title: Jackson, Mississippi

text: On June 26, 2011, 49-year-old James Craig Anderson was killed in Jackson after being beaten, robbed, and run over by a group of white teenagers. The district attorney described it as a "hate crime", and the FBI investigated it as a civil rights violation.


title: Jackson, Mississippi

text: On March 18, 2013, a severe hailstorm hit the Jackson metro area. The hail caused major damage to roofs, vehicles, and building siding. Hail ranged in size from golfball to softball. There were more than 40,000 hailstorm claims of homeowner and automobile damage.


title: Jackson, Mississippi

text: In 2013, Jackson was named as one of the top 10 friendliest cities in the United States by "CN Traveler". The capital city was tied with Natchez as Number 7. The city was noticed for friendly people, great food, and green and pretty public places.


title: Jackson, Mississippi

text: On July 1, 2013, Chokwe Lumumba was sworn into office as mayor of the city. After eight months in office, Lumumba died on February 25, 2014. Lumumba was a popular yet controversial figure due to his prior membership in the Republic of New Afrika, as well as being a co-founder of the National Coalition of Blacks for Reparations in America.


title: Jackson, Mississippi

text: Lumumba's son, Chokwe Antar Lumumba, ran for the mayoral seat following his father's death, but lost to Councillor Tony Yarber on April 22, 2014. In 2017, however, Chokwe Antar Lumumba ran for mayor again, and won. Following his victory, on June 26 he was interviewed by Amy Goodman on "Democracy Now!", at which time he declared a commitment to make Jackson the "Most Radical City on the Planet".


title: Jackson, Mississippi

text: For several years, the city water supply failed to meet federal drinking water standards and was subject to many boil water orders in 2021 and 2022. Due to deteriorating water infrastructure, some parts of the city experienced low water pressure, and in some neighborhoods residents reported untreated sewage flowing in city streets. In August 2022, Jackson lost access to water when its largest water treatment plant failed, leaving tap water untreated.


title: Jackson, Mississippi

text: Jackson is located primarily in northeastern Hinds County, with small portions in Madison and Rankin counties. The city of Jackson also includes around 3,000 acres (12.1 km) comprising Jackson-Medgar Evers International Airport in Rankin County and a small portion of Madison County. The Pearl River forms most of the eastern border of the city. A small portion of the city containing Tougaloo College is the portion of Jackson that lies in Madison County, bounded on the west by Interstate 220 and on the east by the U.S. Route 51 and Interstate 55. In the 2010 census, only 622 of the city's residents lived in Madison County, and only 1 lived within the city limits in Rankin County. The city is bordered to the north by Ridgeland in Madison County, to the northeast by Ross Barnett Reservoir on the Pearl River, to the east by Flowood and Richland in Rankin County, to the south by Byram in Hinds County, and to the west by Clinton in Hinds County.


title: Jackson, Mississippi

text: According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , of which are land and , or 1.94% of the total, are water.


title: Jackson, Mississippi

text: Downtown Jackson is situated directly on the banks of the Pearl River. The downtown district has direct connections to both Interstate 55 via Pearl Street and Pasagoula Street and Interstate 20 via State Street (US 51). Much of the downtown was constructed before the 1980s and only small additions to the skyline have been made since then.


title: Jackson, Mississippi

text: For the most part, Jackson is built on acidic, variably drained silt loam soil. Loess forms the topsoil in western sections, where the Loring soil series is common. The Tippo series, also a silt loam, is found in the central flood plain. Farther east, common soil series include Guyton silt loam, Providence silt loam and Smithdale fine sandy loam.


title: Jackson, Mississippi

text: Jackson sits atop the extinct Jackson Volcano, located underground. It is the only capital city in the United States to have this feature. The buried peak of the volcano is located directly below the Mississippi Coliseum. The municipality is drained on the west by tributaries of the Big Black River and on the east by the Pearl River, which is higher than the Big Black near Canton. The artesian groundwater flow is not as extensive in Jackson for this reason. The first large-scale well was drilled in the city in 1896, and the city water supply has relied on surface water resources.


title: Jackson, Mississippi

text: Jackson is located in the humid subtropical climate zone (Köppen "Cfa"). Rain occurs throughout the year, though the winter and spring are the wettest seasons, while September and October are usually the driest months. Snow is rare, and accumulation very seldom lasts more than a day. Average annual precipitation is , see climate table. Much of Jackson's rainfall occurs during thunderstorms. Thunder is heard on roughly 70 days each year. Jackson lies in a region prone to severe thunderstorms which can produce large hail, damaging winds, and tornadoes. Among the most notable tornado events was the F5 Candlestick Park tornado on March 3, 1966, which destroyed the shopping center of the same name and surrounding businesses and residential areas, killing 19 in South Jackson.


title: Jackson, Mississippi

text: The record low temperature is , set on January 27, 1940, and the record high is , last recorded August 30, 2000.


title: Jackson, Mississippi

text: Jackson remained a small town for much of the 19th century. Before the American Civil War, Jackson's population remained small, particularly in contrast to the river towns along the commerce-laden Mississippi River. Despite the city's status as the state capital, the 1850 census counted only 1,881 residents, and by 1900 the population of Jackson was still less than 8,000. Although it expanded rapidly, during this period Meridian became Mississippi's largest city, based on trade, manufacturing, and access to transportation via railroad and highway.


title: Jackson, Mississippi

text: In the early 20th century, Jackson had its largest rates of growth but ranked second to Meridian in Mississippi. By 1944, Jackson's population had risen to some 70,000 inhabitants, and it became the largest city in the state. It has maintained its position, achieving a peak population in the 1980 census of more than 200,000 residents in the city. Since then, Jackson has steadily declined in population, while its suburbs have boomed. This change has occurred in part due to white flight after the desegregation of public schools in 1970 but also demonstrates the national suburbanization trend, in which wealthier residents moved out to newer housing. This decline slowed in the first decade of the 21st century.


title: Jackson, Mississippi

text: "Note: the US Census treats Hispanic/Latino as an ethnic category. This table excludes Latinos from the racial categories and assigns them to a separate category. Hispanics/Latinos can be of any race."According to the 2010 census, the racial and ethnic makeup of the city was predominantly Black and African American, and non-Hispanic white; in 2020, they remained the largest racial and ethnic composition for the city. With white demographic decline and white flight, its non-Hispanic white population has declined; this was also due to the increase in other traditional minorities within the city, state, and nation.


title: Jackson, Mississippi

text: According to census statistics in 2000, the median income for a household in the city was $30,414, and the median income for a family was $36,003. Males had a median income of $29,166 versus $23,328 for females. The per capita income for the city was $17,116. About 19.6% of families and 23.5% of the population were below the poverty line, including 33.7% of those under age 18 and 15.7% of those age 65 or over. At the publication of the 2020 American Community Survey, the city's median household income increased to $35,070; families had a median income of $44,348, married-couple families $74,893, and non-families $22,061.


title: Jackson, Mississippi

text: In 1993 Jackson had the nation's 12th highest homicide rate among cities with more than 100,000 residents, according to the FBI. The 87 slayings in the city in 1993 gave Jackson a homicide rate of 41.9 per 100,000 residents, the FBI reported, and set a new record for the most violent deaths in one year. 1994 had higher homicides, with 91, and the record would be broken again in 1995 with a total of 92.


title: Jackson, Mississippi

text: In 2020, the city's homicide rate reached its highest in history with 79.69 homicides per 100,000 residents, with a total of 128 homicides. Of major U.S. cities, only St. Louis surpassed Jackson's homicide rate. The homicide rate in 2020 represented a significant spike after years of declining homicide rates in the early 2000s. Property crime remains much lower than in the 1990s and overall violent crime has not increased as significantly as homicide in recent years and is below the peak in 1994 as of 2020. In 2021, a record number of homicides were recorded - 155 - and at a rate of 101 per 100,000 amongst the highest in the world.


title: Jackson, Mississippi

text: In late 2020, Police Chief James Davis along with the Mayor and other city leaders unveiled the virtual policing concept. After months of struggling to move the concept forward Chief Davis began discussions with Eric B. Fox, a veteran Jackson Police Officer to return to the department. Fox returned officially in January 2022 and launched a new concept, the Real Time Command Center.


title: Jackson, Mississippi

text: Jackson is home to several major industries; these include electrical equipment and machinery, processed food, and primary and fabricated metal products. The surrounding area supports the agricultural development of livestock, soybeans, cotton, and poultry.


title: Jackson, Mississippi

text: According to the city's government, its top three employers are the University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson Public Schools, and Nissan North America as of 2020. Other notable corporations with a large presence in the city and area have included or currently include Amazon (in nearby Madison County), Burlington, and Walmart.


title: Jackson, Mississippi

text: The city is home to Cooperation Jackson, which is an economic development vehicle for worker-owned cooperative business. The organization has led to the creation of several businesses including lawn care provider The Green Team, organic farm Freedom Farms, print shop The Center for Community Production, and The Balagoon Center, which is a cooperative business incubator.


title: Jackson, Mississippi

text: The city of Jackson and its metropolitan area are home to collegiate and semi-professional sports teams; Major League Baseball's Atlanta Braves minor affiliate, the Mississippi Braves, plays in the area. Mississippi Brilla of USL League Two also operates in the area.


title: Jackson, Mississippi

text: In 1985, Jackson voters opted to replace the three-person mayor-commissioner system with a city council and mayor. This electoral system enables a wider representation of residents on the city council. City council members are elected from each of the city's seven wards, considered single-member districts. The mayor is elected at-large citywide.


title: Jackson, Mississippi

text: The Mississippi Department of Corrections (MDOC) operates the Jackson Probation & Parole Office in Jackson. The MDOC Central Mississippi Correctional Facility, in unincorporated Rankin County, is located in proximity to Jackson.


title: Jackson, Mississippi

text: The larger portion of Jackson is part of Mississippi's 2nd congressional district. U.S. Representative Bennie Gordon Thompson, a Democrat, has served since 1993. Until 2011 he was Chairman of the Committee on Homeland Security and has been the ranking member since 2011.[1]


title: Jackson, Mississippi

text: The United States Postal Service operates the Jackson Main Post Office and several smaller post offices.


title: Jackson, Mississippi

text: Jackson is home to the most collegiate institutions in Mississippi. Jackson State University is the largest collegiate institution in Jackson, fourth largest in Mississippi, and the only doctoral-granting research institution based in its region.


title: Jackson, Mississippi

text: Jackson Public School District (JPS) operates 60 public schools. It is one of the largest school districts in the state with about 30,000 students in thirty-eight elementary schools, thirteen middle schools, seven high schools, and two special schools. Jackson Public Schools is the only urban school district in the state.


title: Jackson, Mississippi

text: While most of Jackson is in Jackson PSD, there are parts in Hinds County that are instead in Hinds County School District. This part is zoned to Terry High School in Terry. The portion of Jackson in Madison County is within the Madison County School District.


