title: Puritans

text: Some strong religious beliefs common to Puritans had direct impacts on culture. Puritans believed it was the government's responsibility to enforce moral standards and ensure true religious worship was established and maintained. Education was essential to every person, male and female, so that they could read the Bible for themselves. However, the Puritans' emphasis on individual spiritual independence was not always compatible with the community cohesion that was also a strong ideal. Anne Hutchinson (1591–1643), the well educated daughter of a teacher, argued with the established theological orthodoxy, and was forced to leave colonial New England with her followers.


title: Puritans

text: At a time when the literacy rate in England was less than 30 percent, the Puritan leaders of colonial New England believed children should be educated for both religious and civil reasons, and they worked to achieve universal literacy. In 1642, Massachusetts required heads of households to teach their wives, children and servants basic reading and writing so that they could read the Bible and understand colonial laws. In 1647, the government required all towns with 50 or more households to hire a teacher and towns of 100 or more households to hire a grammar school instructor to prepare promising boys for college. Philemon Pormort's Boston Latin School was the only one in Boston, the first school of public instruction in Massachusetts". Boys interested in the ministry were often sent to colleges such as Harvard (founded in 1636) or Yale (founded in 1707). Aspiring lawyers or doctors apprenticed to a local practitioner, or in rare cases were sent to England or Scotland.


title: Puritans

text: The Merton Thesis is an argument about the nature of early experimental science proposed by Robert K. Merton. Similar to Max Weber's famous claim on the link between the Protestant work ethic and the capitalist economy, Merton argued for a similar positive correlation between the rise of English Puritanism, as well as German Pietism, and early experimental science. As an example, seven of 10 nucleus members of the Royal Society were Puritans. In the year 1663, 62 percent of the members of the Royal Society were similarly identified. The Merton Thesis has resulted in continuous debates.


title: Puritans

text: Puritans in both England and New England believed that the state should protect and promote true religion and that religion should influence politics and social life. Certain holidays were outlawed when Puritans came to power. In 1647, Parliament outlawed the celebration of Christmas, Easter and Whitsuntide. Puritans strongly condemned the celebration of Christmas, considering it a Catholic invention and the "trappings of popery" or the "rags of the Beast". They also objected to Christmas because the festivities surrounding the holiday were seen as impious (English jails were usually filled with drunken revelers and brawlers). During the years that the Puritan ban on Christmas was in place, semi-clandestine religious services marking Christ's birth continued to be held, and people sang carols in secret. Following the restoration in 1660, when Puritan legislation was declared null and void, Christmas was again freely celebrated in England. Christmas was outlawed in Boston from 1659. The ban was revoked in 1681 by the English-appointed governor Edmund Andros, who also revoked a Puritan ban on festivities on Saturday nights. Nevertheless, it was not until the mid-19th century that celebrating Christmas became fashionable in the Boston region.


title: Puritans

text: Attempting to force religious and intellectual homogeneity on the whole community, civil and religious restrictions were most strictly applied by the Puritans of Massachusetts which saw various banishments applied to enforce conformity, including the branding iron, the whipping post, the bilboes and the hangman’s noose. Swearing and blasphemy was illegal. In 1636, Massachusetts made blasphemy—defined as "a cursing of God by atheism, or the like"—punishable by death.


title: Puritans

text: Puritans were opposed to Sunday sport or recreation because these distracted from religious observance of the Sabbath. In an attempt to offset the strictness of the Puritans, James I's "Book of Sports" (1618) permitted Christians to play football every Sunday afternoon after worship. When the Puritans established themselves in power football was among the sports that were banned: boys caught playing on Sunday could be prosecuted. Football was also used as a rebellious force: when Puritans outlawed Christmas in England in December 1647 the crowd brought out footballs as a symbol of festive misrule. Other forms of leisure and entertainment were completely forbidden on moral grounds. For example, Puritans were universally opposed to blood sports such as bearbaiting and cockfighting because they involved unnecessary injury to God's creatures. For similar reasons, they also opposed boxing. These sports were illegal in England during Puritan rule.


title: Puritans

text: While card playing by itself was generally considered acceptable, card playing and gambling were banned in England and the colonies, as was mixed dancing involving men and women—which Mather condemned as "promiscuous dancing"—because it was thought to lead to fornication. Folk dance that did not involve close contact between men and women was considered appropriate. The branle dance, which involved couples intertwining arms or holding hands, returned to popularity in England after the restoration when the bans imposed by the Puritans were lifted. In New England, the first dancing school did not open until the end of the 17th century.


title: Puritans

text: Puritans condemned the sexualization of the theatre and its associations with depravity and prostitution—London's theatres were located on the south side of the Thames, which was a center of prostitution. A major Puritan attack on the theatre was William Prynne's book "Histriomastix" which marshals a multitude of ancient and medieval authorities against the "sin" of dramatic performance. Puritan authorities shut down English theatres in the 1640s and 1650s—Shakespeare's Globe Theatre was demolished—and none were allowed to open in Puritan-controlled colonies. In January 1643, actors in London protested against the ban with a pamphlet titled "The Actors remonstrance or complaint for the silencing of their profession, and banishment from their severall play-houses". With the end of Puritan rule and the restoration of Charles II, theatre among other arts exploded, and London's oldest operating theatre, Drury Lane in the West End, opened in 1663.


title: Puritans

text: Puritans were not opposed to drinking alcohol in moderation. However, alehouses were closely regulated by Puritan-controlled governments in both England and Colonial America. Laws in Massachusetts in 1634 banned the "abominable" practice of individuals toasting each other's health. William Prynne, the most rabid of the Puritan anti-toasters, wrote a book on the subject, "Health’s Sicknesse" (1628), that "this drinking and quaffing of healthes had it origin and birth from Pagans, heathens, and infidels, yea, from the very Deuill himself."


title: Puritans

text: Bounds were not set on enjoying sexuality within the bounds of marriage, as a gift from God. Spouses were disciplined if they did not perform their sexual marital duties, in accordance with 1 Corinthians 7 and other biblical passages. Women and men were equally expected to fulfill marital responsibilities. Women and men could file for divorce based on this issue alone. In Massachusetts colony, which had some of the most liberal colonial divorce laws, one out of every six divorce petitions was filed on the basis of male impotence. Puritans publicly punished drunkenness and sexual relations outside marriage. Couples who had sex during their engagement were fined and publicly humiliated. Men, and a handful of women, who engaged in homosexual behavior, were seen as especially sinful, with some executed. While the practice of execution was also infrequently used for rape and adultery, homosexuality was actually seen as a worse sin. Passages from the Old Testament, including Lev 20:13., were thought to support the disgust for homosexuality and efforts to purge society of it. New Haven code stated "If any man lyeth with mankinde, as a man lyeth with a woman, both of them have committed abomination, they shall surely be put to death" and in 1636 the Plymouth Colony adopted a set of laws that included a sentence of death for sodomy and buggery. Prominent authors such as Thomas Cobbert, Samual Danforth and Cotton Mather wrote pieces condemning homosexuality. Mather argued that the passage "Overcome the Devil when he tempts you to the youthful sin of Uncleanness" was referring "probably to the young men of Sodom".


title: Puritans

text: Puritan rule in England was marked by limited religious toleration. The "Toleration Act" of 1650 repealed the "Act of Supremacy", "Act of Uniformity", and all laws making recusancy a crime. There was no longer a legal requirement to attend the parish church on Sundays (for both Protestants and Catholics). In 1653, responsibility for recording births, marriages and deaths was transferred from the church to a civil registrar. The result was that church baptisms and marriages became private acts, not guarantees of legal rights, which provided greater equality to dissenters.


title: Puritans

text: The 1653 "Instrument of Government" guaranteed that in matters of religion "none shall be compelled by penalties or otherwise, but endeavours be used to win them by sound Doctrine and the Example of a good conversation". Religious freedom was given to "all who profess Faith in God by Jesus Christ". However, Catholics and some others were excluded. No one was executed for their religion during the Protectorate. In London, those attending Catholic mass or Anglican holy communion were occasionally arrested but released without charge. Many unofficial Protestant congregations, such as Baptist churches, were permitted to meet. Quakers were allowed to publish freely and hold meetings. They were, however, arrested for disrupting parish church services and organising tithe-strikes against the state church.


title: Puritans

text: In New England, where Congregationalism was the official religion, the Puritans exhibited intolerance of other religious views, including Quaker, Anglican and Baptist theologies. The Puritans of the Massachusetts Bay Colony were the most active of the New England persecutors of Quakers, and the persecuting spirit was shared by the Plymouth Colony and the colonies along the Connecticut river.


title: Puritans

text: Four Quakers, known as the Boston martyrs, were executed. The first two of the four Boston martyrs were executed by the Puritans on 27 October 1659, and in memory of this, 27 October is now International Religious Freedom Day to recognise the importance of freedom of religion. In 1660, one of the most notable victims of the religious intolerance was English Quaker Mary Dyer, who was hanged in Boston for repeatedly defying a Puritan law banning Quakers from the colony. The hanging of Dyer on Boston Common marked the beginning of the end of the Puritan theocracy. In 1661, King Charles II explicitly forbade Massachusetts from executing anyone for professing Quakerism. In 1684, England revoked the Massachusetts charter, sent over a royal governor to enforce English laws in 1686 and, in 1689, passed a broad "Toleration Act".


title: Puritans

text: Anti-Catholic sentiment appeared in New England with the first Pilgrim and Puritan settlers. In 1647, Massachusetts passed a law prohibiting any Jesuit Roman Catholic priests from entering territory under Puritan jurisdiction. Any suspected person who could not clear himself was to be banished from the colony; a second offense carried a death penalty.


title: Puritans

text: Puritanism has attracted much scholarly attention, and as a result, the secondary literature on the subject is vast. Puritanism is considered crucial to understanding the religious, political and cultural issues of early modern England. In addition, historians such as Perry Miller have regarded Puritan New England as fundamental to understanding American culture and identity. Puritanism has also been credited with the creation of modernity itself, from England's Scientific Revolution to the rise of democracy. In the early 20th century, Max Weber argued in "The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism" that Calvinist self-denial resulted in a Protestant work ethic that led to the development of capitalism. Puritan authors such as John Milton, John Bunyan, Anne Bradstreet and Edward Taylor continue to be read and studied as important figures within English and American literature.


