title: Keynesian economics

text: Money supply, saving and investment combine to determine the level of income as illustrated in the diagram, where the top graph shows money supply (on the vertical axis) against interest rate. "M̂"  determines the ruling interest rate "r̂"  through the liquidity preference function. The rate of interest determines the level of investment "Î"  through the schedule of the marginal efficiency of capital, shown as a blue curve in the lower graph. The red curves in the same diagram show what the propensities to save are for different incomes "Y" ; and the income "Ŷ"  corresponding to the equilibrium state of the economy must be the one for which the implied level of saving at the established interest rate is equal to "Î".


title: Keynesian economics

text: In Keynes's more complicated liquidity preference theory (presented in Chapter 15) the demand for money depends on income as well as on the interest rate and the analysis becomes more complicated. Keynes never fully integrated his second liquidity preference doctrine with the rest of his theory, leaving that to John Hicks: see the IS-LM model below.


title: Keynesian economics

text: Keynes rejects the classical explanation of unemployment based on wage rigidity, but it is not clear what effect the wage rate has on unemployment in his system. He treats wages of all workers as proportional to a single rate set by collective bargaining, and chooses his units so that this rate never appears separately in his discussion. It is present implicitly in those quantities he expresses in wage units, while being absent from those he expresses in money terms. It is therefore difficult to see whether, and in what way, his results differ for a different wage rate, nor is it clear what he thought about the matter.


title: Keynesian economics

text: An increase in the money supply, according to Keynes's theory, leads to a drop in the interest rate and an increase in the amount of investment that can be undertaken profitably, bringing with it an increase in total income.


title: Keynesian economics

text: Keynes' name is associated with fiscal, rather than monetary, measures but they receive only passing (and often satirical) reference in the "General Theory". He mentions "increased public works" as an example of something that brings employment through the "multiplier", but this is before he develops the relevant theory, and he does not follow up when he gets to the theory.


title: Keynesian economics

text: Ancient Egypt was doubly fortunate, and doubtless owed to this its fabled wealth, in that it possessed two activities, namely, pyramid-building as well as the search for the precious metals, the fruits of which, since they could not serve the needs of man by being consumed, did not stale with abundance. The Middle Ages built cathedrals and sang dirges. Two pyramids, two masses for the dead, are twice as good as one; but not so two railways from London to York.


title: Keynesian economics

text: But again, he doesn't get back to his implied recommendation to engage in public works, even if not fully justified from their direct benefits, when he constructs the theory. On the contrary he later advises us that ...


title: Keynesian economics

text: ... our final task might be to select those variables which can be deliberately controlled or managed by central authority in the kind of system in which we actually live ...


title: Keynesian economics

text: and this appears to look forward to a future publication rather than to a subsequent chapter of the "General Theory".


title: Keynesian economics

text: Keynes' view of saving and investment was his most important departure from the classical outlook. It can be illustrated using the "Keynesian cross" devised by Paul Samuelson. The horizontal axis denotes total income and the purple curve shows "C" ("Y" ), the propensity to consume, whose complement "S" ("Y" ) is the propensity to save: the sum of these two functions is equal to total income, which is shown by the broken line at 45°.


title: Keynesian economics

text: The horizontal blue line "I" ("r" ) is the schedule of the marginal efficiency of capital whose value is independent of "Y". The schedule of the marginal efficiency of capital is dependent on the interest rate, specifically the interest rate cost of a new investment. If the interest rate charged by the financial sector to the productive sector is below the marginal efficiency of capital at that level of technology and capital intensity then investment is positive and grows the lower the interest rate is, given the diminishing return of capital. If the interest rate is above the marginal efficiency of capital then investment is equal to zero. Keynes interprets this as the demand for investment and denotes the sum of demands for consumption and investment as "aggregate demand", plotted as a separate curve. Aggregate demand must equal total income, so equilibrium income must be determined by the point where the aggregate demand curve crosses the 45° line. This is the same horizontal position as the intersection of "I" ("r" ) with "S" ("Y" ).


title: Keynesian economics

text: The equation "I" ("r" ) = "S" ("Y" ) had been accepted by the classics, who had viewed it as the condition of equilibrium between supply and demand for investment funds and as determining the interest rate (see the classical theory of interest). But insofar as they had had a concept of aggregate demand, they had seen the demand for investment as being given by "S" ("Y" ), since for them saving was simply the indirect purchase of capital goods, with the result that aggregate demand was equal to total income as an identity rather than as an equilibrium condition. Keynes takes note of this view in Chapter 2, where he finds it present in the early writings of Alfred Marshall but adds that "the doctrine is never stated to-day in this crude form".


title: Keynesian economics

text: Keynes introduces his discussion of the multiplier in Chapter 10 with a reference to Kahn's earlier paper (see below). He designates Kahn's multiplier the "employment multiplier" in distinction to his own "investment multiplier" and says that the two are only "a little different". Kahn's multiplier has consequently been understood by much of the Keynesian literature as playing a major role in Keynes's own theory, an interpretation encouraged by the difficulty of understanding Keynes's presentation. Kahn's multiplier gives the title ("The multiplier model") to the account of Keynesian theory in Samuelson's "Economics"  and is almost as prominent in Alvin Hansen's "Guide to Keynes"  and in Joan Robinson's "Introduction to the Theory of Employment".


title: Keynesian economics

text: ... a confusion between the logical theory of the multiplier, which holds good continuously, without time-lag ... and the consequence of an expansion in the capital goods industries which take gradual effect, subject to a time-lag, and only after an interval ...


title: Keynesian economics

text: and implies that he is adopting the former theory. And when the multiplier eventually emerges as a component of Keynes's theory (in Chapter 18) it turns out to be simply a measure of the change of one variable in response to a change in another. The schedule of the marginal efficiency of capital is identified as one of the independent variables of the economic system: "What [it] tells us, is ... the point to which the output of new investment will be pushed ..." The multiplier then gives "the ratio ... between an increment of investment and the corresponding increment of aggregate income".


title: Keynesian economics

text: ... a retrograde step ... For when we look upon the Multiplier as an instantaneous functional relation ... we are merely using the word Multiplier to stand for an alternative way of looking at the marginal propensity to consume ...,


title: Keynesian economics

text: which G. M. Ambrosi cites as an instance of "a Keynesian commentator who would have liked Keynes to have written something less 'retrograde.


title: Keynesian economics

text: The value Keynes assigns to his multiplier is the reciprocal of the marginal propensity to save: "k"  = 1 / "S" '("Y" ). This is the same as the formula for Kahn's mutliplier in a closed economy assuming that all saving (including the purchase of durable goods), and not just hoarding, constitutes leakage. Keynes gave his formula almost the status of a definition (it is put forward in advance of any explanation). His multiplier is indeed the value of "the ratio ... between an increment of investment and the corresponding increment of aggregate income" as Keynes derived it from his Chapter 13 model of liquidity preference, which implies that income must bear the entire effect of a change in investment. But under his Chapter 15 model a change in the schedule of the marginal efficiency of capital has an effect shared between the interest rate and income in proportions depending on the partial derivatives of the liquidity preference function. Keynes did not investigate the question of whether his formula for multiplier needed revision.


title: Keynesian economics

text: The liquidity trap is a phenomenon that may impede the effectiveness of monetary policies in reducing unemployment.


title: Keynesian economics

text: Economists generally think the rate of interest will not fall below a certain limit, often seen as zero or a slightly negative number. Keynes suggested that the limit might be appreciably greater than zero but did not attach much practical significance to it. The term "liquidity trap" was coined by Dennis Robertson in his comments on the "General Theory", but it was John Hicks in "Mr. Keynes and the Classics" who recognised the significance of a slightly different concept.


title: Keynesian economics

text: If the economy is in a position such that the liquidity preference curve is almost vertical, as must happen as the lower limit on "r"  is approached, then a change in the money supply "M̂"  makes almost no difference to the equilibrium rate of interest "r̂"  or, unless there is compensating steepness in the other curves, to the resulting income "Ŷ". As Hicks put it, "Monetary means will not force down the rate of interest any further."


title: Keynesian economics

text: Paul Krugman has worked extensively on the liquidity trap, claiming that it was the problem confronting the Japanese economy around the turn of the millennium. In his later words:


title: Keynesian economics

text: Short-term interest rates were close to zero, long-term rates were at historical lows, yet private investment spending remained insufficient to bring the economy out of deflation. In that environment, monetary policy was just as ineffective as Keynes described. Attempts by the Bank of Japan to increase the money supply simply added to already ample bank reserves and public holdings of cash...


title: Keynesian economics

text: Hicks showed how to analyze Keynes' system when liquidity preference is a function of income as well as of the rate of interest. Keynes's admission of income as an influence on the demand for money is a step back in the direction of classical theory, and Hicks takes a further step in the same direction by generalizing the propensity to save to take both "Y"  and "r"  as arguments. Less classically he extends this generalization to the schedule of the marginal efficiency of capital.


title: Keynesian economics

text: The IS-LM model uses two equations to express Keynes' model. The first, now written "I" ("Y", "r" ) = "S" ("Y","r" ), expresses the principle of effective demand. We may construct a graph on ("Y", "r" ) coordinates and draw a line connecting those points satisfying the equation: this is the "IS"  curve. In the same way we can write the equation of equilibrium between liquidity preference and the money supply as "L"("Y" ,"r" ) = "M̂" and draw a second curve – the "LM"  curve – connecting points that satisfy it. The equilibrium values "Ŷ"  of total income and "r̂"  of interest rate are then given by the point of intersection of the two curves.


title: Keynesian economics

text: If we follow Keynes's initial account under which liquidity preference depends only on the interest rate "r", then the "LM"  curve is horizontal.


title: Keynesian economics

text: ... modern teaching has been confused by J. R. Hicks' attempt to reduce the "General Theory" to a version of static equilibrium with the formula IS–LM. Hicks has now repented and changed his name from J. R. to John, but it will take a long time for the effects of his teaching to wear off.