title: Jackson, Mississippi

text: On March 27, 2015, Jackson Mayor Tony Yarber issued a state of emergency for transportation (potholes) and water infrastructure (breaks in water mains). The quality of Jackson's water infrastructure system decreased after the severe winter weather of 2014–2015. Jackson's office estimated the cost to fix the roads and water pipes at $750 million to $1 billion.


title: Jackson, Mississippi

text: After issuing the state of emergency, the City of Jackson filed a letter of intent to Department of Health to borrow $2.5 million to repair broken water pipes. The Jackson City Council must approve the mayor's proposal. Additionally, Mayor Yarber asked for help from both FEMA and the state Governor's office.


title: Jackson, Mississippi

text: Calling for a state of emergency increases the likelihood that the U.S. Department of Transportation would give the city money from a "quick release" funding account.


title: Jackson, Mississippi

text: In late August 2022, the Pearl River overflowed, flooding much of the city and contaminating the water supply. Mayor Lumumba declared a state of emergency and shut down all businesses and schools.


title: Jackson, Mississippi

text: In 2015, 11 percent of the city of Jackson households lacked a car, which decreased to 7.6 percent in 2016. The national average was 8.7 percent in 2016. Jackson averaged 1.68 cars per household in 2016, compared to a national average of 1.8.


title: Jackson, Mississippi

text: In 2002, the Subway Lounge (of the Summers Hotel on the Gold Coast) was featured as the subject of the film documentary entitled "Last of the Mississippi Jukes."


title: Jackson, Mississippi

text: The popular film "The Help" (2011), based on the bestselling novel by the same name by Kathryn Stockett, was filmed in Jackson. The city has a two-part, self-guided tour of areas featured in the film and the book.


title: Jackson, Mississippi

text: In the song "Uptown Funk" by Mark Ronson and featuring Bruno Mars Jackson is mentioned in the lines "Julio! Get the Stretch! Ride to Harlem; Hollywood, Jackson, Mississippi."


title: Jackson, Mississippi

text: "Get on Up", a movie released in August 2014, had some scenes filmed in Jackson, and nearby Natchez. The movie is based on the life of James Brown.


title: Jackson, Mississippi

text: The movie "Speech & Debate", an adaptation of the stage play of the same name of Broadway theatre, was filmed entirely in Jackson.


title: Amy Fisher

text: Amy Elizabeth Fisher (born August 21, 1974) is an American woman who became known in the media as "the Long Island Lolita" in 1992, when, at the age of 17, she shot and severely wounded Mary Jo Buttafuoco, the wife of Joey Buttafuoco, with whom Fisher was in a sexual relationship. Initially charged with first-degree attempted murder, she eventually pleaded guilty to first-degree aggravated assault and served seven years in prison. Paroled in 1999, Fisher became a writer, a webcam model, and a pornographic actress.


title: Amy Fisher

text: Fisher was born in Merrick, New York, on Long Island, to Elliot and Roseann Fisher; her father was Jewish while her mother's family, Fisher has said, was "a mixture of a lot of different things, including English". As a 16-year-old student at Kennedy High School in Bellmore, New York, Fisher allegedly met 35-year-old Joey Buttafuoco in 1990, when her father took his car for repairs to Buttafuoco's auto body shop; Fisher later said she had damaged her own car several times as a pretext to see him, and later admitted that they had an affair when she was still underage.


title: Amy Fisher

text: Fisher became increasingly jealous of Buttafuoco's wife, Mary Jo Buttafuoco. She obtained a .25-caliber handgun with the assistance of Peter Guagenti, a Brooklyn auto supply salesman who acted as her getaway driver. When Mary Jo Buttafuoco answered the door, Fisher told her that Joey Buttafuoco was having an affair with Fisher's (imaginary) younger sister, providing a T-shirt advertising Buttafuoco's auto body shop as "proof". The conversation lasted about 15 minutes, during which Buttafuoco became increasingly angry. She finally told Fisher to leave and then turned her back to return to the house. Fisher took out the gun, struck Buttafuoco twice with it, then shot her in the head; she later said the severely wounded Buttafuoco fell on her. Fisher dropped both the shirt and the gun and ran towards the car, but then returned for them and Guagenti drove off. Neighbors called 911; Buttafuoco was operated on all night, and although they could not remove the bullet, doctors were able to save her life.


title: Amy Fisher

text: When interviewed by police, Joey Buttafuoco told them that Fisher could be the shooter. When Mary Jo Buttafuoco regained consciousness the next day, she recognized Fisher from a photo. Fisher was arrested and charged with attempted murder, and on September 23, 1992, after accepting a plea bargain, she pleaded guilty to first-degree assault.


title: Amy Fisher

text: In September 1992, the tabloid television show "Hard Copy" broadcast a videotaped conversation between Fisher and Paul Makely, the owner of a gym in Massapequa. In the tape, recorded hours before she agreed to the plea in court, Fisher could be seen talking about her future, saying that she wanted to marry Makely so he could visit her in prison. Fisher explained that her lawyer believed requiring people to be married for such visits was unconstitutional and that she intended to challenge the law on this matter. Fisher could be seen on the tape saying: "That will keep my name in the press. I want my name in the press. Why? Because I can make a lot of money. I figure if I'm going through all this pain and suffering, I'm getting a Ferrari."


title: Amy Fisher

text: On December 2, 1992, Fisher was sentenced to 5 to 15 years in prison. She served seven years and was granted parole in May 1999 after Nassau County Court Judge Ira Wexner shortened her maximum sentence to 10 years, which made her immediately eligible for parole. Wexner acted after having found that Fisher had not been appropriately represented by her lawyer at the time of her 1992 guilty plea.


title: Amy Fisher

text: Joey Buttafuoco denied having an affair with Fisher. In October 1992, the Nassau County District Attorney stated that Buttafuoco would not be prosecuted. However, in February 1993, the case against him was reopened due to rape charges made by Fisher. She testified against him in court and based on this testimony and hotel receipts (dated before Fisher's 17th birthday) with Buttafuoco's signature on them, Buttafuoco was charged with statutory rape. Buttafuoco pleaded guilty in October 1993. He served four months in prison.


title: Amy Fisher

text: After her release from prison, Fisher became a columnist for the "Long Island Press." Her biography, "If I Knew Then...," written by Robbie Woliver, was published in 2004 and became a "New York Times" bestseller. In 2003, Fisher married Louis Bellera. The couple had three children before divorcing in 2015.


title: Amy Fisher

text: In 2006, Fisher reunited with Mary Jo Buttafuoco in sessions televised for "Entertainment Tonight" and its spinoff, "The Insider." Fisher said she wanted to heal and move on with her life. However, two years later, she said she felt "no sympathy for Mary Jo", without giving an explanation. Fisher and Joey Buttafuoco eventually reunited for the first time at the 2006 Lingerie Bowl for the coin toss.


title: Amy Fisher

text: In May 2007, Fisher and Joey Buttafuoco met for dinner in Port Jefferson, Long Island, in what TV producer David Krieff said was an attempt to develop a reality-television show. In June and July 2011 Fisher appeared as a cast member in the fifth season of the reality-television series "Celebrity Rehab with Dr. Drew", which aired on VH1.


title: Amy Fisher

text: In October 2007, the "New York Post" published allegations that Fisher's husband, Lou Bellera, had sold a sex tape of the couple to Red Light District Video of Los Angeles. Red Light District Video published a press release stating that it intended to release a sex video of the couple. On October 31, nude pictures of Fisher from the video were posted at various Internet sites, and on November 1, 2007, a teaser clip was released by Red Light District Video that showed a nude Fisher showering and sunbathing. Of note were a tattoo surrounding her navel and a breast augmentation. On November 6, 2007, Fisher sued Red Light District and its owner David Joseph, claiming copyright infringement and other damages. But by November 8, 2007, amyfisher.com, a website whose ownership Fisher had previously fought to win, had begun pointing directly to the Red Light District website.


title: Amy Fisher

text: In early January 2008, Fisher announced that she had settled with Red Light and agreed to do a related promotional appearance. The same announcement indicated that she and Bellera had reconciled. The promotional appearance took place at Retox in New York City on January 4, 2008. Clips of the video were played on "The Howard Stern Show." On March 6, 2008, Fisher was a guest on the "Stern" show, and one topic of discussion was meant to be her video. But after the first phone call, which was from Mary Jo Buttafuoco's daughter Jessica, Fisher left the show six minutes into her interview.


title: Amy Fisher

text: On January 12, 2009, Fisher released a pay-per-view adult film titled "Amy Fisher: Totally Nude & Exposed." Fisher signed a deal with Lee Entertainment to become a stripper doing club shows at least once a month. Fisher claimed she planned to strip until her fans told her, "Dear, please put your clothes back on. You're too old." In September 2010, DreamZone Entertainment released the adult film "Deep Inside Amy Fisher", calling it the first of eight such films Fisher would produce and in which she would star. The company had announced the movie in July 2010 under the working title "The Making of Amy Fisher: Porn Star". In June 2011, Fisher said she was no longer making adult films.


title: Amy Fisher

text: According to Alan Ball, Fisher's story was an inspiration to him in writing the script for the 1999 film "American Beauty".


title: 2021–22 Liverpool F.C. season

text: The 2021–22 season was Liverpool Football Club's 130th season in existence and their 60th consecutive season in the top flight of English football. During the season, Liverpool won the EFL Cup for the ninth time in their history, a tournament record, and the FA Cup for the eighth time in their history. In spite of fixture congestion, Liverpool participated in every game they were eligible to play throughout the 2021–22 season, as they competed for both the Premier League and Champions League titles, ultimately finishing second in the Premier League, just a point behind Manchester City, and losing the Champions League final to Real Madrid 0–1.


title: 2021–22 Liverpool F.C. season

text: On 12 July 2021, Liverpool announced that they would play four friendlies as part of a pre-season training camp in Austria. On 19 July, they stated that they would complete their pre-season campaign with two home friendlies. On 29 July, the Reds confirmed that they would face Bologna in two sixty-minute matches as part of a training camp in France in between the previously announced engagements.


title: 2021–22 Liverpool F.C. season

text: Liverpool were drawn at home to Shrewsbury Town in the third round to begin their participation in the competition.


title: 2021–22 Liverpool F.C. season

text: The draw for the round of 16 took place on 13 December 2021 at UEFA's headquarters in Nyon, Switzerland. Liverpool were drawn against Serie A champions Inter Milan.


title: 2021–22 Liverpool F.C. season

text: The final was held on 28 May 2022 between Liverpool and Real Madrid. This was Liverpool's tenth European Cup Final appearance, the most of any English club, and third appearance in the final in five years; it was a rematch of the 2018 final, which Liverpool lost 1–3.