title: Puritans

text: A debate continues on the definition of "Puritanism". English historian Patrick Collinson argues that "There is little point in constructing elaborate statements defining what, in ontological terms, puritanism was and what it was not, when it was not a thing definable in itself but only one half of a stressful relationship." Puritanism "was only the mirror image of anti-puritanism and to a considerable extent its invention: a stigma, with great power to distract and distort historical memory." Historian John Spurr writes that Puritans were defined by their relationships with their surroundings, especially with the Church of England. Whenever the Church of England changed, Spurr argues, the definition of a Puritan also changed.


title: Puritans

text: The analysis of "mainstream Puritanism" in terms of the evolution from it of Separatist and antinomian groups that did not flourish, and others that continue to this day, such as Baptists and Quakers, can suffer in this way. The national context (England and Wales, as well as the kingdoms of Scotland and Ireland) frames the definition of Puritans, but was not a self-identification for those Protestants who saw the progress of the Thirty Years' War from 1620 as directly bearing on their denomination, and as a continuation of the religious wars of the previous century, carried on by the English Civil Wars. English historian Christopher Hill, who has contributed to analyses of Puritan concerns that are more respected than accepted, writes of the 1630s, old church lands, and the accusations that William Laud was a crypto-Catholic:


title: Ethan Peck

text: Ethan Gregory Peck (born March 2, 1986) is an American actor. He is the grandson of actor Gregory Peck and Greta Kukkonen, the elder Peck's first wife. In 2019, he played a young Spock in "" (2019), a role he has reprised for the television series "" (2022present).


title: Ethan Peck

text: Peck had many television appearances as a young actor, including a younger Michael Kelso (played by Ashton Kutcher) in "That '70s Show". In his first film role at age 9, he co-starred in the made-for-TV film "Marshal Law" as the son of Jimmy Smits' character. He later appeared in the 1999 movie "Passport to Paris" starring Mary-Kate Olsen and Ashley Olsen, and was Mary-Kate's first on-screen kiss.


title: Ethan Peck

text: Peck co-starred with Adam Rothenberg and Mariah Carey in the 2008 film "Tennessee", followed by a co-starring role opposite Peter Coyote and Bebe Neuwirth in the film "Adopt a Sailor". He won the award for "Best Actor" at the 2009 Sonoma International Film Festival for his portrayal of "Sailor".


title: Ethan Peck

text: In 2012, Peck played Prince Maxon for the pilot adaptation of the popular book "The Selection", but was later replaced by newcomer Michael Malarkey. Neither the first nor second pilot was picked up to go to series.


title: Ethan Peck

text: In 2015, Peck became a spokesperson for fashion brand Salvatore Ferragamo and appeared in a number of print editorials representing the Italian brand. He was also featured in "Coming Home to Hollywood", a short film about the brand's 100th anniversary.


title: Ethan Peck

text: In 2017, Peck was cast in a comedy, "The Honor List", alongside Meghan Rienks, Sasha Pieterse, Arden Cho and Karrueche Tran. The movie was released in 2018.


title: Ethan Peck

text: Peck portrayed Spock in the second season of "". In May 2020 it was announced that Peck would reprise his role as Spock in a spin-off, "".


title: Ethan Peck

text: Born and raised in Los Angeles, Peck is the son of Stephen Peck—a former actor, documentary filmmaker and Vietnam veteran who is president and CEO of U.S. Veterans Initiative—and abstract artist Francine Matarazzo. He is the grandson of actor Gregory Peck and his Finnish wife, Greta Kukkonen. Peck attended private schools Campbell Hall and Harvard-Westlake in Studio City. He excelled in athletics and learned to play classical cello.


title: Ethan Peck

text: He has a half sister from his mother's second marriage, Marisa Matarazzo, who is a novelist and creative writing professor at Otis College of Art and Design in Los Angeles.


title: Ethan Peck

text: After high school, Peck attended the Tisch School of the Arts at New York University, where he participated in the Experimental Theater Wing for three years before leaving to pursue his acting career.


title: Mangrove

text: A mangrove is a shrub or tree that grows in coastal saline or brackish water. The term is also used for tropical coastal vegetation consisting of such species. Mangroves are taxonomically diverse, as a result of convergent evolution in several plant families. They occur worldwide in the tropics and subtropics and even some temperate coastal areas, mainly between latitudes 30° N and 30° S, with the greatest mangrove area within 5° of the equator.


title: Mangrove

text: Mangrove plant families first appeared during the Late Cretaceous to Paleocene epochs, and became widely distributed in part due to the movement of tectonic plates. The oldest known fossils of mangrove palm date to 75 million years ago.


title: Mangrove

text: Mangroves are salt-tolerant trees, also called halophytes, and are adapted to live in harsh coastal conditions. They contain a complex salt filtration system and


title: Mangrove

text: a complex root system to cope with saltwater immersion and wave action. They are adapted to the low-oxygen conditions of waterlogged mud, but are most likely to thrive in the upper half of the intertidal zone.


title: Mangrove

text: The mangrove biome, often called the mangrove forest or mangal, is a distinct saline woodland or shrubland habitat characterized by depositional coastal environments, where fine sediments (often with high organic content) collect in areas protected from high-energy wave action. The saline conditions tolerated by various mangrove species range from brackish water, through pure seawater (3 to 4% salinity), to water concentrated by evaporation to over twice the salinity of ocean seawater (up to 9% salinity).


title: Mangrove

text: remote sensing technologies and global data have been used to assess areas, conditions and deforestation rates of mangroves around the world. In 2018, the Global Mangrove Watch Initiative released a new global baseline which estimates the total mangrove forest area of the world as of 2010 at , spanning 118 countries and territories. A 2022 study on losses and gains of tidal wetlands estimates a 3,700 km net decrease in global mangrove extent from 1999–2019, which was only partially offset by gains of 1,800 km. Mangrove loss continues due to human activity, with a global annual deforestation rate estimated at 0.16%, and per-country rates as high as 0.70%. Degradation in quality of remaining mangroves is also an important concern.


title: Mangrove

text: There is interest in mangrove restoration for several reasons. Mangroves support sustainable coastal and marine ecosystems. They protect nearby areas from tsunamis and extreme weather events. Mangrove forests are also effective at carbon sequestration and storage and mitigate climate change. As the effects of climate change become more severe, mangrove ecosystems are expected to help local ecosystems adapt and be more resilient to changes like extreme weather and sea level rise. The success of mangrove restoration may depend heavily on engagement with local stakeholders, and on careful assessment to ensure that growing conditions will be suitable for the species chosen.


title: Mangrove

text: ". Further back, it may be traced to South America and Cariban and Arawakan languages such as Taíno. Other possibilities include the Malay language and the Guarani language.


title: Mangrove

text: Of the recognized 110 mangrove species, only about 54 species in 20 genera from 16 families constitute the "true mangroves", species that occur almost exclusively in mangrove habitats. Demonstrating convergent evolution, many of these species found similar solutions to the tropical conditions of variable salinity, tidal range (inundation), anaerobic soils, and intense sunlight. Plant biodiversity is generally low in a given mangrove. The greatest biodiversity of mangroves occurs in Southeast Asia, particularly in the Indonesian archipelago.


title: Mangrove

text: The red mangrove ("Rhizophora mangle") survives in the most inundated areas, props itself above the water level with stilt or prop roots and then absorbs air through lenticels in its bark.


title: Mangrove

text: The black mangrove ("Avicennia germinans") lives on higher ground and develops many specialized root-like structures called pneumatophores, which stick up out of the soil like straws for breathing.


title: Mangrove

text: These "breathing tubes" typically reach heights of up to , and in some species, over . The four types of pneumatophores are stilt or prop type, snorkel or peg type, knee type, and ribbon or plank type. Knee and ribbon types may be combined with buttress roots at the base of the tree. The roots also contain wide aerenchyma to facilitate transport within the plants.


title: Mangrove

text: Because the soil is perpetually waterlogged, little free oxygen is available. Anaerobic bacteria liberate nitrogen gas, soluble ferrum (iron), inorganic phosphates, sulfides, and methane, which make the soil much less nutritious. Pneumatophores (aerial roots) allow mangroves to absorb gases directly from the atmosphere, and other nutrients such as iron, from the inhospitable soil. Mangroves store gases directly inside the roots, processing them even when the roots are submerged during high tide.


title: Mangrove

text: Red mangroves exclude salt by having significantly impermeable roots which are highly suberised (impregnated with suberin), acting as an ultra-filtration mechanism to exclude sodium salts from the rest of the plant. Analysis of water inside mangroves has shown 90% to 97% of salt has been excluded at the roots. In a frequently cited concept that has become known as the "sacrificial leaf", salt which does accumulate in the shoot (sprout) then concentrates in old leaves, which the plant then sheds. However, recent research suggests the older, yellowing leaves have no more measurable salt content than the other, greener leaves. Red mangroves can also store salt in cell vacuoles. White and grey mangroves can secrete salts directly; they have two salt glands at each leaf base (correlating with their name—they are covered in white salt crystals).


title: Mangrove

text: Because of the limited fresh water available in salty intertidal soils, mangroves limit the amount of water they lose through their leaves. They can restrict the opening of their stomata (pores on the leaf surfaces, which exchange carbon dioxide gas and water vapor during photosynthesis). They also vary the orientation of their leaves to avoid the harsh midday sun and so reduce evaporation from the leaves. A captive red mangrove grows only if its leaves are misted with fresh water several times a week, simulating frequent tropical rainstorms.


title: Mangrove

text: A 2016 study by Kim "et al." investigated the biophysical characteristics of sea water filtration in the roots of the mangrove "Rhizophora stylosa" from a plant hydrodynamic point of view. "R. stylosa" can grow even in saline water and the salt level in its roots is regulated within a certain threshold value through filtration. The root possesses a hierarchical, triple layered pore structure in the epidermis and most Na ions are filtered at the first sublayer of the outermost layer. The high blockage of Na ions is attributed to the high surface zeta potential of the first layer. The second layer, which is composed of macroporous structures, also facilitates Na ion filtration. The study provides insights into the mechanism underlying water filtration through halophyte roots and could serve as a basis for the development of a bio-inspired method of desalination.