title: Keynesian economics

text: Keynes argued that the solution to the Great Depression was to stimulate the country ("incentive to invest") through some combination of two approaches:


title: Keynesian economics

text: If the interest rate at which businesses and consumers can borrow decreases, investments that were previously uneconomic become profitable, and large consumer sales normally financed through debt (such as houses, automobiles, and, historically, even appliances like refrigerators) become more affordable. A principal function of central banks in countries that have them is to influence this interest rate through a variety of mechanisms collectively called "monetary policy". This is how monetary policy that reduces interest rates is thought to stimulate economic activity, i.e., "grow the economy"—and why it is called "expansionary" monetary policy.


title: Keynesian economics

text: Expansionary fiscal policy consists of increasing net public spending, which the government can effect by a) taxing less, b) spending more, or c) both. Investment and consumption by government raises demand for businesses' products and for employment, reversing the effects of the aforementioned imbalance. If desired spending exceeds revenue, the government finances the difference by borrowing from capital markets by issuing government bonds. This is called deficit spending. Two points are important to note at this point. First, deficits are not required for expansionary fiscal policy, and second, it is only "change" in net spending that can stimulate or depress the economy. For example, if a government ran a deficit of 10% both last year and this year, this would represent neutral fiscal policy. In fact, if it ran a deficit of 10% last year and 5% this year, this would actually be contractionary. On the other hand, if the government ran a surplus of 10% of GDP last year and 5% this year, that would be expansionary fiscal policy, despite never running a deficit at all.


title: Keynesian economics

text: But – contrary to some critical characterizations of it – Keynesianism does not consist solely of deficit spending, since it recommends adjusting fiscal policies according to cyclical circumstances. An example of a counter-cyclical policy is raising taxes to cool the economy and to prevent inflation when there is abundant demand-side growth, and engaging in deficit spending on labour-intensive infrastructure projects to stimulate employment and stabilize wages during economic downturns.


title: Keynesian economics

text: Keynes's ideas influenced Franklin D. Roosevelt's view that insufficient buying-power caused the Depression. During his presidency, Roosevelt adopted some aspects of Keynesian economics, especially after 1937, when, in the depths of the Depression, the United States suffered from recession yet again following fiscal contraction. But to many the true success of Keynesian policy can be seen at the onset of World War II, which provided a kick to the world economy, removed uncertainty, and forced the rebuilding of destroyed capital. Keynesian ideas became almost official in social-democratic Europe after the war and in the U.S. in the 1960s.


title: Keynesian economics

text: The Keynesian advocacy of deficit spending contrasted with the classical and neoclassical economic analysis of fiscal policy. They admitted that fiscal stimulus could actuate production. But, to these schools, there was no reason to believe that this stimulation would outrun the side-effects that "crowd out" private investment: first, it would increase the demand for labour and raise wages, hurting profitability; Second, a government deficit increases the stock of government bonds, reducing their market price and encouraging high interest rates, making it more expensive for business to finance fixed investment. Thus, efforts to stimulate the economy would be self-defeating.


title: Keynesian economics

text: The Keynesian response is that such fiscal policy is appropriate only when unemployment is persistently high, above the non-accelerating inflation rate of unemployment (NAIRU). In that case, crowding out is minimal. Further, private investment can be "crowded in": Fiscal stimulus raises the market for business output, raising cash flow and profitability, spurring business optimism. To Keynes, this accelerator effect meant that government and business could be "complements" rather than substitutes in this situation.


title: Keynesian economics

text: Second, as the stimulus occurs, gross domestic product rises—raising the amount of saving, helping to finance the increase in fixed investment. Finally, government outlays need not always be wasteful: government investment in public goods that is not provided by profit-seekers encourages the private sector's growth. That is, government spending on such things as basic research, public health, education, and infrastructure could help the long-term growth of "potential output".


title: Keynesian economics

text: In Keynes's theory, there must be significant slack in the labour market before fiscal expansion is justified.


title: Keynesian economics

text: Keynesian economists believe that adding to profits and incomes during boom cycles through tax cuts, and removing income and profits from the economy through cuts in spending during downturns, tends to exacerbate the negative effects of the business cycle. This effect is especially pronounced when the government controls a large fraction of the economy, as increased tax revenue may aid investment in state enterprises in downturns, and decreased state revenue and investment harm those enterprises.


title: Keynesian economics

text: In the last few years of his life, John Maynard Keynes was much preoccupied with the question of balance in international trade. He was the leader of the British delegation to the United Nations Monetary and Financial Conference in 1944 that established the Bretton Woods system of international currency management.


title: Keynesian economics

text: He was the principal author of a proposal – the so-called Keynes Plan – for an International Clearing Union. The two governing principles of the plan were that the problem of settling outstanding balances should be solved by 'creating' additional 'international money', and that debtor and creditor should be treated almost alike as disturbers of equilibrium. In the event, though, the plans were rejected, in part because "American opinion was naturally reluctant to accept the principle of equality of treatment so novel in debtor-creditor relationships".


title: Keynesian economics

text: The new system is not founded on free trade (liberalisation of foreign trade) but rather on regulating international trade to eliminate trade imbalances. Nations with a surplus would have a powerful incentive to get rid of it, which would automatically clear other nations' deficits. Keynes proposed a global bank that would issue its own currency—the "bancor"—which was exchangeable with national currencies at fixed rates of exchange and would become the unit of account between nations, which means it would be used to measure a country's trade deficit or trade surplus. Every country would have an overdraft facility in its bancor account at the International Clearing Union. He pointed out that surpluses lead to weak global aggregate demand – countries running surpluses exert a "negative externality" on trading partners, and posed far more than those in deficit, a threat to global prosperity. Keynes thought that surplus countries should be taxed to avoid trade imbalances.


title: Keynesian economics

text: In ""National Self-Sufficiency" The Yale Review, Vol. 22, no. 4 (June 1933)", he already highlighted the problems created by free trade.


title: Keynesian economics

text: His view, supported by many economists and commentators at the time, was that creditor nations may be just as responsible as debtor nations for disequilibrium in exchanges and that both should be under an obligation to bring trade back into a state of balance. Failure for them to do so could have serious consequences. In the words of Geoffrey Crowther, then editor of The Economist, "If the economic relationships between nations are not, by one means or another, brought fairly close to balance, then there is no set of financial arrangements that can rescue the world from the impoverishing results of chaos."


title: Keynesian economics

text: These ideas were informed by events prior to the Great Depression when – in the opinion of Keynes and others – international lending, primarily by the U.S., exceeded the capacity of sound investment and so got diverted into non-productive and speculative uses, which in turn invited default and a sudden stop to the process of lending.


title: Keynesian economics

text: Influenced by Keynes, economic texts in the immediate post-war period put a significant emphasis on balance in trade. For example, the second edition of the popular introductory textbook, "An Outline of Money", devoted the last three of its ten chapters to questions of foreign exchange management and in particular the 'problem of balance'. However, in more recent years, since the end of the Bretton Woods system in 1971, with the increasing influence of Monetarist schools of thought in the 1980s, and particularly in the face of large sustained trade imbalances, these concerns – and particularly concerns about the destabilising effects of large trade surpluses – have largely disappeared from mainstream economics discourse and Keynes' insights have slipped from view. They are receiving some attention again in the wake of the financial crisis of 2007–08.


title: Keynesian economics

text: At the beginning of his career, Keynes was an economist close to Alfred Marshall, deeply convinced of the benefits of free trade. From the crisis of 1929 onwards, noting the commitment of the British authorities to defend the gold parity of the pound sterling and the rigidity of nominal wages, he gradually adhered to protectionist measures.


title: Keynesian economics

text: On 5 November 1929, when heard by the Macmillan Committee to bring the British economy out of the crisis, Keynes indicated that the introduction of tariffs on imports would help to rebalance the trade balance. The committee's report states in a section entitled "import control and export aid", that in an economy where there is not full employment, the introduction of tariffs can improve production and employment. Thus the reduction of the trade deficit favours the country's growth.


title: Keynesian economics

text: In January 1930, in the Economic Advisory Council, Keynes proposed the introduction of a system of protection to reduce imports. In the autumn of 1930, he proposed a uniform tariff of 10% on all imports and subsidies of the same rate for all exports. In the "Treatise on Money", published in the autumn of 1930, he took up the idea of tariffs or other trade restrictions with the aim of reducing the volume of imports and rebalancing the balance of trade.


title: Keynesian economics

text: On 7 March 1931, in the "New Statesman and Nation", he wrote an article entitled "Proposal for a Tariff Revenue". He pointed out that the reduction of wages led to a reduction in national demand which constrained markets. Instead, he proposes the idea of an expansionary policy combined with a tariff system to neutralise the effects on the balance of trade. The application of customs tariffs seemed to him "unavoidable, whoever the Chancellor of the Exchequer might be". Thus, for Keynes, an economic recovery policy is only fully effective if the trade deficit is eliminated. He proposed a 15% tax on manufactured and semi-manufactured goods and 5% on certain foodstuffs and raw materials, with others needed for exports exempted (wool, cotton).


title: Keynesian economics

text: In 1932, in an article entitled "The Pro- and Anti-Tariffs", published in "The Listener", he envisaged the protection of farmers and certain sectors such as the automobile and iron and steel industries, considering them indispensable to Britain.


title: Keynesian economics

text: In the post-crisis situation of 1929, Keynes judged the assumptions of the free trade model unrealistic. He criticised, for example, the neoclassical assumption of wage adjustment.


title: Keynesian economics

text: As early as 1930, in a note to the Economic Advisory Council, he doubted the intensity of the gain from specialisation in the case of manufactured goods. While participating in the MacMillan Committee, he admitted that he no longer "believed in a very high degree of national specialisation" and refused to "abandon any industry which is unable, for the moment, to survive". He also criticised the static dimension of the theory of comparative advantage, which, in his view, by fixing comparative advantages definitively, led in practice to a waste of national resources.


title: Keynesian economics

text: In the Daily Mail of 13 March 1931, he called the assumption of perfect sectoral labour mobility "nonsense" since it states that a person made unemployed contributes to a reduction in the wage rate until he finds a job. But for Keynes, this change of job may involve costs (job search, training) and is not always possible. Generally speaking, for Keynes, the assumptions of full employment and automatic return to equilibrium discredit the theory of comparative advantage.


