title: Enver Hoxha

text: On 7 April 1939, the Albanian Kingdom was invaded by Fascist Italy. The Italians established a puppet government, called the Kingdom of Albania, under Shefqet Vërlaci. At the end of 1939, he was transferred to the Gjirokastra Gymnasium, but he soon returned to Tirana. He was helped by his best friend, Esat Dishnica, who introduced Hoxha to Dishnica's cousin Ibrahim Biçakçiu. Hoxha started to sleep in Biçakçiu's tobacco factory "Flora", and after a while Dishnica opened a shop with the same name, where Hoxha began working. He was a sympathiser of Korça's Communist Group.


title: Enver Hoxha

text: On 8 November 1941, the Communist Party of Albania (later renamed the Party of Labour of Albania in 1948) was founded. Hoxha was chosen from the "Korça group" as a Muslim representative by the two Yugoslav envoys as one of the seven members of the provisional Central Committee. The First Consultative Meeting of Activists of the Communist Party of Albania was held in Tirana from 8 to 11 April 1942, with Hoxha himself delivering the main report on 8 April 1942.


title: Enver Hoxha

text: In July 1942, Hoxha wrote "Call to the Albanian Peasantry", issued in the name of the Communist Party of Albania. The call sought to enlist support in Albania for the war against the fascists. The peasants were encouraged to hoard their grain and refuse to pay taxes or livestock levies brought by the government. After the September 1942 Conference at Pezë, the National Liberation Movement was founded with the purpose of uniting the anti-fascist Albanians, regardless of ideology or class.


title: Enver Hoxha

text: By March 1943, the first National Conference of the Communist Party elected Hoxha formally as First Secretary. During WWII, the Soviet Union's role in Albania was negligible. On 10 July 1943, the Albanian partisans were organised in regular units of companies, battalions and brigades and named the Albanian National Liberation Army. The organization received military support from the British intelligence service, SOE. The General Headquarters was created, with Spiro Moisiu as the commander and Hoxha as political commissar. The Yugoslav Partisans had a much more practical role, helping to plan attacks and exchanging supplies, but communication between them and the Albanians was limited and letters often arrived late, sometimes well after a plan had been agreed upon by the National Liberation Army without consultation from the Yugoslav partisans.


title: Enver Hoxha

text: Within Albania, repeated attempts were made during the war to remedy the communications difficulties which faced partisan groups. In August 1943, a secret meeting, the Mukje Conference, was held between the anti-communist Balli Kombëtar (National Front) and the Communist Party of Albania. To encourage the Balli Kombëtar to sign, the Greater Albania sections that included Kosovo (part of Yugoslavia) and Chamëria were made part of the Agreement.


title: Enver Hoxha

text: A problem developed when the Yugoslav Communists disagreed with the goal of establishing a Greater Albania and asked the Communists in Albania to withdraw their agreement. According to Hoxha, Josip Broz Tito did not believe that "Kosovo was Albanian" and Serbian opposition to the transfer made it an unwise option. After the Albanian Communists repudiated the Greater Albania agreement, the Balli Kombëtar condemned the Communists, who in turn accused the Balli Kombëtar of siding with the Italians. The Balli Kombëtar, however, lacked support from the people. After judging the Communists as an immediate threat, the Balli Kombëtar sided with Nazi Germany, fatally damaging its image among those fighting the Fascists. The Communists quickly added to their ranks many of those disillusioned with the Balli Kombëtar and took centre stage in the fight for liberation.


title: Enver Hoxha

text: The Permet National Congress held during that time called for a "new democratic Albania for the people". Although the monarchy was not formally abolished, King Zog I of the Albanians was barred from returning to the country, which further increased the Communists' control. The Anti-Fascist Committee for National Liberation was founded, chaired by Hoxha. On 22 October 1944, the Committee became the Democratic Government of Albania after a meeting in Berat and Hoxha was chosen as interim Prime Minister. Tribunals were set up to try alleged war criminals who were designated "enemies of the people" and were presided over by Koçi Xoxe.


title: Enver Hoxha

text: After liberation on 29 November 1944, several Albanian partisan divisions crossed the border into German-occupied Yugoslavia, where they fought alongside Tito's partisans and the Soviet Red Army in a joint campaign which succeeded in driving out the last pockets of German resistance. Marshal Tito, during a Yugoslavian conference in later years, thanked Hoxha for the assistance that the Albanian partisans had given during the War for National Liberation ("Lufta Nacionalçlirimtare"). The Democratic Front, dominated by the Albanian Communist Party, succeeded the National Liberation Front in August 1945, and the first post-war election was held on 2 December that year. The Front was the only legal political organisation allowed to stand in the elections, and the government reported that 93% of Albanians voted for it.


title: Enver Hoxha

text: On 11 January 1946, Zog was officially deposed and Albania was proclaimed the People's Republic of Albania (renamed the People's Socialist Republic of Albania in 1976). As First Secretary of the party, Hoxha was "de facto" head of state and the most powerful man in the country.


title: Enver Hoxha

text: Albanians celebrate their independence day on 28 November (which is the date on which they declared their independence from the Ottoman Empire in 1912), while in the former People's Socialist Republic of Albania the national day was 29 November, the day the country was liberated from the Italians. Both days are currently national holidays.


title: Enver Hoxha

text: During the period of 1945–1950, the government adopted policies and actions intended to consolidate power which included extrajudicial killings and executions that targeted and eliminated anti-communists.


title: Enver Hoxha

text: The Agrarian Reform Law was passed in August 1945. It confiscated land from beys and large landowners, giving it without compensation to peasants. 52% of all land was owned by large landowners before the law was passed; this declined to 16% after the law's passage. Illiteracy, which was 90–95% in rural areas in 1939 and perhaps 85% of the total population in 1946, fell to 30% by 1950, and by 1985 it was equal to that of a Western country.


title: Enver Hoxha

text: By 1949, the US and British intelligence organisations were working with the former King Zog and the mountain men of his personal guard. They recruited Albanian refugees and émigrés from Egypt, Italy and Greece, trained them in Cyprus, Malta and the Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany), and infiltrated them into Albania. Guerrilla units entered Albania in 1950 and 1952, but they were killed or captured by Albanian security forces. Kim Philby, a Soviet double agent working as a liaison officer between MI6 and the CIA, had leaked details of the infiltration plan to Moscow, and the security breach claimed the lives of about 300 infiltrators.


title: Enver Hoxha

text: On 19 February 1951, a bombing occurred at the Soviet embassy in Tirana, after which 23 accused intellectuals were arrested and put in prison. One of them, Jonuz Kaceli, was killed by Prime Minister Mehmet Shehu during interrogation. Subsequently, the 22 others were executed without trial under Hoxha's orders. They were later found to be innocent.


title: Enver Hoxha

text: The State University of Tirana was established in 1957, which was the first of its kind in Albania. The medieval Gjakmarrja (blood feud) was banned. Malaria, the most widespread disease, was successfully fought through advances in health care, the use of DDT, and through the draining of swampland. From 1965 to 1985, no cases of malaria were reported, whereas previously Albania had the greatest number of infected patients in Europe. No cases of syphilis had been recorded for 30 years. In 1938 the number of physicians was 1.1 per 10,000 and there was only one hospital bed per 1,000 people. In 1950, while the number of physicians had not increased, there were four times as many hospital beds per head, and health expenditures had risen to 5% of the budget, up from 1% before the war.


title: Enver Hoxha

text: At this point, relations with Yugoslavia had begun to change. The roots of the change began on 20 October 1944 at the Second Plenary Session of the Communist Party of Albania. The Session considered the problems that the post-independence Albanian government would face. However, the Yugoslav delegation which was led by Velimir Stoinić accused the party of "sectarianism and opportunism" and blamed Hoxha for these errors. He also stressed the view that the Yugoslav Communist partisans spearheaded the Albanian partisan movement.


title: Enver Hoxha

text: Anti-Yugoslav members of the Albanian Communist Party had begun to think that this was a plot by Tito who intended to destabilize the Party. Koçi Xoxe, Sejfulla Malëshova and others who supported Yugoslavia were looked upon with deep suspicion. Tito's position on Albania was that it was too weak to stand on its own and that it would do better as a part of Yugoslavia. Hoxha alleged that Tito had made it his goal to get Albania into Yugoslavia, firstly by creating the Treaty of Friendship, Co-operation and Mutual Aid in 1946. In time, Albania began to feel that the treaty was heavily slanted towards Yugoslav interests, much like the Italian agreements with Albania under Zog that made the nation dependent upon Italy.


title: Enver Hoxha

text: The first issue was that the Albanian lek became revalued in terms of the Yugoslav dinar as a customs union was formed and Albania's economic plan was decided more by Yugoslavia. Albanian economists H. Banja and V. Toçi stated that the relationship between Albania and Yugoslavia during this period was exploitative and that it constituted attempts by Yugoslavia to make the Albanian economy an "appendage" to the Yugoslav economy. Hoxha then began to accuse Yugoslavia of misconduct:


title: Enver Hoxha

text: Stalin advised Hoxha that Yugoslavia was attempting to annex Albania: "We did not know that the Yugoslavs, under the pretext of 'defending' your country against an attack from the Greek fascists, wanted to bring units of their army into the PRA [People's Republic of Albania]. They tried to do this in a very secretive manner. In reality, their aim in this direction was utterly hostile, for they intended to overturn the situation in Albania." By June 1947, the Central Committee of Yugoslavia began publicly condemning Hoxha, accusing him of taking an individualistic and anti-Marxist line. When Albania responded by making agreements with the Soviet Union to purchase a supply of agricultural machinery, Yugoslavia said that Albania could not enter into any agreements with other countries without Yugoslav approval.


title: Enver Hoxha

text: Koçi Xoxe tried to stop Hoxha from improving relations with Bulgaria, reasoning that Albania would be more stable with one trading partner rather than with many. Nako Spiru, an anti-Yugoslav member of the Party, condemned Xoxe and vice versa. With no one coming to Spiru's defense, he viewed the situation as hopeless and feared that Yugoslav domination of his nation was imminent, which caused him to commit suicide in November.


title: Enver Hoxha

text: At the Eighth Plenum of the Central Committee of the Party which lasted from 26 February to 8 March 1948, Xoxe was implicated in a plot to isolate Hoxha and consolidate his own power. He accused Hoxha of being responsible for the decline in relations with Yugoslavia and stated that a Soviet military mission should be expelled in favor of a Yugoslav counterpart. Hoxha managed to remain firm and his support had not declined. When Yugoslavia publicly broke with the Soviet Union, Hoxha's support base grew stronger. Then, on 1 July 1948, Tirana called on all Yugoslav technical advisors to leave the country and unilaterally declared all treaties and agreements between the two countries null and void. Xoxe was expelled from the party and on 13 June 1949, he was executed by hanging.


