title: Lagrange point

text: Since the tidal effect of a body is proportional to its mass divided by the distance cubed, this means that the tidal effect of the smaller body at the L or at the L point is about three times of that body. We may also write:


title: Lagrange point

text: where ρ and ρ are the average densities of the two bodies and formula_5 and formula_6 are their diameters. The ratio of diameter to distance gives the angle subtended by the body, showing that viewed from these two Lagrange points, the apparent sizes of the two bodies will be similar, especially if the density of the smaller one is about thrice that of the larger, as in the case of the earth and the sun.


title: Lagrange point

text: This distance can be described as being such that the orbital period, corresponding to a circular orbit with this distance as radius around "M" in the absence of "M", is that of "M" around "M", divided by ≈ 1.73:


title: Lagrange point

text: The location of L is the solution to the following equation, gravitation providing the centripetal force:


title: Lagrange point

text: with parameters defined as for the L case. Again, if the mass of the smaller object ("M") is much smaller than the mass of the larger object ("M") then L is at approximately the radius of the Hill sphere, given by:


title: Lagrange point

text: The same remarks about tidal influence and apparent size apply as for the L point. For example, the angular radius of the sun as viewed from L is arcsin(/) ≈ 0.264°, whereas that of the earth is arcsin(6371/) ≈ 0.242°. Looking toward the sun from L one sees an annular eclipse. It is necessary for a spacecraft, like Gaia, to follow a Lissajous orbit or a halo orbit around L in order for its solar panels to get full sun.


title: Lagrange point

text: with parameters "M", "M", and "R" defined as for the L and L cases, and "r" now indicates the distance of L from the position of the smaller object, if it were rotated 180 degrees about the larger object, while positive "r" implying L is closer to the larger object than the smaller object. If the mass of the smaller object ("M") is much smaller than the mass of the larger object ("M"), then:


title: Lagrange point

text: The reason these points are in balance is that at and the distances to the two masses are equal. Accordingly, the gravitational forces from the two massive bodies are in the same ratio as the masses of the two bodies, and so the resultant force acts through the barycenter of the system; additionally, the geometry of the triangle ensures that the resultant acceleration is to the distance from the barycenter in the same ratio as for the two massive bodies. The barycenter being both the center of mass and center of rotation of the three-body system, this resultant force is exactly that required to keep the smaller body at the Lagrange point in orbital equilibrium with the other two larger bodies of the system (indeed, the third body needs to have negligible mass). The general triangular configuration was discovered by Lagrange working on the three-body problem.


title: Lagrange point

text: The radial acceleration "a" of an object in orbit at a point along the line passing through both bodies is given by:


title: Lagrange point

text: where "r" is the distance from the large body "M", R is the distance between the two main objects, and sgn("x") is the sign function of "x". The terms in this function represent respectively: force from "M"; force from "M"; and centripetal force. The points L, L, L occur where the acceleration is zero — see chart at right. Positive acceleration is acceleration towards the right of the chart and negative acceleration is towards the left; that is why acceleration has opposite signs on opposite sides of the gravity wells.


title: Lagrange point

text: Although the , , and points are nominally unstable, there are quasi-stable periodic orbits called "halo orbits" around these points in a three-body system. A full "n"-body dynamical system such as the Solar System does not contain these periodic orbits, but does contain quasi-periodic (i.e. bounded but not precisely repeating) orbits following Lissajous-curve trajectories. These quasi-periodic Lissajous orbits are what most of Lagrangian-point space missions have used until now. Although they are not perfectly stable, a modest effort of station keeping keeps a spacecraft in a desired Lissajous orbit for a long time.


title: Lagrange point

text: For Sun–Earth- missions, it is preferable for the spacecraft to be in a large-amplitude () Lissajous orbit around than to stay at , because the line between Sun and Earth has increased solar interference on Earth–spacecraft communications. Similarly, a large-amplitude Lissajous orbit around keeps a probe out of Earth's shadow and therefore ensures continuous illumination of its solar panels.


title: Lagrange point

text: The and points are stable provided that the mass of the primary body (e.g. the Earth) is at least 25 times the mass of the secondary body (e.g. the Moon), and the mass of the secondary is at least 10 times that of the tertiary (e.g. the satellite). The Earth is over 81 times the mass of the Moon (the Moon is 1.23% of the mass of the Earth). Although the and points are found at the top of a "hill", as in the effective potential contour plot above, they are nonetheless stable. The reason for the stability is a second-order effect: as a body moves away from the exact Lagrange position, Coriolis acceleration (which depends on the velocity of an orbiting object and cannot be modeled as a contour map) curves the trajectory into a path around (rather than away from) the point. Because the source of stability is the Coriolis force, the resulting orbits can be stable, but generally are not planar, but "three-dimensional": they lie on a warped surface intersecting the ecliptic plane. The kidney-shaped orbits typically shown nested around and are the projections of the orbits on a plane (e.g. the ecliptic) and not the full 3-D orbits.


title: Lagrange point

text: This table lists sample values of L, L, and L within the Solar System. Calculations assume the two bodies orbit in a perfect circle with separation equal to the semimajor axis and no other bodies are nearby. Distances are measured from the larger body's center of mass with L showing a negative location. The percentage columns show how the distances compare with the semimajor axis. E.g. for the Moon, L is located from Earth's center, which is 84.9% of the Earth–Moon distance or 15.1% in front of the Moon; L is located from Earth's center, which is 116.8% of the Earth–Moon distance or 16.8% beyond the Moon; and L is located from Earth's center, which is 99.3% of the Earth–Moon distance or 0.7084% in front of the Moon's 'negative' position.


title: Lagrange point

text: Sun–Earth is suited for making observations of the Sun–Earth system. Objects here are never shadowed by Earth or the Moon and, if observing Earth, always view the sunlit hemisphere. The first mission of this type was the 1978 International Sun Earth Explorer 3 (ISEE-3) mission used as an interplanetary early warning storm monitor for solar disturbances. Since June 2015, DSCOVR has orbited the L point. Conversely it is also useful for space-based solar telescopes, because it provides an uninterrupted view of the Sun and any space weather (including the solar wind and coronal mass ejections) reaches L up to an hour before Earth. Solar and heliospheric missions currently located around L include the Solar and Heliospheric Observatory, Wind, and the Advanced Composition Explorer. Planned missions include the Interstellar Mapping and Acceleration Probe (IMAP) and the NEO Surveyor.


title: Lagrange point

text: Sun–Earth is a good spot for space-based observatories. Because an object around will maintain the same relative position with respect to the Sun and Earth, shielding and calibration are much simpler. It is, however, slightly beyond the reach of Earth's umbra, so solar radiation is not completely blocked at L. Spacecraft generally orbit around L, avoiding partial eclipses of the Sun to maintain a constant temperature. From locations near L, the Sun, Earth and Moon are relatively close together in the sky; this means that a large sunshade with the telescope on the dark-side can allow the telescope to cool passively to around 50 K – this is especially helpful for infrared astronomy and observations of the cosmic microwave background. The James Webb Space Telescope was positioned in a halo orbit about L on January 24, 2022.


title: Lagrange point

text: Sun–Earth and are saddle points and exponentially unstable with time constant of roughly 23 days. Satellites at these points will wander off in a few months unless course corrections are made.


title: Lagrange point

text: Sun–Earth was a popular place to put a "Counter-Earth" in pulp science fiction and comic books, despite the fact that the existence of a planetary body in this location had been understood as an impossibility once orbital mechanics and the perturbations of planets upon each other's orbits came to be understood, long before the Space Age; the influence of an Earth-sized body on other planets would not have gone undetected, nor would the fact that the foci of Earth's orbital ellipse would not have been in their expected places, due to the mass of the counter-Earth. The Sun–Earth , however, is a weak saddle point and exponentially unstable with time constant of roughly 150 years. Moreover, it could not contain a natural object, large or small, for very long because the gravitational forces of the other planets are stronger than that of Earth (for example, Venus comes within 0.3 AU of this every 20 months).


title: Lagrange point

text: A spacecraft orbiting near Sun–Earth would be able to closely monitor the evolution of active sunspot regions before they rotate into a geoeffective position, so that a seven-day early warning could be issued by the NOAA Space Weather Prediction Center. Moreover, a satellite near Sun–Earth would provide very important observations not only for Earth forecasts, but also for deep space support (Mars predictions and for crewed mission to near-Earth asteroids). In 2010, spacecraft transfer trajectories to Sun–Earth were studied and several designs were considered.


title: Lagrange point

text: Earth–Moon allows comparatively easy access to Lunar and Earth orbits with minimal change in velocity and this has as an advantage to position a habitable space station intended to help transport cargo and personnel to the Moon and back.


title: Lagrange point

text: Earth–Moon has been used for a communications satellite covering the Moon's far side, for example, Queqiao, launched in 2018, and would be "an ideal location" for a propellant depot as part of the proposed depot-based space transportation architecture.


title: Lagrange point

text: Scientists at the B612 Foundation were planning to use Venus's L point to position their planned Sentinel telescope, which aimed to look back towards Earth's orbit and compile a catalogue of near-Earth asteroids.


title: Lagrange point

text: In 2017, the idea of positioning a magnetic dipole shield at the Sun–Mars point for use as an artificial magnetosphere for Mars was discussed at a NASA conference. The idea is that this would protect the planet's atmosphere from the Sun's radiation and solar winds.


title: Snow White and the Huntsman

text: Snow White and the Huntsman is a 2012 American fantasy film based on the German fairy tale "Snow White" compiled by the Brothers Grimm. The directorial debut of Rupert Sanders, it was written by Evan Daugherty, John Lee Hancock and Hossein Amini, from a screen story by Daugherty. The cast includes Kristen Stewart, Charlize Theron, Chris Hemsworth, Sam Claflin, and Bob Hoskins in his final film performance. In the film's retelling of the tale, Snow White grows up imprisoned by her evil stepmother, Queen Ravenna, a powerful sorceress. After Snow White escapes into the forest, Ravenna enlists Eric the Huntsman to capture her, but he becomes her companion in a quest to overthrow Ravenna.


