title: Federation

text: The federal government is the government at the level of the sovereign state. Usual responsibilities of this level of government are maintaining national security and exercising international diplomacy, including the right to sign binding treaties. Basically, a modern federal government, within the limits defined by its constitution, has the power to make laws for the whole country, unlike local governments. As originally written, the United States Constitution was created to limit the federal government from exerting power over the states by enumerating only specific powers. It was further limited by the addition of the Tenth Amendment contained in the Bill of Rights and the Eleventh Amendment. However, later amendments, particularly the Fourteenth Amendment, gave the federal government considerable authority over states.


title: Federation

text: Federal government within this structure are the government ministries and departments and agencies to which the ministers of government are assigned.


title: Federation

text: There are 27 federations in the world, with 6 each in Africa, Asia and Europe, 4 in North America, 3 in South America and 2 in Oceania.


title: Metabolism

text: Metabolism (, from "metabolē", "change") is the set of life-sustaining chemical reactions in organisms. The three main functions of metabolism are: the conversion of the energy in food to energy available to run cellular processes; the conversion of food to building blocks for proteins, lipids, nucleic acids, and some carbohydrates; and the elimination of metabolic wastes. These enzyme-catalyzed reactions allow organisms to grow and reproduce, maintain their structures, and respond to their environments. The word metabolism can also refer to the sum of all chemical reactions that occur in living organisms, including digestion and the transportation of substances into and between different cells, in which case the above described set of reactions within the cells is called intermediary (or intermediate) metabolism.


title: Metabolism

text: Metabolic reactions may be categorized as "catabolic" – the "breaking down" of compounds (for example, of glucose to pyruvate by cellular respiration); or "anabolic" – the "building up" (synthesis) of compounds (such as proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids). Usually, catabolism releases energy, and anabolism consumes energy.


title: Metabolism

text: The chemical reactions of metabolism are organized into metabolic pathways, in which one chemical is transformed through a series of steps into another chemical, each step being facilitated by a specific enzyme. Enzymes are crucial to metabolism because they allow organisms to drive desirable reactions that require energy and will not occur by themselves, by coupling them to spontaneous reactions that release energy. Enzymes act as catalysts – they allow a reaction to proceed more rapidly – and they also allow the regulation of the rate of a metabolic reaction, for example in response to changes in the cell's environment or to signals from other cells.


title: Metabolism

text: The metabolic system of a particular organism determines which substances it will find nutritious and which poisonous. For example, some prokaryotes use hydrogen sulfide as a nutrient, yet this gas is poisonous to animals. The basal metabolic rate of an organism is the measure of the amount of energy consumed by all of these chemical reactions.


title: Metabolism

text: A striking feature of metabolism is the similarity of the basic metabolic pathways among vastly different species. For example, the set of carboxylic acids that are best known as the intermediates in the citric acid cycle are present in all known organisms, being found in species as diverse as the unicellular bacterium "Escherichia coli" and huge multicellular organisms like elephants. These similarities in metabolic pathways are likely due to their early appearance in evolutionary history, and their retention is likely due to their efficacy. In various diseases, such as type II diabetes, metabolic syndrome, and cancer, normal metabolism is disrupted. The metabolism of cancer cells is also different from the metabolism of normal cells, and these differences can be used to find targets for therapeutic intervention in cancer.


title: Metabolism

text: Most of the structures that make up animals, plants and microbes are made from four basic classes of molecules: amino acids, carbohydrates, nucleic acid and lipids (often called fats). As these molecules are vital for life, metabolic reactions either focus on making these molecules during the construction of cells and tissues, or on breaking them down and using them to obtain energy, by their digestion. These biochemicals can be joined to make polymers such as DNA and proteins, essential macromolecules of life.


title: Metabolism

text: Proteins are made of amino acids arranged in a linear chain joined by peptide bonds. Many proteins are enzymes that catalyze the chemical reactions in metabolism. Other proteins have structural or mechanical functions, such as those that form the cytoskeleton, a system of scaffolding that maintains the cell shape. Proteins are also important in cell signaling, immune responses, cell adhesion, active transport across membranes, and the cell cycle. Amino acids also contribute to cellular energy metabolism by providing a carbon source for entry into the citric acid cycle (tricarboxylic acid cycle), especially when a primary source of energy, such as glucose, is scarce, or when cells undergo metabolic stress.


title: Metabolism

text: Lipids are the most diverse group of biochemicals. Their main structural uses are as part of biological membranes both internal and external, such as the cell membrane. Their chemical energy can also be used. Lipids are the polymers of fatty acids that contain a long, non-polar hydrocarbon chain with a small polar region containing oxygen. Lipids are usually defined as hydrophobic or amphipathic biological molecules but will dissolve in organic solvents such as ethanol, benzene or chloroform. The fats are a large group of compounds that contain fatty acids and glycerol; a glycerol molecule attached to three fatty acids by ester linkages is called a triacylglyceride. Several variations on this basic structure exist, including backbones such as sphingosine in sphingomyelin, and hydrophilic groups such as phosphate as in phospholipids. Steroids such as sterol are another major class of lipids.


title: Metabolism

text: Carbohydrates are aldehydes or ketones, with many hydroxyl groups attached, that can exist as straight chains or rings. Carbohydrates are the most abundant biological molecules, and fill numerous roles, such as the storage and transport of energy (starch, glycogen) and structural components (cellulose in plants, chitin in animals). The basic carbohydrate units are called monosaccharides and include galactose, fructose, and most importantly glucose. Monosaccharides can be linked together to form polysaccharides in almost limitless ways.


title: Metabolism

text: The two nucleic acids, DNA and RNA, are polymers of nucleotides. Each nucleotide is composed of a phosphate attached to a ribose or deoxyribose sugar group which is attached to a nitrogenous base. Nucleic acids are critical for the storage and use of genetic information, and its interpretation through the processes of transcription and protein biosynthesis. This information is protected by DNA repair mechanisms and propagated through DNA replication. Many viruses have an RNA genome, such as HIV, which uses reverse transcription to create a DNA template from its viral RNA genome. RNA in ribozymes such as spliceosomes and ribosomes is similar to enzymes as it can catalyze chemical reactions. Individual nucleosides are made by attaching a nucleobase to a ribose sugar. These bases are heterocyclic rings containing nitrogen, classified as purines or pyrimidines. Nucleotides also act as coenzymes in metabolic-group-transfer reactions.


title: Metabolism

text: Metabolism involves a vast array of chemical reactions, but most fall under a few basic types of reactions that involve the transfer of functional groups of atoms and their bonds within molecules. This common chemistry allows cells to use a small set of metabolic intermediates to carry chemical groups between different reactions. These group-transfer intermediates are called coenzymes. Each class of group-transfer reactions is carried out by a particular coenzyme, which is the substrate for a set of enzymes that produce it, and a set of enzymes that consume it. These coenzymes are therefore continuously made, consumed and then recycled.


title: Metabolism

text: One central coenzyme is adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the universal energy currency of cells. This nucleotide is used to transfer chemical energy between different chemical reactions. There is only a small amount of ATP in cells, but as it is continuously regenerated, the human body can use about its own weight in ATP per day. ATP acts as a bridge between catabolism and anabolism. Catabolism breaks down molecules, and anabolism puts them together. Catabolic reactions generate ATP, and anabolic reactions consume it. It also serves as a carrier of phosphate groups in phosphorylation reactions.


title: Metabolism

text: A vitamin is an organic compound needed in small quantities that cannot be made in cells. In human nutrition, most vitamins function as coenzymes after modification; for example, all water-soluble vitamins are phosphorylated or are coupled to nucleotides when they are used in cells. Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD), a derivative of vitamin B (niacin), is an important coenzyme that acts as a hydrogen acceptor. Hundreds of separate types of dehydrogenases remove electrons from their substrates and reduce NAD into NADH. This reduced form of the coenzyme is then a substrate for any of the reductases in the cell that need to transfer hydrogen atoms to their substrates. Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide exists in two related forms in the cell, NADH and NADPH. The NAD/NADH form is more important in catabolic reactions, while NADP/NADPH is used in anabolic reactions.


title: Metabolism

text: Inorganic elements play critical roles in metabolism; some are abundant (e.g. sodium and potassium) while others function at minute concentrations. About 99% of a human's body weight is made up of the elements carbon, nitrogen, calcium, sodium, chlorine, potassium, hydrogen, phosphorus, oxygen and sulfur. Organic compounds (proteins, lipids and carbohydrates) contain the majority of the carbon and nitrogen; most of the oxygen and hydrogen is present as water.


title: Metabolism

text: The abundant inorganic elements act as electrolytes. The most important ions are sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, phosphate and the organic ion bicarbonate. The maintenance of precise ion gradients across cell membranes maintains osmotic pressure and pH. Ions are also critical for nerve and muscle function, as action potentials in these tissues are produced by the exchange of electrolytes between the extracellular fluid and the cell's fluid, the cytosol. Electrolytes enter and leave cells through proteins in the cell membrane called ion channels. For example, muscle contraction depends upon the movement of calcium, sodium and potassium through ion channels in the cell membrane and T-tubules.


title: Metabolism

text: Transition metals are usually present as trace elements in organisms, with zinc and iron being most abundant of those. Metal cofactors are bound tightly to specific sites in proteins; although enzyme cofactors can be modified during catalysis, they always return to their original state by the end of the reaction catalyzed. Metal micronutrients are taken up into organisms by specific transporters and bind to storage proteins such as ferritin or metallothionein when not in use.


title: Metabolism

text: Catabolism is the set of metabolic processes that break down large molecules. These include breaking down and oxidizing food molecules. The purpose of the catabolic reactions is to provide the energy and components needed by anabolic reactions which build molecules. The exact nature of these catabolic reactions differ from organism to organism, and organisms can be classified based on their sources of energy, hydrogen, and carbon (their primary nutritional groups), as shown in the table below. Organic molecules are used as a source of hydrogen atoms or electrons by organotrophs, while lithotrophs use inorganic substrates. Whereas phototrophs convert sunlight to chemical energy, chemotrophs depend on redox reactions that involve the transfer of electrons from reduced donor molecules such as organic molecules, hydrogen, hydrogen sulfide or ferrous ions to oxygen, nitrate or sulfate. In animals, these reactions involve complex organic molecules that are broken down to simpler molecules, such as carbon dioxide and water. Photosynthetic organisms, such as plants and cyanobacteria, use similar electron-transfer reactions to store energy absorbed from sunlight.


