title: Bar and bat mitzvah

text: Bar or bat mitzvah celebrations have become an occasion to give the celebrant a commemorative gift. Traditionally, common gifts include books with religious or educational value, religious items, writing implements, savings bonds (to be used for the child's college education), gift certificates, or money. Gifts of cash have become commonplace in recent times. As with charity and all other gifts, it has become common to give in multiples of 18, since the "gematria", or numerical equivalent of the Hebrew word for "life", ("chai"), is the number 18. Monetary gifts in multiples of 18 are considered to be particularly auspicious and have become common for the bar and bat mitzvah. Many b'nai mitzvah also receive their first tallit from their parents to be used for the occasion and tefillin where this is appropriate. Jewelry is a common gift for girls at a bat mitzvah celebration. Another gift for the bat mitzvah girl are Shabbat candlesticks because it is the duty and honour of the woman to light the candles.


title: Bar and bat mitzvah

text: While the traditional age to hold a bar or bat mitzvah is 13 for boys and 12 or 13 for girls, some adults choose to have a bar or bat mitzvah if they did not have them as children.


title: Halston Sage

text: Halston Sage (born May 10, 1993) is an American actress. She is known for her television roles, such as Grace on the Nickelodeon series "How to Rock" (2012), Amber on the NBC series "Crisis" (2014), Alara Kitan on the Fox series "The Orville" (2017–2019), and Ainsley Whitly on the Fox television series "Prodigal Son" (2019–2021). Sage has also appeared in films, playing Lacey in "Paper Towns" and Kendall in "Scouts Guide to the Zombie Apocalypse", both from 2015, and Lindsay in the 2017 film "Before I Fall".


title: Halston Sage

text: Sage was born and raised in Los Angeles, California. She has a younger brother and a younger sister. Sage is Jewish. She rode horses competitively, and was the editor of her high school's newspaper.


title: Halston Sage

text: Sage's career was launched in 2011, when she was cast in the role of Grace on the Nickelodeon series "How to Rock", which first aired on February 4, 2012, and ran for a single 25-episode season. She has also guest starred on Nickelodeon's "Victorious" and "Bucket & Skinner's Epic Adventures". In February 2013, Sage was cast in the short-lived NBC television thriller series "Crisis", playing Amber, the daughter of Gillian Anderson's character. In 2016 she was cast in a starring role as Alara Kitan on the science-fiction dramedy series "The Orville", which premiered on Fox on September 10, 2017. It was reported in January 2019 that Sage had left the cast of "The Orville" after the episode "Home", though her departure was considered open-ended for a possible return in the future.


title: Halston Sage

text: Sage appeared as Brianna in the 2012 teen drama "The First Time". In 2013, she appeared in the films "The Bling Ring", "Grown Ups 2" and "Poker Night". She had a role in the 2014 film "Neighbors", playing Zac Efron character's girlfriend Brooke Shy. Sage was a nominee for the MTV Movie Award "Best Kiss" for her onscreen kiss with Rose Byrne in "Neighbors".


title: Halston Sage

text: In 2015, Sage played Lacey Pemberton in the film "Paper Towns". Also that year, she co-starred in Sony Pictures' "Goosebumps", and was cast in the role of Kendall in Paramount's "Scouts Guide to the Zombie Apocalypse" which centers on a group of Boy Scouts who rise to the occasion as their small town is faced with a zombie outbreak. In 2017, she played another popular high school girl, Lindsay Edgecomb, in "Before I Fall".


title: Halston Sage

text: In 2016, Sage filmed her role in the dramatic comedy "People You May Know", and was cast in the thriller film "You Get Me". In 2018 she was cast in "The Last Summer". She has a cameo appearance in the 2019 film "Dark Phoenix" playing the role of Dazzler. In 2021, Sage executive produced and starred in the independent comedy film "The List".


title: Arms industry

text: The arms industry, also known as the arms trade, is a global industry which manufactures and sells weapons and military technology. It consists of a commercial industry involved in the research and development, engineering, production, and servicing of military material, equipment, and facilities. Arms-producing companies, also referred to as arms dealers, or as the military industry, produce arms for the armed forces of states and for civilians. Departments of government also operate in the arms industry, making, buying and selling weapons, munitions and other military items. An arsenal is a place where arms and ammunition - whether privately or publicly owned - are made, maintained and repaired, stored, or issued, in any combination. Products of the arms industry include weapons, munitions, weapons platforms, military communications and other electronics, and more. The arms industry also provides other logistical and operational support.


title: Arms industry

text: The Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI) estimated military expenditures at $1822 billion. This represented a relative decline from 1990, when military expenditures made up 4% of world GDP. Part of the money goes to the procurement of military hardware and services from the military industry. The combined arms-sales of the top 100 largest arms-producing companies and military services companies (excluding China) totaled $420 billion in 2018, according to SIPRI. This was


title: Arms industry

text: 4.6 percent higher than sales in 2017 and marks the fourth consecutive year of growth in Top 100 arms sales. In 2004 over $30 billion were spent in the international arms-trade (a figure that excludes domestic sales of arms). According to the institute, the volume of international transfers of major weapons in 2014–18 was 7.8 percent higher than in 2009–13 and 23 percent higher than in 2004–2008. The five largest exporters in 2014–18 were the United States, Russia, France, Germany and China whilst the five biggest importers were Saudi Arabia, India, Egypt, Australia and Algeria.


title: Arms industry

text: Many industrialized countries have a domestic arms-industry to supply their own military forces. Some countries also have a substantial legal or illegal domestic trade in weapons for use by their own citizens, primarily for self-defense, hunting or sporting purposes. Illegal trade in small arms occurs in many countries and regions affected by political instability. The Small Arms Survey estimates that 875 million small arms circulate worldwide, produced by more than 1,000 companies from nearly 100 countries.


title: Arms industry

text: Governments award contracts to supply their country's military; such arms contracts can become of substantial political importance. The link between politics and the arms trade can result in the development of what U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower described in 1961 as a military–industrial complex, where the armed forces, commerce, and politics become closely linked, similarly to the European multilateral defense procurement. Various corporations, some publicly held, others private, bid for these contracts, which are often worth many billions of dollars. Sometimes, as with the contract for the international Joint Strike Fighter, a competitive tendering process takes place, with the decision made on the merits of the designs submitted by the companies involved. Other times, no bidding or competition takes place.


title: Arms industry

text: During the early modern period, England, France, the Netherlands and some states in Germany became self-sufficient in arms production, with diffusion and migration of skilled workers to more peripheral countries such as Portugal and Russia.


title: Arms industry

text: The modern arms industry emerged in the second half of the nineteenth century as a product of the creation and expansion of the first large military–industrial companies. As smaller countries (and even newly industrializing countries like Russia and Japan) could no longer produce cutting-edge military equipment with their indigenous resources and capacity, they increasingly began to contract the manufacture of military equipment, such as battleships, artillery pieces and rifles to foreign firms.


title: Arms industry

text: In 1854, the British government awarded a contract to the Elswick Ordnance Company for the supply of his latest breech loading rifled artillery pieces. This galvanized the private sector into weapons production, with the surplus being increasingly exported to foreign countries. Armstrong became one of the first international arms dealers, selling his weapon systems to governments across the world from Brazil to Japan. In 1884, he opened a shipyard at Elswick to specialize in warship production—at the time, it was the only factory in the world that could build a battleship and arm it completely. The factory produced warships for many navies, including the Imperial Japanese Navy. Several Armstrong cruisers played an important role in defeating the Russian fleet at the Battle of Tsushima in 1905.


title: Arms industry

text: In the American Civil War in 1861 the North had a small but cognizable advantage over the South in its ability to produce (in relatively small numbers) breech-loading rifles for use against the muzzle-loading rifled muskets that were nearly the only variety of shoulder arm used by the South. This began the transition to industrially produced mechanized weapons such as the Gatling gun.


title: Arms industry

text: This industrial innovation in the defense industry was adopted by Prussia in 1866 and 1870–71 in its defeat of Austria and France respectively. By this time the machine gun had begun entering into the militaries. The first example of its effectiveness was in 1899 during the Boer War and in 1905 during the Russo-Japanese War. However, Germany were leaders in innovation of weapons and used this innovation nearly defeating the allies in World War I.


title: Arms industry

text: In 1885, France decided to capitalize on this increasingly lucrative form of trade and repealed its ban on weapon exports. The regulatory framework for the period up to the First World War was characterized by a laissez-faire policy that placed little obstruction in the way of weapons exports. Due to the carnage of World War I, arms traders began to be regarded with odium as "merchants of death" and were accused of having instigated and perpetuated the war in order to maximize their profits from arms sales. An inquiry into these allegations in Britain failed to find evidence to support them. However, the sea change in attitude about war more generally meant that governments began to control and regulate the trade themselves.


title: Arms industry

text: The volume of the arms trade greatly increased during the 20th century, and it began to be used as a political tool, especially during the Cold War where the United States and the USSR supplied weapons to their proxies across the world, particularly third world countries (see Nixon Doctrine).


title: Arms industry

text: This category includes everything from light arms to heavy artillery, and the majority of producers are small. Many are located in third world countries. International trade in handguns, machine guns, tanks, armored personnel carriers, and other relatively inexpensive weapons is substantial. There is relatively little regulation at the international level, and as a result, many weapons fall into the hands of organized crime, rebel forces, terrorists, or regimes under sanctions.


title: Arms industry

text: The Control Arms Campaign, founded by Amnesty International, Oxfam, and the International Action Network on Small Arms, estimated in 2003 that there are over 639 million small arms in circulation, and that over 1,135 companies based in more than 98 countries manufacture small arms as well as their various components and ammunition.


title: Arms industry

text: Encompassing military aircraft (both land-based and naval aviation), conventional missiles, and military satellites, this is the most technologically advanced sector of the market. It is also the least competitive from an economic standpoint, with a handful of companies dominating the entire market. The top clients and major producers are virtually all located in the western world and Russia, with the United States easily in the first place. Prominent aerospace firms include Rolls Royce, Hindustan Aeronautics Limited, BAE Systems, Saab AB, Dassault Aviation, Sukhoi, Mikoyan, EADS, Leonardo, Thales Group, Lockheed Martin, Northrop Grumman, Raytheon Technologies, and Boeing. There are also several multinational consortia mostly involved in the manufacturing of fighter jets, such as the Eurofighter. The largest military contract in history, signed in October 2001, involved the development of the Joint Strike Fighter.