title: Snow White and the Huntsman

text: "Snow White and the Huntsman" was theatrically released in the United Kingdom on May 30, 2012 and in the United States on June 1, 2012, by Universal Pictures. The film was a box office success, having grossed $396 million worldwide against a $170 million budget. Critics praised the production design and visual effects, Theron and Hemsworth's performances and the score; action sequences, Stewart and Claflin's performances received mixed reviews while the screenplay was heavily criticized, though. The film received two Oscar nominations for Best Visual Effects and Best Costume Design at the 85th Academy Awards.


title: Snow White and the Huntsman

text: A prequel/sequel, titled "", directed by the first film's visual effects supervisor Cedric Nicolas-Troyan, was released on April 22, 2016, with Hemsworth, Theron, Claflin and Nick Frost reprising their roles and new characters being played by Emily Blunt and Jessica Chastain, though Stewart didn't reprise the Snow White character and she appeared in archive footage.


title: Snow White and the Huntsman

text: While admiring a bright red rose blooming during a white winter, Queen Eleanor of the Kingdom of Tabor pricks her finger on its thorns. Drops of blood fall onto the snow, and she wishes for a daughter with skin as white as snow, lips as red as blood, hair as black as a raven's wings, and a heart as strong as the rose. She gives birth to Snow White but falls ill and dies many years later. After her death, Snow White's father, King Magnus, and his army battle an invading army of glass soldiers. King Magnus finds a prisoner called Ravenna, becomes enchanted with her beauty and marries her.


title: Snow White and the Huntsman

text: Ravenna is in fact a powerful sorceress who used the false glass army to charm her way into the kingdom. On their wedding night, she confesses that there was a king much like Magnus that used her, hurt her, then discarded her. She kills Magnus before taking over the kingdom. Snow White's childhood friend William and his father, Duke Hammond, escape but are unable to rescue her, and she is locked away in a tower for years.


title: Snow White and the Huntsman

text: Tabor and its people deteriorate under Queen Ravenna’s rule. She periodically drains the youth from the kingdom's young women in order to maintain a spell cast over her as a child by her mother, which allows her to keep her youthful beauty. When her stepdaughter Snow White comes of age, she learns from her Magic Mirror that Snow White is destined to destroy her unless she consumes the girl's heart, which will make her immortal. Ravenna orders her brother Finn to bring her the princess but Snow White escapes into the Dark Forest, where Ravenna has no power. Ravenna makes a bargain with Eric the Huntsman, a widower and drunkard, to capture Snow White, promising to bring his wife back to life in exchange. But when Finn reveals that Ravenna does not actually have the power to revive the dead, the Huntsman helps Snow White escape. The Duke and William learn that Snow White is alive and William leaves the castle to find her, joining Finn's group as a bowman.


title: Snow White and the Huntsman

text: Snow White saves the Huntsman's life by charming a troll that attacks them. They make their way to a fishing village populated by women who have disfigured themselves to make themselves useless to Ravenna. The Huntsman learns Snow White's true identity, and leaves her in the care of the women. He returns when he sees the village being burned down by Finn's men. Snow White and the Huntsman evade them and meet a band of eight dwarfs. The blind dwarf Muir perceives that Snow White is the only person who can end Ravenna's reign.


title: Snow White and the Huntsman

text: As they travel through a fairy sanctuary, they are attacked by Finn and his men. A battle ensues during which Finn, his men, and one of the dwarfs are killed. William joins the group on their journey to Hammond's castle. Ravenna disguises herself as William and tempts Snow White into eating a poisoned apple before fleeing. William kisses Snow White; though nothing happens, a tear slips out of her eyes. Her body is taken to Hammond's castle. The Huntsman professes his regret for being unable to save her, as her heart and strength remind him of his wife, Sara. He kisses her and does not notice a second tear fall from her eyes, as two kisses of true love breaks the spell. Snow White awakens and rallies the Duke's army to mount a siege against Ravenna.


title: Snow White and the Huntsman

text: The dwarfs infiltrate the castle through the sewers and open the gates, allowing the army inside. Snow White and Ravenna fight; Ravenna is about to kill her when Snow White uses a move the Huntsman taught her and stabs Ravenna, defeating her. The kingdom once again enjoys peace as Snow White is crowned the new Queen of Tabor.


title: Snow White and the Huntsman

text: The Dwarfs were played by actors of average height who had their faces digitally transmuted onto small bodies. This caused a protest from the Little People of America.


title: Snow White and the Huntsman

text: Evan Daugherty initially wrote the screenplay in 2003, when he was studying at NYU. At the time, reboots of fairy tales weren't a popular film genre and, according to Daugherty, "no one really knew what to do with it." More problems came when the release of Terry Gilliam's "The Brothers Grimm" (2005) flopped at the box office which caused potential buyers to be hesitant about the script. The script was finally greenlit after the success of Tim Burton's "Alice in Wonderland" (2010).


title: Snow White and the Huntsman

text: Film producers considered casting a lesser-known actress for the role of Snow White, with mention of Riley Keough, Felicity Jones, Bella Heathcote, Alicia Vikander, and Rachel Maxwell as possible picks. This idea became less likely as known actresses Dakota Fanning and Kristen Stewart were later rumored to be short-listed for the role. On March 4, 2011 co-producer Palak Patel confirmed that Stewart was offered the role. Winona Ryder was initially considered to play Queen Ravenna, before the role went to Charlize Theron. Tom Hardy was supposedly first offered the role of Eric, the Huntsman, but turned down the offer. The role was then apparently offered to Michael Fassbender, and then Johnny Depp, but both claim to have declined it. Viggo Mortensen was said to have been in negotiations with Universal for the part, but supposedly turned down the role, too. It was claimed that Hugh Jackman was offered the role, but that he declined. In 2011, "Thor" star Chris Hemsworth was eventually cast in the role of the Huntsman.


title: Snow White and the Huntsman

text: Principal photography took place in the United Kingdom. Most indoor scenes were shot at Pinewood Studios. The beach scenes were predominantly filmed in Pembrokeshire, Wales, on the Marloes Sands beach near the village of Marloes between September 26 and 29, 2011. Though the beach was not closed to the public during filming, as filming progressed, certain parts were advised to be off limits. A computer-generated castle was set on nearby Gateholm island. A field above the beach was used for production purposes, and a special wooden ramp was built for vehicles and horses to access the beach. Filming also took place at Frensham Small Pond. The film used academic consultants from the University of Chichester and the University of Oxford for back-up research on fairy tales and medieval battles.


title: Snow White and the Huntsman

text: James Newton Howard composed the music for the film. The English band Florence and the Machine recorded "Breath of Life" exclusively for the film, which was reportedly inspired by Theron's character Queen Ravenna. Ioanna Gika of Io Echo performed "Gone", a song that is played at Gus's funeral in the film.


title: Snow White and the Huntsman

text: The film had its premiere on May 14, 2012, at the Empire, Leicester Square, in London. The film was released on DVD and Blu-ray in Region 1 on September 11, 2012, with both the theatrical version (127 minutes) and an extended version (132 minutes) available on both formats. The film was released on the same formats in Region 2 on October 1, 2012.


title: Snow White and the Huntsman

text: "Snow White and the Huntsman" earned $110.3 million in North America, along with $241.3 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $396.6 million. In North America, the film earned $1.38 million from midnight showings. For its opening day, the film topped the box office with $7.5 million. It debuted in first place at the box office during its opening weekend with $14.2 million. It is the seventeenth highest-grossing 2012 film. Outside North America, "Snow White and the Huntsman" had an opening of $39.3 million, ranking second overall for the weekend behind "Men in Black 3"; however, it ranked number 1 in 30 countries.


title: Snow White and the Huntsman

text: "Snow White and the Huntsman" received mixed reviews from critics. The film has score on Rotten Tomatoes based on reviews, with an average rating of . The site's consensus states: "While it offers an appropriately dark take on the fairy tale that inspired it, "Snow White & the Huntsman" is undone by uneven acting, problematic pacing, and a confused script." On Metacritic, the film has a score of 57 out of 100, based on 39 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". CinemaScore polls conducted revealed the average grade that filmgoers gave the film was a "B" on an A+ to F scale.


title: Snow White and the Huntsman

text: David Edelstein of "New York" praised the film's revisionist tone and said the film was "strongly influenced by a lot of smart, feminist thinking". Roger Ebert gave the film 3.5 stars out of 4. A.O. Scott of "The New York Times" praised Theron's performance and also wrote, "Though it is an ambitious – at times mesmerizing – application of the latest cinematic technology, the movie tries to recapture some of the menace of the stories that used to be told to scare children rather than console them." Owen Gleiberman of "Entertainment Weekly" wrote, "Ravenna hates living in a world where men can feed on women's beauty and then toss them away. She's a fascist of feminism, and Theron's acting has the blood of operatic anger coursing through it." Betsy Sharkey of the "Los Angeles Times" said the film is, "an absolute wonder to watch and creates a warrior princess for the ages. But what this revisionist fairy tale does not give us is a passionate love – its kisses are as chaste as the snow is white." "Rolling Stone"s Peter Travers called it "a visual marvel" while noting that Stewart "morphs convincingly from a skittish girl into a determined warrior princess." MSN news said that Stewart "grows into her character, it seems, and eventually got this reviewer completely on her side." Colin Covert of the "Minneapolis Star Tribune" gave the film 4/4 stars. Richard Roeper of the "Chicago Sun-Times" gave the movie a B+, calling it "Vastly superior to "Mirror, Mirror"", and praising Theron and Stewart's performances.


title: Snow White and the Huntsman

text: Peter Bradshaw of "The Guardian" said that while the film is "less jokey than the recent "Mirror Mirror"", "this "Twilightified" fairytale has the same basic problem," and that, "The result is tangled and overblown." Mick LaSalle of the "San Francisco Chronicle" called it "[a] slow, boring film that has no charm and is highlighted only by a handful of special effects and Charlize Theron's truly evil queen." Michael O'Sullivan of "The Washington Post" also gave the film a negative review: "Overlong, overcrowded, overstimulating and with an over-the-top performance by Charlize Theron as the evil queen Ravenna, the movie is a virtual orchard of toxic excess, starting with the unnecessarily sprawling cast of characters." Lisa Kennedy of "The Denver Post" gave the film two out of four stars and said, "Only Bob Hoskins as the blind seer Muir comes close to making us care. We can almost glean Snow White's heroic possibilities through his clouded eyes. As much as we'd like to, we certainly can't from Stewart's efforts." "Film Comment"s Scott Foundas states that "Stewart’s Snow White... pouts her lips, bats her bedroom eyes, and scarcely seems to have more on her mind than who might take her to the senior prom—let alone the destiny of an entire kingdom."


