shakespeare's history plays. Another early television role came when he starred alongside Bob Dylan in the 1963 play "Madhouse on Castle Street". A major step in his career was the leading role in "Morgan: A Suitable Case for Treatment" (1966) opposite Vanessa Redgrave, which established his reputation for playing slightly off-the-wall characters. He also appeared as Konstantin Treplev in Sidney Lumet's 1968 adaptation of Anton Chekhov's "The Sea Gull" and starred alongside Jason Robards and Stella Stevens as Reverend Joshua Duncan Sloane in Sam Peckinpah's "The Ballad of Cable Hogue".


title: David Warner (actor)

text: In horror films, he appeared in one of the stories of "From Beyond the Grave", opposite Gregory Peck in "The Omen" (1976) as the ill-fated photojournalist Keith Jennings, and the 1979 thriller "Nightwing". He also starred in cult classic "Waxwork" (1988), and featured alongside a young Viggo Mortensen in the 1990 film "Tripwire".


title: David Warner (actor)

text: He often played villains, in films such as "The Thirty Nine Steps" (1978), "Time After Time" (1979), "Time Bandits" (1981), "Tron" (1982), "Hanna's War" (1988), and television series such as "" playing Ra's al Ghul, the anti-mutant scientist Herbert Landon in "", as well as rogue agent Alpha from "", the Archmage in Disney's "Gargoyles", and the Lobe in "Freakazoid!". He was also cast against type as Henry Niles in "Straw Dogs" (1971) and as Bob Cratchit in the 1984 telefilm "A Christmas Carol" starring George C. Scott as Scrooge. In addition, he played German SS Obergruppenführer Reinhard Heydrich both in the film "", and the television miniseries "Holocaust"; as sinister millionaire Amos Hackshaw in HBO's original 1991 film "Cast a Deadly Spell".


title: David Warner (actor)

text: In 1981, Warner received an Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Miniseries or Special for "Masada" as Pomponius Falco. In 1988, he appeared in the Danny Huston film "Mr. North".


title: David Warner (actor)

text: He subsequently appeared in films such as "" (1989), "", "Avatar" (known as "Matrix Hunter" in the USA), "" (1991), "Titanic" (the third time he appeared in a film that is about or includes reference to ) and "Scream 2". In 2001, he played Captain James Sawyer in two episodes of A&E's adaptation of C.S. Forester's "Hornblower" series. He appeared in three episodes of the second season of "Twin Peaks" (1991) as "Thomas Eckhardt". He also continued to play classical roles. In "", an episode of "", he was a Cardassian interrogator. He based his portrayal on the evil "re-educator" from "1984". His less-spectacular roles included a double-role in the low-budget fantasy "Quest of the Delta Knights" (1993) which was eventually spoofed on "Mystery Science Theater 3000". He also played Admiral Tolwyn in the film version of "Wing Commander".


title: David Warner (actor)

text: Warner's sympathetic side had been evident in Sam Peckinpah's "Cross of Iron" (1977), where he portrayed Captain Kiesel. Other "nice guy" roles include the charismatic "Aldous Gajic" in "Grail", a first season (1994) episode of "Babylon 5" and "Chancellor Gorkon" in "" (1991). In an episode of "", he played Superman's deceased Kryptonian father Jor-El, who appeared to his son through holographic recordings. Warner also played "ambiguous nice guys" such as vampire bat exterminator Philip Payne in 1979's "Nightwing"; and Dr. Richard Madden in 1994's "Necronomicon: Book of the Dead". In "Seven Servants" by Daryush Shokof, he co-starred with Anthony Quinn in 1996.


title: David Warner (actor)

text: Another 'sympathetic' role was in 2013, when he played Professor Grisenko in the "Doctor Who" episode "Cold War" in which he battled a revived Ice Warrior and struck up a rapport with the Doctor's companion Clara Oswald. Warner also appeared in the second series of the Sky 1 comedy-drama "Mad Dogs" and starred in two 2014 episodes of the Horror series "Penny Dreadful" as Abraham Van Helsing.


title: David Warner (actor)

text: Warner contributed "Sonnet 25" to the 2002 compilation album "When Love Speaks", which consists of Shakespearean sonnets and play excerpts as interpreted by famous actors and musicians. He performed in many audio plays, starring in the "Doctor Who Unbound" play "Sympathy for the Devil" (2003) as an alternative version of the Doctor, and in a series of plays based on ITV's "Sapphire & Steel" as Steel, both for Big Finish Productions. He reprised his incarnation of the Doctor in a sequel, "Masters of War" (2008). In 2007, he guest starred as Isaac Newton in the "Doctor Who" audio drama "Circular Time "and as Cuthbert in four of the seven stories in the second Fourth Doctor series. He also guest starred in the BBC Radio 4 science fiction comedy "Nebulous" (2005) as Professor Nebulous' arch-enemy Dr. Joseph Klench. In all these productions, Warner worked with writer and comedian Mark Gatiss of the "League of Gentlemen", and plays a guest role in the League's 2005 feature film "The League of Gentlemen's Apocalypse". He also performed in radio plays for the American companies L.A. Theatre Works and the Hollywood Theater of the Ear. In 2005, Warner read a new adaptation of "Oliver Twist" for BBC Radio 2 (adapted by Neville Teller and directed by Neil Gardner). In 2008, he guest-starred as Mycroft Holmes in the Bernice Summerfield audio play "The Adventure of the Diogenes Damsel". In 2009, he was the voice of Lord Azlok of the Viperox, an insectoid alien race in the animated "Doctor Who" serial "Dreamland". In 2016, he returned as his alternate Doctor in a series of audios where his Doctor briefly travels to the 'prime' universe and enlists the Seventh Doctor's companion Benny Summerfield (Lisa Bowerman) to try and help him save his universe. Warner's Doctor continued his travels with Benny in a second series of audios released in 2017. Shortly before his death in 2022 it was revealed he would return as his alternate Doctor as part of Finish's celebration of the 60th Anniversary and would share scenes with Christopher Eccleston who appeared as the Ninth Doctor.


title: David Warner (actor)

text: He also contributed voice acting to a number of video games, notably playing the villain Jon Irenicus in "" and Morpheus in "Fallout".


title: David Warner (actor)

text: Warner did voice work on the short-lived FOX animated series "Toonsylvania" as Dr. Vic Frankenstein. He was also the first voice of the demon Nergal from "The Grim Adventures of Billy & Mandy", but was later replaced by Martin Jarvis.


title: David Warner (actor)

text: In March 2010, it was announced that Warner would be joining the cast of the "Dark Shadows" audio drama miniseries "".