title: Arms industry

text: Some of the world's great powers maintain substantial naval forces to provide a global presence, with the largest nations possessing aircraft carriers, nuclear submarines and advanced anti-air defense systems. The vast majority of military ships are conventionally powered, but some are nuclear-powered. There is also a large global market in second-hand naval vessels, generally purchased by developing countries from Western governments.


title: Arms industry

text: The cybersecurity industry is becoming the most important defense industry as cyber attacks are being deemed as one of the greatest risks to defense in the next ten years as cited by the NATO review in 2013. Therefore, high levels of investment has been placed in the cybersecurity industry to produce new software to protect the ever-growing transition to digitally run hardware. For the military industry, it is vital that protections are used for systems used for reconnaissance, surveillance, and intelligence gathering.


title: Arms industry

text: Nevertheless, cyber attacks and cyber attackers have become more advanced in their field using techniques such as Dynamic Trojan Horse Network (DTHN) Internet Worm, Zero-Day Attack, and Stealth Bot. As a result, the cybersecurity industry has had to improve the defense technologies to remove any vulnerability to cyber attacks using systems such as the Security of Information (SIM), Next-Generation Firewalls (NGFWs), and DDoS techniques.


title: Arms industry

text: As the threat to computers grows, the demand for cyber protection will rise, resulting in the growth of the cybersecurity industry. It is expected that the industry will be dominated by the defense and homeland security agencies that will make up 40% of the industry.


title: Arms industry

text: According to research institute SIPRI, the volume of international transfers of major weapons in 2010–14 was 16 percent higher than in 2005–2009. The five biggest exporters in 2010–2014 were the United States, Russia, China, Germany and France, and the five biggest importers were India, Saudi Arabia, China, the United Arab Emirates and Pakistan. The flow of arms to the Middle East increased by 87 percent between 2009–13 and 2014–18, while there was a decrease in flows to all other regions: Africa, the Americas, Asia and Oceania, and Europe.


title: Arms industry

text: SIPRI has identified 67 countries as exporters of major weapons in 2014–18. The top 5 exporters during the period were responsible for 75 percent of all arms exports. The composition of the five largest exporters of arms changed between 2014 and 2018 remained unchanged compared to 2009–13, although their combined total exports of major arms were 10 percent higher. In 2014–18 there can be seen significant increases in arms exports from the US, France and Germany, while Chinese exports rose marginally and Russian exports decreased.


title: Arms industry

text: In 2014–18, 155 countries (about three-quarters of all countries) imported major weapons. The top 5 recipients accounted for 33 percent of the total arms imports during the period. The top five arms importers - Saudi Arabia, India, Egypt, Australia and Algeria - accounted for 35 percent of total arms imports in 2014–18. Of these, Saudi Arabia and India were among the top five importers in both 2009–13 and 2014–18.


title: Arms industry

text: In 2014–18, the volume of major arms international transfers was 7.8 percent higher than in 2009-13 and 23 percent than that in 2004–08. The largest arms importer was Saudi Arabia, importing arms primarily from the United States, United Kingdom and France. Between 2009–13 and 2014–18, the flow of arms to the Middle East increased by 87 percent. Also including India, Egypt, Australia and Algeria, the top five importers received 35 percent of the total arms imports, during 2014–18. Besides, the largest exporters were the United States, Russia, France, Germany and China.


title: Arms industry

text: The 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine changed the National Shooting Sports Foundation members ability to obtain an export license from taking a month to taking just four days. This was due to the United States Department of Commerce and agencies associated with ITAR expediting weapons shipments to Ukraine. In addition, the time it took to obtain a permit to buy a firearm in Ukraine also decreased from a few months to a few days.


title: Arms industry

text: Figures are SIPRI Trend Indicator Values (TIVs) expressed in millions. These numbers may not represent real financial flows as prices for the underlying arms can be as low as zero in the case of military aid. The following are estimates from Stockholm International Peace Research Institute.


title: Arms industry

text: Overall global arms exports rose of about 6 per-cent in the last 5 years compared to the period 2010-2014 and increased by 20 per-cent since 2005–2009.


title: Arms industry

text: Note that rankings for exporters below a billion dollars are less meaningful, as they can be swayed by single contracts. A much more accurate picture of export volume, free from yearly fluctuations, is presented by 5-year moving averages.


title: Arms industry

text: Next to SIPRI, there are several other sources that provide data on international transfers of arms. These include national reports by national governments about arms exports, the UN register on conventional arms, and an annual publication by the U.S. Congressional Research Service that includes data on arms exports to developing countries as compiled by U.S. intelligence agencies. Due to the different methodologies and definitions used different sources often provide significantly different data.


title: Arms industry

text: SIPRI uses the "trend-indicator values" (TIV). These are based on the known unit production costs of weapons and represent the transfer of military resources rather than the financial value of the transfer.


title: Arms industry

text: Units are in Trend Indicator Values expressed as millions of U.S. dollars at 1990s prices. These numbers may not represent real financial flows as prices for the underlying arms can be as low as zero in the case of military aid.


title: Arms industry

text: Arms import rankings fluctuate heavily as countries enter and exit wars. Export data tend to be less volatile as exporters tend to be more technologically advanced and have stable production flows. 5-year moving averages present a much more accurate picture of import volume, free from yearly fluctuations.


title: Arms industry

text: This is a list of the world's largest arms manufacturers and other military service companies who profit the most from the War economy, their origin is shown as well. The information is based on a list published by the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute for 2020. The list provided by the SIPRI The numbers are in billions of US dollars.


title: Arms industry

text: Arms control refers to international restrictions upon the development, production, stockpiling, proliferation and usage of small arms, conventional weapons, and weapons of mass destruction. It is typically exercised through the use of diplomacy, which seeks to persuade governments to accept such limitations through agreements and treaties, although it may also be forced upon non-consenting governments.


title: Bros (film)

text: Bros is a 2022 American romantic comedy film starring Billy Eichner and Luke Macfarlane as two gay men in Manhattan who avoid commitment but are drawn to each other. The film is directed by Nicholas Stoller based on a screenplay he co-wrote with Eichner and is produced by Stoller, Judd Apatow, and Nicholas Church. Produced under Universal Pictures on a budget of $22 million, it is one of the first gay romantic comedies by a major studio and has an openly LGBT principal cast.


title: Bros (film)

text: "Bros" had its world premiere at the 2022 Toronto International Film Festival on September 9, 2022. Universal spent between $30 million and $40 million marketing the film and commercially released it in theaters in the United States on October 11, 2022. The film received generally positive reviews from critics, but it bombed at the box office, grossing $14.8 million worldwide.


title: Bros (film)

text: Bobby Lieber, host of the podcast and radio show "The Eleventh Brick at Stonewall" who prides himself on being single, attends an awards ceremony for the LGBTQ community, where he wins an award for "Best White Cis Gay Man". He announces that he has accepted a position as a curator for the upcoming new National LGBTQ+ History Museum in Manhattan.


title: Bros (film)

text: Bobby joins his friend Henry at a nightclub in the city where a new gay dating app is being launched, and spots Aaron Shepard, whom Henry describes as hot but "boring". Aaron and Bobby flirt and exchange a kiss, but Aaron doesn't appear interested in Bobby. A few days later, the two start to spend time together, but their connection is not strong. While on a date at the movies, Aaron runs into a former high school hockey teammate, Josh, and his fiancée. Bobby and Aaron aren't sure what to make of their time together; Bobby feels Aaron acts too straight and Aaron thinks Bobby is too intense and that his clout in the gay community is intimidating. Aaron later finds out that Josh called off his engagement and has come out as gay.


title: Bros (film)

text: After some time apart, Aaron confides to Bobby that his original dream was to be a chocolatier, but had thought that it was unachievable and never pursued it. Bobby invites Aaron to a trip to Provincetown, where he solicits an eccentric millionaire for a donation to the struggling museum. The millionaire is unimpressed by Bobby at first, but Aaron helps him to adjust his pitch, and they secure a $5 million donation. Bobby is impressed by Aaron and the two grow closer romantically, and Bobby opens up about having to tone down his flamboyant behavior to make others comfortable.


title: Bros (film)

text: Bobby and Aaron date for several months and Aaron integrates into Bobby's group of friends. At a Christmas party, Josh arrives and Aaron asks Bobby if they can have a threesome. Bobby agrees, but later recants on his wishes after seeing the connection Aaron and Josh have. When Aaron's family comes to the city for a visit, Bobby's excessive outspoken behavior ends up causing a rift between the two men. Aaron hooks up with Josh again and they break up. People are threatening to boycott the museum and pull donations over an exhibit Bobby created that suggests that Abraham Lincoln was gay.


title: Bros (film)

text: After some time, Bobby returns to work and reconciles with his coworkers over his outburst over the exhibit. The others all admit they have their own issues as well over matters such as their sexual identities, and agree to compromise on the exhibits that will be presented. Meanwhile, Aaron quits his job and fulfills his dream of making chocolates, telling Bobby that all proceeds will go to the museum.


title: Bros (film)

text: On the opening night of the museum, a large crowd turns out. Bobby misses Aaron, and after talking to his friend Tina, decides to text him. Aaron gets the text and is encouraged by his brother to go after the person he loves, arriving just as Bobby begins his speech. When he sees Aaron, he proceeds to sing a song he wrote about their relationship, inspired by the music of Garth Brooks, Aaron's favorite singer. When the song ends, Bobby and Aaron kiss, to applause from the crowd.


title: Bros (film)

text: Three months later, Aaron's mother brings her 2nd-grade class to the museum, and Bobby and Aaron are still dating.


title: Bros (film)

text: On February 5, 2019, it was announced that Billy Eichner would write, executive produce and star in a romantic comedy feature film, directed and co-written by Nick Stoller. Principal photography was set to begin on June 7, 2021, in Buffalo, New York and Provincetown, Massachusetts. Filming subsequently took place in Manhattan and in downtown Cranford, New Jersey. Stoller previously directed Eichner in "", which received praise for its depiction of a gay relationship and positive support from straight cisgender male friends compared to many comedies which used gay panic for laughs.


title: Bros (film)

text: Most of the cast was revealed on September 23, 2021, and September 30, 2021. Bowen Yang and Harvey Fierstein were revealed to have joined the cast on November 4, 2021. Benito Skinner also joined the cast, though his role was cut from the final film.