title: Metabolism

text: The most common set of catabolic reactions in animals can be separated into three main stages. In the first stage, large organic molecules, such as proteins, polysaccharides or lipids, are digested into their smaller components outside cells. Next, these smaller molecules are taken up by cells and converted to smaller molecules, usually acetyl coenzyme A (acetyl-CoA), which releases some energy. Finally, the acetyl group on acetyl-CoA is oxidized to water and carbon dioxide in the citric acid cycle and electron transport chain, releasing more energy while reducing the coenzyme nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) into NADH.


title: Metabolism

text: Macromolecules cannot be directly processed by cells. Macromolecules must be broken into smaller units before they can be used in cell metabolism. Different classes of enzymes are used to digest these polymers. These digestive enzymes include proteases that digest proteins into amino acids, as well as glycoside hydrolases that digest polysaccharides into simple sugars known as monosaccharides.


title: Metabolism

text: Microbes simply secrete digestive enzymes into their surroundings, while animals only secrete these enzymes from specialized cells in their guts, including the stomach and pancreas, and in salivary glands. The amino acids or sugars released by these extracellular enzymes are then pumped into cells by active transport proteins.


title: Metabolism

text: Carbohydrate catabolism is the breakdown of carbohydrates into smaller units. Carbohydrates are usually taken into cells after they have been digested into monosaccharides. Once inside, the major route of breakdown is glycolysis, where sugars such as glucose and fructose are converted into pyruvate and some ATP is generated. Pyruvate is an intermediate in several metabolic pathways, but the majority is converted to acetyl-CoA through aerobic (with oxygen) glycolysis and fed into the citric acid cycle. Although some more ATP is generated in the citric acid cycle, the most important product is NADH, which is made from NAD as the acetyl-CoA is oxidized. This oxidation releases carbon dioxide as a waste product. In anaerobic conditions, glycolysis produces lactate, through the enzyme lactate dehydrogenase re-oxidizing NADH to NAD+ for re-use in glycolysis.


title: Metabolism

text: Fats are catabolized by hydrolysis to free fatty acids and glycerol. The glycerol enters glycolysis and the fatty acids are broken down by beta oxidation to release acetyl-CoA, which then is fed into the citric acid cycle. Fatty acids release more energy upon oxidation than carbohydrates. Steroids are also broken down by some bacteria in a process similar to beta oxidation, and this breakdown process involves the release of significant amounts of acetyl-CoA, propionyl-CoA, and pyruvate, which can all be used by the cell for energy. "M. tuberculosis" can also grow on the lipid cholesterol as a sole source of carbon, and genes involved in the cholesterol-use pathway(s) have been validated as important during various stages of the infection lifecycle of "M. tuberculosis".


title: Metabolism

text: Amino acids are either used to synthesize proteins and other biomolecules, or oxidized to urea and carbon dioxide to produce energy. The oxidation pathway starts with the removal of the amino group by a transaminase. The amino group is fed into the urea cycle, leaving a deaminated carbon skeleton in the form of a keto acid. Several of these keto acids are intermediates in the citric acid cycle, for example α-ketoglutarate formed by deamination of glutamate. The glucogenic amino acids can also be converted into glucose, through gluconeogenesis (discussed below).


title: Metabolism

text: In oxidative phosphorylation, the electrons removed from organic molecules in areas such as the citric acid cycle are transferred to oxygen and the energy released is used to make ATP. This is done in eukaryotes by a series of proteins in the membranes of mitochondria called the electron transport chain. In prokaryotes, these proteins are found in the cell's inner membrane. These proteins use the energy from reduced molecules like NADH to pump protons across a membrane.


title: Metabolism

text: Pumping protons out of the mitochondria creates a proton concentration difference across the membrane and generates an electrochemical gradient. This force drives protons back into the mitochondrion through the base of an enzyme called ATP synthase. The flow of protons makes the stalk subunit rotate, causing the active site of the synthase domain to change shape and phosphorylate adenosine diphosphate – turning it into ATP.


title: Metabolism

text: Chemolithotrophy is a type of metabolism found in prokaryotes where energy is obtained from the oxidation of inorganic compounds. These organisms can use hydrogen, reduced sulfur compounds (such as sulfide, hydrogen sulfide and thiosulfate), ferrous iron (Fe(II)) or ammonia as sources of reducing power and they gain energy from the oxidation of these compounds. These microbial processes are important in global biogeochemical cycles such as acetogenesis, nitrification and denitrification and are critical for soil fertility.


title: Metabolism

text: The energy in sunlight is captured by plants, cyanobacteria, purple bacteria, green sulfur bacteria and some protists. This process is often coupled to the conversion of carbon dioxide into organic compounds, as part of photosynthesis, which is discussed below. The energy capture and carbon fixation systems can, however, operate separately in prokaryotes, as purple bacteria and green sulfur bacteria can use sunlight as a source of energy, while switching between carbon fixation and the fermentation of organic compounds.


title: Metabolism

text: In many organisms, the capture of solar energy is similar in principle to oxidative phosphorylation, as it involves the storage of energy as a proton concentration gradient. This proton motive force then drives ATP synthesis The electrons needed to drive this electron transport chain come from light-gathering proteins called photosynthetic reaction centres. Reaction centers are classified into two types depending on the nature of photosynthetic pigment present, with most photosynthetic bacteria only having one type, while plants and cyanobacteria have two.


title: Metabolism

text: In plants, algae, and cyanobacteria, photosystem II uses light energy to remove electrons from water, releasing oxygen as a waste product. The electrons then flow to the cytochrome b6f complex, which uses their energy to pump protons across the thylakoid membrane in the chloroplast. These protons move back through the membrane as they drive the ATP synthase, as before. The electrons then flow through photosystem I and can then be used to reduce the coenzyme NADP.


title: Metabolism

text: Anabolism is the set of constructive metabolic processes where the energy released by catabolism is used to synthesize complex molecules. In general, the complex molecules that make up cellular structures are constructed step-by-step from smaller and simpler precursors. Anabolism involves three basic stages. First, the production of precursors such as amino acids, monosaccharides, isoprenoids and nucleotides, secondly, their activation into reactive forms using energy from ATP, and thirdly, the assembly of these precursors into complex molecules such as proteins, polysaccharides, lipids and nucleic acids.


title: Metabolism

text: Anabolism in organisms can be different according to the source of constructed molecules in their cells. Autotrophs such as plants can construct the complex organic molecules in their cells such as polysaccharides and proteins from simple molecules like carbon dioxide and water. Heterotrophs, on the other hand, require a source of more complex substances, such as monosaccharides and amino acids, to produce these complex molecules. Organisms can be further classified by ultimate source of their energy: photoautotrophs and photoheterotrophs obtain energy from light, whereas chemoautotrophs and chemoheterotrophs obtain energy from oxidation reactions.


title: Metabolism

text: Photosynthesis is the synthesis of carbohydrates from sunlight and carbon dioxide (CO). In plants, cyanobacteria and algae, oxygenic photosynthesis splits water, with oxygen produced as a waste product. This process uses the ATP and NADPH produced by the photosynthetic reaction centres, as described above, to convert CO into glycerate 3-phosphate, which can then be converted into glucose. This carbon-fixation reaction is carried out by the enzyme RuBisCO as part of the Calvin – Benson cycle. Three types of photosynthesis occur in plants, C3 carbon fixation, C4 carbon fixation and CAM photosynthesis. These differ by the route that carbon dioxide takes to the Calvin cycle, with C3 plants fixing CO directly, while C4 and CAM photosynthesis incorporate the CO into other compounds first, as adaptations to deal with intense sunlight and dry conditions.


title: Metabolism

text: In photosynthetic prokaryotes the mechanisms of carbon fixation are more diverse. Here, carbon dioxide can be fixed by the Calvin – Benson cycle, a reversed citric acid cycle, or the carboxylation of acetyl-CoA. Prokaryotic chemoautotrophs also fix CO through the Calvin–Benson cycle, but use energy from inorganic compounds to drive the reaction.


title: Metabolism

text: In carbohydrate anabolism, simple organic acids can be converted into monosaccharides such as glucose and then used to assemble polysaccharides such as starch. The generation of glucose from compounds like pyruvate, lactate, glycerol, glycerate 3-phosphate and amino acids is called gluconeogenesis. Gluconeogenesis converts pyruvate to glucose-6-phosphate through a series of intermediates, many of which are shared with glycolysis. However, this pathway is not simply glycolysis run in reverse, as several steps are catalyzed by non-glycolytic enzymes. This is important as it allows the formation and breakdown of glucose to be regulated separately, and prevents both pathways from running simultaneously in a futile cycle.


title: Metabolism

text: Although fat is a common way of storing energy, in vertebrates such as humans the fatty acids in these stores cannot be converted to glucose through gluconeogenesis as these organisms cannot convert acetyl-CoA into pyruvate; plants do, but animals do not, have the necessary enzymatic machinery. As a result, after long-term starvation, vertebrates need to produce ketone bodies from fatty acids to replace glucose in tissues such as the brain that cannot metabolize fatty acids. In other organisms such as plants and bacteria, this metabolic problem is solved using the glyoxylate cycle, which bypasses the decarboxylation step in the citric acid cycle and allows the transformation of acetyl-CoA to oxaloacetate, where it can be used for the production of glucose. Other than fat, glucose is stored in most tissues, as an energy resource available within the tissue through glycogenesis which was usually being used to maintained glucose level in blood.


title: Metabolism

text: Polysaccharides and glycans are made by the sequential addition of monosaccharides by glycosyltransferase from a reactive sugar-phosphate donor such as uridine diphosphate glucose (UDP-Glc) to an acceptor hydroxyl group on the growing polysaccharide. As any of the hydroxyl groups on the ring of the substrate can be acceptors, the polysaccharides produced can have straight or branched structures. The polysaccharides produced can have structural or metabolic functions themselves, or be transferred to lipids and proteins by enzymes called oligosaccharyltransferases.


title: Metabolism

text: Fatty acids are made by fatty acid synthases that polymerize and then reduce acetyl-CoA units. The acyl chains in the fatty acids are extended by a cycle of reactions that add the acyl group, reduce it to an alcohol, dehydrate it to an alkene group and then reduce it again to an alkane group. The enzymes of fatty acid biosynthesis are divided into two groups: in animals and fungi, all these fatty acid synthase reactions are carried out by a single multifunctional type I protein, while in plant plastids and bacteria separate type II enzymes perform each step in the pathway.


