title: Polyethylene terephthalate

text: PET is permeable to oxygen and carbon dioxide and this imposes shelf life limitations of contents packaged in PET.


title: Polyethylene terephthalate

text: Biaxially oriented PET (BOPET) film (often known by one of its trade names, "Mylar") can be aluminized by evaporating a thin film of metal onto it to reduce its permeability, and to make it reflective and opaque (MPET). These properties are useful in many applications, including flexible food packaging and thermal insulation (such as space blankets).


title: Polyethylene terephthalate

text: BOPET is used in the backsheet of photovoltaic modules. Most backsheets consist of a layer of BOPET laminated to a fluoropolymer or a layer of UV stabilized BOPET.


title: Polyethylene terephthalate

text: PET can be compounded with glass fibre and crystallization accelerators, to make thermoplastic resins. These can be injection moulded into parts such as housings, covers, electrical appliance components and elements of the ignition system.


title: Polyethylene terephthalate

text: PET was patented in 1941 by John Rex Whinfield, James Tennant Dickson and their employer the Calico Printers' Association of Manchester, England. E. I. DuPont de Nemours in Delaware, United States, first used the trademark Mylar in June 1951 and received registration of it in 1952. It is still the best-known name used for polyester film. The current owner of the trademark is DuPont Teijin Films.


title: Polyethylene terephthalate

text: In the Soviet Union, PET was first manufactured in the laboratories of the Institute of High-Molecular Compounds of the USSR Academy of Sciences in 1949, and its name "Lavsan" is an acronym thereof (лаборатории Института высокомолекулярных соединений Академии наук СССР).


title: Polyethylene terephthalate

text: PET in its most stable state is a colorless, semi-crystalline resin. However it is intrinsically slow to crystallize compared to other semicrystalline polymers. Depending on processing conditions it can be formed into either amorphous or crystalline articles. Its amenability to drawing makes PET useful in fibre and film applications. Like most aromatic polymers, it has better barrier properties than aliphatic polymers. It is strong and impact-resistant. PET is hygroscopic.


title: Polyethylene terephthalate

text: About 60% crystallization is the upper limit for commercial products, with the exception of polyester fibers. Transparent products can be produced by rapidly cooling molten polymer below T glass transition temperature to form an amorphous solid. Like glass, amorphous PET forms when its molecules are not given enough time to arrange themselves in an orderly, crystalline fashion as the melt is cooled. At room temperature the molecules are frozen in place, but, if enough heat energy is put back into them by heating above T, they begin to move again, allowing crystals to nucleate and grow. This procedure is known as solid-state crystallization.


title: Polyethylene terephthalate

text: When allowed to cool slowly, the molten polymer forms a more crystalline material. This material has spherulites containing many small crystallites when crystallized from an amorphous solid, rather than forming one large single crystal. Light tends to scatter as it crosses the boundaries between crystallites and the amorphous regions between them, causing the resulting solid to be translucent.


title: Polyethylene terephthalate

text: Orientation also renders polymers more transparent. This is why BOPET film and bottles are both crystalline to a degree and transparent.


title: Polyethylene terephthalate

text: Amorphous PET crystallizes and becomes opaque when exposed to solvents such as chloroform or toluene.


title: Polyethylene terephthalate

text: PET is stoichiometrically a mixture of carbon and , and therefore has been used in an experiment involving laser-driven shock compression which created nanodiamonds and superionic water. This could be a possible way of producing nanodiamonds commercially.


title: Polyethylene terephthalate

text: PET has an affinity for hydrophobic flavors and drinks sometimes need to be formulated with higher dosage compared to glass to offset the flavor taken up by the container.Heavy gauge PET bottles are sometimes returnable for re-use and is practiced in some EU countries, however the propensity of PET to absorb flavors makes it necessary to conduct a "sniffer" test on returned bottles to avoid cross-contamination.


title: Polyethylene terephthalate

text: Different applications of PET require different degrees of polymerization, which can be obtained by modifying the process conditions. The molecular weight of PET is measured by solution viscosity. The preferred method is intrinsic viscosity (IV).


title: Polyethylene terephthalate

text: IV is a dimensionless measurement. It is found by extrapolating the relative viscosity (measured in (dℓ/g)) to zero concentration.


title: Polyethylene terephthalate

text: PET is copolymerized with other diols or diacids to optimize the properties for particular applications.


title: Polyethylene terephthalate

text: For example, cyclohexanedimethanol (CHDM) can be added to the polymer backbone in place of ethylene glycol. Since this building block is much larger (six additional carbon atoms) than the ethylene glycol unit it replaces, it does not fit in with the neighboring chains the way an ethylene glycol unit would. This interferes with crystallization and lowers the polymer's melting temperature. In general, such PET is known as PETG or PET-G (polyethylene terephthalate glycol-modified). It is a clear amorphous thermoplastic that can be injection-molded, sheet-extruded or extruded as filament for 3D printing. PETG can be colored during processing.


title: Polyethylene terephthalate

text: Another common modifier is isophthalic acid, replacing some of the 1,4-("para-") linked terephthalate units. The 1,2-("ortho-") or 1,3-("meta"-) linkage produces an angle in the chain, which also disturbs crystallinity.


title: Polyethylene terephthalate

text: Such copolymers are advantageous for certain molding applications, such as thermoforming, which is used for example to make tray or blister packaging from co-PET film, or amorphous PET sheet (A-PET/PETA) or PETG sheet. On the other hand, crystallization is important in other applications where mechanical and dimensional stability are important, such as seat belts. For PET bottles, the use of small amounts of isophthalic acid, CHDM, diethylene glycol (DEG) or other comonomers can be useful: if only small amounts of comonomers are used, crystallization is slowed but not prevented entirely. As a result, bottles are obtainable via stretch blow molding ("SBM"), which are both clear and crystalline enough to be an adequate barrier to aromas and even gases, such as carbon dioxide in carbonated beverages.


title: Polyethylene terephthalate

text: Polyethylene terephthalate is produced from ethylene glycol (usually referred to in the trade as "MEG", for monoethylene glycol) and dimethyl terephthalate (DMT) (CH(COCH)) but mostly terephthalic acid (known in the trade as "PTA", for purified terephthalic acid). As of 2022, ethylene glycol is made from ethene found in natural gas, while terephthalic acid comes from p-xylene made from crude oil. Typically an antimony or titanium compound is used as a catalyst, a phosphite is added as a stabilizer and a bluing agent such as cobalt salt is added to mask any yellowing.


title: Polyethylene terephthalate

text: In the dimethyl terephthalate (DMT) process, DMT and excess MEG are transesterified in the melt at 150–200 °C with a basic catalyst. Methanol (CHOH) is removed by distillation to drive the reaction forward. Excess MEG is distilled off at higher temperature with the aid of vacuum. The second transesterification step proceeds at 270–280 °C, with continuous distillation of MEG as well.


title: Polyethylene terephthalate

text: In the terephthalic acid process, MEG and PTA are esterified directly at moderate pressure (2.7–5.5 bar) and high temperature (220–260 °C). Water is eliminated in the reaction, and it is also continuously removed by distillation:


title: Polyethylene terephthalate

text: Bio-PET is the bio-based counterpart of PET. Essentially in Bio-PET, the MEG is manufactured from ethylene derived from sugar cane ethanol. A better process based on oxidation of ethanol has been proposed, and it is also technically possible to make PTA from readily available biobased furfural.


title: Polyethylene terephthalate

text: PET is subject to degradation during processing. If the moisture level is too high, hydrolysis will reduce the molecular weight by chain scission, resulting in brittleness.


title: Polyethylene terephthalate

text: If the residence time and/or melt temperature are too high, then thermal degradation or thermooxidative degradation will occur resulting in:


title: Polyethylene terephthalate

text: Acetaldehyde is a colorless, volatile substance with a fruity smell. Although it forms naturally in some fruit, it can cause an off-taste in bottled water. Acetaldehyde forms by degradation of PET through the mishandling of the material. High temperatures (PET decomposes above 300 °C or 570 °F), high pressures, extruder speeds (excessive shear flow raises temperature), and long barrel residence times all contribute to the production of acetaldehyde. Photo-oxidation can also cause the gradual formation acetaldehyde over the object's lifespan. This proceeds via a Type II Norrish reaction.


title: Polyethylene terephthalate

text: When acetaldehyde is produced, some of it remains dissolved in the walls of a container and then diffuses into the product stored inside, altering the taste and aroma. This is not such a problem for non-consumables (such as shampoo), for fruit juices (which already contain acetaldehyde), or for strong-tasting drinks like soft drinks. For bottled water, however, low acetaldehyde content is quite important, because, if nothing masks the aroma, even extremely low concentrations (10–20 parts per billion in the water) of acetaldehyde can produce an off-taste.


title: Polyethylene terephthalate

text: At least one species of bacterium in the genus "Nocardia" can degrade PET with an esterase enzyme. Esterases are enzymes able to cleave the ester bond. Also, the initial degradation of PET can be esterases expressed by "Bacillus" and "Nocardia".


title: Polyethylene terephthalate

text: Japanese scientists have isolated a bacterium "Ideonella sakaiensis" that possesses two enzymes which can break down the PET into smaller pieces that the bacterium can digest. A colony of "I. sakaiensis" can disintegrate a plastic film in about six weeks.


title: Polyethylene terephthalate

text: An enzyme based on a natural PET-ase was designed with the help of a machine learning algorithm to be able to tolerate pH and temperature changes by the University of Texas at Austin. The PET-ase was found to able to degrade various products and could break them down as fast as 24 hours.


title: Polyethylene terephthalate

text: Compared to the use of petroleum as fuel, however, the amount of crude oil processed into PET is very small. The total production capacity of PET is around 30 million tons, compared to 4.2 billion tons of crude oil production, thus around 0.7% of crude oil is processed into PET.


title: Polyethylene terephthalate

text: PET bottles lend themselves well to recycling (see below). In many countries PET bottles are recycled to a substantial degree, for example about 75% in Switzerland. The term rPET is commonly used to describe the recycled material, though it is also referred to as R-PET or post-consumer PET (POSTC-PET).


title: Polyethylene terephthalate

text: PET is a desirable fuel for Waste-to-energy plants, as it has a high calorific value which helps to reduce the use of primary resources for energy generation.


title: Polyethylene terephthalate

text: Nevertheless, littering has become a prominent issue in public opinion, and PET bottles are a visible part of that.