title: Bros (film)

text: The film is a gay romantic comedy from a major studio featuring a predominantly LGBTQ+ principal cast; Debra Messing and Kristin Chenoweth are also in the cast, but in smaller cameo roles, playing themselves. Stoller calls them "allies" of the community.


title: Bros (film)

text: "Bros" had its world premiere at the Toronto International Film Festival on September 9, 2022, and was theatrically released in the United States on September 30, 2022, by Universal Pictures. It was originally scheduled for release on August 12, 2022.


title: Bros (film)

text: Prior to its commercial release, the film was subjected to homophobic review bombing from users on IMDb.


title: Bros (film)

text: "Bros" grossed $11.6 million in the United States and Canada, and $3.2 million in other territories, for a total worldwide gross of $14.8 million.


title: Bros (film)

text: In the United States and Canada, "Bros" was released alongside "Smile", and was initially projected to gross $8–10 million from 3,300 theaters in its opening weekend. After making $1.8 million on its first day of release, including $500,000 from Thursday night previews, projections were revised to $4–5 million. The film went on to debut to $4.9 million, finishing fifth at the box office. The film's top 10-performing theaters were all in New York, San Francisco, and Los Angeles, while it underperformed in much of the middle of the country and in the south. Opening-weekend audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A" on an A+ to F scale, while those at PostTrak gave the film an 80% overall positive score, with 69% saying they would definitely recommend it. The film fell 55.5% to $2.2 million in its sophomore weekend, finishing in eighth.


title: Bros (film)

text: Eichner expressed disappointment at the film's box office results, saying that "straight people, especially in certain parts of the country, just didn’t show up for "Bros"." Zack Sharf and William Earl from "Variety" countered in an analysis that other factors contributed to the film's poor box office, stating that "straight people aren't entirely to blame" and that "many LGBTQ viewers didn't show up to see the comedy in theaters either." While they viewed homophobia as a likely component, they also noted other factors such as a lack of interest in the material, a lack of star power, the marketing focusing on representation over its humor, timing of its release date, competition from anticipated streaming releases such as "Blonde" and "Hocus Pocus 2" (all three films were released concurrently), and audiences' possible fading interest in Apatow's films. They also noted that more women than expected had shown up to see the film.


title: Bros (film)

text: When released as premium video on demand (PVOD) the film was ranked number 2 at Vudu (calculated by revenue) and number 3 at iTunes and Google Play (which rank by transactions). IndieWire called it "quite good for a studio release that fared this poorly in theaters."


title: Bros (film)

text: On the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 88% based on 210 reviews, with an average rating of 7.5/10. The site's critics' consensus reads, ""Bros" marks a step forward in rom-com representation – and just as importantly, it's a whole bunch of fun to watch." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 72 out of 100 based on 46 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".


title: Bros (film)

text: "TheWrap"s Alonso Duralde praised Macfarlane's performance, writing: "Like Bobby, this gay critic's not-so-secret comfort viewing is Hallmark Christmas movies, and I've always enjoyed Macfarlane's work as a charming romantic lead in them, but "Bros" offers the kind of complexity and shading (to say nothing of humor) that Hallmark never could. Anyone coming into this film only knowing Macfarlane for his cozy cable movies will leave with a new appreciation of this versatile actor's wheelhouse." Marya E. Gates of "RogerEbert.com" gave the film 2.5 out of 4 stars, writing: "Its perpetual commentary on the mainstreaming of queerness remains at odds with its very desire to tell its story within the Hollywood system." Writing for "Consequence", Clint Worthington gave the film a B- and said: "When it focuses on Eichner and Macfarlane, and the ever-complicated mores of queer masculinity, it stays charming and light on its feet. If it were a little less self-conscious about that homonormativity, it’d have a more cohesive identity, and be more of a slam dunk in the process."


title: Conservation status

text: The conservation status of a group of organisms (for instance, a species) indicates whether the group still exists and how likely the group is to become extinct in the near future. Many factors are taken into account when assessing conservation status: not simply the number of individuals remaining, but the overall increase or decrease in the population over time, breeding success rates, and known threats. Various systems of conservation status exist and are in use at international, multi-country, national and local levels as well as for consumer use.


title: Conservation status

text: The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species is the best known worldwide conservation status listing and ranking system. Species are classified by the IUCN Red List into nine groups set through criteria such as rate of decline, population size, area of geographic distribution, and degree of population and distribution fragmentation.


title: Conservation status

text: Also included are species that have gone extinct since 1500 CE. When discussing the IUCN Red List, the official term "threatened" is a grouping of three categories: critically endangered, endangered, and vulnerable.


title: Conservation status

text: The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) aims to ensure that international trade in specimens of wild animals and plants does not threaten their survival. Many countries require CITES permits when importing plants and animals listed on CITES.


title: Conservation status

text: In the European Union (EU), the Birds and Habitats Directives are the legal instruments that evaluate the conservation status within the EU of species and habitats.


title: Conservation status

text: NatureServe conservation status focuses on Latin America, the United States, Canada, and the Caribbean. It has been developed by scientists from NatureServe, The Nature Conservancy, and a network of natural heritage programs and data centers. It is increasingly integrated with the IUCN Red List system. Its categories for species include: "presumed extinct" (GX), "possibly extinct" (GH), "critically imperiled" (G1), "imperiled" (G2), "vulnerable" (G3), "apparently secure" (G4), and "secure" (G5). The system also allows ambiguous or uncertain ranks including "inexact numeric ranks" (e.g. G2?), and "range ranks" (e.g. G2G3) for when the exact rank is uncertain. NatureServe adds a qualifier for "captive or cultivated only" (C), which has a similar meaning to the IUCN Red List "extinct in the wild" (EW) status.


title: Conservation status

text: The Red Data Book of the Russian Federation is used within the Russian Federation, and also accepted in parts of Africa.


title: Conservation status

text: In Australia, the "Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999" (EPBC Act) describes lists of threatened species, ecological communities and threatening processes. The categories resemble those of the 1994 IUCN Red List Categories & Criteria (version 2.3). Prior to the EPBC Act, a simpler classification system was used by the "Endangered Species Protection Act 1992". Some state and territory governments also have their own systems for conservation status. The codes for the Western Australian conservation system are given at Declared Rare and Priority Flora List (abbreviated to DECF when using in a taxobox).


title: Conservation status

text: In Belgium, the Flemish Research Institute for Nature and Forest publishes an online set of more than 150 nature indicators in Dutch.


title: Conservation status

text: In Canada, the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada (COSEWIC) is a group of experts that assesses and designates which wild species are in some danger of disappearing from Canada. Under the Species at Risk Act (SARA), it is up to the federal government, which is politically accountable, to legally protect species assessed by COSEWIC.


title: Conservation status

text: In China, the State, provinces and some counties have determined their key protected wildlife species. There is the China red data book.


title: Conservation status

text: In Finland, many species are protected under the Nature Conservation Act, and through the EU Habitats Directive and EU Birds Directive.


title: Conservation status

text: In the Netherlands, the Dutch Ministry of Agriculture, Nature and Food Quality publishes a list of threatened species, and conservation is enforced by the Nature Conservation Act 1998. Species are also protected through the Wild Birds and Habitats Directives.


title: Conservation status

text: In New Zealand, the Department of Conservation publishes the New Zealand Threat Classification System lists. threatened species or subspecies are assigned one of seven categories: Nationally Critical, Nationally Endangered, Nationally Vulnerable, Declining, Recovering, Relict, or Naturally Uncommon. While the classification looks only at a national level, many species are unique to New Zealand, and species which are secure overseas are noted as such.


title: Conservation status

text: In Russia, the Red Book of Russian Federation came out in 2001, it contains categories defining preservation status for different species. In it there are 8 taxa of amphibians, 21 taxa of reptiles, 128 taxa of birds, and 74 taxa of mammals, in total 231. There are also more than 30 regional red books, for example the red book of the Altaic region which came out in 1994.


title: Conservation status

text: In South Africa, the South African National Biodiversity Institute, established under the National Environmental Management: Biodiversity Act, 2004, is responsible for drawing up lists of affected species, and monitoring compliance with CITES decisions. It is envisaged that previously diverse Red lists would be more easily kept current, both technically and financially.


title: Conservation status

text: In Thailand, the Wild Animal Reservation and Protection Act of BE 2535 defines fifteen reserved animal species and two classes of protected species, of which hunting, breeding, possession, and trade are prohibited or restricted by law. The National Park, Wildlife and Plant Conservation Department of the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment is responsible for the regulation of these activities.


title: Conservation status

text: In Ukraine, the Ministry of Environment Protection maintains list of endangered species (divided into seven categories from "0" - extinct to "VI" - rehabilitated) and publishes it in the Red Book of Ukraine.


title: Conservation status

text: In the United States of America, the Endangered Species Act of 1973 created the Endangered Species List.


title: Conservation status

text: Some consumer guides for seafood, such as Seafood Watch, divide fish and other sea creatures into three categories, analogous to conservation status categories:


title: Conservation status

text: The categories do not simply reflect the imperilment of individual species, but also consider the environmental impacts of how and where they are fished, such as through bycatch or ocean bottom trawlers. Often groups of species are assessed rather than individual species (e.g. squid, prawns).


title: Conservation status

text: The Marine Conservation Society has five levels of ratings for seafood species, as displayed on their "FishOnline" website.


title: Carpathian Mountains

text: The Carpathian Mountains or Carpathians () are a range of mountains forming an arc across Central Europe. Roughly long, it is the third-longest European mountain range after the Urals at and the Scandinavian Mountains at . The range stretches from the far eastern Czech Republic (3%) and Austria (1%) in the northwest through Slovakia (21%), Poland (10%), Ukraine (10%), Romania (50%) to Serbia (5%) in the south. The highest range within the Carpathians is known as the Tatra mountains in Slovakia and Poland, where the highest peaks exceed . The second-highest range is the Southern Carpathians in Romania, where the highest peaks range between and .


title: Carpathian Mountains

text: The term Outer Carpathians is frequently used to describe the northern rim of the Western and Eastern Carpathians.