title: Snow White and the Huntsman

text: A sequel was planned, with director Rupert Sanders in talks to return. In August 2012, "The Hollywood Reporter" reported that the sequel was shelved in the aftermath of the scandal involving Sanders cheating on his wife with Stewart and that a spin-off film concentrating on the Huntsman was planned instead, which would not star Stewart. Universal announced a few days later that they were not shelving the sequel. A 2012 report stated that Universal has authorized a sequel and Stewart was set to reprise her role, but without Sanders to return as the director due to the scandal. The script was written and production was set to begin in 2013.


title: Snow White and the Huntsman

text: The film was originally scheduled for release in 2015. In September 2013, Chris Hemsworth stated he did not know anything about the sequel while speaking to E!. On June 4, 2014, Deadline reported that Frank Darabont, Gavin O'Connor and Andrés Muschietti were on the shortlist to direct the sequel. On June 26, 2014, Deadline reported that Darabont was in talks to direct the sequel. Originally Legendary Pictures was set to co-finance the film with Universal but dropped out and were replaced by Perfect World Pictures. On July 31, 2014, the project was described as a prequel titled "The Huntsman" scheduled for April 22, 2016, which would not star Stewart as Snow White. In January 2015, Darabont left the project as director, but the third leading role was set with Emily Blunt. It was later announced that Cedric Nicolas-Troyan would take over as the new director for the film. Nick Frost would return as Dwarf Nion and Jessica Chastain would star. On March 18, 2015, Rob Brydon, Alexandra Roach and Sheridan Smith were added to the cast as dwarves. "TheWrap" confirmed on May 7, 2015, that Sam Claflin would return as William in this sequel.


title: Snow White and the Huntsman

text: It was later revealed that the film would feature Ravenna's sister, the Ice Queen, and would reveal the origins of the Huntsman, while also continuing the story of the first film.


title: Nanotechnology

text: Nanotechnology, also shortened to nanotech, is the use of matter on an atomic, molecular, and supramolecular scale for industrial purposes. The earliest, widespread description of nanotechnology referred to the particular technological goal of precisely manipulating atoms and molecules for fabrication of macroscale products, also now referred to as molecular nanotechnology. A more generalized description of nanotechnology was subsequently established by the National Nanotechnology Initiative, which defined nanotechnology as the manipulation of matter with at least one dimension sized from 1 to 100 nanometers (nm). This definition reflects the fact that quantum mechanical effects are important at this quantum-realm scale, and so the definition shifted from a particular technological goal to a research category inclusive of all types of research and technologies that deal with the special properties of matter which occur below the given size threshold. It is therefore common to see the plural form "nanotechnologies" as well as "nanoscale technologies" to refer to the broad range of research and applications whose common trait is size.


title: Nanotechnology

text: Nanotechnology as defined by size is naturally broad, including fields of science as diverse as surface science, organic chemistry, molecular biology, semiconductor physics, energy storage, engineering, microfabrication, and molecular engineering. The associated research and applications are equally diverse, ranging from extensions of conventional device physics to completely new approaches based upon molecular self-assembly, from developing new materials with dimensions on the nanoscale to direct control of matter on the atomic scale.


title: Nanotechnology

text: Scientists currently debate the future implications of nanotechnology. Nanotechnology may be able to create many new materials and devices with a vast range of applications, such as in nanomedicine, nanoelectronics, biomaterials energy production, and consumer products. On the other hand, nanotechnology raises many of the same issues as any new technology, including concerns about the toxicity and environmental impact of nanomaterials, and their potential effects on global economics, as well as speculation about various doomsday scenarios. These concerns have led to a debate among advocacy groups and governments on whether special regulation of nanotechnology is warranted.


title: Nanotechnology

text: The concepts that seeded nanotechnology were first discussed in 1959 by renowned physicist Richard Feynman in his talk "There's Plenty of Room at the Bottom", in which he described the possibility of synthesis via direct manipulation of atoms.


title: Nanotechnology

text: The term "nano-technology" was first used by Norio Taniguchi in 1974, though it was not widely known. Inspired by Feynman's concepts, K. Eric Drexler used the term "nanotechnology" in his 1986 book "Engines of Creation: The Coming Era of Nanotechnology", which proposed the idea of a nanoscale "assembler" which would be able to build a copy of itself and of other items of arbitrary complexity with atomic control. Also in 1986, Drexler co-founded The Foresight Institute (with which he is no longer affiliated) to help increase public awareness and understanding of nanotechnology concepts and implications.


title: Nanotechnology

text: The emergence of nanotechnology as a field in the 1980s occurred through convergence of Drexler's theoretical and public work, which developed and popularized a conceptual framework for nanotechnology, and high-visibility experimental advances that drew additional wide-scale attention to the prospects of atomic control of matter. In the 1980s, two major breakthroughs sparked the growth of nanotechnology in the modern era. First, the invention of the scanning tunneling microscope in 1981 which provided unprecedented visualization of individual atoms and bonds, and was successfully used to manipulate individual atoms in 1989. The microscope's developers Gerd Binnig and Heinrich Rohrer at IBM Zurich Research Laboratory received a Nobel Prize in Physics in 1986. Binnig, Quate and Gerber also invented the analogous atomic force microscope that year.


title: Nanotechnology

text: Second, fullerenes were discovered in 1985 by Harry Kroto, Richard Smalley, and Robert Curl, who together won the 1996 Nobel Prize in Chemistry. C was not initially described as nanotechnology; the term was used regarding subsequent work with related carbon nanotubes (sometimes called graphene tubes or Bucky tubes) which suggested potential applications for nanoscale electronics and devices. The discovery of carbon nanotubes is largely attributed to Sumio Iijima of NEC in 1991, for which Iijima won the inaugural 2008 Kavli Prize in Nanoscience.


title: Nanotechnology

text: A nanolayer-base metal–semiconductor junction (M–S junction) transistor was initially proposed by A. Rose in 1960, and fabricated by L. Geppert, Mohamed Atalla and Dawon Kahng in 1962. Decades later, advances in multi-gate technology enabled the scaling of metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) devices down to nano-scale levels smaller than 20 nm gate length, starting with the FinFET (fin field-effect transistor), a three-dimensional, non-planar, double-gate MOSFET. At UC Berkeley, a team of researchers including Digh Hisamoto, Chenming Hu, Tsu-Jae King Liu, Jeffrey Bokor and others fabricated FinFET devices down to a 17nm process in 1998, then 15nm in 2001, and then 10nm in 2002.


title: Nanotechnology

text: In the early 2000s, the field garnered increased scientific, political, and commercial attention that led to both controversy and progress. Controversies emerged regarding the definitions and potential implications of nanotechnologies, exemplified by the Royal Society's report on nanotechnology. Challenges were raised regarding the feasibility of applications envisioned by advocates of molecular nanotechnology, which culminated in a public debate between Drexler and Smalley in 2001 and 2003.


title: Nanotechnology

text: Meanwhile, commercialization of products based on advancements in nanoscale technologies began emerging. These products are limited to bulk applications of nanomaterials and do not involve atomic control of matter. Some examples include the Silver Nano platform for using silver nanoparticles as an antibacterial agent, nanoparticle-based transparent sunscreens, carbon fiber strengthening using silica nanoparticles, and carbon nanotubes for stain-resistant textiles.


title: Nanotechnology

text: Governments moved to promote and fund research into nanotechnology, such as in the U.S. with the National Nanotechnology Initiative, which formalized a size-based definition of nanotechnology and established funding for research on the nanoscale, and in Europe via the European Framework Programmes for Research and Technological Development.


title: Nanotechnology

text: By the mid-2000s new and serious scientific attention began to flourish. Projects emerged to produce nanotechnology roadmaps which center on atomically precise manipulation of matter and discuss existing and projected capabilities, goals, and applications.


title: Nanotechnology

text: In 2006, a team of Korean researchers from the Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST) and the National Nano Fab Center developed a 3 nm MOSFET, the world's smallest nanoelectronic device. It was based on gate-all-around (GAA) FinFET technology.


title: Nanotechnology

text: Over sixty countries created nanotechnology research and development (R&D) government programs between 2001 and 2004. Government funding was exceeded by corporate spending on nanotechnology R&D, with most of the funding coming from corporations based in the United States, Japan and Germany. The top five organizations that filed the most intellectual patents on nanotechnology R&D between 1970 and 2011 were Samsung Electronics (2,578 first patents), Nippon Steel (1,490 first patents), IBM (1,360 first patents), Toshiba (1,298 first patents) and Canon (1,162 first patents). The top five organizations that published the most scientific papers on nanotechnology research between 1970 and 2012 were the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Russian Academy of Sciences, Centre national de la recherche scientifique, University of Tokyo and Osaka University.


title: Nanotechnology

text: Nanotechnology is the engineering of functional systems at the molecular scale. This covers both current work and concepts that are more advanced. In its original sense, nanotechnology refers to the projected ability to construct items from the bottom up, using techniques and tools being developed today to make complete, high-performance products.


title: Nanotechnology

text: One nanometer (nm) is one billionth, or 10, of a meter. By comparison, typical carbon-carbon bond lengths, or the spacing between these atoms in a molecule, are in the range , and a DNA double-helix has a diameter around 2 nm. On the other hand, the smallest cellular life-forms, the bacteria of the genus "Mycoplasma", are around 200 nm in length. By convention, nanotechnology is taken as the scale range following the definition used by the National Nanotechnology Initiative in the US. The lower limit is set by the size of atoms (hydrogen has the smallest atoms, which are approximately a quarter of a nm kinetic diameter) since nanotechnology must build its devices from atoms and molecules. The upper limit is more or less arbitrary but is around the size below which the phenomena not observed in larger structures start to become apparent and can be made use of in the nano device. These new phenomena make nanotechnology distinct from devices which are merely miniaturised versions of an equivalent macroscopic device; such devices are on a larger scale and come under the description of microtechnology.


title: Nanotechnology

text: To put that scale in another context, the comparative size of a nanometer to a meter is the same as that of a marble to the size of the earth. Or another way of putting it: a nanometer is the amount an average man's beard grows in the time it takes him to raise the razor to his face.