title: Toyotomi Hideyoshi

text: , otherwise known as and , was a Japanese samurai and "daimyō" (feudal lord) of the late Sengoku period regarded as the second "Great Unifier" of Japan.


title: Toyotomi Hideyoshi

text: Hideyoshi rose from a peasant background as a retainer of the prominent lord Oda Nobunaga to become one of the most powerful men in Japan. Hideyoshi succeeded Nobunaga after the Honnō-ji Incident in 1582 and continued Nobunaga's campaign to unite Japan that led to the closing of the Sengoku period. Hideyoshi became the "de facto" leader of Japan and acquired the prestigious positions of Chancellor of the Realm and Imperial Regent by the mid-1580s. Hideyoshi launched the Japanese invasions of Korea in 1592 to initial success, but eventual military stalemate damaged his prestige before his death in 1598. Hideyoshi's young son and successor Toyotomi Hideyori was displaced by Tokugawa Ieyasu at the Battle of Sekigahara in 1600 which would lead to the founding of the Tokugawa Shogunate.


title: Toyotomi Hideyoshi

text: Hideyoshi's rule covers most of the Azuchi–Momoyama period of Japan, partially named after his castle, Momoyama Castle. Hideyoshi left an influential and lasting legacy in Japan, including Osaka Castle, the Tokugawa class system, the restriction on the possession of weapons to the samurai, and the construction and restoration of many temples, some of which are still visible in Kyoto.


title: Toyotomi Hideyoshi

text: Very little is known for certain about Toyotomi Hideyoshi before 1570, when he begins to appear in surviving documents and letters. His autobiography starts in 1577, but in it, Hideyoshi spoke very little about his past.


title: Toyotomi Hideyoshi

text: According to tradition, Hideyoshi was born on 17 March 1538 in Nakamura, Owari Province (present-day Nakamura Ward, Nagoya), in the middle of the chaotic Sengoku period under the collapsed Ashikaga Shogunate. Hideyoshi had no traceable samurai lineage, and his father Kinoshita Yaemon was an "ashigaru" – a peasant employed by the samurai as a foot soldier. Hideyoshi had no surname, and his childhood given name was ("Bounty of the Sun") although variations exist. Yaemon died in 1543 when Hideyoshi was seven years old.


title: Toyotomi Hideyoshi

text: Many legends describe Hideyoshi being sent to study at a temple as a young man, but he rejected temple life and went in search of adventure. Under the name , he first joined the Imagawa clan as a servant to a local ruler named . Hideyoshi traveled all the way to the lands of Imagawa Yoshimoto, the daimyo based in Suruga Province, and served there for a time, only to abscond with a sum of money entrusted to him by Matsushita Yukitsuna.


title: Toyotomi Hideyoshi

text: In 1558, Hideyoshi became an "ashigaru" for the powerful Oda clan, the rulers of his home province of Owari, now headed by the ambitious Oda Nobunaga.


title: Toyotomi Hideyoshi

text: Hideyoshi soon became Nobunaga's sandal-bearer, a position of relatively high status. According to his biographers, Hideyoshi also supervised the repair of Kiyosu Castle, a claim described as "apocryphal", and managed the kitchen. After Nobunaga noticed his talents, when Nobunaga defeated Imagawa Yoshimoto at the Battle of Okehazama in 1560, he become one of Nobunaga’s trusted retainers.


title: Toyotomi Hideyoshi

text: In 1561, Hideyoshi married One, the adopted daughter of Asano Nagakatsu, a descendant of Minamoto no Yorimitsu. Hideyoshi carried out repairs on Sunomata Castle with his younger half-brother, Hashiba Koichirō, along with Hachisuka Masakatsu, and Maeno Nagayasu. Hideyoshi's efforts were well-received because Sunomata was in enemy territory, and according to legend Hideyoshi constructed a fort in Sunomata overnight and discovered a secret route into Mount Inaba, after which much of the local garrison surrendered.


title: Toyotomi Hideyoshi

text: In 1564, Hideyoshi was very successful as a negotiator. He managed to convince, mostly with liberal bribes, a number of Mino warlords to desert the Saitō clan. Hideyoshi approached many Saitō clan samurai and convinced them to submit to Nobunaga, including the Saitō clan's strategist, Takenaka Shigeharu.


title: Toyotomi Hideyoshi

text: Nobunaga's easy victory at the siege of Inabayama Castle in 1567 was largely due to Hideyoshi's efforts, and despite his peasant origins, in 1568 Hideyoshi became one of Nobunaga's most distinguished generals, eventually taking the name . The new surname included two characters, one each from Oda's right-hand men, , and , .


title: Toyotomi Hideyoshi

text: In 1570, Hideyoshi protected Nobunaga's retreat from Azai-Asakura forces at Kanegasaki. Hideyoshi's rear-guard defense of his lord's escape is one of his fabled accomplishments under Nobunaga. Later in June 1570, at the Battle of Anegawa, in which Oda Nobunaga allied with Tokugawa Ieyasu to lay siege to two fortresses of the Azai and Asakura clans, Hideyoshi was assigned to lead Oda troops into open battle for the first time.


title: Toyotomi Hideyoshi

text: In 1573, after victorious campaigns against the Azai and Asakura, Nobunaga appointed Hideyoshi "daimyō" of three districts in the northern part of Ōmi Province. Initially, Hideyoshi based at the former Azai headquarters at Odani Castle but moved to Kunitomo town and renamed it "Nagahama" in tribute to Nobunaga. Hideyoshi later moved to the port at Imahama on Lake Biwa, where he began work on Imahama Castle and took control of the nearby Kunitomo firearms factory that had been established some years previously by the Azai and Asakura. Under Hideyoshi's administration, the factory's output of firearms increased dramatically. Later, Hideyoshi participated in the 1573 siege of Nagashima.


title: Toyotomi Hideyoshi

text: In 1574, Hideyoshi along with Araki Murashige, captured Itami Castle and later in 1575, fought in the Battle of Nagashino against the Takeda clan.


title: Toyotomi Hideyoshi

text: In 1576, he took part at the Siege of Mitsuji part of the eleven-year Ishiyama Hongan-ji War. Later, Nobunaga sent Hideyoshi to Himeji Castle to conquer the Chūgoku region from the Mori clan. Hideyoshi then fought in the Battle of Tedorigawa (1577), the siege of Miki (1578), the siege of Tottori (1581) and also Siege of Takamatsu (1582).


title: Toyotomi Hideyoshi

text: During the Siege of Takamatsu, on June 21, 1582, Oda Nobunaga and his eldest son and heir, Nobutada, were killed in the Honnō-ji incident by the forces of the traitorous Akechi Mitsuhide. Their assassination in Honnō-ji temple in Kyoto ended Nobunaga's quest to consolidate centralised power in Japan under his authority.


title: Toyotomi Hideyoshi

text: Hideyoshi, seeking vengeance for the death of his lord, made peace with the Mōri clan and thirteen days later met Mitsuhide and defeated him at the Battle of Yamazaki, avenging his lord (Nobunaga) and taking Nobunaga's authority and power for himself.


title: Toyotomi Hideyoshi

text: In 1582, Hideyoshi began construction of Osaka Castle. Built on the site of the temple Ishiyama Hongan-ji, which was destroyed by Nobunaga, in 1597, construction was completed and the castle would become the last stronghold of the Toyotomi clan after Hideyoshi's death.


title: Toyotomi Hideyoshi

text: In 1583 Hideyoshi was in a very strong position. He summoned the powerful "daimyō" to Kiyosu Castle so that they could determine Nobunaga's heir. Oda Nobukatsu and Oda Nobutaka quarreled, causing Hideyoshi to instead choose Nobunaga's grandson Samboshi, whose other name was Hidenobu. Having won the support of the other two Oda clan elders, Niwa Nagahide and Ikeda Tsuneoki, Hideyoshi established Hidenobu's position, as well as his own influence in the Oda clan. He distributed Nobunaga's provinces among the generals and formed a council of four generals to help him govern. Tension quickly escalated between Toyotomi Hideyoshi and Shibata Katsuie, and at the Battle of Shizugatake in the following year, Hideyoshi destroyed Katsuie's forces. Hideyoshi had thus consolidated his own power, dealt with most of the Oda clan, and controlled 30 provinces. The famous kirishitan daimyo and samurai Dom Justo Takayama fought on his side at this epic battle.


title: Toyotomi Hideyoshi

text: In 1584, Nobunaga's other son, Oda Nobukatsu, remained hostile to Hideyoshi. Nobukatsu allied himself with Tokugawa Ieyasu, and the two sides fought at the inconclusive Battle of Komaki and Nagakute. It ultimately resulted in a stalemate, although Hideyoshi's forces were delivered a heavy blow. Ieyasu and Hideyoshi never actually fought against each other themselves but the former managed to check the advance of the latter's allies. Finally, Hideyoshi made peace with Nobukatsu, ending the pretext for war between the Tokugawa and Hashiba clans. Hideyoshi sent Tokugawa Ieyasu his younger sister Asahi no kata and mother Ōmandokoro as hostages.


title: Toyotomi Hideyoshi

text: Like Oda Nobunaga before him, Hideyoshi never achieved the title of "shōgun". Instead, he arranged to have himself adopted by Konoe Sakihisa, one of the noblest men belonging to the Fujiwara clan and secured a succession of high court titles Chancellor (Daijō-daijin), including, in 1585, the prestigious position of Imperial Regent (kampaku). Also in 1585, Hideyoshi was formally given the new clan name Toyotomi (instead of Fujiwara) by the Imperial Court. He built a lavish palace, the Jurakudai, in 1587, and entertained the reigning Emperor, Emperor Go-Yōzei, the following year.


title: Toyotomi Hideyoshi

text: Afterwards in 1585, Hideyoshi launched the siege of Negoro-ji and subjugated Kii Province. The Negoro-gumi, the warrior monks of Negoro-ji, were quite skilled in the use of firearms, and were devout followers of Shingi, a branch of the Shingon sect of Buddhism. They were allied with the Ikkō-ikki, and with Tokugawa Ieyasu, one of Toyotomi's chief rivals. In particular, they attracted Hideyoshi's ire for their support of Tokugawa in the Battle of Komaki and Nagakute the previous year. After attacking a number of other warrior monk outposts in the area, Hideyoshi's force turned to the monastery of Negoro-ji, attacking it from two sides. By this time, many of the Negoro-gumi had already fled to Ōta Castle. Later, Hideyoshi besieged Ōta Castle. The complex was set aflame, beginning with the residences of the priests, and Hideyoshi's samurai cut down monks as they escaped the blazing buildings.