title: Carpathian Mountains

text: The Carpathians provide habitat for the largest European populations of brown bears, wolves, chamois, and lynxes, with the highest concentration in Romania, as well as over one-third of all European plant species. The mountains and their foothills also have many thermal and mineral waters, with Romania having one-third of the European total. Romania is likewise home to the second-largest area of virgin forests in Europe after Russia, totaling 250,000 hectares (65%), most of them in the Carpathians, with the Southern Carpathians constituting Europe's largest unfragmented forest area. Deforestation rates due to illegal logging in the Carpathians are high.


title: Carpathian Mountains

text: In modern times, the range is called "Karpaty" in Czech, Polish and Slovak and "Карпати" ("Karpaty") in Ukrainian, "Карпати" / "Karpati" in Serbian, "Carpați" in Romanian, "Карпаты" in Rusyn, "Karpaten" in German and "Kárpátok" in Hungarian. Although the toponym was recorded already by Ptolemy in the second century AD, the modern form of the name is a neologism in most languages. For instance, "Havasok" ("Snowy Mountains") was its medieval Hungarian name; Russian chronicles referred to it as "Hungarian Mountains". Later sources, such as Dimitrie Cantemir and the Italian chronicler Giovanandrea Gromo, referred to the range as "Transylvania's Mountains", while the 17th-century historian Constantin Cantacuzino translated the name of the mountains in an Italian-Romanian glossary to "Rumanian Mountains".


title: Carpathian Mountains

text: The name "Carpates" is highly associated with the old Dacian tribes called "Carpes" or "Carpi" who lived in a large area from the east, northeast of the Black Sea to the Transylvanian Plain on the present day Romania and Moldova. The name "Carpates" may ultimately be from the Proto Indo-European root "*sker-"/"*ker-", which meant mountain, rock, or rugged (cf. Germanic root "*skerp-", Old Norse "harrow", Gothic "skarpo", Middle Low German "scharf" "potsherd", and Modern High German "Scherbe" "shard", Old English and English "sharp", Lithuanian "kar~pas" "cut, hack, notch", Latvian "cìrpt" "to shear, clip"). The archaic Polish word "karpa" meant 'rugged irregularities, underwater obstacles/rocks, rugged roots, or trunks'. The more common word "skarpa" means a sharp cliff or other vertical terrain. The name may instead come from Indo-European * 'to turn', akin to Old English 'to turn, change' (English "warp") and Greek 'wrist', perhaps referring to the way the mountain range bends or veers in an L-shape. A presumed association with Albanian "karpë" 'rocky hill with a sharp peak' is dubious.


title: Carpathian Mountains

text: In late Roman documents, the Eastern Carpathian Mountains were referred to as "Montes Sarmatici" (meaning Sarmatian Mountains). The Western Carpathians were called "Carpates", a name that is first recorded in Ptolemy's "Geographia" (second century AD).


title: Carpathian Mountains

text: In the Scandinavian "Hervarar saga", which relates ancient Germanic legends about battles between Goths and Huns, the name "Karpates" appears in the predictable Germanic form as "Harvaða fjöllum" (see Grimm's law).


title: Carpathian Mountains

text: ""Inter Alpes Huniae et Oceanum est Polonia"" ("Between the Hunic Alps and the ocean lies Poland") by Gervase of Tilbury, has described in his "Otia Imperialia" ("Recreation for an Emperor") in 1211. Thirteenth- to fifteenth-century Hungarian documents named the mountains "Thorchal", "Tarczal", or less frequently "Montes Nivium" ("Snowy Mountains").


title: Carpathian Mountains

text: The northwestern Carpathians begin in Slovakia and southern Poland. They surround Transcarpathia and Transylvania in a large semicircle, sweeping towards the southeast, and end on the Danube near Orșova in Romania. The total length of the Carpathians is over and the mountain chain's width varies between . The highest altitudes of the Carpathians occur where they are widest. The system attains its greatest breadth in the Transylvanian plateau and in the southern Tatra Mountains group – the highest range, in which Gerlachovský štít in Slovakia is the highest peak at above sea level. The Carpathians cover an area of , and after the Alps, form the next-most extensive mountain system in Europe.


title: Carpathian Mountains

text: Although commonly referred to as a mountain chain, the Carpathians do not actually form an uninterrupted chain of mountains. Rather, they consist of several orographically and geologically distinctive groups, presenting as great a structural variety as the Alps. The Carpathians, which attain an altitude over in only a few places, lack the bold peaks, extensive snowfields, large glaciers, high waterfalls, and numerous large lakes that are common in the Alps. It was believed that no area of the Carpathian range was covered in snow all year round and there were no glaciers, but recent research by Polish scientists discovered one permafrost and glacial area in the Tatra Mountains.


title: Carpathian Mountains

text: The Carpathians at their highest altitude are only as high as the middle region of the Alps, with which they share a common appearance, climate, and flora. The Carpathians are separated from the Alps by the Danube. The two ranges meet at only one point: the Leitha Mountains at Bratislava. The river also separates them from the Balkan Mountains at Orșova in Romania. The valley of the March and Oder separates the Carpathians from the Silesian and Moravian chains, which belong to the middle wing of the great Central Mountain System of Europe. Unlike the other wings of the system, the Carpathians, which form the watershed between the northern seas and the Black Sea, are surrounded on all sides by plains, namely the Pannonian plain to the southwest, the Lower Danubian Plain to the south, with the southern part being in Bulgaria, and the northern - in (Romania), and the Galician plain to the northeast.


title: Carpathian Mountains

text: Important cities and towns in or near the Carpathians are, in approximate descending order of population:


title: Carpathian Mountains

text: This is an (incomplete) list of the peaks of the Carpathians having summits over , with their heights, geologic divisions, and locations.


title: Carpathian Mountains

text: This is a list of the highest national peaks of the Carpathians, their heights, geologic divisions, and locations. Excluding mountains located in two countries (on the border).


title: Carpathian Mountains

text: In the Romanian part of the main chain of the Carpathians, mountain passes include Prislop Pass, Tihuța Pass, Bicaz Canyon, Ghimeș Pass, Buzău Pass, Predeal Pass (crossed by the railway from Brașov to Bucharest), Turnu Roșu Pass (1,115 ft., running through the narrow gorge of the Olt River and crossed by the railway from Sibiu to Bucharest), Vulcan Pass, and the Iron Gate (both crossed by the railway from Timișoara to Craiova).


title: Carpathian Mountains

text: The area now occupied by the Carpathians was once occupied by smaller ocean basins. The Carpathian mountains were formed during the Alpine orogeny in the Mesozoic and Tertiary by moving the ALCAPA (Alpine-Carpathian-Pannonian), Tisza and Dacia plates over subducting oceanic crust.


title: Carpathian Mountains

text: The mountains take the form of a fold and thrust belt with generally north vergence in the western segment, northeast to east vergence in the eastern portion and southeast vergence in the southern portion. Currently, the area is the most seismically active in Central Europe.


title: Carpathian Mountains

text: The external, generally northern, portion of the orogenic belt is a Tertiary accretionary wedge of a so-called Flysch belt (the Carpathian Flysch Belt) created by rocks scraped off the sea bottom and thrust over the North-European plate. The Carpathian accretionary wedge is made of several thin skinned nappes composed of Cretaceous to Paleogene turbidites. Thrusting of the Flysch nappes over the Carpathian foreland caused the formation of the Carpathian foreland basin. The boundary between the Flysch belt and internal zones of the orogenic belt in the western segment of the mountain range is marked by the Pieniny Klippen Belt, a narrow complicated zone of polyphase compressional deformation, later involved in a supposed strike-slip zone. Internal zones in western and eastern segments contain older Variscan igneous massifs reworked in Mesozoic thick and thin-skinned nappes. During the Middle Miocene this zone was affected by intensive calc-alkaline arc volcanism that developed over the subduction zone of the flysch basins. At the same time, the internal zones of the orogenic belt were affected by large extensional structure of the back-arc Pannonian Basin. The last volcanic activity occurred at Ciomadul about 30,000 years ago.


title: Carpathian Mountains

text: The mountains started to gain their current shape from the latest Miocene onward. The slopes of the Carphartian contain at some locations solifluction deposits.


title: Carpathian Mountains

text: Iron, gold and silver were found in great quantities in the Western Carpathians. After the Roman emperor Trajan's conquest of Dacia, he brought back to Rome over 165 tons of gold and 330 tons of silver.


title: Carpathian Mountains

text: The ecology of the Carpathians varies with altitude, ranging from lowland forests to alpine meadows. Foothill forests are primarily of broadleaf deciduous trees, including oak, hornbeam, and linden. European beech is characteristic of the montane forest zone. Higher-elevation subalpine forests are characterized by Norway spruce ("Picea abies"). Krummholtz and alpine meadows occur above the treeline.


title: Carpathian Mountains

text: Wildlife in the Carpathians includes brown bear ("Ursus arctos"), wolf ("Canis lupus"), Eurasian lynx ("Lynx lynx"), European wildcat ("Felis silvestris"), Tatra chamois ("Rupicapra rupicapra tatrica"), European bison ("Bison bonasus"), and golden eagle ("Aquila chrysaetos").


title: Carpathian Mountains

text: The largest range is the Tatras in Slovakia and Poland. A major part of the western and northeastern Outer Eastern Carpathians in Poland, Ukraine, and Slovakia is traditionally called the Eastern Beskids.


title: Carpathian Mountains

text: The geological border between the Western and Eastern Carpathians runs approximately along the line (south to north) between the towns of Michalovce, Bardejov, Nowy Sącz and Tarnów. In older systems the border runs more in the east, along the line (north to south) along the rivers San and Osława (Poland), the town of Snina (Slovakia) and river Tur'ia (Ukraine). Biologists shift the border even further to the east.


title: Carpathian Mountains

text: The border between the eastern and southern Carpathians is formed by the Predeal Pass, south of Brașov and the Prahova Valley.


title: Carpathian Mountains

text: In geopolitical terms, Carpathian Mountains are often grouped and labeled according to national or regional borders, but such division has turned out to be relative, since it was, and still is dependent on frequent historical, political and administrative changes of national or regional borders. According to modern geopolitical division, Carpathians can be grouped as: Serbian, Romanian, Ukrainian, Polish, Slovakian, Czech and Austrian. Within each nation, specific classifications of the Carpathians have been developing, often reflecting local traditions, and thus creating terminological diversity, that produces various challenges in the fields of comparative classification and international systematization.