title: Metabolism

text: Terpenes and isoprenoids are a large class of lipids that include the carotenoids and form the largest class of plant natural products. These compounds are made by the assembly and modification of isoprene units donated from the reactive precursors isopentenyl pyrophosphate and dimethylallyl pyrophosphate. These precursors can be made in different ways. In animals and archaea, the mevalonate pathway produces these compounds from acetyl-CoA, while in plants and bacteria the non-mevalonate pathway uses pyruvate and glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate as substrates. One important reaction that uses these activated isoprene donors is sterol biosynthesis. Here, the isoprene units are joined to make squalene and then folded up and formed into a set of rings to make lanosterol. Lanosterol can then be converted into other sterols such as cholesterol and ergosterol.


title: Metabolism

text: Organisms vary in their ability to synthesize the 20 common amino acids. Most bacteria and plants can synthesize all twenty, but mammals can only synthesize eleven nonessential amino acids, so nine essential amino acids must be obtained from food. Some simple parasites, such as the bacteria "Mycoplasma pneumoniae", lack all amino acid synthesis and take their amino acids directly from their hosts. All amino acids are synthesized from intermediates in glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, or the pentose phosphate pathway. Nitrogen is provided by glutamate and glutamine. Nonessensial amino acid synthesis depends on the formation of the appropriate alpha-keto acid, which is then transaminated to form an amino acid.


title: Metabolism

text: Amino acids are made into proteins by being joined in a chain of peptide bonds. Each different protein has a unique sequence of amino acid residues: this is its primary structure. Just as the letters of the alphabet can be combined to form an almost endless variety of words, amino acids can be linked in varying sequences to form a huge variety of proteins. Proteins are made from amino acids that have been activated by attachment to a transfer RNA molecule through an ester bond. This aminoacyl-tRNA precursor is produced in an ATP-dependent reaction carried out by an aminoacyl tRNA synthetase. This aminoacyl-tRNA is then a substrate for the ribosome, which joins the amino acid onto the elongating protein chain, using the sequence information in a messenger RNA.


title: Metabolism

text: Nucleotides are made from amino acids, carbon dioxide and formic acid in pathways that require large amounts of metabolic energy. Consequently, most organisms have efficient systems to salvage preformed nucleotides. Purines are synthesized as nucleosides (bases attached to ribose). Both adenine and guanine are made from the precursor nucleoside inosine monophosphate, which is synthesized using atoms from the amino acids glycine, glutamine, and aspartic acid, as well as formate transferred from the coenzyme tetrahydrofolate. Pyrimidines, on the other hand, are synthesized from the base orotate, which is formed from glutamine and aspartate.


title: Metabolism

text: All organisms are constantly exposed to compounds that they cannot use as foods and that would be harmful if they accumulated in cells, as they have no metabolic function. These potentially damaging compounds are called xenobiotics. Xenobiotics such as synthetic drugs, natural poisons and antibiotics are detoxified by a set of xenobiotic-metabolizing enzymes. In humans, these include cytochrome P450 oxidases, UDP-glucuronosyltransferases, and glutathione "S"-transferases. This system of enzymes acts in three stages to firstly oxidize the xenobiotic (phase I) and then conjugate water-soluble groups onto the molecule (phase II). The modified water-soluble xenobiotic can then be pumped out of cells and in multicellular organisms may be further metabolized before being excreted (phase III). In ecology, these reactions are particularly important in microbial biodegradation of pollutants and the bioremediation of contaminated land and oil spills. Many of these microbial reactions are shared with multicellular organisms, but due to the incredible diversity of types of microbes these organisms are able to deal with a far wider range of xenobiotics than multicellular organisms, and can degrade even persistent organic pollutants such as organochloride compounds.


title: Metabolism

text: A related problem for aerobic organisms is oxidative stress. Here, processes including oxidative phosphorylation and the formation of disulfide bonds during protein folding produce reactive oxygen species such as hydrogen peroxide. These damaging oxidants are removed by antioxidant metabolites such as glutathione and enzymes such as catalases and peroxidases.


title: Metabolism

text: Living organisms must obey the laws of thermodynamics, which describe the transfer of heat and work. The second law of thermodynamics states that in any isolated system, the amount of entropy (disorder) cannot decrease. Although living organisms' amazing complexity appears to contradict this law, life is possible as all organisms are open systems that exchange matter and energy with their surroundings. Living systems are not in equilibrium, but instead are dissipative systems that maintain their state of high complexity by causing a larger increase in the entropy of their environments. The metabolism of a cell achieves this by coupling the spontaneous processes of catabolism to the non-spontaneous processes of anabolism. In thermodynamic terms, metabolism maintains order by creating disorder.


title: Metabolism

text: As the environments of most organisms are constantly changing, the reactions of metabolism must be finely regulated to maintain a constant set of conditions within cells, a condition called homeostasis. Metabolic regulation also allows organisms to respond to signals and interact actively with their environments. Two closely linked concepts are important for understanding how metabolic pathways are controlled. Firstly, the "regulation" of an enzyme in a pathway is how its activity is increased and decreased in response to signals. Secondly, the "control" exerted by this enzyme is the effect that these changes in its activity have on the overall rate of the pathway (the flux through the pathway). For example, an enzyme may show large changes in activity ("i.e." it is highly regulated) but if these changes have little effect on the flux of a metabolic pathway, then this enzyme is not involved in the control of the pathway.


title: Metabolism

text: There are multiple levels of metabolic regulation. In intrinsic regulation, the metabolic pathway self-regulates to respond to changes in the levels of substrates or products; for example, a decrease in the amount of product can increase the flux through the pathway to compensate. This type of regulation often involves allosteric regulation of the activities of multiple enzymes in the pathway. Extrinsic control involves a cell in a multicellular organism changing its metabolism in response to signals from other cells. These signals are usually in the form of water-soluble messengers such as hormones and growth factors and are detected by specific receptors on the cell surface. These signals are then transmitted inside the cell by second messenger systems that often involved the phosphorylation of proteins.


title: Metabolism

text: A very well understood example of extrinsic control is the regulation of glucose metabolism by the hormone insulin. Insulin is produced in response to rises in blood glucose levels. Binding of the hormone to insulin receptors on cells then activates a cascade of protein kinases that cause the cells to take up glucose and convert it into storage molecules such as fatty acids and glycogen. The metabolism of glycogen is controlled by activity of phosphorylase, the enzyme that breaks down glycogen, and glycogen synthase, the enzyme that makes it. These enzymes are regulated in a reciprocal fashion, with phosphorylation inhibiting glycogen synthase, but activating phosphorylase. Insulin causes glycogen synthesis by activating protein phosphatases and producing a decrease in the phosphorylation of these enzymes.


title: Metabolism

text: The central pathways of metabolism described above, such as glycolysis and the citric acid cycle, are present in all three domains of living things and were present in the last universal common ancestor. This universal ancestral cell was prokaryotic and probably a methanogen that had extensive amino acid, nucleotide, carbohydrate and lipid metabolism. The retention of these ancient pathways during later evolution may be the result of these reactions having been an optimal solution to their particular metabolic problems, with pathways such as glycolysis and the citric acid cycle producing their end products highly efficiently and in a minimal number of steps. The first pathways of enzyme-based metabolism may have been parts of purine nucleotide metabolism, while previous metabolic pathways were a part of the ancient RNA world.


title: Metabolism

text: Many models have been proposed to describe the mechanisms by which novel metabolic pathways evolve. These include the sequential addition of novel enzymes to a short ancestral pathway, the duplication and then divergence of entire pathways as well as the recruitment of pre-existing enzymes and their assembly into a novel reaction pathway. The relative importance of these mechanisms is unclear, but genomic studies have shown that enzymes in a pathway are likely to have a shared ancestry, suggesting that many pathways have evolved in a step-by-step fashion with novel functions created from pre-existing steps in the pathway. An alternative model comes from studies that trace the evolution of proteins' structures in metabolic networks, this has suggested that enzymes are pervasively recruited, borrowing enzymes to perform similar functions in different metabolic pathways (evident in the MANET database) These recruitment processes result in an evolutionary enzymatic mosaic. A third possibility is that some parts of metabolism might exist as "modules" that can be reused in different pathways and perform similar functions on different molecules.


title: Metabolism

text: As well as the evolution of new metabolic pathways, evolution can also cause the loss of metabolic functions. For example, in some parasites metabolic processes that are not essential for survival are lost and preformed amino acids, nucleotides and carbohydrates may instead be scavenged from the host. Similar reduced metabolic capabilities are seen in endosymbiotic organisms.


title: Metabolism

text: Classically, metabolism is studied by a reductionist approach that focuses on a single metabolic pathway. Particularly valuable is the use of radioactive tracers at the whole-organism, tissue and cellular levels, which define the paths from precursors to final products by identifying radioactively labelled intermediates and products. The enzymes that catalyze these chemical reactions can then be purified and their kinetics and responses to inhibitors investigated. A parallel approach is to identify the small molecules in a cell or tissue; the complete set of these molecules is called the metabolome. Overall, these studies give a good view of the structure and function of simple metabolic pathways, but are inadequate when applied to more complex systems such as the metabolism of a complete cell.


title: Metabolism

text: An idea of the complexity of the metabolic networks in cells that contain thousands of different enzymes is given by the figure showing the interactions between just 43 proteins and 40 metabolites to the right: the sequences of genomes provide lists containing anything up to 26.500 genes. However, it is now possible to use this genomic data to reconstruct complete networks of biochemical reactions and produce more holistic mathematical models that may explain and predict their behavior. These models are especially powerful when used to integrate the pathway and metabolite data obtained through classical methods with data on gene expression from proteomic and DNA microarray studies. Using these techniques, a model of human metabolism has now been produced, which will guide future drug discovery and biochemical research. These models are now used in network analysis, to classify human diseases into groups that share common proteins or metabolites.


title: Metabolism

text: Bacterial metabolic networks are a striking example of bow-tie organization, an architecture able to input a wide range of nutrients and produce a large variety of products and complex macromolecules using a relatively few intermediate common currencies.


title: Metabolism

text: A major technological application of this information is metabolic engineering. Here, organisms such as yeast, plants or bacteria are genetically modified to make them more useful in biotechnology and aid the production of drugs such as antibiotics or industrial chemicals such as 1,3-propanediol and shikimic acid. These genetic modifications usually aim to reduce the amount of energy used to produce the product, increase yields and reduce the production of wastes.


title: Metabolism

text: The term "metabolism" is derived from French "métabolisme" or Ancient Greek μεταβολή – "Metabole" for "a change" which derived from μεταβάλλ –"Metaballein" means "To change"


title: Metabolism

text: Aristotle's "The Parts of Animals" sets out enough details of his views on metabolism for an open flow model to be made. He believed that at each stage of the process, materials from food were transformed, with heat being released as the classical element of fire, and residual materials being excreted as urine, bile, or faeces.


