title: Quaternion

text: However, quaternions have had a revival since the late 20th century, primarily due to their utility in describing spatial rotations. The representations of rotations by quaternions are more compact and quicker to compute than the representations by matrices. In addition, unlike Euler angles, they are not susceptible to "gimbal lock". For this reason, quaternions are used in computer graphics, computer vision, robotics, control theory, signal processing, attitude control, physics, bioinformatics, molecular dynamics, computer simulations, and orbital mechanics. For example, it is common for the attitude control systems of spacecraft to be commanded in terms of quaternions. Quaternions have received another boost from number theory because of their relationships with the quadratic forms.


title: Quaternion

text: P.R. Girard's 1984 essay "The quaternion group and modern physics" discusses some roles of quaternions in physics. The essay shows how various physical covariance groups, namely , the Lorentz group, the general theory of relativity group, the Clifford algebra and the conformal group, can easily be related to the quaternion group in modern algebra. Girard began by discussing group representations and by representing some space groups of crystallography. He proceeded to kinematics of rigid body motion. Next he used complex quaternions (biquaternions) to represent the Lorentz group of special relativity, including the Thomas precession. He cited five authors, beginning with Ludwik Silberstein, who used a potential function of one quaternion variable to express Maxwell's equations in a single differential equation. Concerning general relativity, he expressed the Runge–Lenz vector. He mentioned the Clifford biquaternions (split-biquaternions) as an instance of Clifford algebra. Finally, invoking the reciprocal of a biquaternion, Girard described conformal maps on spacetime. Among the fifty references, Girard included Alexander Macfarlane and his "Bulletin" of the Quaternion Society. In 1999 he showed how Einstein's equations of general relativity could be formulated within a Clifford algebra that is directly linked to quaternions.


title: Quaternion

text: The finding of 1924 that in quantum mechanics the spin of an electron and other matter particles (known as spinors) can be described using quaternions (in the form of the famous Pauli spin matrices) furthered their interest; quaternions helped to understand how rotations of electrons by 360° can be discerned from those by 720° (the "Plate trick"). , their use has not overtaken rotation groups.


title: Quaternion

text: where , , , , are real numbers, and , , , are symbols that can be interpreted as unit-vectors pointing along the three spatial axes. In practice, if one of , , , is 0, the corresponding term is omitted; if , , , are all zero, the quaternion is the "zero quaternion", denoted 0; if one of , , equals 1, the corresponding term is written simply , or .


title: Quaternion

text: Hamilton describes a quaternion formula_9, as consisting of a scalar part and a vector part. The quaternion formula_10 is called the "vector part" (sometimes "imaginary part") of , and is the "scalar part" (sometimes "real part") of . A quaternion that equals its real part (that is, its vector part is zero) is called a "scalar" or "real quaternion", and is identified with the corresponding real number. That is, the real numbers are "embedded" in the quaternions. (More properly, the field of real numbers is isomorphic to a subset of the quaternions. The field of complex numbers is also isomorphic to three subsets of quaternions.) A quaternion that equals its vector part is called a "vector quaternion".


title: Quaternion

text: The set of quaternions is made a 4-dimensional vector space over the real numbers, with formula_11 as a basis, by the componentwise addition


title: Quaternion

text: A multiplicative group structure, called the "Hamilton product", denoted by juxtaposition, can be defined on the quaternions in the following way:


title: Quaternion

text: The multiplication with of the basis elements , and is defined by the fact that is a multiplicative identity, that is,


title: Quaternion

text: The remaining product rules are obtained by multiplying both sides of these latter rules by formula_20 or formula_16 from the left or right and applying associativity which gives


title: Quaternion

text: The "center" of a noncommutative ring is the subring of elements such that for every . The center of the quaternion algebra is the subfield of real quaternions. In fact, it is a part of the definition that the real quaternions belong to the center. Conversely, if belongs to the center, then


title: Quaternion

text: The quaternions form a division algebra. This means that the non-commutativity of multiplication is the only property that makes quaternions different from a field. This non-commutativity has some unexpected consequences, among them that a polynomial equation over the quaternions can have more distinct solutions than the degree of the polynomial. For example, the equation has infinitely many quaternion solutions, which are the quaternions such that . Thus these "roots of –1" form a unit sphere in the three-dimensional space of vector quaternions.


title: Quaternion

text: For two elements and , their product, called the Hamilton product () (), is determined by the products of the basis elements and the distributive law. The distributive law makes it possible to expand the product so that it is a sum of products of basis elements. This gives the following expression:


title: Quaternion

text: A quaternion of the form , where is a real number, is called scalar, and a quaternion of the form , where , and are real numbers, and at least one of or is nonzero, is called a vector quaternion. If is any quaternion, then is called its scalar part and is called its vector part. Even though every quaternion can be viewed as a vector in a four-dimensional vector space, it is common to refer to the vector part as vectors in three-dimensional space. With this convention, a vector is the same as an element of the vector space formula_26


title: Quaternion

text: Hamilton also called vector quaternions right quaternions and real numbers (considered as quaternions with zero vector part) scalar quaternions.


title: Quaternion

text: Conjugation of quaternions is analogous to conjugation of complex numbers and to transposition (also known as reversal) of elements of Clifford algebras. To define it, let formula_32 be a quaternion. The conjugate of is the quaternion formula_33. It is denoted by , "q", formula_34, or . Conjugation is an involution, meaning that it is its own inverse, so conjugating an element twice returns the original element. The conjugate of a product of two quaternions is the product of the conjugates "in the reverse order". That is, if and are quaternions, then , not .


title: Quaternion

text: The conjugation of a quaternion, in stark contrast to the complex setting, can be expressed with multiplication and addition of quaternions:


title: Quaternion

text: Conjugation can be used to extract the scalar and vector parts of a quaternion. The scalar part of is , and the vector part of is .


title: Quaternion

text: The square root of the product of a quaternion with its conjugate is called its "norm" and is denoted (Hamilton called this quantity the "tensor" of "q", but this conflicts with the modern meaning of "tensor"). In formulas, this is expressed as follows:


title: Quaternion

text: This is always a non-negative real number, and it is the same as the Euclidean norm on formula_4 considered as the vector space formula_38. Multiplying a quaternion by a real number scales its norm by the absolute value of the number. That is, if is real, then


title: Quaternion

text: for any two quaternions and . Multiplicativity is a consequence of the formula for the conjugate of a product.


title: Quaternion

text: (where denotes the usual imaginary unit) and hence from the multiplicative property of determinants of square matrices.


title: Quaternion

text: This follows with exactly the same proof as for the real numbers formula_44 from the fact that formula_4 is a normed algebra.


title: Quaternion

text: A unit quaternion is a quaternion of norm one. Dividing a non-zero quaternion by its norm produces a unit quaternion called the "versor" of :


title: Quaternion

text: Using conjugation and the norm makes it possible to define the reciprocal of a non-zero quaternion. The product of a quaternion with its reciprocal should equal 1, and the considerations above imply that the product of formula_48 and formula_49 is 1 (for either order of multiplication). So the "reciprocal" of is defined to be


title: Quaternion

text: This makes it possible to divide two quaternions and in two different ways (when is non-zero). That is, their quotient can be either or  ; in general, those products are different, depending on the order of multiplication, except for the special case that and are scalar multiples of each other (which includes the case where ). Hence, the notation is ambiguous because it does not specify whether divides on the left or the right (whether multiplies on its left or its right).


title: Quaternion

text: The set formula_4 of all quaternions is a vector space over the real numbers with dimension 4. Multiplication of quaternions is associative and distributes over vector addition, but with the exception of the scalar subset, it is not commutative. Therefore, the quaternions formula_4 are a non-commutative, associative algebra over the real numbers. Even though formula_4 contains copies of the complex numbers, it is not an associative algebra over the complex numbers.


title: Quaternion

text: Because it is possible to divide quaternions, they form a division algebra. This is a structure similar to a field except for the non-commutativity of multiplication. Finite-dimensional associative division algebras over the real numbers are very rare. The Frobenius theorem states that there are exactly three: formula_44, formula_55, and formula_4. The norm makes the quaternions into a normed algebra, and normed division algebras over the real numbers are also very rare: Hurwitz's theorem says that there are only four: formula_44, formula_55, formula_4, and formula_60 (the octonions). The quaternions are also an example of a composition algebra and of a unital Banach algebra.


title: Quaternion

text: Because the product of any two basis vectors is plus or minus another basis vector, the set forms a group under multiplication. This non-abelian group is called the quaternion group and is denoted . The real group ring of is a ring formula_61 which is also an eight-dimensional vector space over formula_62 It has one basis vector for each element of formula_63 The quaternions are isomorphic to the quotient ring of formula_61 by the ideal generated by the elements , , , and . Here the first term in each of the differences is one of the basis elements , and , and the second term is one of basis elements , and , not the additive inverses of , and .


title: Quaternion

text: The vector part of a quaternion can be interpreted as a coordinate vector in formula_65 therefore, the algebraic operations of the quaternions reflect the geometry of formula_26 Operations such as the vector dot and cross products can be defined in terms of quaternions, and this makes it possible to apply quaternion techniques wherever spatial vectors arise. A useful application of quaternions has been to interpolate the orientations of key-frames in computer graphics.


title: Quaternion

text: For the remainder of this section, , , and will denote both the three imaginary basis vectors of formula_4 and a basis for formula_26 Replacing by , by , and by sends a vector to its additive inverse, so the additive inverse of a vector is the same as its conjugate as a quaternion. For this reason, conjugation is sometimes called the "spatial inverse".


title: Quaternion

text: (Recall that the orientation is necessary to determine the sign.) This is equal to the vector part of the product (as quaternions), as well as the vector part of . It also has the formula


title: Quaternion

text: This shows that the noncommutativity of quaternion multiplication comes from the multiplication of vector quaternions. It also shows that two quaternions commute if and only if their vector parts are collinear. Hamilton showed that this product computes the third vertex of a spherical triangle from two given vertices and their associated arc-lengths, which is also an algebra of points in Elliptic geometry.


title: Quaternion

text: Unit quaternions can be identified with rotations in formula_78 and were called versors by Hamilton. Also see Quaternions and spatial rotation for more information about modeling three-dimensional rotations using quaternions.