title: Polyethylene terephthalate

text: A substantial amount of post consumer waste from the textile industry ends up in landfills in developing countries such as Chile and in countries in West Africa such as Ghana. PET being a substantial component of apparel, this waste in landfills contains much PET.


title: Polyethylene terephthalate

text: Clothing sheds microfibres in use, during washing and machine drying. Plastic litter slowly forms small particles. Microplastics which are present on the bottom of the river or seabed can ingested by small marine life, thus entering the food chain. As PET has a higher density than water, a significant amount of PET microparticles may be precipitated in sewage treatment plants. PET microfibers generated by apparel wear, washing or machine drying can become airborne, and be dispersed into fields, where they are ingested by livestock or plants and end up in the human food supply. SAPEA have declared that such particles 'do not pose a widespread risk'.


title: Polyethylene terephthalate

text: PET is known to degrade when exposed to sunlight and oxygen. As of 2016, scarce information exists regarding the life-time of the synthetic polymers in the environment.


title: Polyethylene terephthalate

text: Commentary published in "Environmental Health Perspectives" in April 2010 suggested that PET might yield endocrine disruptors under conditions of common use and recommended research on this topic. Proposed mechanisms include leaching of phthalates as well as leaching of antimony.


title: Polyethylene terephthalate

text: An article published in "Journal of Environmental Monitoring" in April 2012 concludes that antimony concentration in deionized water stored in PET bottles stays within EU's acceptable limit even if stored briefly at temperatures up to 60 °C (140 °F), while bottled contents (water or soft drinks) may occasionally exceed the EU limit after less than a year of storage at room temperature.


title: Polyethylene terephthalate

text: Antimony (Sb) is a metalloid element that is used as a catalyst in the form of compounds such as antimony trioxide (SbO) or antimony triacetate in the production of PET. After manufacturing, a detectable amount of antimony can be found on the surface of the product. This residue can be removed with washing. Antimony also remains in the material itself and can, thus, migrate out into food and drinks. Exposing PET to boiling or microwaving can increase the levels of antimony significantly, possibly above US EPA maximum contamination levels.


title: Polyethylene terephthalate

text: The drinking water limit assessed by WHO is 20 parts per billion (WHO, 2003), and the drinking water limit in the United States is 6 parts per billion. Although antimony trioxide is of low toxicity when taken orally, its presence is still of concern. The Swiss Federal Office of Public Health investigated the amount of antimony migration, comparing waters bottled in PET and glass: The antimony concentrations of the water in PET bottles were higher, but still well below the allowed maximum concentration. The Swiss Federal Office of Public Health concluded that small amounts of antimony migrate from the PET into bottled water, but that the health risk of the resulting low concentrations is negligible (1% of the "tolerable daily intake" determined by the WHO). A later (2006) but more widely publicized study found similar amounts of antimony in water in PET bottles.


title: Polyethylene terephthalate

text: Fruit juice concentrates (for which no guidelines are established), however, that were produced and bottled in PET in the UK were found to contain up to 44.7 μg/L of antimony, well above the EU limits for tap water of 5 μg/L.


title: Polyethylene terephthalate

text: There are two basic molding methods for PET bottles, one-step and two-step. In two-step molding, two separate machines are used. The first machine injection molds the preform, which resembles a test tube, with the bottle-cap threads already molded into place. The body of the tube is significantly thicker, as it will be inflated into its final shape in the second step using stretch blow molding.


title: Polyethylene terephthalate

text: In the second step, the preforms are heated rapidly and then inflated against a two-part mold to form them into the final shape of the bottle. Preforms (uninflated bottles) are now also used as robust and unique containers themselves; besides novelty candy, some Red Cross chapters distribute them as part of the Vial of Life program to homeowners to store medical history for emergency responders.


title: Polyethylene terephthalate

text: In one-step machines, the entire process from raw material to finished container is conducted within one machine, making it especially suitable for molding non-standard shapes (custom molding), including jars, flat oval, flask shapes, etc. Its greatest merit is the reduction in space, product handling and energy, and far higher visual quality than can be achieved by the two-step system.


title: Polyethylene terephthalate

text: While most thermoplastics can, in principle, be recycled, PET bottle recycling is more practical than many other plastic applications because of the high value of the resin and the almost exclusive use of PET for widely used water and carbonated soft drink bottling. PET has a resin identification code of 1. The prime uses for recycled PET are polyester fiber, strapping, and non-food containers.


title: Polyethylene terephthalate

text: Because of the recyclability of PET and the relative abundance of post-consumer waste in the form of bottles, PET is rapidly gaining market share as a carpet fiber. Mohawk Industries released everSTRAND in 1999, a 100% post-consumer recycled content PET fiber. Since that time, more than 17 billion bottles have been recycled into carpet fiber. Pharr Yarns, a supplier to numerous carpet manufacturers including Looptex, Dobbs Mills, and Berkshire Flooring, produces a BCF (bulk continuous filament) PET carpet fiber containing a minimum of 25% post-consumer recycled content.


title: Polyethylene terephthalate

text: PET, like many plastics, is also an excellent candidate for thermal disposal (incineration), as it is composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, with only trace amounts of catalyst elements (but no sulfur). PET has the energy content of soft coal.


title: Polyethylene terephthalate

text: When recycling polyethylene terephthalate or PET or polyester, in general three ways have to be differentiated:


title: Polyethylene terephthalate

text: Chemical recycling of PET will become cost-efficient only applying high capacity recycling lines of more than 50,000 tons/year. Such lines could only be seen, if at all, within the production sites of very large polyester producers. Several attempts of industrial magnitude to establish such chemical recycling plants have been made in the past but without resounding success. Even the promising chemical recycling in Japan has not become an industrial breakthrough so far. The two reasons for this are: at first, the difficulty of consistent and continuous waste bottles sourcing in such a huge amount at one single site, and, at second, the steadily increased prices and price volatility of collected bottles. The prices of baled bottles increased for instance between the years 2000 and 2008 from about 50 Euro/ton to over 500 Euro/ton in 2008.


title: Polyethylene terephthalate

text: Mechanical recycling or direct circulation of PET in the polymeric state is operated in most diverse variants today. These kinds of processes are typical of small and medium-size industry. Cost-efficiency can already be achieved with plant capacities within a range of 5000–20,000 tons/year. In this case, nearly all kinds of recycled-material feedback into the material circulation are possible today. These diverse recycling processes are being discussed hereafter in detail.


title: Polyethylene terephthalate

text: Besides chemical contaminants and degradation products generated during first processing and usage, mechanical impurities are representing the main part of quality depreciating impurities in the recycling stream. Recycled materials are increasingly introduced into manufacturing processes, which were originally designed for new materials only. Therefore, efficient sorting, separation and cleaning processes become most important for high quality recycled polyester.


title: Polyethylene terephthalate

text: When talking about polyester recycling industry, we are concentrating mainly on recycling of PET bottles, which are meanwhile used for all kinds of liquid packaging like water, carbonated soft drinks, juices, beer, sauces, detergents, household chemicals and so on. Bottles are easy to distinguish because of shape and consistency and separate from waste plastic streams either by automatic or by hand-sorting processes. The established polyester recycling industry consists of three major sections:


title: Polyethylene terephthalate

text: Intermediate product from the first section is baled bottle waste with a PET content greater than 90%. Most common trading form is the bale but also bricked or even loose, pre-cut bottles are common in the market. In the second section, the collected bottles are converted to clean PET bottle flakes. This step can be more or less complex and complicated depending on required final flake quality. During the third step, PET bottle flakes are processed to any kind of products like film, bottles, fiber, filament, strapping or intermediates like pellets for further processing and engineering plastics.


title: Polyethylene terephthalate

text: Besides this external (post-consumer) polyester bottle recycling, numbers of internal (pre-consumer) recycling processes exist, where the wasted polymer material does not exit the production site to the free market, and instead is reused in the same production circuit. In this way, fiber waste is directly reused to produce fiber, preform waste is directly reused to produce preforms, and film waste is directly reused to produce film.


title: Polyethylene terephthalate

text: The only form of PET that is widely recycled in 2022 is the bottle. These are recycled by 'mechanical recycling' increasingly to bottles but still to other forms such as film or fibre. Other forms of polyester are not (as of 2022) collected in significant quantities.


title: Polyethylene terephthalate

text: Significant investments were announced in 2021 and 2022 for chemical recycling of PET by glycolysis, methanolysis, and enzymatic recycling to recover monomers. Initially these will also use bottles as feedstock but it is expected that fibres will also be recycled this way in future.


title: Chris Cooper

text: Christopher Walton Cooper (born July 9, 1951) is an American actor. He has appeared in several major Hollywood films, including "American Beauty" (1999), "October Sky" (1999), "The Bourne Identity" (2002), "Seabiscuit" (2003), "Capote" (2005), "Syriana" (2005), "The Kingdom" (2007), "Where the Wild Things Are" (2009), "The Town" (2010), "The Muppets" (2011), "Cars 3" (2017), "A Beautiful Day in the Neighborhood" (2019), and "Little Women" (2019). He also portrayed Sheriff July Johnson in the acclaimed miniseries "Lonesome Dove", which became one of the most successful Westerns in history.


title: Chris Cooper

text: Cooper won both the Academy Award and Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actor for his role as John Laroche in the 2002 film "Adaptation." He played a lead role in the historical and political thriller "Breach" (2007), playing FBI agent and traitor Robert Hanssen. He played Daniel Sloan in the 2012 political thriller "The Company You Keep", and Norman Osborn in "The Amazing Spider-Man 2" (2014). He also portrayed Al Templeton on the 2016 Hulu miniseries "11.22.63".


title: Chris Cooper

text: He is a frequent collaborator with director John Sayles, including "Matewan" (1987), "City of Hope" (1991), "Lone Star" (1996), "Silver City" (2004) and "Amigo" (2010).


title: Chris Cooper

text: Cooper was born on July 9, 1951, in Kansas City, Missouri, the son of Charles and Mary Ann (Walton) Cooper. He has an older brother, Chuck Cooper (born 1948). His father was both a United States Air Force doctor and a cattleman, and his mother was a housewife. Both of his parents were from Texas. Cooper grew up in the suburbs of Kansas City, and spent his summers at his family's cattle ranch, located about 15 miles west of Leavenworth, Kansas. He was also raised in Las Vegas, Phoenix, and Houston. While attending Southwest High School in Kansas City, Cooper worked for a local theater company: "I had a background in carpentry, so I could build sets and work in the wings and shift scenes in the evening." After he graduated from high school, Cooper became the shop foreman for another repertory group. He also considered helping his father raise cattle for a living. Cooper served in the Coast Guard Reserve.