title: Mangrove

text: Uptake of Na ions is desirable for halophytes to build up osmotic potential, absorb water and sustain turgor pressure. However, excess Naions may work on toxic element. Therefore, halophytes try to adjust salinity delicately between growth and survival strategies. In this point of view, a novel sustainable desalination method can be derived from halophytes, which are in contact with saline water through their roots. Halophytes exclude salt through their roots, secrete the accumulated salt through their aerial parts and sequester salt in senescent leaves and/or the bark. Mangroves are facultative halophytes and "Bruguiera" is known for its special ultrafiltration system that can filter approximately 90% of Naions from the surrounding seawater through the roots. The species also exhibits a high rate of salt rejection. The water-filtering process in mangrove roots has received considerable attention for several decades. Morphological structures of plants and their functions have been evolved through a long history to survive against harsh environmental conditions.


title: Mangrove

text: In this harsh environment, mangroves have evolved a special mechanism to help their offspring survive. Mangrove seeds are buoyant and are therefore suited to water dispersal. Unlike most plants, whose seeds germinate in soil, many mangroves (e.g. red mangrove) are viviparous, meaning their seeds germinate while still attached to the parent tree. Once germinated, the seedling grows either within the fruit (e.g. "Aegialitis", "Avicennia" and "Aegiceras"), or out through the fruit (e.g. "Rhizophora", "Ceriops", "Bruguiera" and "Nypa") to form a propagule (a ready-to-go seedling) which can produce its own food via photosynthesis.


title: Mangrove

text: The mature propagule then drops into the water, which can transport it great distances. Propagules can survive desiccation and remain dormant for over a year before arriving in a suitable environment. Once a propagule is ready to root, its density changes so that the elongated shape now floats vertically rather than horizontally. In this position, it is more likely to lodge in the mud and root. If it does not root, it can alter its density and drift again in search of more favorable conditions.


title: Mangrove

text: The following listings, based on Tomlinson, 2016, give the mangrove species in each listed plant genus and family. Mangrove environments in the Eastern Hemisphere harbor six times as many species of trees and shrubs as do mangroves in the New World. Genetic divergence of mangrove lineages from terrestrial relatives, in combination with fossil evidence, suggests mangrove diversity is limited by evolutionary transition into the stressful marine environment, and the number of mangrove lineages has increased steadily over the Tertiary with little global extinction.


title: Mangrove

text: Mangroves are a type of tropical vegetation with some outliers established in subtropical latitudes, notably in South Florida and southern Japan, as well as South Africa, New Zealand and Victoria (Australia). These outliers result either from unbroken coastlines and island chains or from reliable supplies of propagules floating on warm ocean currents from rich mangrove regions.


title: Mangrove

text: "At the limits of distribution, the formation is represented by scrubby, usually monotypic "Avicennia"-dominated vegetation, as at Westonport Bay and Corner Inlet, Victoria, Australia. The latter locality is the highest latitude (38° 45'S) at which mangroves occur naturally. The mangroves in New Zealand, which extend as far south as 37°, are of the same type; they start as low forest in the northern part of the North Island but become low scrub toward their southern limit. In both instances, the species is referred to as "Avicennia marina" var. "australis", although genetic comparison is clearly needed. In Western Australia, "A. marina " extends as far south as Bunbury (33° 19'S). In the northern hemisphere, scrubby "Avicennia gerrninans" in Florida occurs as far north as St. Augustine on the east coast and Cedar Point on the west. There are records of "A. germinans" and "Rhizophora" mangle for Bermuda, presumably supplied by the Gulf Stream. In southern Japan, "Kandelia obovata" occurs to about 31 °N (Tagawa in Hosakawa et al., 1977, but initially referred to as "K. candel")."


title: Mangrove

text: Mangrove forests, also called "mangrove swamps" or "mangals", are found in tropical and subtropical tidal areas. Areas where mangroves occur include estuaries and marine shorelines.


title: Mangrove

text: The intertidal existence to which these trees are adapted represents the major limitation to the number of species able to thrive in their habitat. High tide brings in salt water, and when the tide recedes, solar evaporation of the seawater in the soil leads to further increases in salinity. The return of tide can flush out these soils, bringing them back to salinity levels comparable to that of seawater.


title: Mangrove

text: At low tide, organisms are also exposed to increases in temperature and reduced moisture before being then cooled and flooded by the tide. Thus, for a plant to survive in this environment, it must tolerate broad ranges of salinity, temperature, and moisture, as well as several other key environmental factors—thus only a select few species make up the mangrove tree community.


title: Mangrove

text: About 110 species are considered mangroves, in the sense of being trees that grow in such a saline swamp, though only a few are from the mangrove plant genus, "Rhizophora". However, a given mangrove swamp typically features only a small number of tree species. It is not uncommon for a mangrove forest in the Caribbean to feature only three or four tree species. For comparison, the tropical rainforest biome contains thousands of tree species, but this is not to say mangrove forests lack diversity. Though the trees themselves are few in species, the ecosystem that these trees create provides a home (habitat) for a great variety of other species, including as many as 174 species of marine megafauna.


title: Mangrove

text: Mangrove plants require a number of physiological adaptations to overcome the problems of low environmental oxygen levels, high salinity, and frequent tidal flooding. Each species has its own solutions to these problems; this may be the primary reason why, on some shorelines, mangrove tree species show distinct zonation. Small environmental variations within a mangal may lead to greatly differing methods for coping with the environment. Therefore, the mix of species is partly determined by the tolerances of individual species to physical conditions, such as tidal flooding and salinity, but may also be influenced by other factors, such as crabs preying on plant seedlings.


title: Mangrove

text: Once established, mangrove roots provide an oyster habitat and slow water flow, thereby enhancing sediment deposition in areas where it is already occurring. The fine, anoxic sediments under mangroves act as sinks for a variety of heavy (trace) metals which colloidal particles in the sediments have concentrated from the water. Mangrove removal disturbs these underlying sediments, often creating problems of trace metal contamination of seawater and organisms of the area.


title: Mangrove

text: Mangrove swamps protect coastal areas from erosion, storm surge (especially during tropical cyclones), and tsunamis. They limit high-energy wave erosion mainly during events such as storm surges and tsunamis.


title: Mangrove

text: The mangroves' massive root systems are efficient at dissipating wave energy. Likewise, they slow down tidal water enough so that its sediment is deposited as the tide comes in, leaving all except fine particles when the tide ebbs. In this way, mangroves build their environments. Because of the uniqueness of mangrove ecosystems and the protection against erosion they provide, they are often the object of conservation programs, including national biodiversity action plans.


title: Mangrove

text: The unique ecosystem found in the intricate mesh of mangrove roots offers a quiet marine habitat for young organisms. In areas where roots are permanently submerged, the organisms they host include algae, barnacles, oysters, sponges, and bryozoans, which all require a hard surface for anchoring while they filter-feed. Shrimps and mud lobsters use the muddy bottoms as their home. Mangrove crabs eat the mangrove leaves, adding nutrients to the mangal mud for other bottom feeders. In at least some cases, the export of carbon fixed in mangroves is important in coastal food webs.


title: Mangrove

text: Mangrove plantations in Vietnam, Thailand, Philippines, and India host several commercially important species of fish and crustaceans.


title: Mangrove

text: Mangrove forests can decay into peat deposits because of fungal and bacterial processes as well as by the action of termites. It becomes peat in good geochemical, sedimentary, and tectonic conditions. The nature of these deposits depends on the environment and the types of mangroves involved. In Puerto Rico, the red, white, and black mangroves occupy different ecological niches and have slightly different chemical compositions, so the carbon content varies between the species, as well between the different tissues of the plant (e.g., leaf matter versus roots).


title: Mangrove

text: In Puerto Rico, there is a clear succession of these three trees from the lower elevations, which are dominated by red mangroves, to farther inland with a higher concentration of white mangroves. Mangrove forests are an important part of the cycling and storage of carbon in tropical coastal ecosystems. Knowing this, scientists seek to reconstruct the environment and investigate changes to the coastal ecosystem over thousands of years using sediment cores. However, an additional complication is the imported marine organic matter that also gets deposited in the sediment due to the tidal flushing of mangrove forests.


title: Mangrove

text: Termites play an important role in the formation of peat from mangrove materials. They process fallen leaf litter, root systems and wood from mangroves into peat to build their nests. Termites stabilise the chemistry of this peat and represent approximately 2% of above ground carbon storage in mangroves. As the nests are buried over time this carbon is stored in the sediment and the carbon cycle continues.


title: Mangrove

text: Mangroves are an important source of blue carbon. Globally, mangroves stored of carbon in 2012. Two percent of global mangrove carbon was lost between 2000 and 2012, equivalent to a maximum potential of of CO emissions.


title: Mangrove

text: Globally, mangroves have been shown to provide measurable economic protections to coastal communities affected by tropical storms.


title: Mangrove

text: Plant microbiomes play crucial roles in their health and productivity of mangroves. Many researchers have successfully applied knowledge acquired about plant microbiomes to produce specific for crop protection. Such inocula can stimulate plant growth by releasing phytohormones and enhancing uptake of some mineral nutrients (particularly phosphorus and nitrogen). However, most of the plant microbiome studies have focused on the model plant "Arabidopsis thaliana" and economically important crop plants, such as rice , barley, wheat, maize and soybean. There is less information on microbiomes of tree species. Plant microbiomes are determined by plant-related factors (e.g., genotype, organ, species, and health status) and environmental factors (e.g., land use, climate, and nutrient availability). Two of the plant-related factors, plant species and genotypes, have been shown to play significant roles in shaping rhizosphere and plant microbiomes, as tree genotypes and species are associated with specific microbial communities. Different plant organs also have specific microbial communities depending on plant-associated factors (plant genotype, available nutrients, and organ-specific physicochemical conditions) and/or environmental conditions (associated with aboveground and underground surfaces and disturbances).