title: Enver Hoxha

text: After the break with Yugoslavia, Hoxha aligned himself with the Soviet Union. From 1948 to 1960, $200 million in Soviet aid was given to Albania for technical and infrastructural expansion. Albania was admitted to the Comecon on 22 February 1949 and served as a pro-Soviet force on the Adriatic. A Soviet submarine base was built on the Albanian island of Sazan near Vlorë, posing a hypotethical threat to the U.S. Sixth Fleet in the Mediterranean. Relations with the Soviet Union remained close until the death of Stalin in March 1953. It was followed by 14 days of national mourning in Albania – more than in the Soviet Union. Hoxha assembled the population of Tirana in the capital's largest square, featuring a Stalin statue, requested that they kneel take a 2,000-word oath of "eternal fidelity" and "gratitude" to their "beloved father" and "great liberator".


title: Enver Hoxha

text: Under Nikita Khrushchev, Stalin's eventual successor, aid was reduced and Albania was encouraged to adopt Khrushchev's specialisation policy. Under it, Albania would develop its agricultural output in order to supply the Soviet Union and other Warsaw Pact countries while they would be developing products of their own, which would, in theory, strengthen the Warsaw Pact. However, this also meant that Albanian industrial development, which was stressed heavily by Hoxha, would be hindered.


title: Enver Hoxha

text: In May–June 1955, Nikolai Bulganin and Anastas Mikoyan visited Yugoslavia while Khrushchev renounced the expulsion of Yugoslavia from the Communist bloc. Khrushchev also began making references to Palmiro Togliatti's polycentrism theory. Hoxha had not been consulted on this and was offended. Yugoslavia began asking for Hoxha to rehabilitate the image of Koçi Xoxe, which Hoxha steadfastly rejected. In 1956 at the Twentieth Party Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, Khrushchev condemned the cult of personality that had been built up around Joseph Stalin and denounced his excesses. Khrushchev then announced the theory of peaceful coexistence, which angered the Stalinist Hoxha greatly. The Institute of Marxist–Leninist Studies, led by Hoxha's wife Nexhmije, quoted Vladimir Lenin: "The fundamental principle of the foreign policy of a socialist country and of a Communist party is proletarian internationalism; not peaceful coexistence." Hoxha now took a more active stand against perceived revisionism.


title: Enver Hoxha

text: Unity within the Albanian Party of Labour began to decline as well, with a special delegate meeting held in Tirana in April 1956, composed of 450 delegates and having unexpected results. The delegates "criticized the conditions in the party, the negative attitude toward the masses, the absence of party and socialist democracy, the economic policy of the leadership, etc." while also calling for discussions on the cult of personality and the Twentieth Party Congress.


title: Enver Hoxha

text: In 1956, Hoxha called for a resolution which would confirm the existing leadership of the Party. The resolution was accepted, and all of the delegates who had spoken against it were expelled from the party and imprisoned. Hoxha claimed that Yugoslavia had attempted to overthrow the leadership of Albania. This incident increased Hoxha's power, effectively making Khrushchev-style reforms impossible there. In the same year, Hoxha travelled to China, then embroiled in the Sino-Soviet split, and met Mao Zedong. Chinese aid to Albania rose sharply during the next two years.


title: Enver Hoxha

text: In an effort to keep Albania in the Soviet sphere, increased Soviet aid was given but relations with the Soviet Union remained at the same level until 1960, when Khrushchev met Sofoklis Venizelos, a liberal Greek politician. Khrushchev sympathised with the concept of an autonomous Greek North Epirus and he hoped to use Greek claims to keep the Albanian leadership in line. Hoxha reacted by only sending Hysni Kapo, a member of the Albanian Political Bureau, to the Third Congress of the Romanian Workers' Party in Bucharest, an event Communist heads of state were normally expected to attend. As relations between the two countries continued to deteriorate in the course of the meeting, Khrushchev said:


title: Enver Hoxha

text: Relations with the Soviet Union declined rapidly. A hardline policy was adopted and the Soviets reduced grain shipments at a time when Albania needed them due to the possibility of a flood-induced famine. In July 1960, a plot to overthrow the Albanian government was discovered. It was to be organised by Soviet-trained Rear Admiral Teme Sejko. After this, two pro-Soviet members of the Party, Liri Belishova and Koço Tashko, were expelled.


title: Enver Hoxha

text: In August, the Party's Central Committee sent a protest to the Central Committee of the CPSU about having an anti-Albanian Soviet Ambassador in Tirana. The Fourth Congress of the Party, held from 13 to 20 February 1961, was the last meeting that the Soviet Union or other Eastern European nations attended in Albania. During the congress, Mehmet Shehu stated that while many members of the Party were accused of tyranny, this was a baseless charge and unlike the Soviet Union, Albania was led by genuine Marxists.


title: Enver Hoxha

text: The Soviet Union retaliated by threatening "dire consequences" if the condemnations were not retracted. Days later, Khrushchev and Antonín Novotný, President of Czechoslovakia, threatened to cut off economic aid. In March, Albania was not invited to attend the meeting of the Warsaw Pact nations, and in April all Soviet technicians were withdrawn from Albania. In May nearly all Soviet troops at the Soviet submarine base were withdrawn.


title: Enver Hoxha

text: On 7 November 1961, Hoxha made a speech in which he called Khrushchev a "revisionist, an anti-Marxist and a defeatist". Hoxha portrayed Stalin as the last Communist leader of the Soviet Union and alluded to Albania's independence. By 11 November, the USSR and every other Warsaw Pact nation broke diplomatic relations with Albania. Albania was unofficially excluded from the Warsaw Pact and Comecon. The Soviet Union also attempted to claim control of the submarine base. The Albanian Party then passed a law prohibiting any other nation from owning an Albanian port. The Soviet–Albanian split was now complete.


title: Enver Hoxha

text: As Hoxha's leadership continued, he took on an increasingly theoretical stance. He wrote criticisms which were based on theory and current events which occurred at the time; his most notable criticisms were his condemnations of Maoism after 1978. A major achievement under Hoxha was the advancement of women's rights. Albania had been one of the most, if not the most, patriarchal countries in Europe. The ancient "Code of Lekë", which regulated the status of women, states, "A woman is known as a sack, made to endure as long as she lives in her husband's house." Women were not allowed to inherit anything from their parents, and discrimination was even made in the case of the murder of a pregnant woman:


title: Enver Hoxha

text: Women were forbidden from obtaining a divorce, and the wife's parents were obliged to return a runaway daughter to her husband or else suffer shame which could even result in a generations-long blood feud. During World War II, the Albanian Communists encouraged women to join the partisans and following the war, women were encouraged to take up menial jobs, as the education necessary for higher level work was out of most women's reach. In 1938, 4% worked in various sectors of the economy. In 1970, this number had risen to 38%, and in 1982 to 46%.


title: Enver Hoxha

text: During the Cultural and Ideological Revolution (discussed below), women were encouraged to take up "all" jobs, including government posts, which resulted in 40.7% of the People's Councils and 30.4% of the People's Assembly being made up of women, including two women in the Central Committee by 1985. In 1978, 15.1 times as many females attended eight-year schools as had done so in 1938 and 175.7 times as many females attended secondary schools. By 1978, 101.9 times as many women attended higher schools as in 1957. Hoxha said of women's rights in 1967:The entire party and country should hurl into the fire and break the neck of anyone who dared trample underfoot the sacred edict of the party on the defense of women's rights.In 1969, direct taxation was abolished and during this period the quality of schooling and health care continued to improve. An electrification campaign was begun in 1960 and the entire nation was expected to have electricity by 1985. Instead, it achieved this on 25 October 1970, making it the first nation with complete electrification in the world. During the Cultural & Ideological Revolution of 1967–1968 the military changed from traditional Communist army tactics and began to adhere to the Maoist strategy known as people's war, which included the abolition of military ranks, which were not fully restored until 1991. Mehmet Shehu said of the country's health service in 1979:


title: Enver Hoxha

text: Hoxha's legacy also included a complex of 173,371 one-man concrete bunkers across a country of 3 million inhabitants, to act as look-outs and gun emplacements along with chemical weapons. The bunkers were built strong and mobile, with the intention that they could be easily placed by a crane or a helicopter in a hole. The types of bunkers vary from machine gun pillboxes, beach bunkers, to underground naval facilities and even Air Force Mountain and underground bunkers.


title: Enver Hoxha

text: Hoxha's internal policies were true to Stalin's paradigm which he admired, and the personality cult which was developed in the 1970s and organised around him by the Party also bore a striking resemblance to that of Stalin. At times it even reached an intensity which was as extreme as the personality cult of Kim Il-sung (which Hoxha condemned) with Hoxha being portrayed as a genius commenting on virtually all facets of life from culture to economics to military matters. Each schoolbook required one or more quotations from him on the subjects being studied. The Party honored him with titles such as Supreme Comrade, Sole Force and Great Teacher. He adopted a different type military salute for the People's Army to render honors which was known as the Hoxhaist Salute, which involves soldiers curling their right fist and raising it to shoulder level. It replaced the Zogist salute, which was used by the Royal Albanian Army for many years.


title: Enver Hoxha

text: Hoxha's governance was also distinguished by his encouragement of a high birthrate policy. For instance, a woman who bore an above-average number of children would be given the government award of "Heroine Mother" (in Albanian: "Nënë Heroinë") along with cash rewards. Abortion was essentially restricted (to encourage high birth rates), except if the birth posed a danger to the mother's life, though it was not completely banned; the process was decided by district medical commissions. As a result, the population of Albania tripled from 1 million in 1944 to around 3 million in 1985.


title: Enver Hoxha

text: At the start of Albania's Third Five-year Plan, China offered Albania a loan of $125 million which would be used to build twenty-five chemical, electrical and metallurgical plants in accordance with the Plan. However, the nation discovered that the task of completing these building projects was difficult, because Albania's relations with its neighbors were poor and because matters were also complicated by the long distance between Albania and China. Unlike Yugoslavia or the USSR, China had less economic influence on Albania during Hoxha's rule. During the previous fifteen years (1946–1961), at least 50% of Albania's economy was dependent on foreign commerce.


title: Enver Hoxha

text: By the time the 1976 Constitution was promulgated, Albania had mostly become self-sufficient but it lacked modern technology. Ideologically, Hoxha found that Mao's initial views were in line with Marxism-Leninism, due to his condemnation of Nikita Khrushchev's alleged revisionism and his condemnation of Yugoslavia. The financial aid which China provided to Albania was interest-free and it did not have to be repaid until Albania could afford to do so.