title: Quaternion

text: Just as complex numbers can be represented as matrices, so can quaternions. There are at least two ways of representing quaternions as matrices in such a way that quaternion addition and multiplication correspond to matrix addition and matrix multiplication. One is to use 2 × 2 complex matrices, and the other is to use 4 × 4 real matrices. In each case, the representation given is one of a family of linearly related representations. In the terminology of abstract algebra, these are injective homomorphisms from formula_4 to the matrix rings and , respectively.


title: Quaternion

text: However, the representation of quaternions in is not unique. For example, the same quaternion can also be represented as


title: Quaternion

text: There exist 48 distinct matrix representations of this form in which one of the matrices represents the scalar part and the other three are all skew-symmetric. More precisely, there are 48 sets of quadruples of matrices with these symmetry constraints such that a function sending , and to the matrices in the quadruple is a homomorphism, that is, it sends sums and products of quaternions to sums and products of matrices.


title: Quaternion

text: In this representation, the conjugate of a quaternion corresponds to the transpose of the matrix. The fourth power of the norm of a quaternion is the determinant of the corresponding matrix. As with the 2 × 2 complex representation above, complex numbers can again be produced by constraining the coefficients suitably; for example, as block diagonal matrices with two 2 × 2 blocks by setting .


title: Quaternion

text: Each 4×4 matrix representation of quaternions corresponds to a multiplication table of unit quaternions. For example, the last matrix representation given above corresponds to the multiplication table


title: Quaternion

text: Constraining any such multiplication table to have the identity in the first row and column and for the signs of the row headers to be opposite to those of the column headers, then there are 3 possible choices for the second column (ignoring sign), 2 possible choices for the third column (ignoring sign), and 1 possible choice for the fourth column (ignoring sign); that makes 6 possibilities. Then, the second column can be chosen to be either positive or negative, the third column can be chosen to be positive or negative, and the fourth column can be chosen to be positive or negative, giving 8 possibilities for the sign. Multiplying the possibilities for the letter positions and for their signs yields 48. Then replacing with , with , with , and with and removing the row and column headers yields a matrix representation of .


title: Quaternion

text: Quaternions are also used in one of the proofs of Lagrange's four-square theorem in number theory, which states that every nonnegative integer is the sum of four integer squares. As well as being an elegant theorem in its own right, Lagrange's four square theorem has useful applications in areas of mathematics outside number theory, such as combinatorial design theory. The quaternion-based proof uses Hurwitz quaternions, a subring of the ring of all quaternions for which there is an analog of the Euclidean algorithm.


title: Quaternion

text: Quaternions can be represented as pairs of complex numbers. From this perspective, quaternions are the result of applying the Cayley–Dickson construction to the complex numbers. This is a generalization of the construction of the complex numbers as pairs of real numbers.


title: Quaternion

text: Let formula_85 be a two-dimensional vector space over the complex numbers. Choose a basis consisting of two elements and . A vector in formula_85 can be written in terms of the basis elements and as


title: Quaternion

text: If we define and , then we can multiply two vectors using the distributive law. Using as an abbreviated notation for the product leads to the same rules for multiplication as the usual quaternions. Therefore, the above vector of complex numbers corresponds to the quaternion . If we write the elements of formula_85 as ordered pairs and quaternions as quadruples, then the correspondence is


title: Quaternion

text: In the complex numbers, formula_90 there are just two numbers, "i" and −"i", whose square is −1 . In formula_4 there are infinitely many square roots of minus one: the quaternion solution for the square root of −1 is the unit sphere in formula_26 To see this, let be a quaternion, and assume that its square is −1. In terms of , and , this means


title: Quaternion

text: To satisfy the last three equations, either or , and are all 0. The latter is impossible because "a" is a real number and the first equation would imply that Therefore, and In other words: A quaternion squares to −1 if and only if it is a vector quaternion with norm 1. By definition, the set of all such vectors forms the unit sphere.


title: Quaternion

text: Only negative real quaternions have infinitely many square roots. All others have just two (or one in the case of 0).


title: Quaternion

text: Each pair of square roots of −1 creates a distinct copy of the complex numbers inside the quaternions. If then the copy is determined by the function


title: Quaternion

text: This is an injective ring homomorphism from formula_55 to formula_99 which defines a field isomorphism from formula_100 onto its image. The images of the embeddings corresponding to and − are identical.


title: Quaternion

text: Every non-real quaternion generates a subalgebra of the quaternions that is isomorphic to formula_90 and is thus a planar subspace of formula_102 write as the sum of its scalar part and its vector part:


title: Quaternion

text: (Note that this is not the same as formula_105.) The versor of the vector part of , formula_106, is a right versor with –1 as its square. A straightforward verification shows that


title: Quaternion

text: defines an injective homomorphism of normed algebras from formula_55 into the quaternions. Under this homomorphism, is the image of the complex number formula_109.


title: Quaternion

text: As formula_4 is the union of the images of all these homomorphisms, this allows viewing the quaternions as a union of complex planes intersecting on the real line. Each of these complex planes contains exactly one pair of antipodal points of the sphere of square roots of minus one.


title: Quaternion

text: The relationship of quaternions to each other within the complex subplanes of formula_4 can also be identified and expressed in terms of commutative subrings. Specifically, since two quaternions and commute (i.e., ) only if they lie in the same complex subplane of formula_4, the profile of formula_4 as a union of complex planes arises when one seeks to find all commutative subrings of the quaternion ring.


title: Quaternion

text: Any quaternion formula_114 (represented here in scalar–vector representation) has at least one square root formula_115 which solves the equation formula_116. Looking at the scalar and vector parts in this equation separately yields two equations, which when solved gives the solutions


title: Quaternion

text: where formula_118 is the norm of formula_119 and formula_120 is the norm of formula_121. For any scalar quaternion formula_121, this equation provides the correct square roots if formula_123 is interpreted as an arbitrary unit vector.


title: Quaternion

text: Therefore, non-zero, non-scalar quaternions, or positive scalar quaternions, have exactly two roots, while 0 has exactly one root (0), and negative scalar quaternions have infinitely many roots, which are the vector quaternions located on formula_124, i.e., where the scalar part is zero and the vector part is located on the 2-sphere with radius formula_125.


title: Quaternion

text: Like functions of a complex variable, functions of a quaternion variable suggest useful physical models. For example, the original electric and magnetic fields described by Maxwell were functions of a quaternion variable. Examples of other functions include the extension of the Mandelbrot set and Julia sets into 4-dimensional space.


title: Quaternion

text: and amounts to the absolute value of half the angle subtended by and along a great arc of the sphere.


title: Quaternion

text: The word "conjugation", besides the meaning given above, can also mean taking an element to where is some non-zero quaternion. All elements that are conjugate to a given element (in this sense of the word conjugate) have the same real part and the same norm of the vector part. (Thus the conjugate in the other sense is one of the conjugates in this sense.)


title: Quaternion

text: Thus the multiplicative group of non-zero quaternions acts by conjugation on the copy of formula_78 consisting of quaternions with real part equal to zero. Conjugation by a unit quaternion (a quaternion of absolute value 1) with real part is a rotation by an angle , the axis of the rotation being the direction of the vector part. The advantages of quaternions are:


title: Quaternion

text: The set of all unit quaternions (versors) forms a 3-sphere and a group (a Lie group) under multiplication, double covering the group of real orthogonal 3×3 matrices of determinant 1 since "two" unit quaternions correspond to every rotation under the above correspondence. See plate trick.


title: Quaternion

text: The image of a subgroup of versors is a point group, and conversely, the preimage of a point group is a subgroup of versors. The preimage of a finite point group is called by the same name, with the prefix binary. For instance, the preimage of the icosahedral group is the binary icosahedral group.


title: Quaternion

text: Let be the set of quaternions of the form where and are either all integers or all half-integers. The set is a ring (in fact a domain) and a lattice and is called the ring of Hurwitz quaternions. There are 24 unit quaternions in this ring, and they are the vertices of a regular 24 cell with Schläfli symbol They correspond to the double cover of the rotational symmetry group of the regular tetrahedron. Similarly, the vertices of a regular 600 cell with Schläfli symbol } can be taken as the unit icosians, corresponding to the double cover of the rotational symmetry group of the regular icosahedron. The double cover of the rotational symmetry group of the regular octahedron corresponds to the quaternions that represent the vertices of the disphenoidal 288-cell.


title: Quaternion

text: The Quaternions can be generalized into further algebras called "quaternion algebras". Take to be any field with characteristic different from 2, and and to be elements of ; a four-dimensional unitary associative algebra can be defined over with basis and , where , and (so ).


title: Quaternion

text: Quaternion algebras are isomorphic to the algebra of 2×2 matrices over or form division algebras over , depending on the choice of and .


title: Quaternion

text: The usefulness of quaternions for geometrical computations can be generalised to other dimensions by identifying the quaternions as the even part formula_139 of the Clifford algebra formula_140 This is an associative multivector algebra built up from fundamental basis elements using the product rules


title: Quaternion

text: If these fundamental basis elements are taken to represent vectors in 3D space, then it turns out that the "reflection" of a vector in a plane perpendicular to a unit vector can be written:


title: Quaternion

text: corresponds to a rotation of 180° in the plane containing "σ" and "σ". This is very similar to the corresponding quaternion formula,


title: Quaternion

text: In this picture, so-called "vector quaternions" (that is, pure imaginary quaternions) correspond not to vectors but to bivectors – quantities with magnitude and orientations associated with particular 2D "planes" rather than 1D "directions". The relation to complex numbers becomes clearer, too: in 2D, with two vector directions and , there is only one bivector basis element , so only one imaginary. But in 3D, with three vector directions, there are three bivector basis elements , , , so three imaginaries.


title: Quaternion

text: This reasoning extends further. In the Clifford algebra formula_148 there are six bivector basis elements, since with four different basic vector directions, six different pairs and therefore six different linearly independent planes can be defined. Rotations in such spaces using these generalisations of quaternions, called rotors, can be very useful for applications involving homogeneous coordinates. But it is only in 3D that the number of basis bivectors equals the number of basis vectors, and each bivector can be identified as a pseudovector.