title: David Warner (actor)

text: In 2001, Warner returned to the stage after a nearly three-decade hiatus to play Andrew Undershaft in a Broadway revival of George Bernard Shaw's "Major Barbara". In May 2005, at the Chichester Festival Theatre Warner made a return to Shakespeare, playing the title role in Steven Pimlott's production of "King Lear". Tim Walker, reviewing the performance in "The Sunday Telegraph", wrote: "Warner is physically the least imposing king I have ever seen, but his slight, gaunt body serves also to accentuate the vulnerability the part requires. So, too, does the fact that he is older by decades than most of the other members of the youthful cast."


title: David Warner (actor)

text: On 30 October 2005, he appeared on stage at The Old Vic theatre in London in the one-night play "Night Sky" alongside Christopher Eccleston, Bruno Langley, Navin Chowdhry, Saffron Burrows and David Baddiel. In December 2006, he starred in "Terry Pratchett's Hogfather" on Sky1 as Lord Downey. And in August 2007, as an RSC Honorary Artist, he returned to Stratford for the first time in over 40 years to play Sir John Falstaff in the Courtyard Theatre revival of "Henry IV, Part 1" and "Henry IV, Part 2" which were part of the RSC Histories Cycle. He is one of the few actors to play Hamlet (RSC), Lear (Chichester Festival Theatre) and Falstaff (RSC).


title: David Warner (actor)

text: In February 2008, Warner was heard as the popular fictional character Hugo Rune in a new 13-part audio adaptation of Robert Rankin's "The Brightonomicon" released by Hokus Bloke Productions and BBC Audiobooks. He starred alongside some high-profile names including cult science fiction actress and Superman star Sarah Douglas, Rupert Degas, "The Lord of the Rings" actor Andy Serkis, Harry Potter villain Jason Isaacs, Mark Wing-Davey and Martin Jarvis (written by Elliott Stein & Neil Gardner, and produced/directed by Neil Gardner).


title: David Warner (actor)

text: In October 2008, Warner played the role of Lord Mountbatten of Burma in the BBC Four television film "In Love with Barbara", a biopic about the life of romantic novelist Barbara Cartland. He plays Povel Wallander, the father of Kurt Wallander, in BBC One's "Wallander".


title: David Warner (actor)

text: In 2010, writer and actor Mark Gatiss interviewed Warner about his role in "The Omen" (1976) for his BBC documentary series "A History of Horror". In November 2013, David Warner posed for Rory Lewis Photographers 'Northerners' Exhibition, David's image was acquired by the National Portrait Gallery in London, and was the first professional portrait sitting of David since 1966.


title: David Warner (actor)

text: Warner was married twice. He married his first wife Harriet Lindgren in 1969. They divorced three years later in 1972. He later married his second wife Sheilah Kent in 1979. The marriage lasted for 26 years, until their divorce in 2005. Warner's partner until his death in 2022 was the actress Lisa Bowerman.


title: David Warner (actor)

text: Having been diagnosed with cancer 18 months prior, which he had kept hidden from the public, Warner died of a cancer-related illness at Denville Hall, London, on 24 July 2022, aged 80.


title: LTE (telecommunication)

text: In telecommunications, long-term evolution (LTE) is a standard for wireless broadband communication for mobile devices and data terminals, based on the GSM/EDGE and UMTS/HSPA standards. It improves on those standards' capacity and speed by using a different radio interface and core network improvements. LTE is the upgrade path for carriers with both GSM/UMTS networks and CDMA2000 networks. Because LTE frequencies and bands differ from country to country, only multi-band phones can use LTE in all countries where it is supported.


title: LTE (telecommunication)

text: The standard is developed by the 3GPP (3rd Generation Partnership Project) and is specified in its Release 8 document series, with minor enhancements described in Release 9. LTE is also called 3.95G and has been marketed as "4G LTE" and "Advanced 4G"; but it does not meet the technical criteria of a 4G wireless service, as specified in the 3GPP Release 8 and 9 document series for LTE Advanced. The requirements were set forth by the ITU-R organisation in the IMT Advanced specification; but, because of market pressure and the significant advances that WiMAX, Evolved High Speed Packet Access, and LTE bring to the original 3G technologies, ITU later decided that LTE and the aforementioned technologies can be called 4G technologies. The LTE Advanced standard formally satisfies the ITU-R requirements for being considered IMT-Advanced. To differentiate LTE Advanced and WiMAX-Advanced from current 4G technologies, ITU has defined the latter as "True 4G".


title: LTE (telecommunication)

text: LTE stands for Long-Term Evolution and is a registered trademark owned by ETSI (European Telecommunications Standards Institute) for the wireless data communications technology and a development of the GSM/UMTS standards. However, other nations and companies do play an active role in the LTE project. The goal of LTE was to increase the capacity and speed of wireless data networks using new DSP (digital signal processing) techniques and modulations that were developed around the turn of the millennium. A further goal was the redesign and simplification of the network architecture to an IP-based system with significantly reduced transfer latency compared with the 3G architecture. The LTE wireless interface is incompatible with 2G and 3G networks, so that it must be operated on a separate radio spectrum.


title: LTE (telecommunication)

text: The idea of base of LTE was first proposed in 1998 , with the use of the COFDM radio access technique to replace the CDMA and studying its Terrestrial use in the L band at 1428 MHz (TE)


title: LTE (telecommunication)

text: In 2004 by Japan's NTT Docomo, with studies on the standard officially commenced in 2005. In May 2007, the LTE/SAE Trial Initiative (LSTI) alliance was founded as a global collaboration between vendors and operators with the goal of verifying and promoting the new standard in order to ensure the global introduction of the technology as quickly as possible. The LTE standard was finalized in December 2008, and the first publicly available LTE service was launched by TeliaSonera in Oslo and Stockholm on December 14, 2009, as a data connection with a USB modem. The LTE services were launched by major North American carriers as well, with the Samsung SCH-r900 being the world's first LTE Mobile phone starting on September 21, 2010, and Samsung Galaxy Indulge being the world's first LTE smartphone starting on February 10, 2011, both offered by MetroPCS, and the HTC ThunderBolt offered by Verizon starting on March 17 being the second LTE smartphone to be sold commercially. In Canada, Rogers Wireless was the first to launch LTE network on July 7, 2011, offering the Sierra Wireless AirCard 313U USB mobile broadband modem, known as the "LTE Rocket stick" then followed closely by mobile devices from both HTC and Samsung. Initially, CDMA operators planned to upgrade to rival standards called UMB and WiMAX, but major CDMA operators (such as Verizon, Sprint and MetroPCS in the United States, Bell and Telus in Canada, au by KDDI in Japan, SK Telecom in South Korea and China Telecom/China Unicom in China) have announced instead they intend to migrate to LTE. The next version of LTE is LTE Advanced, which was standardized in March 2011. Services commenced in 2013. Additional evolution known as LTE Advanced Pro have been approved in year 2015.