title: Mangrove

text: Mangrove roots harbour a repertoire of microbial taxa that contribute to important ecological functions in mangrove ecosystems. Similar to typical terrestrial plants, mangroves depend upon mutually beneficial interactions with microbial communities. In particular, microbes residing in developed roots could help mangroves transform nutrients into usable forms prior to plant assimilation. These microbes also provide mangroves phytohormones for suppressing phytopathogens or helping mangroves withstand heat and salinity. In turn, root-associated microbes receive carbon metabolites from the plant via root exudates, thus close associations between the plant and microbes are established for their mutual benefits.


title: Mangrove

text: Highly diverse microbial communities (mainly bacteria and fungi) have been found to inhabit and function in mangrove roots. For example, diazotrophic bacteria in the vicinity of mangrove roots could perform biological nitrogen fixation, which provides 40–60% of the total nitrogen required by mangroves; the soil attached to mangrove roots lacks oxygen but is rich in organic matter, providing an optimal microenvironment for sulfate-reducing bacteria and methanogens, ligninolytic, cellulolytic, and amylolytic fungi are prevalent in the mangrove root environment; rhizosphere fungi could help mangroves survive in waterlogged and nutrient-restricted environments. These studies have provided increasing evidences to support the importance of root-associated bacteria and fungi for mangrove growth and health.


title: Mangrove

text: Recent studies have investigated the detailed structure of root-associated microbial communities at a continuous fine-scale in other plants, where a microhabitat was divided into four root compartments: endosphere, episphere, rhizosphere, and nonrhizosphere. Moreover, the microbial communities in each compartment have been reported to have unique characteristics. The rhizosphere could emit root exudates that selectively enriched specific microbial populations; however, these exudates were found to exert only marginal impacts on microbes in the nonrhizosphere soil. Furthermore, it was noted that the root episphere, rather than the rhizosphere, was primarily responsible for controlling the entry of specific microbial populations into the root, resulting in the selective enrichment of Proteobacteria in the endosphere. These findings provide new insights into the niche differentiation of root-associated microbial communities, Nevertheless, amplicon-based community profiling may not provide the functional characteristics of root-associated microbial communities in plant growth and biogeochemical cycling. Unraveling functional patterns across the four root compartments holds a great potential for understanding functional mechanisms responsible for mediating root–microbe interactions in support of enhancing mangrove ecosystem functioning.


title: Mangrove

text: Mangroves forests are one of the most carbon-rich biomes, accounting for 11% of the total input of terrestrial carbon into oceans. Although viruses are thought to significantly influence local and global biogeochemical cycles, though as of 2019 little information was available about the community structure, genetic diversity and ecological roles of viruses in mangrove ecosystems.


title: Mangrove

text: Viruses are the most abundant biological entities on earth, present in virtually all ecosystems. By lysing their hosts, that is, by rupturing their cell membranes, viruses control host abundance and affect the structure of host communities. Viruses also influence their host diversity and evolution through horizontal gene transfer, selection for resistance and manipulation of bacterial metabolisms. Importantly, marine viruses affect local and global biogeochemical cycles through the release of substantial amounts of organic carbon and nutrients from hosts and assist microbes in driving biogeochemical cycles with auxiliary metabolic genes (AMGs).


title: Mangrove

text: It is presumed AMGs augment viral-infected host metabolism and facilitate the production of new viruses. AMGs have been extensively explored in marine cyanophages and include genes involved in photosynthesis, carbon turnover, phosphate uptake and stress response. Cultivation-independent metagenomic analysis of viral communities has identified additional AMGs that are involved in motility, central carbon metabolism, photosystem I, energy metabolism, iron–sulphur clusters, anti-oxidation and sulphur and nitrogen cycling. Interestingly, a recent analysis of Pacific Ocean Virome data identified niche-specialised AMGs that contribute to depth-stratified host adaptations. Given that microbes drive global biogeochemical cycles, and a large fraction of microbes is infected by viruses at any given time, viral-encoded AMGs must play important roles in global biogeochemistry and microbial metabolic evolution.


title: Mangrove

text: Mangrove forests are the only woody halophytes that live in salt water along the world’s subtropical and tropical coastlines. Mangroves are one of the most productive and ecologically important ecosystems on earth. The rates of primary production of mangroves equal those of tropical humid evergreen forests and coral reefs. As a globally relevant component of the carbon cycle, mangroves sequester approximately 24 million metric tons of carbon each year. Most mangrove carbon is stored in soil and sizable belowground pools of dead roots, aiding in the conservation and recycling of nutrients beneath forests. Although mangroves cover only 0.5% of the earth’s coastal area, they account for 10–15% of the coastal sediment carbon storage and 10–11% of the total input of terrestrial carbon into oceans. The disproportionate contribution of mangroves to carbon sequestration is now perceived as an important means to counterbalance greenhouse gas emissions.


title: Mangrove

text: Despite the ecological importance of mangrove ecosystem, knowledge on mangrove biodiversity is notably limited. Previous reports mainly investigated the biodiversity of mangrove fauna, flora and bacterial communities. Particularly, little information is available about viral communities and their roles in mangrove soil ecosystems. In view of the importance of viruses in structuring and regulating host communities and mediating element biogeochemical cycles, exploring viral communities in mangrove ecosystems is essential. Additionally, the intermittent flooding of sea water and resulting sharp transition of mangrove environments may result in substantially different genetic and functional diversity of bacterial and viral communities in mangrove soils compared with those of other systems.


title: French Montana

text: Karim Kharbouch (Arabic: [kæɾiːm χɑɾbuːʃ]; born November 9, 1984), better known by his stage name French Montana, is a Moroccan-American rapper. Born and raised in Morocco, he emigrated to the United States with his family when he was 13. He is the founder of Coke Boys Records and its predecessor Cocaine City Records. After years of independent material, he signed a joint-venture record deal with Puff Daddy's Bad Boy Records and Rick Ross's Maybach Music Group in 2012.


title: French Montana

text: Kharbouch released his debut mixtape in 2007 and had his first breakthrough with the single "Choppa Choppa Down" in 2010. He released his debut studio album "Excuse My French" on May 21, 2013. In July 2017, Montana released his second studio album, "Jungle Rules", which peaked at number three on the "Billboard" 200. The album was supported by the single "Unforgettable" (featuring Swae Lee), which was Montana's only song as lead artist to reach the top 10 on the U.S. "Billboard" Hot 100.


title: French Montana

text: Karim Kharbouch was born on November 9, 1984, in Casablanca, Morocco. He grew up at the family estate outside Casablanca where he lived for the first 13 years of his life. Growing up, he was consumed with soccer and rap, describing them as his two favorite childhood hobbies, before getting into basketball in his later teens.


title: French Montana

text: In the mid-1990s, Kharbouch left Morocco with his parents and younger brother for New York City, where they settled in the South Bronx. Kharbouch spoke only his native languages of Moroccan Darija Arabic and French when he first arrived, and learned English in the streets and in the Bronx high schools of Roosevelt and Lehman. After struggling for two years, his father decided they would move back to Casablanca, but his mother opted to stay back with their children citing lack of opportunities back home. His mother was pregnant with his youngest brother at the time, who was born in the United States shortly after his father departed for Morocco. With three children, his mother was dependent on welfare for financial support. Kharbouch eventually found himself the primary breadwinner for the family.


title: French Montana

text: French Montana began his career as a battle rapper in his teens under the name Young French. In 2002, French and close friend Cams created a series of street DVDs called "Cocaine City", drawing inspiration from the "Smack" DVD series popular at the time. The series featured interviews with major and upcoming rappers, personalities, and a focus on street music and hip hop beefs. Initially as Young French, he used the DVDs as a means of showcasing his talent as an underground artist, including in it his own original music, freestyles, and collaborations with other artists. The first volume in the series featured Pee Wee Kirkland and Remy Ma among others. What started out as a medium for developing an audience, quickly grew into one of the top-selling street DVDs. The series ran for eight years between 2002 and 2010, totaling 14 volumes, and multiple spinoff films. Based out of the Bronx, French ran the series with the help of childhood friends including Brock, Droop Pop and Cheeze, who went on to become the first rappers that formed the Coke Boys.


title: French Montana

text: In 2003, French suffered a gunshot to the head when he was confronted by two armed gunmen as he was leaving a recording studio in the Bronx. The incident resulted in one of the gunmen dead, in what is believed to be a case of "friendly fire" by one assailant against the other. French was then hospitalized for several weeks. Upon discharge, he discovered that he was set up by someone close to him and his circle.


title: French Montana

text: In 2007, French Montana released his debut mixtape "French Revolution Vol. 1", which included collaborations with Uncle Murda, Jae Millz, Mazaradi Fox and Tony Yayo. The track "Quarter to Eight" was the first of many collaborations with Rick Ross. The J.Cardim-produced "Straight Cash" was French's first underground hit. In 2008, he released his second mixtape, "Live From Africa". The song "Waavvy" was the first collaboration with rapper Max B.


title: French Montana

text: French Montana and Max B released their debut collaborative mixtape "Coke Wave" on February 6, 2009. A few weeks later, on February 23, Max B's mixtape "Quarantine" was released, while French released his "The Laundry Man" on February 24, 2009. The two artists resumed concentrating on their solo records, until the release of their second collaborative mixtape "Coke Wave 2" in November that year.


title: French Montana

text: French was included in XXL's Freshman Class of 2012. At that time he had already been signed to Bad Boy Records following the success of his single "Shot Caller", and had just signed a joint-venture between Bad Boy and Maybach Music Group.


title: French Montana

text: In an interview with "Rolling Stone" magazine, close friend and producer Harry Fraud revealed first meeting French Montana during a recording session at a studio in Chinatown. Fraud recalls recording a song for someone which French happened to have a guest feature on. In an unusual turn of events, the building was raided by police after a tip-off that there were counterfeit Gucci and Louis Vuitton purses being manufactured at the same building. Having lost his studio spot, Fraud went on to form his own studio in Brooklyn, where the two "met and formed a bond".