title: Quaternion

text: The quaternions are "essentially" the only (non-trivial) central simple algebra (CSA) over the real numbers, in the sense that every CSA over the real numbers is Brauer equivalent to either the real numbers or the quaternions. Explicitly, the Brauer group of the real numbers consists of two classes, represented by the real numbers and the quaternions, where the Brauer group is the set of all CSAs, up to equivalence relation of one CSA being a matrix ring over another. By the Artin–Wedderburn theorem (specifically, Wedderburn's part), CSAs are all matrix algebras over a division algebra, and thus the quaternions are the only non-trivial division algebra over the real numbers.


title: Quaternion

text: CSAs – finite dimensional rings over a field, which are simple algebras (have no non-trivial 2-sided ideals, just as with fields) whose center is exactly the field – are a noncommutative analog of extension fields, and are more restrictive than general ring extensions. The fact that the quaternions are the only non-trivial CSA over the real numbers (up to equivalence) may be compared with the fact that the complex numbers are the only non-trivial finite field extension of the real numbers.


title: The Morrígan

text: The Morrígan or Mórrígan, also known as Morrígu, is a figure from Irish mythology. The name is Mór-Ríoghain in Modern Irish, and it has been translated as "great queen" or "phantom queen".


title: The Morrígan

text: The Morrígan is mainly associated with war and fate, especially with foretelling doom, death, or victory in battle. In this role she often appears as a crow, the "badb". She incites warriors to battle and can help bring about victory over their enemies. The Morrígan encourages warriors to do brave deeds, strikes fear into their enemies, and is portrayed washing the bloodstained clothes of those fated to die. She is most frequently seen as a goddess of battle and war and has also been seen as a manifestation of the earth- and sovereignty-goddess, chiefly representing the goddess's role as guardian of the territory and its people.


title: The Morrígan

text: The Morrígan is often described as a trio of individuals, all sisters, called "the three Morrígna". Membership of the triad varies; sometimes it is given as Badb, Macha, and Nemain while elsewhere it is given as Badb, Macha, and Anand (the latter is given as another name for the Morrígan). It is believed that these were all names for the same goddess. The three Morrígna are also named as sisters of the three land goddesses Ériu, Banba, and Fódla. The Morrígan is described as the envious wife of The Dagda and a shape-shifting goddess, while Badb and Nemain are said to be the wives of Neit. She is associated with the banshee of later folklore.


title: The Morrígan

text: There is some disagreement over the meaning of the Morrígan's name. "Mor" may derive from an Indo-European root connoting terror, monstrousness cognate with the Old English "maere" (which survives in the modern English word "nightmare") and the Scandinavian "mara" and the Old East Slavic "mara" ("nightmare"); while "rígan" translates as "queen". This etymological sequence can be reconstructed in the Proto-Celtic language as *"Moro-rīganī-s". Accordingly, "Morrígan" is often translated as "Phantom Queen". This is the derivation generally favoured in current scholarship.


title: The Morrígan

text: In the Middle Irish period, the name is often spelled "Mórrígan" with a lengthening diacritic over the "o", seemingly intended to mean "Great Queen" (Old Irish "mór", "great"; this would derive from a hypothetical Proto-Celtic *"Māra Rīganī-s"). Whitley Stokes believed this latter spelling was due to a false etymology popular at the time. There have also been attempts by modern writers to link the Morrígan with the Welsh literary figure Morgan le Fay from the Matter of Britain, in whose name "mor" may derive from Welsh word for "sea", but the names are derived from different cultures and branches of the Celtic linguistic tree.


title: The Morrígan

text: The earliest sources for the Morrígan are glosses in Latin manuscripts and glossaries (collections of glosses). In a 9th century manuscript containing the Vulgate version of the Book of Isaiah, the word "Lamia" is used to translate the Hebrew "Lilith". A gloss explains this as "a monster in female form, that is, a "morrígan"." "Cormac's Glossary" (also 9th century), and a gloss in the later manuscript H.3.18, both explain the plural word "gudemain" ("spectres") with the plural form "morrígna". The 8th century "O'Mulconry's Glossary" says that Macha is one of the three "morrígna".


title: The Morrígan

text: The Morrígan's earliest narrative appearances, in which she is depicted as an individual, are in stories of the Ulster Cycle, where she has an ambiguous relationship with the hero Cúchulainn. In the "Táin Bó Regamna" (""The Cattle Raid of Regamain""), Cúchulainn encounters the Morrígan, but does not recognise her, as she drives a heifer from his territory. In response to this perceived challenge, and his ignorance of her role as a sovereignty figure, he insults her. But before he can attack her she becomes a black bird on a nearby branch. Cúchulainn now knows who she is, and tells her that had he known before, they would not have parted in enmity. She notes that whatever he had done would have brought him ill luck. To his response that she cannot harm him, she delivers a series of warnings, foretelling a coming battle in which he will be killed. She tells him, "It is at the guarding of thy death that I am; and I shall be."


title: The Morrígan

text: In the "Táin Bó Cúailnge" (""The Cattle Raid of Cooley""), Queen Medb of Connacht launches an invasion of Ulster to steal the bull Donn Cuailnge; the Morrígan, like Alecto of the Greek Furies, appears to the bull in the form of a crow and warns him to flee. Cúchulainn defends Ulster by fighting a series of single combats at fords against Medb's champions. In between combats, the Morrígan appears to him as a young woman and offers him her love and her aid in the battle, but he rejects her offer. In response, she intervenes in his next combat, first in the form of an eel who trips him, then as a wolf who stampedes cattle across the ford, and finally as a white, red-eared heifer leading the stampede, just as she had warned in their previous encounter. However, Cúchulainn wounds her in each form and defeats his opponent despite her interference. Later, she appears to him as an old woman bearing the same three wounds that her animal forms had sustained, milking a cow. She gives Cúchulainn three drinks of milk. He blesses her with each drink, and her wounds are healed. He regrets blessing her for the three drinks of milk, which is apparent in the exchange between the Morrígan and Cúchulainn: "She gave him milk from the third teat, and her leg was healed. 'You told me once,' she said,'that you would never heal me.' 'Had I known it was you,' said Cúchulainn, 'I never would have.'" As the armies gather for the final battle, she prophesies the bloodshed to come.


title: The Morrígan

text: In one version of Cúchulainn's death-tale, as Cúchulainn rides to meet his enemies, he encounters the Morrígan as a hag washing his bloody armour in a ford, an omen of his death. Later in the story, mortally wounded, Cúchulainn ties himself to a standing stone with his own entrails so he can die upright, and it is only when a crow lands on his shoulder that his enemies believe he is dead.


title: The Morrígan

text: The Morrígan also appears in texts of the Mythological Cycle. In 12th-century pseudohistorical compilation the "Lebor Gabála Érenn" (""The Book of the Taking of Ireland""), she is listed among the Tuatha Dé Danann as one of the daughters of Ernmas, granddaughter of Nuada.


title: The Morrígan

text: The first three daughters of Ernmas are given as Ériu, Banba, and Fódla. Their names are synonyms for "Ireland", and they were respectively married to Mac Gréine, Mac Cuill, and Mac Cécht, the last three Tuatha Dé Danann kings of Ireland. Associated with the land and kingship, they probably represent a triple goddess of sovereignty. Next come Ernmas' other three daughters: Badb, Macha, and the Morrígan. A quatrain describes the three as wealthy, "springs of craftiness", and "sources of bitter fighting". The Morrígu's name is also said to be Anand. According to Geoffrey Keating's 17th-century "History of Ireland", Ériu, Banba, and Fódla worshipped Badb, Macha, and the Morrígan respectively.


title: The Morrígan

text: The Morrígan also appears in the "Cath Maige Tuired" (""The Battle of Magh Tuireadh""). On Samhain, she keeps a tryst with the Dagda before the battle against the Fomorians. When he meets her, she is washing herself, standing with one foot on either side of the river Unius, near Riverstown, Co. Sligo. In some sources, she is believed to have created the river. After they have sex, the Morrígan promises to summon the magicians of Ireland to cast spells on behalf of the Tuatha Dé, and to destroy Indech, the Fomorian king, taking from him "the blood of his heart and the kidneys of his valour." Later, we are told, she would bring two handfuls of his blood and deposit them in the same river (however, we are also told later in the text that Indech was killed by Ogma).


title: The Morrígan

text: As battle is about to be joined, the Tuatha Dé leader, Lug, asks each what power they bring to the battle. The Morrígan's reply is difficult to interpret, but involves pursuing, destroying and subduing. When she comes to the battlefield, she chants a poem, and immediately the battle breaks and the Fomorians are driven into the sea. After the battle, she chants another poem celebrating the victory and prophesying the end of the world.


title: The Morrígan

text: In another story, she lures away the bull of a woman named Odras. Odras then follows the Morrígan to the Otherworld, via the cave of Cruachan, which is said to be her "fit abode." When Odras falls asleep, the Morrígan turns her into a pool of water that feeds into the River Shannon. In this story, the Morrigan is called the Dagda's envious queen, fierce of mood. She is also called a "shape-shifter" and a cunning raven caller whose pleasure was in mustered hosts.


title: The Morrígan

text: The Morrígan is often considered a triple goddess, but this triple nature is ambiguous and inconsistent. These triple appearances are partially due to the Celtic significance of threeness. Sometimes she appears as one of three sisters, the daughters of Ernmas: Morrígan, Badb and Macha. Sometimes the trinity consists of Badb, Macha and Anand, collectively known as the "Morrígna". Occasionally, Nemain or Fea appear in the various combinations. However, the Morrígan can also appear alone, and her name is sometimes used interchangeably with Badb.


title: The Morrígan

text: The Morrígan is mainly associated with war and fate, and is often interpreted as a "war goddess". W. M. Hennessy's "The Ancient Irish Goddess of War", written in 1870, was influential in establishing this interpretation. She is said to derive pleasure from mustered hosts. Her role often involves premonitions of a particular warrior's violent death, suggesting a link with the banshee of later folklore. This connection is further noted by Patricia Lysaght: "In certain areas of Ireland this supernatural being is, in addition to the name banshee, also called the "badhb"". Her role was to not only be a symbol of imminent death, but to also influence the outcome of war. Most often, she did this by appearing as a crow flying overhead, and would either inspire fear or courage in the hearts of the warriors. In some cases, she is written to have appeared in visions to those who are destined to die in battle as washing their bloody armor. In this specific role, she is also given the role of foretelling imminent death with a particular emphasis on the individual. There are also a few rare accounts where she would join in the battle itself as a warrior and show her favouritism in a more direct manner.