title: Keynesian economics

text: In July 1933, he published an article in the "New Statesman and Nation" entitled "National Self-Sufficiency", in which he criticised the argument of the specialisation of economies, which is the basis of free trade. He thus proposed the search for a certain degree of self-sufficiency. Instead of the specialisation of economies advocated by the Ricardian theory of comparative advantage, he prefers the maintenance of a diversity of activities for nations. In it he refutes the principle of peacemaking trade. His vision of trade became that of a system where foreign capitalists compete for new markets. He defends the idea of producing on national soil when possible and reasonable and expresses sympathy for the advocates of protectionism.


title: Keynesian economics

text: Later, Keynes had a written correspondence with James Meade centred on the issue of import restrictions. Keynes and Meade discussed the best choice between quota and tariff. In March 1944 Keynes began a discussion with Marcus Fleming after the latter had written an article entitled "Quotas versus depreciation". On this occasion, we see that he has definitely taken a protectionist stance after the Great Depression. He considered that quotas could be more effective than currency depreciation in dealing with external imbalances. Thus, for Keynes, currency depreciation was no longer sufficient, and protectionist measures became necessary to avoid trade deficits. To avoid the return of crises due to a self-regulating economic system, it seemed essential to him to regulate trade and stop free trade (deregulation of foreign trade).


title: Keynesian economics

text: He points out that countries that import more than they export weaken their economies. When the trade deficit increases, unemployment rises and GDP slows down. And surplus countries exert a "negative externality" on their trading partners. They get richer at the expense of others and destroy the output of their trading partners. John Maynard Keynes believed that the products of surplus countries should be taxed to avoid trade imbalances. Thus he no longer believes in the theory of comparative advantage (on which free trade is based) which states that the trade deficit does not matter, since trade is mutually beneficial.


title: Keynesian economics

text: This also explains his desire to replace the liberalisation of international trade (Free Trade) with a regulatory system aimed at eliminating trade imbalances in his proposals for the Bretton Woods Agreement.


title: Keynesian economics

text: Keynes's ideas became widely accepted after World War II, and until the early 1970s, Keynesian economics provided the main inspiration for economic policy makers in Western industrialized countries. Governments prepared high quality economic statistics on an ongoing basis and tried to base their policies on the Keynesian theory that had become the norm. In the early era of social liberalism and social democracy, most western capitalist countries enjoyed low, stable unemployment and modest inflation, an era called the Golden Age of Capitalism.


title: Keynesian economics

text: In terms of policy, the twin tools of post-war Keynesian economics were fiscal policy and monetary policy. While these are credited to Keynes, others, such as economic historian David Colander, argue that they are, rather, due to the interpretation of Keynes by Abba Lerner in his theory of functional finance, and should instead be called "Lernerian" rather than "Keynesian".


title: Keynesian economics

text: Through the 1950s, moderate degrees of government demand leading industrial development, and use of fiscal and monetary counter-cyclical policies continued, and reached a peak in the "go go" 1960s, where it seemed to many Keynesians that prosperity was now permanent. In 1971, Republican US President Richard Nixon even proclaimed "I am now a Keynesian in economics."


title: Keynesian economics

text: Beginning in the late 1960s, a new classical macroeconomics movement arose, critical of Keynesian assumptions (see sticky prices), and seemed, especially in the 1970s, to explain certain phenomena better. It was characterized by explicit and rigorous adherence to microfoundations, as well as use of increasingly sophisticated mathematical modelling.


title: Keynesian economics

text: With the oil shock of 1973, and the economic problems of the 1970s, Keynesian economics began to fall out of favour. During this time, many economies experienced high and rising unemployment, coupled with high and rising inflation, contradicting the Phillips curve's prediction. This stagflation meant that the simultaneous application of expansionary (anti-recession) and contractionary (anti-inflation) policies appeared necessary. This dilemma led to the end of the Keynesian near-consensus of the 1960s, and the rise throughout the 1970s of ideas based upon more classical analysis, including monetarism, supply-side economics, and new classical economics.


title: Keynesian economics

text: However, by the late 1980s, certain failures of the new classical models, both theoretical (see Real business cycle theory) and empirical (see the "Volcker recession") hastened the emergence of New Keynesian economics, a school that sought to unite the most realistic aspects of Keynesian and neo-classical assumptions and place them on more rigorous theoretical foundation than ever before.


title: Keynesian economics

text: One line of thinking, utilized also as a critique of the notably high unemployment and potentially disappointing GNP growth rates associated with the new classical models by the mid-1980s, was to emphasize low unemployment and maximal economic growth at the cost of somewhat higher inflation (its consequences kept in check by indexing and other methods, and its overall rate kept lower and steadier by such potential policies as Martin Weitzman's share economy).


title: Keynesian economics

text: Multiple schools of economic thought that trace their legacy to Keynes currently exist, the notable ones being neo-Keynesian economics, New Keynesian economics, post-Keynesian economics, and the new neoclassical synthesis. Keynes's biographer Robert Skidelsky writes that the post-Keynesian school has remained closest to the spirit of Keynes's work in following his monetary theory and rejecting the neutrality of money. Today these ideas, regardless of provenance, are referred to in academia under the rubric of "Keynesian economics", due to Keynes's role in consolidating, elaborating, and popularizing them.


title: Keynesian economics

text: In the postwar era, Keynesian analysis was combined with neoclassical economics to produce what is generally termed the "neoclassical synthesis", yielding neo-Keynesian economics, which dominated mainstream macroeconomic thought. Though it was widely held that there was no strong automatic tendency to full employment, many believed that if government policy were used to ensure it, the economy would behave as neoclassical theory predicted. This post-war domination by neo-Keynesian economics was broken during the stagflation of the 1970s. There was a lack of consensus among macroeconomists in the 1980s, and during this period New Keynesian economics was developed, ultimately becoming- along with new classical macroeconomics- a part of the current consensus, known as the new neoclassical synthesis.


title: Keynesian economics

text: Post-Keynesian economists, on the other hand, reject the neoclassical synthesis and, in general, neoclassical economics applied to the macroeconomy. Post-Keynesian economics is a heterodox school that holds that both neo-Keynesian economics and New Keynesian economics are incorrect, and a misinterpretation of Keynes's ideas. The post-Keynesian school encompasses a variety of perspectives, but has been far less influential than the other more mainstream Keynesian schools.


title: Keynesian economics

text: Interpretations of Keynes have emphasized his stress on the international coordination of Keynesian policies, the need for international economic institutions, and the ways in which economic forces could lead to war or could promote peace.


title: Keynesian economics

text: In a 2014 paper, economist Alan Blinder argues that, "for not very good reasons," public opinion in the United States has associated Keynesianism with liberalism, and he states that such is incorrect. For example, both Presidents Ronald Reagan (1981–89) and George W. Bush (2001–09) supported policies that were, in fact, Keynesian, even though both men were conservative leaders. And tax cuts can provide highly helpful fiscal stimulus during a recession, just as much as infrastructure spending can. Blinder concludes, "If you are not teaching your students that 'Keynesianism' is neither conservative nor liberal, you should be."


title: Keynesian economics

text: The Keynesian schools of economics are situated alongside a number of other schools that have the same perspectives on what the economic issues are, but differ on what causes them and how best to resolve them. Today, most of these schools of thought have been subsumed into modern macroeconomic theory.


title: Keynesian economics

text: The Stockholm school rose to prominence at about the same time that Keynes published his General Theory and shared a common concern in business cycles and unemployment. The second generation of Swedish economists also advocated government intervention through spending during economic downturns although opinions are divided over whether they conceived the essence of Keynes's theory before he did.


title: Keynesian economics

text: There was debate between monetarists and Keynesians in the 1960s over the role of government in stabilizing the economy. Both monetarists and Keynesians agree that issues such as business cycles, unemployment, and deflation are caused by inadequate demand. However, they had fundamentally different perspectives on the capacity of the economy to find its own equilibrium, and the degree of government intervention that would be appropriate. Keynesians emphasized the use of discretionary fiscal policy and monetary policy, while monetarists argued the primacy of monetary policy, and that it should be rules-based.


title: Keynesian economics

text: The debate was largely resolved in the 1980s. Since then, economists have largely agreed that central banks should bear the primary responsibility for stabilizing the economy, and that monetary policy should largely follow the Taylor rule – which many economists credit with the Great Moderation. The financial crisis of 2007–08, however, has convinced many economists and governments of the need for fiscal interventions and highlighted the difficulty in stimulating economies through monetary policy alone during a liquidity trap.


title: Keynesian economics

text: Some Marxist economists criticized Keynesian economics. For example, in his 1946 appraisal Paul Sweezy—while admitting that there was much in the "General Theory"'s analysis of effective demand that Marxists could draw on—described Keynes as a prisoner of his neoclassical upbringing. Sweezy argued that Keynes had never been able to view the capitalist system as a totality. He argued that Keynes regarded the class struggle carelessly, and overlooked the class role of the capitalist state, which he treated as a "deus ex machina", and some other points.


title: Keynesian economics

text: While Michał Kalecki was generally enthusiastic about the Keynesian revolution, he predicted that it would not endure, in his article "Political Aspects of Full Employment". In the article Kalecki predicted that the full employment delivered by Keynesian policy would eventually lead to a more assertive working class and weakening of the social position of business leaders, causing the elite to use their political power to force the displacement of the Keynesian policy even though profits would be higher than under a laissez faire system: The erosion of social prestige and political power would be unacceptable to the elites despite higher profits.


title: Keynesian economics

text: James M. Buchanan criticized Keynesian economics on the grounds that governments would in practice be unlikely to implement theoretically optimal policies. The implicit assumption underlying the Keynesian fiscal revolution, according to Buchanan, was that economic policy would be made by wise men, acting without regard to political pressures or opportunities, and guided by disinterested economic technocrats. He argued that this was an unrealistic assumption about political, bureaucratic and electoral behaviour. Buchanan blamed Keynesian economics for what he considered a decline in America's fiscal discipline. Buchanan argued that deficit spending would evolve into a permanent disconnect between spending and revenue, precisely because it brings short-term gains, so, ending up institutionalizing irresponsibility in the federal government, the largest and most central institution in our society.


title: Keynesian economics

text: Martin Feldstein argues that the legacy of Keynesian economics–the misdiagnosis of unemployment, the fear of saving, and the unjustified government intervention–affected the fundamental ideas of policy makers.