title: Enver Hoxha

text: China never intervened in Albania's economic output, and Chinese technicians and Albanian workers both worked for the same wages. Albanian newspapers were reprinted in Chinese newspapers and they were also read on Chinese radio, and Albania led the movement to give the People's Republic of China a seat on the UN Security Council. During this period, Albania became the second largest producer of chromium in the world, which China considered important. Strategically, the Adriatic Sea was attractive to China, because China hoped that it could gain more allies in Eastern Europe through Albania - a hope which was misplaced. Zhou Enlai visited Albania in January 1964. On 9 January, "The 1964 Sino-Albanian Joint Statement" was signed in Tirana. The statement said of relations between socialist countries:


title: Enver Hoxha

text: Like Albania, China defended the "purity" of Marxism by attacking US imperialism and "Soviet and Yugoslav revisionism", both of them were equally attacked as part of a "dual adversary" theory. Yugoslavia was viewed as both a "special detachment of U.S. imperialism" and a "saboteur against world revolution". However, these views began to change in China, which was one of the major issues which Albania had with the alliance. Additionally, unlike Yugoslavia and the Soviet Union, the Sino-Albanian alliance lacked "... an organisational structure for regular consultations and policy coordination, and it was also characterized by an informal relationship which was conducted on an "ad hoc" basis." Mao made a speech on 3 November 1966 in which he claimed that Albania was the only Marxist-Leninist state in Europe and in the same speech, he also stated that "an attack on Albania will have to reckon with the great People's Republic of China. If the U.S. imperialists, the modern Soviet revisionists or any of their lackeys dare to touch Albania in the slightest, nothing lies ahead for them but a complete, shameful and memorable defeat." Likewise, Hoxha stated that "You may rest assured, comrades, that come what may in the world at large, our two parties and our two peoples will certainly remain together. They will fight together and they will win together."


title: Enver Hoxha

text: During the Cultural Revolution, China entered into a four-year period of relative diplomatic isolation, however, its relations with Albania were positive. On 20 August 1968, the Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia was condemned by Albania, along with the Brezhnev doctrine. Albania refused to send troops to Czechoslovakia in support of the invasion, and it officially withdrew from the Warsaw Pact on 5 September.


title: Enver Hoxha

text: Albania's relations with China began to deteriorate on 15 July 1971, when United States President Richard Nixon agreed to visit China in order to meet with Zhou Enlai. Hoxha believed that China had betrayed Albania, and on 6 August, the Central Committee of the PLA sent a letter to the Central Committee of the CCP in which it called Nixon a "frenzied anti-Communist". The letter stated:


title: Enver Hoxha

text: The result of this criticism was a message from the Chinese leadership in 1971 in which it stated that Albania could not depend on an indefinite flow of aid from China, and in 1972 Albania was advised to "curb its expectations about further Chinese contributions to its economic development". By 1972, Hoxha wrote in his diary "Reflections on China" that China was no longer a socialist country:


title: Enver Hoxha

text: In response, trade with COMECON (although trade with the Soviet Union was still blocked) and Yugoslavia grew. Trade with Third World nations was $0.5 million in 1973, but $8.3 million in 1974. Trade rose from 0.1% to 1.6%. Following Mao's death on 9 September 1976, Hoxha remained optimistic about Sino-Albanian relations, but in August 1977, Hua Guofeng, the new leader of China, stated that Mao's Three Worlds Theory would become official foreign policy. Hoxha viewed this as a way for China to justify having the U.S. as the "secondary enemy" while viewing the Soviet Union as the main one, thus allowing China to trade with the U.S. He stated that:


title: Enver Hoxha

text: On 13 July 1978, China announced that it was cutting off all of its aid to Albania. For the first time in modern history, Albania did not have an ally and it also did not have a major trading partner.


title: Enver Hoxha

text: Certain clauses in the 1976 constitution circumscribed the exercise of political liberties which the government interpreted as being contrary to the established order. The government denied the population access to information other than that which was disseminated by government-controlled media outlets. Internally, the Sigurimi used the same repressive methods which were used by the NKVD, the MGB, KGB and the East German Stasi. At one point, every third Albanian had either been interrogated by the Sigurimi or been incarcerated in labour camps. The government imprisoned thousands of people in forced-labour camps or it executed them for alleged crimes such as treachery or disrupting the proletarian dictatorship. After 1968, travel abroad was forbidden to all but those people who were on official business. Western European culture was looked upon with deep suspicion, resulting in bans on all unauthorised foreign materials and arrests. Art was required to reflect the styles of socialist realism. Beards were banned as unhygienic in order to curb the influence of Islam (many Imams and Babas had beards) and the Eastern Orthodox faith.


title: Enver Hoxha

text: The justice system's legal proceedings regularly degenerated into show trials. An American human rights group described the proceedings of one trial: In order to lessen the threat of political dissidents and other exiles, relatives of the accused were often arrested, ostracised, and accused of being "enemies of the people". Political executions were common, and at least 5,000 people—possibly as many as 25,000—were killed by the regime. Torture was often used to obtain confessions:


title: Enver Hoxha

text: During Hoxha's rule, there were six institutions for political prisoners and fourteen labour camps where political prisoners and common criminals worked together. It has been estimated that there were approximately 32,000 people imprisoned in Albania in 1985.


title: Enver Hoxha

text: Article 47 of the Albanian Criminal Code stated that to "escape outside the state, as well as refusal to return to the Fatherland by a person who has been sent to serve or has been permitted temporarily to go outside the state" was an act of treason, a crime punishable by a minimum sentence of ten years and a maximum sentence of death. The Albanian government went to great lengths to prevent people from defecting by leaving the country:An electrically-wired metal fence stands 600 meters to one kilometer from the actual border. Anyone touching the fence not only risks electrocution, but also sets off alarm bells and lights which alert guards stationed at approximately one-kilometre intervals along the fence. Two meters of soil on either side of the fence are cleared in order to check for footprints of escapees and infiltrators. The area between the fence and the actual border is seeded with booby traps such as coils of wire, noise makers consisting of thin pieces of metal strips on top of two wooden slats with stones in a tin container which rattle if stepped on, and flares that are triggered by contact, thus illuminating would-be escapees during the night.


title: Enver Hoxha

text: Albania, the only predominantly Muslim country in Europe at that time, largely owing to Turkish influence in the region, had not, like the Ottoman Empire, identified religion with ethnicity. In the Ottoman Empire, Muslims were classified as Turks, Orthodox Christians were classified as Greeks, and Catholics were classified as Latins. Hoxha believed that this division of Albanian society along religious and ethnic lines was a serious issue, because it fueled Greek separatists in southern Albania in particular and it also divided the nation in general. The Agrarian Reform Law of 1945 confiscated much of the church's property in the country. Catholics were the earliest religious community to be targeted because the Vatican was considered an agent of Fascism and anti-Communism. In 1946 the Jesuit Order was banned and the Franciscans were banned in 1947. "Decree No. 743" (On religion) sought the establishment of a national church and it also forbade religious leaders from associating with foreign powers.


title: Enver Hoxha

text: Mother Teresa, a Catholic nun whose relatives resided in Albania during Hoxha's rule, was denied a chance to see them because she was considered a dangerous agent of the Vatican. Despite multiple requests and despite the fact that many countries made requests on her behalf, she was not granted the opportunity to see her mother and sister. Both Mother Teresa's mother and sister died during Hoxha's rule, and the nun herself was only able to visit Albania five years after the Communist regime collapsed. Dom Lush Gjergji in his book "Our Mother Teresa" describes one of her trips to the embassy where she was crying as she was leaving the building, saying:Dear God, I can understand and accept that I should suffer, but it is so hard to understand and accept why my mother has to suffer. In her old age she has no other wish than to see us one last time.


title: Enver Hoxha

text: The Party focused on atheist education in schools. This tactic was effective, primarily as a result of the high birthrate policy which was encouraged after the war. During periods which are considered "holy periods" by religious people, such as Lent and Ramadan, many foods and non-water beverages were distributed in schools and factories, and religious people who refused to eat those foods and drink those beverages when they were offered to them during their "fasting times" were denounced.


title: Enver Hoxha

text: Starting on 6February 1967, the Party began to promote secularism in place of Abrahamic religions. Hoxha, who had launched a "Cultural and Ideological Revolution" after being partially inspired by China's Cultural Revolution, encouraged communist students and workers to use more forceful tactics in order to discourage people from continuing their religious practices, but the use of violence was initially condemned.


title: Enver Hoxha

text: According to Hoxha, the surge in anti-theist activities began with the youth. The result of this "spontaneous, unprovoked movement" was the demolition or conversion of all 2,169 churches and mosques in Albania. State atheism became official policy, and Albania was declared the world's first atheist state. Town and city names which echoed Abrahamic religious themes were abandoned for neutral secular ones, as well as personal names. By 1968, Hoxha stated in a speech in that "Religion is a fuel kindling fires of all evils". During this period religiously based names were also made illegal. The "Dictionary of People's Names", published in 1982, contained 3,000 approved, secular names. In 1992, Monsignor Dias, the Papal Nuncio for Albania appointed by Pope John Paul II, said that of the three hundred Catholic priests present in Albania prior to the Communists coming to power, only thirty were still active. The promotion of religion was banned and all clerics were labeled reactionaries and outlawed. Those religious figures who refused to embrace the principles of Marxism–Leninism were either arrested or carried on their activities in hiding.


title: Enver Hoxha

text: During the anti-religious campaign, Enver Hoxha declared that "the only religion of Albania is Albanianism", a quotation from the poem "O moj Shqiperi" ("O Albania") by the 19th-century Albanian writer Pashko Vasa.


title: Enver Hoxha

text: Muzafer Korkuti, one of the dominant figures in post-war Albanian archaeology and now the Director of the Institute of Archaeology in Tirana, said this in an interview on 10 July 2002:


title: Enver Hoxha

text: An Illyrian origin of the Albanians (without denying "Pelasgian" roots) continued to play a significant role in Albanian nationalism, resulting in a revival of given names supposedly of "Illyrian" origin, at the expense of given names associated with Christianity. At first, Albanian nationalist writers opted for the Pelasgians as the forefathers of the Albanians, but as this form of nationalism flourished in Albania under Enver Hoxha, the Pelasgians became a secondary element to the Illyrian theory of Albanian origins, which could claim some support in scholarship.