title: Chris Cooper

text: Cooper attended the University of Missouri and enrolled in the theater program, originally majoring in set design. It was during his sophomore year when Cooper changed his major to acting in order to overcome his "overpowering shyness." Cooper, therefore, took acting classes at the University of Missouri. He recalled in a 1996 interview with "The Philadelphia Inquirer", "I started going in and watching some shows at the theater department. I started taking theater classes and auditioned for plays. And once I got into it, it was pretty immediate. I really felt right, felt at home." Cooper also took dance classes at Stephens College.


title: Chris Cooper

text: After he graduated from the University of Missouri, Cooper moved to New York City in 1976. While living in New York, Cooper shared a one-bedroom railroad flat with four other aspiring actors and dancers. He supported himself by renovating apartments. In addition, he worked in construction and served as a janitor and a chauffeur. At the same time, he studied with Stella Adler and Wynn Handman. Prior to his film debut with "Matewan" (1987), Cooper spent the previous twelve years doing stage work with the Actors Theater of Louisville and the Seattle Repertory. In 1985, Cooper appeared in the London revival of "Sweet Bird of Youth".


title: Chris Cooper

text: Cooper's early performances include John Sayles' 1987 film "Matewan"; the 1989 CBS-TV Western miniseries "Lonesome Dove"; the 1991 indie Western drama "Thousand Pieces of Gold", and the 1992 ABC-TV docudrama "Bed of Lies", opposite Susan Dey.


title: Chris Cooper

text: Some of his more notable later performances include: "Money Train", as a psychotic pyromaniac who terrifies toll booth operators; "Lone Star", in a leading role as a Texas sheriff charged with solving a decades-old case; as Deputy Dwayne Looney in director Joel Schumacher's 1996 film "A Time to Kill" (based on the John Grisham novel); as Frank Booker in 1998's "The Horse Whisperer"; and as a closeted homophobic Marine Corps colonel in "American Beauty", a role that garnered him a Screen Actors Guild Award nomination for Best Supporting Actor. To get into character, Cooper said he "depended on a friend who'd fought in Vietnam. I asked him to go deep. What would this man have done? What would be on his walls? On his desk?"


title: Chris Cooper

text: In 2000, Cooper played Colonel Harry Burwell (inspired by Lieutenant Colonel Henry "Light Horse Harry" Lee) in "The Patriot". He was nominated for another Screen Actors Guild Award, a BAFTA Award, and won an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor and a Golden Globe Award in 2003 for playing the role of John Laroche in "Adaptation." In 2002, Cooper also appeared in "The Bourne Identity" as a ruthless CIA special ops director, a role he reprised (in flashbacks) in "The Bourne Supremacy".


title: Chris Cooper

text: Cooper received another Screen Actors Guild Award nomination for his supporting role as racehorse trainer Tom Smith in 2003's "Seabiscuit". In 2004, Cooper starred in "Silver City", playing an inept Republican gubernatorial candidate, a character noted for similarities to U.S. President George W. Bush.


title: Chris Cooper

text: Cooper appeared in three acclaimed films in 2005: "Jarhead" (which reunited him with "American Beauty" director Sam Mendes and "October Sky" actor Jake Gyllenhaal); "Capote"; and "Syriana". He also acted in the thriller "Breach", playing real-life FBI agent and traitor Robert Hanssen. Cooper commented that "Breach" was "the first studio film where they've considered me the lead [actor]". In 2007, he appeared as a government agent in dangerous territory in the action thriller "The Kingdom" and voiced the character Douglas in the film adaptation of Maurice Sendak's book, "Where the Wild Things Are" (2009).


title: Chris Cooper

text: At the 2010 Sundance Film Festival, Cooper appeared alongside Ben Affleck in "The Company Men", early reviews of which praised Cooper's performance as "pitch-perfect".


title: Chris Cooper

text: In 2011, Chris Cooper appeared in "The Muppets" as Tex Richman, the antagonistic oil tycoon who is unable to laugh. In the musical film, Cooper performed the rap and dance number "Let's Talk About Me".


title: Chris Cooper

text: In 2017, he and Laurie Metcalf starred in "A Doll's House, Part 2", a Broadway play by Lucas Hnath based on Henrik Ibsen's "A Doll's House", for which he received a Tony Award nomination. Cooper played Nora Helmer's husband, Torvald.


title: Chris Cooper

text: Cooper portrayed Norman Osborn in the 2014 film "The Amazing Spider-Man 2" in an uncredited role. He appeared in Ben Affleck's crime drama "Live by Night", which was released in December 2016.


title: Chris Cooper

text: In 2019, Cooper starred in two acclaimed films, Marielle Heller's "A Beautiful Day in the Neighborhood", with Tom Hanks, and Greta Gerwig's adaptation of "Little Women" with an ensemble cast featuring Saoirse Ronan, Emma Watson, Florence Pugh, Timothée Chalamet, Laura Dern, and Meryl Streep.


title: Chris Cooper

text: Cooper met his future wife, Marianne Leone, in 1979 at an acting class in New York City. On their first date, she helped him carry sheet rock up eight flights of stairs: "That's when I knew this was the girl for me." They married in July 1983. Their son, Jesse Lanier Cooper, was born three months prematurely in October 1987. Three days after he was born, Jesse suffered a cerebral hemorrhage and developed cerebral palsy. Jesse was eventually mainstreamed into Silver Lake Regional High School, where he became an honor student. Cooper recalled in a 2003 interview with "The Morning Call", "(Jesse) is the best thing that ever happened to us. He's in a wheelchair and he communicates only by computer, but he's taught me so much because he's just so incredibly focused. Now he's in a regular school, which we fought to get him into. He's an honors student, and he's doing great." On January 3, 2005, Jesse Cooper died suddenly and unexpectedly from epilepsy. A memorial fund was set up in his name, the Jesse Cooper Foundation. Cooper has said that the death of his son has somewhat helped him understand several characters he played, such as Charles Aiken in "" (2013) and Phil Eastwood in "Demolition" (2015).


title: Chris Cooper

text: Cooper formerly maintained residences in Hoboken, New Jersey, and Plymouth, Massachusetts. As of 2003, he resides in Kingston, Massachusetts. He has been close friends with frequent collaborator John Sayles since 1985. On May 14, 2016, Cooper received an honorary doctorate from the University of Massachusetts Lowell.


title: Budgerigar

text: The budgerigar ( ; Melopsittacus undulatus), also known as the common parakeet or shell parakeet, is a small, long-tailed, seed-eating parrot usually nicknamed the budgie ( ), or in American English, the parakeet. Budgies are the only species in the genus "Melopsittacus". Naturally, the species is green and yellow with black, scalloped markings on the nape, back, and wings. Budgies are bred in captivity with colouring of blues, whites, yellows, greys, and even with small crests. Juveniles and chicks are monomorphic, while adults are told apart by their cere colouring, and their behaviour.


title: Budgerigar

text: The species is the only member of the genus Melopsittacus, which is the only genus in the Melopsittacini tribe.


title: Budgerigar

text: The origin of the budgerigar's name is unclear. First recorded in 1805, budgerigars are popular pets around the world due to their small size, low cost, and ability to mimic human speech. They are likely the third most popular pet in the world, after the domesticated dog and cat. Budgies are nomadic flock parakeets that have been bred in captivity since the 19th century. In both captivity and the wild, budgerigars breed opportunistically and in pairs.


title: Budgerigar

text: They are found wild throughout the drier parts of Australia, where they have survived harsh inland conditions for over five million years. Their success can be attributed to a nomadic lifestyle and their ability to breed while on the move. The budgerigar is closely related to lories and the fig parrots.


title: Budgerigar

text: First, "budgerigar" may be a mispronunciation or alteration of the Gamilaraay word "gidjirrigaa" () or "gijirragaa" from the Yuwaalaraay.


title: Budgerigar

text: Second, "budgerigar" might be a modified form of "budgery" or "boojery" (Australian English slang for "good") and "gar" ("cockatoo").


title: Budgerigar

text: While many references mention "good" as part of the meaning, and a few specify "good bird", it is quite possible that reports by those local to the region are more accurate in specifying the direct translation as "good food".


title: Budgerigar

text: Alternative spellings include "budgerygah" and "betcherrygah", the latter used by Indigenous people of the Liverpool Plains in New South Wales.


title: Budgerigar

text: Alternative names for the budgerigar include the "shell parrot" or "shell parakeet", the "warbling grass parakeet", the "canary parrot", the "zebra parrot", the "flight bird", and the "scallop parrot". Although more often used as a common name for small parrots in the genus "Agapornis", the name "lovebird" has been used for budgerigars, because of their habit of close perching and mutual preening, and their long term pair-bonds.


title: Budgerigar

text: The budgerigar was first described by George Shaw in 1805, and given its current binomial name by John Gould in 1840. The genus name "Melopsittacus", from Ancient Greek, means "melodious parrot". The species name "undulatus" is Latin for "undulated" or "wave-patterned".


title: Budgerigar

text: The budgerigar was once proposed to be a link between the genera "Neophema" and "Pezoporus", based on the barred plumage. However, recent phylogenetic studies using DNA sequences place the budgerigar very close to the lories (tribe Loriini) and the fig parrots (tribe Cyclopsittini).


title: Budgerigar

text: Wild budgerigars average long, weigh , in wingspan, and display a light green body colour (abdomen and rumps), while their mantles (back and wing coverts) display pitch-black mantle markings (blackish in fledglings and immatures) edged in clear yellow undulations. The forehead and face is yellow in adults. Prior to their adult plumage, young individuals have blackish stripes down to the cere (nose) in young individuals until around 3–4 months of age. They display small, iridescent blue-violet cheek patches and a series of three black spots across each side of their throats (called throat patches). The two outermost throat spots are situated at the base of each cheek patch. The tail is cobalt (dark-blue); and outside tail feathers display central yellow flashes. Their wings have greenish-black flight feathers and black coverts with yellow fringes along with central yellow flashes, which only become visible in flight or when the wings are outstretched. Bills are olive grey and legs blueish-grey, with zygodactyl toes.


title: Budgerigar

text: In their natural Australian habitat, Budgerigars are noticeably smaller than those in captivity. This particular parrot species has been bred in many other colours and shades in captivity (e.g. blue, grey, grey-green, pieds, violet, white, yellow-blue). Pet store individuals will commonly be blue, green, or yellow. Like most parrot species, budgerigar plumage fluoresces under ultraviolet light – a phenomenon possibly related to courtship and mate selection.