title: LTE (telecommunication)

text: The LTE specification provides downlink peak rates of 300 Mbit/s, uplink peak rates of 75 Mbit/s and QoS provisions permitting a transfer latency of less than 5 ms in the radio access network. LTE has the ability to manage fast-moving mobiles and supports multi-cast and broadcast streams. LTE supports scalable carrier bandwidths, from 1.4 MHz to 20 MHz and supports both frequency division duplexing (FDD) and time-division duplexing (TDD). The IP-based network architecture, called the Evolved Packet Core (EPC) designed to replace the GPRS Core Network, supports seamless handovers for both voice and data to cell towers with older network technology such as GSM, UMTS and CDMA2000. The simpler architecture results in lower operating costs (for example, each E-UTRA cell will support up to four times the data and voice capacity supported by HSPA).


title: LTE (telecommunication)

text: Most carriers supporting GSM or HSUPA networks can be expected to upgrade their networks to LTE at some stage. A complete list of commercial contracts can be found at:


title: LTE (telecommunication)

text: The following is a list of top 10 countries/territories by 4G LTE coverage as measured by OpenSignal.com in February/March 2019.


title: LTE (telecommunication)

text: Long-Term Evolution Time-Division Duplex (LTE-TDD), also referred to as TDD LTE, is a 4G telecommunications technology and standard co-developed by an international coalition of companies, including China Mobile, Datang Telecom, Huawei, ZTE, Nokia Solutions and Networks, Qualcomm, Samsung, and ST-Ericsson. It is one of the two mobile data transmission technologies of the Long-Term Evolution (LTE) technology standard, the other being Long-Term Evolution Frequency-Division Duplex (LTE-FDD). While some companies refer to LTE-TDD as "TD-LTE" for familiarity with TD-SCDMA, there is no reference to that abbreviation anywhere in the 3GPP specifications.


title: LTE (telecommunication)

text: There are two major differences between LTE-TDD and LTE-FDD: how data is uploaded and downloaded, and what frequency spectra the networks are deployed in. While LTE-FDD uses paired frequencies to upload and download data, LTE-TDD uses a single frequency, alternating between uploading and downloading data through time. The ratio between uploads and downloads on a LTE-TDD network can be changed dynamically, depending on whether more data needs to be sent or received. LTE-TDD and LTE-FDD also operate on different frequency bands, with LTE-TDD working better at higher frequencies, and LTE-FDD working better at lower frequencies. Frequencies used for LTE-TDD range from 1850 MHz to 3800 MHz, with several different bands being used. The LTE-TDD spectrum is generally cheaper to access, and has less traffic. Further, the bands for LTE-TDD overlap with those used for WiMAX, which can easily be upgraded to support LTE-TDD.


title: LTE (telecommunication)

text: Despite the differences in how the two types of LTE handle data transmission, LTE-TDD and LTE-FDD share 90 percent of their core technology, making it possible for the same chipsets and networks to use both versions of LTE. A number of companies produce dual-mode chips or mobile devices, including Samsung and Qualcomm, while operators CMHK and Hi3G Access have developed dual-mode networks in Hong Kong and Sweden, respectively.


title: LTE (telecommunication)

text: The creation of LTE-TDD involved a coalition of international companies that worked to develop and test the technology. China Mobile was an early proponent of LTE-TDD, along with other companies like Datang Telecom and Huawei, which worked to deploy LTE-TDD networks, and later developed technology allowing LTE-TDD equipment to operate in white spaces—frequency spectra between broadcast TV stations. Intel also participated in the development, setting up a LTE-TDD interoperability lab with Huawei in China, as well as ST-Ericsson, Nokia, and Nokia Siemens (now Nokia Solutions and Networks), which developed LTE-TDD base stations that increased capacity by 80 percent and coverage by 40 percent. Qualcomm also participated, developing the world's first multi-mode chip, combining both LTE-TDD and LTE-FDD, along with HSPA and EV-DO. Accelleran, a Belgian company, has also worked to build small cells for LTE-TDD networks.


title: LTE (telecommunication)

text: Trials of LTE-TDD technology began as early as 2010, with Reliance Industries and Ericsson India conducting field tests of LTE-TDD in India, achieving 80 megabit-per second download speeds and 20 megabit-per-second upload speeds. By 2011, China Mobile began trials of the technology in six cities.


title: LTE (telecommunication)

text: Although initially seen as a technology utilized by only a few countries, including China and India, by 2011 international interest in LTE-TDD had expanded, especially in Asia, in part due to LTE-TDD's lower cost of deployment compared to LTE-FDD. By the middle of that year, 26 networks around the world were conducting trials of the technology. The Global LTE-TDD Initiative (GTI) was also started in 2011, with founding partners China Mobile, Bharti Airtel, SoftBank Mobile, Vodafone, Clearwire, Aero2 and E-Plus. In September 2011, Huawei announced it would partner with Polish mobile provider Aero2 to develop a combined LTE-TDD and LTE-FDD network in Poland, and by April 2012, ZTE Corporation had worked to deploy trial or commercial LTE-TDD networks for 33 operators in 19 countries. In late 2012, Qualcomm worked extensively to deploy a commercial LTE-TDD network in India, and partnered with Bharti Airtel and Huawei to develop the first multi-mode LTE-TDD smartphone for India.


title: LTE (telecommunication)

text: In Japan, SoftBank Mobile launched LTE-TDD services in February 2012 under the name Advanced eXtended Global Platform (AXGP), and marketed as SoftBank 4G (). The AXGP band was previously used for Willcom's PHS service, and after PHS was discontinued in 2010 the PHS band was re-purposed for AXGP service.


title: LTE (telecommunication)

text: In the U.S., Clearwire planned to implement LTE-TDD, with chip-maker Qualcomm agreeing to support Clearwire's frequencies on its multi-mode LTE chipsets. With Sprint's acquisition of Clearwire in 2013, the carrier began using these frequencies for LTE service on networks built by Samsung, Alcatel-Lucent, and Nokia.


title: LTE (telecommunication)

text: As of March 2013, 156 commercial 4G LTE networks existed, including 142 LTE-FDD networks and 14 LTE-TDD networks.


title: LTE (telecommunication)

text: As of November 2013, the South Korean government planned to allow a fourth wireless carrier in 2014, which would provide LTE-TDD services, and in December 2013, LTE-TDD licenses were granted to China's three mobile operators, allowing commercial deployment of 4G LTE services.


title: LTE (telecommunication)

text: In January 2014, Nokia Solutions and Networks indicated that it had completed a series of tests of voice over LTE (VoLTE) calls on China Mobile's TD-LTE network. The next month, Nokia Solutions and Networks and Sprint announced that they had demonstrated throughput speeds of 2.6 gigabits per second using a LTE-TDD network, surpassing the previous record of 1.6 gigabits per second.