title: Enver Hoxha

text: The Illyrian descent theory soon became one of the pillars of Albanian nationalism, especially because it could provide some evidence of continuity of an Albanian presence both in Kosovo and Southern Albania, i.e. areas that were subject to ethnic conflicts between Albanians, Serbs and Greeks. Under the government of Enver Hoxha, an autochthonous ethnogenesis was promoted and physical anthropologists tried to demonstrate that Albanians were different from any other Indo-European populations, a theory now disproved. They claimed that the Illyrians were the most ancient people in the Balkans and greatly extended the age of the Illyrian language.


title: Enver Hoxha

text: Hoxha and his government were also hostile to Western popular culture as it was manifested in the mass media, along with the consumerism and cultural liberalism which were associated with it. In a speech on the Fourth Plenum of the Central Committee of the PLA (PLA-CC) on 26 June 1973, Hoxha declared a definitive break with any such Western bourgeois influence and what he described as its "degenerated bourgeois culture". In a speech in which he also criticised the "spread of certain vulgar, alien tastes in music and art", which ran "contrary to socialist ethics and the positive traditions of our people", including "degenerate importations such as long hair, extravagant dress, screaming jungle music, coarse language, shameless behaviour and so on", Hoxha declared:


title: Enver Hoxha

text: In 1974, Hoxha accused Beqir Balluku, Minister of Defence and longtime ally, of being an agent of China and attempting a coup d'état, since Balluku had criticized Hoxha's bunker program and stated that a U.S. and Soviet invasion of Albania was unlikely. Hoxha sentenced Balluku and a group of his accused associates to death and appointed Mehmet Shehu as Minister of Defence.


title: Enver Hoxha

text: A new Constitution was decided upon by the Seventh Congress of the Albanian Party of Labour on 1–7 November 1976. According to Hoxha, "The old Constitution was the Constitution of the building of the foundations of socialism, whereas the new Constitution will be the Constitution of the complete construction of a socialist society."


title: Enver Hoxha

text: Self-reliance was now stressed more than ever. Citizens were encouraged to train in the use of weapons, and this activity was also taught in schools. The purpose of this training was to encourage the creation of quick partisans.


title: Enver Hoxha

text: Borrowing and foreign investment were banned under Article 26 of the Constitution, which read: "The granting of concessions to, and the creation of foreign economic and financial companies and other institutions or ones formed jointly with bourgeois and revisionist capitalist monopolies and states as well as obtaining credits from them are prohibited in the People's Socialist Republic of Albania." Hoxha said of borrowing money and allowing investment from other countries:


title: Enver Hoxha

text: During this period, Albania was the most isolated country in Europe. In 1983, Albania imported goods which were worth $280 million but it exported goods which were worth $290 million, producing a trade surplus of $10 million.


title: Enver Hoxha

text: In 1981, Hoxha ordered the execution of several party and government officials in a new purge. Prime Minister Mehmet Shehu, the second-most powerful man in Albania and Hoxha's closest comrade-in-arms for 40 years, was reported to have committed suicide in December 1981. He was subsequently condemned as a "traitor" to Albania and he was also accused of operating in the service of multiple intelligence agencies. It is generally believed that he was either killed or he shot himself during a power struggle which may have resulted from differing foreign policy matters with Hoxha. Hoxha also wrote a large assortment of books during this period, resulting in over 65 volumes of collected works, condensed into six volumes of selected works.


title: Enver Hoxha

text: In 1973, Hoxha suffered a heart attack from which he never fully recovered. In increasingly precarious health from the late 1970s onward, he turned most state functions over to Ramiz Alia. In his final days, he was confined to a wheelchair and suffered from diabetes, with which he was diagnosed in 1948, along with cerebral ischemia, with which he was diagnosed in 1983. On 9 April 1985, he was struck by a ventricular fibrillation. Over the next 48 hours, he suffered repeated episodes of this arrhythmia, and he died in the early morning hours of 11 April 1985 at the age of 76. The Albanian government announced seven days of mourning with flags flown at half-mast and entertainment and cultural events cancelled.


title: Enver Hoxha

text: Hoxha's body lay in state at the building of the Presidium of the People's Assembly for three days before he was buried on 15 April after a memorial service on Skanderbeg Square. The government refused to accept any foreign delegations during Hoxha's funeral and it even condemned the Soviet message of condolences as "unacceptable". After his burial, Hoxha was succeeded as head of state by Ramiz Alia, who gained control of the party's leadership two days later.


title: Enver Hoxha

text: Hoxha left Albania with a legacy of isolation and fear of the outside world. Despite some economic progress which Albania made during Hoxha's rule, the country was in economic stagnation; Albania had been the poorest European country throughout much of the Cold War period.


title: Enver Hoxha

text: The surname "Hoxha" is the Albanian variant of Hodja (from ), a title given to his ancestors due to their efforts to teach Albanians about Islam.


title: Enver Hoxha

text: Hoxha's parents were Halil and Gjylihan (Gjylo) Hoxha, and Hoxha had three sisters, Fahrije, Haxhire and Sanije. Hysen Hoxha () was Enver Hoxha's uncle and was a militant who campaigned vigorously for the independence of Albania, which occurred when Enver was four years old. His grandfather Beqir was involved in the Gjirokastër section of the League of Prizren.


title: Enver Hoxha

text: Hoxha's son Sokol Hoxha was the CEO of the Albanian Post and Telecommunication service, and is married to Liliana Hoxha. Sali Berisha, a later democratic president of Albania, was often seen socialising with Sokol Hoxha and other close relatives of leading communist figures in Albania.


title: Enver Hoxha

text: Hoxha's daughter, Pranvera, is an architect. Along with her husband, Klement Kolaneci, she designed the Enver Hoxha Museum in Tirana, a white-tiled pyramid. Some sources have referred to the edifice, said to be the most expensive ever constructed in Albanian history, as the "Enver Hoxha Mausoleum", though this was not an official appellation. The museum opened in 1988, three years after her father's death, and in 1991 was transformed into a conference centre and exhibition venue renamed Pyramid of Tirana.


title: Enver Hoxha

text: The Mustafa Band was a gang connected to counter-revolutionary elements such as the Albanian mafia and members of the royal House of Zogu, and in 1982 attempted to assassinate Enver Hoxha. The plan failed and two of its members were killed and another one was arrested.


title: Enver Hoxha

text: According to Hoxha, documents from long-time prime minister Mehmet Shehu's vault were found after his death in 1981 pertaining to orders by Yugoslav intelligence to poison him and assume the leadership of the country. In his book "The Titoites", Hoxha hypotheses that this plan failed because Shehu was a coward who could not go through with the task and figured that suicide would, at the very least, save his family from the punishment for his counter-revolutionary activity.


title: Enver Hoxha

text: A 2016 survey conducted by the "Institute for Development Research and Alternatives" (IDRA), showed that 45% of Albanians believe that Enver Hoxha had a positive impact on the history of Albania, whereas 42% see his impact as negative. Younger generations (16–35 years old; born after 1981) tend to have a more negative view of Hoxha's contributions, while older generations (over 35 years old; born before 1981) tend to have a more positive view. Citizens in the regions of southeastern and southwestern Albania that were interviewed, had the most positive view of Hoxha, with 50% and 55% respectively.


title: Sonali Bendre

text: Sonali Bendre (born 1 January 1975) is an Indian actress primarily known for her work in Hindi, Tamil and Telugu films. She did modelling assignments prior to making her acting debut with "Aag" (1994), which won her the Filmfare Award for New Face of the Year.


title: Sonali Bendre

text: Bendre was born on 1 January 1975 in present-day Mumbai in a Maharashtrian family. She has 2 sisters. Her father was a civil servant. She studied at Ramnarain Ruia College, Mumbai. She studied in Kendriya Vidyalaya, Bangalore.


title: Sonali Bendre

text: Bendre married filmmaker Goldie Behl in 2002, they have one child . On 4 July 2018, Bendre announced she has been diagnosed with a metastatic cancer and was undergoing treatment in a New York City hospital.


title: Sonali Bendre

text: Bendre was a model before entering the "Star Dust Talent Search". Her first major role was in "Aag" (1994) at the age of 19. For this, she won the Filmfare Award for Lux New Face of the Year and Star Screen Awards for Most Promising Newcomer. In 1994, she also appeared in "Naaraaz", for which she was awarded Filmfare's Sensational Debut award. In 1995, she appeared in "Bombay" in the song Humma Humma.


title: Sonali Bendre

text: In 1996, she starred in "Rakshak", "English Babu Desi Mem", "Diljale", "Apne Dam Par" and "Sapoot". In the same year, she welcomed Michael Jackson on his arrival in India in a traditional Marathi sari and applied tilak on his forehead. In 1997 and 1998, Bendre starred in "Bhai", "Tarazu", "Qahar", "Keemat", "Humse Badhkar Kaun", "Major Saab", "Angaaray" and "Zakhm". She was seen opposite Shah Rukh Khan in "Duplicate". In 1999, Bendre starred in two Tamil films: "Kadhalar Dhinam" and "Kannodu Kanbathellam". Bendre also starred in "", "Dahek" and "Sarfarosh" as well.


title: Sonali Bendre

text: In 2000, Bendre made a brief cameo in "Chal Mere Bhai" and "Dhai Akshar Prem Ke". She later appeared in "Hamaara Dil Aapke Paas Hai." Bendre won a Star Screen Award Best Supporting Actress and got nominated for Planet - Bollywood People's Choice Awards (Best Supporting Actress) and Best Supporting Actress. Then, Bendre starred in "Jis Desh Mein Ganga Rehta Hain". In the same year, she made her debut in Kannada with the movie "Preethse", a remake of "Darr".


title: Sonali Bendre

text: In 2003, Bendre made her Marathi debut with "Anahat", for which she got nominated for Star Screen Awards Best Actress in Marathi.


title: Sonali Bendre

text: In 2004 she starred in "Shankar Dada MBBS" and made a special appearance in "Aga Bai Arrecha!". In addition to her acting, she was also recognised as a dancer through films such as "Gaddar," "Sapoot," "Bombay," "Lajja" and "Major Saab". She took a break after this. In 2007, Bendre starred in a play called "Aap Ki Soniya".


title: Sonali Bendre

text: In 2012, Bendre returned to acting in "Once Upon a Time in Mumbai Dobaara!". Her part was described by the director Milan Luthria: "Sonali's character is called Mumtaz. The name spells enigma and is very crucial to the plot of the film. The character doesn't fit into the usual mould of a mother or a sister or bhabhi but has an identity of its own. That is what makes it special. And that's why Sonali agreed to be a part of the film."