title: French Montana

text: Harry Fraud, who hails from a musical family background and had interned at a recording studio, was still unknown professionally at the time. The two released their first collaboration "New York Minute", featuring Jadakiss, off of French's fifth mixtape "Mac Wit Da Cheese" released on April 19, 2009. Following its success, the two artists recorded "We Playin In The Wind" off of French's sixth mixtape "The Laundry Man 2" released on June 29. With "New York Minute" still buzzing in the city, rapper Ma$e would approach French Montana to hop on the remix, included in French's eighth mixtape "Coke Wave 2" released in November. Since then, Harry Fraud's production has been a staple among French's music, and Fraud has since ventured out into working with various other artists. Fraud gained mainstream attention when his track with French Montana "Shot Caller" became one of the most added tracks on urban contemporary radio in 2011–2012.


title: French Montana

text: Starting in 2009, French Montana had signed a deal with Akon and his Konvict Music label. The two previously met in Miami in 2008, and later appeared on DJ Green Lantern's "Invasion Radio" on SiriusXM's Hip-Hop Nation. The pair collaborated on a series of tracks including their first single "Married to the Streets" on French's seventh mixtape "Cocaine Konvicts" released on September 25. In later interviews, French revealed that he had a "shopping deal" with Akon for a six months to a year period. "A shopping deal is when an artist takes a liking in you, and they try to take you to a label to get you signed. I was gonna go get signed to his label, but they were going through problems with Interscope. [As a result] my deal was over with him, so I went and did my own thing", claimed French in his 2012 interview with Complex. Akon, whom French refers to as "big brother", would continue to maintain a relationship with French, collaborating on songs together despite the unsuccessful deal between the two.


title: French Montana

text: French had met Akon through their mutual friend Gaby Acevedo. Acevedo was then-president of SRC Records – under founder and chairman Steve Rifkind — the label first responsible for breaking out artists such as Akon, David Banner, and Remy Ma, then a member of Fat Joe's Terror Squad. Acevedo, whom French had befriended during his time working on the "Cocaine City" DVDs, had put his music on to Akon who then approached French inviting him to meet him in Florida. Although the Akon deal was short-lived, Acevedo would eventually go on to become French's manager following his mainstream breakout. In 2012, with Rifkind leaving SRC's parent company Universal Music Group in September, the SRC imprint would close shop as well. With French's management deal with Mizay Entertainment having recently ended, Gaby Acevedo would postpone retirement to become his new manager, where he now spends his time on the road touring with French.


title: French Montana

text: French released his tenth mixtape "Coke Boys" on September 15, 2010, which included collaborations with Three 6 Mafia, Gucci Mane, Akon, Fat Joe, fellow Coke Boys, among others. The record which included the track "Choppa Choppa Down", featuring Waka Flocka Flame, became a hit among clubs and radio throughout the south. Waka Flocka, who recently broken into the mainstream with his single "Hard In Da Paint" released on May 13, had recorded the song earlier that year while Gucci Mane was still in prison. An early remix to the song, featuring French Montana, was included in French's ninth mixtape "Mac & Cheese 2" released earlier that year on May 6 and which also included collaborations with rising stars Wiz Khalifa, Nicki Minaj, Big Sean, Curren$y and Nipsey Hussle among others. The two respective breakout tracks would kick off the start of a close relationship between French and Waka Flocka, where the two describe themselves as being "brothers".


title: French Montana

text: On November 18, 2010, XXL magazine reported on French Montana having signed with Atlanta-based management firm Mizay Entertainment, headed by Debra Antney. Debra, who is Waka Flocka's mother, was also manager to Gucci Mane, OJ Da Juiceman, rising star Lex Luger and the 808 Mafia production team, and formerly Nicki Minaj prior to her mainstream breakout. The music video for "Choppa Choppa Down", which featured a Black Hawk Down theme, was released in late-January and included cameos from Gucci, Shawty Lo, DJ Holiday and members of Brick Squad Monopoly. With the success of the "Coke Boys" mixtape and his recent management deal with Debra, French adopted a recurring trap influence among his music. in 2013, Debra Antney sued French Montana for dealing behind her back for commission. In 2017, Debra won the lawsuit against him for which he was obliged to pay $2 million to Debra.


title: French Montana

text: On February 15, French released his eleventh mixtape "", which featured productions from Fraud and Lex Luger among others, including his soon-to-be next hit "Shot Caller". The tape's combination of hard trap beats alongside the more soulful beats – such as those of his New York producer Harry Fraud – would become a fixture among French's music. The latter sound being further explored in his twelfth mixtape "Coke Boys 2" released on August 19, providing a softer break from his more robust tapes that year. Both records have been acclaimed for their production and hooks. French would continue on his increasing presence in the South, releasing his collaborative mixtape with Waka Flocka called "Lock Out" on December 14. That same month, he would release his long-awaited collaborative mixtape "Cocaine Mafia" with Memphis-based rappers Juicy J and Project Pat, released on December 19. This would be French's thirteenth and fourteenth mixtapes, respectively. With four records out in 2011, it would be his busiest year of releases since 2009. In a 2012 interview with Parlé magazine, French revealed his deal with Mizay Entertainment as having been for a year and a half.


title: French Montana

text: With French's growing buzz in the South, he was approached by Florida-based rapper Rick Ross who invited him to his studio. French, who admits having been a fan of Ross' music, was invited to come "at like three in the morning" where he listened to his upcoming MMG collaborative album "Self Made Vol. 1". The two recorded a track for the album, while Ross hopped on the remix to "Choppa Choppa Down". The new single, which also featured Wiz Khalifa, was released on April 28, 2011, with the music video coming out in June. An earlier remix featuring Gucci Mane and Wiz Khalifa had been released on March 25. The collaboration would mark the start of French's relationship with Rick Ross and his Maybach Music Group, prompting speculation whether French would be signing to the label.


title: French Montana

text: With French juggling between Atlanta and New York, his song "Shot Caller" off of the "Casino Life" record would gain traction on New York radio beginning mid-2011. During an on-air interview with Fat Joe on DJ Green Lantern's "Invasion Radio" in October 2011, French would call in to praise close friend and fellow-Bronx rapper Fat Joe, revealing his role in helping to get "Shot Caller" on the airwaves. Fat Joe, whom he refers to as "big brother", praised French's work ethic and revealed that French had been receiving offers from several major labels.


title: French Montana

text: On the night of August 5, 2011, Bronx-based rapper Fat Joe was slated to host Funkmaster Flex's birthday party at Webster Hall. During his performance, Fat Joe brought out French Montana to perform on stage. Controversy erupted as Jim Jones and his entourage, who were reportedly on the adjacent balcony seats, began hurling bottles and glass at the performers. The following day, videos of the incident were uploaded online, depicting French and his entourage facing a barrage of glass and liquor on stage, as they continued performing his rendition of "Hard In Da Paint" while facing the mentioned balcony with the crowd chanting along to it. Some of the members on stage hurled debris back towards the balcony, as Jones and his entourage eventually exited the premises.


title: French Montana

text: Fat Joe and Waka Flocka accompanied French Montana in his video shoot for "Shot Caller" later that month in August. The song, which made reference to Diddy's 1997 hit "Its All About The Benjamins", would soon garner the interest of the Bad Boy mogul. On October 9, French announced Diddy and T.I. for the official remix to the song. DJ Drama, who called it his favorite record, referred T.I. to jump on the remix. Although the T.I. feature never came to fruition, the remix was released on November 24, and featured rappers Diddy and Rick Ross.


title: French Montana

text: With "Shot Caller" already one of the most played tracks on New York radio, on stations such as Hot 97 and Power 105, French was slated to appear on the upcoming episode of BET's "106 & Park" on December 6, where he would be debuting the music video and announcing the label he's signing with. Diddy would also appear that night as part of his "Bad Boy Takeover" campaign, whereon the two officially announced that French Montana had signed to Bad Boy Records. Between 2011 and 2012, "Shot Caller" had become one of the most added tracks on urban contemporary radio in the country. It was re-released as a single on January 10, and the music video for the remix was released in February 2012. A "NY Giants remix" premiered on Funkmaster Flex's radio show on January 6, celebrating the Giants' Super Bowl win against the Patriots the day before.


title: French Montana

text: Having received offers from several labels, including Jay-Z's Roc Nation and Kanye's GOOD Music; on December 6 on BET, French Montana publicly announced signing with Bad Boy Records, an imprint of Interscope Records. In a subsequent interview with Billboard magazine, French revealed that had he not signed with Bad Boy that MMG would be his next choice. However, on January 4, 2012, while in the studio with Rick Ross, the two announced French's new signing to a joint-venture between Bad Boy Records and Maybach Music Group, making him a part of both labels. Both Ross and Diddy would be executive producing his debut studio album.


title: French Montana

text: On January 6, the two dropped Ross' track "Stay Schemin" with rapper Drake. Notable for its memorable French and Ross "hook", the track became one of the biggest hits that year, oft-talked about for its Drake verse believed to be a "diss" towards rapper Common at the time. French Montana was featured on XXL's Freshman Class of 2012 alongside Future, Kid Ink, Danny Brown, Macklemore, Don Trip, Hopsin, Iggy Azalea, Roscoe Dash, and Bad Boy labelmate MGK. French later revealed to host Sway Calloway on MTV's "RapFix Live" in August 2012 that he almost turned down the cover opportunity feeling he deserved it a year or two prior.


title: French Montana

text: French's first single from the upcoming album, "Pop That" was released on June 15, featuring Ross, Drake and Lil Wayne. The song would be one of the biggest hits that year, and a still-popular club and summer anthem since. It is French's most successful commercial single, having been certified "platinum" by the RIAA, and peaking at #2 on Billboard's Hot R&B and Rap charts and #36 on the Hot 100. While initially expected for a release in July 2012, French's album went through several pushbacks until its finalized release date of May 21, 2013. The date which happened to coincide with the birthdays of Max B and famous labelmate the late Notorious B.I.G. In the meantime, French had released his fifteenth mixtape "Coke Boys 3" on April 13, 2012, which included collaborations with fellow Coke Boys Chinx Drugz and Cheeze, alongside the likes of Ross, Akon, Kevin Gates and Wale. Notable tracks among others include, a rare collaboration between French, Chinx and the late Stack Bundles on "Tap That", and "Headquarters" featuring Red Café and Chinx, the music video for which premiered on July 21.