title: Metabolism

text: Ibn al-Nafis described metabolism in his 1260 AD work titled Al-Risalah al-Kamiliyyah fil Siera al-Nabawiyyah (The Treatise of Kamil on the Prophet's Biography) which included the following phrase "Both the body and its parts are in a continuous state of dissolution and nourishment, so they are inevitably undergoing permanent change."


title: Metabolism

text: The history of the scientific study of metabolism spans several centuries and has moved from examining whole animals in early studies, to examining individual metabolic reactions in modern biochemistry. The first controlled experiments in human metabolism were published by Santorio Santorio in 1614 in his book "Ars de statica medicina". He described how he weighed himself before and after eating, sleep, working, sex, fasting, drinking, and excreting. He found that most of the food he took in was lost through what he called "insensible perspiration".


title: Metabolism

text: In these early studies, the mechanisms of these metabolic processes had not been identified and a vital force was thought to animate living tissue. In the 19th century, when studying the fermentation of sugar to alcohol by yeast, Louis Pasteur concluded that fermentation was catalyzed by substances within the yeast cells he called "ferments". He wrote that "alcoholic fermentation is an act correlated with the life and organization of the yeast cells, not with the death or putrefaction of the cells." This discovery, along with the publication by Friedrich Wöhler in 1828 of a paper on the chemical synthesis of urea, and is notable for being the first organic compound prepared from wholly inorganic precursors. This proved that the organic compounds and chemical reactions found in cells were no different in principle than any other part of chemistry.


title: Metabolism

text: It was the discovery of enzymes at the beginning of the 20th century by Eduard Buchner that separated the study of the chemical reactions of metabolism from the biological study of cells, and marked the beginnings of biochemistry. The mass of biochemical knowledge grew rapidly throughout the early 20th century. One of the most prolific of these modern biochemists was Hans Krebs who made huge contributions to the study of metabolism. He discovered the urea cycle and later, working with Hans Kornberg, the citric acid cycle and the glyoxylate cycle.


title: Carrie Johnson

text: Caroline Louise Beavan Johnson (' Symonds"'; born 17 March 1988) is a British media consultant and the wife of former Prime Minister of the United Kingdom Boris Johnson. She is the daughter of Matthew Symonds, co-founder of "The Independent."


title: Carrie Johnson

text: Symonds worked as a Conservative Party media official and an environmental activist, and remains a senior advisor to the ocean conservation charity Oceana, and is a patron of the Conservative Animal Welfare Foundation. She was previously in a relationship with British political journalist Harry Cole, and began an affair with Johnson, then Foreign Secretary, in 2018 while he was still married to his second wife, Marina Wheeler.


title: Carrie Johnson

text: In July 2019, Johnson became prime minister and both he and Symonds officially moved into the flat above 11 Downing Street. She was the first unmarried partner of a prime minister to reside at Downing Street. On 29 February 2020, Symonds and Johnson announced that they had become engaged in late 2019. Symonds married Johnson in 2021.


title: Carrie Johnson

text: Caroline Louise Beavan Symonds was born on 17 March 1988 to Matthew Symonds, co-founder of "The Independent", and Josephine McAfee ("née" Lawrence), a lawyer working for that newspaper. Her paternal grandfather was John Beavan, Baron Ardwick (at one time editor of the "Daily Herald" and later, during the 1970s, a Labour Party MEP), and her paternal grandmother was Anne Symonds, a BBC World Service journalist.


title: Carrie Johnson

text: Symonds was the result of an affair between her parents, who were both married to other people at the time. She was brought up by her mother in East Sheen, South West London, and between 1999 and 2006 attended Godolphin and Latymer School, an independent day school for girls. She went to the University of Warwick to study Art History and Theatre Studies, graduating as BA (Hons) in 2009.


title: Carrie Johnson

text: Symonds originally planned to become an actor, and unsuccessfully auditioned for the 2007 film "Atonement". She subsequently worked in marketing.


title: Carrie Johnson

text: In 2009, Symonds joined the Conservative Party as a press officer. She worked at Conservative Campaign Headquarters, and later campaigned for Boris Johnson in the 2010 London Conservative Party mayoral selection. During this period, Symonds had a role running campaigns for the newly elected MP Zac Goldsmith. She has also worked as a media special adviser for Conservative Cabinet ministers Sajid Javid (Communities, Local Government and Housing Secretary) and John Whittingdale (Culture, Media and Sport Secretary). Symonds was present when Whittingdale and others launched Conservative Friends of Russia (later called the Westminster Russia Forum and disbanded in March 2022) and has attended several of its meetings.


title: Carrie Johnson

text: Symonds became the Conservative Party's head of communications in 2018, but left the position later that year, taking up a job in public relations for the Oceana project. It was reported that she was asked to leave her post as director of communications, with Conservative Party sources in the "Daily Mail" newspaper claiming that the firing was due to poor performance and allegations of significant unjustified expenses claims. These accusations were claimed by an anonymous "longtime colleague" to be a smear campaign allegedly spread by Symonds's political strategist, Lynton Crosby (subsequently denied by Crosby).


title: Carrie Johnson

text: In 2007, aged 19, Symonds was driven home from a King's Road nightclub by taxi-driver John Worboys, who in 2009 was convicted of multiple sexual assaults on his passengers. She later recalled Worboys offering her champagne and vodka, which she believed was spiked and, after returning home, began "vomiting and laughing hysterically before passing out until 3pm the next day".


title: Carrie Johnson

text: Symonds was one of fourteen women who testified against Worboys at his trial. She subsequently told "The Telegraph" that he was "a sad, wicked man who is a danger to society. I feel so angry that he pleaded not guilty and made us go through the pain of giving evidence in court".


title: Carrie Johnson

text: Symonds was the youngest of Worboys's victims, and waived her anonymity to talk about her experiences and, later, to campaign against his early release, fundraising for a successful judicial review of the decision.


title: Carrie Johnson

text: She began an affair with British politician Boris Johnson, then Foreign Secretary, in 2018 while he was still married to his second wife, Marina Wheeler. In July 2019, Johnson became prime minister and both he and Symonds officially moved into the flat above 11 Downing Street. She was the first unmarried partner of a prime minister to reside at Downing Street. The following month, she was barred from entering the United States as her visa application was rejected due to a previous visit with her close friend Nimco Ali to Somaliland, which the US considers to be part of immigration-restricted Somalia. On 16 August 2019, she made her first public appearance since entering 10 Downing Street, when she addressed what she called the "gigantic" climate crisis.


title: Carrie Johnson

text: Amid the Partygate scandal, she was issued with a fixed penalty notice in April 2022 for breaching COVID-19 regulations. She apologised and paid the penalty.


title: Carrie Johnson

text: Concerns over her influence on the prime minister were raised in January 2020, when it came to light that she had received briefs from animal rights activists just before the government pulled a planned cull of badgers in Derbyshire. An association representing farmers, the NFU, asserted that this meeting and her influence played a key role in the government ignoring scientific advice in favour of retaining the cull. According to "The Guardian", a judicial review was granted permission to examine how the decision was reached. She was also influential in making sure that Lee Cain did not get a job as the prime minister's chief of staff, and urged Boris Johnson to fire environment secretary George Eustice from his role. She was additionally involved in a political controversy over the refurbishment of the 11 Downing Street flat, and her comments over the flat's decor being a "John Lewis furniture nightmare" (John Lewis typically being an aspirational, upper-middle-class shop) led to accusations of snobbery.


title: Carrie Johnson

text: During Dominic Cummings's tenure as chief adviser, Cummings and Carrie Symonds were said to represent two separate factions influencing the prime minister. Cummings also said that the prime minister "cancel[led] an inquiry about a leak ... because it might implicate his girlfriend's friends"; Cummings accused Henry Newman, the senior adviser in Downing Street and ally of Carrie Symonds, of being a "chatty rat" who leaked plans for a second lockdown in October. Cummings later said in 2021 that Symonds acted "illegally" in awarding influential jobs to her friends, including press secretary Allegra Stratton.


title: Carrie Johnson

text: Conservative MP Caroline Nokes asserted that Carrie Johnson's influence has been exaggerated for sexist purposes; she has been likened to both Lady Macbeth and Marie Antoinette ("Carrie Antoinette") by her critics. Writing in "The Sunday Times", Marie Le Conte disagreed that such criticism is sexist. Journalist Sarah Vine, on the other hand, said that while it is easy to "blame the woman", the truth is "far more complicated", adding that Johnson's head did not deserve "to be on the block".


title: Carrie Johnson

text: In December 2021, Politico Europe named her as one of the "disrupters" in its annual list of 28 people who will shape Europe in the year to come.


title: Carrie Johnson

text: In February 2022, Carrie Johnson's spokeswoman denied that Johnson has influence over her husband amidst allegations from Tory peer Lord Ashcroft, who had written an unauthorised biography of her. Labour leader Keir Starmer said in relation to the book, "I approach politics on the basis that we should treat people with respect... Obviously, respect differences of opinion, but I do not go along with the idea that we should drag everybody into the gutter."


title: Carrie Johnson

text: In June 2022, an article by Simon Walters appeared in "The Times" alleging that Boris Johnson recommended Carrie, who was then his mistress, as a candidate for a £100,000 per annum job as Chief-of-Staff in the Foreign Office while Johnson was Foreign Secretary. After senior aide Ben Gascoigne threatened to resign if she was appointed, the proposal was dropped. This story was removed from the paper after No. 10 intervened, although Walters says that he stands by the story.


title: Carrie Johnson

text: On 29 February 2020, Symonds and Boris Johnson announced that they had become engaged in late 2019. Their son, Wilfred Lawrie Nicholas Johnson, was born on 29 April 2020 in London. She used to be a practising Catholic and had her son baptised into the Catholic Church.


title: Carrie Johnson

text: Symonds married Boris Johnson on 29 May 2021 in a secret ceremony at Westminster Cathedral attended by thirty guests. She wore a boho-chic style bridal gown by Greek designer Christos Costarellos. In July 2021, she announced that they were expecting their second child together, also revealing that she had suffered a miscarriage earlier that year. Their daughter, Romy Iris Charlotte Johnson, was born on 9 December 2021 in London.


title: Natasha Liu Bordizzo

text: Natasha Liu Bordizzo (born 25 August 1994) is an Australian actress. She made her debut portraying the character of Snow Vase in Netflix's "". In 2019, she portrayed the character of Helena in Netflix's "The Society". In 2022, she portrayed the character of Heather in Netflix's "Day Shift".