title: Nanotechnology

text: Two main approaches are used in nanotechnology. In the "bottom-up" approach, materials and devices are built from molecular components which assemble themselves chemically by principles of molecular recognition. In the "top-down" approach, nano-objects are constructed from larger entities without atomic-level control.


title: Nanotechnology

text: Areas of physics such as nanoelectronics, nanomechanics, nanophotonics and nanoionics have evolved during the last few decades to provide a basic scientific foundation of nanotechnology.


title: Nanotechnology

text: Several phenomena become pronounced as the size of the system decreases. These include statistical mechanical effects, as well as quantum mechanical effects, for example the "quantum size effect" where the electronic properties of solids are altered with great reductions in particle size. This effect does not come into play by going from macro to micro dimensions. However, quantum effects can become significant when the nanometer size range is reached, typically at distances of 100 nanometers or less, the so-called quantum realm. Additionally, a number of physical (mechanical, electrical, optical, etc.) properties change when compared to macroscopic systems. One example is the increase in surface area to volume ratio altering mechanical, thermal and catalytic properties of materials. Diffusion and reactions at nanoscale, nanostructures materials and nanodevices with fast ion transport are generally referred to nanoionics. "Mechanical" properties of nanosystems are of interest in the nanomechanics research. The catalytic activity of nanomaterials also opens potential risks in their interaction with biomaterials.


title: Nanotechnology

text: Materials reduced to the nanoscale can show different properties compared to what they exhibit on a macroscale, enabling unique applications. For instance, opaque substances can become transparent (copper); stable materials can turn combustible (aluminium); insoluble materials may become soluble (gold). A material such as gold, which is chemically inert at normal scales, can serve as a potent chemical catalyst at nanoscales. Much of the fascination with nanotechnology stems from these quantum and surface phenomena that matter exhibits at the nanoscale.


title: Nanotechnology

text: Modern synthetic chemistry has reached the point where it is possible to prepare small molecules to almost any structure. These methods are used today to manufacture a wide variety of useful chemicals such as pharmaceuticals or commercial polymers. This ability raises the question of extending this kind of control to the next-larger level, seeking methods to assemble these single molecules into supramolecular assemblies consisting of many molecules arranged in a well defined manner.


title: Nanotechnology

text: These approaches utilize the concepts of molecular self-assembly and/or supramolecular chemistry to automatically arrange themselves into some useful conformation through a bottom-up approach. The concept of molecular recognition is especially important: molecules can be designed so that a specific configuration or arrangement is favored due to non-covalent intermolecular forces. The Watson–Crick basepairing rules are a direct result of this, as is the specificity of an enzyme being targeted to a single substrate, or the specific folding of the protein itself. Thus, two or more components can be designed to be complementary and mutually attractive so that they make a more complex and useful whole.


title: Nanotechnology

text: Such bottom-up approaches should be capable of producing devices in parallel and be much cheaper than top-down methods, but could potentially be overwhelmed as the size and complexity of the desired assembly increases. Most useful structures require complex and thermodynamically unlikely arrangements of atoms. Nevertheless, there are many examples of self-assembly based on molecular recognition in biology, most notably Watson–Crick basepairing and enzyme-substrate interactions. The challenge for nanotechnology is whether these principles can be used to engineer new constructs in addition to natural ones.


title: Nanotechnology

text: Molecular nanotechnology, sometimes called molecular manufacturing, describes engineered nanosystems (nanoscale machines) operating on the molecular scale. Molecular nanotechnology is especially associated with the molecular assembler, a machine that can produce a desired structure or device atom-by-atom using the principles of mechanosynthesis. Manufacturing in the context of productive nanosystems is not related to, and should be clearly distinguished from, the conventional technologies used to manufacture nanomaterials such as carbon nanotubes and nanoparticles.


title: Nanotechnology

text: When the term "nanotechnology" was independently coined and popularized by Eric Drexler (who at the time was unaware of an earlier usage by Norio Taniguchi) it referred to a future manufacturing technology based on molecular machine systems. The premise was that molecular-scale biological analogies of traditional machine components demonstrated molecular machines were possible: by the countless examples found in biology, it is known that sophisticated, stochastically optimized biological machines can be produced.


title: Nanotechnology

text: It is hoped that developments in nanotechnology will make possible their construction by some other means, perhaps using biomimetic principles. However, Drexler and other researchers have proposed that advanced nanotechnology, although perhaps initially implemented by biomimetic means, ultimately could be based on mechanical engineering principles, namely, a manufacturing technology based on the mechanical functionality of these components (such as gears, bearings, motors, and structural members) that would enable programmable, positional assembly to atomic specification. The physics and engineering performance of exemplar designs were analyzed in Drexler's book "Nanosystems".


title: Nanotechnology

text: In general it is very difficult to assemble devices on the atomic scale, as one has to position atoms on other atoms of comparable size and stickiness. Another view, put forth by Carlo Montemagno, is that future nanosystems will be hybrids of silicon technology and biological molecular machines. Richard Smalley argued that mechanosynthesis are impossible due to the difficulties in mechanically manipulating individual molecules.


title: Nanotechnology

text: This led to an exchange of letters in the ACS publication Chemical & Engineering News in 2003. Though biology clearly demonstrates that molecular machine systems are possible, non-biological molecular machines are today only in their infancy. Leaders in research on non-biological molecular machines are Dr. Alex Zettl and his colleagues at Lawrence Berkeley Laboratories and UC Berkeley. They have constructed at least three distinct molecular devices whose motion is controlled from the desktop with changing voltage: a nanotube nanomotor, a molecular actuator, and a nanoelectromechanical relaxation oscillator. See nanotube nanomotor for more examples.


title: Nanotechnology

text: An experiment indicating that positional molecular assembly is possible was performed by Ho and Lee at Cornell University in 1999. They used a scanning tunneling microscope to move an individual carbon monoxide molecule (CO) to an individual iron atom (Fe) sitting on a flat silver crystal, and chemically bound the CO to the Fe by applying a voltage.


title: Nanotechnology

text: The nanomaterials field includes subfields which develop or study materials having unique properties arising from their nanoscale dimensions.


title: Nanotechnology

text: These seek to develop components of a desired functionality without regard to how they might be assembled.


title: Nanotechnology

text: These subfields seek to anticipate what inventions nanotechnology might yield, or attempt to propose an agenda along which inquiry might progress. These often take a big-picture view of nanotechnology, with more emphasis on its societal implications than the details of how such inventions could actually be created.


title: Nanotechnology

text: Nanomaterials can be classified in 0D, 1D, 2D and 3D nanomaterials. The dimensionality play a major role in determining the characteristic of nanomaterials including physical, chemical and biological characteristics. With the decrease in dimensionality, an increase in surface-to-volume ratio is observed. This indicate that smaller dimensional nanomaterials have higher surface area compared to 3D nanomaterials. Recently, two dimensional (2D) nanomaterials are extensively investigated for electronic, biomedical, drug delivery and biosensor applications.


title: Nanotechnology

text: There are several important modern developments. The atomic force microscope (AFM) and the Scanning Tunneling Microscope (STM) are two early versions of scanning probes that launched nanotechnology. There are other types of scanning probe microscopy. Although conceptually similar to the scanning confocal microscope developed by Marvin Minsky in 1961 and the scanning acoustic microscope (SAM) developed by Calvin Quate and coworkers in the 1970s, newer scanning probe microscopes have much higher resolution, since they are not limited by the wavelength of sound or light.


title: Nanotechnology

text: The tip of a scanning probe can also be used to manipulate nanostructures (a process called positional assembly). Feature-oriented scanning methodology may be a promising way to implement these nanomanipulations in automatic mode. However, this is still a slow process because of low scanning velocity of the microscope.


title: Nanotechnology

text: Various techniques of nanolithography such as optical lithography, X-ray lithography, dip pen nanolithography, electron beam lithography or nanoimprint lithography were also developed. Lithography is a top-down fabrication technique where a bulk material is reduced in size to nanoscale pattern.


title: Nanotechnology

text: Another group of nanotechnological techniques include those used for fabrication of nanotubes and nanowires, those used in semiconductor fabrication such as deep ultraviolet lithography, electron beam lithography, focused ion beam machining, nanoimprint lithography, atomic layer deposition, and molecular vapor deposition, and further including molecular self-assembly techniques such as those employing di-block copolymers. The precursors of these techniques preceded the nanotech era, and are extensions in the development of scientific advancements rather than techniques which were devised with the sole purpose of creating nanotechnology and which were results of nanotechnology research.


title: Nanotechnology

text: The top-down approach anticipates nanodevices that must be built piece by piece in stages, much as manufactured items are made. Scanning probe microscopy is an important technique both for characterization and synthesis of nanomaterials. Atomic force microscopes and scanning tunneling microscopes can be used to look at surfaces and to move atoms around. By designing different tips for these microscopes, they can be used for carving out structures on surfaces and to help guide self-assembling structures. By using, for example, feature-oriented scanning approach, atoms or molecules can be moved around on a surface with scanning probe microscopy techniques. At present, it is expensive and time-consuming for mass production but very suitable for laboratory experimentation.


title: Nanotechnology

text: In contrast, bottom-up techniques build or grow larger structures atom by atom or molecule by molecule. These techniques include chemical synthesis, self-assembly and positional assembly. Dual polarisation interferometry is one tool suitable for characterisation of self assembled thin films. Another variation of the bottom-up approach is molecular beam epitaxy or MBE. Researchers at Bell Telephone Laboratories like John R. Arthur. Alfred Y. Cho, and Art C. Gossard developed and implemented MBE as a research tool in the late 1960s and 1970s. Samples made by MBE were key to the discovery of the fractional quantum Hall effect for which the 1998 Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded. MBE allows scientists to lay down atomically precise layers of atoms and, in the process, build up complex structures. Important for research on semiconductors, MBE is also widely used to make samples and devices for the newly emerging field of spintronics.


title: Nanotechnology

text: However, new therapeutic products, based on responsive nanomaterials, such as the ultradeformable, stress-sensitive Transfersome vesicles, are under development and already approved for human use in some countries.