title: Sonali Bendre

text: In 2001, Bendre hosted the television dance show "Kya Masti Kya Dhoom...!" and featured as a talent judge for Mr & Mrs Television, the reality shows "Indian Idol 4", "India's Got Talent", "Hindustan Ke Hunarbaaz" and "India's Best Dramebaaz". She also hosted the 50th Filmfare Awards with Saif Ali Khan and Farida Jalal on 26 February 2005. She narrated the TV Show "Mission Sapne" on Colors in 2014.


title: Sonali Bendre

text: Sonali made her television acting debut with the Star Life OK's television series "Ajeeb Dastaan Hai Yeh". She played Shobha Sachdev. She will next be seen in "DID Li'ls Masters Season 5" in 2022.


title: Murder of Ahmaud Arbery

text: On February 23, 2020, Ahmaud Arbery, a 25-year-old black man, was murdered during a racially motivated hate crime while jogging in Satilla Shores, a neighborhood near Brunswick in Glynn County, Georgia. Erroneously assuming he was a burglar, three white men pursued Arbery in their trucks for several minutes, using the vehicles to block his path as he tried to run away. Two of the men, Travis McMichael and his father, Gregory McMichael, were armed in one vehicle. Their neighbor, William "Roddie" Bryan, was in another vehicle. After overtaking Arbery, Travis McMichael exited his truck and assaulted Arbery with a shotgun. As Arbery attempted to defend himself, Travis McMichael fatally shot him. Bryan recorded this confrontation and Arbery's murder on his cell phone.


title: Murder of Ahmaud Arbery

text: Members of the Glynn County Police Department (GCPD) arrived on the scene soon after the shooting, but no arrests were made for more than two months.


title: Murder of Ahmaud Arbery

text: The GCPD said the Brunswick District Attorney's Office first advised them to make no arrests, then Waycross District Attorney George Barnhill twice advised the GCPD to make no arrests, once before he was officially assigned to the case, and once while announcing his intention to recuse due to a conflict of interest. At the behest of Gregory McMichael, a local attorney provided Bryan's video to local radio station WGIG, which published the video on May 5. The video went viral on YouTube and Twitter. The Georgia Bureau of Investigation (GBI) arrested the McMichaels on May 7 and Bryan on May 21, charging them with felony murder and other crimes.


title: Murder of Ahmaud Arbery

text: The case was ultimately transferred to the Cobb County District Attorney's Office. On June 24, 2020, a grand jury indicted each of the three men on charges of malice murder, felony murder, and other crimes. Their trial began in November 2021 in the Glynn County Superior Court; all three were convicted on November 24 of felony murder, aggravated assault, false imprisonment and criminal attempt to commit false imprisonment. Travis McMichael was further convicted of malice murder. On January 7, 2022, the McMichaels were sentenced to life imprisonment without the possibility of parole plus 20 years, while Bryan was sentenced to life imprisonment with the possibility of parole after 30 years. On February 22, 2022, the three men were found guilty in a federal court of attempted kidnapping and the hate crime of interference with rights, while the McMichaels were also convicted of one count of using firearms during a crime of violence.


title: Murder of Ahmaud Arbery

text: The local authorities' handling of the case resulted in nationwide criticism and debates on racial profiling in the United States. Many religious leaders, politicians, athletes, and other celebrities condemned the incident. Georgia Attorney General Christopher M. Carr formally requested the intervention of the Federal Bureau of Investigation in the case on May 10, 2020, which was granted the following day. Former Brunswick District Attorney Jackie Johnson was indicted in September 2021 for "showing favor and affection" to Gregory (her former subordinate) during the investigation, and for obstructing law enforcement by directing that Travis not be arrested. In the aftermath of the murder, Georgia enacted hate crimes legislation in June 2020, then repealed and replaced its citizen's arrest law in May 2021.


title: Murder of Ahmaud Arbery

text: A video of the murder was recorded by Bryan using his cellphone from his vehicle as he followed Arbery jogging down the neighborhood road. The video showed Arbery jogging on the left side of the road when he encountered a white pickup truck, a thirteenth generation Ford F-150, that had stopped in the right lane. Gregory McMichael is standing in the truck bed, while Travis McMichael initially stands beside the driver's door with a shotgun. Bryan's vehicle comes to a stop behind Arbery and the pickup truck.


title: Murder of Ahmaud Arbery

text: As Arbery approaches the pickup truck, shouting can be heard. Arbery then crosses from the left side of the road to the right side and runs around the passenger's side of the truck. After passing the truck's front, Arbery turns left. Meanwhile, Travis McMichael, holding his shotgun, approaches Arbery at the truck's front. The camera's view of the confrontation between Arbery and Travis is momentarily blocked.


title: Murder of Ahmaud Arbery

text: Several media accounts of the video report that the audio of the first gunshot seems to be heard before Arbery and Travis struggle with each other. Some media accounts first report a struggle, and then mention the gunshot(s). Other media accounts describe that it was "not possible" to see from the video what was happening when the first gunshot was fired, or report that the truck "blocks the view of how the men first engage each other" with regard to when the gunshot is heard.


title: Murder of Ahmaud Arbery

text: Travis and Arbery are seen to grapple over the shotgun. While struggling, both men disappear off camera view on the left side of the frame, after which the audio of a second gunshot is heard. When they reappear, Arbery throws punches and tries to grab the shotgun. A third gunshot is heard being fired by Travis at point-blank range as Arbery appears to throw a right-handed punch at his head. Arbery recoils, stumbles, and collapses face down in the middle of the road while Travis walks away. Gregory McMichael, who has taken out a handgun but has not fired, runs towards his son and Arbery.


title: Murder of Ahmaud Arbery

text: In December 2019 and January 2020, residents of Satilla Shores reported three break-ins or thefts. On December 8, 2019, a Satilla Shores resident reported rifles stolen from the resident's unlocked car. Police recorded a theft on December 28, 2019. On January 1, 2020, Travis McMichael filed a report of a firearm stolen from his unlocked truck.


title: Murder of Ahmaud Arbery

text: On February 11, 2020, Travis called 911 to report a slender black man with short hair, wearing red shorts and a white shirt, who was trespassing on the site of a house under construction. Travis said, "I've never seen this guy before in the neighborhood". The dispatcher asked whether Travis was OK, and he said, "Yeah, it just startled me. When I turned around and saw him and backed up, he reached into his pocket and ran into the house. So I don't know if he's armed or not. But he looked like he was acting like he was." "We've been having a lot of burglaries and break-ins around here lately", Travis said on the call. He told the dispatcher that he was out in his truck, and that as many as four neighbors were out looking for the man. His father Gregory was one of the people out searching that night, and Gregory and at least one other neighbor were armed. Police responded and searched the house along with a neighbor, but found no one. However, surveillance video from that evening showed a man who reportedly looked like Arbery, briefly walking in and out of the house under construction. He did not take anything. The under-construction house did not have doors or windows.


title: Murder of Ahmaud Arbery

text: On February 23, in the minutes before the shooting, a security camera installed on a residence across the street from the house under construction, recorded a man identified by his family as Arbery walking down the road and into the house. A second security camera installed within the house recorded a man, identified as Arbery by his family, looking at the interior of the house. Approximately five minutes later, he left and began jogging down the street. After the man left the house, the first camera on the residence across the street showed a white pickup heading in the man's direction, followed a few minutes later by two police cars. The owner of the home under-construction later revealed that no crimes were committed on the property.


title: Murder of Ahmaud Arbery

text: Two calls to the Glynn-Brunswick 911 dispatcher were made just before the shooting. In the first, a then-unidentified male caller said another man was in a house that was "under construction". The 911 dispatcher asked if the man was "breaking into it right now?" The caller replied: "No ... it's all open." After the caller said the man was now "running down the street", the dispatcher said police would respond. The dispatcher asked at 1:08 p.m., "I just need to know what he was doing wrong. Was he just on the premises and not supposed to be?" The caller responded, with some parts garbled, saying: "And he's been caught on camera a bunch at night. It's kind of an ongoing thing." The caller identified the man as a "black guy, white T-shirt". The first caller was later identified in court as neighbor Matthew Albenze.


title: Murder of Ahmaud Arbery

text: In the second call, beginning at 1:14 p.m., a male caller said: "I'm out here at Satilla Shores ...There's a black male running down the street." The 911 dispatcher asked, "Where at Satilla Shores?" The caller replied: "I don't know what street we're on." The caller shouted, "Stop! ... Watch that. Stop, damn it! Stop!" The dispatcher tried to speak to the caller but did not receive a reply for several minutes. The caller later hung up. The second caller was later identified in court as Gregory McMichael.


title: Murder of Ahmaud Arbery

text: The GCPD reached the scene immediately after the fatal shooting. The responding officer's report relied almost entirely on an interview with Gregory McMichael, who was described as a witness.


title: Murder of Ahmaud Arbery

text: Gregory said he was in his yard when he saw an unidentified man running by. He said he recognized the man from a prior incident "the other night", when he said he saw the man reach into his pants as if for a weapon. He called to his son Travis and said, "The guy is running down the street; let's go". Gregory brought a .357 Magnum revolver, while Travis brought a shotgun in their pickup truck. The McMichaels said they pursued the man because he resembled a suspect in a string of local burglaries. But the police said there had been only one recent theft from an unlocked car in the neighborhood.


title: Murder of Ahmaud Arbery

text: Travis attempted to cut off the man with his truck. The man turned and began "running back in the direction from which he came". The report states a third person, who was identified as "Roddy", also tried to cut off the man, but failed. Gregory said he saw the unidentified man and yelled: "Stop, stop, we want to talk to you", and that they pulled up to the man, with Travis exiting the truck with the shotgun in hand. Gregory claimed the man "began to violently attack Travis" before two shots were fired. The man died at the scene after "bleeding out", the report concluded. Authorities later identified the man as Arbery.


title: Murder of Ahmaud Arbery

text: The autopsy report released by the GBI ruled Arbery's death was a homicide caused by three gunshot wounds he sustained "during a struggle for the shotgun" that fired those shots. One gunshot wounded the upper left chest, one gunshot wounded the lower middle chest, and one gunshot caused a "deep, gaping" graze wound to the right wrist. There were no alcohol or drugs in Arbery's body, other than a "tiny amount" of THC, the psychoactive component of cannabis.


title: Murder of Ahmaud Arbery

text: The case started under the jurisdiction of Brunswick Judicial Circuit District Attorney Jackie Johnson. Because Gregory McMichael had previously worked as an investigator in her office, Johnson recused herself from further involvement in the case. On February 27, 2020, the case was transferred by the Georgia Attorney General's Office to the Waycross Judicial Circuit District Attorney's office. The Waycross Judicial Circuit is south of Brunswick Judicial Circuit.