title: Budgerigar

text: The upper half of their beaks is taller than the bottom half, covering the bottom when closed. The beak does not protrude much, due to the thick, fluffy feathers surrounding it, giving the appearance of a downward-pointing beak that lies flat against the face. The upper half acts as a long, smooth cover, while the bottom half is just about a half-sized cup-piece. These beaks allow the birds to eat plants, fruits, and vegetables.


title: Budgerigar

text: The colour of the cere (the area containing the nostrils) differs between the sexes, being royal blue in males, pale brown to white (nonbreeding) or brown (breeding) in females, and pink in immatures of both sexes (usually of a more even purplish-pink colour in young males). Some female budgerigars develop brown cere only during breeding time, which later returns to the normal colour. Young females can often be identified by a subtle, chalky whiteness that starts around the nostrils. Males that are either Albino, Lutino, Dark-eyed Clear or Recessive Pied (Danishpied or harlequin) always retain the immature purplish-pink cere colour their entire lives.


title: Budgerigar

text: Behaviours and head shape also help indicate sex. Veterinarians can determine the sex of a bird by invasive examination or samples of blood, feather, or eggshell.


title: Budgerigar

text: Mature males usually have a cere of light to dark blue, but in some particular colour mutations it can be purplish to pink – including Dark-eyed Clears, Danish Pieds (Recessive Pieds) and Inos, which usually display much rounder heads. The behaviour of males can distinguish them from females. Males are typically cheerful, extroverted, highly flirtatious, peacefully social, and very vocal.


title: Budgerigar

text: Female ceres are pinkish while immature. As they age, they move from being beigish or whitish outside breeding condition into brown (often with a 'crusty' texture) in breeding condition and usually display flattened backs of heads (right above the nape). Females are more dominant and less socially tolerant. This behavior is more pronounced around other females than with males.


title: Budgerigar

text: Budgerigars have tetrachromatic colour vision, although all four classes of cone cells will not operate simultaneously unless under sunlight or a UV lamp. The ultraviolet spectrum brightens their feathers to attract mates. The throat spots in budgerigars reflect UV and can be used to distinguish individual birds. While ultraviolet light is essential to the good health of caged and pet birds, inadequate darkness or rest results in over-stimulation.


title: Budgerigar

text: Budgerigars are nomadic and flocks move on from sites as environmental conditions change. Budgerigars are found in open habitats, primarily in scrublands, open woodlands, and grasslands of Australia. The birds are normally found in small flocks, but can form very large flocks under favourable conditions. The nomadic movement of the flocks is tied to the availability of food and water. Budgerigars have two distinct flight speeds which they are capable of switching between depending on the circumstance. Drought can drive flocks into more wooded habitat or coastal areas. They feed on the seeds of spinifex and grass, and sometimes ripening wheat.


title: Budgerigar

text: Outside of Australia, the only long-term establishment of naturalised feral budgerigars is a large population near St. Petersburg, Florida. Increased competition for nesting sites from European starlings and house sparrows is thought to be a primary cause of the Florida population declining from the 1980s. The more consistent, year-round conditions in Florida significantly reduced their nomadic behaviour.


title: Budgerigar

text: Budgerigars feed primarily on grass seeds. The species also opportunistically depredates growing cereal crops and lawn grass seeds. Due to the low water content of the seeds they rely on the availability of freshwater.


title: Budgerigar

text: Breeding in the wild generally takes place between June and September in northern Australia and between August and January in the south, although budgerigars are opportunistic breeders and respond to rains when grass seeds become most abundant. They show signs of affection to their flockmates by preening or feeding one another. Budgerigars feed one another by eating the seeds themselves, and then regurgitating it into their flockmate's mouth. Populations in some areas have increased as a result of increased water availability at farms. Nests are made in holes in trees, fence posts or logs lying on the ground; the four to six eggs are incubated for 18–21 days, with the young fledging about 30 days after hatching.


title: Budgerigar

text: In the wild, virtually all parrot species require a hollow tree or a hollow log as a nest site. Because of this natural behaviour, budgerigars most easily breed in captivity when provided with a reasonable-sized nest box.


title: Budgerigar

text: The eggs are typically one to two centimetres long and are pearl white without any colouration if fertile. Female budgerigars can lay eggs without a male partner, but these unfertilised eggs will not hatch. Females normally have a whitish tan cere; however, when the female is laying eggs, her cere turns a crusty brown colour. Certain female budgies may always keep a whitish tan cere or always keep a crusty brown cere regardless of breeding condition. A female budgerigar will lay her eggs on alternating days. After the first one, there is usually a two-day gap until the next. She will usually lay between four and eight eggs, which she will incubate (usually starting after laying her second or third) for about 21 days each. Females only leave their nests for very quick defecations, stretches and quick meals once they have begun incubating and are by then almost exclusively fed by their mate (usually at the nest's entrance). Females will not allow a male to enter the nest, unless he forces his way inside. Clutch size ranges from 6 to 8 chicks. Depending on the clutch size and the beginning of incubation, the age difference between the first and last hatchling can be anywhere from 9 to 16 days. At times, the parents may begin eating their own eggs due to feeling insecure in the nest box.


title: Budgerigar

text: There is evidence of same-sex sexual behaviour amongst male budgerigars. It is originally hypothesised that they did this as a form of "courtship practice" so they were better breeding partners for females, however an inverse relationship exists between participation in same-sex behaviour and pairing success.


title: Budgerigar

text: Breeding difficulties arise for various reasons. Some chicks may die from diseases and attacks from adults. Other budgerigars (virtually always females) may fight over the nest box, attacking each other or a brood. Another problem may be the birds' beaks being under-lapped, where the lower mandible is above the upper mandible.


title: Budgerigar

text: Most health issues and physical abnormalities in budgerigars are genetic. Care should be taken that birds used for breeding are active, healthy and unrelated. Budgerigars that are related or have fatty tumours or other potential genetic health problems should not be allowed to breed. Parasites (lice, mites, worms) and pathogens (bacteria, fungi and viruses), are contagious and thus transmitted between individuals through either direct or indirect contact. Nest boxes should be cleaned between uses.


title: Budgerigar

text: Splay leg is a relatively common problem in baby budgerigars and other birds; one of the budgerigar's legs is bent outward, which prevents it from being able to stand properly and compete with the other chicks for food, and can also lead to difficulties in reproducing in adulthood. The condition is caused by young budgerigars slipping repeatedly on the floor of a nest box. It is easily avoided by placing a small quantity of a safe bedding or wood shavings in the bottom of the nest box. Alternatively, several pieces of paper may be placed in the box for the female to chew into bedding.


title: Budgerigar

text: Eggs take about 18–20 days before they start hatching. The hatchlings are altricial – blind, naked, unable to lift their head and totally helpless, and their mother feeds them and keeps them warm constantly. Around 10 days of age, the chicks' eyes will open, and they will start to develop feather down. The appearance of down occurs at the age for closed banding of the chicks.


title: Budgerigar

text: They develop feathers around three weeks of age. (One can often easily note the colour mutation of the individual birds at this point.) At this stage of the chicks' development, the male usually has begun to enter the nest to help his female in caring and feeding the chicks. Some budgerigar females, however, totally forbid the male from entering the nest and thus take the full responsibility of rearing the chicks until they fledge.


title: Budgerigar

text: Depending on the size of the clutch and most particularly in the case of single mothers, it may then be wise to transfer a portion of the hatchlings (or best of the fertile eggs) to another pair. The foster pair must already be in breeding mode and thus either at the laying or incubating stages, or already rearing hatchlings.


title: Budgerigar

text: As the chicks develop and grow feathers, they are able to be left on their own for longer periods of time. By the fifth week, the chicks are strong enough that both parents will be comfortable in staying out of the nest more. The youngsters will stretch their wings to gain strength before they attempt to fly. They will also help defend the box from enemies, mostly with their loud screeching. Young budgerigars typically fledge (leave the nest) around their fifth week of age and are usually completely weaned between six and eight weeks old. However, the age for fledging, as well as weaning, can vary slightly depending on the age and the number of surviving chicks. Generally speaking, the oldest chick is the first to be weaned. Although it is logically the last one to be weaned, the youngest chick is often weaned at a younger age than its older sibling(s). This can be a result of mimicking the actions of older siblings. Lone surviving chicks are often weaned at the youngest possible age as a result of having their parents' full attention and care.


title: Budgerigar

text: Hand-reared budgies may take slightly longer to wean than parent-raised chicks. Hand feeding is not routinely done with budgerigars, due to their small size and because young parent raised birds can be readily tamed.


title: Budgerigar

text: The budgerigar has been bred in captivity since the 1850s. Breeders have worked to produce a variety of colour, pattern and feather mutations, including albino, blue, cinnamon-ino (lacewinged), clearwinged, crested, dark, greywinged, opaline, pieds, spangled, dilute (suffused) and violet.


title: Budgerigar

text: "English budgerigars", more correctly called "show" or "exhibition budgerigars", are about twice as large as their wild counterparts and have puffier head feathers, giving them a boldly exaggerated look. The eyes and beak can be almost totally obscured by these fluffy head feathers. English budgerigars are typically more expensive than wild-type birds, and have a shorter life span of about seven to nine years. Breeders of English budgerigars show their birds at animal shows. Most captive budgerigars in the pet trade are more similar in size and body conformation to wild budgerigars.


title: Budgerigar

text: Budgerigars are social animals and require stimulation in the shape of toys and interaction with humans or with other budgerigars. Budgerigars, and especially females, will chew material such as wood. When a budgerigar feels threatened, it will try to perch as high as possible and to bring its feathers close against its body in order to appear thinner.


title: Budgerigar

text: Tame budgerigars can be taught to speak, whistle and play with humans. Both males and females sing and can learn to mimic sounds and words and do simple tricks, but singing and mimicry are more pronounced and better perfected in males. Females rarely learn to mimic more than a dozen words. Males can easily acquire vocabularies ranging from a few dozen to a hundred words. Pet males, especially those kept alone, are generally the best speakers.


