title: John C. Calhoun

text: In 1830, reports had emerged accurately stating that Calhoun, as Secretary of War, had favored censuring Jackson for his 1818 invasion of Florida. These infuriated Jackson. Eventually, Lewis decided to reveal the existence of Forsyth's letter, and on April 30, Crawford wrote a second letter, this time to Forsyth, repeating the charge Forsyth represented him as having previously made. Jackson received the letter on May 12, which confirmed his suspicions. He claimed that Calhoun had "betrayed" him. Eaton took his revenge on Calhoun. For reasons unclear, Calhoun asked Eaton to approach Jackson about the possibility of Calhoun publishing his correspondence with Jackson at the time of the Seminole War. Eaton did nothing, leading Calhoun to believe that Jackson had approved the publication of the letters. Calhoun published them in the "United States Telegraph," a newspaper edited by a Calhoun protégé, Duff Green. This gave the appearance of Calhoun trying to justify himself against a conspiracy to damage him and further enraged the President.


title: John C. Calhoun

text: Finally in the spring of 1831, at the suggestion of Van Buren, who, like Jackson, supported the Eatons, Jackson replaced all but one of his Cabinet members, thereby limiting Calhoun's influence. Van Buren began the process by resigning as Secretary of State, facilitating Jackson's removal of others. Van Buren thereby grew in favor with Jackson, while the rift between the President and Calhoun was widened. Later, in 1832, Calhoun, as vice president, cast a tie-breaking vote against Jackson's nomination of Van Buren as Minister to Great Britain in a failed attempt to end Van Buren's political career. Missouri Senator Thomas Hart Benton, a staunch supporter of Jackson, then stated that Calhoun had "elected a Vice President", as Van Buren was able to move past his failed nomination as Minister to Great Britain and instead gain the Democratic Party's vice-presidential nomination in the 1832 election, in which he and Jackson were victorious.


title: John C. Calhoun

text: Calhoun had begun to oppose increases in protective tariffs, as they generally benefited Northerners more than Southerners. While he was vice president in the Adams administration, Jackson's supporters devised a high tariff legislation that placed duties on imports that were also made in New England. Calhoun had been assured that the northeastern interests would reject the Tariff of 1828, exposing pro-Adams New England congressmen to charges that they selfishly opposed legislation popular among Jacksonian Democrats in the west and mid-Atlantic States. The southern legislators miscalculated and the so-called "Tariff of Abominations" passed and was signed into law by President Adams. Frustrated, Calhoun returned to his South Carolina plantation, where he anonymously composed "South Carolina Exposition and Protest", an essay rejecting the centralization philosophy and supporting the principle of nullification as a means to prevent a tyranny of a central government.


title: John C. Calhoun

text: Calhoun supported the idea of nullification through a concurrent majority. Nullification is a legal theory that a state has the right to nullify, or invalidate, any federal law it deems unconstitutional. In Calhoun's words, it is "the right of a State to interpose, in the last resort, in order to arrest an unconstitutional act of the General Government, within its limits". Nullification can be traced back to arguments by Jefferson and Madison in writing the Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions of 1798 against the Alien and Sedition Acts. Madison expressed the hope that the states would declare the acts unconstitutional, while Jefferson explicitly endorsed nullification. Calhoun openly argued for a state's right to secede from the Union, as a last resort to protect its liberty and sovereignty. In his later years, Madison rebuked supporters of nullification, stating that no state had the right to nullify federal law.


title: John C. Calhoun

text: In "South Carolina Exposition and Protest", Calhoun argued that a state could veto any federal law that went beyond the enumerated powers and encroached upon the residual powers of the State. President Jackson, meanwhile, generally supported states' rights, but opposed nullification and secession. At the 1830 Jefferson Day dinner at Jesse Brown's Indian Queen Hotel, Jackson proposed a toast and proclaimed, "Our federal Union, it must be preserved." Calhoun replied, "The Union, next to our liberty, the most dear. May we all remember that it can only be preserved by respecting the rights of the states, and distributing equally the benefit and burden of the Union." Calhoun's publication of letters from the Seminole War in the "Telegraph" caused his relationship with Jackson to deteriorate further, thus contributing to the Nullification crisis. Jackson and Calhoun began an angry correspondence that lasted until Jackson stopped it in July.