title: Toyotomi Hideyoshi

text: In the 1585 invasion of Shikoku, Toyotomi forces seized and conquered Shikoku island, the smallest of Japan's four main islands, from Chōsokabe Motochika. Toyotomi's forces arrived 113,000 strong under Toyotomi Hidenaga, Toyotomi Hidetsugu, Ukita Hideie and the Mōri clan's "Two Rivers", Kobayakawa Takakage and Kikkawa Motoharu. Opposing them were 40,000 men of Chōsokabe's. Despite the overwhelming size of Hideyoshi's army, and the suggestions of his advisors, Motochika chose to fight to defend his territories. The battles culminated in the siege of Ichinomiya Castle, which lasted for 26 days. Chōsokabe made a half-hearted attempt to relieve his castle from the siege, but surrendered in the end. He was allowed to keep Tosa Province, while the rest of Shikoku was divided among Hideyoshi's generals.


title: Toyotomi Hideyoshi

text: During the late summer of August 1585, Hideyoshi launched an attack on Etchū Province and Hida Province. Toyotomi Hideyoshi dispatched Kanamori Nagachika to destroy the Anegakōji clan of Hida and he carried out the siege of Toyama Castle. The Toyama Castle garrison was led by Sassa Narimasa, one of his former allies many years back. Hideyoshi led his army of around 100,000 soldiers against the 20,000 men of the Sassa Narimasa forces; in the end, Narimasa's defense was shattered, opening the way for Toyotomi's supremacy over Etchū Province and Hida Province.


title: Toyotomi Hideyoshi

text: In 1586 Toyotomi Hideyoshi conquered Kyūshū, wresting control from the Shimazu clan. Toyotomi Hidenaga, half-brother to Hideyoshi, landed to the south of Bungo on Kyūshū's eastern coast. Meanwhile, Hideyoshi took his own forces down a more western route, in Chikuzen Province. Later that year, with a total of 200,000 soldiers against the 30,000 men of the Shimazu forces, the two brothers would meet up in the Shimazu home province of Satsuma. They besieged Kagoshima castle, the Shimazu clan's home. The Shimazu surrendered, leaving Hideyoshi to return his attention to the Hōjō clan of Kantō, the last major clan to oppose him.


title: Toyotomi Hideyoshi

text: Later in 1587, Hideyoshi banished Christian missionaries from Kyūshū, to exert greater control over the "Kirishitan" "daimyō". However, since he did much trade with Europeans, individual Christians were overlooked unofficially.


title: Toyotomi Hideyoshi

text: In 1588, Hideyoshi forbade ordinary peasants from owning weapons and started a sword hunt to confiscate arms. The swords were melted down to create a statue of the Buddha. This measure effectively stopped peasant revolts, and ensured greater stability at the expense of freedom of the individual "daimyō".


title: Toyotomi Hideyoshi

text: In 1590, Hideyoshi carried out the Odawara Campaign against the Hōjō clan in the Kantō region. It is notable as the first battle that involved the alliance between Hideyoshi and Tokugawa Ieyasu. With 220,000 men, the massive army of Toyotomi Hideyoshi surrounded Odawara Castle and its 82,000-strong Hōjō garrison, in what has been called "the most unconventional siege lines in samurai history". The samurai were entertained by everything from concubines, prostitutes, and musicians to acrobats, fire-eaters, and jugglers. The defenders slept on the ramparts with their arquebuses and armor; despite their smaller numbers, they discouraged Hideyoshi from attacking. After three months the Hōjō surrendered, losing the will to fight after the sudden appearance of Ishigakiyama Ichiya Castle.


title: Toyotomi Hideyoshi

text: This eliminated the last resistance to Hideyoshi's authority. His victory signified the end of the Sengoku period. During the siege, Hideyoshi offered Ieyasu the eight Hōjō-ruled provinces in the Kantō region, in exchange for the submission of Ieyasu's five provinces. Ieyasu accepted this proposal.


title: Toyotomi Hideyoshi

text: In February 1591, Hideyoshi ordered Sen no Rikyū to commit suicide, likely in one of his angry outbursts. Rikyū had been a trusted retainer and master of the tea ceremony under both Hideyoshi and Nobunaga. Under Hideyoshi's patronage, Rikyū made significant changes to the aesthetics of the tea ceremony that had a lasting influence over many aspects of Japanese culture. Even after Rikyū's death, Hideyoshi is said to have built his many construction projects based upon aesthetics promoted by Rikyū, perhaps suggesting that he regretted his actions.


title: Toyotomi Hideyoshi

text: Following Rikyū's death, Hideyoshi turned his attention from tea ceremony to Noh, which he had been studying since becoming Imperial Regent. During his brief stay in Nagoya Castle in what is today Saga Prefecture, on Kyūshū, Hideyoshi memorised the "shite" (lead role) parts of ten Noh plays, which he then performed, forcing various "daimyō" to accompany him onstage as the "waki" (secondary, accompanying role). He even performed before the emperor.


title: Toyotomi Hideyoshi

text: The Kunohe rebellion was an insurrection in the Sengoku period of Japan, that occurred in Mutsu Province from 13 March to 4 September 1591.


title: Toyotomi Hideyoshi

text: Kunohe Masazane, a claimant to daimyo of the Nanbu clan, launched a rebellion against his rival Nanbu Nobunao which spread across Mutsu Province. Nobunao was backed by Toyotomi Hideyoshi, who along with Tokugawa Ieyasu sent a large army into the Tōhoku region in mid-1591 which quickly defeated the rebels. Hideyoshi's army arrived at Kunohe Castle in early September. Masazane was outnumbered and surrendered Kunohe Castle but he and the castle defenders were executed. The Kunohe rebellion was the final battle in Toyotomi Hideyoshi's campaigns during the Sengoku period and completed the unification of Japan.


title: Toyotomi Hideyoshi

text: The future stability of the Toyotomi dynasty after Hideyoshi's eventual death was put in doubt with the death of his son Tsurumatsu in September 1591. The three-year-old was his only child. When his half-brother Hidenaga died shortly after, Hideyoshi named his nephew Hidetsugu his heir, adopting him in January 1592. Hideyoshi resigned as "kampaku" to take the title of "taikō" (retired regent). Hidetsugu succeeded him as "kampaku".


title: Toyotomi Hideyoshi

text: With Hideyoshi's health beginning to falter, but still yearning for some accomplishment to solidify his legacy, he adopted Oda Nobunaga's dream of a Japanese conquest of China and launched the conquest of the Ming dynasty by way of Korea (at the time known as Koryu or Joseon).


title: Toyotomi Hideyoshi

text: Hideyoshi had been communicating with the Koreans since 1587 requesting unmolested passage into China. As an ally of Ming China, the Joseon government of the time at first refused talks entirely, and in April and July 1591 also refused demands that Japanese troops be allowed to march through Korea. The government of Joseon was concerned that allowing Japanese troops to march through Korea (Joseon) would mean that masses of Ming Chinese troops would battle Hideyoshi's troops on Korean soil before they could reach China, putting Korean security at risk. In August 1591, Hideyoshi ordered preparations for an invasion of Korea to begin.


title: Toyotomi Hideyoshi

text: In the first campaign, Hideyoshi appointed Ukita Hideie as field marshal, and had him go to the Korean peninsula in April 1592. Konishi Yukinaga occupied Seoul, which was the capital of the Joseon dynasty of Korea, on June 19. After Seoul fell easily, Japanese commanders held a war council in June in Seoul and determined targets of subjugation called "Hachidokuniwari" (literally, dividing the country into eight routes). Each targeted province was attacked by one of the army's eight divisions:


title: Toyotomi Hideyoshi

text: In only four months, Hideyoshi's forces had a route into Manchuria and occupied much of Korea. The Korean king Seonjo of Joseon escaped to Uiju and requested military intervention from China. In 1593, the Wanli Emperor of Ming China sent an army under general Li Rusong to block the planned Japanese invasion of China and recapture the Korean peninsula. The Ming army of 43,000 soldiers headed by general Li Ru-song proceeded to attack Pyongyang. On January 7, 1593, the Ming relief forces under Li recaptured Pyongyang and surrounded Seoul, but Kobayakawa Takakage, Ukita Hideie, Tachibana Muneshige and Kikkawa Hiroie won the Battle of Byeokjegwan north of Seoul, in modern day Goyang City. At the end of the first campaign, Japan's entire navy was destroyed by Admiral Yi Sun-sin of Korea whose base was located in a part of Korea the Japanese could not control. This, in effect, put an end to Japan's dream of conquering China as the Koreans simply destroyed Japan's ability to resupply their troops who were bogged down in Seoul.


title: Toyotomi Hideyoshi

text: The birth of Hideyoshi's second son in 1593, Hideyori, created a potential succession problem. To avoid it, Hideyoshi exiled his nephew and heir Hidetsugu to Mount Kōya and then ordered him to commit suicide in August 1595. Hidetsugu's family members who did not follow his example were then murdered in Kyoto, including 31 women and several children.


title: Toyotomi Hideyoshi

text: In January 1597, Toyotomi Hideyoshi had twenty-six Christians arrested as an example to Japanese who wanted to convert to Christianity. They are known as the Twenty-six Martyrs of Japan. They included five European Franciscan missionaries, one Mexican Franciscan missionary, three Japanese Jesuits and seventeen Japanese laymen including three young boys. They were tortured, mutilated, and paraded through towns across Japan. On February 5, they were executed in Nagasaki by public crucifixion.


title: Toyotomi Hideyoshi

text: After several years of negotiations (broken off because envoys of both sides falsely reported to their masters that the opposition had surrendered), Hideyoshi appointed Kobayakawa Hideaki to lead a renewed invasion of Korea, but their efforts on the peninsula met with less success than the first invasion. Japanese troops remained pinned down in Gyeongsang Province. In June 1598, the Japanese forces turned back several Chinese offensives in Suncheon and Sacheon, but they were unable to make further progress as the Ming army prepared for a final assault. While Hideyoshi's battle at Sacheon was a major Japanese victory, all three parties to the war were exhausted. He told his commander in Korea, "Don't let my soldiers become spirits in a foreign land.".


title: Toyotomi Hideyoshi

text: Toyotomi Hideyoshi died on September 18, 1598. He was delirious, with Sansom asserting that he was babbling of the distribution of fiefs. His last words, delivered to his closest "daimyō" and generals, were "I depend upon you for everything. I have no other thoughts to leave behind. It is sad to part from you." His death was kept secret by the Council of Five Elders to preserve morale, and they ordered the Japanese forces in Korea to withdraw back to Japan. Because of his failure to capture Korea, Hideyoshi's forces were unable to invade China. Rather than strengthen his position, the military expeditions left his clan's coffers and fighting strength depleted, his vassals at odds over responsibility for the failure, and the clans that were loyal to the Toyotomi name weakened. The Tokugawa government later not only prohibited any further military expeditions to the Asian mainland but closed Japan to nearly all foreigners during the years of the Tokugawa shogunate. It was not until the late 19th century that Japan again fought a war against China through Korea, using much the same route that Hideyoshi's invasion force had used.