title: French Montana

text: In September 2012, French Montana was featured on the cover of the 82nd issue of "The Fader" magazine, who joined French on his first homecoming to Morocco after seventeen years since his family moved to the United States in 1996. The article describes his journey through Morocco, meeting his mother's family, and eventually his estranged father who is not made aware of his son's coming arrival. French was accompanied by manager Gaby Acevedo, and youngest brother Ayoub, in addition to Zach Baron and Michael Schmelling of "The Fader". The piece ends with an emotional reunion between the father and the two sons, including Ayoub who had previously never met their father before.


title: French Montana

text: French marked the end of the year with his sixteenth mixtape "Mac & Cheese 3" released on November 20, 2012. which included collaborations with Prodigy, Fabolous, Future, Fat Joe, Ma$e, Rico Love and Trina among others. Acclaimed for its production and track selection, it was among the most downloaded mixtapes of all time. With several productions from Young Chop, the music video to "Devil Wants My Soul" premiered on November 5, and an in-studio video of "Ocho Cinco" on November 26. Both songs would go viral, prompting another music video for "Ocho Cinco" – featuring Diddy, MGK, Red Café and King Los – released in February 2013. The song was also included as a bonus track on the upcoming "Excuse My French" album. The run up to which included further video releases, including the Black Metaphor produced "Sanctuary" on February 3, Swizz Beatz produced "Diamonds" featuring Ross and J. Cole on February 17, and Fraud produced "State of Mind" on May 15 and "Intro (Only If For A Night)" on November 30, among others. Since the tapes' premiere on DatPiff, it would reach the 500K "double platinum" rating by first month, and presently stands at a "diamond" rating with over 1.4 million downloads on that site alone.


title: French Montana

text: In January 2013, French announced his second single "Freaks", featuring Nicki Minaj, from his upcoming album to be a remake of Lil Vicious' 1994 song of the same name. The song premiered on Hot 97 on February 13, with the music video coming out on March 3. The remix, featuring an additional Ross, Wale, Mavado and DJ Khaled, was released on April 25. A bonus track "Marble Floors" was released earlier on December 4, 2012, featuring Ross, Lil Wayne and 2 Chainz with production from Mike WiLL Made It. It would fast become a viral hit, only to be outdone by French's third single "Ain't Worried About Nothin" released on April 15, 2013. The music video premiered on May 7, and would be the last before the release of his album on May 21. Subsequent music videos included, "Trap House" featuring Ross and Birdman released on September 23, "Gifted" featuring The Weeknd on October 15, "Once In A While" featuring Max B on November 18, and "Paranoid" featuring Johnny May Cash on January 20, 2014, among others.


title: French Montana

text: His first solo single "Ain't Worried About Nothin" was a hit on radio stations, and a remix featuring Ross, Diddy and Snoop Dogg was released on October 4, and a second remix featuring Miley Cyrus on October 14. Upon its release, "Excuse My French" was met with mixed reviews from music critics. It fared better commercially, debuting at number 4 on the "Billboard" 200 chart, with first-week sales of 56,000 copies in the United States. The album also featured collaborations with Raekwon, Scarface, Ne-Yo and Jeremih among others.


title: French Montana

text: Following the album release, French announced signing Chicago-based rapper Lil Durk to his Coke Boys. French, who is close to producer Young Chop, had previously collaborated with Durk on his recent mixtape and with Chief Keef on his debut album the year before. Durk, Chinx and Young Chop appeared in the music video to "Paranoid", featuring Chop's brother Johnny May Cash. The song is inspired by French's brushes with death, including the late-2003 incident where he survived a gunshot to the head. Durk collaborated on several records with French in the coming years, starting with the remix to Durk's breakout single "Dis Ain't What U Want" featuring French, Ross and Meek Mill, released on November 27, 2013.


title: French Montana

text: French appeared as a featured artist on several singles in 2013, most notably Joe Budden's "NBA" with Wiz Khalifa released on March 26; ASAP Ferg's "Work (Remix)" – alongside Schoolboy Q, ASAP Rocky and Trinidad James – on May 14; Canadian singer Massari's "Shisha" on May 21; and Will.i.am's "Feelin Myself" with Miley Cyrus and Wiz Khalifa on November 26, among others.


title: French Montana

text: Despite several pushbacks, French released his seventeenth mixtape "Coke Boys 4" on January 2, 2014, which included collaborations with Snoop Dogg, Wiz Khalifa, MGK, Mally Mall, Lil Durk and MeetSims, among others. The music video for the "Paranoid (Remix)" – featuring Diddy, Ross, Meek, Durk, Chinx and Jadakiss – was released on April 13. Subsequent music videos included, "88 Coupes" featuring Jadakiss released on May 15, "God Body" featuring Chinx on May 28, and "Money Bag" with Durk and Chinx on June 23. In a January 2014 "Rolling Stone" interview, French revealed that his next "Mac & Cheese" would be a studio album instead of a mixtape.


title: French Montana

text: In 2014, French collaborated with Diddy on Ross' track "Nobody" released on February 19. Rick Ross' remake of the late Notorious B.I.G.'s 1997 song "You're Nobody (Til Somebody Kills You)", featured an eerie chorus by French and interludes of Diddy in a live motivational rant. The song was inspired by Ross' brush against death the year before, when his Rolls-Royce came under repeated gunshot fire while driving through Fort Lauderdale, Florida, on January 28, 2013. In a bizarre series of events, French Montana would experience a similar but unrelated event months later when his convoy came under fire on March 1 in Philadelphia during his "Excuse My French" tour after French had finished performing a show hours earlier. The music video premiered on February 27, 2014. Albeit met with mixed to positive reviews, the song would be a hit and was re-released as a single on March 3, 2014. French joined Ross for a live performance on the television program "Late Night with Seth Meyers" on March 5, 2014.


title: French Montana

text: French Montana would collaborate with fellow-Bronx native Jennifer Lopez on her comeback single "I Luh Ya Papi". The song premiered on LA's Power 106 on March 5, and was released as a single on March 11, with the music video coming out two days later. The single was an international hit, and among the most added/played tracks on rhythmic contemporary radio in Canada. French also appeared in the music video to Fat Joe's single "Stressin", featuring Jennifer Lopez, which premiered in October later that year. French joined Rick Ross on Puff Daddy's comeback single "Big Homie" from his upcoming album "MMM". With a guest verse by Ross and ad-libs by French, the single was released on March 24, with the music video premiering on March 31. French Montana joined Ross, Meek and veteran Jay-Z on DJ Khaled's summer hit "They Don't Love You No More". The single was released on March 29, with the music video coming out on June 22 that year.


title: French Montana

text: On July 17, teasers to the movie "" were released featuring music from French's upcoming single "Don't Panic". A month earlier, Instagram photos of the two showed French with then-girlfriend Khloé Kardashian on set with matching masks on, prompting speculation whether she was in the coming video. Following weeks of promotion, the single was released on August 12. The music video, which retained the dark themes of the movie while maintaining its catchy DJ Mustard character, became a viral hit. The couple had created bit of a stir two months earlier, on June 2, when Khloé posted an IG photo of the two on set of "They Don't Love You No More", depicting French holding a rifle in his arms with Khloé seated next to him with a bottle of liquor to her mouth. The remix to "Don't Panic", featuring Jeremih and Chris Brown, was released on October 14.


title: French Montana

text: French Montana would join Remy Ma on DJ Khaled's "They Don't Love You No More (Remix)" released on August 2. Khaled's former Terror Squad affiliate and Bronx-native Remy Ma had just been released from prison the day prior. The three appeared together in the music video which premiered on August 23. This was her first musical comeback since her incarceration six years earlier. French collaborated with Ashanti on her second single "Early In The Morning" released on October 14 off of her comeback album, "Braveheart". This would be Ashanti's first album in six years.


title: French Montana

text: French released his second single "Bad Bitch", featuring Jeremih, in December 2014, with the music video premiering on February 23, 2015. In late-October, French had announced his "Set It Off" tour with Jeremih, running up to his expected "Mac & Cheese: The Album" release in December. With the album eventually pushed back to next year; in its place, French released his collaborative EP with Harry Fraud, "Mac & Cheese: The Appetizer" on December 12, 2014. His eighteenth mixtape, "The Appetizer" marked a shift away from French's usual feature-heavy records. With Fraud's signature sample-heavy production, French blurred the lines between rap and R&B in a manner not unlike that of Max B, and with subject matter ranging from difficult life-decisions, women, addiction and memories of his bygone friendship with his now-incarcerated rap soulmate. In August 2015, French paired with pop-opera artist Charisse Mills for the single "Champagne."


title: French Montana

text: On February 14, 2016, DJ Khaled announced that he would debut French's new mixtape on We The Best Radio. The mixtape, hosted by Max B, debuted on February 19, 2016. On May 5, 2016, French's contract with Interscope and MMG ended, and he later signed a joint venture record deal with Bad Boy and Epic Records. Later, French was going to release his second studio album "MC4" in October 2016, however, the album's release was canceled after Target unofficially released the album on CD on its original release date (August 19, 2016), two months before the album was set to release, which also managed to leak its entirety on internet as a leak, plus some "sample clearance issues" on tracks like "I'm Heated" and 2 Times". It was originally supposed to be the fourth installment in the "Mac & Cheese" series, and the first to be originally released as an album. French later stated that he's planning to start a new record label with Max B when he is released. On November 5, 2016, Montana unexpectedly released the album as a mixtape instead and premiered it on Drake's Beats 1 radio show, OVO Sound radio later that night. Montana revealed in an interview with Zane Lowe on his Beats 1 radio show that the first and second single from his upcoming project is ready to be released. He also announced a collaborative track with Chance the Rapper and Quavo, produced by Ben Billions, a collaboration with Swae Lee that is "just like 'Unforgettable'", as well as a song called "No Stylist".


title: French Montana

text: On December 6, 2019, French Montana released his third studio album "Montana", which includes the song "Writing on the Wall", a collaboration with Cardi B, Post Malone and Rvssian.


title: French Montana

text: French Montana, on June 9, 2022, released a song "Je M'appelle" with fellow Moroccan-British artist Benzz and Tion Wayne.