title: Natasha Liu Bordizzo

text: Natasha Liu Bordizzo was born in Sydney. Her mother is Chinese and her father is of Italian descent. She attended Sydney Girls High School, then began studying a Bachelor of Law / Bachelor of Communication at University of Technology Sydney when she was cast in a leading role in "" despite it being her first ever audition. Bordizzo speculated she was cast due to her age and look, English fluency and martial arts ability, as she has a black-black belt in taekwondo and training in Kenpō karate.


title: Natasha Liu Bordizzo

text: To prepare for "", Bordizzo underwent intensive training in Wudang sword fighting with Yuen Woo-ping.


title: Natasha Liu Bordizzo

text: In February 2016, upon the release of "", Bordizzo moved to Los Angeles to pursue an international acting career.


title: Natasha Liu Bordizzo

text: In 2017, Bordizzo had the supporting role of Deng Yan in "The Greatest Showman", an American musical film, directed by Michael Gracey in his directorial debut and starring Hugh Jackman, Zac Efron, Michelle Williams, Rebecca Ferguson, and Zendaya. Bordizzo was excited to begin principal photography in New York as she had never had any song or dance training—both of which she found terrifying. The film premiered on 8 December, aboard the RMS "Queen Mary 2". It was released in the United States on 20 December, by 20th Century Fox and has grossed $432million worldwide, making it the fifth-highest grossing live-action musical of all time.


title: Natasha Liu Bordizzo

text: Bordizzo has also starred in "Hotel Mumbai" (2018), an American-Australian thriller film directed by Anthony Maras and written by John Collee and Maras. It is based on the 2009 documentary "Surviving Mumbai" about the Mumbai attacks in 2008 at the Taj Mahal Palace Hotel in India. Bordizzo portrayed Australian back-packer Bree, opposite stars Dev Patel, Armie Hammer, Nazanin Boniadi and Anupam Kher.


title: Natasha Liu Bordizzo

text: In 2021, Bordizzo starred as Julia in the Amazon Prime Video movie "The Voyeurs" . The film was shot in Montreal, Canada in 2019 and tells the story of a couple who witnesses the sex life of their neighbours. Bordizzo originally auditioned for the role on a video call using an American accent but the director requested she keep her native Australian accent. In the same year, Bordizzo starred in the animated comedy movie "Wish Dragon" as the voice of Li Na Wang. Her character is a celebrity who inspires a young boy's journey to be reunited with her because they were once childhood friends. In November 2021, Bordizzo was cast as Sabine Wren in the "Star Wars" limited series "Ahsoka".


title: Dougray Scott

text: Stephen Dougray Scott (born 25 November 1965) is a Scottish actor. He has appeared in the films "Ever After" (1998), "" (2000), "Enigma" (2001), "Hitman" (2007), and "My Week with Marilyn" (2011).


title: Dougray Scott

text: Scott was born 25 November 1965 in Glenrothes, Fife, the son of Elma, a nurse, and Alan Scott, a travelling salesman of refrigerators and freezers, and a former actor. He attended Auchmuty High School. Adopting his stage name from his grandmother's surname, "Dougray" (), he enrolled in a foundation course in drama before going on to attend the Royal Welsh College of Music & Drama in Cardiff from 1984 to 1987, where he earned the college's Most Promising Drama Student award. In 1988, he moved to London.


title: Dougray Scott

text: Scott began his acting career in national theatre, television, and puppet shows. He appeared in his first role on the television series "Soldier Soldier" and made his film debut in "Twin Town". His first major film roles were as Prince Henry in "Ever After" and the hero in the film adaptation of the Robert Harris novel "Enigma". He played the villain in "" (and was selected to do so by Tom Cruise). He was going to play Wolverine in the feature film version of "X-Men". When "Mission: Impossible 2" went over schedule and he was injured in a motorbike accident while shooting the chase scene, he was forced to drop out of the project and was replaced by Hugh Jackman in "X-Men".


title: Dougray Scott

text: After the 2002 release of "Die Another Day", Scott was a candidate to replace Pierce Brosnan as James Bond. Despite the numerous reports that Eon Productions was leaning towards naming Scott as the new Bond in the 007 adventure "Casino Royale", the role eventually went to Daniel Craig. In January 2006, he appeared in the miniseries "The Ten Commandments" as Moses. He also appeared in the NBC series "Heist", which aired in March 2006 for five episodes. From 2006 until 2007, he starred in the third season of "Desperate Housewives" as Teri Hatcher's character's new love interest. In 2007, he played the primary antagonist in the film "Hitman", based on the "Hitman" video games. He appeared in the title role(s) of a modern re-telling of "Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde". In May 2009, it was announced that he was to play ex-con Michael O' Connor in the new RTÉ-ITV drama "Father & Son".


title: Dougray Scott

text: Scott starred in "The Day of the Triffids". The drama was broadcast in December 2009 as part of the BBC 1 Christmas schedule. In 2011, Scott featured in the film "Love's Kitchen" alongside his wife Claire Forlani. In April 2011, Scott portrayed football manager Matt Busby in the BBC TV drama "United", which was centred on the Munich air disaster of 1958, in which Busby was badly injured but survived. In 2013, he guest starred as para-psychological researcher/ghost hunter Alec Palmer in the "Doctor Who" episode "Hide".


title: Dougray Scott

text: In April 2016, Scott appeared in the second season of "Fear the Walking Dead" as Thomas Abigail, Victor Strand's business partner and lover.


title: Dougray Scott

text: In 2019, Scott joined the CW series "Batwoman" as Jacob Kane, the title character's father, set in the Arrowverse. He left the series during its second season.


title: Dougray Scott

text: Scott is the father of twins, Eden and Gabriel Trevis Scott (b. 1998), with former wife Sarah Trevis. On 8 June 2007, he married actress Claire Forlani in Italy. They have a son named Milo, born 27 December 2014. Scott is a fan of Hibernian Football Club, stemming from a great uncle being a scout for the team.


title: Dougray Scott

text: On October 20, 2021, Scott's former "Batwoman" costar Ruby Rose accused Scott of abusing women on the set of that series. In an Instagram story, Rose wrote, "Dougray hurt a female stunt double, he yelled like a little bitch at women and was a nightmare. He left when he wanted and arrived when he wanted. He abused women and in turn as a lead of a show I sent an email asking for a no yelling policy, they declined."


title: Dougray Scott

text: In a press statement, Scott denied Rose's allegations, calling them "defamatory and damaging" and "completely made up". He further alleged that Rose's exit from the series following the conclusion of the first season was "based on multiple complaints about her workplace behaviour".


title: Dougray Scott

text: Warner Bros., who produced the series, defended Scott in their own statement, saying, "Warner Bros. has found Mr Scott to be a consummate professional, and never received any allegation against him of bullying, or of abusive behaviour on his part. Mr Scott was greatly respected and admired by his colleagues, and was a leader on the set." They repeated Scott's claim that Rose had been let go because of complaints about her behaviour, and called her claims about Scott "revisionist history".


title: Ugly Betty

text: Ugly Betty is an American comedy-drama television series developed by Silvio Horta, which was originally broadcast on ABC. It premiered on September 28, 2006, and ended on April 14, 2010. The series is based on Fernando Gaitán's Colombian telenovela "Yo soy Betty, la fea", which has had many other international adaptations. It revolves around the character Betty Suarez, whodespite her lack of stylelands a job at a prestigious fashion magazine. It was produced by Silent H, Ventanarosa, and Reveille Productions partnered with ABC Studios, with Salma Hayek, Horta, Ben Silverman, Jose Tamez, and Joel Fields serving as executive producers. The pilot was filmed in New York City; seasons one and two were filmed in Los Angeles and seasons three and four were filmed in New York City.


title: Ugly Betty

text: During its first three seasons, it aired on Thursday nights, where it was mostly successful. However, viewership dropped significantly in the show's third season, particularly in the 18–49 age group. In October 2009, the series was moved to Fridays, where it had trouble finding an audience. The backlash from its fans prompted ABC to move the show to Wednesdays at 10:00 pm Eastern/9:00 pm Central starting January 6, 2010, where it was thought to better complement its Wednesday hits "Modern Family" and "Cougar Town." Despite this, on January 27, 2010, ABC announced it was cancelling the series due to low ratings. In the years since, it has gained a cult following. For a time, there was discussion of a reboot or "Ugly Betty" movie.


title: Ugly Betty

text: The idea to bring "Ugly Betty" to American TV screens began in 2001 when NBC was planning to adapt "Betty" as a half-hour comedy, which would be produced by Sony Pictures Television but it did not get past the planning stages (three writers were needed to come up with a concept based around the character) until ABC and Hayek's company came on board in 2004 and retooled it as an hour-long comedy drama. Two years later, on May 16, 2006, ABC announced that "Ugly Betty" would be part of the 2006–2007 North American season lineup as a weekly hour-long series; the initial order was for 13 episodes.


title: Ugly Betty

text: ABC had announced the title of the series would be "Betty the Ugly", a change from its developmental title, but changed it back to "Ugly Betty" on July 14, 2006, although the "Ugly Betty" title was already being used in promotions prior to this date on Citytv. Speculation indicated the show would be a daily serial that would have debuted as a summer 2006 or midseason 2007 entry, but given the buzz and growing interest in the show, the network decided to make it a weekly series, instead. On August 8, 2006, ABC decided at the last minute to make a schedule change to move "Ugly Betty" from its previously announced Friday 8 pm (ET) time period to Thursday at 8 pm, replacing sitcoms "Notes from the Underbelly" and "Big Day" as a lead-in to top-rated program "Grey's Anatomy", due to the growing interest in the show.


title: Ugly Betty

text: The program's pilot was tested on several cable providers to gauge interest and feedback from viewers, most notably the Hispanic community, including those who are fans of the original "Betty", who hoped that ABC would maintain the integrity of the original. ABC also allowed its affiliates to show free off-air screenings to the public at various events ahead of the show's debut. In addition, the network screened the debut episode on the web and made the episodes available for download on iTunes after their initial airings on January 5, 2007. The encore episodes also have run on ABC Family and SOAPnet, both of which have aired marathons of the show.


title: Ugly Betty

text: On October 13, 2006, ABC ordered a full season pick-up for the series, beyond the original 13 ordered at the May Upfronts due to its premiere ratings. ABC originally announced 22 episodes for season one, but increased the number of episodes by one to 23. The season finale is the episode called "East Side Story." On March 21, 2007, ABC renewed the series for a second season.


title: Ugly Betty

text: Although he subsequently joined NBC as their new entertainment head, Ben Silverman remained co-executive producer on the show, but in a limited role.