title: Budgerigar

text: Budgerigars will chew on anything they can find to keep their beaks trimmed. Mineral blocks (ideally enriched with iodine), cuttlebone and soft wooden pieces are suitable for this activity. Cuttlebones also supply calcium, essential for the proper forming of eggs and bone solidity. In captivity, budgerigars live an average of five to eight years, but life spans of 15–20 years have been reported. The life span depends on breed, lineage, and health, being highly influenced by exercise and diet. Budgerigars have been known to cause "bird fancier's lung" in sensitive people, a type of hypersensitivity pneumonitis. Apart from a handful of illnesses, diseases of the species are not transmittable to humans.


title: Budgerigar

text: All captive budgerigars are divided into two basic series of colours; namely, white-based (blue, grey and white) and yellow-based (green, grey-green and yellow). Presently, at least 32 primary mutations (including violet) occur, enabling hundreds of possible secondary mutations (stable combined primary mutations) and colour varieties (unstable combined mutations).


title: Budgerigar

text: Puck, a male budgerigar owned by American Camille Jordan, holds the world record for the largest vocabulary of any bird, at 1,728 words. Puck died in 1994, with the record first appearing in the 1995 edition of Guinness World Records.


title: Budgerigar

text: In 2001, recordings of a budgerigar called Victor got some attention from the media. Victor's owner, Ryan B. Reynolds of Canada, stated Victor was able to engage in contextual conversation and predict the future. Although some believe the animal was able to predict his own death as was claimed, further study on the subject is difficult without the bird. , the recordings still remain to be verified by scientific analysis. Critics argue Victor's speech in the recordings is not coherent enough to be determined as spoken in context.


title: Budgerigar

text: The budgerigar "Disco" became Internet famous in 2013. , Disco had been viewed over 22,481,975 times on his YouTube channel. Some of Disco's most repeated phrases included, "I am not a crook" and "Nobody puts baby bird in a corner!". Disco died in 2017.


title: Budgerigar

text: Small bathing suits for men, commonly referred to as togs or "Speedos", are informally called "budgie smugglers" in Australia. The phrase is humorously based on the appearance of the tight-fitting cloth around the male's genitals looking like a small budgie. The phrase was officially added to the Oxford English Dictionary in 2016.


title: Coming 2 America

text: Coming 2 America is a 2021 American romantic comedy film that serves as a sequel to the 1988 film "Coming to America" starring Eddie Murphy and directed by Craig Brewer, from a screenplay by Kenya Barris, Barry W. Blaustein, and David Sheffield, and a story by Blaustein, Sheffield, and Justin Kanew, based on characters created by Murphy. It co-stars Arsenio Hall, Jermaine Fowler, Leslie Jones, Tracy Morgan, KiKi Layne, Shari Headley, Teyana Taylor, Wesley Snipes, and James Earl Jones. "Coming 2 America" was the final film appearance of Louie Anderson before his death in 2022, reprising his role as Maurice from the first film.


title: Coming 2 America

text: Originally to be theatrically released by Paramount Pictures, the film's distribution rights were sold to Amazon Studios because of the COVID-19 pandemic. Amazon released it digitally via Amazon Prime Video on March 4, 2021. "Coming 2 America" received mixed reviews from critics. Like its predecessor, the film earned a nomination at the 94th Academy Awards for Best Makeup and Hairstyling.


title: Coming 2 America

text: On the 30th anniversary of his wedding with Lisa McDowell at the end of the first film, Prince Akeem of Zamunda is summoned before his dying father King Jaffe Joffer. Jaffe and his shaman Baba reveal to a baffled Akeem that he had sired a bastard son during his first visit to Queens, New York many years ago, after his aide and long-time friend Semmi had enticed two women into spending the night with them while Akeem was still searching for his future queen. One of them inadvertently had sex and drugged Akeem, resulting in a tryst he did not remember. As Zamundian tradition demands that only a male successor can inherit the throne, and Akeem has fathered only daughters, Akeem is forced to travel back to Queens to retrieve his son. If not, Zamunda could face a hostile takeover by Zamunda's militaristic neighbor nation Nexdoria, whose dictator, General Izzi (the brother of Imani, Akeem's original arranged bride-to-be), has been pushing for Akeem's eldest daughter Meeka to marry his foppish son, Idi.


title: Coming 2 America

text: Following King Jaffe's funeral and Akeem's ascension to the kingship, he and Semmi travel back to Queens to find his illegitimate son. During a light-hearted reunion with the barbershop gang they bonded with years earlier, head barber Mr. Clarence informs them that the son in question is Lavelle Junson, a ticket scalper who hustles outside of Madison Square Garden. After an awkward reunion with Lavelle's mother Mary, Akeem takes them back to Zamunda, much to his family's displeasure. When General Izzi learns of this, he drops by to introduce his daughter Bopoto to Lavelle as a last shot at laying claim to the throne of Zamunda, but in order to qualify as a royal prince, Lavelle first has to pass a series of traditional - and hazardous - tests.


title: Coming 2 America

text: Lavelle is at first highly reluctant to place himself in danger, but then bonds with Mirembe, a royal groomer, who tells him of Akeem's quest to find his queen and encourages him to follow his own path. Lavelle then invites his uncle Reem, Mary's streetwise brother, to Zamunda. He coaches him on how to blend his urban upbringing with his new royal status. Lavelle gradually develops an understanding with Akeem's family and, using his wits and some forced courage, he passes and is made Prince of Zamunda. However, at his accession party, Lavelle overhears a conversation between Akeem and Izzi which makes him believe that Akeem is just exploiting him, and he, Mirembe, Mary and Reem go back to New York. Upset at losing Mary, whom she has befriended, Lisa locks Akeem out of their bedroom. After a pep talk from his father-in-law Cleo, who reminds him of the late Queen Aoleon's progressive mind, Akeem flies back to the States, while Semmi is left to stall Izzi, who intends to return the next day to either see Bopoto marry Lavelle or declare war.


title: Coming 2 America

text: Returning to Queens, Akeem finds that Lavelle and Mirembe are about to get married. Confronted by Lavelle and reminded of his own life story, he gives them his blessing and releases Lavelle from his marriage to Bopoto. When Mirembe expresses reluctance in the couple cutting all of their ties to Zamunda, Akeem offers to fly Mary's family back for a proper wedding. In the meantime, Semmi and the princesses, all trained staff fighters, fight off and subdue General Izzi when he invades the palace, forcing him to try a more diplomatic approach. Upon his return home, Akeem changes the royal succession by allowing his daughter Meeka to ascend to the throne upon his death, while Lavelle is made an ambassador to the United States, and General Izzi has opened Nexdoria for a peaceful political and trading relationship with Zamunda. The film concludes with a grand party at the royal palace to celebrate Lavelle and Mirembe's marriage, including the barbers from Queens as special guests and a performance of the song "We Are Family" from Sexual Chocolate.


title: Coming 2 America

text: In January 2017, an announcement was publicized which addressed the impending production of a sequel to the original film, "Coming to America". Kevin Misher was named as producer, and David Sheffield and Barry W. Blaustein, the original screenwriters, were also attached to the project. However, a possible participation of lead actors Eddie Murphy and Arsenio Hall was left undefined.


title: Coming 2 America

text: On January 11, 2019, it was announced that the sequel would be moving forward with Murphy reprising his role, and Craig Brewer as director (having previously worked with Murphy on the Netflix film "Dolemite Is My Name"). Arsenio Hall, Shari Headley, John Amos, Paul Bates, and James Earl Jones were expected to return for the sequel as well. Wesley Snipes signed on for a role in the film, later revealed to be General Izzi, the son of Colonel Izzi and older brother of Imani from the first film. Leslie Jones and rapper Rick Ross also joined the cast in undisclosed roles.


title: Coming 2 America

text: On June 18, 2019, Jermaine Fowler was cast in the film in a starring role. On August 12, 2019, it was confirmed that Shari Headley would reprise her role as love interest Lisa McDowell. On August 21, 2019, Nomzamo Mbatha, Tracy Morgan, KiKi Layne, Luenell, Rotimi, Teyana Taylor, and Michael Blackson were added to the cast, alongside returning actors Louie Anderson, Vanessa Bell Calloway, and Garcelle Beauvais. Madge Sinclair, who played Akeem's mother Queen Aoleon in the original film, died in December 1995; her character was not recast, but is featured in archive footage. In September 2019, Davido had been cast in a cameo role in the film.


title: Coming 2 America

text: In October 2019, Samuel L. Jackson, who briefly appeared in the original film, was confirmed to not be reprising his role in the sequel due to scheduling conflicts. Murphy said that if Jackson had been available for the cameo, his character would be again featured robbing the McDowells restaurant. In December 2019, Morgan Freeman and Bella Murphy were cast in undisclosed roles. In October 2019, Eriq La Salle stated that he will not reprise his role of Darryl Jenks from the original film due to scheduling conflicts. In February 2021, Murphy stated that if the character of Darryl Jenks had returned, there could have been a romance with Patrice McDowell (portrayed by Allison Dean) due to the events at the end of the original film.


title: Coming 2 America

text: Joe Williams serving as cinematographer. Rick Ross confirmed during the same month that his Georgia mansion would be used as a location in the film. On October 1, 2019, in an interview with "Collider", Murphy confirmed that production on "" would commence after the filming of "Coming 2 America" has wrapped. Filming officially wrapped on November 9, 2019. Due to his age, James Earl Jones did not travel to the set or film his scenes with Murphy.


title: Coming 2 America

text: The film's soundtrack was released through Def Jam Recordings on March 5, 2021. In February 2021, Bobby Sessions and Megan Thee Stallion released "I'm a King" as its lead single. The soundtrack also features other songs by various artists, including Big Sean, John Legend, Teyana Taylor, Davido, Burna Boy, and Salt-N-Pepa.


title: Coming 2 America

text: "Coming 2 America" was released by Amazon Prime Video on March 4, 2021, one day earlier than was announced. The film was initially scheduled to be theatrically released by Paramount Pictures on August 7, 2020, but was pushed back to December 18, 2020, before the COVID-19 pandemic began. On November 20, 2020, Amazon Studios acquired the distribution rights to the film for $125 million.


title: Coming 2 America

text: Following its release, Amazon claimed the film had the best opening weekend of any streaming film since March 2020. Nielsen later reported that the film totaled 1.4 billion minutes-watched over its first week of release (equaling 1.27 million complete views of the film), the first time a Prime Original topped the company's charts.


title: Coming 2 America

text: On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 49% based on 249 reviews with an average rating of 5.4/10. The website's critics consensus reads, "Decades after its predecessor joked about the fine line between love and nausea, "Coming 2 America" reminds audiences that there's an equally fine line between sequel and retread." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 52 out of 100 based on 47 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".