title: French Montana

text: French Montana's career has been the subject of many allegations of sexual misconduct in the 2020s, the earliest of which date back years. Several women accused him of rape, drug-facilitated sexual assault, sexual battery, sexual harassment, and sexual misconduct, allegations he denies, for which the statute of limitations either did not apply or had not elapsed, in nearly all cases. In March 2020, French Montana was accused of raping an incapacitated woman at his former home in Hidden Hills, California. Montana was sued by a woman using the pseudonym ""Jane Doe"", for assault and battery, sexual battery, intentional infliction of emotional distress, negligent hiring, supervision and retention and negligence, in connection to a March 28, 2018, incident reported to police in which the woman alleged Montana drugged her and raped her while she was incapacitated on his bathroom floor. The suit alleged Montana "would sometimes without the women's knowledge or consent provide drugs to interfere with the women's ability to knowingly consent to sexual activity and had a longstanding practice of inviting women to his recording sessions, or choosing women at bars" Montana allegedly supplied women with drinks and drugs, "with the purpose of engaging in sexual acts with them, without any regard to whether or not they consented, or were able to consent." According to her court filing, "Kharbouch (French Montana) was one of the men who entered the room and sexually assaulted her". Doe reported the alleged rape to the police that same day and had a rape kit administered, a subsequent police investigation showed the presence of semen.


title: French Montana

text: In May 2021, Montana was accused of sexual assault by a second woman, Sarah Kamilla, a Moroccan model, who said Montana cornered her and attempted to rape her while she was in the bathroom during a dinner party hosted by Palestinian rapper Belly, at the W Hotel in Miami in 2017 when she was a teenager at the time. Montana was then accused of sexual assault by a third woman, Kayla Rose, in 2021 who alleged that he sexually assaulted her while she was in the bathroom in a hotel room in Las Vegas in 2018. Rose later filed a police report following the incident.


title: French Montana

text: In 2021, French Montana committed plagiarism. Montana copied and pasted the first verse of Astrid S' song "Jump" into the track "How You King?", without permission. Astrid S retroactively got proper attribution as a co-songwriter and received compensation for the lyrics that were plagiarized.


title: French Montana

text: Montana's charitable work started after he visited Uganda to film his "Unforgettable" video in 2017, a song that gained over a billion streams and held strong on the top 10 in the U.S. Billboard Hot 100. His efforts in Uganda raised half a million dollars to build the Suubi hospital which serves over 300,000 citizens of Uganda.


title: French Montana

text: In 2018, French was given the honor of Global Citizen Ambassador for his charity work in the East African country, Uganda. This was the first time the honor has been bestowed upon a rapper.


title: French Montana

text: Montana is fluent in his native Arabic and French as well as in English. He cites being a father as one of his driving inspirations.


title: French Montana

text: Montana has been a resident of the Pompton Plains section of Pequannock Township, New Jersey. In 2016, he bought Selena Gomez's Calabasas, California home for $3.3 million.


title: French Montana

text: Montana married Deen Kharbouch in 2007. The couple had separated by 2012, and their divorce was finalized in 2014. They have a son who was born in October 2010.


title: French Montana

text: In 2003, two gunmen shot at Montana as he left a recording studio in New York, striking him in the head. He survived and was hospitalized for several weeks. One of the gunmen died during the incident, in what is believed to be a case of "friendly fire" by one assailant against the other. Montana was investigated for the incident, but the case was eventually dismissed. In early 2013, Montana visited the site of the shooting with a camera crew from Life+Times as he recalled the near-death experience and his life growing up in the Bronx. This was the first time he had visited the location since the attempted murder ten years earlier. According to French, he was set up by someone close to him and his circle.


title: French Montana

text: French has been the owner of a number of pets, ranging from dogs to exotic animals such as tigers and a monkey. On April 22, 2013, French Montana posted an Instagram picture with the caption "Got so high last night bought 2 baby tigers". The picture was of French outdoors holding two tiger cubs, one on each arm. The tigers, named Ike and Tina, were prominently featured in French's music video for "The Gifted" featuring friend and singer The Weeknd, released later that year. In 2014, the rapper noted he had given up the two tigers shortly after getting them, citing the difficulty in feeding and caring for the animals.


title: French Montana

text: Since late-2014, French Montana became the owner of a pet monkey named Julius Ceasor. A video of the animal was uploaded on December 18, showing French and record producer Mally Mall entering a private-jet with French then cradling the infant monkey in his arms.


title: French Montana

text: French Montana describes Tupac Shakur, The Notorious B.I.G., Nas, Snoop Dogg, and Wu-Tang Clan among the hip hop artists he listened to growing up. He considers himself a music lover in general, and admires the work of English soul/R&B singers Adele and Amy Winehouse, the English rock band Florence + the Machine, and American singer Lana Del Rey, several of whom he has sampled in his music.


title: David Furnish

text: David James Furnish (born 25 October 1962) is a Canadian filmmaker and former advertising executive. He is married to English singer, pianist and composer Sir Elton John.


title: David Furnish

text: David Furnish was born in Toronto, Ontario, the son of Gladys and Jack Furnish, a director at the Bristol-Myers pharmaceutical company. He has an older brother, John, and a younger brother, Peter. Furnish graduated from the Sir John A. Macdonald Collegiate Institute in 1981 and received an Honours Bachelor of Business Administration (HBA) from the Ivey Business School at the University of Western Ontario in London, Ontario in 1985.


title: David Furnish

text: After graduation, he was recruited by the advertising agency Ogilvy & Mather Canada in Toronto. At 27, he asked his firm to transfer him to their UK principal offices in London. Furnish flourished in England, becoming the firm’s youngest Director of Account Services. .


title: David Furnish

text: Furnish is co-chief of Rocket Pictures along with his husband, Sir Elton John. Furnish serves on the board of the Elton John AIDS Foundation, attending fundraisers and other events in support of that cause.


title: David Furnish

text: Furnish is a contributing editor for "Tatler" magazine and also is a regular columnist for "Interview" and "GQ".


title: David Furnish

text: In June 2019, to mark the 50th anniversary of the Stonewall riots, "Queerty" named him, along with John, as one of the "Pride50" "trailblazing individuals who actively ensure society remains moving towards equality, acceptance and dignity for all queer people".


title: David Furnish

text: Furnish began a relationship with singer Elton John in 1993. John proposed to Furnish in May 2005 at a dinner party with friends and family at one of their homes in Old Windsor. Furnish and John entered into a civil partnership on 21 December 2005, the first day that civil partnerships could be performed in England, in the town of Windsor, Berkshire. Their first child, son Zachary Jackson Levon Furnish-John, was born on 25 December 2010 in California via surrogacy. On 11 January 2013, the couple's second son, Elijah Joseph Daniel Furnish-John, was born through the same surrogate. After same-sex marriage became legal in England and Wales in March 2014, John and Furnish retroactively converted their civil partnership into a marriage and marked the occasion with a ceremony in Windsor, Berkshire, on 21 December 2014, the ninth anniversary of their civil partnership.


title: David Furnish

text: In 2016, Furnish sought an anonymised privacy injunction in the case "PJS v News Group Newspapers Ltd".


title: Occult

text: The occult, in the broadest sense, is a category of esoteric supernatural beliefs and practices which generally fall outside the scope of religion and science, encompassing phenomena involving otherworldly agency, such as magic and mysticism and their varied spells. It can also refer to supernatural ideas like extra-sensory perception and parapsychology.


title: Occult

text: The term "occult sciences" was used in 16th-century Europe to refer to astrology, alchemy, and natural magic. The term occultism emerged in 19th-century France, amongst figures such as Antoine Court de Gébelin. It came to be associated with various French esoteric groups connected to Éliphas Lévi and Papus, and in 1875 was introduced into the English language by the esotericist Helena Blavatsky.


title: Occult

text: Throughout the 20th century, the term was used idiosyncratically by a range of different authors, but by the 21st century was commonly employed – including by academic scholars of esotericism – to refer to a range of esoteric currents that developed in the mid-19th century and their descendants. Occultism is thus often used to categorise such esoteric traditions as Spiritualism, Theosophy, Anthroposophy, the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, and New Age.


title: Occult

text: Use of the term as a nominalized adjective has developed especially since the late twentieth century. In that same period, "occult" and "culture" were combined to form the neologism "occulture".


title: Occult

text: The occult (from the Latin word "occultus" "clandestine, hidden, secret") is "knowledge of the hidden". In common usage, "occult" refers to "knowledge of the paranormal", as opposed to "knowledge of the measurable", usually referred to as science. The terms "esoteric" and "arcane" can also be used to describe the occult, in addition to their meanings unrelated to the supernatural. The term "occult sciences" was used in the 16th century to refer to astrology, alchemy, and natural magic.


title: Occult

text: The earliest known usage of the term "occultism" is in the French language, as "l'occultisme". In this form it appears in A. de Lestrange's article that was published in Jean-Baptiste Richard de Randonvilliers' "Dictionnaire des mots nouveaux" ("Dictionary of new words") in 1842. However, it was not related, at this point, to the notion of "Ésotérisme chrétien", as has been claimed by Hanegraaff, but to describe a political "system of occulticity" that was directed against priests and aristocrats.


title: Occult

text: In 1853, the Freemasonic author Jean-Marie Ragon had already used "occultisme" in his popular work "Maçonnerie occulte", relating it to earlier practices that, since the Renaissance, had been termed "occult sciences" or "occult philosophy", but also to the recent socialist teachings of Charles Fourier. The French esotericist Éliphas Lévi then used the term in his influential book on ritual magic, "Dogme et rituel de la haute magie", first published in 1856. Lévi was familiar with that work and might have borrowed the term from there. In any case, Lévi also claimed to be a representative of an older tradition of occult science or occult philosophy. It was from his usage of the term "occultisme" that it gained wider usage; according to Faivre, Lévi was "the principal exponent of esotericism in Europe and the United States" at that time. The term "occultism" emerged in 19th-century France, where it came to be associated with various French esoteric groups connected to Éliphas Lévi and Papus,


title: Occult

text: The earliest use of the term "occultism" in the English language appears to be in "A Few Questions to 'Hiraf'", an 1875 article by Helena Blavatsky, a Russian émigré living in the United States who founded the religion of Theosophy. The article was published in the American Spiritualist magazine, "Spiritual Scientist".