title: LTE (telecommunication)

text: Much of the LTE standard addresses the upgrading of 3G UMTS to what will eventually be 4G mobile communications technology. A large amount of the work is aimed at simplifying the architecture of the system, as it transitions from the existing UMTS circuit + packet switching combined network, to an all-IP flat architecture system. E-UTRA is the air interface of LTE. Its main features are:


title: LTE (telecommunication)

text: The LTE standard supports only packet switching with its all-IP network. Voice calls in GSM, UMTS and CDMA2000 are circuit switched, so with the adoption of LTE, carriers will have to re-engineer their voice call network. Four different approaches sprang up:


title: LTE (telecommunication)

text: One additional approach which is not initiated by operators is the usage of over-the-top content (OTT) services, using applications like Skype and Google Talk to provide LTE voice service.


title: LTE (telecommunication)

text: Most major backers of LTE preferred and promoted VoLTE from the beginning. The lack of software support in initial LTE devices, as well as core network devices, however led to a number of carriers promoting VoLGA (Voice over LTE Generic Access) as an interim solution. The idea was to use the same principles as GAN (Generic Access Network, also known as UMA or Unlicensed Mobile Access), which defines the protocols through which a mobile handset can perform voice calls over a customer's private Internet connection, usually over wireless LAN. VoLGA however never gained much support, because VoLTE (IMS) promises much more flexible services, albeit at the cost of having to upgrade the entire voice call infrastructure. VoLTE will also require Single Radio Voice Call Continuity (SRVCC) in order to be able to smoothly perform a handover to a 3G network in case of poor LTE signal quality.


title: LTE (telecommunication)

text: While the industry has seemingly standardized on VoLTE for the future, the demand for voice calls today has led LTE carriers to introduce circuit-switched fallback as a stopgap measure. When placing or receiving a voice call, LTE handsets will fall back to old 2G or 3G networks for the duration of the call.


title: LTE (telecommunication)

text: To ensure compatibility, 3GPP demands at least AMR-NB codec (narrow band), but the recommended speech codec for VoLTE is Adaptive Multi-Rate Wideband, also known as HD Voice. This codec is mandated in 3GPP networks that support 16 kHz sampling.


title: LTE (telecommunication)

text: Fraunhofer IIS has proposed and demonstrated "Full-HD Voice", an implementation of the AAC-ELD (Advanced Audio CodingEnhanced Low Delay) codec for LTE handsets. Where previous cell phone voice codecs only supported frequencies up to 3.5 kHz and upcoming wideband audio services branded as "HD Voice" up to 7 kHz, Full-HD Voice supports the entire bandwidth range from 20 Hz to 20 kHz. For end-to-end Full-HD Voice calls to succeed, however, both the caller and recipient's handsets, as well as networks, have to support the feature.


title: LTE (telecommunication)

text: The LTE standard covers a range of many different bands, each of which is designated by both a frequency and a band number:


title: LTE (telecommunication)

text: As a result, phones from one country may not work in other countries. Users will need a multi-band capable phone for roaming internationally.


title: LTE (telecommunication)

text: According to the European Telecommunications Standards Institute's (ETSI) intellectual property rights (IPR) database, about 50 companies have declared, as of March 2012, holding essential patents covering the LTE standard. The ETSI has made no investigation on the correctness of the declarations however, so that "any analysis of essential LTE patents should take into account more than ETSI declarations." Independent studies have found that about 3.3 to 5 percent of all revenues from handset manufacturers are spent on standard-essential patents. This is less than the combined published rates, due to reduced-rate licensing agreements, such as cross-licensing.


title: Oedipus Rex

text: Oedipus Rex, also known by its Greek title, Oedipus Tyrannus (, ), or Oedipus the King, is an Athenian tragedy by Sophocles that was first performed around 429 BC. Originally, to the ancient Greeks, the title was simply "Oedipus" (), as it is referred to by Aristotle in the "Poetics". It is thought to have been renamed "Oedipus Tyrannus" to distinguish it from "Oedipus at Colonus", a later play by Sophocles. In antiquity, the term "tyrant" referred to a ruler with no legitimate claim to rule, but it did not necessarily have a negative connotation.


title: Oedipus Rex

text: Of Sophocles' three Theban plays that have survived, and that deal with the story of Oedipus, "Oedipus Rex" was the second to be written, following "Antigone" by about a dozen years. However, in terms of the chronology of events described by the plays, it comes first, followed by "Oedipus at Colonus" and then "Antigone".


title: Oedipus Rex

text: Prior to the start of "Oedipus Rex", Oedipus has become the king of Thebes while unwittingly fulfilling a prophecy that he would kill his father, Laius (the previous king), and marry his mother, Jocasta (whom Oedipus took as his queen after solving the riddle of the Sphinx). The action of Sophocles's play concerns Oedipus's search for the murderer of Laius in order to end a plague ravaging Thebes, unaware that the killer he is looking for is none other than himself. At the end of the play, after the truth finally comes to light, Jocasta hangs herself while Oedipus, horrified at his patricide and incest, proceeds to gouge out his own eyes in despair.


title: Oedipus Rex

text: In his "Poetics", Aristotle refers several times to the play in order to exemplify aspects of the genre.


title: Oedipus Rex

text: The misfortunes of Thebes are believed to be the result of a curse laid upon Laius for the time he had violated the sacred laws of hospitality (Greek: "xenia").


title: Oedipus Rex

text: In his youth, Laius was taken in as a guest by Pelops, king of Elis, where he would become tutor to the king's youngest son, Chrysippus, in chariot racing.


title: Oedipus Rex

text: Apollo, the protector of youth and boys cursed him for raping Pelops' son. Chrysippus committed suicide.


title: Oedipus Rex

text: When Laius' son is born, he consults an oracle as to his fortune. To his horror, the oracle reveals that Laius "is doomed to perish by the hand of his own son." Laius binds the infant's feet together with a pin and orders Jocasta to kill him. Unable to do so to her own son, Jocasta orders a servant to slay the infant instead. The servant exposes the infant on a mountaintop, where he is found and rescued by a shepherd. (In other versions, the servant gives the infant to the shepherd.)


title: Oedipus Rex

text: The shepherd names the child Oedipus, "swollen foot", as his feet had been tightly bound by Laius. The shepherd brings the infant to Corinth, and presents him to the childless king Polybus, who raises Oedipus as his own son.


title: Oedipus Rex

text: As he grows to manhood, Oedipus hears a rumour that he is not truly the son of Polybus and his wife, Merope. He asks the Delphic Oracle who his parents really are. The Oracle seems to ignore this question, telling him instead that he is destined to "mate with [his] own mother, and shed/With [his] own hands the blood of [his] own sire." Desperate to avoid this terrible fate, Oedipus, who still believes that Polybus and Merope are his true parents, leaves Corinth for the city of Thebes.


title: Oedipus Rex

text: On the road to Thebes, Oedipus encounters an old man and his servants. The two begin to quarrel over whose chariot has the right of way. While the old man moves to strike the insolent youth with his scepter, Oedipus throws the man down from his chariot, killing him. Thus, the prophecy in which Oedipus slays his own father is fulfilled, as the old man—as Oedipus discovers later—was Laius, king of Thebes and true father to Oedipus.