title: John C. Calhoun

text: Jackson supported a revision to tariff rates known as the Tariff of 1832. It was designed to placate the nullifiers by lowering tariff rates. Written by Treasury Secretary Louis McLane, the bill lowered duties from 45% to 27%. In May, Representative John Quincy Adams introduced a slightly revised version of the bill, which Jackson accepted. It passed Congress on July 9 and was signed by the president on July 14. The bill failed to satisfy extremists on either side. In October, the South Carolina legislature voted to call a convention to nullify the tariffs. On November 24, the South Carolina Nullification Convention passed an ordinance nullifying both the Tariff of 1832 and the Tariff of 1828 and threatening to secede if the federal government attempted to enforce the tariffs. In response, Jackson sent U.S. Navy warships to Charleston harbor, and threatened to hang Calhoun or any man who worked to support nullification or secession. After joining the Senate, Calhoun began to work with Clay on a new compromise tariff. A bill sponsored by the administration had been introduced by Representative Gulian C. Verplanck of New York, but it lowered rates more sharply than Clay and other protectionists desired. Clay managed to get Calhoun to agree to a bill with higher rates in exchange for Clay's opposition to Jackson's military threats and, perhaps, with the hope that he could win some Southern votes in his next bid for the presidency. On the same day, Congress passed the Force Bill, which empowered the President of the United States to use military force to ensure state compliance with federal law. South Carolina accepted the tariff, but in a final show of defiance, nullified the Force Bill. In Calhoun's speech against the Force Bill, delivered on February 5, 1833, no longer as vice president, he strongly endorsed nullification, at one point saying:


title: John C. Calhoun

text: In his three-volume biography of Jackson, James Parton summed up Calhoun's role in the Nullification crisis: "Calhoun began it. Calhoun continued it. Calhoun stopped it."


title: John C. Calhoun

text: As tensions over nullification escalated, South Carolina Senator Robert Y. Hayne was considered less capable than Calhoun to represent South Carolina in the Senate debates, so in late 1832 Hayne resigned to become governor; Calhoun resigned as vice president, and the South Carolina legislature elected Calhoun to fill Hayne's Senate seat. Van Buren had already been elected as Jackson's new vice president, meaning that Calhoun had less than three months left on his term anyway. The South Carolina newspaper "City Gazette" commented on the change:


title: John C. Calhoun

text: Biographer John Niven argues "that these moves were part of a well-thought-out plan whereby Hayne would restrain the hotheads in the state legislature and Calhoun would defend his brainchild, nullification, in Washington against administration stalwarts and the likes of Daniel Webster, the new apostle of northern nationalism." Calhoun was the only vice president to resign, until Spiro Agnew in 1973, 141 years later. During his terms as vice president, Calhoun made a record of 31 tie-breaking votes in the Senate.


title: John C. Calhoun

text: When Calhoun took his seat in the Senate on December 29, 1832, his chances of becoming president were considered poor due to his involvement in the Nullification Crisis, which left him without connections to a major national party. After the implementation of the Compromise Tariff of 1833, which helped solve the Nullification Crisis, the Nullifier Party, along with other anti-Jackson politicians, formed a coalition known as the Whig Party. Calhoun sometimes affiliated with the Whigs, but chose to remain a virtual independent due to the Whig promotion of federally subsidized "internal improvements".