title: Ugly Betty

text: In November 2007, the cast of the series made headlines when they threw their support behind the 2007 Writers' Strike by joining them on the picket line in solidarity. Ferrera commented on the reason they did this: "The issues coming up with the actors' contracts are very similar to what the writers are dealing with right now, and we have to stay united and stand strong within the creative community for what we believe is fair." On November 25, the cast appeared in a 38-second video for "Speechless Hollywood" in which a black & white camera pulled away from a close up of Ferrera to show her co-stars sitting next to her as they look directly at the camera without speaking.


title: Ugly Betty

text: On February 11, 2008, ABC picked up "Ugly Betty" for the 2008–09 television season, along with nine other shows. On the same day the renewal was announced, two of the show's executive producers, Marco Pennette and James Hayman, were let go. Their departure added to the constant off-camera turnovers on the series, including the exiting or firing of five writers. In a Q&A from "TV Guide", Michael Ausiello criticized the decision, saying, "someone saw fit to fix what wasn't broken" and praised the two men for writing several of the show's best episodes. These turns of events may have also contributed to Rebecca Romijn's decision to no longer be a full-time regular on the series in the third season, citing the move by new writers to make changes in the direction of several characters, especially Romijn's role as Alexis.


title: Ugly Betty

text: With the strike over as of February 12, the possibility existed for seven new episodes to be completed by April, bringing the number of second-season episodes produced to 20, but only 18 episodes were eventually produced. As a result of the strike, creator Silvio Horta delayed plans for a musical episode and having Lindsay Lohan on board for a possible storyline until the third season. Four days later on February 16, 2008, ABC picked up "Ugly Betty" for the 2008–09 television season.


title: Ugly Betty

text: On March 12, 2008, Horta signed a two-year, seven-figure deal with ABC Studios, which guaranteed the show's future and gave Horta a chance to produce other projects aside from "Betty".


title: Ugly Betty

text: On April 17, 2008, the show's podcast, which was usually presented in audio and hosted by stars Urie and Newton, became available on video for the first time.


title: Ugly Betty

text: On May 6, 2008, ABC announced that starting with the third season, "Ugly Betty" would return to New York City and start production there. The move was done to bring the authenticity of the great series' setting into the show and to take advantage of a tax credit offered by the State of New York's Governor's Office of Motion Picture and Television Development. The production returned to Silvercup Studios in Queens, where the original pilot was produced. The move resulted in several Los Angeles crew members being let go. These events led California Assemblyman Paul Krekorian to introduce bill AB X315, the "Ugly Betty Bill", which would keep television and film production from leaving the state by using tax incentives. The bill was passed by the assembly and Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger signed it into law on February 19, 2009.


title: Ugly Betty

text: In January 2009, ABC announced that it was putting "Ugly Betty" on hold to make room for the new comedies "In the Motherhood" and "Samantha Who?" in the Thursday night time slot. The series' aired one more original episode on March 19, 2009. On Sunday, March 15, 2009, ABC announced that, after a five-week break, "Ugly Betty" would return for its final five episodes of the season on Thursday, April 30, 2009. "Ugly Betty"'s return was originally planned for May 7, but due to low ratings for "Motherhood", ABC moved it up a week. The two-episode season finale aired on Thursday, May 21 from 8–10 pm.


title: Ugly Betty

text: The move by ABC and the show's declining ratings led viewers to believe that ABC would cancel the show, but on February 17, 2009, Becki Newton stated that the show has been picked up for a fourth season. That statement would later be confirmed on March 5, 2009, when Stephen McPherson, president of ABC Entertainment Group, announced that ABC planned to renew "Ugly Betty". On April 23, 2009, ABC gave an early fourth season renewal to "Betty".


title: Ugly Betty

text: "Ugly Betty" began airing on Friday nights starting October 16, 2009, at 9:00 pm Eastern/8:00 pm Central, although it was originally scheduled to start a week earlier on October 9. This caused fans and critics to worry that ABC wished to end the show, since that time slot is perceived as the Friday night death slot. On July 24, 2009, TV Guide Network announced that it had acquired the exclusive cable rights to the show and would air the fourth-season episodes two weeks after their ABC run with an option to strip the show daily, with plans to air it weekly starting in the fall of 2010.


title: Ugly Betty

text: With "Eastwick" recently cancelled, ABC began considering moving "Ugly Betty" to the Wednesday night 10:00 pm Eastern/9:00 pm Central timeslot, although talk arose of moving "Lost" to that same time slot. On December 1, 2009, ABC, sensing a backlash from viewers over its decision to move "Ugly Betty" to Fridays, its sliding ratings, and praises from critics over the improved storylines, made the move to Wednesday official by announcing that it would start airing new episodes on its new night starting January 6, 2010.


title: Ugly Betty

text: Betty Suarez is a quirky, 22-year-old Mexican American woman from Queens, New York, who is sorely lacking in fashion sense. She is known for her adult braces, rather unusual wardrobe choices, sweet nature, and slight naïveté. She is abruptly thrust into a different world when she lands a job at "Mode", a trendy, high-fashion magazine based in Manhattan that is part of the publishing empire Meade Publications owned by the wealthy Bradford Meade. Bradford's son, Daniel, has been installed as editor-in-chief of "Mode" following the death of Fey Sommers (Bradford's longtime mistress). Bradford hires the inexperienced Betty as his womanizing son's newest personal assistant to curb his habit of sleeping with his assistants. As time goes by, Betty and Daniel become friends and help each other navigate their individual professional and personal lives.


title: Ugly Betty

text: Life at "Mode" is made difficult for both Betty and Daniel by their co-workers. Their most serious threat comes from creative director Wilhelmina Slater, a vindictive schemer who devises numerous plots to steal Daniel's job and seize control of the Meade empire. In addition, Wilhelmina's loyal assistant Marc St. James and "Mode" receptionist Amanda Tanen continually mock and humiliate Betty for her lackluster physical appearance, awkward nature, and initial lack of taste in fashion, though they both ultimately warm to Betty in later seasons. However, not everyone at "Mode" is against Betty; she gains loyal friends in Scottish seamstress Christina McKinney and nerdy accountant Henry Grubstick. She also receives strong support from her father, Ignacio, older sister, Hilda, and nephew, Justin.


title: Ugly Betty

text: Season one premiered in the United States on September 28, 2006, and aired 23 episodes. Major plot lines during the first season include: Betty and Daniel settling into their respective roles as personal assistant and editor-in-chief at "Mode" fashion magazine; Betty's relationships with pre-"Mode" boyfriend Walter and new love interest Henry; Daniel's numerous sexual relationships and his relationship with fellow editor Sofia Reyes (Salma Hayek); Wilhelmina's plots with the "Mystery Lady" to undermine Bradford and Daniel's positions at Meade Publications; Christina's temporary switch to Wilhelmina's side in an attempt to boost her career; the truth behind the murder of Fey Sommers and the death of Daniel's older brother Alex; Ignacio's immigration status and health problems; and Hilda's struggle to find a new career and salvage her relationship with Justin's dad, Santos.


title: Ugly Betty

text: The season's theme was "Brighter, Bolder, Bettyer" with a reworked version of Mika's "Hey Betty (You Are Beautiful)" being used as the featured song in its promos. Nine new recurring characters, played by Freddy Rodríguez, Illeana Douglas, Alec Mapa, David Blue, John Cho, Gabrielle Union, Gene Simmons, and Eddie Cibrian were introduced. Lorraine Toussaint continued in her role as Claire's fellow prison escapee, Yoga, as a recurring character. Production was halted in November 2007 due to the Writers Guild of America strike; ultimately, the season episode order was cut to 18 instead of a proposed 23. New episodes did not air on U.S. television until April 24, 2008, starting with "Twenty Four Candles", and ending on May 22, 2008, with "Jump". This was the last episode to be produced in Los Angeles.


title: Ugly Betty

text: Major plotlines this season include the love triangle between Betty, Henry, and a deli shop worker named Giovanni "Gio" Rossi; Claire's escape from prison, recapture, and trial for the murder of Fey Sommers; the aborted wedding of Wilhelmina Slater and Bradford Meade; Hilda and Justin's reaction to the murder of Santos in the season-one finale; Daniel and Alexis's power struggle for "Mode" after their father's death; Amanda's search for her biological father; Marc's relationship with fashion photographer Cliff St. Paul; Hilda's attempt to start her new beautician career and a relationship with Justin's gym teacher; Christina's reunion with her recovering alcoholic husband; and Wilhelmina's scheme to conceive an heir to the Meade fortune using Bradford's sperm.


title: Ugly Betty

text: ABC renewed the series for a third season on February 11, 2008. In addition, production was moved to New York City from Los Angeles to make the series more realistic and to take advantage of increased tax incentives in New York. The third season premiered on September 25, 2008. This season added 10 new recurring regulars, played by Grant Bowler, Mark Consuelos, Heather Tom, Val Emmich, Ralph Macchio, Sarah Lafleur, Bernadette Peters, Lauren Velez, and Daniel Eric Gold. Lindsay Lohan, Julian De La Celle, Derek Riddell, and Eddie Cibrian returned from the second season for more appearances. "The Show" by Australian singer Lenka was used as the promo theme for the season.


title: Ugly Betty

text: The season begins with Betty moving to an apartment in the city, after rejecting both Henry and Gio. Major plotlines include Daniel and Wilhelmina's respective relationships with Molly and Connor—a former couple; Betty and Marc both competing in the YETI program, a series of classes for aspiring editors; Betty's new relationship with Matt Hartley, a wealthy sports editor also taking part in YETI; Christina's surrogate pregnancy for Wilhelmina, and later belief that the baby is in fact her own; Molly developing terminal cancer and Ignacio's heart problems resulting in Betty having to return home, resulting in Marc and Amanda taking on Betty's apartment.


title: Ugly Betty

text: The season was the last that featured Rebecca Romijn and Ashley Jensen as regulars, with Romijin's character, Alexis, moving to France to be with her son early in the season and Jensen's character, Christina, returning to Scotland with her family in episode 21.


title: Ugly Betty

text: Following dropping ratings in season three, "Ugly Betty" was moved from its Thursday night slot to the "Friday night death slot", resulting in further ratings decreases and protests from fans. Despite moving the show to a new Wednesday night slot in January, ratings failed to improve, and on January 27, 2010, ABC confirmed that the series would end in April, at the same time reducing the season length from 22 to 20 episodes.


title: Ugly Betty

text: Following the events of the season-three finale, Betty is promoted to editor at "Mode", but faces increased pressure when her former boyfriend Matt is named as her boss, in addition to hostility from Marc, who was passed over for promotion by Betty. Further storylines include Justin being bullied upon starting high school and subsequent relationship with male classmate Austin; Daniel struggling to adapt following Molly's death; Claire tracking down her long-lost son Tyler and his subsequent alcoholism; Hilda renewing her relationship with Bobby Telercio (Adam Rodriguez) and subsequent engagement and marriage.