title: Oedipus Rex

text: Arriving at Thebes, a city in turmoil, Oedipus encounters the Sphinx, a legendary beast with the head and breast of a woman, the body of a lioness, and the wings of an eagle. The Sphinx, perched on a hill, was devouring Thebans and travellers one by one if they could not solve her riddle.


title: Oedipus Rex

text: The precise riddle asked by the Sphinx varied in early traditions, and is not explicitly stated in "Oedipus Rex", as the event precedes the play. However, according to the most widely regarded version of the riddle, the Sphinx asks "what is the creature that walks on four legs in the morning, two legs at noon, and three in the evening?" Oedipus, blessed with great intelligence, answers correctly: "man" (Greek: "anthrôpos"), who crawls on all fours as an infant; walks upright in maturity; and leans on a stick in old age.


title: Oedipus Rex

text: Bested by the prince, the Sphinx throws herself from a cliff, thereby ending the curse. Oedipus' reward for freeing Thebes from the Sphinx is kingship to the city and the hand of its dowager queen, Jocasta. None, at that point, realize that Jocasta is Oedipus' true mother. Thus, unbeknownst to either character, the remaining prophecy has been fulfilled.


title: Oedipus Rex

text: Oedipus, King of Thebes, sends his brother-in-law, Creon, to ask the advice of the oracle at Delphi, concerning a plague ravaging Thebes. Creon returns to report that the plague is the result of religious pollution, since the murderer of their former king, Laius, has never been caught. Oedipus vows to find the murderer and curses him for causing the plague.


title: Oedipus Rex

text: Oedipus summons the blind prophet Tiresias for help. Tiresias admits to knowing the answers to Oedipus' questions, but he refuses to speak, instead telling Oedipus to abandon his search. Angered by the seer's reply, Oedipus accuses him of complicity in Laius' murder. The offended Tiresias then reveals to the king that "[y]ou yourself are the criminal you seek". Oedipus does not understand how this could be, and supposes that Creon must have paid Tiresias to accuse him. The two argue vehemently, as Oedipus mocks Tiresias' lack of sight, and Tiresias retorts that Oedipus himself is blind. Eventually, the prophet leaves, muttering darkly that when the murderer is discovered, he shall be a native of Thebes, brother and father to his own children, and son and husband to his own mother.


title: Oedipus Rex

text: Creon arrives to face Oedipus's accusations. The King demands that Creon be executed; however, the chorus persuades him to let Creon live. Jocasta, wife of first Laius and then Oedipus, enters and attempts to comfort Oedipus, telling him he should take no notice of prophets. As proof, she recounts an incident in which she and Laius received an oracle which never came true. The prophecy stated that Laius would be killed by his own son; instead, Laius was killed by bandits, at a fork in the road (τριπλαῖς ἁμαξιτοῖς, triplais amaxitois).


title: Oedipus Rex

text: The mention of the place causes Oedipus to pause and ask for more details. Jocasta specifies the branch to Daulis on the way to Delphi. Recalling Tiresias' words, he asks Jocasta to describe Laius. The king then sends for a shepherd, the only surviving witness of the attack to be brought from his fields to the palace.


title: Oedipus Rex

text: Confused, Jocasta asks Oedipus what the matter is, and he tells her. Many years ago, at a banquet in Corinth, a man drunkenly accused Oedipus of not being his father's son. Oedipus went to Delphi and asked the oracle about his parentage. Instead of answering his question directly, the oracle prophesied that he would one day murder his father and sleep with his mother. Upon hearing this, Oedipus resolved never to return to Corinth. In his travels, he came to the very crossroads where Laius had been killed, and encountered a carriage that attempted to drive him off the road. An argument ensued, and Oedipus killed the travelers—including a man who matched Jocasta's description of Laius. However, Oedipus holds out hope that he was not Laius' killer, because Laius was said to have been murdered by "several" robbers. If the shepherd confirms that Laius was attacked by many men, then Oedipus will be in the clear.


title: Oedipus Rex

text: A man arrives from Corinth with the message that Polybus, who raised Oedipus as his son, has died. To the surprise of the messenger, Oedipus is overjoyed, because he can no longer kill his father, thus disproving half of the oracle's prophecy. However, he still fears that he might somehow commit incest with his mother. Eager to set the king's mind at ease, the messenger tells him not to worry, because Merope is not his real mother.


title: Oedipus Rex

text: The messenger explains that years earlier, while tending his flock on Mount Cithaeron, a shepherd from the household of Laius brought him an infant that he was instructed to dispose of. The messenger had then given the child to Polybus, who raised him. Oedipus asks the chorus if anyone knows the identity of the other shepherd, or where he might be now. They respond that he is the same shepherd who witnessed the murder of Laius, and whom Oedipus had already sent for. Jocasta, realizing the truth, desperately begs Oedipus to stop asking questions. When Oedipus refuses, the queen runs into the palace.


title: Oedipus Rex

text: When the shepherd arrives Oedipus questions him, but he begs to be allowed to leave without answering further. However, Oedipus presses him, finally threatening him with torture or execution. It emerges that the child he gave away was Laius' own son. In fear of a prophecy that the child would kill his father, Jocasta gave her son to the shepherd in order to be exposed upon the mountainside.


title: Oedipus Rex

text: Everything is at last revealed, and Oedipus curses himself and fate before leaving the stage. The chorus laments how even a great man can be felled by fate, and following this, a servant exits the palace to speak of what has happened inside. Jocasta has hanged herself in her bedchamber. Entering the palace in anguish, Oedipus called on his servants to bring him a sword, that he might slay Jocasta with his own hand. But upon discovering the lifeless queen, Oedipus took her down, and removing the long gold pins from her dress, he has gouged out his own eyes in despair.


title: Oedipus Rex

text: The blinded king now exits the palace, and begs to be exiled. Creon enters, saying that Oedipus shall be taken into the house until oracles can be consulted regarding what is best to be done. Oedipus's two daughters (and half-sisters), Antigone and Ismene, are sent out and Oedipus laments their having been born to such a cursed family. He begs Creon to watch over them, in hopes that they will live where there is opportunity for them, and to have a better life than their father. Creon agrees, before sending Oedipus back into the palace.


title: Oedipus Rex

text: On an empty stage, the chorus repeats the common Greek maxim that "no man should be considered fortunate until he is dead."


title: Oedipus Rex

text: The two cities of Troy and Thebes were the major focus of Greek epic poetry. The events surrounding the Trojan War were chronicled in the Epic Cycle, of which much remains, and those about Thebes in the Theban Cycle, which have been lost. The Theban Cycle recounted the sequence of tragedies that befell the house of Laius, of which the story of Oedipus is a part.