title: Keynesian economics

text: Milton Friedman thought that Keynes's political bequest was harmful for two reasons. First, he thought whatever the economic analysis, benevolent dictatorship is likely sooner or later to lead to a totalitarian society. Second, he thought Keynes's economic theories appealed to a group far broader than economists primarily because of their link to his political approach.


title: Keynesian economics

text: Alex Tabarrok argues that Keynesian politics–as distinct from Keynesian policies–has failed pretty much whenever it's been tried, at least in liberal democracies.


title: Keynesian economics

text: In response to this argument, John Quiggin, wrote about these theories' implication for a liberal democratic order. He thought that if it is generally accepted that democratic politics is nothing more than a battleground for competing interest groups, then reality will come to resemble the model.


title: Keynesian economics

text: Paul Krugman wrote "I don’t think we need to take that as an immutable fact of life; but still, what are the alternatives?"


title: Keynesian economics

text: Daniel Kuehn, criticized James M. Buchanan. He argued, "if you have a problem with politicians – criticize politicians," not Keynes. He also argued that empirical evidence makes it pretty clear that Buchanan was wrong.


title: Keynesian economics

text: James Tobin argued, if advising government officials, politicians, voters, it's not for economists to play games with them.


title: Keynesian economics

text: Keynes implicitly rejected this argument, in "soon or late it is ideas not vested interests which are dangerous for good or evil."


title: Keynesian economics

text: Brad DeLong has argued that politics is the main motivator behind objections to the view that government should try to serve a stabilizing macroeconomic role. Paul Krugman argued that a regime that by and large lets markets work, but in which the government is ready both to rein in excesses and fight slumps is inherently unstable, due to intellectual instability, political instability, and financial instability.


title: Keynesian economics

text: Another influential school of thought was based on the Lucas critique of Keynesian economics. This called for greater consistency with microeconomic theory based on rational choice theory, and in particular emphasized the idea of rational expectations. Lucas and others argued that Keynesian economics required remarkably foolish and short-sighted behaviour from people, which totally contradicted the economic understanding of their behaviour at a micro level. New classical economics introduced a set of macroeconomic theories that were based on optimizing microeconomic behaviour. These models have been developed into the real business-cycle theory, which argues that business cycle fluctuations can to a large extent be accounted for by real (in contrast to nominal) shocks.


title: Keynesian economics

text: Beginning in the late 1950s new classical macroeconomists began to disagree with the methodology employed by Keynes and his successors. Keynesians emphasized the dependence of consumption on disposable income and, also, of investment on current profits and current cash flow. In addition, Keynesians posited a Phillips curve that tied nominal wage inflation to unemployment rate. To support these theories, Keynesians typically traced the logical foundations of their model (using introspection) and supported their assumptions with statistical evidence. New classical theorists demanded that macroeconomics be grounded on the same foundations as microeconomic theory, profit-maximizing firms and rational, utility-maximizing consumers.


title: Keynesian economics

text: The result of this shift in methodology produced several important divergences from Keynesian macroeconomics:


title: The Twilight Zone

text: The Twilight Zone is an American media franchise based on the anthology television series created by Rod Serling. The episodes are in various genres, including fantasy, science fiction, absurdism, dystopian fiction, suspense, horror, supernatural drama, black comedy, and psychological thriller, often concluding with a macabre or unexpected twist, and usually with a moral. A popular and critical success, it introduced many Americans to common science fiction and fantasy tropes. The first series, shot entirely in black and white, ran on CBS for five seasons from 1959 to 1964.


title: The Twilight Zone

text: "The Twilight Zone" followed in the tradition of earlier television shows such as "Tales of Tomorrow" (1951–53) and "Science Fiction Theatre" (1955–57); radio programs such as "The Weird Circle" (1943–45), "Dimension X" (1950–51) and "X Minus One" (1955–58); and the radio work of one of Serling's inspirations, Norman Corwin. The success of the series led to (1983), (1994), a radio series (2002–12), various literature, theme park attractions and various other spin-offs that spanned five decades, including three revival television series. The second series (1985–89) ran on CBS and in syndication in the 1980s, while the third series ran on UPN (2002–03). The fourth "Twilight Zone" series, helmed by Jordan Peele, was released on CBS All Access from 2019–20.


title: The Twilight Zone

text: "TV Guide" ranked the original TV series #5 in their 2013 list of the 60 greatest shows of all time and #4 in their list of the 60 greatest dramas.


title: The Twilight Zone

text: As a boy, Rod Serling was a fan of pulp fiction stories. As an adult, he sought books with themes such as racism, government, war, society, and human nature in general. Serling decided to combine these two interests as a way to broach these subjects on television at a time when such issues were not commonly addressed.


title: The Twilight Zone

text: Throughout the 1950s, Serling established himself as one of the most popular names in television. He was as famous for writing televised drama as he was for criticizing the medium's limitations. His most vocal complaints concerned censorship, which was frequently practiced by sponsors and networks. "I was not permitted to have my senators discuss any current or pressing problem," he said of his 1957 "Studio One" production "The Arena", intended to be an involving look into contemporary politics. "To talk of tariff was to align oneself with the Republicans; to talk of labor was to suggest control by the Democrats. To say a single thing germane to the current political scene was absolutely prohibited."


title: The Twilight Zone

text: CBS purchased a teleplay in 1958 that writer Rod Serling hoped to produce as the pilot of a weekly anthology series. "The Time Element" marked Serling's first entry in the field of science fiction.


title: The Twilight Zone

text: Thirteen years after the end of World War II, a man named Peter Jenson (William Bendix) visits a psychoanalyst, Dr. Gillespie (Martin Balsam). Jenson tells him about a recurring dream in which he tries to warn people about the "sneak attack" on Pearl Harbor before it happens, but the warnings are disregarded. Jenson believes the events of the dream are real, and each night he travels back to 1941. Dr. Gillespie insists that time travel is impossible given the nature of temporal paradoxes. While on the couch, Jenson falls asleep once again but this time dreams that the Japanese planes shoot and kill him. In Dr. Gillespie's office, the couch Jenson was lying on is now empty. Dr. Gillespie goes to a bar where he finds Jenson's picture on the wall. The bartender tells him that Jenson had tended bar there, but he was killed during the Pearl Harbor attack.


title: The Twilight Zone

text: With the "Time Element" script, Serling drafted the fundamental elements that defined the subsequent series: a science-fiction/fantasy theme, opening and closing narration, and an ending with a twist. "The Time Element" was purchased immediately but shelved indefinitely.


title: The Twilight Zone

text: This is where things stood when Bert Granet, the new producer for "Westinghouse Desilu Playhouse", discovered "The Time Element" in CBS' vaults while searching for an original Serling script to add prestige to his show. "The Time Element" (introduced by Desi Arnaz) debuted on November 24, 1958, to an overwhelmingly delighted audience of television viewers and critics alike. "The humor and sincerity of Mr. Serling's dialogue made 'The Time Element' consistently entertaining," offered Jack Gould of "The New York Times". More than 6,000 letters of praise flooded Granet's offices. Convinced that a series based on such stories could succeed, CBS again began talks with Serling about the possibilities of producing "The Twilight Zone". "Where Is Everybody?" was accepted as the pilot episode and the project was officially announced to the public in early 1959. Other than reruns at the time, "The Time Element" was not aired on television again until it was shown as part of a 1996 all-night sneak preview of the new cable channel TVLand. It is available in an Italian DVD boxed set titled "Ai confini della realtà – I tesori perduti". The "Twilight Zone Season 1" Blu-ray boxed set released on September 14, 2010, offers a remastered high-definition version of the original "Desilu Playhouse" production as a special feature. The program's supporting cast features Darryl Hickman, Jesse White, Bartlett Robinson and future Three Stooges member Joe DeRita.


title: The Twilight Zone

text: The series was produced by Cayuga Productions, Inc., a production company owned and named by Serling. It reflects his background in Central New York State and is named after Cayuga Lake, on which he owned a home, and where Cornell University and Ithaca College are located.


title: The Twilight Zone

text: Aside from Serling, who wrote or adapted nearly two-thirds of the series' total episodes, writers for "The Twilight Zone" included leading authors such as Charles Beaumont, Ray Bradbury, Earl Hamner, Jr., George Clayton Johnson, Richard Matheson, Reginald Rose, and Jerry Sohl. Many episodes also featured new adaptations of classic stories by such writers as Ambrose Bierce, Jerome Bixby, Damon Knight, John Collier, and Lewis Padgett.


title: The Twilight Zone

text: "Twilight Zone" writers frequently used science fiction as a vehicle for social comment, as networks and sponsors who censored controversial material from live dramas were less concerned with seemingly innocuous fantasy and sci-fi stories. Frequent themes on "The Twilight Zone" included nuclear war, McCarthyism, and mass hysteria, subjects that were avoided on less serious primetime television. Episodes such as "The Monsters Are Due on Maple Street" and "I Am the Night—Color Me Black" offered specific commentary on current events and social issues. Other stories, such as "The Masks", "I Dream of Genie", or "Mr. Denton on Doomsday" were allegories, parables, or fables that reflected the moral and philosophical choices of the characters.


title: The Twilight Zone

text: Despite his esteem in the writing community, Serling found the series difficult to sell. Few critics felt that science fiction could transcend empty escapism and enter the realm of adult drama. In a September 22, 1959, interview with Serling, Mike Wallace asked a question illustrative of the times: "...[Y]ou're going to be, obviously, working so hard on "The Twilight Zone" that, in essence, for the time being and for the foreseeable future, you've given up on writing anything important for television, right?" While Serling's appearances on the show became one of its most distinctive features, with his clipped delivery still widely imitated today, he was reportedly nervous about it and had to be persuaded to appear on camera. Serling often steps into the middle of the action while the characters remain oblivious to him, but on one notable occasion, they are aware of his presence: In the episode "A World of His Own", a writer (Keenan Wynn) with the power to alter his reality objects to Serling's narration and promptly erases Serling from the show.


title: The Twilight Zone

text: In season two, due to budgetary constraints, the network decided – against Serling's wishes – to cut costs by shooting some episodes on videotape rather than film. The requisite multicamera setup of the videotape format precluded location shooting, severely limiting the potential scope of the storylines, and the experiment was abandoned after just six episodes ("Twenty Two", "Static", "The Whole Truth", "The Lateness of the Hour", "The Night of the Meek", and "Long Distance Call").