title: The Morrígan

text: The Morrígan is also associated with the land and animals, particularly livestock. Máire Herbert argues that "war "per se" is not a primary aspect of the role of the goddess." Herbert suggests that "her activities have a tutelary character. She oversees the land, its stock and its society. Her shape-shifting is an expression of her affinity with the whole living universe." Patricia Lysaght notes that the "Cath Maige Tuired" depicts the Morrígan as "a protectress of her people's interests" and associates her with both war and fertility. According to Proinsias Mac Cana, the goddess in Ireland is "primarily concerned with the prosperity of the land: its fertility, its animal life, and (when it is conceived as a political unit) its security against external forces." Likewise, Maria Tymoczko writes, "The welfare and fertility of a people depend on their security against external aggression," and notes that "warlike action can thus have a protective aspect." It is therefore suggested that the Morrígan is a manifestation of the earth- and sovereignty-goddess, chiefly representing the goddess' role as guardian of the territory and its people. She can be interpreted as providing political or military aid, or protection to the king—acting as a goddess of sovereignty, not necessarily of war.


title: The Morrígan

text: It has also been suggested that she was closely linked to the "fianna", and that these groups may have been in some way dedicated to her. These were "bands of youthful warrior-hunters, living on the borders of civilized society and indulging in lawless activities for a time before inheriting property and taking their places as members of settled, landed communities." If true, her worship may have resembled that of Perchta groups in Germanic areas.


title: The Morrígan

text: There is a burnt mound site in County Tipperary known as "Fulacht na Mór Ríoghna" ("cooking pit of the Mórrígan"). The fulachtaí sites are found in wild areas, and are usually associated with outsiders such as the fianna, as well as with the hunting of deer. There may be a link with the three mythical hags who cook the meal of dogflesh that brings the hero Cúchulainn to his doom. The "Dá Chích na Morrígna" ("two breasts of the Mórrígan"), a pair of hills near Brú na Bóinne in County Meath, suggest to some a role as a tutelary goddess, comparable to Anu, who has her own hills, "Dá Chích Anann" ("the breasts of Anu") in County Kerry. Other goddesses known to have similar hills are Áine and Grian of County Limerick who, in addition to a tutelary function, also have solar attributes.


title: The Morrígan

text: There have been attempts by some modern researchers and authors of fiction to link the Morrígan with the character of Morgan, the latter often being depicted in the legend as a fairy or otherwise supernatural sister of King Arthur. Morgan first appears in literature in Geoffrey of Monmouth's 12th-century "Vita Merlini" as a goddess-like figure in no blood relation to Arthur, whom she takes to her Otherworld style land of Avalon following his mortal wound in a battle. In some Arthurian texts, such as "Sir Gawain and the Green Knight", Morgan is portrayed as a hag whose actions set into motion a bloody trail of events that lead the hero into numerous instances of danger. Morgan is also depicted as a seductress, much like the older legends of the Morrígan, and has numerous lovers whom she might be even abducting for this purpose (as in some stories of Lancelot and Ogier the Dane, among others). The character is frequently depicted as wielding power over others to achieve her own purposes, allowing those actions to play out over time, to the benefit or detriment of other characters.


title: The Morrígan

text: However, while the creators of the literary character of Morgan may have been somewhat inspired by the much older tales of the goddess, the relationship likely ends there. Scholars such as Rosalind Clark hold that the names are unrelated, the Welsh "Morgan" (Wales being the original source of the Matter of Britain) being derived from root words associated with the sea, while the Irish "Morrígan" has its roots either in a word for "terror" or a word for "greatness".


title: Botfly

text: Botflies, also known as warble flies, heel flies, and gadflies, are a family of flies known as the Oestridae. Their larvae are internal parasites of mammals, some species growing in the host's flesh and others within the gut. "Dermatobia hominis" is the only species of botfly known to parasitize humans routinely, though other species of flies cause myiasis in humans.


title: Botfly

text: A botfly, also written bot fly, bott fly or bot-fly in various combinations, is any fly in the family Oestridae. Their life cycles vary greatly according to species, but the larvae of all species are internal parasites of mammals. Largely according to species, they also are known variously as warble flies, heel flies, and gadflies. The larvae of some species grow in the flesh of their hosts, while others grow within the hosts' alimentary tracts.


title: Botfly

text: The word "bot" in this sense means a maggot. A warble is a skin lump or callus such as might be caused by an ill-fitting harness, or by the presence of a warble fly maggot under the skin.


title: Botfly

text: The human botfly, "Dermatobia hominis", is the only species of botfly whose larvae ordinarily parasitise humans, though flies in some other families episodically cause human myiasis and are sometimes more harmful.


title: Botfly

text: The Oestridae now are generally defined as including the former families Oestridae, Cuterebridae, Gasterophilidae, and Hypodermatidae as subfamilies.


title: Botfly

text: The Oestridae, in turn, are a family within the superfamily Oestroidea, together with the families Calliphoridae, Mesembrinellidae, Mystacinobiidae, Polleniidae, Rhiniidae, Rhinophoridae, Sarcophagidae, Tachinidae, and Ulurumyiidae.


title: Botfly

text: Of families of flies causing myiasis, the Oestridae include the highest proportion of species whose larvae live as obligate parasites within the bodies of mammals. Roughly 150 species are known worldwide. Most other species of flies implicated in myiasis are members of related families, such as blow-flies.


title: Botfly

text: Botflies deposit eggs on a host, or sometimes use an intermediate vector such as the common housefly, mosquitoes, and, in the case of "D. hominis", a species of tick. After mating, the female botfly captures the phoretic insect by holding onto its wings with her legs. She then makes the slip—attaching 15 to 30 eggs onto the insect or arachnid's abdomen, where they incubate. The fertilized female does this over and over again to distribute the 100 to 400 eggs she produces in her short adult stage of life of only 8–9 days. Larvae from these eggs, stimulated by the warmth and proximity of a large mammal host, drop onto its skin and burrow underneath. Intermediate vectors are often used, since a number of animal hosts recognize the approach of a botfly and flee.


title: Botfly

text: Eggs are deposited on larger animals' skin directly, or the larvae hatch and drop from the eggs attached to the intermediate vector; the body heat of the host animal induces hatching upon contact or immediate proximity. Some forms of botfly also occur in the digestive tract after ingestion by licking.


title: Botfly

text: Myiasis can be caused by larvae burrowing into the skin (or tissue lining) of the host animal. Mature larvae drop from the host and complete the pupal stage in soil. They do not kill the host animal, thus they are true parasites.


title: Botfly

text: The equine botflies present seasonal difficulties to equestrian caretakers, as they lay eggs on the insides of horses' front legs, on the cannon bone and knees and sometimes on the throat or nose, depending on the species. These eggs, which look like small, yellow drops of paint, must be carefully removed during the laying season (late summer and early fall) to prevent infestation in the horse. When a horse rubs its nose on its legs, the eggs are transferred to the mouth and from there to the intestines, where the larvae grow and attach themselves to the stomach lining or the small intestine. The attachment of the larvae to the tissue produces a mild irritation, which results in erosions and ulcerations at the site. Removal of the eggs (which adhere to the host's hair) is difficult, since the bone and tendons are directly under the skin on the cannon bones; eggs must be removed with a sharp knife (often a razor blade) or rough sandpaper and caught before they reach the ground. The larvae remain attached and develop for 10–12 months before they are passed out in the feces. Occasionally, horse owners report seeing botfly larvae in horse manure. These larvae are cylindrical in shape and are reddish orange in color. In one to two months, adult botflies emerge from the developing larvae and the cycle repeats itself. Botflies can be controlled with several types of dewormers, including dichlorvos, ivermectin, and trichlorfon.


title: Botfly

text: In cattle, the lesions caused by these flies can become infected by "Mannheimia granulomatis", a bacterium that causes lechiguana, characterized by rapid-growing, hard lumps beneath the skin of the animal. Without antibiotics, an affected animal will die within 3–11 months.


title: Botfly

text: In cold climates supporting reindeer or caribou-reliant populations, large quantities of "Hypoderma tarandi" (caribou warble fly) maggots are available to human populations during the butchery of animals.


title: Botfly

text: The sixth episode of season one of the television series "Beyond Survival", titled "The Inuit – Survivors of the Future", features survival expert Les Stroud and two Inuit guides hunting caribou on the northern coast of Baffin Island near Pond Inlet, Nunavut, Canada. Upon skinning and butchering of one of the animals, numerous larvae (presumably "H. tarandi", although not explicitly stated) are apparent on the inside of the caribou pelt. Stroud and his two Inuit guides eat (albeit somewhat reluctantly) one larva each, with Stroud commenting that the larva "tastes like milk" and was historically commonly consumed by the Inuit.


title: Botfly

text: Copious art dating back to the Pleistocene in Europe confirms their consumption in premodern times, as well.


title: Christian IX of Denmark

text: Christian IX (8 April 181829 January 1906) was King of Denmark from 1863 until his death in 1906. From 1863 to 1864, he was concurrently Duke of Schleswig, Holstein and Lauenburg.


title: Christian IX of Denmark

text: A younger son of Frederick William, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg, Christian grew up in the Duchy of Schleswig as a prince of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg, a junior branch of the House of Oldenburg which had ruled Denmark since 1448. Although having close family ties to the Danish royal family, he was originally not in the immediate line of succession to the Danish throne. Following the early death of the father in 1831, Christian grew up in Denmark and was educated at the Military Academy of Copenhagen. After unsuccessfully seeking the hand of Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom in marriage, he married his double second cousin, Princess Louise of Hesse-Kassel, in 1842.


title: Christian IX of Denmark

text: In 1852, Christian was chosen as heir-presumptive to the Danish throne in light of the expected extinction of the senior line of the House of Oldenburg. Upon the death of King Frederick VII of Denmark in 1863, Christian (who was Frederick's second cousin and husband of Frederick's paternal first cousin, Louise of Hesse-Kassel) acceded to the throne as the first Danish monarch of the House of Glücksburg.