title: Oedipus Rex

text: Homer's "Odyssey" (XI.271ff.) contains the earliest account of the Oedipus myth when Odysseus encounters Jocasta (named Epicaste) in the underworld. Homer briefly summarises the story of Oedipus, including the incest, patricide, and Jocasta's subsequent suicide. However, in the Homeric version, Oedipus remains King of Thebes after the revelation and neither blinds himself, nor is sent into exile. In particular, it is said that the gods made the matter of his paternity known, whilst in "Oedipus the King", Oedipus very much discovers the truth himself.


title: Oedipus Rex

text: In 467 BC, Sophocles's fellow tragedian Aeschylus won first prize at the City Dionysia with a trilogy about the House of Laius, comprising "Laius", "Oedipus" and "Seven Against Thebes" (the only play which survives). Since he did not write connected trilogies as Aeschylus did, "Oedipus Rex" focuses on the titular character while hinting at the larger myth obliquely, which was already known to the audience in Athens at the time.


title: Oedipus Rex

text: The trilogy containing "Oedipus Rex" took second prize in the City Dionysia at its original performance. Aeschylus's nephew Philocles took first prize at that competition. However, in his "Poetics", Aristotle considered "Oedipus Rex" to be the tragedy which best matched his prescription for how drama should be made.


title: Oedipus Rex

text: Many modern critics agree with Aristotle on the quality of "Oedipus Rex", even if they don't always agree on the reasons. For example, Richard Claverhouse Jebb claimed that "The "Oedipus Tyrannus" is in one sense the masterpiece of Attic tragedy. No other shows an equal degree of art in the development of the plot; and this excellence depends on the powerful and subtle drawing of the characters." Cedric Whitman noted that "the "Oedipus Rex" passes almost universally for the greatest extant Greek play..." Whitman himself regarded the play as "the fullest expression of this conception of tragedy," that is the conception of tragedy as a "revelation of the evil lot of man," where a man may have "all the equipment for glory and honor" but still have "the greatest effort to do good" end in "the evil of an unbearable self for which one is not responsible." Edith Hall referred to "Oedipus the King" as "this definitive tragedy" and notes that "the magisterial subtlety of Sophocles' characterization thus lend credibility to the breathtaking coincidences," and notes the irony that "Oedipus can only fulfill his exceptional god-ordained destiny because Oedipus is a preeminently capable and intelligent human being." H. D. F. Kitto said about "Oedipus Rex" that "it is true to say that the perfection of its form implies a world order," although Kitto notes that whether or not that world order "is beneficent, Sophocles does not say."


title: Oedipus Rex

text: The science revolution attributed to Thales began gaining political force, and this play offered a warning to the new thinkers. Kitto interprets the play as Sophocles' retort to the sophists, by dramatizing a situation in which humans face undeserved suffering through no fault of their own, but despite the apparent randomness of the events, the fact that they have been prophesied by the gods implies that the events are not random, despite the reasons being beyond human comprehension. Through the play, according to Kitto, Sophocles declares "that it is wrong, in the face of the incomprehensible and unmoral, to deny the moral laws and accept chaos. What is right is to recognize facts and not delude ourselves. The universe is a unity; if, sometimes, we can see neither rhyme nor reason in it we should not suppose it is random. There is so much that we cannot know and cannot control that we should not think and behave as if we do know and can control."


title: Oedipus Rex

text: "Oedipus Rex" is widely regarded as one of the greatest plays, stories, and tragedies ever written. In 2015, when Guardian's theatre critic Michael Billington, selected what he thinks are the 101 greatest plays ever written, Oedipus Rex was placed second, just after "The Persians".


title: Oedipus Rex

text: Fate is a motif that often occurs in Greek writing, tragedies in particular. Likewise, where the attempt to avoid an oracle is the very thing that enables it to happen is common to many Greek myths. For example, similarities to Oedipus can be seen in the myth of Perseus' birth.


title: Oedipus Rex

text: Two oracles in particular dominate the plot of "Oedipus Rex". Jocasta relates the prophecy that was told to Laius before the birth of Oedipus (lines 711–4):


title: Oedipus Rex

text: The oracle told to Laius tells only of the patricide, whereas the incest is missing. Prompted by Jocasta's recollection, Oedipus reveals the prophecy which caused him to leave Corinth (lines 791–3):


title: Oedipus Rex

text: The implication of Laius's oracle is ambiguous. One interpretation considers that the presentation of Laius's oracle in this play differs from that found in Aeschylus's Oedipus trilogy produced in 467 BC. Smith (2005) argues that "Sophocles had the option of making the oracle to Laius conditional ("if" Laius has a son, that son will kill him) or unconditional (Laius "will" have a son who will kill him). Both Aeschylus and Euripides write plays in which the oracle is conditional; Sophocles...chooses to make Laius's oracle unconditional and thus removes culpability for his sins from Oedipus, for he could not have done other than what he did, no matter what action he took."


title: Oedipus Rex

text: This interpretation is supported by Jocasta's repetition of the oracle at lines 854–55: "Loxias declared that the king should be killed by/ his own son." In Greek, Jocasta uses the verb "chrênai": "to be fated, necessary." This iteration of the oracle seems to suggest that it was unconditional and inevitable.


title: Oedipus Rex

text: Other scholars have nonetheless argued that Sophocles follows tradition in making Laius's oracle conditional, and thus avoidable. They point to Jocasta's initial disclosure of the oracle at lines 711–14. In Greek, the oracle cautions: "" The two verbs in boldface indicate what is called a "future more vivid" condition: "if" a child is born to Laius, his fate to be killed by that child "will" overtake him.


title: Oedipus Rex

text: Whatever the meaning of Laius's oracle, the one delivered to Oedipus is clearly unconditional. Given the modern conception of fate and fatalism, readers of the play have a tendency to view Oedipus as a mere puppet controlled by greater forces; a man crushed by the gods and fate for no good reason. This, however, is not an entirely accurate reading. While it is a mythological truism that oracles exist to be fulfilled, oracles do not cause the events that lead up to the outcome. In his landmark essay "On Misunderstanding the "Oedipus Rex"", E.R. Dodds draws upon Bernard Knox's comparison with Jesus' prophecy at the Last Supper that Peter would deny him three times. Jesus "knows" that Peter will do this, but readers would in no way suggest that Peter was a puppet of fate being "forced" to deny Christ. Free will and predestination are by no means mutually exclusive, and such is the case with Oedipus.


title: Oedipus Rex

text: The oracle delivered to Oedipus is what is often called a "self-fulfilling prophecy," whereby a prophecy itself sets in motion events that conclude with its own fulfilment. This, however, is not to say that Oedipus is a victim of fate and has no free will. The oracle inspires a series of specific choices, freely made by Oedipus, which lead him to kill his father and marry his mother. Oedipus "chooses" not to return to Corinth after hearing the oracle, just as he chooses to head toward Thebes, to kill Laius, and to take Jocasta specifically as his wife. In response to the plague at Thebes, he "chooses" to send Creon to the Oracle for advice and then to follow that advice, initiating the investigation into Laius' murder. None of these choices are predetermined.