title: Toyotomi Hideyoshi

text: After his death, the other members of the Council of Five Elders were unable to keep the ambitions of Tokugawa Ieyasu in check. Two of Hideyoshi's top generals, Katō Kiyomasa and Fukushima Masanori, had fought bravely during the war but returned to find the Toyotomi clan castellan Ishida Mitsunari in power. He held the generals in contempt, and they sided with Tokugawa Ieyasu. Hideyoshi's underage son and designated successor Hideyori lost the power his father once held, and Tokugawa Ieyasu was declared "shōgun" following the Battle of Sekigahara in 1600.


title: Toyotomi Hideyoshi

text: Toyotomi Hideyoshi changed Japanese society in many ways. These include the imposition of a rigid class structure, restrictions on travel, and surveys of land and production.


title: Toyotomi Hideyoshi

text: Class reforms affected commoners and warriors. During the Sengoku period, it had become common for peasants to become warriors, or for samurai to farm due to the constant uncertainty caused by the lack of centralised government and always tentative peace. Upon taking control, Hideyoshi decreed that all peasants be disarmed completely. Conversely, he required samurai to leave the land and take up residence in the castle towns. This solidified the social class system for the next 300 years.


title: Toyotomi Hideyoshi

text: Furthermore, he ordered comprehensive surveys and a complete census of Japan. Once this was done and all citizens were registered, he required all Japanese to stay in their respective "han" (fiefs) unless they obtained official permission to go elsewhere. This ensured order in a period when bandits still roamed the countryside and peace was still new. The land surveys formed the basis for systematic taxation.


title: Toyotomi Hideyoshi

text: In 1590, Hideyoshi completed construction of the Osaka Castle, the largest and most formidable in all Japan, to guard the western approaches to Kyoto. In that same year, Hideyoshi banned "unfree labour" or slavery in Japan, but forms of contract and indentured labour persisted alongside the period penal codes' forced labour.


title: Toyotomi Hideyoshi

text: Hideyoshi also influenced the material culture of Japan. He lavished time and money on the Japanese tea ceremony, collecting implements, sponsoring lavish social events, and patronizing acclaimed masters. As interest in the tea ceremony rose among the ruling class, so too did the demand for fine ceramic implements, and during the course of the Korean campaigns, not only were large quantities of prized ceramic ware confiscated but many Korean artisans were forcibly relocated to Japan.


title: Toyotomi Hideyoshi

text: Inspired by the dazzling Golden Pavilion in Kyoto, he had the Golden Tea Room constructed, which was covered with gold leaf and lined inside with red gossamer. Using this mobile innovation, he was able to practice the tea ceremony wherever he went, powerfully projecting his unrivalled power and status upon his arrival.


title: Toyotomi Hideyoshi

text: Politically, he set up a governmental system that balanced out the most powerful Japanese warlords (or "daimyō"). A council was created to include the most influential lords. At the same time, a regent was designated to be in command.


title: Toyotomi Hideyoshi

text: Just before his death, Hideyoshi hoped to set up a system stable enough to survive until his son grew old enough to become the next leader. A was formed, consisting of the five most powerful "daimyō". Following the death of Maeda Toshiie, however, Tokugawa Ieyasu began to secure alliances, including political marriages (which had been forbidden by Hideyoshi). Eventually, the pro-Toyotomi forces fought against the Tokugawa in the Battle of Sekigahara. Ieyasu won and received the title of "Seii-Tai Shōgun" two years later.


title: Toyotomi Hideyoshi

text: Ieyasu left in place the majority of Hideyoshi's decrees and built his shogunate upon them. This ensured that Hideyoshi's cultural legacy remained. In a letter to his wife, Hideyoshi wrote:


title: Toyotomi Hideyoshi

text: Because of his low birth with no family name, to the eventual achievement of Imperial Regent, the highest title of imperial nobility, Toyotomi Hideyoshi had quite a few names throughout his life. At birth, he was given the name . At "genpuku", he took the name . Later, he was given the surname Hashiba and the honorary court office "Chikuzen no Kami"; as a result, he was styled . His surname remained Hashiba even as he was granted the new "Uji" or "sei" ( or , clan name) Toyotomi by the Emperor.


title: Toyotomi Hideyoshi

text: The Toyotomi "Uji" was simultaneously granted to a number of Hideyoshi's chosen allies, who adopted the new "Uji" "" (Toyotomi no ason, courtier of Toyotomi).


title: Toyotomi Hideyoshi

text: The Catholic sources of the time referred to him as (from and the honorific "-dono") and "emperor " (from "taikō", a retired "kampaku" (see Sesshō and Kampaku), and the honorific "-sama").


title: Toyotomi Hideyoshi

text: Toyotomi Hideyoshi had been given the nickname Kozaru, meaning "little monkey", from his lord Oda Nobunaga, because his facial features and skinny form resembled that of a monkey.


title: Toyotomi Hideyoshi

text: In "The 39 Clues" series, Hideyoshi is a member of the Tomas branch of the Cahill family, the son of Thomas Cahill.


title: Toyotomi Hideyoshi

text: Hideyoshi appeared in "Castle of Owls" (1963) with Ryutaro Otomo as an Iga ninja hired to assassinate Toyotomi Hideyoshi.


title: Toyotomi Hideyoshi

text: Hideyoshi also appeared in the movie "Sanada Yukimura no Bōryaku" (1979). His role is played by Ichiro Ogura.


title: Toyotomi Hideyoshi

text: Hideyoshi is played by Asao Koike in "Shogun's Ninja" (1980). Hideyoshi sends Shiranui Shōgen to an Iga ninja clan in search of the Momochi clan's hidden gold.


title: Toyotomi Hideyoshi

text: In the fantasy film "Goemon" (2009), Hideyoshi (played by Eiji Okuda) is depicted as an evil warlord.


title: Toyotomi Hideyoshi

text: In the 1949 Mexican hagiographic film "Philip of Jesus", Luis Aceves Castañeda plays a character corresponding to Hideyoshi but named "Emperor Iroyoshi Taikosama".


title: Toyotomi Hideyoshi

text: In the KBS1 television series "Immortal Admiral Yi Sun-sin" (2004–2005), Hideyoshi is portrayed by Lee Hyo-jung.


title: Toyotomi Hideyoshi

text: In "Onimusha", an action horror video game series by Capcom, Hideyoshi is one of the main antagonists. Similar to his real life counterpart, he makes small appearances during the first three games as a servant of Oda Nobunaga before becoming the main antagonist and ruler of Japan in the fourth game.


title: Toyotomi Hideyoshi

text: In the video game "Nioh", Toyotomi Hideyoshi does not appear, but is mentioned by other characters and portrayed as a tyrant who committed a number of atrocities during his rule. "Nioh 2" later reveals that Toyotomi Hideyoshi is an identity shared by two individuals, the player character Hide and an ambitious merchant-warrior Kinoshita Tōkichirō, and that Tōkichirō's crimes when he usurped the identity of Hideyoshi for himself was in fact committed by the antagonist Kashin Koji possessing his body.


title: Toyotomi Hideyoshi

text: In the "Samurai Warriors" series, Hideyoshi is a playable character whose weapon of choice is the sansetsukon and whose story spanned from his days serving Oda Nobunaga to his eventual conquest of Odawara. In "Samurai Warriors 5," Hideyoshi wields the naginata as his main weapon, and he has more stages about his campaign against the Mōri clan while still serving the Oda clan.


title: Toyotomi Hideyoshi

text: "Hyouge Mono" (, lit. "Jocular Fellow") is a Japanese manga written and illustrated by Yoshihiro Yamada. It was adapted into an anime series in 2011, and includes a fictional depiction of Toyotomi Hideyoshi's life.


title: Toyotomi Hideyoshi

text: In the "Sengoku Basara" game series and anime, he is described as a brutally strong man who killed his own wife to harden his heart, then raised an army to conquer Japan with conscripts and forced draftees. He is armed only with gauntlets, is large in physique, and is so strong that he can deflect a hail of arrows with a wave of his hand and drain a part of the Seto Inland Sea to defeat Chosokabe Motochika. Many of his subordinates and allies, such as Takenaka Hanbei and Ishida Mitsunari, are also major characters in the series.


title: Toyotomi Hideyoshi

text: In the light novel series, "Honnouji kara Hajimeru Nobunaga to no Tenka Touitsu", the protagonist Makoto Kurosaka travels in time to the Sengoku period and saves Nobunaga's life during the Honno-ji Incident. Because Nobunaga survives the Honno-ji incident due to Makoto's intervention, Makoto changes history on a massive scale. Hideyoshi, who was originally meant to succeed Nobunaga in unifying Japan and become the Imperial Regent, remains a vassal of the Oda clan; Makoto meets Hideyoshi when Nobunaga introduces Makoto to his vassals. All the major historical events surrounding Hideyoshi, from ruling Japan as its de facto ruler to starting the Japanese invasion of Korea, are avoided. Azai Chacha, Nobunaga's niece who was originally fated to become Hideyoshi's concubine and the birth mother of his sons Tsurumatsu and Hideyori, instead married Makoto due to her uncle Nobunaga and mother Oichi's matchmaking.


title: Toyotomi Hideyoshi

text: In the Netflix anime series "Great Pretender" (2020), Hideyoshi is referenced many times by Laurent Thierry, one of the central protagonists of the series.


title: Toyotomi Hideyoshi

text: In the Netflix documentary series "" (2021), Hideyoshi is portrayed by Masami Kosaka. The show depicts his life and rise to power.


title: Golden Age of Piracy

text: The Golden Age of Piracy is a common designation for the period between the 1650s and the 1730s, when maritime piracy was a significant factor in the histories of the Caribbean, the United Kingdom, the Indian Ocean, North America, and West Africa.


title: Golden Age of Piracy

text: Narrower definitions of the Golden Age sometimes exclude the first or second periods, but most include at least some portion of the third. The modern conception of pirates as depicted in popular culture is derived largely, although not always accurately, from the Golden Age of Piracy.


title: Golden Age of Piracy

text: Factors contributing to piracy during the Golden Age included the rise in quantities of valuable cargoes being shipped to Europe over vast ocean areas, reduced European navies in certain regions, the training and experience that many sailors had gained in European navies (particularly the British Royal Navy), and corrupt and ineffective government in European overseas colonies. Colonial powers at the time constantly fought with pirates and engaged in several notable battles and other related events.


title: Golden Age of Piracy

text: The oldest known literary mention of a "Golden Age" of piracy is from 1894, when the English journalist George Powell wrote about "what appears to have been the golden age of piracy up to the last decade of the 17th century." Powell uses the phrase while reviewing Charles Leslie's "A New and Exact History of Jamaica", then over 150 years old. Powell uses the phrase only once.