title: Christian IX of Denmark

text: The beginning of his reign was marked by the Danish defeat in the Second Schleswig War and the subsequent loss of the duchies of Schleswig, Holstein and Lauenburg which made the king immensely unpopular. The following years of his reign were dominated by political disputes as Denmark had only become a constitutional monarchy in 1849 and the balance of power between the sovereign and parliament was still in dispute. In spite of his initial unpopularity and the many years of political strife, where the king was in conflict with large parts of the population, his popularity recovered towards the end of his reign, and he became a national icon due to the length of his reign and the high standards of personal morality with which he was identified.


title: Christian IX of Denmark

text: Christian's six children with Louise married into other European royal families, earning him the sobriquet "the father-in-law of Europe". Among his descendants are Queen Margrethe II of Denmark, King Philippe of Belgium, King Harald V of Norway, Grand Duke Henri of Luxembourg, King Charles III of the United Kingdom, former King Constantine II of Greece, and King Felipe VI of Spain.


title: Christian IX of Denmark

text: Christian IX was born on 8 April 1818 at the residence of his maternal grandparents, Gottorf Castle, near the town of Schleswig in the Duchy of Schleswig. Born as a prince of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Beck, he was the fourth son of Friedrich Wilhelm, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Beck, and Princess Louise Caroline of Hesse-Kassel. He was named after his mother's cousin Prince Christian Frederick of Denmark, the later King Christian VIII, who was also his godfather.


title: Christian IX of Denmark

text: Prince Christian's father was the head of the ducal house of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Beck, a junior male branch of the House of Oldenburg. The family descended from King Christian III of Denmark's younger son, John the Younger, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg, whose grandson Duke August Philipp severed his ties with Denmark and emigrated to Germany where he acquired the manor of Haus Beck in Westphalia, after which the lineage was named Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Beck. His sons and their descendants went into Prussian, Polish and Russian service, until his great-great-grandson, Prince Christian's father, again went into Danish military service, where he was stationed in Holstein. It was there that he had met and married Prince Christian's mother, who was a daughter of Landgrave Charles of Hesse, an originally German prince, who, however, had grown up at the Danish court and had married King Frederick V's youngest daughter, Princess Louise of Denmark. Prince Charles had made a career in Denmark, where he was a Danish Field Marshal and Royal Governor of the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein.


title: Christian IX of Denmark

text: Through his father, Prince Christian was thus a direct male-line descendant of King Christian III of Denmark and an (albeit junior) agnatic descendant of Helvig of Schauenburg (countess of Oldenburg), mother of King Christian I of Denmark, who was the "Semi-Salic" heiress of her brother Adolf of Schauenburg, last Schauenburg duke of Schleswig and count of Holstein. As such, Prince Christian was eligible to succeed in the twin duchies of Schleswig-Holstein, but not first in line. Through his mother, he was thus a great-grandson of Frederick V, great-great-grandson of George II of Great Britain and a descendant of several other monarchs, but had no direct claim to any European throne.


title: Christian IX of Denmark

text: Initially, the young prince grew up with his parents and many brothers and sisters at his maternal grandparents' residence at Gottorf Castle, the habitual seat of the royal governors of the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein. However, in 1824, the dowager duchess of Glücksburg, widow of Frederick Henry William, the last duke of the elder line of the house Schleswig-Holstein-Sønderborg-Glücksburg, who had himself died in 1779, died. Glücksburg Castle, located a little south of Flensburg Fjord, not far from city of Flensburg, was now empty, and on 6 June 1825, Duke Friedrich Wilhelm was appointed Duke of Glücksburg by his brother-in-law, King Frederick VI of Denmark. Duke Friedrich Wilhelm subsequently changed his title to Duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg and thus founded the younger Glücksburg line.


title: Christian IX of Denmark

text: Subsequently, the family moved to Glücksburg Castle, where Prince Christian was raised with his siblings under their father's supervision. The Duke wrote to a friend: However, Duke Friedrich Wilhelm died already at the age of just 46 on 17 February 1831 of a cold that had developed into pneumonia and, at the Duke's own discretion, scarlet fever, which had previously affected two of the his children. His death left the duchess widowed with ten children and without money. Prince Christian was twelve years old as his father died.


title: Christian IX of Denmark

text: Following the early death of his father, King Frederick VI, together with Prince William of Hesse-Philippstal-Barchfeld, a close friend of the Duke, became legal guardians of Prince Christian and his nine siblings. That same year, Prince Christian wanted to be educated as a naval officer, but during King Frederick VI's visit to Gottorp in 1831, shortly after Duke Wilhelm's funeral, the king agreed with his mother that Prince Christian would be sent to Copenhagen to receive an army officer training. Subsequently, in 1832, the year after his father's death, the 14-year-old Prince Christian moved to Copenhagen in order to be educated at the Land Cadet Academy, where he stayed at the house of Colonel Linde, the head of the Land Cadet Academy. He received private lessons at the academy and was rarely with the other cadets. On the other hand, the sonless royal couple took good care of the boy, as Queen Marie was his mother's sister and King Frederick VI his mother's cousin. Also, in 1838, Prince Christian's eldest brother, Duke Karl of Glücksborg, married the king and queen's youngest daughter, Princess Vilhelmine Marie, which further strengthened the bonds between them.


title: Christian IX of Denmark

text: In 1835, Prince Christian was confirmed in the Garrison Church in Copenhagen. The following year, after completing his military education, he was appointed rittmeister at the Royal Horse Guards and was then housed in the Royal Horse Guards Barracks by Frederiksholms Kanal in central Copenhagen. There he lived under simple conditions until King Frederick VI in 1839 granted him a home in the Yellow Palace, an 18th-century town house at 18 Amaliegade, immediately adjacent to the Amalienborg Palace complex, the principal residence of the Danish royal family in the district of Frederiksstaden in central Copenhagen, where he came to live until 1865.


title: Christian IX of Denmark

text: From 1839 to 1841, Prince Christian studied constitutional law and history with his half-cousin Prince Frederick William of Hesse-Kassel at the University of Bonn in Germany. It was there that in December 1839 he received the news of the death of his benefactor King Frederick VI and the accession of his mother's cousin, King Christian VIII. During the holidays he went on various excursions in Germany and also traveled to Venice. In 1841 he returned to Copenhagen. On the way home, he paid a visit to the court in Berlin, where he rejected an otherwise flattering offer from King Frederick William IV of Prussia to join the Prussian army.


title: Christian IX of Denmark

text: As a young man, in 1838, Prince Christian, representing Frederick VI, attended the coronation of Queen Victoria at Westminster Abbey. During his stay in London, he unsuccessfully sought the hand of the young British queen in marriage. Even though she chose to follow her family's wishes and preferred to marry her cousin, Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, the young queen had a good impression of her third cousin Prince Christian, who 25 years later would become father-in-law to her eldest son, the Prince of Wales.


title: Christian IX of Denmark

text: Instead, Prince Christian entered into a marriage that was to have great significance for his future. In 1841 he was engaged to his second cousin Princess Louise of Hesse-Kassel. She was the daughter of Prince William of Hesse-Kassel, who was a Danish general and the governor of Copenhagen. Prince William was married to Christian VIII of Denmark's sister Princess Charlotte of Denmark, and Louise was thus the new king's niece and was closely related to the royal family. As Prince Christian himself she was a great-granddaughter of both Frederick V of Denmark and Landgrave Frederick II of Hesse-Kassel, and thus his double second cousin. Their wedding was celebrated on 26 May 1842 in her parents' residence in Frederick VIII's Palace at Amalienborg. The bride and groom took their bridal tour to Kiel in the Duchy of Holstein, where they visited Prince Christian's older brother, Duke Karl of Glücksburg, and his wife, Frederick VI's daughter Duchess Vilhelmine, who had not been able to attend the wedding.


title: Christian IX of Denmark

text: Louise was a wise and energetic woman who exercised a strong influence over her husband. After the wedding, the couple moved into the Yellow Palace, where their first five children were born between 1843 and 1853: Prince Frederick in 1843, Princess Alexandra in 1844, Prince William in 1845, Princess Dagmar in 1847 and Princess Thyra in 1853. The family was still quite unknown and lived a relatively modest life by royal standards.


title: Christian IX of Denmark

text: In the 1840s, it became increasingly clear that the Danish monarchy was facing a succession crisis. When King Christian VIII succeeded his first cousin King Frederick VI in 1839, the elder male line of the House of Oldenburg was obviously on the point of extinction, as the king's only son and heir-apparent Crown Prince Frederick seemed incapable of fathering children and the king's only brother Prince Ferdinand's marriage to King Frederick VI's daughter was childless. King Frederick VII's childlessness presented a thorny dilemma and the question of succession to the Danish throne proved complex, as the rules of succession in the different parts of the Danish monarchy united under the king's rule, the Kingdom of Denmark proper and the three duchies of Schleswig, Holstein and Saxe-Lauenburg, not being the same, the possibility of a separation of the crown of Denmark from its duchies became probable.


title: Christian IX of Denmark

text: The succession in the Kingdom of Denmark was regulated by the "Lex Regia" (; ), the absolutist constitution of Denmark and Norway promulgated by Frederick III in 1665. With the Lex Regia, Denmark had adopted the Salic Law, but restricted the succession to the agnatic descendants of Frederick III, who was the first hereditary monarch of Denmark (before him, the kingdom was officially elective). Agnatic descent from Frederick III would end with the death of the childless Frederick VII and his equally childless uncle, Prince Ferdinand. At that point, the Lex Regia provided for a Semi-Salic succession, which stipulated that after the extinction of all-male descendance, including all collateral male lines, a female agnate (such as a daughter) of the last male holder of the property would inherit, and after her, her own male heirs according to the Salic order. There were, however, several ways to interpret to whom the crown could pass, since the provision was not entirely clear as to whether a claimant to the throne could be the closest female relative or not. In the duchy of Holstein, where the king reigned as duke, the rules of succession also followed the Salic law, but did not limit the succession to the agnatic descendants of Frederick III. As there were several junior male lines of the House of Oldenburg, who were however not descendants of Frederick III, there were thus numerous agnatic descendants with succession rights in the Duchy of Holstein, who were however not eligible to succeed to the Danish throne. In addition, the two duchies of Schleswig and Holstein were permanently joined to each other by the Treaty of Ribe of 1460, which proclaimed that the two duchies should be "Forever Undivided".