title: Carpathian Mountains

text: The section of the Carpathians within the borders of Romania is commonly known as the Romanian Carpathians. In local use, Romanians sometimes denote as "Eastern Carpathians" only the Romanian part of the Eastern Carpathians, which lies on their territory (i.e., from the Ukrainian border or from the Prislop Pass to the south), which they subdivide into three simplified geographical groups (northern, central, southern), instead of Outer and Inner Eastern Carpathians. These groups are:


title: Carpathian Mountains

text: The section of the Carpathians within the borders of Ukraine is commonly known as the Ukrainian Carpathians. Classification of eastern sections of the Carpathians is particularly complex, since it was influenced by several overlapping traditions. Terms like


title: Carpathian Mountains

text: Wooded Carpathians, Poloniny Mountains or Eastern Beskids are often used in varying scopes by authors belonging to different traditions.


title: Sandi Toksvig

text: Sandra Birgitte Toksvig (; ; born 3 May 1958) is a Danish-British writer, comedian and broadcaster on British radio, stage and television. She is also a political activist, having co-founded the Women's Equality Party in 2015. She has written plays, novels and books for children. In 1994, she came out as a lesbian.


title: Sandi Toksvig

text: Toksvig took over from Stephen Fry as host of the BBC television quiz show "QI" in 2016, having been a guest a number of times, and spent ten years hosting "The News Quiz" on BBC Radio 4. From 2017 to 2020 she was co-presenter of "The Great British Bake Off", alongside comedian Noel Fielding. In 2020, she stepped down and was replaced by Matt Lucas.


title: Sandi Toksvig

text: In 2020, Toksvig launched a podcast series called "We Will Get Past This" which aimed to provide "virtual chicken soup for the soul" during the COVID-19 lockdown in the UK, by sharing stories of notable women from her book collection.


title: Sandi Toksvig

text: Toksvig was born in Denmark. Her father, Claus Toksvig, was a Danish journalist, broadcaster, and foreign correspondent; as a result, Toksvig spent most of her youth outside Denmark, mostly in New York City. Her mother, Julie Anne Toksvig ("née" Brett), is British. She has an older brother, Nick, who is a journalist, and a younger sister, Jenifer, a librettist, who was born when Sandi was 12. When Sandi was 24, she was appointed Jenifer's legal guardian. In 1969, her father covered the landing of the first man on the moon from mission control; she was holding the hand of Neil Armstrong's secretary during the landing. While her father was based in London, she attended Tormead School, an independent girls' school near Guildford. Her first job, at the age of 18, was as a follow spot operator for the musical "Jesus Christ Superstar".


title: Sandi Toksvig

text: She read law, archaeology and anthropology at Girton College, Cambridge, graduating with a first-class degree and receiving two prizes (The Raemakers and the Theresa Montefiore Awards) for outstanding achievement. One of her law supervisors was Lord Denning.


title: Sandi Toksvig

text: Toksvig began her comedy career at Girton, where she wrote and performed in the first all-woman show at the Footlights. She was there at the same time as Stephen Fry, Hugh Laurie, Tony Slattery, and Emma Thompson, and wrote additional material for the Perrier award-winning Cambridge Footlights Revue. She was also a member of the Cambridge University Light Entertainment Society.


title: Sandi Toksvig

text: She started her television career on children's television, presenting "No. 73" (1982–1986), the "Sandwich Quiz", "The Saturday Starship", "Motormouth", "Gilbert's Fridge", for Television South, and factual programmes such as "Island Race" and "The Talking Show", produced by Open Media for Channel 4. In 2000, she appeared as a guest presenter on "Time Team", at a dig in York (season 7 episode 13).


title: Sandi Toksvig

text: In the comedy circuit, Toksvig performed at the first night of the Comedy Store in London, and was once part of their Players, an improvisational comedy team.


title: Sandi Toksvig

text: In television, she appeared as a panellist in comedy shows such as "Call My Bluff" (a regular as a team captain), "Whose Line Is It Anyway?", "Mock the Week", "QI", and "Have I Got News for You", where she appeared on the first episode in 1990. She was also the host of "What the Dickens", a Sky Arts quiz show.


title: Sandi Toksvig

text: On radio, she is a familiar voice for BBC Radio 4 listeners, having appeared on "I'm Sorry I Haven't a Clue", "The Unbelievable Truth", and as the chair of "The News Quiz", where she replaced Simon Hoggart in September 2006, but left in June 2015 in order to enter politics to champion women's rights. Her final show was first broadcast on 26 June 2015. She presented Radio 4's travel programme "Excess Baggage" until it was axed in 2012.


title: Sandi Toksvig

text: In 1993, Toksvig wrote a musical, "Big Night Out at the Little Sands Picture Palace", for Nottingham Playhouse, co-starring with Anita Dobson and Una Stubbs. In 2002, it was re-written, with Dilly Keane, for the Watford Palace Theatre, in which they appeared with Bonnie Langford. Toksvig and Elly Brewer wrote a Shakespeare deconstruction, "The Pocket Dream", which Toksvig performed at the Nottingham Playhouse and which transferred to the West End for a short run. The pair also wrote the 1992 TV series "The Big One", in which she also starred. She has appeared in a number of stage plays, including "Androcles and the Lion", "Much Ado About Nothing", and "The Comedy of Errors".


title: Sandi Toksvig

text: In 1996, she narrated the "Dragons!" interactive CD-ROM published by Oxford University Press and developed by Inner Workings, along with Harry Enfield. The software was primarily aimed at children and featured songs and poems about dragons. She also narrated the "Winnie the Witch" CD-ROM. She appeared in the "Doctor Who" audio drama "Red" by Big Finish Productions, released in August 2006. In December 2006, she hosted and sang at the London Gay Men's Chorus sold-out Christmas show, "Make the Yuletide Gay", at the Barbican Centre. Over Christmas and New Year 2007/2008, she narrated the pantomime "Cinderella" at the Old Vic Theatre. In October 2011, she narrated the new musical "Soho Cinders" at the Queen's Theatre, London. In 2011 she hosted a second season of BBC Two's "Antiques Master".


title: Sandi Toksvig

text: Toksvig wrote a play entitled "Bully Boy" which focused on post-traumatic stress among British servicemen. The play premièred at the Nuffield Theatre in Southampton in May 2011, and starred Anthony Andrews. The play then launched the debut season of St James Theatre in September 2012, the first new West End theatre to open in 30 years.


title: Sandi Toksvig

text: In the 2013 Christmas Special of BBC's "Call the Midwife", Toksvig made a cameo appearance as grumpy ward nurse Sister Gibbs.


title: Sandi Toksvig

text: On 28 April 2015, it was announced that Toksvig would leave BBC Radio 4's "The News Quiz" in June at the end of the 28th series, which was scheduled to begin on 15 May of that year. She said: "I have decided it is time to move on and, of course, I feel sad but I think it's the right moment. The show is in great shape and, like a good house guest, you should always depart when people still wish you'd stay a bit longer." The BBC said Toksvig had made the "difficult decision" to leave in order "to embark on a new and exciting stage of her career". On 30 April 2015, Toksvig announced that her decision to quit "The News Quiz" had been made in order to allow her to help set up a new political party named the Women's Equality Party.


title: Sandi Toksvig

text: In November 2015, Toksvig was a guest of BBC Radio 4's "Desert Island Discs". Her choices included Joe Nichols ("What's a Guy Gotta Do"), Gustav Winckler, The Weather Girls, Barbra Streisand, and Bonnie Langford. Her book choice was "The Ashley Book of Knots", and her luxury item was an endless supply of the "Daily Mail".


title: Sandi Toksvig

text: Her most recent play "Silver Lining" opened at the Rose Theatre Kingston on 11 February 2017, before touring to Portsmouth, Oxford, Cambridge, Ipswich, Keswick, York, and Salford. It centres around five elderly ladies and a young carer in a retirement home which is about to be flooded by a storm. It stars Rachel Davies, Keziah Joseph, Maggie McCarthy, Joanna Monro, Sheila Reid, and Amanda Walker. Toksvig's son, Theo Toksvig-Stewart, made his professional stage debut in the play.


title: Sandi Toksvig

text: On 11 June 2019, Toksvig appeared on former Prime Minister of Australia Julia Gillard's podcast. Notably, Toksvig states "Wikipedia is a marvelous idea and the idea is that it is a crowd sourced encyclopedia of knowledge, what a fantastic notion. But what's happening is that women are disappearing so 90% of Wikipedia's content is about "men" and their achievements and 9% is about "women". 1% are still making up their mind. So that proportion is completely out of kilter and we desperately need to do something about it. Part of the problem is that it is edited by volunteers but there are about 350,000 "uber" volunteers that tend, no offence to them, to be the same kind of guy who has the time to sit and do it and doesn't have laundry to do and are actively editing women out. There are two issues: 1) women's achievements are not being inputted and 2) women are actively being edited out... I am intent on trying to change this if we can."


title: Sandi Toksvig

text: During the COVID-19 lockdown period in 2020, Toksvig created and performed "Vox Tox", a YouTube mini-series, from her home. These 10-minute sessions promoted the activities of women across the ages, being inspired by items from Toksvig's own library of books and biographies.


title: Sandi Toksvig

text: Toksvig has written more than twenty fiction and non-fiction books for children and adults, starting in 1994 with "Tales from the Norse's Mouth", a fiction tale for children. In 1995, she sailed around the coast of Britain with John McCarthy, who had been held hostage in Beirut. In 2003, she published "Gladys Reunited: A Personal American Journey", about her travels in the USA retracing her childhood. She writes regular columns for "Good Housekeeping", the "Sunday Telegraph" and "The Lady". In October 2008, she published "Girls Are Best", a history book for girls.


title: Sandi Toksvig

text: In 2009, her collected columns for "The Sunday Telegraph" were published in book form as "The Chain of Curiosity". In 2012, she published her book, "Valentine Grey", an historical novel set in the Boer War. Her 2006 young adult book, "Hitler's Canary" is a Holocaust story told by a boy named Bamse and his family. The characters are based on Toksvig's own father and grandmother; the family heroism in the story closely resembles the author's father's own experiences during the war. Her memoir "Between the Stops: The View of My Life from the Top of the Number 12 Bus" was published on 29 October 2019.