title: Murder of Ahmaud Arbery

text: On March 8, two Glynn County commissioners, citing discussions with Glynn County police, accused Johnson, or her office, of preventing the McMichaels' immediate arrest. Commissioner Allen Booker said: "The police at the scene went to her, saying they were ready to arrest both of them. These were the police at the scene who had done the investigation. She shut them down to protect her friend [Gregory] McMichael." Commissioner Peter Murphy said that officers who responded at the scene had concluded that there was probable cause to make an arrest, but when they contacted Johnson's office, they "were told not to make the arrest."


title: Murder of Ahmaud Arbery

text: Johnson's office said that Johnson did not "have any conversation with any GCPD officer about this case" on February 23, and that "no Assistant District Attorney in the office directed any Glynn County police officer not to make an arrest". Johnson's office also blamed the GCPD for being "unable to make a probable cause determination on its own" and argued that it was the local police's responsibility, not the District Attorney's responsibility, to make arrests. It is common for police to consult with the district attorney's office in the aftermath of homicides or other complex cases.


title: Murder of Ahmaud Arbery

text: On May 9, the GCPD said that on February 23 the Brunswick District Attorney's Office "became involved in the investigation ... The McMichaels were deemed not to be flight risks and officers were advised by the [Brunswick District Attorney's Office] that no arrests were necessary at the time."


title: Murder of Ahmaud Arbery

text: On February 28, 2022, it was reported that the state bar dismissed complaints filed by Georgia lawmakers against former Brunswick Judicial Circuit District Attorney Jackie Johnson and Waycross Judicial Circuit DA George Barnhill.


title: Murder of Ahmaud Arbery

text: The GCPD said that on February 24, Waycross Judicial Circuit District Attorney George Barnhill told them that the murder of Arbery "was justifiable homicide." According to a memorandum written by Barnhill to the GCPD on April 2, Barnhill gave the GCPD "an initial opinion the day after the shooting" on February 24. In the April 2 memorandum, Barnhill wrote: "The autopsy supports the initial opinion we gave you on February 24, at the briefing room in the Glynn County Police Department after reviewing the evidence you had at that time. We do not see grounds for an arrest of any of the three parties." But, according to the Office of the Georgia Attorney General on May 10, Barnhill had not yet been appointed to handle Arbery's case on February 24, and he had not put in a request to handle the case.


title: Murder of Ahmaud Arbery

text: The Georgia Attorney General's Office on May 10 identified the following events as having happened on February 27: the Georgia Attorney General's Office received the request from Johnson's office to transfer Arbery's case to another prosecutor. On the same day, the Georgia Attorney General's Office appointed Barnhill as the presiding prosecutor. Neither Johnson nor Barnhill informed the Georgia Attorney General's Office that Barnhill had already actively participated in the case by reviewing evidence and giving his opinion on whether arrests should occur.


title: Murder of Ahmaud Arbery

text: On April 1, Arbery's autopsy report was given to Barnhill. On April 2, Barnhill wrote a memorandum to Glynn County police, recommending that no arrests be made. Barnhill wrote that the McMichaels were within their rights to chase "a burglary suspect, with solid firsthand probable cause"; that "Arbery initiated the fight"; and that Travis McMichael "was allowed to use deadly force to protect himself" when "Arbery grabbed the shotgun".


title: Murder of Ahmaud Arbery

text: Barnhill cited Georgia's citizen arrest law, dating to the Civil War era, as justifying the murder of Arbery (the Georgia law says that either a crime must be committed within the citizen's "immediate knowledge", or there must be "reasonable and probable grounds of suspicion" for a felony crime). Barnhill alleged that videos of Arbery entering the home under construction on the day of the shooting showed Arbery "burglarizing a home immediately preceding the chase and confrontation."


title: Murder of Ahmaud Arbery

text: The attorneys representing the Arbery family responded: "This video is consistent with the evidence already known to us. Ahmaud Arbery was out for a jog. He stopped by a property under construction where he engaged in no illegal activity and remained for only a brief period. Ahmaud did not take anything from the construction site. He did not cause any damage to the property. He remained for a brief period of time and was not instructed by anyone to leave but rather left on his own accord to continue his jog. Ahmaud's actions at this empty home under construction were in no way a felony under Georgia law. This video confirms Mr. Arbery's murder was not justified, meaning the actions of the men who pursued him and ambushed him were unjustified."


title: Murder of Ahmaud Arbery

text: The owner of the unfinished home, who was away at the time of the shooting, later said, "I've never had a police report [on my property], or anything stolen from my property, or any kind of robbery." Barnhill wrote that "Arbery's mental health and prior convictions help explain his apparent aggressive nature and his possible thought pattern to attack an armed man." Lastly, Barnhill informed the Glynn County police that he was going to recuse from the case due to connections between his son and Gregory McMichael.


title: Murder of Ahmaud Arbery

text: On April 7, Barnhill wrote to Georgia's Attorney General, Christopher M. Carr, saying Arbery's "family are not strangers to the local criminal justice system", noting that Arbery's brother and cousins had encounters with the law. Barnhill told Carr that there was "video of Arbery burglarizing a home immediately preceding the chase and confrontation".


title: Murder of Ahmaud Arbery

text: The Georgia Attorney General's Office on May 10 said the following events happened on April 7: it received a request from Barnhill's office to transfer Arbery's case to another prosecutor, and Barnhill revealed that he had learned "about 3–4 weeks ago" that Arbery had previously been prosecuted by his son, a prosecutor for the Brunswick Circuit District Attorney's Office, in an earlier case. He also said that one of the defendants had served as an investigator on the same prosecution (this is a reference to Gregory McMichael, who was employed by the Brunswick D.A.'s Office). The request did not explain why Barnhill had delayed in recusing his office from the case, did not mention that Barnhill had advised Glynn County police on April 2 to make no arrests, and omitted Barnhill's involvement on February 24, instead recounting only his involvement "upon taking the case".


title: Murder of Ahmaud Arbery

text: On April 13, after Barnhill's recusal, the Georgia Attorney General's Office appointed Atlantic Judicial Circuit District Attorney Tom Durden to take over the handling of the case. The Atlantic Judicial Circuit is the immediately adjacent circuit to the north of Brunswick Judicial Circuit.


title: Murder of Ahmaud Arbery

text: A video of the shooting was uploaded on May 5 on the website of local radio station, WGIG; it was received from Gregory McMichael. After two hours, WGIG removed the video for being too graphic.


title: Murder of Ahmaud Arbery

text: The video was uploaded to YouTube that day. The Arbery family's attorney posted a 28-second segment of the video on Twitter. The video of the shooting went viral. Glynn County police requested the Georgia Bureau of Investigation look into how the video was publicized. "The Guardian" published an edited version of the video on May 6. TMZ published a longer version of the video on May 5.


title: Murder of Ahmaud Arbery

text: On May 7, Alan David Tucker, a local criminal defense attorney, said that he had sent the cell phone video to WGIG, and that it had been recorded by William "Roddie" Bryan, who was in the second truck following Arbery. WGIG confirmed that Tucker had provided the video to the radio station. Tucker had informally consulted with the suspects in the case, but said he had not been retained to represent anyone involved. Tucker said that he released the video to provide "absolute transparency" due to "erroneous accusations and assumptions", and that "my purpose was not to exonerate them or convict them."


title: Murder of Ahmaud Arbery

text: Within hours of the video becoming public, Tom Durden, the district attorney for Georgia's Atlantic Judicial Circuit, said that he would present the case to "the next available grand jury in Glynn County" to decide if charges should be filed. The convening of grand juries had been postponed until after June 12 due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Durden accepted Georgia Governor Brian Kemp's offer to bring in the Georgia Bureau of Investigation (GBI) to investigate.


title: Murder of Ahmaud Arbery

text: The GBI found probable cause to charge Gregory and Travis McMichael within 36 hours of taking over jurisdiction of the case, and, on May 7, arrested and charged them with felony murder. The McMichaels were booked into the Glynn County Jail. At an appearance before a judge the following day, the McMichaels were both denied bond.


title: Murder of Ahmaud Arbery

text: Given the "size and magnitude" of the investigation, Durden requested that the case be reassigned to another prosecutor with a larger staff. Pursuant to Durden's request, the Georgia Attorney General's office reassigned the case on May 11 to the Cobb County District Attorney's Office, led by Joyette M. Holmes. She was the fourth D.A. to take on the case. Arbery's family welcomed the transfer of the case from a southeast Georgia district attorney to one in the metro Atlanta area away.


title: Murder of Ahmaud Arbery

text: The Cobb County District Attorney's Office, led by Joyette M. Holmes, brought charges against the defendants. On May 21, 2020, William "Roddie" Bryan was charged with felony murder and attempt to commit false imprisonment. According to the arrest warrant, Bryan tried "to confine and detain" Arbery without legal authority by "utilizing his vehicle on multiple occasions" before Arbery was shot. The GBI said their investigators found "a number of pieces of video" that linked Bryan to the case. Bryan was alleged to have attempted to block Arbery, which was unsuccessful, and struck Arbery with his pickup truck while chasing him. Arbery's palm print was found on the rear door of Bryan's truck, cotton fibers near the truck bed were attributed to contact with Arbery, and a dent was found below the location of the cotton fibers.


title: Murder of Ahmaud Arbery

text: At the June 4, 2020 preliminary hearing, a Glynn County Magistrate Court judge ruled that there was probable cause for the murder charges against all three men. The prosecution presented additional evidence to the court to support the murder charges, including hours of testimony from the lead GBI investigator. At the hearing, the prosecutor said that the three men "chased, hunted down and ultimately executed" Arbery. The investigator testified that none of the three had called 911 prior to the chase; he said:


title: Murder of Ahmaud Arbery

text: I don't believe it was self-defense by Mr. McMichael. I believe it was self-defense by Mr. Arbery. I believe Mr. Arbery was being pursued, and he ran until he couldn't run anymore. And it was: turn his back to a man with a shotgun, or fight with his bare hands against a man with a shotgun, and he chose to fight.


title: Murder of Ahmaud Arbery

text: The prosecution also introduced a statement to the GBI by William Bryan that Travis McMichael used a racist slur, "fucking nigger", while standing over Arbery's body, and testimony that Travis McMichael had previously used the same slur on previous occasions in social media postings and in text messages. During the Glynn County trial, the allegation of Travis stating "fucking nigger" was not brought forth to the jury since the only witness, William Bryan, chose not to testify during the trial; meanwhile, by the time legal arguments had concluded, the judge did not make a ruling on whether the social media posts and text messages could be used, so they were not introduced either.