title: Christian IX of Denmark

text: The already complicated dynastic question of the succession was made even more complex as it took place against a background of equally complicated political issues. The movements of nationalism and liberalism had been on the rise in Europe since the Napoleonic era. Whereas the concepts of nation and homeland increasingly replaced dynastic questions for the nationalists, aristocratic privileges and the concept of an absolute ruler of divine right were poorly accepted by the liberals. Denmark and the Duchies were no exception, and the political movement of national liberalism had been on the rise since the 1830s. While the Danish and German national liberals were united in their liberal political aspirations and in their opposition to the absolutist rule of the House of Oldenburg, the two political movements were heavily opposed in the national question. It mainly concerned the question of the affiliation of the Duchy of Schleswig. Constitutionally, the Duchy of Schleswig was a Danish fief, which had become increasingly independent from Denmark during the High Middle Ages. Linguistically, however, Danish, German and North Frisian existed as vernaculars in different parts of the Duchy, and German functioned as the language of law and the ruling class.


title: Christian IX of Denmark

text: The Danish national liberals insisted that Schleswig as a fief had belonged to Denmark for centuries and aimed to restore the southern frontier of Denmark on the Eider river, the historic border between Schleswig and Holstein. The Danish nationalists thus aspired to incorporate the Duchy of Schleswig into the Danish kingdom, in the process separating it from the duchy of Holstein, which should be allowed to pursue its own destiny as a member of the German Confederation or possibly a new united Germany. With the claim of the total integration of Schleswig into the Danish kingdom, the Danish national liberals opposed the German national liberals, whose goal was the union of the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein, their joint independence from Denmark and their membership of the German Confederation as an autonomous German state. The German nationalists thus sought to confirm Schleswig's association with Holstein, in the process detaching Schleswig from Denmark and bringing it into the German Confederation.


title: Christian IX of Denmark

text: There was burgeoning nationalism within both Denmark and the German-speaking parts of Schleswig-Holstein. This meant that a resolution to keep the two Duchies together and as a part of the Danish kingdom could not satisfy the conflicting interests of both Danish and German nationalists, and hindered all hopes of a peaceful solution.


title: Christian IX of Denmark

text: As the nations of Europe looked on, the numerous descendants of Helvig of Schauenburg began to vie for the Danish throne. Frederick VII belonged to the senior branch of Helvig's descendants. In the event of extinction of the senior branch, the house of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Augustenburg would become the most senior branch of the House of Oldenburg, but it did not descend from King Frederick III. However, in the duchies, Christian August II, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Augustenburg, claimed the position of heir to the throne of the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein, being head of the house of Augustenburg, and thus became a symbol of the nationalist German independence movement in Schleswig-Holstein.


title: Christian IX of Denmark

text: The closest female relatives of Frederick VII were his paternal aunt, Princess Louise Charlotte of Denmark, who had married a scion of the cadet branch of the House of Hesse, and her children. However, they were not agnatic descendants of the royal family, so were not eligible to succeed in Schleswig-Holstein.


title: Christian IX of Denmark

text: The dynastic female heir reckoned most eligible according to the original law of primogeniture of Frederick III was Caroline of Denmark (1793–1881), the childless eldest daughter of the late king Frederick VI. Along with another childless daughter, Vilhelmine Marie of Denmark (1808–1891), Duchess of Glücksburg; the next heir was Louise, sister of Frederick VI, who had married the Duke of Augustenburg. The chief heir to that line was the selfsame Frederick of Augustenburg, but his turn would have come only after the death of two childless princesses who were very much alive in 1863.


title: Christian IX of Denmark

text: The House of Glücksburg also held a significant interest in the succession to the throne. A more junior branch of the royal family, they were also descendants of Frederick III through the daughter of King Frederick V of Denmark. Lastly, there was yet a more junior agnatic branch that was eligible to succeed in Schleswig-Holstein. There was Christian himself and his three older brothers, the eldest of whom, Karl, was childless, but the others had produced children, and male children at that.


title: Christian IX of Denmark

text: Prince Christian had been a foster "grandson" of the "grandchildless" royal couple Frederick VI and his Queen consort Marie (Marie Sophie Friederike of Hesse). Familiar with the royal court and the traditions of the recent monarchs, their young ward Prince Christian was a nephew of Queen Marie and a first cousin once removed of Frederick VI. He had been brought up as a Dane, having lived in Danish-speaking lands of the royal dynasty and not having become a German nationalist, which made him a relatively good candidate from the Danish point of view. As junior agnatic descendant, he was eligible to inherit Schleswig-Holstein, but was not the first in line. As a descendant of Frederick III, he was eligible to succeed in Denmark, although here too, he was not first in line.


title: Christian IX of Denmark

text: In 1851, the Russian emperor recommended that Prince Christian advance in the Danish succession. And in 1852, the thorny question of Denmark's succession was finally resolved by the London Protocol of 8 May 1852, signed by the United Kingdom, France, Russia, Prussia and Austria, and ratified by Denmark and Sweden. Christian was chosen as heir presumptive to the throne after Frederick VII's uncle, and thus would become king after the extinction of the most senior line to the Danish throne. A justification for this choice was his marriage to Louise of Hesse-Kassel, who as daughter of the closest female relative of Frederick VII was closely related to the royal family. Louise's mother and brother, and elder sister too, renounced their rights in favor of Louise and her husband. Prince Christian's wife was thereafter the closest female heiress of Frederick VII.


title: Christian IX of Denmark

text: The decision was implemented by the Danish Law of Succession of 31 July 1853—more precisely, the "Royal Ordinance settling the Succession to the Crown on Prince Christian of Glücksburg" which designated him as second-in-line to the Danish throne following King Frederick VII's uncle. Consequently, Prince Christian and his family were granted the titles of Prince and Princess of Denmark and the style of "Highness".


title: Christian IX of Denmark

text: As second-in-line, Prince Christian continued to live in the Yellow Palace with his family. However, as a consequence of their new status, the family were now also granted the right to use Bernstorff Palace north of Copenhagen as their summer residence. It became Princess Louise's favorite residence, and the family often stayed there. It was also at Bernstorff that their youngest son, Prince Valdemar, was born in 1858. At the occasion of Prince Valdemar's baptism, Prince Christian and his family were granted the style of "Royal Highness". Although their economy had improved, the financial situation of the family was still relatively strained.


title: Christian IX of Denmark

text: However, Prince Christian's appointment as successor to the throne was not met with undivided enthusiasm. His relationship with the king was cool, partly because the colorful King Frederick VII did not like the straightforward, military prince, and had preferred to see Christian's eldest son, the young Prince Frederick, take his place, partly because Prince Christian and Princess Louise openly showed their disapproval of the king's third morganatic wife, the actress Louise Rasmussen, who received the title Countess Danner. Politically, Prince Christian also had little influence during his tenure as second-in-line. This was partly due to the distrust of the Countess Danner, partly due to Christian's perceived conservatism, which earned him the distrust of the powerful National Liberal Party. It was not before 1856 that the politician Carl Christoffer Georg Andræ, to whom Prince Christian always felt close, secured him a seat in the Council of State.


title: Christian IX of Denmark

text: The year 1863 became rich in significant events for Prince Christian and his family. On 10 March, his eldest daughter, Princess Alexandra married the Prince of Wales (the future King Edward VII of the United Kingdom). On 20 March, his second son, Prince William was elected King of the Hellenes and ascended the Greek throne taking the name of King George I. And in June 1863, Prince Christian himself became "heir-presumptive" upon the death of the elderly Prince Ferdinand.


title: Christian IX of Denmark

text: On 15 November 1863, King Frederick VII died suddenly at the age of 55, after a sixteen-year reign. Upon the death of Frederick VII, Christian succeeded to the throne at the age of 45. He was proclaimed king from the balcony of Christiansborg Palace by the Council President Carl Christian Hall on 16 November 1863 as Christian IX.


title: Christian IX of Denmark

text: Christian and Denmark was immediately plunged into a crisis over the possession and status of the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein. Already in November 1863, Prince Frederick of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Augustenburg (1829–1880) (the future father-in-law of Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany) claimed the twin-duchies in succession after King Frederick VII and proclaimed himself Frederick VIII, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein. Frederick of Augustenburg (as he was commonly known) had become the symbol of the nationalist German independence movement in Schleswig-Holstein after his father (in exchange for money) renounced his claims as heir to the throne of the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein. In view of the London protocol of 8 May 1852, which concluded the First War of Schleswig, and his father's concurrent renunciation to claims to the throne, Frederick's claim was not recognized by the parties to the protocol.


title: Christian IX of Denmark

text: Under pressure, Christian signed the November Constitution, a treaty that made Schleswig part of Denmark. This resulted in the Second Schleswig War between Denmark and a Prussian/Austrian alliance in 1864. The Peace Conference broke up without having arrived at any conclusion; the outcome of the war was unfavorable to Denmark and led to the incorporation of Schleswig into Prussia in 1865. Holstein was likewise incorporated into Austria in 1865, then Prussia in 1866, following further conflict between Austria and Prussia.


title: Christian IX of Denmark

text: Following the loss, Christian IX went behind the backs of the Danish government to contact the Prussians, offering that the whole of Denmark could join the German Confederation, if Denmark could stay united with Schleswig and Holstein. This proposal was rejected by Bismarck, who feared that the ethnic strife in Schleswig between Danes and Germans would then stay unresolved. Christian IX's negotiations were not publicly known until published in the 2010 book "Dommedag Als" by Tom Buk-Swienty, who had been given access to the royal archives by Queen Margrethe II.


title: Christian IX of Denmark

text: The defeat of 1864 cast a shadow over Christian IX's rule for many years and his attitude to the Danish case—probably without reason—was claimed to be half-hearted. This unpopularity was worsened as he sought unsuccessfully to prevent the spread of democracy throughout Denmark by supporting the authoritarian and conservative prime minister Estrup, whose rule 1875–94 was by many seen as a semi-dictatorship. However, he signed a treaty in 1874 that allowed Iceland, then a Danish possession, to have its own constitution, albeit one under Danish rule. In 1901, he reluctantly asked Johan Henrik Deuntzer to form a government and this resulted in the formation of the Cabinet of Deuntzer. The cabinet consisted of members of the Venstre Reform Party and was the first Danish government not to include the conservative party Højre, even though Højre never had a majority of the seats in the Folketing. This was the beginning of the Danish tradition of parliamentarism and clearly bettered his reputation for his last years.