title: Nanotechnology

text: Because of the variety of potential applications (including industrial and military), governments have invested billions of dollars in nanotechnology research. Prior to 2012, the USA invested $3.7 billion using its National Nanotechnology Initiative, the European Union invested $1.2 billion, and Japan invested $750 million. Over sixty countries created nanotechnology research and development (R&D) programs between 2001 and 2004. In 2012, the US and EU each invested on nanotechnology research, followed by Japan with . Global investment reached in 2012. Government funding was exceeded by corporate R&D spending on nanotechnology research, which was in 2012. The largest corporate R&D spenders were from the US, Japan and Germany which accounted for a combined .


title: Nanotechnology

text: As of August 21, 2008, the Project on Emerging Nanotechnologies estimates that over 800 manufacturer-identified nanotech products are publicly available, with new ones hitting the market at a pace of 3–4 per week. The project lists all of the products in a publicly accessible online database. Most applications are limited to the use of "first generation" passive nanomaterials which includes titanium dioxide in sunscreen, cosmetics, surface coatings, and some food products; Carbon allotropes used to produce gecko tape; silver in food packaging, clothing, disinfectants and household appliances; zinc oxide in sunscreens and cosmetics, surface coatings, paints and outdoor furniture varnishes; and cerium oxide as a fuel catalyst.


title: Nanotechnology

text: Further applications allow tennis balls to last longer, golf balls to fly straighter, and even bowling balls to become more durable and have a harder surface. Trousers and socks have been infused with nanotechnology so that they will last longer and keep people cool in the summer. Bandages are being infused with silver nanoparticles to heal cuts faster. Video game consoles and personal computers may become cheaper, faster, and contain more memory thanks to nanotechnology. Also, to build structures for on chip computing with light, for example on chip optical quantum information processing, and picosecond transmission of information.


title: Nanotechnology

text: Nanotechnology may have the ability to make existing medical applications cheaper and easier to use in places like the general practitioner's office and at home. Cars are being manufactured with nanomaterials so they may need fewer metals and less fuel to operate in the future.


title: Nanotechnology

text: Scientists are now turning to nanotechnology in an attempt to develop diesel engines with cleaner exhaust fumes. Platinum is currently used as the diesel engine catalyst in these engines. The catalyst is what cleans the exhaust fume particles. First a reduction catalyst is employed to take nitrogen atoms from NOx molecules in order to free oxygen. Next the oxidation catalyst oxidizes the hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide to form carbon dioxide and water. Platinum is used in both the reduction and the oxidation catalysts. Using platinum though, is inefficient in that it is expensive and unsustainable. Danish company InnovationsFonden invested DKK 15 million in a search for new catalyst substitutes using nanotechnology. The goal of the project, launched in the autumn of 2014, is to maximize surface area and minimize the amount of material required. Objects tend to minimize their surface energy; two drops of water, for example, will join to form one drop and decrease surface area. If the catalyst's surface area that is exposed to the exhaust fumes is maximized, efficiency of the catalyst is maximized. The team working on this project aims to create nanoparticles that will not merge. Every time the surface is optimized, material is saved. Thus, creating these nanoparticles will increase the effectiveness of the resulting diesel engine catalyst—in turn leading to cleaner exhaust fumes—and will decrease cost. If successful, the team hopes to reduce platinum use by 25%.


title: Nanotechnology

text: Nanotechnology also has a prominent role in the fast developing field of Tissue Engineering. When designing scaffolds, researchers attempt to mimic the nanoscale features of a cell's microenvironment to direct its differentiation down a suitable lineage. For example, when creating scaffolds to support the growth of bone, researchers may mimic osteoclast resorption pits.


title: Nanotechnology

text: Researchers have successfully used DNA origami-based nanobots capable of carrying out logic functions to achieve targeted drug delivery in cockroaches. It is said that the computational power of these nanobots can be scaled up to that of a Commodore 64.


title: Nanotechnology

text: Commercial nanoelectronic semiconductor device fabrication began in the 2010s. In 2013, SK Hynix began commercial mass-production of a 16nm process, TSMC began production of a 16nm FinFET process, and Samsung Electronics began production of a 10nm process. TSMC began production of a 7 nm process in 2017, and Samsung began production of a 5 nm process in 2018. In 2019, Samsung announced plans for the commercial production of a 3nm GAAFET process by 2021.


title: Nanotechnology

text: Commercial production of nanoelectronic semiconductor memory also began in the 2010s. In 2013, SK Hynix began mass-production of 16nm NAND flash memory, and Samsung began production of 10nm multi-level cell (MLC) NAND flash memory. In 2017, TSMC began production of SRAM memory using a 7 nm process.


title: Nanotechnology

text: An area of concern is the effect that industrial-scale manufacturing and use of nanomaterials would have on human health and the environment, as suggested by nanotoxicology research. For these reasons, some groups advocate that nanotechnology be regulated by governments. Others counter that overregulation would stifle scientific research and the development of beneficial innovations. Public health research agencies, such as the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health are actively conducting research on potential health effects stemming from exposures to nanoparticles.


title: Nanotechnology

text: Some nanoparticle products may have unintended consequences. Researchers have discovered that bacteriostatic silver nanoparticles used in socks to reduce foot odor are being released in the wash. These particles are then flushed into the waste water stream and may destroy bacteria which are critical components of natural ecosystems, farms, and waste treatment processes.


title: Nanotechnology

text: Public deliberations on risk perception in the US and UK carried out by the Center for Nanotechnology in Society found that participants were more positive about nanotechnologies for energy applications than for health applications, with health applications raising moral and ethical dilemmas such as cost and availability.


title: Nanotechnology

text: Experts, including director of the Woodrow Wilson Center's Project on Emerging Nanotechnologies David Rejeski, have testified that successful commercialization depends on adequate oversight, risk research strategy, and public engagement. Berkeley, California is currently the only city in the United States to regulate nanotechnology; Cambridge, Massachusetts in 2008 considered enacting a similar law, but ultimately rejected it.


title: Nanotechnology

text: Nanofibers are used in several areas and in different products, in everything from aircraft wings to tennis rackets. Inhaling airborne nanoparticles and nanofibers may lead to a number of pulmonary diseases, e.g. fibrosis. Researchers have found that when rats breathed in nanoparticles, the particles settled in the brain and lungs, which led to significant increases in biomarkers for inflammation and stress response and that nanoparticles induce skin aging through oxidative stress in hairless mice.


title: Nanotechnology

text: A two-year study at UCLA's School of Public Health found lab mice consuming nano-titanium dioxide showed DNA and chromosome damage to a degree "linked to all the big killers of man, namely cancer, heart disease, neurological disease and aging".


title: Nanotechnology

text: A Nature Nanotechnology study suggests some forms of carbon nanotubes – a poster child for the "nanotechnology revolution" – could be as harmful as asbestos if inhaled in sufficient quantities. Anthony Seaton of the Institute of Occupational Medicine in Edinburgh, Scotland, who contributed to the article on carbon nanotubes said "We know that some of them probably have the potential to cause mesothelioma. So those sorts of materials need to be handled very carefully." In the absence of specific regulation forthcoming from governments, Paull and Lyons (2008) have called for an exclusion of engineered nanoparticles in food. A newspaper article reports that workers in a paint factory developed serious lung disease and nanoparticles were found in their lungs.


title: Nanotechnology

text: Calls for tighter regulation of nanotechnology have occurred alongside a growing debate related to the human health and safety risks of nanotechnology. There is significant debate about who is responsible for the regulation of nanotechnology. Some regulatory agencies currently cover some nanotechnology products and processes (to varying degrees) – by "bolting on" nanotechnology to existing regulations – there are clear gaps in these regimes. Davies (2008) has proposed a regulatory road map describing steps to deal with these shortcomings.


title: Nanotechnology

text: Stakeholders concerned by the lack of a regulatory framework to assess and control risks associated with the release of nanoparticles and nanotubes have drawn parallels with bovine spongiform encephalopathy ("mad cow" disease), thalidomide, genetically modified food, nuclear energy, reproductive technologies, biotechnology, and asbestosis. Dr. Andrew Maynard, chief science advisor to the Woodrow Wilson Center's Project on Emerging Nanotechnologies, concludes that there is insufficient funding for human health and safety research, and as a result there is currently limited understanding of the human health and safety risks associated with nanotechnology. As a result, some academics have called for stricter application of the precautionary principle, with delayed marketing approval, enhanced labelling and additional safety data development requirements in relation to certain forms of nanotechnology.


title: Nanotechnology

text: The Royal Society report identified a risk of nanoparticles or nanotubes being released during disposal, destruction and recycling, and recommended that "manufacturers of products that fall under extended producer responsibility regimes such as end-of-life regulations publish procedures outlining how these materials will be managed to minimize possible human and environmental exposure" (p. xiii).


title: Nanotechnology

text: The Center for Nanotechnology in Society has found that people respond to nanotechnologies differently, depending on application – with participants in public deliberations more positive about nanotechnologies for energy than health applications – suggesting that any public calls for nano regulations may differ by technology sector.


title: Soursop

text: Soursop (also called "graviola, guyabano", and in Hispanic America, "guanábana") is the fruit of "Annona muricata", a broadleaf, flowering, evergreen tree. It is native to the tropical regions of the Americas and the Caribbean and is widely propagated. It is in the same genus, "Annona", as cherimoya and is in the Annonaceae family.


title: Soursop

text: The soursop is adapted to areas of high humidity and relatively warm winters; temperatures below will cause damage to leaves and small branches, and temperatures below can be fatal. The fruit becomes dry and is no longer good for concentrate.


title: Soursop

text: With an aroma similar to pineapple, the flavor of the fruit has been described as a combination of strawberries and apple with sour citrus flavor notes, contrasting with an underlying thick creamy texture reminiscent of banana.


title: Soursop

text: Soursop is widely promoted (sometimes as "graviola") as an alternative cancer treatment, but there is no reliable medical evidence it is effective for treating cancer or any disease.


title: Soursop

text: "Annona muricata" is a species of the genus "Annona" of the custard apple tree family, Annonaceae, which has edible fruit. The fruit is usually called soursop due to its slightly acidic taste when ripe. "Annona muricata" is native to the Caribbean and Central America but is now widely cultivated – and in some areas, becoming invasive – in tropical and subtropical climates throughout the world, such as India.


title: Soursop

text: The "annona muricata" fruit is generally called "guanábana" in Hispanic America, and the tree is a "guanábano". Both tree and fruit were called in some parts of Venezuela, but that word is currently less commonly used. It is known as "sirsak" in Indonesia.