title: Coming 2 America

text: Cassie Da Costa of "Vanity Fair" reviewed the film unfavourably, writing that it is "startling in its utter incompetence" and "uses half-baked internet-era discourse as a substitute for meaningful or even entertaining cultural commentary". Writing for "The Guardian", critic Peter Bradshaw stated that "the movie is as tired and middle-aged as Akeem [the leading character] himself". Peter Debruge of "Variety" said "For the most part, "Coming 2 America" falls back on familiar punchlines, serving up nearly word-for-word repeats of amusing bits from the original, but they don't necessarily play the same in this context."


title: Coming 2 America

text: Melanie McFarland of "Salon" gave the film a favorable review, writing that it "honors its predecessor" and overcomes some of the original film's datedness, by utilizing "more equitable comedy that skewers outdated patriarchal traditions." Mick LaSalle of the "San Francisco Chronicle" praised Eddie Murphy's performance, saying, "When he brings his dramatic capacities to comic roles, he's really at his best and most original. It's strange, these movies that create a warm feeling. It's hard to say why or how it feels like the summation of the three decades of virtuosic silliness that Murphy has brought to the screen, and of all that has meant to us."


title: Coming 2 America

text: The film garnered controversy due to a scene that depicted a date rape towards an unconscious male in a humorous fashion with many viewers taking to Twitter to protest it.


title: Chazz Palminteri

text: Calogero Lorenzo "Chazz" Palminteri (born May 15, 1952) is an American actor. He is best known for his Academy Award–nominated performance in "Bullets Over Broadway", the 1993 film "A Bronx Tale", based on his play of the same name, and his recurring role as Shorty in "Modern Family".


title: Chazz Palminteri

text: Calogero Lorenzo Palminteri was born on May 15, 1943, in the Bronx borough of New York City, the son of Rose, a homemaker, and Lorenzo Palminteri, a bus driver. He was raised in the Belmont neighborhood of the Bronx. Palminteri is of Sicilian origin; his grandparents, Calogero Palminteri and Rosa Bonfante, married in 1908, and immigrated to the United States in 1910 from Menfi in the province of Agrigento, Sicily. At the age of nine, Palminteri witnessed the murder of a mobster in front of his apartment building; the police questioned him, but he maintained that he did not see the incident.


title: Chazz Palminteri

text: He struggled to become an actor, splitting his time between acting in off-Broadway plays and moonlighting as a bouncer, alongside Dolph Lundgren.


title: Chazz Palminteri

text: Palminteri starred on Broadway in "A Bronx Tale", the autobiographical one-man show based on his childhood that he first performed at Theatre West in Los Angeles in 1989. Palminteri states that he began writing the play after being fired from a club when, as a doorman, he refused entry to super agent Swifty Lazar. The Broadway production, directed by Jerry Zaks and with music by John Gromada, began previews October 4, 1988, at the Walter Kerr Theatre and opened on October 25, running for 18 weeks. Palminteri plays 18 roles in "A Bronx Tale", which depicts a rough childhood on the streets of the Bronx. The play ran for two months at Playhouse 91 in 1989.


title: Chazz Palminteri

text: Palminteri starred opposite Kenny D'Aquila in D'Aquila's play, "Unorganized Crime". Palminteri always appreciated the shot that Robert De Niro gave him, so he in turn agreed to star in D'Aquila's mafia-themed drama.


title: Chazz Palminteri

text: Robert De Niro saw Palminteri's Broadway show of "A Bronx Tale" in 1990, and the two partnered together to adapt the play into a film. Palminteri created the screenplay and starred as Sonny, the gangster Calogero meets, while De Niro directed the film, making his directorial debut, also co-starring as Lorenzo, Calogero's father. The film was a commercial and critical success. In 1994, Chazz Palminteri played mob henchman Cheech in the black comedy film "Bullets Over Broadway", for which he was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor.


title: Chazz Palminteri

text: Palminteri also had performances in films such as "The Usual Suspects", "The Perez Family", "Jade", and "Diabolique", as well as comedic roles in films such as "Oscar", "Analyze This", and "Down to Earth".


title: Chazz Palminteri

text: During its run, he appeared in many advertisements for Vanilla Coke, in which he portrayed a mob boss who would threaten celebrities if they did not praise the taste of the product in question, and then let them walk away with the Vanilla Coke to "reward their curiosity", touching on its slogan at the time. Palminteri has voiced characters in various animated films, the most notable being Smokey in "Stuart Little" and Woolworth in "Hoodwinked".


title: Chazz Palminteri

text: He made his directorial debut with an episode of "Oz", then the television film "Women vs. Men" and the 2004 feature film "Noel".


title: Chazz Palminteri

text: Palminteri's recent acting efforts include "A Guide to Recognizing Your Saints", "Running Scared", and "Arthur and the Minimoys".


title: Chazz Palminteri

text: In 2004, he received the "Indie Hero Award" from the Method Fest Independent Film Festival for his artistic achievements in film.


title: Chazz Palminteri

text: On January 20, 2010, Palminteri guested on "Modern Family" and played the same character on the November 2, 2011, episode. Palminteri has reprised the role twice more in season 5. In June 2010, Palminteri began guest-starring on the TNT crime drama "Rizzoli & Isles" as Frank Rizzoli, Sr. He guest starred twice on the CBS drama "Blue Bloods" as Angelo Gallo, a mob lawyer and childhood friend of main character Frank Reagan.


title: Chazz Palminteri

text: In 2011, Palminteri opened a restaurant, Chazz: A Bronx Original, in Baltimore's Little Italy neighborhood; their main foods are coal-fired pizza and Italian food. However, the restaurant closed in 2015. Palminteri opened an Italian restaurant, Chazz Palminteri Ristorante Italiano, in New York City on Second Avenue. Also, Palminteri did the voice acting for the "" character Sal De Luca in the zombies map "Mob of the Dead", and his likeness was used for the character as well.


title: Chazz Palminteri

text: On February 8, 2021, amidst the COVID-19 pandemic, a video posted to YouTube featuring Mr. Palminteri delivering a public service announcement as a prequel to the debut of the Chazz Palminteri Show, an hour-long live-streamed weekly infotainment installation hosted by the veteran actor and playwright (A Bronx Tale, The Usual Suspects). True to word, on February 15th, 2021, the first episode of Chazz Palminteri Show, titled "It's All You" kicked off the series. Live-streamed and posted each Monday at 11 o'clock Eastern Standard Time on Palminteri's YouTube channel, Chazz Palminteri Show is an hour-long show delivered in classic talk show format that conveys content centrally grounded in moral ethics, essential life lessons and traditional "old school" loving family values. Producers of "Chazz Palminteri Show" are Dante Lorenzo Palminteri and podcaster / producer Michael Lavin. Guests features who have been featured on the show include actor William Baldwin, Episode 3 and, Kathrine Narducci, Episode 86 and Phil Stutz (co-author, "The Tools"), Episode 53.


title: Chazz Palminteri

text: Palminteri lives in Westchester County, New York in the town of Bedford. He describes himself as a "very spiritual", devout Roman Catholic. He married Gianna Ranaudo in 1992, and together they have two children.


title: Nathan for You

text: Nathan for You is an American docu-reality comedy television series starring Canadian comedian Nathan Fielder. The series was created by Fielder and Michael Koman and premiered on February 28, 2013, on the American cable television network Comedy Central. In the general premise of the series, Fielder plays a fictionalized off-kilter version of himself, trying to use his business background and life experiences to help struggling companies and people, frequently offering them outlandish strategies, parodying the methods of marketing and management consultants. Twenty-seven of the show's 32 episodes follow this structure as applied to one or more businesses in the Southern California area, with five others ("The Claw of Shame", "The Hero", "A Celebration", "The Anecdote", and "Finding Frances") departing from the business advice format to showcase other comedic premises.


title: Nathan for You

text: The series ran for four seasons. In October 2018, Comedy Central confirmed that "Nathan for You" had ended, with Fielder deciding to focus on other projects. It received acclaim from critics, several of whom considered it one of the best TV shows of the 2010s.


title: Nathan for You

text: The series centers on Nathan Fielder, a business school graduate and consultant whose aim is to help struggling businesses. His marketing proposals are often outlandish and elaborate. One of the show's long-running story arcs concerns Fielder and his social awkwardness. Throughout episodes, his confidence is eroded as his ideas fail. In the show's first season, Fielder is unaware people do not enjoy his company. The character is based on Fielder's real life and his own struggles with social anxiety; he has noted that he did not want the character to "feel like a comedy character" but one that delivers the "most authentic moments from myself."


title: Nathan for You

text: "Nathan for You" was created by comedian Nathan Fielder and writer Michael Koman. The show evolved out of segments on the Canadian news satire series "This Hour Has 22 Minutes" titled "Nathan On Your Side," wherein Fielder played a consumer advocate. The show was greenlit following the cancellation of "Jon Benjamin Has a Van", which Fielder also wrote and appeared in. Part of the series' inspiration came from Fielder's fascination with the subprime mortgage crisis, and how he found that it was rooted in "these personal moments between people where someone senses something's wrong, but they don't want to speak up."


title: Nathan for You

text: Marketing ideas were developed in myriad ways. Often, Fielder and the writing team came up with an idea specifically for the business, while other times, concepts were formed in a completely unrelated way. Some ideas were thrown out because they were deemed not visually interesting or engaging for viewers.


title: Nathan for You

text: Although each episode had a loose script for Fielder, much of the dialogue was improvised. Although the featured businesses were real and consented to be filmed, the employees were not told it was for a comedy show, so their reactions to Fielder's antics are genuine. As a result, the show's writing process involved "a lot of guessing and testing," according to Fielder. Roughly 90 hours of footage were required to make each 22-minute episode. Episodes were constantly re-written based on the interactions Fielder received. Fielder called the show's process "a very inefficient way of making TV."


title: Nathan for You

text: The series premiere garnered 354,000 viewers, improving in its second episode to 570,000. A special sneak peek episode that aired on March 13, 2013, after an episode of "Workaholics" further increased viewership, ending up at 615,000. The following episode, airing on March 14, had 428,000 viewers. The next week on March 21, ratings dropped further, landing at 394,000 viewers. On April 26, 2013, Comedy Central renewed the series for a second season of 8 episodes. Season 3 premiered on October 15, 2015. On December 10, 2015, Comedy Central picked up the show for a fourth season. The fourth season premiered on September 28, 2017, preceded by a one-hour special, "Nathan For You: A Celebration", which aired the week before. In June 2018, it was announced that "Nathan for You" would stream on Hulu.