title: Golden Age of Piracy

text: In 1897, a more systematic use of the phrase "Golden Age of Piracy" was introduced by historian John Fiske, who wrote, "At no other time in the world's history has the business of piracy thriven so greatly as in the seventeenth century and the first part of the eighteenth. Its golden age may be said to have extended from about 1650 to about 1720." Fiske included the activities of the Barbary corsairs and East Asian pirates in this "Golden Age," noting that "as these Mussulman pirates and those of Eastern Asia were as busily at work in the seventeenth century as at any other time, their case does not impair my statement that the age of the buccaneers was the Golden Age of piracy."


title: Golden Age of Piracy

text: Pirate historians of the first half of the 20th century occasionally adopted Fiske's term "Golden Age," without necessarily following his beginning and ending dates for it. The most expansive definition of an age of piracy was that of Patrick Pringle, who wrote in 1951 that "the most flourishing era in the history of piracy ... began in the reign of Queen Elizabeth I and ended in the second decade of the eighteenth century." This idea starkly contradicted Fiske, who had hotly denied that such Elizabethan figures as Drake were pirates.


title: Golden Age of Piracy

text: Of recent definitions, that given by Pringle appears to have the widest range, an exception to an overall trend among historians from 1909 until the 1990s, toward narrowing the Golden Age. As early as 1924, Philip Gosse described piracy as being at its height "from 1680 until 1730." In his highly popular 1978 book "The Pirates" for TimeLife's "The Seafarers" series, Douglas Botting defined the Golden Age as lasting "barely 30 years, starting at the close of the 17th Century and ending in the first quarter of the 18th." Botting's definition was closely followed by Frank Sherry in 1986. In a 1989 academic article, Professor Marcus Rediker defined the Golden Age as lasting only from 1716 to 1726. Angus Konstam in 1998, reckoned the era as lasting from 1700 until 1730.


title: Golden Age of Piracy

text: Perhaps the ultimate step in restricting the Golden Age was in Konstam's 2005 "The History of Pirates," in which he retreated from his own earlier definition, called a 1690–1730 definition of the Golden Age "generous," and concluded that "The worst of these pirate excesses was limited to an eight-year period, from 1714 until 1722, so the true Golden Age cannot even be called a 'golden decade.'"


title: Golden Age of Piracy

text: David Cordingly, in his influential 1994 work "Under the Black Flag", defined the "great age of piracy" as lasting from the 1650s to around 1725, very close to Fiske's definition of the Golden Age.


title: Golden Age of Piracy

text: Rediker, in 2004, described the most complex definition of the Golden Age to date. He proposes a "golden age of piracy, which spanned the period from roughly 1650 to 1730," which he subdivides into three distinct "generations": the buccaneers of 1650–1680, the Indian Ocean pirates of the 1690s, and the pirates of the years 1716–1726.


title: Golden Age of Piracy

text: Martin Mares, drawing on both Cordingly and Rediker, took their arguments about the periodization of the Golden Age of Piracy even further in his seminal work "The British Contribution to the Development of Piracy in the Golden Age of Piracy", proposing that the longer periodization can be also understood as an uninterrupted and continuous process with its points of peaks and regressions. Besides, Mares argued that such interpretation allows us to fully understand how the golden age of piracy helped the British to develop the understanding of their imperial policy as one single domain with interconnected interests rather than separate Western and Eastern spheres of influence. This argument was later reinforced from the economical perspective by Nicolás Rodríguez Arosemena. Arosemena, using the analysis of Jamaica's development from the work of Martin Mares, proposes that empirical data collected by Mares has wider implications–most notably – legal ones such as the recognition of "ius cogens" even before the Industrial Revolution in terms of unfair enrichment, since "it is perfectly possible to have islands of prosperity within a sea of misery. And of course, if we just sample the islands, the world will look like a paradise."


title: Golden Age of Piracy

text: Piracy arose out of, and mirrored on a smaller scale, conflicts over trade and colonization among the rival European powers of the time, including the empires of Britain, Spain, the Netherlands, Portugal, and France. Most pirates in this era were of Welsh, English, Dutch, Irish, and French origin. Many pirates came from poorer urban areas in search of a way to make money and reprieve. London in particular was known for high unemployment, crowding, and poverty which drove people to piracy. Piracy also offered power and quick riches.


title: Golden Age of Piracy

text: Historians such as John Fiske mark the beginning of the Golden Age of Piracy at around 1650, when the end of the Wars of Religion allowed European countries to resume the development of their colonial empires. This involved considerable seaborne trade and a general economic improvement: there was money to be madeor stolenand much of it traveled by ship.


title: Golden Age of Piracy

text: French buccaneers had established themselves on northern Hispaniola as early as 1625, but lived at first mostly as hunters of pigs and cattle rather than robbers; their transition to full-time piracy was gradual and motivated in part by Spanish efforts to wipe out both the buccaneers and the prey animals on which they depended. The buccaneers' migration from Hispaniola's mainland to the more defensible offshore island of Tortuga limited their resources and accelerated their piratical raids. According to Alexandre Exquemelin, a buccaneer and historian who remains a major source on this period, the Tortuga buccaneer Pierre Le Grand pioneered the settlers' attacks on galleons making the return voyage to Spain.


title: Golden Age of Piracy

text: The growth of buccaneering on Tortuga was augmented by the English capture of Jamaica from Spain in 1655. The early English governors of Jamaica freely granted letters of marque to Tortuga buccaneers and to their own countrymen, while the growth of Port Royal provided these raiders with a far more profitable and enjoyable place to sell their booty. In the 1660s, the new French governor of Tortuga, Bertrand d'Ogeron, similarly provided privateering commissions both to his own colonists and to English cutthroats from Port Royal. These conditions brought Caribbean buccaneering to its zenith.


title: Golden Age of Piracy

text: A number of factors caused Anglo-American pirates, some of whom had been introduced to piracy during the buccaneering period, to look beyond the Caribbean for treasure as the 1690s began. The end of Britain's Stuart period had restored the traditional enmity between Britain and France, thus ending the profitable collaboration between English Jamaica and French Tortuga. The devastation of Port Royal by an earthquake in 1692 further reduced the Caribbean's attractions by destroying the pirates' chief market for fenced plunder. Caribbean colonial governors began to discard the traditional policy of "no peace beyond the Line," under which it was understood that war would continue (and thus letters of marque would be granted) in the Caribbean regardless of peace treaties signed in Europe; henceforth, commissions would be granted only in wartime, and their limitations would be strictly enforced. Furthermore, much of the Spanish Main had simply been exhausted; Maracaibo alone had been sacked three times between 1667 and 1678, while Río de la Hacha had been raided five times and Tolú eight.


title: Golden Age of Piracy

text: At the same time, England's less-favored colonies, including Bermuda, New York, and Rhode Island, had become cash-starved by the Navigation Acts. Merchants and governors eager for coin were willing to overlook and even underwrite pirate voyages; one colonial official defended a pirate because he thought it "very harsh to hang people that brings in gold to these provinces." Although some of these pirates operating out of New England and the Middle Colonies targeted Spain's more remote Pacific coast colonies well into the 1690s and beyond, the Indian Ocean was a richer and more tempting target. India's economic output dwarfed Europe's during this time, especially in high-value luxury goods such as silk and calico, which made ideal pirate booty; at the same time, no powerful navies plied the Indian Ocean, leaving both local shipping and the various East India companies' vessels vulnerable to attack. This set the stage for the famous piracies of Thomas Tew, Henry Every, Robert Culliford, and (although his guilt remains controversial) William Kidd.


title: Golden Age of Piracy

text: In 1713 and 1714, a series of peace treaties ended the War of the Spanish Succession. As a result, thousands of seamen, including European privateers who had operated in the West Indies, were relieved of military duty, at a time when cross-Atlantic colonial shipping trade was beginning to boom. In addition, European sailors who had been pushed by unemployment to work onboard merchantmen (including slave ships) were often enthusiastic to abandon that profession and turn to pirating, giving pirate captains a steady pool of recruits on various coasts across the Atlantic.


title: Golden Age of Piracy

text: In 1715, pirates launched a major raid on Spanish divers trying to recover gold from the sunken treasure galleon "Urca de Lima" near Florida. The nucleus of the pirate force was a group of English ex-privateers, all of whom would soon be enshrined in infamy: Henry Jennings, Charles Vane, Samuel Bellamy of "Whydah Gally" fame, Benjamin Hornigold, and Edward England. The attack was successful, but contrary to their expectations, the governor of Jamaica refused to allow Jennings and his cohorts to spend their loot on his island. With Kingston and the declining Port Royal closed to them, Hornigold, Jennings, and their comrades based themselves at Nassau, on the island of New Providence in the Bahamas. Nassau would be home for these pirates and their many recruits until the arrival of Governor Woodes Rogers in 1718, which signalled the end of the Republic of Pirates. Rogers and other British governors had the authority to pardon pirates under the King's Act of Grace: while Hornigold accepted this pardon to become a privateer, others such as Blackbeard returned to piracy following their pardon.


title: Golden Age of Piracy

text: Transatlantic shipping traffic between Africa, the Caribbean, and Europe began to soar in the 18th century, a model known as the triangular trade, and became a rich target for piracy. Trade ships sailed from Europe to the African coast, trading manufactured goods and weapons for slaves. The traders would then sail to the Caribbean to sell the slaves, and return to Europe with goods such as sugar, tobacco, and cocoa. In another triangular trade route, ships would carry raw materials, preserved cod, and rum to Europe, where a portion of the cargo would be sold for manufactured goods, which (along with the remainder of the original load) were then transported to the Caribbean, where they were exchanged for sugar and molasses, which (with some manufactured articles) were then borne to New England. Ships in the Triangular Trade often made money at each stop.


title: Golden Age of Piracy

text: As part of the settlement of the War of the Spanish Succession, the British South Sea Company obtained the "asiento", a Spanish government contract to supply slaves to Spain's New World colonies, which provided British traders and smugglers more access to formerly closed Spanish markets in America. This arrangement also contributed heavily to the spread of piracy across the western Atlantic. Shipping to the colonies boomed along with the flood of skilled mariners after the war. Merchant shippers used the surplus of labor to drive wages down, cut corners to maximize profits, and create unsavory conditions aboard their vessels. Merchant sailors suffered from mortality rates as high or higher than the slaves being transported. Living conditions were so poor that many sailors began to prefer a freer existence as pirates. The increased volume of shipping traffic also could sustain a large body of brigands preying upon it.