title: Sandi Toksvig

text: In 2012–13 Toksvig presented "1001 Things You Should Know" for Channel 4 daytime. Toksvig began presenting the revival edition of the daytime game show "Fifteen-to-One" in April 2014. It is an hour-long instead of the original half-hour edition presented by William G. Stewart. After two series had been broadcast, in June 2015, Channel 4 announced that a further eight series would be made, hosted by Toksvig until the revived series ended on 28 June 2019.


title: Sandi Toksvig

text: Toksvig took over from Stephen Fry as host of "QI", making her "the first female presenter of a British mainstream TV comedy panel show", a fact she found extraordinary in 2016. Her first appearance as host (or Bantermeister) was the first episode of the show's series "N", which was broadcast on 21 October 2016.


title: Sandi Toksvig

text: On 16 March 2017 she was announced as the new co-presenter of "The Great British Bake Off" on Channel 4, alongside Noel Fielding. They replaced the previous hosts, Sue Perkins and Mel Giedroyc. In January 2020, she announced she was leaving the show to focus on other work commitments, and was replaced by Matt Lucas.


title: Sandi Toksvig

text: Toksvig presented Channel 4's four-part travel series "Extraordinary Escapes with Sandi Toksvig", which premiered on 10 February 2021. In December 2021, Channel 4 renewed the series for a second series, which premiered on 17 February 2022.


title: Sandi Toksvig

text: Toksvig first came to wider public prominence in 1994 because the charity Save the Children dropped her services as compere of its 75th anniversary celebrations after she came out. The decision led to a direct action protest by the Lesbian Avengers, and the charity apologised.


title: Sandi Toksvig

text: Toksvig supports the charity and pressure group Liberty, hosting its 2012 awards ceremony. She was appointed president of the Women of the Year Lunch. An atheist and humanist, Toksvig is a patron of Humanists UK.


title: Sandi Toksvig

text: In October 2012, as the scale of the Jimmy Savile sexual abuse scandal became apparent, and amid claims that during the 1960s, 1970s, and 1980s, there was a culture within the BBC which tolerated sexual harassment, Toksvig stated that she was groped by a "famous individual" on air in the 1980s. Toksvig said the allegations of inappropriate behaviour at the BBC "did not surprise me at all". In September 2018, as the BBC gender pay gap controversy continued to unfold, Toksvig reported that she was only paid 40% of what Fry, her predecessor, had received. Toksvig had earlier told the "Radio Times" it would be "absurd" if she did not receive the same salary as him for chairing "QI."


title: Sandi Toksvig

text: In 2003, she stood as a candidate in the election for the Chancellorship of the University of Oxford, supporting a campaign against student fees. She was defeated in the first round of voting, achieving 1,179 first-place votes out of about 8,000 cast. The election was won by Chris Patten. Almost a decade later she succeeded Sheila Hancock as Chancellor of the University of Portsmouth.


title: Sandi Toksvig

text: Toksvig's party-political sympathies have developed over the years. She was part of Red Wedge's comedy tour in the 1980s, which supported the Labour Party. By the 2004 elections, she was a high-profile celebrity supporter of the Liberal Democrats. She has received some criticism for joking about the Tories in 2011 (they've "put the 'N' into cuts" to child benefit), but has said Prime Minister Theresa May is "a good person". She has also joked about UKIP leader Nigel Farage. In 2012, she said in an interview that "I don't think there's a party that represents anything I believe in".


title: Sandi Toksvig

text: In April 2015, Toksvig chaired the first, informal, conference of a new political party, the Women's Equality Party, and then left her job as presenter of "The News Quiz" to formally co-found it. She later explained that she had decided that it was "not too late to fight the good fight, after all". In September the same year, she announced the dates for a comedy tour to raise funds for the party. The party's full set of policies was launched at Conway Hall, 20 October 2015.


title: Sandi Toksvig

text: Toksvig is the mother of two daughters and a son, born in 1988, 1990 and 1994 respectively. The children were carried by her partner, Peta Stewart, from whom she separated in 1997, and were conceived through artificial insemination by donor Christopher Lloyd-Pack, younger brother of the actor Roger Lloyd-Pack.


title: Sandi Toksvig

text: It was having three young children that made her decide to come out, because, to the best of her knowledge, there were no out lesbians in British public life, and she did not want her children to grow up ashamed of having two mothers. Toksvig was warned she might never work again, and the family faced death threats and had to go into hiding.


title: Sandi Toksvig

text: She lives on a houseboat in Wandsworth with psychotherapist Debbie Toksvig, whom she joined in a civil partnership in 2007. They renewed their vows on 29 March 2014, the day same-sex marriage was introduced in England and Wales, and in December 2014, their civil partnership was converted into a marriage.


title: Sandi Toksvig

text: Toksvig became a British citizen in 2013. She describes her "posh" accent as being the result of a deliberate attempt to copy the voice of Celia Johnson in "Brief Encounter", after being ostracised at boarding school for having an American accent.


title: Sandi Toksvig

text: In her late 50s, she lost a significant amount of weight on medical advice and credits this with giving her the confidence to go back to television.


title: Sandi Toksvig

text: In late 2022, Toksvig was hospitalised in Australia with bronchial pneumonia and was forced to cancel her upcoming New Zealand tour dates. On 6 December 2022 she announced that she had left hospital but was still not well enough to travel. On 15 December it was reported that she had returned to the UK.


title: Mary Elizabeth Ellis

text: Mary Elizabeth Ellis (born May 11, 1979) is an American actress, best known for her recurring roles as The Waitress on the FX comedy "It's Always Sunny in Philadelphia" (2005–present), Nick's ex-girlfriend Caroline in the Fox sitcom "New Girl" (2011–2018) and Lisa Palmer on the Netflix horror-comedy "Santa Clarita Diet" (2017–2019). Ellis also starred as Amy in the shortlived NBC sitcom "Perfect Couples" (2010–2011) and Debbie Sanderson in the Fox sitcom "The Grinder" (2015–2016). Most recently, she played Gary's mother Anita in Paul Thomas Anderson's "Licorice Pizza" (2021).


title: Mary Elizabeth Ellis

text: Since the first season began airing in 2005, Ellis has been mostly widely known for her role as The Waitress, the object of Charlie Kelly's unrequited infatuation and obsession, on the FX/FXX comedy series "It's Always Sunny in Philadelphia" (2005–present). Ellis and her "It's Always Sunny" colleague Artemis Pebdani are members of the Los Angeles-based performance group Discount Cruise to Hell. Together, they wrote and starred in the stage show "Mother May I Dance with Mary Jane's Fist?: A Lifetime Original Play" at the Upright Citizens Brigade Theater in Los Angeles, California.


title: Mary Elizabeth Ellis

text: Ellis has also appeared in a number of other television series, including "Reno 911!", "House M.D.," "Without a Trace", "Cold Case", "New Girl", "Happy Endings", and Netflix's "Santa Clarita Diet" and music videos including "Diaper Money" (2013) for The Lonely Island and "Anti-Hero" (2022) for Taylor Swift. She was a series regular on the NBC romantic comedy series "Perfect Couples", which ran for one season in 2011. In 2015, she landed her first main role as Debbie Sanderson, co-starring with Fred Savage and Rob Lowe in "The Grinder".


title: Mary Elizabeth Ellis

text: In 2008, Ellis co-wrote and starred as Olive in the independent film "A Quiet Little Marriage". In 2020, she appeared in Disney's "Godmothered". The following year, she appeared in "Licorice Pizza" (2021) as Momma Anita.


title: Mary Elizabeth Ellis

text: Ellis and Charlie Day met in 2001 and began dating immediately. They have since had an extensive history of appearing on shows together. In 2004, they auditioned together as incestuous siblings for "Reno 911!" and landed the roles. Around the same time, Ellis also began playing The Waitress in home movies Day was making and co-starring in (as Charlie Kelly who stalks her) with their friends Rob McElhenney and Glenn Howerton. These would go on to form the pilot episode of the dark comedy "It's Always Sunny in Philadelphia" in 2005 and Ellis continues to appear on the series till date.


title: Mary Elizabeth Ellis

text: Ellis and Day got married On March 4, 2006. Their first child, a boy named Russell Wallace Day, was born on December 15, 2011.


title: Kuruluş: Osman

text: Kuruluş: Osman () is a Turkish historical drama television series created by Mehmet Bozdağ and starring Burak Özçivit as the main protagonist. It focuses on the life of Osman I, the founder of the Ottoman Empire.


title: Kuruluş: Osman

text: The TV show includes Osman Ghazi's internal and external struggles and how he establishes and controls the Ottoman Empire. It portrays his struggles against Byzantium and the Mongol Ilkhanate and how he was able to secure independence from the Sultanate of Rum to establish a sovereign state that would stand up to the Byzantine and Mongol Empire and would honour the Turks.


title: Kuruluş: Osman

text: The character of Osman faces many enemies and traitors in his quest and the show illustrates how he was able to overcome these obstacles and fulfil his mission with the help of his loyal companions, family, and friends.


title: Kuruluş: Osman

text: The series follows "" which was situated around Osman's father, Ertuğrul, and how he faced enemies and traitors. It began in December 2014 and season 5 of the show concluded with Ertuğrul convincing Berke to start a war with Hulagu Khan. This war was known as the Berke-Hulagu war and resulted in the division of the Mongol Empire into four khanates. In "Kuruluş: Osman," Osman faces one of the khanates called the Ilkhanate.


title: Kuruluş: Osman

text: 10 or 15 years after the Berke-Hulagu war, Ertuğrul Ghazi goes to Konya and he leaves his brother, , in charge of his tribe. Dündar Bey is easily swayed by others into doing their misdeeds, he falls into the trap of the devious Selçuk Sançak Bey , and the merciless princess of Kulucahisar, , who seeks to kill all the Turks. Osman, Dündar's nephew, can see through Alişar and Sofia's plans and warns him about them, despite his refusal to listen. As they continue to build more tension against the Kayı, Geyhatu sends to cause more trouble and stop the Kayı, especially Osman, from rebelling against the Mongols. Dündar, who bows down to the Mongols becoming the Sançak Bey, can't see Alişar's anger over his position being given over to him and he believes him when Alişar blames Osman for his son's killing. Soon after, along with the threat from Kulucahisar, Dündar is shown the truth, Alişar is beheaded by Osman, and Osman has married his love at first sight, . Following this, after many difficulties, Balgay is presumably killed by Osman while Kulucahisar is conquered by the Kayı with Sofia's death happening in the process.