title: The Twilight Zone

text: The first series contains 156 episodes. The episodes in seasons one through three are 30 minutes long with commercials (24 or 25 minutes without commercials). Season four (1962–63) consists of one-hour episodes with commercials (51 minutes without commercials). Season five returned to the half-hour format.


title: The Twilight Zone

text: It was Serling's decision to sell his share of the series back to the network that eventually allowed for a "Twilight Zone" revival. As an in-house production, CBS stood to earn more money producing "The Twilight Zone" than it could by purchasing a new series produced by an outside company. Even so, the network was slow to consider a revival, turning down offers from the original production team of Rod Serling and Buck Houghton and later from American filmmaker Francis Ford Coppola.


title: The Twilight Zone

text: CBS gave the new "Twilight Zone" a greenlight in 1984 under the supervision of Carla Singer, then Vice President of Drama Development. While the show did not come close to matching the enduring popularity of the original, some episodes – particularly Alan Brennert's love story "Her Pilgrim Soul" and J. Neil Schulman's "Profile in Silver" – were critically acclaimed. In a tribute to the first series, the opening credits include a brief image of Rod Serling. Four episodes are remakes of those from the first series: "Night of the Meek", "Shadow Play", "The After Hours" and "A Game of Pool", while "Dead Woman's Shoes" is an adaptation of "Dead Man's Shoes". Unlike the first series and the third series, this series does not include the opening monologue during the title sequence. As well, the narration is all strictly voice-over and the narrator never appears on-screen.


title: The Twilight Zone

text: In the early 1990s, Richard Matheson and Carol Serling produced an outline for a two-hour made-for-TV movie which would feature Matheson adaptations of three yet-unfilmed Rod Serling short stories. Outlines for such a production were rejected by CBS until early 1994, when Serling's widow discovered a complete shooting script ("Where the Dead Are") authored by her late husband, while rummaging through their garage. She showed the forgotten script to producers Michael O'Hara and Laurence Horowitz, who were significantly impressed by it. "I had a pile of scripts, which I usually procrastinate about reading. But I read this one right away and, after 30 pages, called my partner and said, "I love it," recalled O'Hara. "This is pure imagination, a period piece, literate – some might say wordy. If Rod Serling's name weren't on it, it wouldn't have a chance at getting made."


title: The Twilight Zone

text: Eager to capitalize on Serling's celebrity status as a writer, CBS packaged "Where the Dead Are" with Matheson's adaptation of "The Theatre", debuting as a two-hour feature on the night of May 19, 1994, under the name "Twilight Zone: Rod Serling's Lost Classics". The title represents a misnomer, as both stories were conceived long after "Twilight Zone's" cancellation. Written just months before Serling's death, "Where the Dead Are" starred Patrick Bergin as a 19th-century doctor who stumbles upon a mad scientist's medical experiments with immortality. "The Theatre" starred Amy Irving and Gary Cole as a couple who visits a cineplex where they discover the feature presentation depicts their own lives. James Earl Jones provided opening and closing narrations.


title: The Twilight Zone

text: Critical response was mixed. Gannett News Service described it as "taut and stylish, a reminder of what can happen when fine actors are given great words." "USA Today" was less impressed, even suggesting that Carol Serling "should have left these two unproduced mediocrities in the garage where she found them." Ultimately, ratings proved insufficient to justify a proposed sequel featuring three scripts adapted by Matheson.


title: The Twilight Zone

text: A third series was developed by UPN in 2002, it was hosted by Forest Whitaker. It was broadcast in a one-hour format composed of two half-hour stories, it was canceled after one season. "It's Still a Good Life" is a sequel to "It's a Good Life", "The Monsters Are on Maple Street" is an adaptation of "The Monsters Are Due on Maple Street" and "Eye of the Beholder" is a remake of an episode from the first series, with Serling still credited as writer.


title: The Twilight Zone

text: In December 2012, it was reported that Bryan Singer was developing and executive producing a fourth television series for CBS Television Studios. A writer for the series was not chosen and the program was not pitched to any networks. CBS, which broadcast the first series and second series, was reportedly interested. In February 2013, Singer told "TG Daily" that the project was still in development and that he hoped to direct the pilot and have A-list actors appear on the revival. The following month, he told "IGN" that a writer with whom he had previously worked was in negotiations to join the revival and that he felt "passionate" towards the first series and the planned revival.


title: The Twilight Zone

text: In February 2016, it was reported that Ken Levine would write and direct the pilot episode of the revival series. It was also reported that the series would be interactive. In November 2017, it was reported that Jordan Peele was developing a reboot of the series for streaming service CBS All Access with Marco Ramirez serving as potential showrunner. In December 2017, CBS All Access ordered the fourth "The Twilight Zone" series to series. It was announced that the series would be produced by CBS Television Studios in association with Monkeypaw Productions and Genre Films. Jordan Peele, Marco Ramirez, and Simon Kinberg will serve as executive producers for the series and collaborate on the premiere episode. Win Rosenfeld and Audrey Chon will also serve as executive producers. Peele was revealed to be the new host and narrator in September 2018, and the new opening sequence was released. The series premiered on April 1, 2019.


title: The Twilight Zone

text: The season 1 episode "Nightmare at 30,000 Feet" is based on the first series' season 5 episode "Nightmare at 20,000 Feet". The season 2 episode "You Might Also Like" features the Kanamits, who first appeared in the first series' season 3 episode "To Serve Man". On February 24, 2021, CBS All Access canceled the series after two seasons.


title: The Twilight Zone

text: "Twilight Zone: The Movie" is a 1983 feature film produced by Steven Spielberg. It starred Dan Aykroyd, Albert Brooks, John Lithgow, and the late Vic Morrow and Scatman Crothers. The film remade three classic episodes of the first series and included one original story. John Landis directed the prologue and the first segment, Steven Spielberg directed the second, Joe Dante the third, and George Miller directed the final segment. Landis's episode became notorious for a helicopter accident during filming that caused the deaths of Morrow and two child actors.


title: The Twilight Zone

text: Actor Leonardo DiCaprio is planning to make a new film with Warner Bros., citing "The Twilight Zone" as his favorite TV series. Unlike the first film, which was an anthology feature, it will be a big-budget, SFX-laden continuous story possibly based on classic episodes of the series such as "Eye of the Beholder", "To Serve Man", or any of the 92 scripts written by Rod Serling, to which Warner Bros. owns the rights. One plot leaked from the script tells about a pilot who time-travels 96 years into the future. "Cloverfield" director Matt Reeves was signed in 2011 to direct the movie, but left in 2012 to direct "Dawn of the Planet of the Apes". On August 16, 2013, Joseph Kosinski was announced to direct. The studio hired Aron Eli Coleite to pen the screenplay for the film and will not be an anthology but use various elements from the "Twilight Zone" universe. In June 2017, Christine Lavaf was hired to write the script.


title: The Twilight Zone

text: In 1964, Ideal released a board game, "The Twilight Zone Game", at the height of the show's popularity. The game consisted of a cardboard playing surface, four colored playing pieces, a colored spinning wheel, and 12 "door" playing cards. In 1988, Gigabit Systems, Inc. published a text adventure video game for Amiga and the PC. In March 1992, Midway Games released a wide-body pinball game, "Twilight Zone", based on the original TV series, as a Bally title. Conceived by Pat Lawlor, it uses Golden Earring's hit song "Twilight Zone" (1982) as its theme song. The game sold 15,235 units. It is often regarded as one of the greatest pinball machines of all time. On September 17, 2014, Legacy Interactive and Spark Plug Games released a casual adventure game based on "The Twilight Zone". On July 14, 2022, Fun Train and Pocket Money Games released a Virtual Reality game based on "The Twilight Zone" for Meta Quest 2 titled "Twilight Zone VR".


title: The Twilight Zone

text: Serling novelized several of his original scripts, which were published in the anthologies "Stories from the Twilight Zone" (1960), "More Stories from the Twilight Zone" (1961) and "New Stories from the Twilight Zone" (1962); these have all been reprinted several times, including in an omnibus, "The Twilight Zone: Complete Stories" (1980). In 1995, DAW Books published the anthology books "Journeys to the Twilight Zone" (16 stories edited by Carol Serling including Rod Serling's "Suggestion"), "Return to the Twilight Zone" (18 stories edited by Carol Serling including Rod Serling's "The Sole Survivor"), and "Adventures in the Twilight Zone" (24 stories edited by Carol Serling including Rod Serling's "Lindemann's Catch"). In September 2009, Tor Books published "", to mark the 50th anniversary of the series. It contains stories by 20 authors such as R. L. Stine and Timothy Zahn, and an introduction by Carol Serling.


title: The Twilight Zone

text: Western Publishing published a "Twilight Zone" comic book, first providing content under contract to publisher Dell Comics for four issues, one in 1961 and three further issues in 1962, with the first two published as part of their long-running "Four Color" anthology series as issue numbers 1173 and 1288, and then two further one-shots numbered separately in Dell's unique fashion as 01-860-207 and 12-860-210 (numbered as 01-860-210 on the inside) respectively. Western then restarted the series under its own Gold Key imprint with a formal issue No. 1, which ran 92 issues from 1962 to 1979, with the final issue being published in 1982. Several of the stories were reprinted in their "Mystery Comics Digest", which mentioned the title on the covers. A wide range of artists worked on the title, including Jack Sparling, Reed Crandall, Lee Elias, George Evans, Russ Jones, Joe Orlando, Jerry Robinson, Mike Sekowsky, Dan Spiegle, Frank Thorne, and Alex Toth. The first published comic book work of artist Frank Miller appeared in issue 84 (June 1978). In 1990, NOW Comics published a single issue of a new series using the title logo from the 1985 revival, featuring an adaptation of Harlan Ellison's story "Crazy as a Soup Sandwich". The issue was reprinted as "Twilight Zones Premiere" in 1991, followed by an eleven-issue second volume (1991–1992) and a four-issue third volume (1993), as well as an annual and a 3-D special in 1993.