title: Oedipus Rex

text: Another characteristic of oracles in myth is that they are almost always misunderstood by those who hear them; hence Oedipus misunderstanding the significance of the Delphic Oracle. He visits Delphi to find out who his real parents are and assumes that the Oracle refuses to answer that question, offering instead an unrelated prophecy which forecasts patricide and incest. Oedipus' assumption is incorrect, the Oracle does, in a way, answer his question. On closer analysis the oracle contains essential information which Oedipus seems to neglect. The wording of the Oracle: "I was doomed to be murderer of the father that begot me" refers to Oedipus' real, biological father. Likewise the mother with polluted children is defined as the biological one. The wording of the drunken guest on the other hand: "you are not your father's son" defines Polybus as only a foster father to Oedipus. The two wordings support each other and point to the "two set of parents" alternative. Thus the question of two set of parents, biological and foster, is raised. Oedipus' reaction to the Oracle is irrational: he states he did not get any answer and he flees in a direction away from Corinth, showing that he firmly believed at the time that Polybus and Merope are his real parents.


title: Oedipus Rex

text: The scene with the drunken guest constitutes the end of Oedipus' childhood. He can no longer ignore a feeling of uncertainty about his parentage. However, after consulting the Oracle this uncertainty disappears, strangely enough, and is replaced by a totally unjustified certainty that he is the son of Merope and Polybus. We have said that this irrational behaviour—his "hamartia", as Aristotle puts it—is due to the repression of a whole series of thoughts in his consciousness, in fact everything that referred to his earlier doubts about his parentage.


title: Oedipus Rex

text: The exploration of the theme of state control in "Oedipus Rex" is paralleled by the examination of the conflict between the individual and the state in "Antigone". The dilemma that Oedipus faces here is similar to that of the tyrannical Creon: each man has, as king, made a decision that his subjects question or disobey; and each king misconstrues both his own role as a sovereign and the role of the rebel. When informed by the blind prophet Tiresias that religious forces are against him, each king claims that the priest has been corrupted. It is here, however, that their similarities come to an end: while Creon sees the havoc he has wreaked and tries to amend his mistakes, Oedipus refuses to listen to anyone. (The above text comes almost directly from David Grene's introduction to "Sophocles I", University of Chicago Press, 1954.)


title: Oedipus Rex

text: Sophocles uses dramatic irony to present the downfall of Oedipus. At the beginning of the story, Oedipus is portrayed as "self-confident, intelligent and strong willed." By the end, it is within these traits that he finds his demise.


title: Oedipus Rex

text: One of the most significant instances of irony in this tragedy is when Tiresias hints at Oedipus what he has done; that he has slain his own father and married his own mother (lines 457–60):


title: Oedipus Rex

text: The audience knows the truth and what would be the fate of Oedipus. Oedipus, on the other hand, chooses to deny the reality that has confronted him. He ignores the word of Tiresias and continues on his journey to find the supposed killer. His search for a murderer is yet another instance of irony. Oedipus, determined to find the one responsible for King Laius' death, announces to his people (lines 247–53):


title: Oedipus Rex

text: This is ironic as Oedipus is, as he discovers, the slayer of Laius, and the curse he wishes upon the killer, he has actually wished upon himself. Glassberg (2017) explains that “Oedipus has clearly missed the mark. He is unaware that he is the one polluting agent he seeks to punish. He has inadequate knowledge...”


title: Oedipus Rex

text: Literal and metaphorical references to eyesight appear throughout "Oedipus Rex". Clear vision serves as a metaphor for insight and knowledge, yet the clear-eyed Oedipus is blind to the truth about his origins and inadvertent crimes. The prophet Tiresias, on the other hand, although literally blind, "sees" the truth and relays what is revealed to him. Only after Oedipus gouges out his own eyes, physically blinding himself, does he gain prophetic ability, as exhibited in "Oedipus at Colonus". It is deliberately ironic that the "seer" can "see" better than Oedipus, despite being blind. Tiresias, in anger, expresses such (lines 495–500):


title: Oedipus Rex

text: Oedipus switches back and forth calling Laius a tyrant (lines 128-129) and a king (lines 254-256) throughout the duration of the play. This is done as a way so as to make Laius his equal in terms of ruling. Laius was a legitimate king, whereas Oedipus had no legitimate claim to rule. Oedipus's claims of calling Laius a tyrant hints at his own insecurities of being a tyrant.The tyranny brought down the way it was, what


title: Oedipus Rex

text: Sigmund Freud wrote a notable passage in "Interpretation of Dreams" regarding the destiny of Oedipus, as well as the Oedipus complex. He analyzes why this play, "Oedipus Rex", written in Ancient Greece, is so effective even to a modern audience:


title: Oedipus Rex

text: "His destiny moves us only because it might have been ours — because the oracle laid the same curse upon us before our birth as upon him. It is the fate of all of us, perhaps, to direct our first sexual impulse towards our mother and our first hatred and our first murderous wish against our father. Our dreams convince us that this is so."


title: Oedipus Rex

text: Freud goes on to indicate, however, that the “primordial urges and fears” that are his concern are not found primarily in the play by Sophocles, but exist in the myth the play is based on. He refers to "Oedipus Rex" as a “further modification of the legend,” one that originates in a “misconceived secondary revision of the material, which has sought to exploit it for theological purposes.”


title: Oedipus Rex

text: The first English-language adaption, "Oedipus Rex" (1957), was directed by Tyrone Guthrie and starred Douglas Campbell as Oedipus. In this version, the entire play is performed by the cast in masks (Greek: "prosopon"), as actors did in ancient Greek theatre.


title: Oedipus Rex

text: The second English-language film version, "Oedipus the King (1968)", was directed by Philip Saville and filmed in Greece. Unlike Guthrie's film, this version shows the actors' faces, as well as boasting an all-star cast, including Christopher Plummer as Oedipus; Lilli Palmer as Jocasta; Orson Welles as Tiresias; Richard Johnson as Creon; Roger Livesey as the Shepherd; and Donald Sutherland as the Leading Member of the Chorus. Sutherland's voice, however, was dubbed by another actor. The film went a step further than the play by actually showing, in flashback, the murder of Laius (portrayed by Friedrich Ledebur). It also shows Oedipus and Jocasta in bed together, making love. Though released in 1968, this film was not seen in Europe or the US until the 1970s and 1980s after legal release and distribution rights were granted to video and television.


title: Oedipus Rex

text: In 1986, an English-language version starring Michael Pennington, John Gielgud, and Claire Bloom, and directed by Don Taylor was produced by the BBC as part of a trilogy of filmed presentations of "The Theban Plays". It presented the actors in modern dress.


title: Oedipus Rex

text: Toshio Matsumoto's film, "Funeral Parade of Roses" (1969), is a loose adaptation of the play and an important work of the Japanese New Wave.