title: Kuruluş: Osman

text: is sent by the Byzantine Emperor, to become the new Tekfur of İnegöl followed by return in the tribe. Meanwhile, , the new Uç Bey, seeks to create his state and sees Osman as an obstacle, later on, they unite against the new threat created by the new Ilkhan of the Ilkhanate, who allies with Nikola against the Turks of Anatolia. Nikola recaptures Kulaca Hisar by poisoning the alps. also faces the arrival of Targun, Nikola's spy who allies with Osman to save her father, İnal Bey. Along with these problems, Osman is elected as the new Bey after his father's death, whilst he decides to marry a second wife according to his father's will. After Targun's death, Osman meets Malhun Hatun and initiates a major battle with the Byzantines, historically known as the , as well as trying to find the traitor in the Kayı, as his jealous uncle Dündar helps the Byzantines stir traps for him. Dündar is eventually executed by Osman for his betrayal. Following the arrival of , father of Malhun Hatun, Geyhatu sends , son of Baycu Noyan, to eliminate both Osman's Kayı and Ömer's Bayındır, but after a series of conflicts between the two tribes, Togay fails and is killed by Osman. Nikola is later defeated by Osman, with the support of Seljuk Sultan Mesud II, though he survives. Osman also marries Malhun Hatun in a political marriage, who gives birth to Osman's son whilst his first wife becomes pregnant.


title: Kuruluş: Osman

text: Malhun Hatun learns of pregnancy and is thus jealous of her, though they soon resolve their differences. Osman Bey faces Harmankaya Tekfur (Köse Mihal) and Bilecik Tekfur for Papaz Gregor, a priest who was imprisoned by Byzantine Emperor and he later escaped with help of Tekfur Rogatus. is a brave alp and Turk Bey who opposes the Byzantines and later forms strong alliances with Osman Bey.


title: Kuruluş: Osman

text: Osman Bey has conflicts again with his old enemy Tekfur who is helped by the Catalan Company which includes Diego and the leader Anselmo. Osman Bey eventually manages to defeat the Catalans. Tekfur Nikola wants to marry Mari, sister of Mikhail Kosses, who in turn has fallen in love with Turgut Bey. She escapes the forced alliance and soon with her brother's blessings marries Turgut Bey. Later Osman Bey and Bala Hatun are blessed with a baby boy who is named . A huge feast is held to celebrate this joyous occasion. Meanwhile, Osman and his alps capture and bring both Alemshah and Geyhatu to the tribe to hold them accountable for their actions and Alemshah is executed by Osman despite Sultan Mesud's disapproval. Later, Turgut Bey's pregnant wife Mariam Hatun (Mari) dies due to poisoning, and comes under suspicion for the same. Osman faces a lot of hurdles in his quest to prove his brother's innocence along with encountering a new enemy determined to cause harm to his people and his plans in building a future state. Several years later, Selcan Hatun dies due to an illness. He successfully conquers İnegöl and Yenişehir but faces tragic losses among his close ones including his elder brother Gündüz and his cousin , who was married to .


title: Kuruluş: Osman

text: The series is written and produced by Mehmet Bozdağ and directed by Metin Günay. The theme music is by Alpay Göktekin (died 5 May 2020) and Zeynep Alasya. It was filmed in Riva, Istanbul and broadcasting of the first season began in November 2019 on ATV. Filming of the third season began in late August 2021 and ended in mid June 2022. The show was renewed for a fourth season and is currently being aired on atv.


title: Kuruluş: Osman

text: The show has been well received in Turkey. In December 2019, "Kuruluş: Osman" attracted record viewership on ATV, in its fourth weekend of broadcast, the 4th episode of the series recorded a countrywide rating of 14.46. Mehmet Bozdağ claims that the show has also been a great success in Albania, where it is called "Osmani", and said that it is the "most watched TV show" in the country. In January 2021, the show, which was one of the most popular shows in Turkey, began broadcasting in the Middle East on Noor Play.


title: Kuruluş: Osman

text: In December 2019, Kuruluş: Osman attracted record viewership on ATV in its fourth weekend of broadcast, the 4th episode of the series recorded a countrywide rating of 14.46. Mehmet Bozdağ claimed that the show has also been a great success in Albania and that it is the "most watched TV show" in the country.


title: Kuruluş: Osman

text: The show has been very successful in Pakistan. It currently aires on VidTower in Urdu. Episode 59 broke viewership records in Pakistan. After the series became a huge hit, Pakistan National Assembly Speaker Asad Qaiser visited the set to view the shooting of the series. He also met the leading actor, Burak Özçivit. After Bamsi died in Kurulus Osman, Pakistani fans were left teary-eyed and paid tribute to the drama.


title: Probability density function

text: In probability theory, a probability density function (PDF), or density of a continuous random variable, is a function whose value at any given sample (or point) in the sample space (the set of possible values taken by the random variable) can be interpreted as providing a "relative likelihood" that the value of the random variable would be close to that sample. Probability density is the probability per unit length, in other words, while the "absolute likelihood" for a continuous random variable to take on any particular value is 0 (since there is an infinite set of possible values to begin with), the value of the PDF at two different samples can be used to infer, in any particular draw of the random variable, how much more likely it is that the random variable would be close to one sample compared to the other sample.


title: Probability density function

text: In a more precise sense, the PDF is used to specify the probability of the random variable falling "within a particular range of values", as opposed to taking on any one value. This probability is given by the integral of this variable's PDF over that range—that is, it is given by the area under the density function but above the horizontal axis and between the lowest and greatest values of the range. The probability density function is nonnegative everywhere, and the area under the entire curve is equal to 1.


title: Probability density function

text: The terms ""probability distribution function"" and ""probability function"" have also sometimes been used to denote the probability density function. However, this use is not standard among probabilists and statisticians. In other sources, "probability distribution function" may be used when the probability distribution is defined as a function over general sets of values or it may refer to the cumulative distribution function, or it may be a probability mass function (PMF) rather than the density. "Density function" itself is also used for the probability mass function, leading to further confusion. In general though, the PMF is used in the context of discrete random variables (random variables that take values on a countable set), while the PDF is used in the context of continuous random variables.


title: Probability density function

text: Suppose bacteria of a certain species typically live 4 to 6 hours. The probability that a bacterium lives 5 hours is equal to zero. A lot of bacteria live for approximately 5 hours, but there is no chance that any given bacterium dies at exactly 5.00... hours. However, the probability that the bacterium dies between 5 hours and 5.01 hours is quantifiable. Suppose the answer is 0.02 (i.e., 2%). Then, the probability that the bacterium dies between 5 hours and 5.001 hours should be about 0.002, since this time interval is one-tenth as long as the previous. The probability that the bacterium dies between 5 hours and 5.0001 hours should be about 0.0002, and so on.


title: Probability density function

text: In this example, the ratio (probability of dying during an interval) / (duration of the interval) is approximately constant, and equal to 2 per hour (or 2 hour). For example, there is 0.02 probability of dying in the 0.01-hour interval between 5 and 5.01 hours, and (0.02 probability / 0.01 hours) = 2 hour. This quantity 2 hour is called the probability density for dying at around 5 hours. Therefore, the probability that the bacterium dies at 5 hours can be written as (2 hour) "dt". This is the probability that the bacterium dies within an infinitesimal window of time around 5 hours, where "dt" is the duration of this window. For example, the probability that it lives longer than 5 hours, but shorter than (5 hours + 1 nanosecond), is (2 hour)×(1 nanosecond) ≈ (using the unit conversion nanoseconds = 1 hour).


title: Probability density function

text: There is a probability density function "f" with "f"(5 hours) = 2 hour. The integral of "f" over any window of time (not only infinitesimal windows but also large windows) is the probability that the bacterium dies in that window.


title: Probability density function

text: A probability density function is most commonly associated with absolutely continuous univariate distributions. A random variable formula_1 has density formula_2, where formula_2 is a non-negative Lebesgue-integrable function, if:


title: Probability density function

text: Intuitively, one can think of formula_11 as being the probability of formula_1 falling within the infinitesimal interval formula_13.


title: Probability density function

text: A random variable formula_1 with values in a measurable space formula_15 (usually formula_16 with the Borel sets as measurable subsets) has as probability distribution the measure "X""P" on formula_15: the density of formula_1 with respect to a reference measure formula_19 on formula_15 is the Radon–Nikodym derivative:


title: Probability density function

text: In the continuous univariate case above, the reference measure is the Lebesgue measure. The probability mass function of a discrete random variable is the density with respect to the counting measure over the sample space (usually the set of integers, or some subset thereof).


title: Probability density function

text: It is not possible to define a density with reference to an arbitrary measure (e.g. one can't choose the counting measure as a reference for a continuous random variable). Furthermore, when it does exist, the density is almost unique, meaning that any two such densities coincide almost everywhere.


title: Probability density function

text: Unlike a probability, a probability density function can take on values greater than one; for example, the uniform distribution on the interval [0, 1/2] has probability density f(x) = 2 for 0 ≤ x ≤ 1/2 and f(x) = 0 elsewhere.


title: Probability density function

text: If a random variable is given and its distribution admits a probability density function , then the expected value of (if the expected value exists) can be calculated as


title: Probability density function

text: Not every probability distribution has a density function: the distributions of discrete random variables do not; nor does the Cantor distribution, even though it has no discrete component, i.e., does not assign positive probability to any individual point.


title: Probability density function

text: A distribution has a density function if and only if its cumulative distribution function is absolutely continuous. In this case: is almost everywhere differentiable, and its derivative can be used as probability density:


title: Probability density function

text: If a probability distribution admits a density, then the probability of every one-point set is zero; the same holds for finite and countable sets.


title: Probability density function

text: Two probability densities and represent the same probability distribution precisely if they differ only on a set of Lebesgue measure zero.


title: Probability density function

text: In the field of statistical physics, a non-formal reformulation of the relation above between the derivative of the cumulative distribution function and the probability density function is generally used as the definition of the probability density function. This alternate definition is the following:


title: Probability density function

text: If is an infinitely small number, the probability that is included within the interval is equal to , or:


title: Probability density function

text: It is possible to represent certain discrete random variables as well as random variables involving both a continuous and a discrete part with a generalized probability density function using the Dirac delta function. (This is not possible with a probability density function in the sense defined above, it may be done with a distribution.) For example, consider a binary discrete random variable having the Rademacher distribution—that is, taking −1 or 1 for values, with probability each. The density of probability associated with this variable is:


title: Probability density function

text: More generally, if a discrete variable can take different values among real numbers, then the associated probability density function is:


title: Probability density function

text: where formula_30 are the discrete values accessible to the variable and formula_31 are the probabilities associated with these values.