title: Murder of Ahmaud Arbery

text: The alleged use of these racist slurs could affect a federal hate crime trial in 2022. Although there may be some overlap in witnesses between the two cases, the federal trial is independent of the state trial and not affected by the state trial's outcome. Other evidence eventually not shown in the state trial by prosecutors, which can be considered in the federal trial, includes imagery of the Confederate flag on the McMichaels' truck.


title: Murder of Ahmaud Arbery

text: On June 24, 2020, a Glynn County grand jury indictment was released against all three defendants, each on nine counts: malice murder, four counts of felony murder, two counts of aggravated assault, false imprisonment and criminal attempt to commit false imprisonment.


title: Murder of Ahmaud Arbery

text: At a hearing in July 2020, the three defendants waived arraignment and pleaded not guilty. During the hearing the lead prosecutor disclosed that Arbery's palm print had been found on the side of Bryan's truck and texts taken from Bryan's cellphone were "replete with racist remarks." At the conclusion of the hearing, the judge denied bond to Bryan.


title: Murder of Ahmaud Arbery

text: In August 2020, attorneys for the McMichaels and Bryan filed motions seeking release on bond and dismissal of the charges. In November 2020, the court denied the McMichaels' request for bond. In January 2021, the court denied Bryan's second request for bond.


title: Murder of Ahmaud Arbery

text: After every Brunswick Judicial Circuit judge recused themselves from the case, Chatham County Superior Court Judge Timothy Walmsley became the trial judge.


title: Murder of Ahmaud Arbery

text: The trial of the McMichaels and Bryan in the Superior Court before Judge Walmsley began October 18, 2021, with jury selection. The jury selection process was lengthy and proceeded slowly, with the 600 potential jurors (members of the "venire") questioned on what they had heard about the case and whether they had formed a belief about the guilt or innocence of the defendant, and many prospective jurors were dismissed. Judge Walmsley denied a defense motion to limit demonstrations near the courthouse, citing the demonstrators' First Amendment rights; the judge, however, expressed concern about social media posts that were "identifying jurors" or attempting "to influence the public".


title: Murder of Ahmaud Arbery

text: On November 3, 2021, jury selection was completed. Twelve jurors and four alternates were selected. Of the 16 members, one was a black man, three were white men, and 12 were white women. The defense struck 11 of 12 prospective black jurors, the defense leaving the one black man from the qualified panel, while the prosecution used all 12 of its allotted strikes on white potential jurors. Judge Walmsley rejected a prosecution motion alleging that the defense had used its strikes in a racially discriminatory way. Only one black person ended up serving on the jury, despite Glynn County's nearly 27% black population.


title: Murder of Ahmaud Arbery

text: Opening statements for the state and the McMichaels were made on November 5, 2021. Opening statements for William "Roddie" Bryan were delivered on November 18, 2021, after the prosecution rested its case.


title: Murder of Ahmaud Arbery

text: Prosecutor Linda Dunikoski said the murder of Arbery arose from the defendants' "assumptions and driveway decisions ... Not on facts, not on evidence". She stated that the defendants did not have "immediate knowledge" of Arbery committing a crime that day, referencing Gregory McMichael's police statement where he said he did not know if Arbery had committed a break-in. She also highlighted that twelve days before the murder, Glynn County police officer Robert Rash had relayed to the McMichaels a statement from the under-construction house's owner that Arbery "has never stolen or taken anything from his property". Dunikoski described that Arbery was "under attack" by the defendants during the chase on the day of his murder, alleging that William "Roddie" Bryan had attempted to hit Arbery with his truck four times, that Gregory McMichael told Arbery "Stop or I'll blow your fucking head off", that Gregory later described Arbery as "trapped like a rat" as a result of the chase, and that Travis McMichael had "stepped around that open door and moved toward" Arbery during the final confrontation.


title: Murder of Ahmaud Arbery

text: Bob Rubin, the lawyer for Travis McMichael, stated that although there was "no crime committed" in the presence of the McMichaels, "there was probable cause to believe a felony had been committed" by Arbery and that he "was attempting to escape." Rubin described the Satilla Shores neighbourhood as "on edge" due to property crimes, arguing that Travis had a "duty and responsibility to protect himself and his neighborhood." Rubin stated that Travis killed Arbery "in self-defense", because if Arbery had taken Travis's gun, either Travis or Gregory would be dead.


title: Murder of Ahmaud Arbery

text: Frank Hogue, the lawyer for Gregory McMichael, stated that Gregory correctly recognized Arbery from prior videos of Arbery entering the under-construction house, and that "Greg had sound reasons to believe theft had occurredburglary".


title: Murder of Ahmaud Arbery

text: Kevin Gough, the lawyer for William "Roddie" Bryan, stated that Bryan "had no intent to strike or injure" Arbery, while noting that Bryan had not taken his rifle along for the chase. Gough argued that there was "scant evidence" that Bryan attempted to "conceal or minimize his involvement" in the incident, because Bryan did not dispose of the cellphone video of the chase and shooting; Bryan instead passed the video to the police.


title: Murder of Ahmaud Arbery

text: Robert Rash, a Glynn County police officer, testified that (1) after speaking to Larry English, the owner of the under-construction house, Rash had been searching for Arbery to warn him against trespassing; (2) having known Gregory McMichael professionally, Rash in December 2019 discussed the "unidentified black male" with Greg. At Gregory's suggestion, Rash shared Gregory's cellphone with English, because Rash wanted Gregory to be "an expert witness to be on the phone with 911" to help identify Arbery; (3) Rash never deputized Gregory or gave him any authority; (4) Rash later shared security camera videos of Arbery with the McMichaels 12 days before the murder, while telling the McMichaels that English "hasn't seen him actually take anything"; (5) also at that time, Rash told the McMichaels about a gun theft incident "down the road" that did not involve Arbery: "we got on video the car that people come in and stole them, they were from another neighborhood."


title: Murder of Ahmaud Arbery

text: Ricky Minshew, who was a Glynn County police officer at the time of the murder, testified he was seconds away from the scene at the time of the shots, having responded to a non-emergency report about a "suspicious black male" leaving a home under construction. Minshew said he arrived at the scene seeing Arbery in a pool of blood and heard a "death rattle" from Arbery, but did not render medical attention as he did not have "adequate medical training" to handle such a serious injury, and also because there were no "police units to watch my back" when he arrived. Minshew testified that he questioned William "Roddie" Bryan at the scene, where Bryan said the following: (1) that he was not familiar with Arbery or the McMichaels when Bryan joined the chase; (2) that he was not sure if Arbery did anything wrong; (3) that he did not know if he should have chased Arbery at all; (4) that he tried to "corner" Arbery with his vehicle five times; (5) that Arbery "had to stop and catch his breath", and seemed "tired of running"; (6) that he heard one of the McMichaels shouting at Arbery: "What'd you steal? What'd you do?" during the chase.


title: Murder of Ahmaud Arbery

text: William Duggan, a Glynn County police officer, testified that he came to the scene after hearing a "shots fired" report on his radio. The jury was shown Duggan's body camera and dashboard camera footage, which included graphic video of Arbery's body. Duggan said he attended to Arbery, intending to stop the bleeding from a large chest wound, but then realized that Arbery was already dead. Duggan said he saw Travis McMichael covered in blood and asked if Travis was OK, to which Travis replied: "No I'm not OK ... I just effing killed somebody." Duggan described Travis as very upset and cooperative.


title: Murder of Ahmaud Arbery

text: Jeff Brandeberry, a Glynn County police officer, testified that he interviewed Gregory McMichael at the scene, who was "pretty amped up" and seemed "a little upset". Brandeberry recounted Gregory saying the following: (1) that he had seen Arbery "hauling ass down the street" past his house in a "dead run"; (2) that Arbery had been "breaking in all these houses out here ... he makes frequent trips to the neighborhood and gets caught on video cameras every third or fourth night breaking into places and no one's been able to catch him"; (3) that "a driving force in my mind is my son had a missing pistol and this guy I don't know for a fact this guy has been going over doing this crap over and over ... I saw him if I could've gotten a shot, I would have shot him myself"; (4) that the blood on Gregory's hand came from checking if Arbery had a gun; and (5) that Arbery was "an asshole. He was hooked up when he came around the corner."


title: Murder of Ahmaud Arbery

text: Parker Marcy, a Glynn County police detective, who had interviewed Gregory McMichael at the police station later in the day of the murder, testified that Gregory told him: (1) that he had seen Arbery on surveillance videos shared by a neighbor and "had heard a description of him", but was unsure if he had seen Arbery in person before ("never" or "maybe"); (2) that he saw "two or three videos" showing "this guy breaking into or being or wandering around into this [under-construction] house ... I don't think the guy has stolen anything out of there, and if he did it was early on in this process, but he keeps going back in that house over and over again"; (3) that he considered Arbery a "prime suspect" in "numerous" forcible entries into buildings and vehicles ("Logic tells you that this guy may be the one that's doing it"); (4) he told Arbery during the chase words akin to "Stop ... I'll blow your fucking head off", because "I was trying to convey to this guy we were not playing"; (5) that Gregory had once pointed his gun at Arbery; and (6) that the chase resulted in Arbery being "cornered ... like a rat". Marcy further stated that surveillance video did not show Arbery taking anything from the under-construction house that day.


title: Murder of Ahmaud Arbery

text: Roderic Nohilly, a Glynn County police detective who had previously known Gregory McMichael professionally, interviewed Gregory at the police station later in the day of the murder. Nohilly testified that Gregory told him: (1) "I don't know. [...] He might have", in response to Nohilly's question on whether Arbery broke into a house that day; (2) that he saw Arbery "hauling ass" past his house, "getting the hell out of there", prompting him to take his handgun and call for Travis; (3) that they "chased [Arbery] around the neighborhood for a bit, but he wasn't winded at all"; (4) that Arbery was "trapped like a rat" in the chase, "wanting to flee", but "realized ... he was not going to get away"; (5) that Arbery wanted to "grab [Travis'] gun and probably shoot Travis ... If he'd had gotten that shotgun, and there was no separation between Travis and him, I was going to cap his ass".