title: John C. Calhoun

text: From 1833 to 1834, Jackson was engaged in removing federal funds from the Second Bank of the United States during the Bank War. Calhoun opposed this action, considering it a dangerous expansion of executive power. He called the men of the Jackson administration "artful, cunning, and corrupt politicians, and not fearless warriors". He accused Jackson of being ignorant about financial matters. As evidence, he cited the economic panic caused by Nicholas Biddle as a means to stop Jackson from destroying the Bank. On March 28, 1834, Calhoun voted with the Whig senators on a successful motion to censure Jackson for his removal of the funds. In 1837, he refused to attend the inauguration of Jackson's chosen successor, Van Buren, even as other powerful senators who opposed the administration, such as Webster and Clay, did witness the inauguration. However, by 1837, Calhoun generally had realigned himself with most of the Democrats' policies.


title: John C. Calhoun

text: To restore his national stature, Calhoun cooperated with Van Buren. Democrats were hostile to national banks, and the country's bankers had joined the Whig Party. The Democratic replacement, meant to help combat the Panic of 1837, was the Independent Treasury system, which Calhoun supported and which went into effect. Calhoun, like Jackson and Van Buren, attacked finance capitalism and opposed what he saw as encroachment by government and big business. For this reason, he opposed the candidacy of Whig William Henry Harrison in the 1840 presidential election, believing that Harrison would institute high tariffs and therefore place an undue burden on the Southern economy. Calhoun resigned from the Senate on March 3, 1843, four years before the expiration of his term, and returned to Fort Hill to prepare an attempt to win the Democratic nomination for the 1844 presidential election. He gained little support, even from the South, and quit.


title: John C. Calhoun

text: When Harrison died in 1841 after a month in office, Vice President John Tyler succeeded him. Tyler, a former Democrat, was expelled from the Whig Party after vetoing bills passed by the Whig congressional majority to reestablish a national bank and raise tariffs. He named Calhoun Secretary of State on April 10, 1844, following the death of Abel P. Upshur, one of six people killed when a cannon exploded during a public demonstration in the USS "Princeton" disaster.


title: John C. Calhoun

text: Upshur's loss was a severe blow to the Tyler administration. When Calhoun was nominated as Upshur's replacement, the White House was well-advanced towards securing a treaty of annexation with Texas. The State Department's secret negotiations with the Texas republic had proceeded despite explicit threats from a suspicious Mexican government that an unauthorized seizure of its northern district of Coahuila y Tejas would be equivalent to an act of war. Both the negotiations with Texas envoys and the garnering of support from the U.S. Senate had been spearheaded aggressively by Secretary Upshur, a strong pro-slavery partisan. Tyler looked to its ratification by the Senate as the "sine qua non" to his ambition for another term in office. Tyler planned to outflank the Whigs by gaining support from the Democratic Party or possibly creating a new party of [discontented] Northern Democrats and Southern Whigs.


title: John C. Calhoun

text: Calhoun, though as avid a proponent for Texas acquisition as Upshur, posed a political liability to Tyler's aims. As secretary of state, Calhoun's political objective was to see that the presidency was placed in the hands of a southern extremist, who would put the expansion of slavery at the center of national policy.


title: John C. Calhoun

text: Tyler and his allies had, since 1843, devised and encouraged national propaganda promoting Texas annexation, which understated Southern slaveholders' aspirations regarding the future of Texas. Instead, Tyler chose to portray the annexation of Texas as something that would prove economically beneficial to the nation as a whole. The further introduction of slavery into the vast expanses of Texas and beyond, they argued, would "diffuse" rather than concentrate slavery regionally, ultimately weakening white attachment and dependence on slave labor. This theory was yoked to the growing enthusiasm among Americans for Manifest Destiny, a desire to see the social, economic and moral precepts of republicanism spread across the continent. Moreover, Tyler declared that national security was at stake: If foreign powers—Great Britain in particular—were to gain influence in Texas, it would be reduced to a British cotton-producing reserve and a base to exert geostrategic influence over North America. Texas might be coerced into relinquishing slavery, inducing slave uprisings in adjoining slave states and deepening sectional conflicts between American free-soil and slave-soil interests. The appointment of Calhoun, with his southern states' rights reputation—which some believed was "synonymous with slavery"—threatened to cast doubt on Tyler's carefully crafted reputation as a nationalist. Tyler, though ambivalent, felt obliged to enlist Calhoun as Secretary of State, because Tyler's closest confidantes had, in haste, offered the position to the South Carolinian statesman in the immediate aftermath of the "Princeton" disaster. Calhoun would be confirmed by Congress by unanimous vote.