title: Probability density function

text: This substantially unifies the treatment of discrete and continuous probability distributions. The above expression allows for determining statistical characteristics of such a discrete variable (such as the mean, variance, and kurtosis), starting from the formulas given for a continuous distribution of the probability.


title: Probability density function

text: It is common for probability density functions (and probability mass functions) to be parametrized—that is, to be characterized by unspecified parameters. For example, the normal distribution is parametrized in terms of the mean and the variance, denoted by formula_19 and formula_33 respectively, giving the family of densities


title: Probability density function

text: Different values of the parameters describe different distributions of different random variables on the same sample space (the same set of all possible values of the variable); this sample space is the domain of the family of random variables that this family of distributions describes. A given set of parameters describes a single distribution within the family sharing the functional form of the density. From the perspective of a given distribution, the parameters are constants, and terms in a density function that contain only parameters, but not variables, are part of the normalization factor of a distribution (the multiplicative factor that ensures that the area under the density—the probability of "something" in the domain occurring— equals 1). This normalization factor is outside the kernel of the distribution.


title: Probability density function

text: Since the parameters are constants, reparametrizing a density in terms of different parameters to give a characterization of a different random variable in the family, means simply substituting the new parameter values into the formula in place of the old ones.


title: Probability density function

text: For continuous random variables , it is also possible to define a probability density function associated to the set as a whole, often called joint probability density function. This density function is defined as a function of the variables, such that, for any domain in the -dimensional space of the values of the variables , the probability that a realisation of the set variables falls inside the domain is


title: Probability density function

text: If is the cumulative distribution function of the vector , then the joint probability density function can be computed as a partial derivative


title: Probability density function

text: For , let be the probability density function associated with variable alone. This is called the marginal density function, and can be deduced from the probability density associated with the random variables by integrating over all values of the other variables:


title: Probability density function

text: Continuous random variables admitting a joint density are all independent from each other if and only if


title: Probability density function

text: If the joint probability density function of a vector of random variables can be factored into a product of functions of one variable


title: Probability density function

text: (where each is not necessarily a density) then the variables in the set are all independent from each other, and the marginal probability density function of each of them is given by


title: Probability density function

text: This elementary example illustrates the above definition of multidimensional probability density functions in the simple case of a function of a set of two variables. Let us call formula_41 a 2-dimensional random vector of coordinates : the probability to obtain formula_41 in the quarter plane of positive and is


title: Probability density function

text: If the probability density function of a random variable (or vector) is given as , it is possible (but often not necessary; see below) to calculate the probability density function of some variable . This is also called a “change of variable” and is in practice used to generate a random variable of arbitrary shape using a known (for instance, uniform) random number generator.


title: Probability density function

text: It is tempting to think that in order to find the expected value , one must first find the probability density of the new random variable . However, rather than computing


title: Probability density function

text: The values of the two integrals are the same in all cases in which both and actually have probability density functions. It is not necessary that be a one-to-one function. In some cases the latter integral is computed much more easily than the former. See Law of the unconscious statistician.


title: Probability density function

text: This follows from the fact that the probability contained in a differential area must be invariant under change of variables. That is,


title: Probability density function

text: Suppose is an -dimensional random variable with joint density . If , where is a bijective, differentiable function, then has density :


title: Probability density function

text: For example, in the 2-dimensional case , suppose the transform is given as , with inverses , . The joint distribution for y = ("y", y) has density


title: Probability density function

text: Let formula_55 be a differentiable function and formula_56 be a random vector taking values in formula_57, formula_58 be the probability density function of formula_56 and formula_60 be the Dirac delta function. It is possible to use the formulas above to determine formula_61, the probability density function of formula_62, which will be given by


title: Probability density function

text: which is an upper triangular matrix with ones on the main diagonal, therefore its determinant is 1. Applying the change of variable theorem from the previous section we obtain that


title: Probability density function

text: The probability density function of the sum of two independent random variables and , each of which has a probability density function, is the convolution of their separate density functions:


title: Probability density function

text: It is possible to generalize the previous relation to a sum of N independent random variables, with densities :


title: Probability density function

text: This can be derived from a two-way change of variables involving and , similarly to the example below for the quotient of independent random variables.


title: Probability density function

text: Given two independent random variables "U" and "V", each of which has a probability density function, the density of the product and quotient can be computed by a change of variables.


title: Probability density function

text: To compute the quotient of two independent random variables and , define the following transformation:


title: Probability density function

text: Then, the joint density can be computed by a change of variables from "U","V" to "Y","Z", and "Y" can be derived by marginalizing out "Z" from the joint density.


title: Probability density function

text: This method crucially requires that the transformation from "U","V" to "Y","Z" be bijective. The above transformation meets this because "Z" can be mapped directly back to "V", and for a given "V" the quotient is monotonic. This is similarly the case for the sum , difference and product .


title: Probability density function

text: Exactly the same method can be used to compute the distribution of other functions of multiple independent random variables.


title: Probability density function

text: Given two standard normal variables "U" and "V", the quotient can be computed as follows. First, the variables have the following density functions:


title: Jesse James Keitel

text: Jesse James Keitel is an American actress, writer, and artist, known for starring in Asher Jelinsky's award-winning short film "Miller & Son" (2019), the ABC crime drama "Big Sky" (2020) and on "Queer as Folk" (2022).


title: Jesse James Keitel

text: Jesse James Keitel is from Long Island. She graduated from Pace University with a BFA in Acting in 2015.


title: Jesse James Keitel

text: In 2019, Keitel starred in the world premiere of Martin Moran's play "Theo" at Two River Theater. She also starred in "Miller & Son" (2019), which won the BAFTA Student Film Award and Gold Medal for "Best Narrative" (Domestic) at the 2019 Student Academy Awards. Keitel played the leading role in the 2020 MadRiver Pictures sci-fi series, "Forever Alone". Keitel also appeared in Linda Yellen's 2019 Showtime feature film "Fluidity", starring Nico Tortorella. In 2022, Keitel debuted the role of Ruthie in Peacock's "Queer As Folk".


title: Jesse James Keitel

text: Keitel has performed in drag under the pseudonym Peroxide, a member of the House of Femanon. As Peroxide Femanon, she has appeared in Logo TV's "Fill In The Blank" docuseries and in Sasha Velour's NYFW SS19 collaboration with Opening Ceremony.


title: Jesse James Keitel

text: Beginning in 2020, Keitel starred as Jerrie Kennedy in the David E. Kelley-created crime thriller "Big Sky", which made her one of the first non-binary actors to play a non-binary series regular on primetime television. In 2022, she appeared in an episode of "", playing a non-binary villain. In an interview, she said of the role: "I understand that queer people have had a really long and complicated history with TV and film, and they’ve been very mistreated in the media...That being said, I think it’s high time we let queer people be villains, you know?"


title: Jesse James Keitel

text: Keitel was honored in "Out" magazine's OUT100 in 2018 for her portrayal of queer characters in the Ben Stiller-produced Netflix film "Alex Strangelove", as well as playing TV Land's first non-binary character on "Younger".


title: Jesse James Keitel

text: In 2020, Keitel was described as a non-binary and transgender actor "who uses she/her and they/them pronouns". As of 2022, she identifies as a transgender woman and uses she/her pronouns.


title: Tattoo

text: A tattoo is a form of body modification made by inserting tattoo ink, dyes, and/or pigments, either indelible or temporary, into the dermis layer of the skin to form a design. Tattoo artists create these designs using several tattooing processes and techniques, including hand-tapped traditional tattoos and modern tattoo machines. The history of tattooing goes back to Neolithic times, practiced across the globe by many cultures, and the symbolism and impact of tattoos varies in different places and cultures.


title: Tattoo

text: Tattoos may be decorative (with no specific meaning), symbolic (with a specific meaning to the wearer), or pictorial (a depiction of a specific person or item). Many tattoos serve as rites of passage, marks of status and rank, symbols of religious and spiritual devotion, decorations for bravery, marks of fertility, pledges of love, amulets and talismans, protection, and as punishment, like the marks of outcasts, slaves and convicts. Extensive decorative tattooing has also been part of the work of performance artists such as tattooed ladies.


title: Tattoo

text: Today, people choose to be tattooed for artistic, cosmetic, sentimental/memorial, religious, and spiritual reasons, and family and to symbolize their belonging to or identification with particular groups, including criminal gangs (see criminal tattoos) or a particular ethnic group or law-abiding subculture. Tattoos may show how a person feels about a relative (commonly a parent or child) or about an unrelated person.


title: Tattoo

text: Tattoos can also be used for functional purposes, such as identification, permanent makeup, and medical purposes.


title: Tattoo

text: The word "tattoo", or "tattow" in the 18th century, is a loanword from the Samoan word "tatau", meaning "to strike", from Proto-Oceanic *"sau"₃ referring to a wingbone from a flying fox used as an instrument for the tattooing process. The "Oxford English Dictionary" gives the etymology of tattoo as "In 18th c. tattaow, tattow. From Polynesian (Samoan, Tahitian, Tongan, etc.) tatau. In Marquesan, tatu." Before the importation of the Polynesian word, the practice of tattooing had been described in the West as painting, scarring, or staining.


title: Tattoo

text: The etymology of the body modification term is not to be confused with the origins of the word for the military drumbeat or performance — see "military tattoo". In this case, the English word "tattoo" is derived from the Dutch word "taptoe".


title: Tattoo

text: Copyrighted tattoo designs that are mass-produced and sent to tattoo artists are known as "flash". Flash sheets are prominently displayed in many tattoo parlors for the purpose of providing both inspiration and ready-made tattoo images to customers.


title: Tattoo

text: The Japanese word "irezumi" means "insertion of ink" and can mean tattoos using "tebori", the traditional Japanese hand method, a Western-style machine or any method of tattooing using insertion of ink. The most common word used for traditional Japanese tattoo designs is "horimono". Japanese may use the word "tattoo" to mean non-Japanese styles of tattooing.