title: Ugly Betty

text: The series concludes with the Suarez sisters leaving home, with Betty accepting a new job in London and Hilda and Justin moving out to live with Bobby. Daniel gives up his position at "Mode", handing the reins to Wilhelmina, not wanting to lose Betty in his life; Marc's efforts are finally vindicated via promotion and Amanda is successful in finding her birth father. In the final scene, Daniel follows Betty to London and bumps into her, informing her that he is looking for his passion, and asks her out to dinner.


title: Ugly Betty

text: Following news of the show's cancellation, a number of former cast members returned to reprise their roles in guest appearances, including Ashley Jensen, Christopher Gorham, Freddy Rodríguez, and Grant Bowler.


title: Ugly Betty

text: On January 27, 2010, ABC announced that "Ugly Betty" would cease production after the fourth-season finale, which aired in April 2010. "We've mutually come to the difficult decision to make this "Ugly Betty"'s final season," said executive producer Silvio Horta and ABC Entertainment president Steve McPherson in a joint statement. The show had struggled in the ratings in the US, falling from an average 8.1 million to 5.3 million viewers between the third and fourth seasons.


title: Ugly Betty

text: On April 16, 2010, it was reported that an "Ugly Betty" movie could be in the works. In an interview, Ortiz stated, "[t]here may be a movie. It's something that we've been talking about and it's something that America Ferrera would really love to do. That woman has so much determination that I can't imagine anything she puts her mind to not getting done."


title: Ugly Betty

text: On September 15, 2010, Ferrera stated that she knows of no plans for an "Ugly Betty" movie and that she thinks "the rumor is well and alive—it's always a possibility I suppose!" On September 29, 2010, "Entertainment Weekly" writer Michael Ausiello reported that a movie would not happen.


title: Ugly Betty

text: On November 9, 2011, Ferrera stated on Perezhilton.com that "[i]t's so wonderful that the fans care so much that this question about the movie just keeps coming up. It's not anything that's actually in the works but is something that's always a possibility, and it's wonderful to know that the fans want it."


title: Ugly Betty

text: On April 10, 2013, Urie was asked about his stance on a potential movie. He stated, "Oh my god, absolutely! Everyone would jump right back on that! ... [Working on "Ugly Betty"] was the best and I'm still in close contact with all of those people."


title: Ugly Betty

text: On April 16, 2013, a Facebook Kickstarter campaign was started in the hopes of getting Silvio Horta's attention to create a movie. The campaign's goal was to follow in the footsteps of "Veronica Mars", a series where the creators and fans had funded a follow-up movie through the same crowdsourcing website.


title: Ugly Betty

text: Mode After Hours is a spin-off web series that chronicles the adventures of Marc and Amanda when all (excluding security) staff members have left" Mode" for the night. The two usually plan on what to do in the future, dressing up as co-workers and mocking them, prepare for a date, going onto online dating sites, competing in certain activities, and inadvertently annoying security.


title: Ugly Betty

text: Though the show mainly features Marc and Amanda, a few other characters are seen whose faces are never shown. Perhaps the only other main character of the show is Marc and Amanda's only nemesis, who is, by far, the only mentioned Meade Publications security officer, named Sander, who is in charge of watching the "Mode" hallways. Sander would be a judge of some competitions between the two such as dancing, but on a negative note, he collects tapes of Marc and Amanda and is making a collection of the two fooling around.


title: Ugly Betty

text: The series has been sold to TV networks and broadcasters in over 130 countries, making this version the most successful of the "Betty La Fea" franchise, but in the Guinness World Records 2010 "El Libro De La Década", it stated that "Yo Soy Betty La Fea" is the most successful soap opera in the world, upstaging "Ugly Betty".


title: Ugly Betty

text: In the U.S., Univision aired the Mexican counterpart "La fea más bella", which ran weeknights at 8 p.m. (E/P), including Thursdays during the same time "Ugly Betty" airs. The star of the Mexican version, Angélica Vale, was anticipated to make a cameo in the 22nd episode, playing Betty's "counterpart" from the series, Leticia 'Lety' Padilla Solís; Vale instead appeared in the season finale playing Angelica, an orthodontist's assistant who looks exactly like Lety (pre-makeover).


title: Ugly Betty

text: A version of "Yo soy Betty, la fea" made by Bosnian Federalna Televizija, Croatian RTL Televizija and Serbian Fox Televizija began airing in October 2007. The title of the show was "Ne daj se, Nina" ("Don't give up, Nina"). After a long audition, newcomer Lana Gojak was cast in the role of Nina (Betty). Other cast members were established actors such as Robert Kurbaša, Edvin Livarić, Bojana Ordinačev, Petar Ćiritović, Andrija Milošević, Kristina Krepela and Sloboda Mićalović. The first, and only, season consisted of just over 50 episodes. Although the storyline followed that of "Yo soy Betty, la fea", Lana Gojak's appearance as Nina was based more on the heroine of "Ugly Betty" than on that of "Yo soy Betty, la fea". The series had other elements that were directly borrowed from "Ugly Betty". The series did well in ratings, but was too expensive to produce, so a second season was never ordered.


title: Ugly Betty

text: In 2007, an Arabic version of "Ugly Betty" was mentioned, which would have been produced and shot in Dubai. This would have been the first "Betty, la Fea"–inspired series to be directly adapted from the American version, but the project never came to fruition.


title: Ugly Betty

text: On May 24, 2010, the first (and so far only) direct adaptation of "Ugly Betty", Georgia's გოგონა გარეუბნიდან (Gogona Gareubnidan, which means "suburban girl") premiered, a mere month and a half after "Ugly Betty" aired its series finale. The first season consisted of 10 episodes and concluded in August 2010.


title: Ugly Betty

text: On January 1, 2014, the first Arabic (Egyptian) version was set to air on OSN ya hala under the name هبة رجل الغراب ("Heba Regl El Ghorab", which means "Heba the Leg of the Crow").


title: Ugly Betty

text: In November 2007, Sony Entertainment Television began airing "Ugly Betty" in South America with Spanish and Portuguese subtitles. However, in Colombia, criticisms about the American version were made, calling it a pale imitation and counterfeit copy of the original version. The series differ greatly; the Colombian version aired as a soap opera with daily cliffhangers, while "Ugly Betty" airs as a weekly comedy, with occasional cliffhangers. While the American version has more than half a dozen core characters, the Colombian version revolves only around Betty and her boss's life, with its main plot being Betty's unrequited love for her boss.


title: Ugly Betty

text: The TV Guide Network has purchased the rights to air reruns of "Ugly Betty" on cable television. In addition to its cable run, "Ugly Betty" is also seen on local stations in the United States as a double-run weekend offering, which began in September 2010.


title: Ugly Betty

text: Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment (under the ABC Studios label) has released all four seasons of "Ugly Betty" on DVD in region 1, 2, 4.


title: Ugly Betty

text: The Ugly Betty: The Complete Collection was released on March 28, 2011, in United States, United Kingdom and various parts of the world. The complete series was not released in Region 4.


title: Ugly Betty

text: Its debut episode on the Seven Network pulled in 2.03 million viewers, beating Nine's airing of "60 Minutes" and Ten's airing of "The Biggest Loser" in the same time period. Since its debut the series has remained in the top five in the Australian TV ratings. The season one finale aired August 5, 2007, and received the lowest rating of the year – 1.051 million and only in the 13th slot of the night. This was predominantly because it aired in the same time-slot as the season premiere of rival program "Australian Idol". After holding off on the 2nd season, it was announced in April 2008 that Seven would begin "Ugly Betty"<nowiki>'</nowiki>s second season in a new 7:30 pm Wednesday time slot, beginning on May 7 The show has lost its large following, only drawing around 900,000 viewers despite strong advertising attempts by Channel Seven. The show was "shelved" after the ninth episode was shown on July 2, and will resume airing the remaining episodes until after the Olympics. It was replaced by "RSPCA Animal Rescue". "Ugly Betty" returned to Seven on August 28, 2008, at a new and later time slot of 9:30 pm Thursdays. The episode aired, "Bananas For Betty" was viewed by only 597,000 viewers and was removed. Seven later announced that "Ugly Betty" will return twice a week, every Tuesday and Thursday at 7:30 pm, starting when Summer begins. It was then moved to only once a week at Thursday 7:30 pm. Soon after, the show was pulled from screening (after finishing the second season) due to moderately low ratings. It was later confirmed on October 23, 2009, that "Ugly Betty" would return to Australian screens on Seven's new secondary digital channel 7Two. It will resume with the premiere of Season 3, "The Manhattan Project", starting Tuesday, November 3, 7:30 pm.


title: Ugly Betty

text: Citytv owns the English-language rights to the series, which aired in the same timeslot as the American broadcast until December 2009, when only the stations in Manitoba and British Columbia started airing it Wednesdays at 7 pm (same time as Eastern ABC where it would be 10 pm, aired earlier than US air in Manitoba), for Ontario and Alberta, OMNI simulcasted "Betty" Wednesdays at 10PM. In March 2010, Citytv aired "Ugly Betty" across Canada due to the cancellation of "The Jay Leno Show", airing Wednesdays at 10 pm on Citytv, simulcasting ABC's broadcast up until final airing.


title: Ugly Betty

text: The first two episodes aired on TF1 on January 7, 2008, at late-night time, averaging about 3.8 million viewers (28.4% share) and 3.3 million viewers (39.4% share). "Ugly Betty" did well in key demos 15–24 (First episode: 46.8%, second episode: 56.7%) and 18–49 (First episode: 39.7%, second episode: 56.6%). But week after week, the show lost more than 1 million viewers, in part due to the late night schedule. In an effort to attract more viewers, two weekly TV magazines, "Arthelius" and "Series TV Magazine", included "Ugly Betty" on their covers for their February 12, 2008, issues.


title: Ugly Betty

text: "Ugly Betty" premiered in South Africa on Pay Channel, M-Net on Tuesday July 17, 2007. It later was re-broadcast on sister channels, GO and M-Net Holiday. The first season fared well with audiences and was a hit for the channel with strong buzz surrounding the show. Due to heavy promotions for the show across all media spectrums by M-Net, the premiere episode of "Ugly Betty" attracted 80% more viewers than "Smallville" which was the previous occupant of the time slot. M-Net marketing General Manager, Koo Govender, said the first episode was watched by about 432,000 viewers.