title: Golden Age of Piracy

text: During this time, many of the pirates had originally been either sailors for the Royal Navy, privateersmen, or merchant seamen. Most pirates had experience living on the sea, and knew how harsh the conditions could be. Sailors for the king would often have very little to eat while out on the sea, and would end up sick, starving, and dying. That resulted in some sailors deserting the king and becoming pirates instead. This also allowed for pirates to better fight the navy. Unlike other seamen, pirates had strict rules for how they were to be treated on the ship. Contrary to popular belief, pirate captains did not have a dictatorship over the rest of the pirates on their ship. Captains had to be voted in, and there were strict rules for them to follow as well. The captain was not treated better (with more food, better living conditions, etc.) than the other members of the crew, and was expected to treat the crew with respect. This was in deliberate contrast to merchant captains, who often treated their crews terribly. Many pirates had formerly served on these merchant ships and knew how horrid some captains could be. Because of this, ships often implemented councils composed of all of the crew members on the ship. Some councils were used daily to make ordinary decisions, while others were used as a court system only when criminal incidents or legal matters necessitated it. Whatever the case, crewmembers on pirate vessels often had as much power as the captain outside of battle. The captain only had full authority in times of battle and could be removed from this position if he showed cowardice in the face of the enemy. He was also to be bold in battle. The pirates did not want things to end up the same way as on a navy ship.


title: Golden Age of Piracy

text: Between the years 1719 and 1721, Edward England, John Taylor, Olivier Levasseur, and Christopher Condent operated from Madagascar. Taylor and Levasseur reaped the greatest prize in the history of the Golden Age of Piracy, the plunder of the Portuguese East Indiaman "Nossa Senhora Do Cabo" at Réunion in 1721, stealing diamonds and other treasures worth a total of £800,000.


title: Golden Age of Piracy

text: Condent was also a successful pirate, but England was not. He was marooned on Comoros by Taylor and Levasseur in 1721, and died not long afterward. Despite the success of Taylor and Levasseur, the Pirate Round quickly declined again. Edward Teach, the notorious "Blackbeard", died in battle in a fight with Lieutenant Robert Maynard's navy ship. He was allegedly stabbed twenty times and shot five times before death.


title: Golden Age of Piracy

text: Anne Bonny (1697–1721) developed a notorious reputation in Nassau. When she was unable to leave an earlier marriage, she eloped with her lover, Calico Jack Rackham.


title: Golden Age of Piracy

text: Mary Read had been dressed as a boy all her life by her mother and had spent time in the British military. She came to the West Indies (Caribbean) after leaving her husband and joined Calico Jack's crew after he attacked a ship she had been aboard. She divulged her gender only to Bonny at first, but revealed herself openly when accused by Rackham of having an affair with Bonny.


title: Golden Age of Piracy

text: The nature of the relationships between Bonny, Read, and Rackham have been speculated to be romantic and/or sexual in various combinations, though there is no definitive proof. In David Cordingly's 2001 book "Women Sailors and Sailors’ Women: An Untold Maritime History", Cordingly suggests that Bonny and Read were sexually involved.


title: Golden Age of Piracy

text: When their ship was attacked in 1720, Bonny, Read, and an unknown man were the only ones to defend it; the other crew members were too drunk to fight. In the end they were captured and arrested. After their capture, both women were convicted of piracy and sentenced to death, but they stalled their executions by claiming to be pregnant. Read died in jail months later, many believe of a fever or complications of childbirth. Bonny disappeared from historical documents, and no record of her execution nor a childbirth exist.


title: Golden Age of Piracy

text: The Barbary pirates were pirates and privateers that operated from the North African (the "Barbary coast") ports of Algiers, Morocco, Salé, Tripoli, and Tunis, preying on shipping in the western Mediterranean Sea from the time of the Crusades as well as on ships on their way to Asia around Africa until the early 19th century. The coastal villages and towns of Italy, Spain and Mediterranean islands were frequently attacked by them, and long stretches of the Italian and Spanish coasts were almost completely abandoned by their inhabitants; since the 17th century, Barbary pirates occasionally entered the Atlantic and struck as far north as Iceland. According to Robert Davis, between 1 million and 1.25 million Europeans were captured by Barbary pirates and sold as slaves in Northern Africa between the 16th and 19th centuries.


title: Golden Age of Piracy

text: Barbary pirates flourished in the early 17th century as new sailing rigs by Simon de Danser enabled North African raiders, for the first time, to brave the Atlantic as well as Mediterranean waters. More than 20,000 captives were said to be imprisoned in Algiers alone. The rich were allowed to redeem themselves, but the poor were condemned to slavery. Their masters would on occasion allow them to secure freedom by professing Islam. Many people of good social position–Germans, Italians, Spaniards, and English travelers in the south–were captives for a time.


title: Golden Age of Piracy

text: In 1627, Iceland was subject to raids known as the Turkish Abductions. Murat Reis is said to have taken 400 prisoners; 242 of the captives were later sold into slavery on the Barbary Coast. The pirates took only young people and those in good physical condition. All those offering resistance were killed, and the old people were gathered into a church, which was set on fire. Among those captured was Ólafur Egilsson, who was ransomed the next year and, upon returning to Iceland, wrote a slave narrative about his experience. Another famous captive from that raid was Guðríður Símonardóttir. The sack of Vestmannaeyjar is known in the history of Iceland as "Tyrkjaránið".


title: Golden Age of Piracy

text: While pirates are commonly depicted with eyepatches, this is largely a myth originating in nineteenth century novels and tales of buccaneers that included payment for a lost eye. Few historical pirates wore patches over their eyes, although some, like the 18th century Arab pirate Rahmah ibn Jabir al-Jalahimah, did.


title: Golden Age of Piracy

text: Whilst the Golden Age of European and American pirates is generally considered to have ended between 1710 and 1730, the prosperity of the Barbary pirates continued until the early 19th century. Unlike the European powers, the young United States refused to pay tribute to the Barbary states and responded with the First Barbary War and the Second Barbary War against North Africa, when the Barbary pirates captured and enslaved American sailors.


title: Golden Age of Piracy

text: Buccaneers operated mainly in the Caribbean. They originated in Tortuga around the 17th century as hunters, but became "pirates" when government officials would pay groups of men to attack and loot Spanish ships. These buccaneers would later begin attacking any ship worth of value, enemy or not.


title: Golden Age of Piracy

text: Privateers were private persons who engaged in maritime warfare under a commission of war. The commissions were known as "letters of marque", which gave them the authority to raid enemy ships and exemption from piracy charges.


title: Golden Age of Piracy

text: By the early 18th century, tolerance for privateers was wearing thin in all nations. After the Treaty of Utrecht was signed, the excess of trained sailors without employment was both a blessing and a curse for all pirates. Initially, the surplus of men had caused the number of pirates to multiply significantly. This inevitably led to the pillaging of more ships, which put a greater strain on trade for all European nations. In response, European nations bolstered their own navies to offer greater protection for merchants and to hunt down pirates. The excess of skilled sailors meant there was a large pool that could be recruited into national navies as well.


title: Golden Age of Piracy

text: The events of the latter half of 1718 (including the arrival of Governor Woodes Rogers in Nassau) represent a turning point in the history of piracy in the New World. Without a safe base and with growing pressure from naval forces, the rovers lost their momentum. The lure of the Spanish treasures had faded, and the hunters gradually became the hunted. By early 1719, the remaining pirates were on the run. Most of them headed for West Africa, seizing poorly defended slavers.


title: Golden Age of Piracy

text: Stories and histories from the Golden Age form the foundation for many modern depictions of pirates and piracy. "A General History of the Pirates" (1724) by Captain Charles Johnson is the prime source for the biographies of many well known pirates of the Golden Age, providing an extensive account of the period. In giving an almost mythical status to the more colorful characters such as the notorious English pirates Blackbeard and Calico Jack, it is likely that the author used considerable license in his accounts of pirate conversations. In 2002, English naval historian David Cordingly wrote an introduction to Johnson's 1724 book, stating: "it has been said, and there seems no reason to question this, that Captain Johnson created the modern conception of pirates." Johnson's book would influence the pirate literature of Robert Louis Stevenson and J. M. Barrie. Such literary works as Stevenson's "Treasure Island" and Barrie's "Peter Pan", while romanticized, drew heavily on pirates and piracy for their plots.


title: Golden Age of Piracy

text: Various claims and speculation about their overall image, attire, fashion, dress code, etc. have been made and contributed to their fanciful mystery and lore. For example, men wore earrings as the value of the gold or silver earring was meant to pay for their burial if they were lost at sea and their body washed ashore. They were also worn for superstitious reasons, believing the precious metals had magical healing powers.


title: Golden Age of Piracy

text: More recently, even less accurate depictions of historical-era pirates ("e.g.", Talk Like a Pirate Day) have advanced to the forefront. However, these phenomena have only served to advance the romantic image of piracy and its treasure-burying swashbucklers in popular culture.


title: Estimates of historical world population

text: This article lists current estimates of the world population in history. In summary, estimates for the progression of world population since the Late Middle Ages are in the following ranges:


text: Estimates for pre-modern times are necessarily fraught with great uncertainties, and few of the published estimates have confidence intervals; in the absence of a straightforward means to assess the error of such estimates, a rough idea of expert consensus can be gained by comparing the values given in independent publications. Population estimates cannot be considered accurate to more than two decimal digits; for example, the world population for the year 2012 was estimated at 7.02, 7.06, and 7.08 billion by the United States Census Bureau, the Population Reference Bureau, and the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, respectively, corresponding to a spread of estimates of the order of 0.8%.


text: As a general rule, the confidence of estimates on historical world population decreases for the more distant past. Robust population data exist only for the last two or three centuries. Until the late 18th century, few governments had ever performed an accurate census. In many early attempts, such as in Ancient Egypt and the Persian Empire, the focus was on counting merely a subset of the population for purposes of taxation or military service. Published estimates for the 1st century ("AD 1") suggest uncertainty of the order of 50% (estimates range between 150 and 330 million). Some estimates extend their timeline into deep prehistory, to "10,000 BC", i.e., the early Holocene, when world population estimates range roughly between 1 and 10 million (with an uncertainty of up to an order of magnitude).


text: Estimates for yet deeper prehistory, into the Paleolithic, are of a different nature. At this time, human populations consisted entirely of non-sedentary hunter-gatherer populations, with anatomically modern humans existing alongside archaic human varieties, some of which are still ancestral to the modern human population due to interbreeding with modern humans during the Upper Paleolithic. Estimates of the size of these populations are a topic of paleoanthropology. A late human population bottleneck is postulated by some scholars at approximately 70,000 years ago, during the Toba catastrophe, when "Homo sapiens" population may have dropped to as low as between 1,000 and 10,000 individuals. For the time of speciation of "Homo sapiens", some 200,000 years ago, an effective population size of the order of 10,000 to 30,000 individuals has been estimated, with an actual "census population" of early "Homo sapiens" of roughly 100,000 to 300,000 individuals.