title: Soursop

text: "Annona muricata" is also the main host plant for tailed jay ("Graphium agamemnon") caterpillars. They eat the leaves voraciously and usually stick under the leaves to pupate.


title: Soursop

text: Its young branches are hairy. Leaves are oblong to oval, to long and to wide. They are a glossy dark green with no hairs above, and paler and minutely hairy to no hairs below. The leaf stalks are to long and without hairs.


title: Soursop

text: Flower stalks (peduncles) are to long and woody. They appear opposite from the leaves or as an extra from near the leaf stalk, each with one or two flowers, occasionally a third. Stalks for the individual flowers (pedicels) are stout and woody, minutely hairy to hairless and to with small bractlets nearer to the base which are densely hairy.


title: Soursop

text: The petals are thick and yellowish. Outer petals meet at the edges without overlapping and are broadly ovate, to by to , tapering to a point with a heart shaped base. They are evenly thick, and are covered with long, slender, soft hairs externally and matted finely with soft hairs within. Inner petals are oval shaped and overlap. They measure roughly to by , and are sharply angled and tapering at the base. Margins are comparatively thin, with fine matted soft hairs on both sides. The receptacle is conical and hairy. The stamens are long and narrowly wedge-shaped. The connective-tip terminate abruptly and anther hollows are unequal. Sepals are quite thick and do not overlap. Carpels are linear and basally growing from one base. The ovaries are covered with dense reddish brown hairs, 1-ovuled, style short and stigma truncate. Its pollen is shed as permanent tetrads.


title: Soursop

text: The fruits are dark green and prickly. They are ovoid and can be up to long, with a moderately firm texture. Their flesh is juicy, acidic, whitish and aromatic.


title: Soursop

text: "Annona muricata" is tolerant of poor soil and prefers lowland areas between the altitudes of 0 to . It cannot stand frost. The exact origin is unknown; it is native to the tropical regions of the Americas and is widely propagated. It is an introduced species on all temperate continents, especially in subtropical regions.


title: Soursop

text: The plant is grown for its long, prickly, green fruit, which can have a mass of up to , making it probably the second biggest annona after the junglesop. Away from its native area, some limited production occurs as far north as southern Florida within USDA Zone 10; however, these are mostly garden plantings for local consumption. It is also grown in parts of Southeast Asia and is abundant on the Island of Mauritius. The main suppliers of the fruit are Mexico followed by Peru, Brazil, Ecuador, Guatemala, and Haiti. To aid soursop breeders and stimulate further development of genomic resources for this globally important plant family, the complete genome for "Annona muricata" was sequenced in 2021.


title: Soursop

text: The flesh of the fruit consists of an edible, white pulp, some fiber, and a core of indigestible black seeds. The pulp is also used to make fruit nectar, smoothies, fruit juice drinks, as well as candies, sorbets, and ice cream flavorings. Due to the fruit's widespread cultivation, its derivative products are consumed in many countries like Mexico, Brazil, Venezuela, Colombia and Fiji. The seeds are normally left in the preparation, and removed while consuming, unless a blender is used for processing.


title: Soursop

text: In Indonesia, "dodol sirsak", a sweet, is made by boiling soursop pulp in water and adding sugar until the mixture caramelizes and hardens. Soursop is also a common ingredient for making fresh fruit juices that are sold by street food vendors. In the Philippines, it is called "guyabano", derived from the Spanish "guanábana", and is eaten ripe, or used to make juices, smoothies, or ice cream. Sometimes, the leaf is used in tenderizing meat. In Vietnam, this fruit is called "mãng cầu Xiêm" (Siamese Soursop) in the south, or "mãng cầu" (Soursop) in the north, and is used to make smoothies, or eaten as is. In Cambodia, this fruit is called "tearb barung", literally "western custard-apple fruit." In Malaysia, it is known in Malay as "durian belanda" ("Dutch durian") and in East Malaysia, specifically among the Dusun people of Sabah, it is locally known as "lampun". Popularly, it is eaten raw when it ripens, or used as one of the ingredients in "Ais Kacang" or "Ais Batu Campur". Usually the fruits are taken from the tree when they mature and left to ripen in a dark corner, whereafter they will be eaten when they are fully ripe. It has a white flower with a very pleasing scent, especially in the morning. While for people in Brunei Darussalam this fruit is popularly known as "Durian Salat", widely available and easily planted.


title: Soursop

text: Soursop leaves are sold and consumed in Indonesia as herbal medicine. The leaves are usually boiled to make tea.


title: Soursop

text: Raw soursop is 81% water, 17% carbohydrates, 1% protein, and has negligible fat (see table). In a 100 gram reference amount, the raw fruit supplies 66 kilocalories, and contains only vitamin C as a significant amount (25%) of the Daily Value, with no other micronutrients in appreciable amounts (table).


title: Soursop

text: The compound annonacin is contained in the fruit, seeds, and leaves of soursop. The leaves of "Annona muricata" contain annonamine, which is an aporphine-class alkaloid containing a quaternary ammonium group. The plant also contains lichexanthone, a compound in the xanthone class.


title: Soursop

text: The Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center cautions, "alkaloids extracted from graviola may cause neuronal dysfunction". Annonacin has been shown in laboratory research to be neurotoxic. In 2010, the French food safety agency, Agence française de sécurité sanitaire des produits de santé, concluded that "it is not possible to confirm that the observed cases of atypical Parkinson syndrome ... are linked to the consumption of "Annona muricata"".


title: Soursop

text: In 2008, the Federal Trade Commission in the United States stated that use of soursop to treat cancer was "bogus", and there was "no credible scientific evidence" that the extract of soursop sold by Bioque Technologies "can prevent, cure, or treat cancer of any kind." Also in 2008, a UK court case relating to the sale of Triamazon, a soursop product, resulted in the criminal conviction of a man under the terms of the UK Cancer Act for offering to treat people for cancer. A spokesman for the council that instigated the action stated, "it is as important now as it ever was that people are protected from those peddling unproven products with spurious claims as to their effects."


title: Soursop

text: The Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center and Cancer Research UK state that cancer treatment using soursop is not supported by reliable clinical evidence. According to Cancer Research UK, "Many sites on the internet advertise and promote graviola capsules as a cancer cure, but none of them are supported by any reputable scientific cancer organisations" and "there is no evidence to show that graviola works as a cure for cancer".


title: Sydney Pollack

text: Sydney Irwin Pollack (July 1, 1934 – May 26, 2008) was an American film director, producer and actor. Pollack directed more than 20 films and 10 television shows, acted in over 30 movies or shows and produced over 44 films. For his film "Out of Africa" (1985), Pollack won the Academy Award for Best Director and Best Picture. He was also nominated for Best Director Oscars for "They Shoot Horses, Don't They?" (1969) and "Tootsie" (1982).


title: Sydney Pollack

text: Some of his other best-known works include "Jeremiah Johnson" (1972), "The Way We Were" (1973), "Three Days of the Condor" (1975) and "Absence of Malice" (1981). His subsequent films included "Havana" (1990), "The Firm" (1993), "The Interpreter" (2005), and he produced and acted in "Michael Clayton" (2007). Pollack also made appearances in Robert Altman's Hollywood mystery "The Player" (1992), Woody Allen's relationship drama "Husbands and Wives" (1993), and Stanley Kubrick's erotic psychological drama "Eyes Wide Shut" (1999).


title: Sydney Pollack

text: Pollack was born in Lafayette, Indiana, to a family of Russian-Jewish immigrants, the son of Rebecca (née Miller) and David Pollack, a semi-professional boxer and pharmacist. The family relocated to South Bend and his parents divorced when he was young. His mother, who suffered from alcoholism and emotional problems, died at the age of 37, when Pollack was 16.


title: Sydney Pollack

text: Despite earlier plans to attend college and then medical school, Pollack left Indiana for New York City soon after finishing high school at age 17. Pollack studied acting with Sanford Meisner at the Neighborhood Playhouse School of the Theatre from 1952 to 1954, working on a lumber truck between terms.


title: Sydney Pollack

text: After two years of army service ending in 1958, he returned to the Playhouse at Meisner's invitation to become his assistant. In 1960, John Frankenheimer, a friend of Pollack, asked him to come to Los Angeles to work as a dialogue coach for the child actors on Frankenheimer's first big picture, "The Young Savages". It was during this time that Pollack met Burt Lancaster, who encouraged the young actor to try directing.


title: Sydney Pollack

text: Pollack played a director in "The Twilight Zone" episode "The Trouble with Templeton" in 1961. But he found his real success in television in the 1960s by directing episodes of series, such as "The Fugitive" and "The Alfred Hitchcock Hour". After doing TV he made the jump into film with a string of movies that drew public attention. His film-directing debut was "The Slender Thread" (1965). Over time, Pollack's films received a total of 48 Academy Award nominations, winning 11 Oscars. His first Oscar nomination was for his 1969 film "They Shoot Horses, Don't They?", and his second in 1982 for "Tootsie". For his 1985 film "Out of Africa" starring Meryl Streep and Robert Redford, Pollack won Academy Awards for directing and producing.


title: Sydney Pollack

text: During his career, he directed 12 actors in Oscar-nominated performances: Jane Fonda, Gig Young, Susannah York, Barbra Streisand, Paul Newman, Melinda Dillon, Jessica Lange, Dustin Hoffman, Teri Garr, Meryl Streep, Klaus Maria Brandauer and Holly Hunter. Young and Lange won Oscars for their performances in Pollack's films.


title: Sydney Pollack

text: One of a select group of non- and/or former actors awarded membership in the Actors Studio, Pollack resumed acting in the 1990s with appearances in such films as Robert Altman's "The Player" (1992) and Stanley Kubrick's "Eyes Wide Shut" (1999), often playing corrupt or morally conflicted power figures. As a character actor, Pollack appeared in films such as "A Civil Action", and "Changing Lanes", as well as his own, including "Random Hearts" and "The Interpreter" (the latter also being his final film as a director). He also appeared in Woody Allen's "Husbands and Wives" as a New York lawyer undergoing a midlife crisis, and in Robert Zemeckis's "Death Becomes Her" as an emergency room doctor. His last role was as Patrick Dempsey's father in the 2008 romantic comedy "Made of Honor", which was playing in theaters at the time of his death. He was a recurring guest star on the NBC sitcom "Will & Grace", playing Will Truman's (Eric McCormack) unfaithful but loving father, George. In addition to earlier appearances on NBC's "Just Shoot Me" and "Mad About You", in 2007, Pollack made guest appearances on the HBO TV series "The Sopranos" and "Entourage".