title: Christian IX of Denmark

text: Another reform occurred in 1866, when the Danish constitution was revised so that Denmark's upper chamber would have more power than the lower. Social security also took a few steps forward during his reign. Old age pensions were introduced in 1891 and unemployment and family benefits were introduced in 1892.


title: Christian IX of Denmark

text: In spite of his initial unpopularity and the many years of political strife, where the king was in conflict with large parts of the population, his popularity recovered towards the end of his reign, and he became a national icon due to the length of his reign and the high standards of personal morality with which he was identified.


title: Christian IX of Denmark

text: Queen Louise died at age 81 on 29 September 1898 at Bernstorff Palace near Copenhagen. King Christian IX survived his wife by seven years, and died peacefully of old age, at age 87, on 29 January 1906 at his residence, Christian IX's Palace at Amalienborg Palace in Copenhagen, after a reign of 42 years and 75 days. After lying in state at the chapel at Christiansborg Palace in Copenhagen, he was interred on 16 February 1906 beside Queen Louise in "Christian IX's Chapel" in Roskilde Cathedral on the island of Zealand, the traditional burial site for Danish monarchs since the 15th century.


title: Christian IX of Denmark

text: After his death, a competition was announced for a double sarcophagus for him and Queen Louise to be placed in "Frederick V's Chapel". The competition was won by the artist Jens Ferdinand Willumsen, but his proposal was deemed too controversial and was not accepted. Instead, two completely different artists were assigned the task, the Dano-Icelandic sculptor Edvard Eriksen and the Danish architect Hack Kampmann. They created a large sarcophagus in white marble flanked by three graceful sculptures symbolizing "Remembrance", "Love" and "Grief".


title: Christian IX of Denmark

text: Upon King Christian IX's death, Crown Prince Frederick ascended the throne at the age of 62 as King Frederick VIII.


title: Christian IX of Denmark

text: Christian's family links with Europe's royal families earned him the sobriquet "the father-in-law of Europe". Four of Christian's children sat on the thrones (either as monarchs or as consorts) of Denmark, Greece, the United Kingdom and Russia. His youngest son, Valdemar, was on 10 November 1886 elected as new Prince of Bulgaria by The 3rd Grand National Assembly of Bulgaria but Christian IX refused to allow prince Valdemar to receive the election.


title: Christian IX of Denmark

text: The great dynastic success of the six children was to a great extent not attributable to Christian himself, but the result of the ambitions of his wife Louise of Hesse-Kassel. An additional factor was that Denmark was not one of the Great Powers, so the other powers did not fear that the balance of power in Europe would be upset by a marriage of one of its royalty to another royal house.


title: Christian IX of Denmark

text: Christian's grandsons included Nicholas II of Russia, Constantine I of Greece, George V of the United Kingdom, Christian X of Denmark and Haakon VII of Norway.


title: Christian IX of Denmark

text: Today, most of Europe's reigning and ex-reigning royal families are direct descendants of Christian IX, and most current European monarchs are descended from him, including Queen Margrethe II of Denmark, King Charles III of the United Kingdom, King Philippe of Belgium, King Harald V of Norway, King Felipe VI of Spain and Grand Duke Henri of Luxembourg. The former consort Queen Sofía of Spain is also an agnatic descendant of Christian IX, as is Constantine II, the former and last King of the Hellenes, and his consort the former Queen Anne-Marie. Former King Michael I of Romania and his wife Anne were also descendants of Christian IX.


title: Disappearance of Natalee Holloway

text: Natalee Ann Holloway (born October 21, 1986disappeared May 30, 2005) was an 18-year-old American woman whose mysterious disappearance made international news after she vanished on May 30, 2005, near the end of a high school graduation trip to Aruba in the Caribbean. Holloway lived in Mountain Brook, Alabama, and graduated from Mountain Brook High School on May 24, 2005, days before the trip. Her disappearance resulted in a media sensation in the United States. Her remains have not been found.


title: Disappearance of Natalee Holloway

text: Holloway was scheduled to fly home from the Caribbean island on May 30, 2005, but she failed to appear for her flight. Her classmates last saw her outside of Carlos'n Charlie's, a restaurant and nightclub in Oranjestad. She was in a car with local residents Joran van der Sloot and brothers Deepak and Satish Kalpoe. When the three men were questioned, they said that they dropped off Holloway at her hotel and denied knowing what had become of her. Upon further investigation by authorities, Van der Sloot was arrested twice on suspicion of involvement in her disappearance and the Kalpoes were each arrested three times. Due to lack of evidence, the three suspects were released each time without being charged with a crime. Holloway's parents criticized Aruban police for the lack of progress in the investigation and interrogation of the three men who were last seen with their daughter. The family also called for a boycott of Aruba, which gained Alabama Governor Bob Riley's support but failed to gain widespread backing.


title: Disappearance of Natalee Holloway

text: With the assistance of hundreds of volunteers, Aruban investigators conducted an extensive search operation. American special agents from the FBI, 50 Dutch soldiers and three specially equipped Dutch Air Force F-16 aircraft participated in the search. In addition to the ground search, divers searched the ocean for Holloway's body. Holloway's remains were never found. On December 18, 2007, Aruban prosecutors announced that the case would be closed without charging anyone with a crime. The Aruban prosecutor's office reopened the case on February 1, 2008, after receiving video footage of Van der Sloot, under the influence of marijuana, saying that Holloway died on the morning of her disappearance, and that a friend had disposed of her body. Van der Sloot later denied that what he had said was true, and in an interview said that he had sold Holloway into sexual slavery. He later retracted his comments. In January 2012, Van der Sloot was convicted of the May 30, 2010, murder of 21-year-old Stephany Flores Ramírez in Lima, Peru. At the request of Holloway's father, Alabama judge Alan King declared Holloway legally dead on January 12, 2012.


title: Disappearance of Natalee Holloway

text: Holloway was the first of two children born to Dave and Elizabeth "Beth" Holloway (1960–) in Memphis, Tennessee. Her parents divorced in 1993, and she and her younger brother Matthew were raised by their mother. In 2000, Beth married George "Jug" Twitty, a prominent Alabama businessman, and the family moved to Mountain Brook, Alabama. Holloway graduated with honors in May 2005 from Mountain Brook High School, located in a wealthy suburb of Birmingham. She was a member of the National Honor Society and the school dance squad and participated in other extracurricular activities. Holloway was scheduled to attend the University of Alabama on a full scholarship, where she planned to pursue a pre-med track. At the time of his daughter's disappearance, Dave Holloway was an insurance agent for State Farm in Meridian, Mississippi, while Beth Twitty was employed by the Mountain Brook School System.


title: Disappearance of Natalee Holloway

text: On Thursday, May 26, 2005, Holloway and 124 fellow graduates of Mountain Brook High School arrived in Aruba for a five-day, unofficial graduation trip. The teenagers were accompanied by seven chaperones. According to teacher and chaperone Bob Plummer, the chaperones met with the students each day to make sure everything was fine. Jodi Bearman, who organized the trip, stated, "the chaperones were not supposed to keep up with their every move." Police Commissioner Gerold Dompig, who headed the investigation from mid-2005 until 2006, stated that the Mountain Brook students engaged in "wild partying, a lot of drinking, lots of room switching every night. We know the Holiday Inn told them they weren't welcome next year. Natalee, we know, she drank all day every day. We have statements she started every morning with cocktails—so much drinking that Natalee didn't show up for breakfast two mornings." Two of Holloway's classmates, Liz Cain and Claire Fierman, "agreed that the drinking was kind of excessive."


title: Disappearance of Natalee Holloway

text: Holloway was last seen by her classmates around 1:30 a.m. on Monday, May 30, as she was leaving the Oranjestad bar and nightclub Carlos'n Charlie's. She left in a car with 17-year-old Joran van der Sloot— a Dutch honors student who was living in Aruba and attending the International School of Aruba— and his two Surinamese friends, brothers 21-year-old Deepak Kalpoe (the owner of the car) and 18-year-old Satish Kalpoe. Holloway was scheduled to fly home later that day, but she did not appear for her return flight. Her packed luggage and her passport were found in her Holiday Inn room. Aruban authorities initiated searches for Holloway throughout the island and surrounding waters but did not find her.


title: Disappearance of Natalee Holloway

text: Immediately following Holloway's missed flight, her mother and stepfather flew with friends to Aruba by private jet. Within four hours of landing on the island, the Twittys presented the Aruban police with the name and address of Van der Sloot, who was the person with whom Holloway left the nightclub. Beth stated that Van der Sloot's full name was given to her by the night manager at the Holiday Inn, who supposedly recognized him on a videotape. The Twittys and their friends went to the Van der Sloot home with two Aruban policemen to look for Holloway. Van der Sloot initially denied knowing Holloway's name, but he then told a story corroborated by Deepak Kalpoe, who was present in the house: Van der Sloot related that they drove Holloway to the California Lighthouse area of Arashi Beach because she wanted to see sharks; they later dropped Holloway off at her hotel at around 2:00 a.m. According to Van der Sloot, Holloway fell down as she exited the car but refused his help. He stated that as he and Kalpoe were driving away, Holloway was approached by a dark man in a black shirt similar to those worn by security guards.


title: Disappearance of Natalee Holloway

text: The search and rescue efforts for Holloway began immediately. Hundreds of volunteers from Aruba and the United States joined in the effort. During the first days of the search, the Aruban government gave thousands of civil servants the day off to participate in the rescue effort. Fifty Dutch marines conducted an extensive search of the shoreline. Aruban banks raised $20,000 and provided other support to aid volunteer search teams. Beth Twitty was provided with housing, initially at the Holiday Inn where she coincidentally stayed in the same room her daughter had occupied. She subsequently stayed at the presidential suite of the nearby Wyndham Hotel.


title: Disappearance of Natalee Holloway

text: Reports indicated that Holloway did not appear on any nighttime surveillance camera footage of the hotel lobby; however, Twitty has made varying statements as to whether the cameras were operational that night. According to an April 19, 2006, statement made by Twitty, the video cameras at the Holiday Inn were not functioning the night Holloway vanished. Twitty has made other statements indicating that they were working and has stated so in her book. Police Commissioner Jan van der Straaten — the initial head of the investigation until his 2005 retirement — said that Holloway did not have to go through the lobby to return to her room.