title: John C. Calhoun

text: In advance of Calhoun's arrival in Washington, D.C., Tyler attempted to quickly finalize the treaty negotiations. Sam Houston, President of the Texas Republic, fearing Mexican retaliation, insisted on a tangible demonstration of U.S. commitments to the security of Texas. When key Texas diplomats failed to appear on schedule, the delay compelled Tyler to bring his new Secretary of State directly into negotiations. Secretary Calhoun was directed to honor former Secretary Upshur's verbal assurances of protection now offered by Calhoun in writing, to provide for U.S. military intervention in the event that Mexico used force to hold Texas. Tyler deployed U.S. Navy vessels to the Gulf of Mexico and ordered army units mobilized, entirely paid for with $100,000 of executive branch contingency funds. The move side-stepped constitutional requirements that Congress authorize appropriations for war.


title: John C. Calhoun

text: On April 22, 1844, Secretary Calhoun signed the treaty of annexation and ten days later delivered it to the Senate for consideration in secret session. The details of the treaty negotiations and supporting documents were leaked to the press by Senator Benjamin Tappan of Ohio. Tappan, a Democrat, was an opponent of annexation and of slavery. The terms of the Tyler–Texas treaty and the release of Calhoun's letter to British ambassador Richard Pakenham exposed the annexation campaign as a program to expand and preserve slavery. In the Pakenham letter, Calhoun alleged that the institution of slavery contributed to the physical and mental well-being of Southern slaves. The U.S. Senate was compelled to open its debates on ratification to public scrutiny, and hopes for its passage by the two-thirds majority required by the Constitution were abandoned by administration supporters. In linking Texas annexation to the expansion of slavery, Calhoun had alienated many who might previously have supported the treaty.


title: John C. Calhoun

text: On June 8, 1844, after fierce partisan struggles, the Senate rejected the Tyler–Texas treaty by a vote of 16–35, a margin of more than two-to-one. The vote went largely along party lines: Whigs had opposed it almost unanimously (1–27), while Democrats split, but voted largely in favor (15–8). Nevertheless, the disclosure of the treaty placed the issue of Texas annexation at the center of the 1844 general election.


title: John C. Calhoun

text: At the Democratic Convention in Baltimore, Maryland in May 1844, Calhoun's supporters, with Calhoun in attendance, threatened to bolt the proceedings and shift support to Tyler's third party ticket if the delegates failed to produce a pro-Texas nominee. Calhoun's Pakenham letter, and its identification with proslavery extremism, moved the presumptive Democratic Party nominee, the northerner Martin Van Buren, into denouncing annexation. Therefore, Van Buren, already not widely popular in the South, saw his support from that region crippled. As a result, James K. Polk, a pro-Texas Jacksonian and Tennessee politician, won the nomination. Historian Daniel Walker Howe says that Calhoun's Pakenham letter was a deliberate attempt to influence the outcome of the 1844 election, writing:


title: John C. Calhoun

text: In the general election, Calhoun offered his endorsement to Polk on condition that he support the annexation of Texas, oppose the Tariff of 1842, and dissolve the "Washington Globe," the semi-official propaganda organ of the Democratic Party headed by Francis Preston Blair. He received these assurances and enthusiastically supported Polk's candidacy. Polk narrowly defeated Henry Clay, who opposed annexation. Lame-duck President Tyler organized a joint House–Senate vote on the Texas treaty which passed, requiring only a simple majority. He signed a bill of annexation on March 1, With President Polk's support, the Texas annexation treaty was approved by the Texas Republic in 1845. A bill to admit Texas as the 28th state of the Union was signed by Polk on December 29, 1845.