title: Murder of Ahmaud Arbery

text: Stephan Lowrey, formerly a Glynn County police investigator who worked on the case, had interviewed Bryan at the police station later in the day of the murder. Lowrey testified that Bryan told him:


title: Murder of Ahmaud Arbery

text: (1) that he had seen Arbery "running down the road" with a truck "following", so Bryan entered his own vehicle to "assist"; (2) that he had not seen Arbery before and did not know if Arbery was involved with "any past instances", (3) that during the chase, he tried to cut off Arbery multiple times, "angled" Arbery "off the side of the road", but "didn't hit him"; and (4) that Arbery was trying to open Bryan's truck door during the chase. Lowrey further testified that Arbery's fingerprints were found on Bryan's truck door, next to a dent in the truck's body. Regarding the status of the Glynn County investigation before the Georgia Bureau of Investigation takeover, Lowrey said that it could be described as "inactive".


title: Murder of Ahmaud Arbery

text: Jason Seacrist, a Georgia Bureau of Investigation agent, who interviewed Bryan in May 2020, testified that (1) Bryan said he "didn't know for sure" if Arbery did something wrong, but "instinct" indicated Arbery did, and Bryan ultimately "figured he stole something"; (2) compared to his earlier interviews, Bryan played down his involvement in the chase in the later interview, stating that he wanted to slow Arbery down and take a picture of Arbery to identify him to the police.


title: Murder of Ahmaud Arbery

text: Richard Dial, a Georgia Bureau of Investigation agent, led the organization's investigation into Arbery's murder. Dial testified that (1) Bryan's behavior was not that of a "witness", as he was "pursuing" Arbery and "trying to box him in between two different vehicles"; (2) during the chase, Bryan had to reverse his vehicle to continue his pursuit of Arbery after Arbery turned into another street and Bryan overshot the turn. Maps compiled by the Georgia Bureau of Investigation showed that the McMichaels' vehicle looped around to the other end of the street Arbery was on, such that Arbery was between Bryan and the McMichaels, with no way to leave the street without meeting one of their vehicles.


title: Murder of Ahmaud Arbery

text: Other Georgia Bureau of Investigation members who testified were (1) Lawrence Kelly, who analyzed phone records and concluded that Bryan did not communicate with the McMichaels on the day of the shooting or before; (2) Jesse Worley, who said that Arbery's fingerprints were found on Bryan's truck; (3) Anne Kisler-Rao, who said that fibers from the side of Bryan's truck were consistent with those of Arbery's shirt, (4) Brian Leppard, who said that Travis' shotgun was fired very close to Arbery's armpit, close enough to touch Arbery's shirt and close enough for Arbery to possibly grab.


title: Murder of Ahmaud Arbery

text: During testimony by Cara Richardson, director of the Glynn-Brunswick 911 call center, several calls were played for the jury to hear. In July 2019, Gregory McMichael reported "a lot of break-ins in this area, automobile break-ins. And my son and I just discovered" a male suspect, "he may be living under Bluff Creek bridge ... We just made contact with him". Other calls made by Travis McMichael in January 2020 and mid-February 2020 were also played, as well as a call by Gregory McMichael at the time of the incident.


title: Murder of Ahmaud Arbery

text: Security camera videos showed the jury that Arbery had visited Larry English's under-construction house five times between October 2019 to February 2020. The videos showed that Arbery had no bag, and he did not touch or take any items from the house. The jury also saw more security camera footage from the house, displaying other incidents of two white boys taking plywood from the property's garage, and separately, a white man and woman entering the house at night with a small bag. English made multiple 911 calls regarding the white couple, once saying: "I know that first time they went in and stole", from the boat at his property. English also called 911 over Arbery in 2019, describing him as a "trespasser". Citing ill health, English did not testify live in court, but instead a September 2021 video deposition of his was shown to the jury. English testified in his deposition that (1) people frequently explored his under-construction house; (2) he called 911 on Arbery in 2019 wanting police to tell Arbery "not to be there anymore"; (3) he barely knew the McMichaels and had never met William Bryan; (4) as to whether he told the McMichaels about incidents at his house – "probably", but "not sure"; (5) he had not authorized the McMichaels to confront anyone on his property; and (6) he did authorize a different neighbour (not Bryan) to check his property.


title: Murder of Ahmaud Arbery

text: Kellie Parr, whose parents are residents of Satilla Shores, testified that in either December 2019 or January 2020, she saw a man at the under-construction house, whom she now believes to be Arbery. Parr said that the man was "just standing in the door frame and we just kind of looked at each other as I drove by", and that the man "didn't like hide or anything".


title: Murder of Ahmaud Arbery

text: Matthew Albenze, a Satilla Shores resident, testified that (1) he saw Arbery "just looking around" inside the under-construction house on the day of the murder; (2) in reaction to that, he put a handgun in his pocket, and called the police non-emergency number from across the street; (3) he chose not to call 911 because he "did not see an emergency"; (4) that Arbery ran off during Albenze's call, to which Albenze said: "I don't know why he took off running. I don't know if he saw me or not". Albenze's call was played to the jury.


title: Murder of Ahmaud Arbery

text: Edmund Donoghue, the state medical examiner who conducted Arbery's autopsy, testified that both the first and third shotgun blasts resulted in fatal injuries in Arbery, such that police or paramedics would not have been able to save Arbery's life. The first blast cut through Arbery's right wrist artery and pierced Arbery's chest, breaking ribs and causing massive internal bleeding; the second blast missed; and the third blast cut through a major artery and vein close to Arbery's left armpit, fracturing bones.


title: Murder of Ahmaud Arbery

text: The defense presented testimony on November 17 and 18, 2021. Travis McMichael was the only defendant to testify; Gregory McMichael and William "Roddie" Bryan did not testify.


title: Murder of Ahmaud Arbery

text: On the first day of his testimony, Travis testified that (1) crime had increased in the neighborhood in the months before the shooting, but he did not have complete information on who committed the crimes; (2) he was aware that items were stolen from the boat at his neighbor's under-construction property, and that he knew that "several people" had entered the property, any of whom could have stolen the items; (3) twelve days before the shooting, he saw Arbery "creeping" outside the under-construction house and he confronted Arbery, who reached towards his waistband, leading Travis to leave and call 911, because he was "not going to chase or investigate somebody who might be armed"; (4) on the day of the shooting, Gregory McMichael, in nearly a "frantic state", told Travis to "grab your gun" because "the guy who has been breaking in down the road" had run past their house; (5) he suspected that Arbery had been caught "breaking in" or been involved in an "altercation". (6) when he and his father chased Arbery in Travis's vehicle, he caught up with Arbery and recognized him as the person he saw twelve days earlier; (7) he mistakenly thought his father indicated that the police had been called; (8) he chased Arbery to ask questions, with Travis asking: "Hey, what are you doing? What's going on?---" and Arbery did not reply; (9) he continued chasing and attempted to "de-escalate" by asking Arbery to "stop", but Arbery looked "very angry", turned around, and ran in the opposite direction; (10) he caught up with Arbery again, saying that "police are on the way," causing Arbery to run faster, hence Travis became more suspicious; (11) he also chased Arbery because he wanted to "let the police know where [Arbery was] at and watch what's going on, to see where he's going;" (12) he circled the neighborhood to track Arbery, eventually seeing him running beside a black truck, which Arbery was "hitting" and "grabbing ... looked like he was trying to get in;" (13) he had not asked Bryan to join the chase and "didn't know where [Bryan's black] truck came from;" (14) he stopped his vehicle and got out, then again asked his father if he had called police, to which his father indicated he had no phone; (15) he then saw Arbery running towards him alone, viewed Arbery as "dangerous", shouted at Arbery to "stop", and reached for his shotgun from his vehicle, to which Arbery turned around and ran away. (16) regarding the final confrontation captured on video by Bryan, he saw Arbery once again running toward him, this time followed by the black truck, so he passed his cellphone to his father; (17) thinking that Arbery was "going to attack", he pointed his shotgun at Arbery "to deter him to do not come at me;" (18) Arbery ran around Travis's vehicle from the passengers side to the front, while Travis moved from the driver's side to the front of the vehicle to ensure that he could still see Arbery, thinking that Arbery "might be armed" and was a threat to Greg; and that (19) Arbery engaged Travis at the vehicle's front, grabbing the gun and hitting him---so he shot Arbery to stop him from taking the gun.


title: Murder of Ahmaud Arbery

text: On the second day of his testimony, Travis McMichael testified that (20) he never told Arbery that Arbery was under arrest for any crime, because "I didn't have time. I was still trying to get him to stop;" (21) later when making a statement to the police, he did not say that he and Gregory were trying to arrest Arbery; (22) until the time he aimed his shotgun at Arbery, Arbery had not verbally threatened him or displayed any weapon, but he thought Arbery "could be a threat" because of his running at him; (23) he told police that day that he "cannot remember" if Arbery had grabbed the gun when he shot him, but the account was inaccurate due to his suffering the "most traumatic event;" that regarding Facebook posts he made before the shooting, (24) in January 2019 he agreed with a neighbor who wrote that thieves should be made an example of: "That's right – hope y'all catch the vermin---" then when that neighbor indicated concern over how her father may interact with thieves because he did not care about being jailed, he responded: "That's what this world needs more of ... My old man is the same way ... Hell, I'm getting that way;" and that (25) in July 2019 he wrote "Arm up" in response to a post on local crime.


title: Murder of Ahmaud Arbery

text: Six residents of Satilla Shores testified on behalf of the defense, relaying their perception of crime in Satilla Shores, as well as a Facebook page on Satilla Shores in which crime was discussed.


title: Murder of Ahmaud Arbery

text: Prosecutor Linda Dunikoski argued that the defendants could not legally make a citizen's arrest of Arbery because they assumed he had committed a crime that day, whereas a citizen's arrest required "immediate knowledge" of a crime. She stated that the alternate requirement for a citizen's arrest, suspicion of fleeing after committing a felony, was not satisfied because at most, Arbery had trespassed, which was a misdemeanor and not a felony. Dunikoski further pointed out that Arbery had never brought "a bag, or any means to steal anything" to the under-construction house. She rejected the notion that the defendants were acting in self-defense "because they were the initial, unjustified aggressors," while noting that Travis McMichael had pointed his shotgun at Arbery. In contrast, she said Arbery had: "No weapon. No threats. No way to call for help. Didn't even have a cell phone on him. Ran away from them for five minutes."


title: Murder of Ahmaud Arbery

text: Jason Sheffield, the lawyer for Travis McMichael, argued that under Georgia law, the felony of burglary included entering "with the intent to steal something;" thus when Travis saw Arbery at the under-construction house twelve days before the shooting, he had probable cause to believe Arbery committed burglary and could justifiably arrest him. While describing the incident as "tragic", Sheffield argued: "You are allowed to defend yourself. You are allowed to use force that is likely to cause death or serious bodily injury if you believe it's necessary."