title: Disappearance of Natalee Holloway

text: The search for physical evidence was extensive and subject to occasional false leads; for example, a possible blood sample taken from Deepak Kalpoe's car was tested but determined not to be blood.


title: Disappearance of Natalee Holloway

text: American law enforcement cooperated substantially with Aruban authorities from the early days of the investigation. U.S. Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice stated to reporters that the United States was in constant contact with Aruban authorities. Another State Department official indicated, "Substantial resources are being applied to this as they <nowiki>[Aruba officials]</nowiki> continue to ask for more."


title: Disappearance of Natalee Holloway

text: On June 5, Aruban police detained Nick John and Abraham Jones, former security guards from the nearby Allegro Hotel (which was then closed for renovation) on suspicion of murder and kidnapping. Authorities have never officially disclosed the reason for their arrests, but, according to news accounts, statements made by Van der Sloot and the Kalpoe brothers may have been a factor in their arrests. Reports also indicated that the two former guards were known for cruising hotels to pick up women, and at least one of them had a prior incident with law enforcement. John and Jones were released on June 13 without being charged.


title: Disappearance of Natalee Holloway

text: On June 9, Van der Sloot and the Kalpoe brothers were arrested on suspicion of the kidnapping and murder of Holloway. Aruban law allows for investigators to make an arrest based on serious suspicion. In order to continue holding the suspect in custody, an increasing evidential burden must be met at periodic reviews. According to Dompig, the focus of the investigation centered on these three suspects from the "get-go". Dompig stated that close observation of the three men began three days after Holloway was reported missing, and the investigation included surveillance, telephone wiretaps, and even monitoring of their e-mail. Dompig indicated that pressure from Holloway's family caused the police to prematurely stop their surveillance and detain the three suspects.


title: Disappearance of Natalee Holloway

text: As the investigation continued, David Cruz—spokesman for the Aruban Minister of Justice—falsely indicated on June 11 that Holloway was dead and that authorities knew the location of her body. Cruz later retracted the statement, saying he was a victim of a "misinformation campaign". That evening, Dompig alleged to the Associated Press that one of the detained young men admitted "something bad happened" to Holloway after the suspects took her to the beach and that the suspect was leading police to the scene. The next morning, prosecution spokeswoman Vivian van der Biezen refused to confirm or deny the allegation, simply stating that the investigation was at a "very crucial, very important moment".


title: Disappearance of Natalee Holloway

text: On June 17, a sixth person later identified as disc jockey Steve Gregory Croes was also arrested. Van der Straaten told the media that "Croes was detained based on information from one of the other three detainees." On June 22, Aruban police detained Van der Sloot's father, Paulus van der Sloot, for questioning; he was arrested that same day. Both Paulus and Croes were ordered to be released on June 26.


title: Disappearance of Natalee Holloway

text: During this period, the suspects who had been detained changed their stories. All three indicated that Van der Sloot and Holloway were dropped off at the Marriott Hotel beach near the fishermen's huts. Van der Sloot stated that he did not harm Holloway but left her on the beach. According to Satish Kalpoe's attorney, David Kock, Van der Sloot called Deepak Kalpoe to tell the latter that he was walking home and sent him a text message forty minutes later. At some time during the interrogation, Van der Sloot detailed a third account that he was dropped off at home and Holloway was driven off by the Kalpoe brothers. Dompig discounted the story, stating:


title: Disappearance of Natalee Holloway

text: This latest story [came] when [Van der Sloot] saw the other guys, the Kalpoes, were kind of finger-pointing in his direction, and he wanted to screw them also, by saying he was dropped off. But that story doesn't check out at all. He just wanted to screw Deepak. They had great arguments about this in front of the judge. Because their stories didn't match. This girl, she was from Alabama, she's not going to stay in the car with two black kids. We believe the second story, that they were dropped off by the Marriott.


title: Disappearance of Natalee Holloway

text: Following hearings before a judge, the Kalpoe brothers were released on Monday, July 4, but Van der Sloot was detained for an additional 60 days.


title: Disappearance of Natalee Holloway

text: On July 4, the Royal Netherlands Air Force deployed three F-16 aircraft equipped with infrared sensors to aid in the search, but the results came up empty. In March 2006 it was reported that satellite photos were being compared with photographs taken more recently (presumably from the F-16s) in an attempt to find unexpected shifts of ground that might be Holloway's grave.


title: Disappearance of Natalee Holloway

text: After a local gardener came forward with information, a small pond near the Aruba Racquet Club close to the Marriott Hotel beach was partly drained between July 27 and 30, 2005. According to Jug Twitty, the gardener claimed to have seen Van der Sloot attempting to hide his face as he drove into the Racquet Club with the Kalpoe brothers on the very early morning of May 30 between 2:30 a.m. and 3:00 a.m. Nancy Grace described the gardener as "the man whose testimony cracks the case wide open". Another person, "the jogger", claimed to have seen men burying a blonde-haired woman in a landfill during the afternoon of May 30. The police had searched the landfill in the days following Holloway's disappearance. After the jogger's statements, the landfill was searched three more times; the FBI used cadaver dogs to assist in the recovery operation. The searches were fruitless.


title: Disappearance of Natalee Holloway

text: Holloway's family initially offered $175,000 and donors offered $50,000 for her safe return. Two months after her disappearance, the reward was increased from $200,000 to $1,000,000, with a $100,000 reward for information leading to the location of her remains. In August 2005, the reward for information leading to Natalee's corpse was increased from $100,000 to $250,000.


title: Disappearance of Natalee Holloway

text: The FBI announced that Aruban authorities had provided its agency with documents, suspect interviews, and other evidence. Investigators found a piece of duct tape with strands of blond hair attached to it; the samples were tested at a Dutch lab. A group from the Aruban police and prosecutor's office then traveled to the FBI central laboratory at Quantico, Virginia, to consult with American investigators. The hair samples were then tested a second time. The FBI announced that the hair samples did not belong to Holloway.


title: Disappearance of Natalee Holloway

text: The Kalpoe brothers were rearrested on August 26 along with another new suspect, 21-year-old Freddy Arambatzis. Arambatzis' lawyer said that his client was suspected of taking photographs of an underage girl and having inappropriate physical contact with the same girl. This incident allegedly occurred before the Holloway disappearance. Arambatzis' friends Van der Sloot and the Kalpoe brothers were supposedly involved in the incident. Van der Sloot's mother, Anita van der Sloot, stated, "It's a desperate attempt to get the boys to talk. But there is nothing to talk about." While no public explanation was then made for the Kalpoe rearrests, Dompig later said that it was an unsuccessful attempt to pressure the brothers into confessing.


title: Disappearance of Natalee Holloway

text: On September 3, the four detained suspects were released by a judge despite the attempts of the prosecution to keep them in custody. The suspects were released on the condition that they remain available to police. On September 14, all restrictions on them were removed by the Combined Appeals Court of the Netherlands Antilles and Aruba.


title: Disappearance of Natalee Holloway

text: In the months following his release, Van der Sloot gave several interviews that explained his version of events. The most notable interview was broadcast on Fox News over three nights in March 2006. During the interview, Van der Sloot indicated that Holloway wanted to have sex with him, but he did not because he didn't have a condom. He stated that Holloway wanted them to stay on the beach, but that he had to go to school in the morning. According to Van der Sloot, he was picked up by Satish Kalpoe at about 3:00 am and left Holloway sitting on the beach. In August 2005, David Kock, Kalpoe's attorney, stated that his client had gone to sleep, and had not returned to drive Van der Sloot home. Van der Sloot stated that he was somewhat ashamed to have left a young woman alone on the beach, albeit by her own request, and related that he was not truthful at first because he was convinced that Holloway would soon turn up.


title: Disappearance of Natalee Holloway

text: In January 2006, the FBI and Aruban authorities interviewed—or in some cases, re-interviewed—several of Holloway's classmates in Alabama. On January 17, Aruban police searched for Holloway's body in sand dunes on the northwest coast of Aruba, as well as areas close by the Marriott beach. Additional searches took place in March and April 2006, without result.


title: Disappearance of Natalee Holloway

text: Shortly before leaving the case, Dompig gave an interview to CBS in which he stated that he believed Holloway was not murdered but probably died from alcohol and/or drug poisoning, and that someone later hid her body. Dompig also stated that Aruba had spent about $3 million on the investigation, which was about 40% of the police operational budget. Dompig indicated that there was evidence that pointed to possession (though not necessarily use) of illicit drugs by Holloway. Members of Holloway's family have denied that she used drugs.


title: Disappearance of Natalee Holloway

text: On April 11, 2006, Dave Holloway published a book—co-authored with R. Stephanie Good and Larry Garrison—called "", that recounted the search for his daughter.


title: Disappearance of Natalee Holloway

text: On April 15, 2006, Geoffrey van Cromvoirt was arrested by Aruban authorities on suspicion of criminal offenses related to dealing in narcotics which, according to the prosecutor, might have been related to the disappearance of Holloway. At his first court appearance, his detention was extended by eight days. Van Cromvoirt was released, however, on April 25. In addition, another individual with initials "A.B." was arrested on April 22, but was released the same day.


title: Disappearance of Natalee Holloway

text: On May 17, another suspect, Guido Wever (the son of a former Aruban politician) was detained in the Netherlands on suspicion of assisting in the abducting, battering, and killing of Holloway. Wever was questioned for six days in Utrecht. Aruban prosecutors initially sought his transfer to the island, but he was instead released by agreement between the prosecutor and Wever's attorney.


title: Disappearance of Natalee Holloway

text: At Aruba's request, the Netherlands took over the investigation. Following receipt of extensive case documentation in Rotterdam, a team of the Dutch National Police started work on the case in September. On April 16, 2007, a combined Aruban–Dutch team began pursuing the investigation in Aruba.


title: Disappearance of Natalee Holloway

text: A book by Van der Sloot and reporter Zvezdana Vukojevic, "De zaak Natalee Holloway" ("The Case of Natalee Holloway") was published in Dutch in April 2007. In the book, Van der Sloot gives his perspective of the night Holloway disappeared and the media frenzy that followed. He admits to and apologizes for his initial untruths, but maintains his innocence.