title: Ugly Betty

text: The premiere on Channel 4 on January 5, 2007, attracted 4.89 million viewers. Two weeks later, "Ugly Betty" hit a new high with 5.5 million viewers watching the third episode. The figures and shares were similar each week, around 2–3 million viewers with 10–15% share; however, the finale rated less than the premiere episode, attracting 3.1 million viewers with 15% share. Due to the show's success and the fanbase it achieved in the United Kingdom, Channel 4 decided to move up the second-season premiere to Friday, October 5, 2007, thus allowing viewers to watch episodes one week after their U.S. airing.


title: Ugly Betty

text: On April 15, 2008, Hyperion Books, a Disney-owned publisher, released a companion book to the series, titled "Ugly Betty: The Book", a 175-page softcover about the show in general, which covers the first season and portions of the second, complete with interviews from the cast and crew, tips and quotes from the characters, and mock ads for Fabia Cosmetics and Atlantic Attire. Around the same time, Random House's children's books division published a "magazine"-inspired book tied into the series, complete with photos and mock ads as if they were published by Betty herself, targeted for younger readers.


title: Ugly Betty

text: In addition, a 2008 calendar for "Ugly Betty" was released using stills from the first season, while a series of greeting cards was issued in January 2008. These photos were edited to enhance her facial features. A 2009 calendar was also released.


title: Ugly Betty

text: Even the main character has been immortalized into a doll, as Angelic Dreamz, Inc's Madame Alexander collection introduced two different versions of Betty Suarez that were featured on their website in February 2008.


title: Ugly Betty

text: In July 2009, Coca-Cola UK unveiled a special limited edition Diet Coke bottle created by Patricia Field called "The Betty" for sale in the United Kingdom as an exclusive for customers at Selfridges.


title: Ugly Betty

text: The show has been parodied and referenced in other television shows. In the October 7, 2006, episode of "Saturday Night Live", cast member Fred Armisen spoofed the character of Betty by playing a look-alike named "Fugly Betsy". Not to be outdone, a February 17, 2007, episode of "MADtv" has Nicole Parker playing Ellen DeGeneres interviewing an actress on her talk show who plays "Ugly Betty", with Salma Hayek (played by LisaNova) always pointing out how ugly she is. The "Ugly Betty" actress (played by Crista Flanagan) claims it is only makeup and costume but is ignored. Crista later reprised her "Betty" role in the poorly reviewed parody film "Meet the Spartans". American singer Katy Perry in music video "Last Friday Night (T.G.I.F.)" spoofed the character of Betty by playing a look-alike named "Kathy Beth Terry".


title: Ugly Betty

text: On April 22, 2007, the 2007 TV Land Awards parodied the series with a spoof aptly titled "Ugly Betty White", with White playing Betty Suarez, Charo playing Hilda, Erik Estrada playing Ignacio, Joan Collins playing Wilhelmina, Peter Scolari playing Alexis, and George Hamilton playing Daniel. Thanks to her performance in that parody, the producers cast White as a guest star in the second season.


title: Ugly Betty

text: Even the cast poked fun at their alter egos. On October 30, 2006, three of the series' cast members, appearing in character (Ferrera as Betty, Mabius as Daniel, and Newton as Amanda), gave New England Patriots head coach Bill Belichick a "makeover" to make him look more like quarterback Tom Brady in a spoof that was featured on ESPN's Monday Night Countdown.


title: Ugly Betty

text: The program was also referenced in other shows, most notably in "Up All Night", the February 8, 2007, installment of the NBC sitcom "30 Rock", in which Liz Lemon (Tina Fey) says "this would've worked on "Ugly Betty"" when she fails to crawl out a door without being seen. The scene was patterned after the "Ugly Betty" episode "Swag" in which Betty crawled through a fashion show.


title: Ugly Betty

text: In an episode of the TV sitcom "Scrubs", Christopher Turk (played by Donald Faison) has a picture taken of "Ugly Betty" with his daughter, only for it to be torn up by best friend and main character John Dorian.


title: Ugly Betty

text: In March 2009, a spoof of "Ugly Betty", called Ugly Yeti was made by Take180. Take180, like ABC, is a Disney company and the parody was featured on ABC's website.


title: Ugly Betty

text: "Ugly Betty" has also been referenced on television shows in the United Kingdom. In the series finale of BBC One hotel-based drama series "Hotel Babylon", aired in August 2009, Ben Trueman (played by Michael Obiora) asks fellow front desk employee Melanie Hughes (played by Amy Nuttall) "How long have you had those "Ugly Betty" braces?" while giving Hughes a makeover, to which she replies: "About 18 months".


title: Ugly Betty

text: In a 2010 episode of medical drama series "Holby City", which also airs on BBC One, Jac Naylor (played by Rosie Marcel) refers to a patient as "the one who wears the "Ugly Betty" braces".


title: Ugly Betty

text: In 2013, Ortiz returned to television in the Lifetime dramedy "Devious Maids", which like "Ugly Betty" was also based on a telenovela. In the series, Ortiz plays Marisol Duarte, a newly hired maid who is determined to find out who framed her son for the murder of a maid. Ironically, it was revealed in the series' seventh episode "Taking a Message" that Marisol's true identity was that of a professor and her real last name was Suarez. It is not known if this was done intentionally but it does give Ortiz the homage of playing characters with the same last name on two different shows.


title: Ugly Betty

text: The buildup to "Bettymania" by various broadcasters also began to take shape overseas, most notably in the United Kingdom. On December 6, 2006, Channel 4 began to advertise the show. The ad shows seemingly attractive models gathered around a pool, but as the camera angle changes a model comes out of the pool wearing Betty's glasses, then as the models smile, they are all wearing Betty's braces. Another ad parodies Marks and Spencer's successful fashion advertising campaign, as well as Dove and Gap campaigns. A voice over then says, "Fashion has a new face. 'Ugly Betty' Coming Soon To 4." After a week of these teasers, clips from the actual program were included in the trailers. In mid-January, Davina McCall, presenter of "Celebrity Big Brother" dressed up as Betty live on Channel 4 before the titles of the second eviction show of the evening. On February 16, 2007, Ashley Jensen (Christina) also dressed up as Betty during an airing of Channel 4's "Friday Night Project", where she was the guest host. The children's channel CBeebies also parodied the title sequence, with one variation mixing faces of regular CBeebies characters until finally settling with Tiny from "Little Robots".


title: Ugly Betty

text: In Australia, during the week leading up to the Sunday premiere of "Ugly Betty", February 12 to 17, 2007, Channel Seven devoted a week of "Deal or No Deal" to the show by having the models dress like Betty, complete with the Guadalajara poncho. Channel Seven also used the series to promote its successful "Beautiful Sundays" schedule.


title: Ugly Betty

text: In South Africa, M-Net teamed up with Ogilve Johannesburg to hype up its campaign for the show, which included a picture of Betty on the mock cover of "Elle" magazine.


title: Ugly Betty

text: New Zealand TV2 also hyped-up "Ugly Betty" by promoting Tuesday nights as "True Beauty Tuesday", and when the show moved to Sunday nights, it promoted them as "Beautiful Sunday". TV2 also launched competitions for a replica of Betty's poncho.


title: Ugly Betty

text: Following the show's debut, the main characters, especially the title character, quickly became fixtures in the lexicon of pop media culture, with the show and its characters getting referenced in parodies, news media stories, and art-imitating-life situations. The show's impact on issues and culture also attracted the attention of the United States Congress, where on January 17, 2007, California congresswoman Hilda Solis (D-32nd, El Monte) saluted Ferrera on both her Golden Globe win and for bringing a positive profile to the Latin and Hispanic communities. In addition to that recognition, on May 8, 2007, star America Ferrera was honored by "TIME" on the magazine's annual list of the 100 most influential people. The event took place at New York's Lincoln Center and the actress was recognized for defying stereotypes with the show. The success of "Ugly Betty" and how it dealt with body imaging among women in general inspired a series of reports on "Entertainment Tonight", in which reporter Vanessa Minnillo went undercover in a fatsuit to see if women were discriminated on the basis of appearance. LGBT awareness groups like GLAAD have also noted the positive impact the show has had particularly in regard to the coming out storyline of Betty's teenaged nephew Justin.


title: Ugly Betty

text: The series won two Golden Globe Awards on January 15, 2007, for "Best Leading Actress in a Comedy Series" (America Ferrera) and Best Comedy Series. Ferrera also won a SAG Award on January 28, 2007, for "Best Actress in a Comedy Series". On June 4, 2007, the series was honored with a Peabody Award "for demonstrating that wit and humanity never go out of style."


title: Ugly Betty

text: "Ugly Betty" won the Outstanding Comedy Series award by the Gay & Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation in April 2007. Judith Light also won a Prism Award for her portrayal of Claire Meade.


title: Ugly Betty

text: On July 19, 2007, the series received 11 nominations at the 59th Primetime Emmy Awards in the Comedy category (the most of any comedy series), including Outstanding Comedy Series, Best Actress (Ferrera), Best Supporting Actress (Williams), and Best Guest Starring Actress (Hayek for her role as Sofia; Light for her role as Claire. Both lost to Elaine Stritch). It won three awards — Best Casting in a Comedy Series, Best Direction in a Comedy Series (for the show's pilot episode), and Best Actress in a Comedy Series (Ferrera). For its second season, it received six other Primetime Emmy Award nominations, going home empty handed. Overall, "Ugly Betty" has been nominated for eighteen Emmy Awards.


title: Ugly Betty

text: Although The NAACP Image Awards honors African Americans in the entertainment industry, the series won five of the Image Awards' eight major TV categories, a rarity among television series with a multicultural cast. In addition to winning an Image award for the TV series in 2007 and Ferrera for best actress in 2008, Vanessa Williams won back-to-back honors (in 2007 and 2008) in the Supporting Actress category for her portrayal of Wilhelmina Slater.


title: Ugly Betty

text: Owing to the massive success of "Ugly Betty" in the United Kingdom, Ugly Betty was nominated for Most Popular Comedy Programme at the National Television Awards in October 2008, but lost to domestic ITV comedy series "Benidorm".


title: Ugly Betty

text: The ALMA Awards honors the Hispanic entertainment community. During its first season, "Ugly Betty" won four of its first seven nominations, and in the second season took home three more, along with a Chevrolet Entertainer of the Year Award for Ferrera for her work on the show. Overall, the series has received 162 nominations.


title: Chester W. Nimitz

text: Chester William Nimitz (; February 24, 1885 – February 20, 1966) was a fleet admiral in the United States Navy. He played a major role in the naval history of World War II as Commander in Chief, US Pacific Fleet, and Commander in Chief, Pacific Ocean Areas, commanding Allied air, land, and sea forces during World War II.