title: Nathan for You

text: Several stunts performed for the series garnered attention from the mainstream media. One in particular occurred even before the series premiered.


title: Nathan for You

text: In the second episode of season one, Fielder and the show's crew attempted to boost the popularity of a California petting zoo by turning one of their pigs into a celebrity through the filming of a hoax video of the pig (actually a trained stand-in pig following a plastic course placed beneath the surface) rescuing a goat who was stuck in a pond. Fielder had the crew sign non-disclosure agreements in order to maintain secrecy around the production.


title: Nathan for You

text: Fielder uploaded the video to YouTube in September 2012 under the username "jebdogrpm". He titled the clip "Pig rescues baby goat", and gave it the simple description: "Pig saves goat who’s foot was stuck underwater at petting zoo. Simply amazing." Fielder made no efforts to promote the piece but found that websites like Gawker and Reddit quickly began reposting the video. The video was then picked up on various national news broadcasts, including the "NBC Nightly News", "The Today Show", and "Good Morning America".


title: Nathan for You

text: The hoax was finally revealed in February 2013, before the series premiered, by which time the video had received seven million views. In an interview with "The New York Times", Fielder marveled at how major press outlets had shared the video: "If we were trying to pull an elaborate hoax on the news, I think we could have pushed further. But we weren’t. We found it interesting that people were sharing it without us saying anything." , the video has more than ten million views.


title: Nathan for You

text: Over the weekend of February 7, 2014, a coffee shop known as "Dumb Starbucks" opened in Los Feliz. The shop greatly resembled those of the chain Starbucks and used a modified version of its logo. The names of all of its products were prefixed with "Dumb," and the shop offered CDs mimicking the real Starbucks products for sale, including "Dumb Jazz Standards" and "Dumb Nora Jones Duets." The shop argued that it was actually an art gallery for "legal reasons," because "by adding the word 'dumb' we are technically 'making fun' of Starbucks, which allows us to use their trademarks under a legal doctrine known as 'fair use.'" After attracting a large lineup of curious attendees over the weekend, it was speculated that the store was a hoax connected to a television program; on the following Monday, a press conference held at Dumb Starbucks revealed that the store was a "Nathan for You" stunt. Before the stunt was revealed, some attendees thought that the shop had been created by Banksy.


title: Nathan for You

text: An appearance in the eighth episode of the show's first season by private investigator Brian Wolfe led to Wolfe getting his own reality series on Investigation Discovery, "Cry Wolfe". This was referenced on "Nathan for You" on the eighth episode of the second season, when Nathan tried to get a similar reality TV deal for a security guard who had also appeared in season one.


title: Nathan for You

text: Episode three of the show's third season focused on Nathan's attempt to help a struggling moving company by providing the business with free labor. The plan involved the creation and marketing of an original fitness routine called "The Movement," which would emphasize the lifting of household objects (namely boxes and furniture) for exercise, and preclude the need for practitioners to go to a gym or health club. Nathan would then lure interested parties into working for the moving company by leading them to believe they were simply exercising. Marketing for "The Movement" involved a ghost-written book, which subsequently made it on to the Amazon best-seller list, and several television appearances by the "inventor" and public face of the routine, bodybuilder Jack Garbarino.


title: Nathan for You

text: In December 2018, Amazon reported that "a woman managed to lose 100 pounds in 18 months just by delivering packages for the Amazon Flex service," which resulted in several comparisons to The Movement, including by Fielder himself.


title: Nathan for You

text: "Nathan for You" received critical acclaim. On the review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes, the first season holds an approval rating of 89% with an average rating of 8/10, based on 9 reviews. The second season has an approval rating of 100% with an average rating of 8.3/10, based on 10 reviews, with a critics consensus of, ""Nathan for You" arrived a brilliant comedy, but viewers will feel more acclimated to the series' cringeworthy wit in a second season that makes great use of Nathan Fielder's unflappable awkwardness." The third season has an approval rating of 100% with an average rating of 9.6/10, based on 12 reviews, with a critics consensus of, ""Nathan for You" continues to gain dimensionality in its third season, still plumbing horrified laughs while also unearthing a great deal of heart in its shameless star." The fourth season has an approval rating of 100% with an average rating of 9/10, based on 14 reviews, with a critics consensus of, ""Nathan for You" is an extraordinary program that effectively blurs the lines between television and reality."


title: Nathan for You

text: Neil Genzlinger of "The New York Times" dubbed it "the television series with the most incisive take on the 21st-century economy," praising Fielder for "illuminating the relationship between the economy and absurdity." John Thorp of "The Guardian" called its central concept "genius," finding it "functions as a razor-sharp satire of commercialism, with a surprising undercurrent of genuine pathos." Willa Paskin of "Slate" found it "brilliant, fascinating, and uncomfortable." Academy Award winning film director Errol Morris called the Season 4 finale, "Finding Frances", "unfathomably great." Steve Greene from "IndieWire" called "Nathan for You" the greatest reality television series ever made.


title: Nathan for You

text: The series won at the 71st Writers Guild of America Awards in 2019, and was nominated in same category at the ceremonies in 2017 and 2018. At the 2018 WGA Awards ceremony, it received an additional nomination for for the episode "A Celebration". "Nathan for You" was included on lists of the best shows of the 2010s published by "Paste", "The A.V. Club", "IndieWire", "GQ", "Stuff", "/Film", "Consequence", "Film School Rejects", and "GamesRadar+". In 2021, "The New York Times" named it one of the best comedy series of the 21st century.


title: Palm oil

text: Palm oil is an edible vegetable oil derived from the mesocarp (reddish pulp) of the fruit of the oil palms. The oil is used in food manufacturing, in beauty products, and as biofuel. Palm oil accounted for about 33% of global oils produced from oil crops in 2014. Palm oils are easier to stabilize and maintain quality of flavor and consistency in processed foods, so are frequently favored by food manufacturers. On average globally, humans consumed 7.7 kg (17 lb) of palm oil per person in 2015. Demand has also increased for other uses, such as cosmetics and biofuels, creating more demand on the supply encouraging the growth of palm oil plantations in tropical countries.


title: Palm oil

text: The use of palm oil has attracted the concern of environmental groups due to deforestation in the tropics where palms are grown, and has been cited as a factor in social problems due to allegations of human rights violations among growers. An industry group formed in 2004 to create more sustainable and ethical palm oil, through the Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil. However, very little palm oil is certified through the organization, and some groups have criticized it as greenwashing. In 2018, a report by the International Union for Conservation of Nature acknowledged that palm oil is much more efficient than other oils in terms of land and water usage, however deforestation causes more biodiversity loss than switching to other oils.


title: Palm oil

text: The biggest producers of palm oil are Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, and Nigeria. Indonesia produces biodiesel primarily from palm oil. Since agricultural land is limited, in order to plant monocultures of oil palms, land used for other cultivations or the tropical forest need to be cleared. A major environmental threat is then the destruction of rainforests in Indonesia.


title: Palm oil

text: Humans used oil palms as far back as 5,000 years. In the late 1800s, archaeologists discovered a substance that they concluded was originally palm oil in a tomb at Abydos dating back to 3,000 BCE.


title: Palm oil

text: Palm oil from "E. guineensis" has long been recognized in West and Central African countries, used widely as a cooking oil. European merchants trading with West Africa occasionally purchased palm oil for use as a cooking oil in Europe.


title: Palm oil

text: Palm oil became a highly sought-after commodity by British traders for use as an industrial lubricant for machinery during Britain's Industrial Revolution. Palm oil formed the basis of soap products, such as Lever Brothers' (now Unilever) "Sunlight" soap, and the American Palmolive brand.


title: Palm oil

text: By around 1870, palm oil constituted the primary export of some West African countries, although this was overtaken by cocoa in the 1880s with the introduction of colonial European cocoa plantations.


title: Palm oil

text: Palm oil is naturally reddish in color because of a high beta-carotene content. It is not to be confused with palm kernel oil derived from the kernel of the same fruit or coconut oil derived from the kernel of the coconut palm ("Cocos nucifera"). The differences are in color (raw palm kernel oil lacks carotenoids and is not red), and in saturated fat content: palm mesocarp oil is 49% saturated, while palm kernel oil and coconut oil are 81% and 86% saturated fats, respectively. However, crude red palm oil that has been refined, neutralized, bleached and deodorized, a common commodity called RBD (refined, bleached, and deodorized) palm oil, does not contain carotenoids. Many industrial food applications of palm oil use fractionated components of palm oil (often listed as "modified palm oil") whose saturation levels can reach 90%; these "modified" palm oils can become highly saturated, but are not necessarily hydrogenated.


title: Palm oil

text: The oil palm produces bunches containing many fruits with the fleshy mesocarp enclosing a kernel that is covered by a very hard shell. The FAO considers palm oil (coming from the pulp) and palm kernels to be primary products. The oil extraction rate from a bunch varies from 17 to 27% for palm oil, and from 4 to 10% for palm kernels.


title: Palm oil

text: Along with coconut oil, palm oil is one of the few highly saturated vegetable fats and is semisolid at room temperature. Palm oil is a common cooking ingredient in the tropical belt of Africa, Southeast Asia and parts of Brazil. Its use in the commercial food industry in other parts of the world is widespread because of its lower cost and the high oxidative stability (saturation) of the refined product when used for frying. One source reported that humans consumed an average of palm oil per person in 2015.


title: Palm oil

text: After milling, various palm oil products are made using refining processes. First is fractionation, with crystallization and separation processes to obtain solid (palm stearin), and liquid (olein) fractions. Then melting and degumming removes impurities. Then the oil is filtered and bleached. Physical refining removes smells and coloration to produce "refined, bleached and deodorized palm oil" (RBDPO) and free fatty acids, which are used in the manufacture of soaps, washing powder and other products. RBDPO is the basic palm oil product sold on the world's commodity markets. Many companies fractionate it further to produce palm oil for cooking oil, or process it into other products.


title: Palm oil

text: Since the mid-1990s, red palm oil has been cold-pressed from the fruit of the oil palm and bottled for use as a cooking oil, in addition to other uses such as being blended into mayonnaise and vegetable oil.


title: Palm oil

text: Oil produced from palm fruit is called "red palm oil" or just "palm oil". It is around 50% saturated fat—considerably less than palm kernel oil—and 40% unsaturated fat and 10% polyunsaturated fat. In its unprocessed state, red palm oil has an intense deep red color because of its abundant carotene content. Red palm oil also contains sterols, vitamin E, and carotenoids such as alpha-carotene, beta-carotene, and lycopene.