title: Sydney Pollack

text: Pollack received the first annual Extraordinary Contribution to Filmmaking award from the Austin Film Festival on October 21, 2006. As a producer he helped to guide many films that were successful with both critics and movie audiences, such as "The Fabulous Baker Boys", "The Talented Mr. Ripley", and "Michael Clayton", a film in which he also starred opposite George Clooney and for which he received his sixth Academy Award nomination, in the Best Picture category. He formed a production company called Mirage Enterprises with the English director Anthony Minghella. The last film they produced together, "The Reader", earned them both posthumous Oscar nominations for Best Picture. Besides his many feature film laurels, Pollack was nominated for five Primetime Emmys, earning two: one for directing in 1966 and another for producing, which was given four months after his death in 2008.


title: Sydney Pollack

text: In the 2002 "Sight & Sound" Directors' Poll, Pollack revealed his top ten films in alphabetical order:


title: Sydney Pollack

text: Pollack was married to Claire Bradley Griswold, a former student of his, from 1958 until his death in 2008. They had three children: Steven (1959–1993), Rebecca (b. 1963), and Rachel (b. 1969). In November 1993, Steven died at the age of 34 in the crash of a small, single-engine plane which clipped a power line and burst into flames in Santa Monica, California. Claire, Pollack's wife, died on March 28, 2011 at 74 years of age, from Parkinson's disease.


title: Sydney Pollack

text: Concerns about Pollack's health surfaced in 2007, when he withdrew from directing HBO's television film "Recount", which aired on May 25, 2008. He died from cancer the following day at his home in the Pacific Palisades neighborhood of Los Angeles, at the age of 73. He had been diagnosed about ten months prior to his death; the type of cancer has been variously cited as pancreatic, stomach, or of unknown primary origin.


title: Last Christmas (film)

text: Last Christmas is a 2019 romantic comedy film directed by Paul Feig and written by Bryony Kimmings and Emma Thompson, who co-wrote the story with her husband, Greg Wise. Named after the 1984 song of the same name and inspired by the music of George Michael and Wham!, the film stars Emilia Clarke as a disillusioned Christmas store worker who forms a relationship with a mysterious man (Henry Golding) and begins to fall for him; Thompson and Michelle Yeoh also star.


title: Last Christmas (film)

text: "Last Christmas" was theatrically released in the United States on 8 November 2019 and in the United Kingdom on 15 November 2019 by Universal Pictures. It received mixed reviews from critics, who praised the performances and chemistry of Clarke and Golding, but criticised the screenplay. The film grossed $123 million worldwide.


title: Last Christmas (film)

text: Katarina "Kate" Andrich, a young aspiring singer, bounces around between her friends’ places, and works a dead-end job as an elf at a year-round Christmas shop in Central London, whose strict but good-hearted Chinese owner calls herself "Santa". While at work, she notices a man outside staring upward and strikes up a conversation, learning that his name is Tom Webster and his oft-repeated life wisdom is to "look up" for things that others seldom observe.


title: Last Christmas (film)

text: After an unsuccessful singing audition, Kate sees Tom again and they go for a walk, where he charms her with his unusual observations of London. Upon getting evicted by her oldest friend, Kate is forced to return home to her parents, both Yugoslavian immigrants. Her mother Petra suffers from depression, and her father Ivan, a former lawyer, works as a minicab driver as he cannot afford to retrain to practice law in the United Kingdom. Kate feels suffocated by her mother, who dotes on her while neglecting Kate's older sister, Marta, a successful lawyer who is a lesbian but hides her sexual orientation from their parents.


title: Last Christmas (film)

text: Kate begins spending more time with Tom, who makes deliveries on a bike and volunteers at a homeless shelter, which she initially mocks. Looking for Tom, who often disappears for days at a time and says he keeps his phone in a cupboard, she begins helping at the shelter in the hope of running into him, but finds that the staff has never met him.


title: Last Christmas (film)

text: While celebrating Marta's promotion, Kate spitefully outs Marta as a lesbian to their parents. Storming out, she then runs into Tom, who takes her back to his apartment. Kate reveals that, a year earlier, she was seriously ill and had to have a heart transplant. Kate says she feels half-dead and questions whether she has the talent to make it as a performer. After opening up to Tom, Kate tries to initiate sex, but he declines.


title: Last Christmas (film)

text: After spending the night with Tom, Kate begins taking small steps to improve her life; taking care of her body, setting up Santa with a Danish man who loves Christmas as much as she does, apologising to Marta and her girlfriend, and singing Christmas songs to busk for money for the shelter. After a few days she runs into Tom again, who says he has something important to tell her, but she preemptively asserts he is fearful of commitment, and walks away.


title: Last Christmas (film)

text: Kate continues to try to do good in her daily life. Finally, wanting to make amends with Tom, she returns to his apartment only to meet an estate agent who is holding viewings, who explains that the place has been vacant during the probate process. After some initial confusion, he reveals that the previous owner was killed in a bicycle accident last Christmas, and Kate realises that Tom was the organ donor whose heart she received. Going to a small garden, which was Tom's favourite place, Kate encounters him again where he says his heart "was always going to be yours" and asks her in parting to look after it. The bench on which they sat during their first trip to the garden is revealed to be a memorial bench for Tom.


title: Last Christmas (film)

text: On Christmas Eve, Kate organises a show utilising the talents of the people at the shelter and invites all of her friends and family, including the newly coupled Santa and her Danish admirer, and the estate agent she met at Tom’s apartment. Kate delicately performs a solo of the Wham! song, "Last Christmas", intertwined with flashbacks of her time with Tom, and revelry ensues when the curtain rises and she is joined by the band of shelter performers. The next day, Kate and her family celebrate Christmas together, joined by Marta's girlfriend Alba for the first time.


title: Last Christmas (film)

text: The Christmas celebration transitions to summer, where a visibly healthier Kate is seen writing in her journal on Tom’s memorial bench in the garden to which he introduced her. Smiling and happy, Kate looks up, as Tom always advised.


title: Last Christmas (film)

text: In addition, Andrew Ridgeley, from the duo Wham!, whose song "Last Christmas" is instrumental to the plot, has an uncredited cameo appearance in the audience at the end of the film.


title: Last Christmas (film)

text: In September 2018, it was reported that Emilia Clarke and Henry Golding would star in a London-set romantic comedy taking place at Christmas, titled "Last Christmas". Paul Feig was set to direct, with Emma Thompson co-writing the screenplay. In October, it was announced that Thompson would star as well, and that the film would feature the music of the late singer George Michael (who died in 2016), including "Last Christmas", and previously unreleased tracks. In November 2018, Michelle Yeoh joined the cast of the film. In November 2021, it was revealed that Harry Styles had been approached for the role of Tom, but declined it stating that he felt he was "too young to take the role".


title: Last Christmas (film)

text: "Last Christmas" was filmed from 26 November 2018 to February 2019. Filming locations included Piccadilly Circus, the Strand, Regent Street, the Thames Embankment, Covent Garden (where the Christmas shop is located), West London Film Studios, St Mary's Bryanston Square Church, Marylebone and the Phoenix Garden.


title: Last Christmas (film)

text: On 31 October 2019, Thompson and Wise published a collection of personal essays about the meaning of Christmas in a book also called "Last Christmas". Contributors include Andy Serkis, Caitlin Moran, Olivia Colman and Emily Watson. The profits from the book went to two charities, Crisis and The Refugee Council.


title: Last Christmas (film)

text: An official soundtrack album was released by Legacy Recordings on CD, two-disc vinyl, and digital formats on 8 November 2019. The album contains 14 Wham! and solo George Michael songs, as well as a previously unreleased song originally completed in 2015 titled "This Is How (We Want You to Get High)". The soundtrack album debuted at number one on the UK Official Soundtrack Albums Chart and at number 11 on the UK Albums Chart on 15 November 2019. It also entered the Australian Albums Chart at number seven, and peaked at number 26 on the Irish Albums Chart and number 36 on the US "Billboard" 200.


title: Last Christmas (film)

text: In the United States, the film was due for release on 15 November 2019, but was moved up a week to 8 November. It was released on 15 November 2019 in the United Kingdom.


title: Last Christmas (film)

text: Last Christmas was released on Digital HD from Amazon Video and iTunes on 21 January 2020, and on DVD and Blu-ray on 4 February 2020.


title: Last Christmas (film)

text: "Last Christmas" grossed $35.2 million in the United States and Canada, and $86.4 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $121.6 million.


title: Last Christmas (film)

text: In the United States and Canada, "Last Christmas" was released alongside "Doctor Sleep", "Midway", and "Playing with Fire", and was projected to gross $13–19 million from 3,448 theatres in its opening weekend. It made $4.1 million on its first day, including $575,000 from Thursday night previews. It went on to debut to $11.6 million, finishing fourth, behind its fellow newcomers. In its second weekend, the film grossed $6.7 million, finishing fifth. The film took in $3 million during its third weekend, finishing ninth and losing 1,043 theaters.


title: Last Christmas (film)

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of based on reviews, with an average rating of . The website's critics consensus reads, "Likable leads, terrific behind-the-scenes talent, and an intriguing musical hook aren't enough to save "Last Christmas" from its poorly conceived story." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 50 out of 100, based on 40 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B−" on an A+ to F scale, while those at PostTrak gave it an average 3 out of 5 stars.


title: Last Christmas (film)

text: Owen Gleiberman of "Variety" gave the film a negative review and wrote, "It's twee, it's precious, it's forced. And it's light on true romance, maybe because the movie itself is a little too in love with itself." John DeFore of "The Hollywood Reporter" called it a misfire, however adding, "it earns some warm feelings for its determination not to be like anything else currently in circulation." Alonso Duralde of "TheWrap" compared the film to a Christmas album, and said it was not as good as Paul Feig's best work, though "it fulfills a craving for sticky Christmas pudding." Hadley Freeman in The Guardian contrasted Emma Thompson's high quality adaptation of Sense and Sensibility to Last Christmas describing it as "second-rate, absurd, [and] inexplicable".