title: The Twilight Zone

text: In 2008, students at the Savannah College of Art and Design partnered with Walker & Co. to create graphic novels based on eight episodes of the series through 2009. The first four, "Walking Distance", "The After Hours", "The Monsters Are Due on Maple Street", and "The Odyssey of Flight 33", were released in December 2011. The other four were "The Midnight Sun", "Deaths-Head Revisited", "The Big Tall Wish" and "Will the Real Martian Please Stand Up?" Comics publisher Dynamite Entertainment ran a multiple-issue series, written by J. Michael Straczynski and with art by Guiu Vilanova, beginning in December 2013.


title: The Twilight Zone

text: The Marketts' biggest hit, "Out of Limits", originally entitled "Outer Limits", was named after the 1963 TV series "The Outer Limits". Rod Serling sued the Marketts for quoting the four-note motif from "The Twilight Zone", without his approval, which resulted in the change of the title to "Out of Limits". It reached number 3 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 chart in 1964. It sold over one million copies, and was awarded a gold disc.


title: The Twilight Zone

text: Many other musicians have written and performed music based on "The Twilight Zone", including: 2 Unlimited ("Twilight Zone"), Anthrax ("Intro to Reality"), Average White Band, John Cale, Dr. John, David Dubowski ("To Serve Man"), Golden Earring ("Twilight Zone"), Michael Hurley, Tech N9ne, Iron Maiden ("Twilight Zone"), Mekong Delta ("Twilight Zone"), Van Morrison ("Twilight Zone"), Rush ("The Twilight Zone"), Raymond Scott, Sly & Robbie, Magneto Dayo, The Manhattan Transfer ("Twilight Zone/Twilight Tone"), The Residents, The Ventures ("Twilight Zone"), Panic! at the Disco and John Williams.


title: The Twilight Zone

text: Beginning in 2002, episodes of the original "The Twilight Zone" were adapted for radio, with Stacy Keach taking Serling's role as narrator and produced by Carl Amari of Falcon Picture Group. Each episode features a current Hollywood celebrity, including Jason Alexander, Blair Underwood, Lou Gossett, Jr., Michael York, Jim Caviezel, Jane Seymour, Don Johnson, Sean Astin, Luke Perry and others in the title roles. The series is broadcast on hundreds of radio stations from coast to coast and over Sirius/XM. The station list and episodes for download, including 3 Free episodes are available at the official website at www.twilightzoneradio.com


title: The Twilight Zone

text: Beginning in 2001, Gauntlet Press began publishing collections of original scripts from "The Twilight Zone" by Charles Beaumont, Richard Matheson, and Rod Serling. A ten-volume signed, limited edition series of all 92 of Rod Serling's scripts, authorized by his wife, Carol Serling, began yearly publication in 2004. Many of the scripts contain handwritten edits by Serling himself and differ in significant ways from the aired versions; most volumes contain an alternate version of a selected script. The script for "The Monsters Are Due on Maple Street" has been published into 7th grade reading books in the form of a play.


title: The Twilight Zone

text: Live theatre productions of the original episodes can be seen in Los Angeles and Seattle, where Theater Schmeater has continuously produced a late-night series, "The Twilight Zone – Live" with permission of the Serling estate, since 1996. In 2009, Masquerade, A Chennai based theater group produced 'Dystopia', loosely based on the episodes "The Obsolete Man" and "Five Characters in Search of an Exit". In 2011, the Penn State University theatre group, No Refund Theatre, produced a stage adaptation of "The Twilight Zone". It included the episodes "The Eye of the Beholder", "The Midnight Sun", and "Nothing in the Dark". It was directed by Anthony Arbaiza.


title: The Twilight Zone

text: In 2017, Bethesda-Chevy Chase High School produced a live adaptation directed by Adam Graham with permission from CBS, with two shows containing four episodes each. These episodes included "Will The Real Martian Please Stand Up?" and "The Monsters Are Due On Maple Street." as well as more technically challenging episodes such as "Penny For Your Thoughts" and "The Eye of the Beholder."


title: The Twilight Zone

text: In December 2017 the Almeida Theatre in London are staging the World Premiere production of 'The Twilight Zone'. Adapted by Anne Washburn and directed by Laurence Olivier Award winner Richard Jones, and will be based on stories from the first series by Rod Serling, Charles Beaumont and Richard Matheson.


title: The Twilight Zone

text: "The Twilight Zone" Tower of Terror is a theme park attraction based on the original "Twilight Zone" series. Designed by Walt Disney Imagineering, the attraction is present at Disney's Hollywood Studios in Orlando, Walt Disney Studios Park in Paris and Tokyo DisneySea in Japan. A fourth attraction at Disney California Adventure operated from 2004 to 2017 before being re-themed to . The attraction in Japan is the only one not themed to "The Twilight Zone", due to cultural differences and constraints in licensing for the Oriental Land Company, owner and operator of the Tokyo parks. The ride also served as the inspiration for the 1997 TV film "Tower of Terror", which bears no connection to the attraction or "The Twilight Zone".


title: The Twilight Zone

text: "The Twilight Zone" first series is currently in syndication on MeTV Network and Syfy, and the 2002 revival is syndicated on the El Rey Network.


title: The Twilight Zone

text: In Matt Groening's Futurama, there is a dystopian TV show called The Scary Door, the title sequence, dystopian themes and comedic premise of which are heavily influenced by The Twilight Zone. One episode of The Scary Door, "The Last Man On Earth", parodies The Twilight Zone's original season 1 episode Time Enough At Last.


title: The Twilight Zone

text: Many Treehouse Of Horror episodes of The Simpsons also reference the show. These include Treehouse of Horror IV (where Bart sees a gremlin on the side of the school bus ["Terror at 5 1/2 Feet"]), Treehouse of Horror III (which features an evil Krusty The Clown doll ["Clown Without Pity"]) and Treehouse of Horror (where the family are abducted by aliens ["Hungry Are The Damned"]). Homer also references the show in the Homer3 (Homer Cubed) segment of Treehouse of Horror VI, when, upon entering the 3rd dimension, he says "It's like something out of that twilighty show about that zone".


title: The Twilight Zone

text: In "Mad Men", Paul Kinsey quotes Rod Serling's "submitted for your approval" opening and foreshadows the original show's cancellation (Season 1, Episode 2), saying "Mitch in Media says CBS might pull the plug -- I'll kill myself."


title: The Twilight Zone

text: Many bands and artists have released songs dedicated to the show, with some titled "The Twilight Zone"/"Twilight Zone", as listed above. John Grant briefly mentions the show's title in the song "Sigourney Weaver", from his 2010 album, Queen of Denmark. British post-punk band The Fall released a song called "Time Enough At Last" appearing on their album. The song recounts the events of the original Twilight Zone episode of the same name and also appears on the band's 2003 compilation album of the same name. Mathcore duo Serling is named after the shows creator, Rod Serling. All songs, lyrics, and albums of theirs discuss particular Twilight Zone episodes and themes.


title: Treat Williams

text: Richard Treat Williams (born December 1, 1951) is an American actor, writer and aviator who has appeared on film, stage and television in over 120 credits. He first became well known for his starring role in the 1979 musical film "Hair", and later also starred in the films "Prince of the City", "Once Upon a Time in America", "The Late Shift" and "127 Hours". From 2002 to 2006, he was the lead of the television series "Everwood" and was nominated for two Screen Actors Guild Awards. He has additionally been nominated for three Golden Globe Awards, two Satellite Awards and an Independent Spirit Award.


title: Treat Williams

text: Williams was born December 1, 1951 in Rowayton, Connecticut, the son of Marian (née Andrew), an antiques dealer, and Richard Norman Williams, a corporate executive. His maternal great-great-great-grandfather was Senator William Henry Barnum of Connecticut, a third cousin of the showman P. T. Barnum. Williams is a distant relative of Robert Treat Paine, who was a signatory to the Declaration of Independence.


title: Treat Williams

text: Williams played football in high school. He graduated from the Kent School in Connecticut and Franklin and Marshall College in Pennsylvania.


title: Treat Williams

text: Williams made his film debut in the 1975 thriller film "Deadly Hero". The following year he played a supporting role in "The Ritz", a squeaky-voiced private detective looking for his suspect in a gay bathhouse. He came to world attention in 1979, when he starred as George Berger in the Miloš Forman film "Hair", which was based on the 1967 Broadway musical. Williams was nominated for a Golden Globe Award for his role in the film. He was featured in the February 1980 edition of "Playgirl" magazine. He has gone on to appear in over 75 films and several television series. Notable films include: "1941" (1979), "Once Upon A Time In America" (1984), "Dead Heat" (1988), "Things to Do in Denver When You're Dead" (1995) and "Deep Rising" (1998).


title: Treat Williams

text: Williams' second Golden Globe nomination was for his starring role in Sidney Lumet's "Prince of the City" (1981). His third nomination was for his performance as Stanley Kowalski in the television presentation of "A Streetcar Named Desire". In 1996, he was nominated for a Best Actor Emmy Award by the Academy of Television Arts & Sciences for his work in "The Late Shift", an HBO movie, in which he portrayed agent Michael Ovitz.


title: Treat Williams

text: In 1996, he played villain Xander Drax in Paramount's big budget comic book adaptation "The Phantom", in which Williams' character did his best to take over the world and kill Billy Zane's mysterious superhero.


title: Treat Williams

text: Williams' career includes numerous stage roles. He won a Drama League Award for his work in the Broadway revival of "Stephen Sondheim's Follies", and another for starring in the off-Broadway production of "Captains Courageous". Other notable Broadway shows include "Grease", the Sherman Brothers' "Over Here!", "Once in a Lifetime", "Pirates of Penzance" and "Love Letters", and off-Broadway, he has appeared in David Mamet's "Oleanna" and "Oh, Hell" (at Lincoln Center), "Some Men Need Help" and Randy Newman's "Maybe I'm Doing It Wrong". He premiered the Los Angeles production of "Love Letters" and appeared in "War Letters" at the Canon Theatre in Los Angeles.


title: Treat Williams

text: Williams played leading role as Dr. Andrew Brown in the WB television series "Everwood", about a New York City neurosurgeon who moves his family to Colorado. Although the show's ratings were never spectacular, it won critical acclaim and had a devoted following. Williams received two SAG Award nominations (2003 and 2004) for his role on the show.