title: Oedipus Rex

text: In Colombia, writer Gabriel García Márquez adapted the story in "Edipo Alcalde", bringing it to the real-world situation of Colombia at the time.


title: Oedipus Rex

text: The Nigerian film "The Gods are STILL not to Blame" (2012) was produced by Funke Fayoyin, premiering at Silverbird Galleria in Lagos.


title: Oedipus Rex

text: Park Chan-wook's South Korean film, "Oldboy" (2003), was inspired by the play while making several notable changes to allow it to work in a modern South-Korean setting. The film even alters the iconic twist, causing many American critics to overlook the connection. It received widespread acclaim, and is seen in South Korea as the definitive adaptation.


title: Oedipus Rex

text: The composer Igor Stravinsky wrote the opera-oratorio "Oedipus Rex", which premiered in 1927 at the Théâtre Sarah Bernhardt, Paris. It is scored for orchestra, speaker, soloists, and male chorus. The libretto, based on Sophocles's tragedy, was written by Jean Cocteau in French and then translated by Abbé Jean Daniélou into Latin. The narration, however, is performed in the language of the audience. The work was written towards the beginning of Stravinsky's neoclassical period and is considered one of the finest works from this phase of the composer's career. He had considered setting the language of the work in Ancient Greek, but decided ultimately on Latin, as "a medium not dead but turned to stone."


title: Oedipus Rex

text: Nigerian writer Ola Rotimi adapted "Oedipus Rex" into a 1968 play and novel, titling it "The Gods Are Not to Blame". In 2012, the play was further adapted by Otun Rasheed, under the title "The Gods Are STILL Not to Blame".


title: Oedipus Rex

text: Dancer and choreographer Martha Graham adapted "Oedipus Rex" into a short ballet entitled "Night Journey", premiering in 1947. In this adaptation, the action focuses not on Oedipus, but upon Jocasta, reflecting on her strange destiny.


title: Oedipus Rex

text: Don Taylor's 1986 translation/adaptation of "Oedipus Rex" using the English title "Oedipus the King" formed part of the BBC's "Theban Plays" trilogy. It starred Michael Pennington as Oedipus, with Claire Bloom as Jocasta, John Gielgud as Tiresias, and John Shrapnel as Creon.


title: Oedipus Rex

text: In 1977, CBS Radio Mystery Theater broadcast a version of the story called "So Shall Ye Reap," set in 1851 in what was then the U.S. Territory of New Mexico.


title: Oedipus Rex

text: In 2017, BBC Radio 3 broadcast a production of Anthony Burgess' translation of the play with Christopher Eccleston as Oedipus and Fiona Shaw as Tiresias/Second Elder. John Shrapnel, who starred as Creon in the 1986 BBC television version, played the First Elder.


title: Oedipus Rex

text: Other television portrayals of Oedipus include that of Christopher Plummer (1957), Ian Holm (1972), and Patrick Stewart (1977).


title: Oedipus Rex

text: Peter Schickele parodies both the story of "Oedipus Rex" and the music of Stravinsky's opera-oratorio of the same name in "Oedipus Tex", a Western-themed oratorio purportedly written by P.D.Q. Bach. It was released in 1990 on the album "Oedipus Tex and Other Choral Calamities".


title: Oedipus Rex

text: In episode ten of the second season of the Australian satirical comedy show "CNNNN," a short animation in the style of a Disney movie trailer, complete with jaunty music provided by Andrew Hansen, parodies "Oedipus Rex". Apart from being advertised as "fun for the whole family," the parody is also mentioned at other times during that same episode, such as in a satirical advertisement in which orphans are offered a free ""Oedipus Rex" ashes urn" as a promotional offer after losing a relative.


title: Oedipus Rex

text: John Barth's novel "Giles Goat-Boy" contains a forty-page parody of the full text of "Oedipus Rex" called "Taliped Decanus".


title: Oedipus Rex

text: Bo Burnham references Oedipus in songs Words Words Words and Rant, both part of his album, Words Words Words.


title: Michael Collins (astronaut)

text: Michael Collins (October 31, 1930 – April 28, 2021) was an American astronaut who flew the Apollo 11 command module "Columbia" around the Moon in 1969 while his crewmates, Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin, made the first crewed landing on the surface. He was also a test pilot and major general in the U.S. Air Force Reserves.


title: Michael Collins (astronaut)

text: Born in Rome, Italy, Collins graduated in the Class of 1952 from the United States Military Academy. He joined the United States Air Force, and flew F-86 Sabre fighters at Chambley-Bussières Air Base, France. He was accepted into the U.S. Air Force Experimental Flight Test Pilot School at Edwards Air Force Base in 1960, also graduating from the Aerospace Research Pilot School (Class III).


title: Michael Collins (astronaut)

text: Selected as part of NASA's third group of 14 astronauts in 1963, Collins flew in space twice. His first spaceflight was on Gemini 10 in 1966, in which he and Command Pilot John Young performed orbital rendezvous with two spacecraft and undertook two extravehicular activities (EVAs, also known as spacewalks). On the 1969 Apollo 11 mission, he became one of 24 people to fly to the Moon, which he orbited thirty times. He was the fourth person (and third American) to perform a spacewalk, the first person to have performed more than one spacewalk, and, after Young, who flew the command module on Apollo 10, the second person to orbit the Moon alone.


title: Michael Collins (astronaut)

text: After retiring from NASA in 1970, Collins took a job in the Department of State as Assistant Secretary of State for Public Affairs. A year later, he became the director of the National Air and Space Museum, and held this position until 1978, when he stepped down to become undersecretary of the Smithsonian Institution. In 1980, he took a job as vice president of LTV Aerospace. He resigned in 1985 to start his own consulting firm. Along with his Apollo 11 crewmates, Collins was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 1969 and the Congressional Gold Medal in 2011.


title: Michael Collins (astronaut)

text: Collins was born on October 31, 1930, in Rome, Italy. He was the second son of James Lawton Collins (1882–1963), a career U.S. Army officer, who was the U.S. military attaché there from 1928 to 1932, and Virginia C. Collins ( Stewart; 1895–1986). Collins had an older brother, James Lawton Collins Jr. (1917–2002), and two older sisters, Virginia and Agnes. Collins' mother was of British descent, and his father's family hailed from Ireland.


title: Michael Collins (astronaut)

text: For the first 17 years of his life, Collins lived in many places as the Army posted his father to different locations; Rome, Oklahoma; Governors Island, New York; Fort Hoyle (near Baltimore, Maryland); Fort Hayes (near Columbus, Ohio); Puerto Rico; San Antonio, Texas; and Alexandria, Virginia. He took his first plane ride in Puerto Rico aboard a Grumman Widgeon; the pilot allowed him to fly it for a portion of the flight. He wanted to fly again, but since World War II started soon after, he was unable. He studied for two years in the Academia del Perpetuo Socorro in San Juan, Puerto Rico.