title: Last Christmas (film)

text: Charles Bramesco of "The A.V. Club" called the film "a guilty pleasure" but criticised the plot twist as predictable. He praised Clarke for her performance, saying "she succeeds in the only real meaningful test of rom-com skill, in that she makes us want her to be happy."


title: Last Christmas (film)

text: David Fear of "Rolling Stone" described the film as "incredibly, shockingly, monumentally bad. The kind of bad that falls somewhere between finding a lump of coal in your stocking and discovering one painfully lodged in your rectum."


title: Hull City A.F.C.

text: Hull City Association Football Club is a professional football club based in Hull, East Riding of Yorkshire, England, that compete in the . They have played home games at the MKM Stadium since moving from Boothferry Park in 2002. The club's traditional home shirt is in black and amber, often with a striped shirt design, hence their nickname, The Tigers. They hold Humber derby rivalries with Scunthorpe United and Grimsby Town.


title: Hull City A.F.C.

text: The club was founded in 1904 and admitted into the Football League two years later. They remained in the Second Division until relegation in 1930. Hull won the Third Division North title in 1932–33, but were relegated three years later. They won the Third Division North under the stewardship of Raich Carter in 1948–49, and this time remained in the second tier for seven seasons. Having been promoted again in 1958–59, they were relegated the following season and remained in the Third Division until they were promoted as champions under Cliff Britton in 1965–66. Twelve seasons in the second tier culminated in two relegations in four years by 1981. They were promoted from the Fourth Division at the end of the 1982–83 campaign and were beaten finalists in the inaugural Associate Members' Cup in 1984.


title: Hull City A.F.C.

text: Hull were relegated in 1991 and again in 1996, but secured back-to-back promotions in 2003–04 and 2004–05. The club went on to win the 2008 play-off final to win a place in the Premier League. They were relegated after two seasons, but were promoted from the Championship in 2012–13. Hull played in their first FA Cup final in 2014, losing 3–2 to Arsenal after extra-time. Relegated from the Premier League the following year, they returned for a third time with victory in the 2016 play-off final. They were relegated from the Premier League just a year later, before dropping into the third tier in 2020. Hull secured immediate promotion as champions of League One at the end of the 2020–21 campaign.


title: Hull City A.F.C.

text: Hull City Association Football Club was founded in June 1904; previous attempts to found a football club had proved difficult because of the dominance in the city of rugby league teams such as Hull F.C. and Hull Kingston Rovers. The club was unable to apply for membership of the Football League for the 1904–05 season and instead played only in friendlies, the first of which was a 2–2 draw with Notts County on 1 September 1904 with 6,000 in attendance. These early matches were played at the Boulevard, the home of Hull F.C. The club's first competitive football match was in the FA Cup preliminary round, drawing 3–3 with Stockton on 17 September, but they were eliminated after losing the replay 4–1 on 22 September. After disputes with landlords at the Boulevard, Hull City moved to Anlaby Road Cricket Ground. After having played 44 friendly fixtures the previous season, Hull City were finally admitted into the Football League Second Division for the 1905–06 season. Other teams competing in the league that season included the likes of Manchester United and Chelsea, as well as Yorkshire rivals Barnsley, Bradford City and Leeds City. Hull defeated Barnsley 4–1 at home in their first game and finished the season in fifth place.


title: Hull City A.F.C.

text: Hull City and Grimsby Town were the only two professional teams which had official permission to play league football on Christmas Day because of the demands of the fish trade, but that tradition has now disappeared following the dramatic reduction of their trawler fleets in recent years.


title: Hull City A.F.C.

text: The following season a new ground was built for Hull City across the road from the cricket ground. Still under the managership of Ambrose Langley, Hull continued to finish consistently in the top half of the table. They came close to promotion in the 1909–10 season, recording what would be their highest finish until they matched it in 2008. Hull finished third, level on points with second placed Oldham Athletic, missing promotion on goal average by 0.29 of a goal. Hull regularly finished in the top half of the table before the First World War, but after the war the team finished in the bottom half in seven seasons out of eleven, culminating in relegation to the Third Division North in 1930.


title: Hull City A.F.C.

text: Hull's greatest achievement in cup competitions until 2014 was in 1930, when they reached the FA Cup semi-finals. The cup run saw Hull knock out the eventual champions of the Second and Third Divisions; Blackpool and Plymouth Argyle respectively. They then knocked out Manchester City, to meet Newcastle United in the quarter-finals. The first game at St James' Park finished as a 1–1 draw, but in the replay Hull beat Newcastle 1–0. The semi-final match against Arsenal took place at Elland Road in Leeds, the game ended 2–2, and was taken to a replay in Birmingham. Arsenal knocked Hull out at Villa Park, the game ending 1–0.


title: Hull City A.F.C.

text: After the Second World War, the club moved to another new ground, Boothferry Park. In the 1948–49 season, managed by former England international Raich Carter, Hull won the Third Division North championship. "Yo-yoing" between the second and third tiers of English football, Hull City had promotion seasons from the Third to the Second Division again in 1959 and 1966, winning the Third Division in the latter season. Hull also became the first team in the world to go out of a cup competition on penalties, beaten by Manchester United in the semi-final of the Watney Cup on 1 August 1970. By the early 1980s, Hull City were in the Fourth Division, and financial collapse led to receivership.


title: Hull City A.F.C.

text: Don Robinson took over as chairman and appointed Colin Appleton as the new manager. Both had previously held the equivalent roles with non-league Scarborough. Promotion to Division Three followed in 1983, with a young team featuring the likes of future England international Brian Marwood, future England manager Steve McClaren, centre-forward Billy Whitehurst, and the prolific goal-scorer Les Mutrie. When Hull City missed out on promotion by one goal the following season, Appleton left to manage Swansea City.


title: Hull City A.F.C.

text: Hull reached the Second Division in 1985 under player-manager Brian Horton. They remained there for the next six years before finally going down in 1991, by which time the club's manager was Terry Dolan. Hull finished 14th in the Third Division in the 1991–92 season, meaning that they would be competing in the new Second Division the following season. In their first season in the rebranded division, Hull narrowly avoided another relegation, but the board kept faith in Dolan and over the next two seasons they achieved mid-table finishes. Financial difficulties hampered City's progress, as key players such as Alan Fettis and Dean Windass


title: Hull City A.F.C.

text: had to be sold to fend off winding-up orders. In the 1995–96 season Hull were relegated to the Third Division.


title: Hull City A.F.C.

text: In 1997 the club was purchased by former tennis player David Lloyd, who sacked Dolan as manager and replaced him with Mark Hateley after Hull could only finish in 17th place in the table. Hull's league form was steadily deteriorating to the point that relegation to the Football Conference was looking a real possibility. Lloyd sold the club in November 1998 to a South Yorkshire-based consortium, but retained ownership of Boothferry Park. Hateley departed in November 1998, with the club at the foot of the table. He was replaced by 34-year-old veteran player Warren Joyce, who steered the club to safety with games to spare. Hull City fans refer to this season as "The Great Escape". Despite this feat, Joyce was replaced in April 2000 by the more experienced Brian Little.


title: Hull City A.F.C.

text: Despite briefly being locked out of Boothferry Park by bailiffs and facing the possibility of liquidation, Hull qualified for the Third Division play-offs in the 2000–01 season, losing in the semi-finals to Leyton Orient. A boardroom takeover by former Leeds United commercial director Adam Pearson had eased the club's precarious financial situation and all fears of closure were banished.


title: Hull City A.F.C.

text: The new chairman ploughed funds into the club, allowing Little to rebuild the team. Hull occupied the Third Division promotion and play-off places for much of the 2001–02 season, but Little departed two months before the end of the season and Hull slipped to 11th place under his successor Jan Mølby.


title: Hull City A.F.C.

text: Hull began the 2002–03 season with a number of defeats, which saw relegation look more likely than promotion, and Mølby was sacked in October as Hull languished fifth from bottom in the league. Peter Taylor was named as Hull's new manager and in December 2002, just two months after his appointment, Hull relocated to the new 25,400-seater KC Stadium after 56 years at Boothferry Park. At the end of the season Hull finished 13th.


title: Hull City A.F.C.

text: Hull were Third Division runners-up in 2003–04 and League One runners-up in 2004–05; these back-to-back promotions took them into the Championship, the second tier of English football. The 2005–06 season, the club's first back in the second tier, saw Hull finish in 18th place, 10 points clear of relegation and their highest league finish for 16 years.


title: Hull City A.F.C.

text: However, Taylor left the club to take up the manager's job at Crystal Palace and Colchester United's Phil Parkinson was confirmed as his replacement, but was sacked on 4 December 2006 with Hull in the relegation zone, despite having spent over £2 million on players during the summer. Phil Brown took over as caretaker manager, and took over permanently in January 2007, having taken Hull out of the relegation zone. Brown brought veteran striker Dean Windass back to his hometown club on loan from Bradford City, and his eight goals helped secure Hull's Championship status as they finished in 21st place.


title: Hull City A.F.C.

text: Adam Pearson sold the club to a consortium led by Paul Duffen in June 2007, stating that he "had taken the club as far as I could", and would have to relinquish control in order to attract "really significant finance into the club". Under Paul Duffen and manager Phil Brown, Hull City improved greatly on their relegation battle of 2006–07 and qualified for the play-offs after finishing the season in third place. They beat Watford 6–1 on aggregate in the semi-finals and played Bristol City in the final on 24 May 2008, which Hull won 1–0 at Wembley Stadium, with Hull native Dean Windass scoring the winning goal. Their ascent from the bottom division of the Football League to the top division of English football in just five seasons is the third-fastest ever.


title: Hull City A.F.C.

text: Despite being one of the favourites for relegation in the 2008–09 season, Hull began life in the Premier League by beating Fulham 2–1 on the opening day in their first ever top flight fixture. With only one defeat in their opening nine games, including away wins at Arsenal and Tottenham Hotspur, Hull City found themselves (temporarily) joint-top of the Premier League table on points (third on goal difference), following a 3–0 victory over West Bromwich Albion – ten years previously, they had been bottom of the fourth tier of English football. Hull's form never replicated the highs of the early autumn, with the team winning only two more games over the remainder of the season, but secured their top-flight status on the last day of the season due to other results.