title: Treat Williams

text: Williams has made several guest appearances on the ABC drama "Brothers & Sisters" as David Morton, a friend and potential suitor of Sally Field's character. He starred in the short-lived series "Heartland" on TNT as Nathaniel Grant, but the series was canceled due to low ratings. He also starred in a Lifetime movie, "Staircase Murders", which aired April 15, 2007.


title: Treat Williams

text: Williams starred in a "Hallmark Hall of Fame" movie, "Beyond the Blackboard", with his former "Everwood" co-star, Emily VanCamp. It was first broadcast on CBS on April 24, 2011.


title: Treat Williams

text: Williams appears in the CBS television pilot "Peachtree Lines" as Mayor Lincoln Rylan. The serial is an examination of political, social and cultural issues in Atlanta.


title: Treat Williams

text: Williams has also worked as a director, winning two festival awards for directing "Texan" in Showtime's Chanticleer Films series.


title: Treat Williams

text: Williams currently plays a role as Mick O' Brien in a Hallmark Channel television series called "Chesapeake Shores" originally airing August 2016 till current.


title: Treat Williams

text: He also had a recurring role in "Chicago Fire" as Kelly Severide's father, Benny Severide until his character's death in season 7.


title: Treat Williams

text: Williams has authored a children's book, "Air Show!", illustrated by Robert Neubecker, published in 2010 by Disney/Hyperion Books). Targeted at an audience of children ages three to seven, the book playfully documents an airshow experience with simple text and bold illustrations of such aircraft as a Boeing B-17, a Pitts Special biplane and the US Navy's Blue Angel F/A-18.


title: Treat Williams

text: In 1969, Williams' high school football coach, who was also a flight instructor, offered to train him in a Piper Super Cub. At age 21, he was a private pilot. Williams became an FAA instrument-rated commercial pilot with privileges in both single engine and multi-engine airplanes as well as rotorcraft helicopter. He holds a type-rating for Cessna Citation jets. He also is certified as a flight instructor. He has owned a Piper Clipped-wing Cub, Piper Cherokee 180, Piper Seneca II and a Piper Navajo Chieftain which is used for family travel between homes.


title: Treat Williams

text: Williams resides in Park City, Utah and Manchester Center, Vermont with his wife, Pam Van Sant, and two children, Gille and Ellie.


title: Documentary film

text: A documentary film or documentary is a non-fictional motion-picture intended to "document reality, primarily for the purposes of instruction, education or maintaining a historical record". Bill Nichols has characterized the documentary in terms of "a filmmaking practice, a cinematic tradition, and mode of audience reception [that remains] a practice without clear boundaries".


title: Documentary film

text: Early documentary films, originally called "actuality films", lasted one minute or less. Over time, documentaries have evolved to become longer in length, and to include more categories. Some examples are educational, observational and docufiction. Documentaries are very informative, and are often used within schools as a resource to teach various principles. Documentary filmmakers have a responsibility to be truthful to their vision of the world without intentionally misrepresenting a topic.


title: Documentary film

text: Social-media platforms (such as YouTube) have provided an avenue for the growth of the documentary-film genre. These platforms have increased the distribution area and ease-of-accessibility.


title: Documentary film

text: Polish writer and filmmaker Bolesław Matuszewski was among those who identified the mode of documentary film. He wrote two of the earliest texts on cinema "Une nouvelle source de l'histoire" (eng. A New Source of History) and "La photographie animée" (eng. Animated photography). Both were published in 1898 in French and among the early written works to consider the historical and documentary value of the film. Matuszewski is also among the first filmmakers to propose the creation of a Film Archive to collect and keep safe visual materials.


title: Documentary film

text: The word "documentary" was coined by Scottish documentary filmmaker John Grierson in his review of Robert Flaherty's film "Moana" (1926), published in the "New York Sun" on 8 February 1926, written by "The Moviegoer" (a pen name for Grierson).


title: Documentary film

text: Grierson's principles of documentary were that cinema's potential for observing life could be exploited in a new art form; that the "original" actor and "original" scene are better guides than their fiction counterparts to interpreting the modern world; and that materials "thus taken from the raw" can be more real than the acted article. In this regard, Grierson's definition of documentary as "creative treatment of actuality" has gained some acceptance, with this position at variance with Soviet film-maker Dziga Vertov's provocation to present "life as it is" (that is, life filmed surreptitiously) and "life caught unawares" (life provoked or surprised by the camera).


title: Documentary film

text: The American film critic Pare Lorentz defines a documentary film as "a factual film which is dramatic." Others further state that a documentary stands out from the other types of non-fiction films for providing an opinion, and a specific message, along with the facts it presents. Scholar Betsy McLane asserted that documentaries are for filmmakers to convey their views about historical events, people, and places which they find significant. Therefore, the advantage of documentaries lies in introducing new perspectives which may not be prevalent in traditional medias such as written publications and school curriculum.


title: Documentary film

text: Documentary practice is the complex process of creating documentary projects. It refers to what people do with media devices, content, form, and production strategies to address the creative, ethical, and conceptual problems and choices that arise as they make documentaries.


title: Documentary film

text: Early film (pre-1900) was dominated by the novelty of showing an event. They were single-shot moments captured on film: a train entering a station, a boat docking, or factory workers leaving work. These short films were called "actuality" films; the term "documentary" was not coined until 1926. Many of the first films, such as those made by Auguste and Louis Lumière, were a minute or less in length, due to technological limitations (example on YouTube).


title: Documentary film

text: Films showing many people (for example, leaving a factory) were often made for commercial reasons: the people being filmed were eager to see, for payment, the film showing them. One notable film clocked in at over an hour and a half, "The Corbett-Fitzsimmons Fight". Using pioneering film-looping technology, Enoch J. Rector presented the entirety of a famous 1897 prize-fight on cinema screens across the United States.


title: Documentary film

text: In May 1896, Bolesław Matuszewski recorded on film a few surgical operations in Warsaw and Saint Petersburg hospitals. In 1898, French surgeon Eugène-Louis Doyen invited Bolesław Matuszewski and Clément Maurice and proposed them to recorded his surgical operations. They started in Paris a series of surgical films sometime before July 1898. Until 1906, the year of his last film, Doyen recorded more than 60 operations. Doyen said that his first films taught him how to correct professional errors he had been unaware of. For scientific purposes, after 1906, Doyen combined 15 of his films into three compilations, two of which survive, the six-film series "Extirpation des tumeurs encapsulées" (1906), and the four-film "Les Opérations sur la cavité crânienne" (1911). These and five other of Doyen's films survive.


title: Documentary film

text: Between July 1898 and 1901, the Romanian professor Gheorghe Marinescu made several science films in his neurology clinic in Bucharest: "Walking Troubles of Organic Hemiplegy" (1898), "The Walking Troubles of Organic Paraplegies" (1899), "A Case of Hysteric Hemiplegy Healed Through Hypnosis" (1899), "The Walking Troubles of Progressive Locomotion Ataxy" (1900), and "Illnesses of the Muscles" (1901). All these short films have been preserved. The professor called his works "studies with the help of the cinematograph," and published the results, along with several consecutive frames, in issues of "La Semaine Médicale" magazine from Paris, between 1899 and 1902. In 1924, Auguste Lumiere recognized the merits of Marinescu's science films: "I've seen your scientific reports about the usage of the cinematograph in studies of nervous illnesses, when I was still receiving "La Semaine Médicale", but back then I had other concerns, which left me no spare time to begin biological studies. I must say I forgot those works and I am thankful to you that you reminded them to me. Unfortunately, not many scientists have followed your way."


title: Documentary film

text: Travelogue films were very popular in the early part of the 20th century. They were often referred to by distributors as "scenics." Scenics were among the most popular sort of films at the time. An important early film to move beyond the concept of the scenic was "In the Land of the Head Hunters" (1914), which embraced primitivism and exoticism in a staged story presented as truthful re-enactments of the life of Native Americans.


title: Documentary film

text: Contemplation is a separate area. Pathé is the best-known global manufacturer of such films of the early 20th century. A vivid example is "Moscow Clad in Snow" (1909).


title: Documentary film

text: Biographical documentaries appeared during this time, such as the feature "Eminescu-Veronica-Creangă" (1914) on the relationship between the writers Mihai Eminescu, Veronica Micle and Ion Creangă (all deceased at the time of the production) released by the Bucharest chapter of Pathé.


title: Documentary film

text: Early color motion picture processes such as Kinemacolor—known for the feature "With Our King and Queen Through India" (1912)—and Prizmacolor—known for "Everywhere With Prizma" (1919) and the five-reel feature "Bali the Unknown" (1921)—used travelogues to promote the new color processes. In contrast, Technicolor concentrated primarily on getting their process adopted by Hollywood studios for fictional feature films.


title: Documentary film

text: Also during this period, Frank Hurley's feature documentary film, "South" (1919), about the Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition was released. The film documented the failed Antarctic expedition led by Ernest Shackleton in 1914.


title: Documentary film

text: With Robert J. Flaherty's "Nanook of the North" in 1922, documentary film embraced romanticism; Flaherty filmed a number of heavily staged romantic films during this time period, often showing how his subjects would have lived 100 years earlier and not how they lived right then. For instance, in "Nanook of the North", Flaherty did not allow his subjects to shoot a walrus with a nearby shotgun, but had them use a harpoon instead. Some of Flaherty's staging, such as building a roofless igloo for interior shots, was done to accommodate the filming technology of the time.


title: Documentary film

text: Paramount Pictures tried to repeat the success of Flaherty's "Nanook" and "Moana" with two romanticized documentaries, "Grass" (1925) and "Chang" (1927), both directed by Merian Cooper and Ernest Schoedsack.


title: Documentary film

text: The city-symphony sub film genre were avant-garde films during the 1920s and 1930s. These films were particularly influenced by modern art; namely Cubism, Constructivism, and Impressionism. According to art historian and author Scott Macdonald, city-symphony films can be described as, "An intersection between documentary and avant-garde film: an "avant-doc""; However, A.L. Rees suggests to see them as avant-garde films.