text: Recent estimates of the "total number of people who have ever lived" are in the order of 100 billion. The answer depends on the definition of "people", i.e., is only "Homo sapiens" to be counted, or all of the genus "Homo", but due to the small population sizes in the Lower Paleolithic, the order of magnitude of the estimate is not affected by the choice of cut-off date substantially more than by the uncertainty of estimates throughout the Neolithic to Iron Age. Importantly, the estimate is also affected by the estimate of infant mortalities vs. stillborn infants, due to the very high rate of infant mortality throughout the pre-modern period. An estimate on the "total number of people who have ever lived" as of 1995 was calculated by Haub (1995) at "about 105 billion births since the dawn of the human race" with a cut-off date at 50,000 BC (beginning of the Upper Paleolithic), and inclusion of a high infant mortality rate throughout pre-modern history.


text: The following table uses astronomical year numbering for dates, negative numbers corresponding roughly to the corresponding year BC (for example, −10000 = 10,001 BC, etc.). The table starts counting approximately 10,000 years before present, or around 8,000 BC, during the middle Greenlandian, about 1,700 years after the end of the Younger Dryas and 1,800 years before the 8.2-kiloyear event.


text: From the beginning of the early modern period until the 20th century, world population has been characterized by a faster-than-exponential growth. For the period of Classical antiquity to the Middle Ages, roughly 500 BC to AD 1500, there was also a general tendency of growth (estimated at a factor 4 to 5 over the 2,000-year period), but not strictly monotonic: A noticeable dip in world population is assumed due to the Black Death in the mid-14th century.


text: For times after World War II, demographic data of some accuracy becomes available for a significant number of countries, and population estimates are often given as grand totals of numbers (typically given by country) of widely diverging accuracies. Some sources give these numbers rounded to the nearest million or the nearest thousand, while others give them without any rounding.


text: Taking these numbers at face value would be false precision; in spite of being stated to four, seven, or even ten digits, they should not be interpreted as accurate to more than three digits at best (estimates by the United States Census Bureau and by the United Nations differ by about 0.5–1.5%).


text: Population estimates for world regions based on Maddison (2007), in millions. The row showing total world population includes the average growth rate per year over the period separating each column from the preceding one.


title: Folate

text: Folate, also known as vitamin B and folacin, is one of the B vitamins. Manufactured folic acid, which is converted into folate by the body, is used as a dietary supplement and in food fortification as it is more stable during processing and storage. Folate is required for the body to make DNA and RNA and metabolise amino acids necessary for cell division. As humans cannot make folate, it is required in the diet, making it an essential nutrient. It occurs naturally in many foods. The recommended adult daily intake of folate in the U.S. is 400 micrograms from foods or dietary supplements.


title: Folate

text: Folate in the form of folic acid is used to treat anemia caused by folate deficiency. Folic acid is also used as a supplement by women during pregnancy to reduce the risk of neural tube defects (NTDs) in the baby. Low levels in early pregnancy are believed to be the cause of more than half of babies born with NTDs. More than 80 countries use either mandatory or voluntary fortification of certain foods with folic acid as a measure to decrease the rate of NTDs. Long-term supplementation with relatively large amounts of folic acid is associated with a small reduction in the risk of stroke and an increased risk of prostate cancer. There are concerns that large amounts of supplemental folic acid can hide vitamin B deficiency.


title: Folate

text: Not consuming enough folate can lead to folate deficiency. This may result in a type of anemia in which red blood cells become abnormally large. Symptoms may include feeling tired, heart palpitations, shortness of breath, open sores on the tongue, and changes in the color of the skin or hair. Folate deficiency in children may develop within a month of poor dietary intake. In adults, normal total body folate is between 10 and 30 mg with blood levels of greater than 7 nmol/L (3 ng/mL).


title: Folate

text: Folate was discovered between 1931 and 1943. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. In 2020, it was the 67th most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than 10million prescriptions. The term "folic" is from the Latin word (which means leaf) because it was found in dark-green leafy vegetables.


title: Folate

text: "Folate" (vitamin B) refers to the many forms of folic acid and its related compounds, including tetrahydrofolic acid (the active form), methyltetrahydrofolate (the primary form found in blood), methenyltetrahydrofolate, folinic acid, folacin, and pteroylglutamic acid. Historic names included "L.casei" factor, vitamin B and vitamin M.


title: Folate

text: The terms "folate" and "folic acid" have somewhat different meanings in different contexts, although sometimes used interchangeably. Within the field of organic chemistry, folate refers to the conjugate base of folic acid. Within the field of biochemistry, folates refer to a class of biologically active compounds related to and including folic acid. Within the field of nutrition, the "folates" are a family of essential nutrients related to folic acid obtained from natural sources whereas the term "folic acid" is reserved for the manufactured form that is used as a dietary supplement.


title: Folate

text: Chemically, folates consist of three distinct chemical moieties linked together. A pterin (2-amino-4-hydroxy-pteridine) heterocyclic ring is linked by a methylene bridge to a p-aminobenzoyl group that in turn is bonded through an amide linkage to either glutamic acid or poly-glutamate. One-carbon units in a variety of oxidation states may be attached to the N5 nitrogen atom of the pteridine ring and/or the N10 nitrogen atom of the p-aminobenzoyl group.


title: Folate

text: Folate is especially important during periods of frequent cell division and growth, such as infancy and pregnancy. Folate deficiency hinders DNA synthesis and cell division, affecting hematopoietic cells and neoplasms the most because of their greater frequency of cell division. RNA transcription and subsequent protein synthesis are less affected by folate deficiency, as the mRNA can be recycled and used again (as opposed to DNA synthesis, where a new genomic copy must be created).


title: Folate

text: Deficiency of folate in pregnant women has been implicated in neural tube defects (NTDs), with an estimate of 300,000 cases worldwide prior to the implementation in many countries of mandatory food fortification. NTDs occur early in pregnancy (first month), therefore women must have abundant folate upon conception and for this reason there is a recommendation that any woman planning to become pregnant consume a folate-containing dietary supplement before and during pregnancy. The Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) recommends a daily amount of 400 micrograms of folic acid for the prevention of NTDs. Compliance with this recommendation is not complete, and many women become pregnant without this being a planned pregnancy, or may not realize that they are pregnant until well into the first trimester, which is the critical period for reducing risk of NTDs. Countries have implemented either mandatory or voluntary food fortification of wheat flour and other grains, or else have no such program and depend on public health and healthcare practitioner advice to women of childbearing age. A meta-analysis of global birth prevalence of spina bifida showed that when mandatory fortification was compared to countries with voluntary fortification or no fortification program, there was a 30% reduction in live births with spina bifida. Some countries reported a greater than 50% reduction. The United States Preventive Services Task Force recommends folic acid as the supplement or fortification ingredient, as forms of folate other than folic acid have not been studied.


title: Folate

text: A meta-analysis of folate supplementation during pregnancy reported a 28% lower relative risk of newborn congenital heart defects. Prenatal supplementation with folic acid did not appear to reduce the risk of preterm births. One systematic review indicated no effect of folic acid on mortality, growth, body composition, respiratory, or cognitive outcomes of children from birth to 9 years old. There was no relation between maternal folic acid supplementation and an increased risk for childhood asthma.


title: Folate

text: Folate contributes to spermatogenesis. In women, folate is important for oocyte quality and maturation, implantation, placentation, fetal growth and organ development.


title: Folate

text: One meta-analysis reported that multi-year folic acid supplementation, in amounts in most of the included clinical trials at higher than the upper limit of 1,000 μg/day, reduced the relative risk of cardiovascular disease by a modest 4%. Two older meta-analyses, which would not have incorporated results from newer clinical trials, reported no changes to the risk of cardiovascular disease.


title: Folate

text: The absolute risk of stroke with supplementation decreases from 4.4% to 3.8% (a 10% decrease in relative risk). Two other meta-analyses reported a similar decrease in relative risk. Two of these three were limited to people with pre-existing cardiovascular disease or coronary heart disease. The beneficial result may be associated with lowering circulating homocysteine concentration, as stratified analysis showed that risk was reduced more when there was a larger decrease in homocysteine. The effect was also larger for the studies that were conducted in countries that did not have mandatory grain folic acid fortification. The beneficial effect was larger in the subset of trials that used a lower folic acid supplement compared to higher.


title: Folate

text: Chronically insufficient intake of folate may increase the risk of colorectal, breast, ovarian, pancreatic, brain, lung, cervical, and prostate cancers.


title: Folate

text: Early after fortification programs were implemented, high intakes were theorized to accelerate the growth of preneoplastic lesions that could lead to cancer, specifically colon cancer. Subsequent meta-analyses of the effects of low versus high dietary folate, elevated serum folate, and supplemental folate in the form of folic acid have reported at times conflicting results. Comparing low to high dietary folate showed a modest but statistically significant reduced risk of colon cancer. For prostate cancer risk, comparing low to high dietary folate showed no effect. A review of trials that involved folic acid dietary supplements reported a statistically significant 24% increase in prostate cancer risk. It was shown that supplementation with folic acid at 1,000 to 2,500 μg/day – the amounts used in many of the cited supplement trials – would result in higher concentrations of serum folate than what is achieved from diets high in food-derived folate. The second supplementation review reported no significant increase or decrease in total cancer incidence, colorectal cancer, other gastrointestinal cancer, genitourinary cancer, lung cancer or hematological malignancies in people who were consuming folic acid supplements. A third supplementation meta-analysis limited to reporting only on colorectal cancer incidence showed that folic acid treatment was not associated with colorectal cancer risk.


title: Folate

text: Folate is important for cells and tissues that divide rapidly. Cancer cells divide rapidly, and drugs that interfere with folate metabolism are used to treat cancer. The antifolate drug methotrexate is often used to treat cancer because it inhibits the production of the active tetrahydrofolate (THF) from the inactive dihydrofolate (DHF). However, methotrexate can be toxic, producing side effects such as inflammation in the digestive tract that make eating normally more difficult. Bone marrow depression (inducing leukopenia and thrombocytopenia) and acute kidney and liver failure have been reported.


title: Folate

text: Folinic acid, under the drug name leucovorin, a form of folate (formyl-THF), can help "rescue" or reverse the toxic effects of methotrexate. Folic acid supplements have little established role in cancer chemotherapy. The supplement of folinic acid in people undergoing methotrexate treatment is to give less rapidly dividing cells enough folate to maintain normal cell functions. The amount of folate given is quickly depleted by rapidly dividing (cancer) cells, so this does not negate the effects of methotrexate.


title: Folate

text: Conversion of homocysteine to methionine requires folate and vitamin B. Elevated plasma homocysteine and low folate are associated with cognitive impairment, dementia and Alzheimer's disease. Supplementing the diet with folic acid and vitamin B lowers plasma homocysteine. However, several reviews reported that supplementation with folic acid alone or in combination with other B vitamins did not prevent development of cognitive impairment nor slow cognitive decline.


title: Folate

text: A 2017 meta-analysis found that the relative risk of autism spectrum disorders was reduced by 23% when the maternal diet was supplemented with folic acid during pregnancy. Subset analysis confirmed this among Asian, European and American populations.