title: John C. Calhoun

text: Calhoun was re-elected to the Senate in 1845 following the resignation of Daniel Elliott Huger. He soon became vocally opposed to the Mexican–American War. He believed that it would distort the national character by undermining republicanism in favor of empire and by bringing non-white persons into the country. When Congress declared war against Mexico on May 13, he abstained from voting on the measure. Calhoun also vigorously opposed the Wilmot Proviso, an 1846 proposal by Pennsylvania Representative David Wilmot to ban slavery in all newly acquired territories. The House of Representatives, through its Northern majority, passed the provision several times. However, the Senate, where non-slave and slave states had more equal representation, never approved the measure.


title: John C. Calhoun

text: A major crisis emerged from the persistent Oregon boundary dispute between Great Britain and the United States, due to an increasing number of American migrants. The territory included most of present-day British Columbia, Washington, Oregon, and Idaho. American expansionists used the slogan "54–40 or fight" in reference to the Northern boundary coordinates of the Oregon territory. The parties compromised, ending the war threat, by splitting the area down the middle at the 49th parallel, with the British acquiring British Columbia and the Americans accepting Washington and Oregon. Calhoun, along with President Polk and Secretary of State James Buchanan, continued work on the treaty while he was a senator, and it was ratified by a vote of 41–14 on June 18, 1846.


title: John C. Calhoun

text: The Compromise of 1850, devised by Clay and Stephen A. Douglas, a first-term Democratic senator from Illinois, was designed to solve the controversy over the status of slavery in the vast new territories acquired from Mexico. Many pro-slavery Southerners opposed it as inadequate protection for slavery, and Calhoun helped organize the Nashville Convention, which would meet in June to discuss possible Southern secession. The 67-year-old Calhoun had suffered periodic bouts of tuberculosis throughout his life. In March 1850, the disease reached a critical stage. Weeks from death and too feeble to speak, Calhoun wrote a blistering attack on the Compromise that would become his most famous speech. On March 4 a friend and disciple, Senator James Mason of Virginia, read his remarks. Calhoun affirmed the right of the South to leave the Union in response to what he called Northern subjugation, specifically the North's growing opposition to the South's "peculiar institution" of slavery. He warned that the day "the balance between the two sections" was destroyed would be a day not far removed from disunion, anarchy, and civil war. Calhoun queried how the Union might be preserved in light of subjugation of the "weaker" party—the pro-slavery South—by the "stronger" party, the anti-slavery North. He maintained that the responsibility of solving the question lay entirely on the North—as the stronger section, to allow the Southern minority an equal share in governance and to cease its anti-slavery agitation. He added:


title: John C. Calhoun

text: Calhoun died soon afterward, and although the Compromise measures did eventually pass, Calhoun's ideas about states' rights attracted increasing attention across the South. Historian William Barney argues that Calhoun's ideas proved "appealing to Southerners concerned with preserving slavery. ...Southern radicals known as 'Fire-Eaters' pushed the doctrine of states' rights to its logical extreme by upholding the constitutional right of the state to secede".


title: John C. Calhoun

text: Calhoun died at the Old Brick Capitol boarding house in Washington, D.C., on March 31, 1850, of tuberculosis, at the age of 68. The last words attributed to him were "The South, the poor South!"


title: John C. Calhoun

text: He was interred at St. Philip's Churchyard in Charleston, South Carolina. During the Civil War, a group of Calhoun's friends were concerned about the possible desecration of his grave by Federal troops and, during the night, removed his coffin to a hiding place under the stairs of the church. The next night, his coffin was buried in an unmarked grave near the church, where it remained until 1871 when it was again exhumed and returned to its original place.