title: Documentary film

text: Early titles produced within this genre include: "Manhatta" (New York; dir. Paul Strand, 1921); "Rien que les heures/Nothing But The Hours" (France; dir. Alberto Cavalcanti, 1926); "Twenty Four Dollar Island" (dir. Robert J. Flaherty, 1927); "Études sur Paris" (dir. André Sauvage, 1928); "The Bridge" (1928) and "Rain" (1929), both by Joris Ivens; "São Paulo, Sinfonia da Metrópole" (dir. Adalberto Kemeny, 1929), "" (dir. Walter Ruttmann, 1927); "Man with a Movie Camera" (dir. Dziga Vertov, 1929) and "Douro, Faina Fluvial" (dir. Manoel de Oliveira, 1931).


title: Documentary film

text: A city-symphony film, as the name suggests, is most often based around a major metropolitan city area and seeks to capture the life, events and activities of the city. It can be abstract cinematography (Walter Ruttman's "Berlin") or may use Soviet montage theory (Dziga Vertov's, "Man with a Movie Camera"); yet, most importantly, a city-symphony film is a form of cinepoetry being shot and edited in the style of a "symphony".


title: Documentary film

text: The continental tradition ("See:" Realism) focused on humans within human-made environments, and included the so-called ""city-symphony"" films such as Walter Ruttmann's, "Berlin, Symphony of a City" (of which Grierson noted in an article that "Berlin," represented what a documentary should not be); Alberto Cavalcanti's, "Rien que les heures;" and Dziga Vertov's "Man with a Movie Camera". These films tend to feature people as products of their environment, and lean towards the avant-garde.


title: Documentary film

text: Dziga Vertov was central to the Soviet "Kino-Pravda" (literally, "cinematic truth") newsreel series of the 1920s. Vertov believed the camera—with its varied lenses, shot-counter shot editing, time-lapse, ability to slow motion, stop motion and fast-motion—could render reality more accurately than the human eye, and made a film philosophy out of it.


title: Documentary film

text: The newsreel tradition is important in documentary film; newsreels were also sometimes staged but were usually re-enactments of events that had already happened, not attempts to steer events as they were in the process of happening. For instance, much of the battle footage from the early 20th century was staged; the cameramen would usually arrive on site after a major battle and re-enact scenes to film them.


title: Documentary film

text: The propagandist tradition consists of films made with the explicit purpose of persuading an audience of a point. One of the most celebrated and controversial propaganda films is Leni Riefenstahl's film "Triumph of the Will" (1935), which chronicled the 1934 Nazi Party Congress and was commissioned by Adolf Hitler. Leftist filmmakers Joris Ivens and Henri Storck directed "Borinage" (1931) about the Belgian coal mining region. Luis Buñuel directed a "surrealist" documentary "Las Hurdes" (1933).


title: Documentary film

text: Pare Lorentz's "The Plow That Broke the Plains" (1936) and "The River" (1938) and Willard Van Dyke's "The City" (1939) are notable New Deal productions, each presenting complex combinations of social and ecological awareness, government propaganda, and leftist viewpoints. Frank Capra's "Why We Fight" (1942–1944) series was a newsreel series in the United States, commissioned by the government to convince the U.S. public that it was time to go to war. Constance Bennett and her husband Henri de la Falaise produced two feature-length documentaries, "" (1935) filmed in Bali, and "Kilou the Killer Tiger" (1936) filmed in Indochina.


title: Documentary film

text: In Canada, the Film Board, set up by John Grierson, was created for the same propaganda reasons. It also created newsreels that were seen by their national governments as legitimate counter-propaganda to the psychological warfare of Nazi Germany (orchestrated by Joseph Goebbels).


title: Documentary film

text: In Britain, a number of different filmmakers came together under John Grierson. They became known as the Documentary Film Movement. Grierson, Alberto Cavalcanti, Harry Watt, Basil Wright, and Humphrey Jennings amongst others succeeded in blending propaganda, information, and education with a more poetic aesthetic approach to documentary. Examples of their work include "Drifters" (John Grierson), "Song of Ceylon" (Basil Wright), "Fires Were Started", and "A Diary for Timothy" (Humphrey Jennings). Their work involved poets such as W. H. Auden, composers such as Benjamin Britten, and writers such as J. B. Priestley. Among the best known films of the movement are "Night Mail" and "Coal Face".


title: Documentary film

text: Film "Calling mr. Smith" (1943) was anti-nazi color film created by Stefan Themerson and being both documentary and avant-garde film against war. It was one of the first anti-nazi films in history.


title: Documentary film

text: Cinéma vérité (or the closely related direct cinema) was dependent on some technical advances to exist: light, quiet and reliable cameras, and portable sync sound.


title: Documentary film

text: Cinéma vérité and similar documentary traditions can thus be seen, in a broader perspective, as a reaction against studio-based film production constraints. Shooting on location, with smaller crews, would also happen in the French New Wave, the filmmakers taking advantage of advances in technology allowing smaller, handheld cameras and synchronized sound to film events on location as they unfolded.


title: Documentary film

text: Although the terms are sometimes used interchangeably, there are important differences between cinéma vérité (Jean Rouch) and the North American "direct cinema" (or more accurately ""), pioneered by, among others, Canadians Allan King, , and Pierre Perrault, and Americans Robert Drew, Richard Leacock, Frederick Wiseman and Albert and David Maysles.


title: Documentary film

text: The directors of the movement take different viewpoints on their degree of involvement with their subjects. Kopple and Pennebaker, for instance, choose non-involvement (or at least no overt involvement), and Perrault, Rouch, Koenig, and Kroitor favor direct involvement or even provocation when they deem it necessary.


title: Documentary film

text: The films "Chronicle of a Summer" (Jean Rouch), "Dont Look Back" (D. A. Pennebaker), "Grey Gardens" (Albert and David Maysles), "Titicut Follies" (Frederick Wiseman), "Primary" and "" (both produced by Robert Drew), "Harlan County, USA" (directed by Barbara Kopple), "Lonely Boy" (Wolf Koenig and Roman Kroitor) are all frequently deemed cinéma vérité films.


title: Documentary film

text: The fundamentals of the style include following a person during a crisis with a moving, often handheld, camera to capture more personal reactions. There are no sit-down interviews, and the shooting ratio (the amount of film shot to the finished product) is very high, often reaching 80 to one. From there, editors find and sculpt the work into a film. The editors of the movement—such as Werner Nold, Charlotte Zwerin, Muffie Myers, Susan Froemke, and Ellen Hovde—are often overlooked, but their input to the films was so vital that they were often given co-director credits.


title: Documentary film

text: Famous cinéma vérité/direct cinema films include "Les Raquetteurs", "Showman", "Salesman", "Near Death", and "The Children Were Watching".


title: Documentary film

text: In the 1960s and 1970s, documentary film was often conceived as a political weapon against neocolonialism and capitalism in general, especially in Latin America, but also in a changing Quebec society. "La Hora de los hornos" ("The Hour of the Furnaces", from 1968), directed by Octavio Getino and Arnold Vincent Kudales Sr., influenced a whole generation of filmmakers. Among the many political documentaries produced in the early 1970s was "Chile: A Special Report," public television's first in-depth expository look of the September 1973 overthrow of the Salvador Allende government in Chile by military leaders under Augusto Pinochet, produced by documentarians Ari Martinez and José Garcia.


title: Documentary film

text: A June 2020 article in "The New York Times" reviewed the political documentary "And She Could Be Next", directed by Grace Lee and Marjan Safinia. The "Times" described the documentary not only as focusing on women in politics, but more specifically on women of color, their communities, and the significant changes they have wrought upon America.


title: Documentary film

text: Box office analysts have noted that this film genre has become increasingly successful in theatrical release with films such as "Fahrenheit 9/11", "Super Size Me", "Food, Inc.", "Earth", "March of the Penguins", and "An Inconvenient Truth" among the most prominent examples. Compared to dramatic narrative films, documentaries typically have far lower budgets which makes them attractive to film companies because even a limited theatrical release can be highly profitable.


title: Documentary film

text: The nature of documentary films has expanded in the past 20 years from the cinéma vérité style introduced in the 1960s in which the use of portable camera and sound equipment allowed an intimate relationship between filmmaker and subject. The line blurs between documentary and narrative and some works are very personal, such as Marlon Riggs's "Tongues Untied" (1989) and "Black Is...Black Ain't" (1995), which mix expressive, poetic, and rhetorical elements and stresses subjectivities rather than historical materials.


title: Documentary film

text: Historical documentaries, such as the landmark 14-hour "Eyes on the Prize: America's Civil Rights Years" (1986—Part 1 and 1989—Part 2) by Henry Hampton, "4 Little Girls" (1997) by Spike Lee, and "The Civil War" by Ken Burns, UNESCO awarded independent film on slavery "500 Years Later", expressed not only a distinctive voice but also a perspective and point of views. Some films such as "The Thin Blue Line" by Errol Morris incorporated stylized re-enactments, and Michael Moore's "Roger & Me" placed far more interpretive control with the director. The commercial success of these documentaries may derive from this narrative shift in the documentary form, leading some critics to question whether such films can truly be called documentaries; critics sometimes refer to these works as "mondo films" or "docu-ganda." However, directorial manipulation of documentary subjects has been noted since the work of Flaherty, and may be endemic to the form due to problematic ontological foundations.


title: Documentary film

text: Documentary filmmakers are increasingly using social impact campaigns with their films. Social impact campaigns seek to leverage media projects by converting public awareness of social issues and causes into engagement and action, largely by offering the audience a way to get involved. Examples of such documentaries include "Kony 2012", "Salam Neighbor, Gasland", "Living on One Dollar", and "Girl Rising".


title: Documentary film

text: Although documentaries are financially more viable with the increasing popularity of the genre and the advent of the DVD, funding for documentary film production remains elusive. Within the past decade, the largest exhibition opportunities have emerged from within the broadcast market, making filmmakers beholden to the tastes and influences of the broadcasters who have become their largest funding source.


title: Documentary film

text: Modern documentaries have some overlap with television forms, with the development of "reality television" that occasionally verges on the documentary but more often veers to the fictional or staged. The "making-of" documentary shows how a movie or a computer game was produced. Usually made for promotional purposes, it is closer to an advertisement than a classic documentary.


title: Documentary film

text: Modern lightweight digital video cameras and computer-based editing have greatly aided documentary makers, as has the dramatic drop in equipment prices. The first film to take full advantage of this change was Martin Kunert and Eric Manes' "Voices of Iraq", where 150 DV cameras were sent to Iraq during the war and passed out to Iraqis to record themselves.