title: Palm oil

text: White palm oil is the result of processing and refining. When refined, the palm oil loses its deep red color. It is extensively used in food manufacture and can be found in a variety of processed foods including peanut butter and chips. It is often labeled as palm shortening and is used as a replacement ingredient for hydrogenated fats in a variety of baked and fried products.


title: Palm oil

text: The highly saturated nature of palm oil renders it solid at room temperature in temperate regions, making it a cheap substitute for butter or hydrogenated vegetable oils in uses where solid fat is desirable, such as the making of pastry dough and baked goods. Palm oil is used in West African cuisine such as egusi soup and okra soup. The health concerns related to trans fats in hydrogenated vegetable oils may have contributed to the increasing use of palm oil in the food industry.


title: Palm oil

text: Palm oil is pervasively used in personal care and cleaning products, and it provides the foaming agent in nearly every soap, shampoo, or detergent. Around 70% of personal care products including soap, shampoo, makeup, and lotion, contain ingredients derived from palm oil. However, there are more than 200 different names for these palm oil ingredients and only 10% of them include the word “palm".


title: Palm oil

text: Palm oil is used to produce both methyl ester and hydrodeoxygenated biodiesel. Palm oil methyl ester is created through a process called transesterification. Palm oil biodiesel is often blended with other fuels to create palm oil biodiesel blends. Palm oil biodiesel meets the European EN 14214 standard for biodiesels. Hydrodeoxygenated biodiesel is produced by direct hydrogenolysis of the fat into alkanes and propane. The world's largest palm oil biodiesel plant is the €550 million Finnish-operated Neste Oil biodiesel plant in Singapore, which opened in 2011 with a capacity of 800,000 tons per year and produces hydrodeoxygenated NEXBTL biodiesel from palm oil imported from Malaysia and Indonesia.


title: Palm oil

text: Significant amounts of palm oil exports to Europe are converted to biodiesel (as of early 2018: Indonesia: 40%, Malaysia 30%). In 2014, almost half of all the palm oil in Europe was burned as car and truck fuel. As of 2018, one-half of Europe's palm oil imports were used for biodiesel. Use of palm oil as biodiesel generates three times the carbon emissions as using fossil fuel, and, for example, "biodiesel made from Indonesian palm oil makes the global carbon problem worse, not better."


title: Palm oil

text: There are pressures for increased oil palm production from Indonesian palm-based biodiesel programs. The biodiesel currently contains a 30:70 palm oil to conventional diesel ratio (known as B30) at the gas pumps. The Indonesian government is aiming to produce 100% palm oil biodiesel (or B100) to transition out of using conventional diesel. The Indonesian government has estimated it would need to establish approximately 15 million hectares of oil palm plantations to meet these future demands.


title: Palm oil

text: The organic waste matter that is produced when processing oil palm, including oil palm shells and oil palm fruit bunches, can also be used to produce energy. This waste material can be converted into pellets that can be used as a biofuel. Additionally, palm oil that has been used to fry foods can be converted into methyl esters for biodiesel. The used cooking oil is chemically treated to create a biodiesel similar to petroleum diesel.


title: Palm oil

text: Although palm oil is applied to wounds for its supposed antimicrobial effects, research does not confirm its effectiveness.


title: Palm oil

text: In 2018–2019, world production of palm oil was . The annual production of palm oil is projected to reach by 2050. During the 2022 food crises instigated by the Russian invasion of Ukraine and crop failures in other parts of the world due to extreme weather caused by climate change, the Indonesian government banned exports of palm oil. This combined with a reduced harvest in Malaysia greatly increased global prices, while reducing availability causing ripple effects in the global supply chain. On 23 May 2022, the Indonesian government reopened trading hoping to balance supplies.


title: Palm oil

text: Indonesia is the world's largest producer of palm oil, surpassing Malaysia in 2006, producing more than , a number that has since risen to over (2016 output). Indonesia expects to double production by the end of 2030. By 2019, this number was . At the end of 2010, 60% of the output was exported in the form of crude palm oil. FAO data shows production increased by over 400% between 1994 and 2004, to over .


title: Palm oil

text: Malaysia is the world's second largest producer of palm oil. In 1992, in response to concerns about deforestation, the Government of Malaysia pledged to limit the expansion of palm oil plantations by retaining a minimum of half the nation's land as forest cover.


title: Palm oil

text: In 2012, the country produced of crude palm oil on roughly of land. Though Indonesia produces more palm oil, Malaysia is the world's largest exporter of palm oil having exported of palm oil products in 2011. India, China, Pakistan, the European Union and the United States are the primary importers of Malaysian palm oil products. In 2016, palm oil prices jumped to a four-year high days after Trump's election victory in the US.


title: Palm oil

text: As of 2018, Nigeria was the third-largest producer, with approximately under cultivation. Until 1934, Nigeria had been the world's largest producer. Both small- and large-scale producers participated in the industry.


title: Palm oil

text: Thailand is the world's third largest producer of crude palm oil, producing approximately per year, or 1.2% of global output. Nearly all of Thai production is consumed locally. Almost 85% of palm plantations and extraction mills are in south Thailand. At year-end 2016, 4.7 to 5.8 million rai () were planted in oil palms, employing 300,000 farmers, mostly on small landholdings of 20 rai (). ASEAN as a region accounts for of palm oil production, about 85% of the world total and more than 90% of global exports. Indonesia accounts for 52% of world exports. Malaysian exports total 38%. The biggest consumers of palm oil are India, the European Union, and China, with the three consuming nearly 50% of world exports. Thailand's Department of Internal Trade (DIT) usually sets the price of crude palm oil and refined palm oil Thai farmers have a relatively low yield compared to those in Malaysia and Indonesia. Thai palm oil crops yield 4–17% oil compared to around 20% in competing countries. In addition, Indonesian and Malaysian oil palm plantations are 10 times the size of Thai plantations.


title: Palm oil

text: In 2018, total palm oil production in Colombia reached , representing some 8% of national agricultural GDP and benefiting mainly smallholders (65% of Colombia's palm oil sector). According to a study from the Environmental, Science and Policy, Colombia has the potential to produce sustainable palm oil without causing deforestation. In addition, palm oil and other crops provide a productive alternative for illegal crops, like coca.


title: Palm oil

text: Ecuador aims to help palm oil producers switch to sustainable methods and achieve RSPO certification under initiatives to develop greener industries.


title: Palm oil

text: Palm is native to the wetlands of western Africa, and south Benin already hosts many palm plantations. Its 'Agricultural Revival Programme' has identified many thousands of hectares of land as suitable for new oil palm export plantations. In spite of the economic benefits, Non-governmental organisations (NGOs), such as Nature Tropicale, claim biofuels will compete with domestic food production in some existing prime agricultural sites. Other areas comprise peat land, whose drainage would have a deleterious environmental impact. They are also concerned genetically modified plants will be introduced into the region, jeopardizing the current premium paid for their non-GM crops.


title: Palm oil

text: According to recent article by National Geographic, most palm oil in Benin is still produced by women for domestic use. The FAO additionally states that peasants in Benin practice agroecology. They harvest palm fruit from small farms and the palm oil is mostly used for local consumption.


title: Palm oil

text: Cameroon had a production project underway initiated by Herakles Farms in the US. However, the project was halted under the pressure of civil society organizations in Cameroon. Before the project was halted, Herakles left the Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil early in negotiations. The project has been controversial due to opposition from villagers and the location of the project in a sensitive region for biodiversity.


title: Palm oil

text: Kenya's domestic production of edible oils covers about a third of its annual demand, estimated at around . The rest is imported at a cost of around US$140 million a year, making edible oil the country's second most important import after petroleum. Since 1993 a new hybrid variety of cold-tolerant, high-yielding oil palm has been promoted by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations in western Kenya. As well as alleviating the country's deficit of edible oils while providing an important cash crop, it is claimed to have environmental benefits in the region, because it does not compete against food crops or native vegetation and it provides stabilisation for the soil.


title: Palm oil

text: Ghana has a lot of palm nut species, which may become an important contributor to the agriculture of the region. Although Ghana has multiple palm species, ranging from local palm nuts to other species locally called agric, it was only marketed locally and to neighboring countries. Production is now expanding as major investment funds are purchasing plantations, because Ghana is considered a major growth area for palm oil.


title: Palm oil

text: Forests have been cleared in parts of Indonesia and Malaysia to make space for oil-palm monoculture. This has significant impacts on the local ecosystems leading to deforestation and biodiversity loss. For example, these processes have resulted in significant acreage losses of the natural habitat of the three surviving species of orangutan. One species in particular, the Sumatran orangutan, has been listed as critically endangered because of habitat loss due to palm oil cultivation.


title: Palm oil

text: In addition to environmental concerns, palm oil development in regions that produce it has also led to significant social conflict. Regions with fast growing palm oil production have experienced significant violations of indigenous land rights, influxes of illegal immigrant labor and labor practices, and other alleged related human rights violations.


title: Palm oil

text: The palm oil industry has had both positive and negative impacts on workers, indigenous peoples and residents of palm oil-producing communities. Palm oil production provides employment opportunities, and has been shown to improve infrastructure, social services and reduce poverty. However, in some cases, oil palm plantations have developed lands without consultation or compensation of the indigenous people inhabiting the land, resulting in social conflict. The use of illegal immigrants in Malaysia has also raised concerns about working conditions within the palm oil industry.


title: Palm oil

text: Some social initiatives use palm oil cultivation as part of poverty alleviation strategies. Examples include the UN Food and Agriculture Organisation's hybrid oil palm project in Western Kenya, which improves incomes and diets of local populations, and Malaysia's Federal Land Development Authority and Federal Land Consolidation and Rehabilitation Authority, which both support rural development.


title: Palm oil

text: The use of palm oil in the production of biodiesel has led to concerns that the need for fuel is being placed ahead of the need for food, leading to malnutrition in developing nations. This is known as the food versus fuel debate. According to a 2008 report published in the "Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews", palm oil was determined to be a sustainable source of both food and biofuel, and the production of palm oil biodiesel does not pose a threat to edible palm oil supplies. According to a 2009 study published in the "Environmental Science and Policy" journal, palm oil biodiesel might increase the demand for palm oil in the future, resulting in the expansion of palm oil production, and therefore an increased supply of food.