title: Occult

text: Various twentieth-century writers on the subject used the term "occultism" in different ways. Some writers, such as the German philosopher Theodor W. Adorno in his "Theses Against Occultism", employed the term as a broad synonym for irrationality. In his 1950 book "L'occultisme", Robert Amadou used the term as a synonym for esotericism, an approach that the later scholar of esotericism Marco Pasi suggested left the term superfluous. Unlike Amadou, other writers saw occultism and esotericism as different, albeit related, phenomena. In the 1970s, the sociologist Edward Tiryakian distinguished between occultism, which he used in reference to practices, techniques, and procedures, and esotericism, which he defined as the religious or philosophical belief systems on which such practices are based. This division was initially adopted by the early academic scholar of esotericism, Antoine Faivre, although he later abandoned it; it has been rejected by most scholars who study esotericism.


title: Occult

text: By the 21st century the term was commonly employed – including by academic scholars of esotericism – to refer to a range of esoteric currents that developed in the mid-19th century and their descendants. Occultism is thus often used to categorise such esoteric traditions as Spiritualism, Theosophy, Anthroposophy, the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, and New Age.


title: Occult

text: A different division was used by the Traditionalist author René Guénon, who used esotericism to describe what he believed was the Traditionalist, inner teaching at the heart of most religions, while occultism was used pejoratively to describe new religions and movements that he disapproved of, such as Spiritualism, Theosophy, and various secret societies. Guénon's use of this terminology was adopted by later writers like Serge Hutin and Luc Benoist. As noted by Hanegraaff, Guénon's use of these terms are rooted in his Traditionalist beliefs and "cannot be accepted as scholarly valid".


title: Occult

text: The term "occultism" derives from the older term "occult", much as the term "esotericism" derives from the older term "esoteric". However, the historian of esotericism Wouter Hanegraaff stated that it was important to distinguish between the meanings of the term "occult" and "occultism". Occultism is not a homogenous movement and is widely diverse.


title: Occult

text: Over the course of its history, the term "occultism" has been used in various different ways. However, in contemporary uses, occultism commonly refers to forms of esotericism that developed in the nineteenth century and their twentieth-century derivations. In a descriptive sense, it has been used to describe forms of esotericism which developed in nineteenth-century France, especially in the Neo-Martinist environment. According to the historian of esotericism Antoine Faivre, it is with the esotericist Éliphas Lévi that "the occultist current properly so-called" first appears. Other prominent French esotericists involved in developing occultism included Papus, Stanislas de Guaita, Joséphin Péladan, Georges-Albert Puyou de Pouvourville, and Jean Bricaud.


title: Occult

text: The idea of occult sciences developed in the sixteenth century. The term usually encompassed three practicesastrology, alchemy, and natural magicalthough sometimes various forms of divination were also included rather than being subsumed under natural magic. These were grouped together because, according to the Dutch scholar of hermeticism Wouter Hanegraaff, "each one of them engaged in a systematic investigation of nature and natural processes, in the context of theoretical frameworks that relied heavily on a belief in occult qualities, virtues or forces." Although there are areas of overlap between these different occult sciences, they are separate and in some cases practitioners of one would reject the others as being illegitimate.


title: Occult

text: During the Age of Enlightenment, occultism increasingly came to be seen as intrinsically incompatible with the concept of science. From that point on, use of "occult science(s)" implied a conscious polemic against mainstream science. Nevertheless, the philosopher and card game historian Michael Dummett, whose analysis of the historical evidence suggested that fortune-telling and occult interpretations using cards were unknown before the 18th century, said that the term "occult science" was not misplaced because "people who believe in the possibility of unveiling the future or of exercising supernormal powers do so because the efficacy of the methods they employ coheres with some systematic conception which they hold of the way the universe functions...however flimsy its empirical basis."


title: Occult

text: In his 1871 book "Primitive Culture", the anthropologist Edward Tylor used the term "occult science" as a synonym for magic.


title: Occult

text: Occult qualities are properties that have no known rational explanation; in the Middle Ages, for example, magnetism was considered an occult quality. Aether is another such element. Newton's contemporaries severely criticized his theory that gravity was effected through "action at a distance", as occult.


title: Occult

text: In the English-speaking world, notable figures in the development of occultism included Helena Blavatsky and other figures associated with her Theosophical Society, senior figures in the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn like William Wynn Westcott and Samuel Liddell MacGregor Mathers, as well as other individuals such as Paschal Beverly Randolph, Emma Hardinge Britten, Arthur Edward Waite, andin the early twentieth centuryAleister Crowley, Dion Fortune, and Israel Regardie. By the end of the nineteenth century, occultist ideas had also spread into other parts of Europe, such as the German Empire, Austria-Hungary, and the Kingdom of Italy.


title: Occult

text: Unlike older forms of esotericism, occultism does not reject "scientific progress or modernity". Lévi had stressed the need to solve the conflict between science and religion, something that he believed could be achieved by turning to what he thought was the ancient wisdom found in magic. The French scholar of Western esotericism Antoine Faivre noted that rather than outright accepting "the triumph of scientism", occultists sought "an alternative solution", trying to integrate "scientific progress or modernity" with "a global vision that will serve to make the vacuousness of materialism more apparent". The Dutch scholar of hermeticism Wouter Hanegraaff remarked that occultism was "essentially an attempt to adapt esotericism" to the "disenchanted world", a post-Enlightenment society in which growing scientific discovery had eradicated the "dimension of irreducible mystery" previously present. In doing so, he noted, occultism distanced itself from the "traditional esotericism" which accepted the premise of an "enchanted" world. According to the British historian of Western esotericism Nicholas Goodrick-Clarke, occultist groups typically seek "proofs and demonstrations by recourse to scientific tests or terminology".


title: Occult

text: In his work about Lévi, the German historian of religion Julian Strube has argued that the occultist wish for a "synthesis" of religion, science, and philosophy directly resulted from the context of contemporary socialism and progressive Catholicism. Similar to spiritualism, but in declared opposition to it, the emergence of occultism should thus be seen within the context of radical social reform, which was often concerned with establishing new forms of "scientific religion" while at the same time propagating the revival of an ancient tradition of "true religion". Indeed, the emergence of both modern esotericism and socialism in July Monarchy France have been inherently intertwined.


title: Occult

text: Another feature of occultists is thatunlike earlier esotericiststhey often openly distanced themselves from Christianity, in some cases (like that of Crowley) even adopting explicitly anti-Christian stances. This reflected how pervasive the influence of secularisation had been on all areas of European society. In rejecting Christianity, these occultists sometimes turned towards pre-Christian belief systems and embraced forms of Modern Paganism, while others instead took influence from the religions of Asia, such as Hinduism and Buddhism. In various cases, certain occultists did both. Another characteristic of these occultists was the emphasis that they placed on "the spiritual realization of the individual", an idea that would strongly influence the twentieth-century New Age and Human Potential Movement. This spiritual realization was encouraged both through traditional Western 'occult sciences' like alchemy and ceremonial magic, but by the start of the twentieth century had also begun to include practices drawn from non-Western contexts, such as yoga.


title: Occult

text: Although occultism is distinguished from earlier forms of esotericism, many occultists have also been involved in older esoteric currents. For instance, occultists like François-Charles Barlet and Rudolf Steiner were also theosophers, adhering to the ideas of the early modern Christian thinker Jakob Bohme, and seeking to integrate ideas from Bohmian theosophy and occultism. It has been noted, however, that this distancing from the Theosophical Society should be understood in the light of polemical identity formations amongst esotericists towards the end of the nineteenth century.


title: Occult

text: In the mid-1990s, a new definition of "occultism" was put forth by Wouter Hanegraaff. According to Hanegraaff, the term "occultism" can be used not only for the nineteenth-century groups which openly self-described using that term but can also be used in reference to "the "type" of esotericism that they represent".


title: Occult

text: Seeking to define occultism so that the term would be suitable "as an etic category" for scholars, Hanegraaff devised the following definition: "a category in the study of religions, which comprises "all attempts by esotericists to come to terms with a disenchanted world or, alternatively, by people in general to make sense of esotericism from the perspective of a disenchanted secular world". Hanegraaff noted that this etic usage of the term would be independent of emic usages of the term employed by occultists and other esotericists themselves.


title: Occult

text: In this definition, occultism covers many esoteric currents that have developed from the mid-nineteenth century onward, including Spiritualism, Theosophy, the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, and the New Age. Employing this etic understanding of "occultism", Hanegraaff argued that its development could begin to be seen in the work of the Swedish esotericist Emanuel Swedenborg and in the Mesmerist movement of the eighteenth century, although added that occultism only emerged in "fully-developed form" as Spiritualism, a movement that developed in the United States during the mid-nineteenth century.


title: Occult

text: Marco Pasi suggested that the use of Hanegraaff's definition might cause confusion by presenting a group of nineteenth-century esotericists who called themselves "occultists" as just one part of a broader category of esotericists whom scholars would call "occultists".


title: Occult

text: Following these discussions, Julian Strube argued that Lévi and other contemporary authors who would now be regarded as esotericists developed their ideas not against the background of an esoteric tradition in the first place. Rather, Lévi's notion of occultism emerged in the context of highly influential radical socialist movements and widespread progressive, so-called neo-Catholic ideas. This further complicates Hanegraaff's characteristics of occultism, since, throughout the nineteenth century, they apply to these reformist movements rather than to a supposed group of esotericists.


title: Occult

text: The term "occult" has also been used as a substantivized adjective as "the occult", a term that has been particularly widely used among journalists and sociologists. This term was popularised by the publication of Colin Wilson's 1971 book "". This term has been used as an "intellectual waste-basket" into which a wide array of beliefs and practices have been placed because they do not fit readily into the categories of religion or science. According to Hanegraaff, "the occult" is a category into which gets placed a range of beliefs from "spirits or fairies to parapsychological experiments, from UFO-abductions to Oriental mysticism, from vampire legends to channelling, and so on".


title: Occult

text: The neologism "occulture" used within the industrial music scene of the late twentieth century was probably coined by one of its central figures, the musician and occultist Genesis P-Orridge. The scholar of religion Christopher Partridge used the term in an academic sense, stating that occulture was "the new spiritual environment in the West; the reservoir feeding new spiritual springs; the soil in which new spiritualities are growing".