title: John C. Calhoun

text: After Calhoun had died, an associate suggested that Senator Thomas Hart Benton give a eulogy in honor of Calhoun on the floor of the Senate. Benton, a devoted Unionist, declined, saying: "He is not dead, sir—he is not dead. There may be no vitality in his body, but there is in his doctrines."


title: John C. Calhoun

text: The Clemson University campus in South Carolina occupies the site of Calhoun's Fort Hill plantation, which he bequeathed to his wife and daughter. They sold it and its 50 slaves to a relative. When that owner died, Thomas Green Clemson foreclosed the mortgage. He later bequeathed the property to the state for use as an agricultural college to be named after him.


title: John C. Calhoun

text: Calhoun's widow, Floride, died on July 25, 1866, and was buried in St. Paul's Episcopal Church Cemetery in Pendleton, South Carolina, near their children, but apart from her husband.


title: John C. Calhoun

text: Historian LeeH. Cheek, Jr., distinguishes between two strands of American republicanism: the puritan tradition, based in New England, and the agrarian or South Atlantic tradition, which Cheek argues was espoused by Calhoun. While the New England tradition stressed a politically centralized enforcement of moral and religious norms to secure civic virtue, the South Atlantic tradition relied on a decentralized moral and religious order based on the idea of subsidiarity (or localism). Cheek maintains that the "Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions" (1798), written by Jefferson and Madison, were the cornerstone of Calhoun's republicanism. Calhoun emphasized the primacy of subsidiarity—holding that popular rule is best expressed in local communities that are nearly autonomous while serving as units of a larger society.


title: John C. Calhoun

text: Calhoun led the pro-slavery faction in the Senate, opposing both total abolitionism and attempts such as the Wilmot Proviso to limit the expansion of slavery into the western territories.


title: John C. Calhoun

text: Calhoun's father, Patrick Calhoun, helped shape his son's political views. He was a staunch supporter of slavery who taught his son that social standing depended not merely on a commitment to the ideal of popular self-government but also on the ownership of a substantial number of slaves. Flourishing in a world in which slaveholding was a hallmark of civilization, Calhoun saw little reason to question its morality as an adult. He further believed that slavery instilled in the remaining whites a code of honor that blunted the disruptive potential of private gain and fostered the civic-mindedness that lay near the core of the republican creed. From such a standpoint, the expansion of slavery decreased the likelihood for social conflict and postponed the declension when money would become the only measure of self-worth, as had happened in New England. Calhoun was thus firmly convinced that slavery was the key to the success of the American dream.


title: John C. Calhoun

text: Whereas other Southern politicians had excused slavery as a "necessary evil", in a famous on February 6, 1837, Calhoun asserted that slavery was a "positive good". He rooted this claim on two grounds: white supremacy and paternalism. All societies, Calhoun claimed, are ruled by an elite group that enjoys the fruits of the labor of a less-exceptional group. Senator William Cabell Rives of Virginia earlier had referred to slavery as an evil that might become a "lesser evil" in some circumstances. Calhoun believed that conceded too much to the abolitionists:


title: John C. Calhoun

text: Calhoun's treatment of his own slaves includes an incident in 1831, when his slave Alick ran away when threatened with a severe whipping. Calhoun wrote to his second cousin and brother-in-law, asking him to keep a lookout for Alick, and if he was taken, to have him "severely whipped" and sent back. When Alick was captured, Calhoun wrote to the captor:


title: John C. Calhoun

text: Calhoun rejected the belief of Southern leaders such as Henry Clay that all Americans could agree on the "opinion and feeling" that slavery was wrong, although they might disagree on the most practicable way to respond to that great wrong. Calhoun's constitutional ideas acted as a viable conservative alternative to Northern appeals to democracy, majority rule, and natural rights.


title: John C. Calhoun

text: As well as providing the intellectual justification of slavery, Calhoun played a central role in devising the South's overall political strategy. According to Phillips:


title: John C. Calhoun

text: Shortly after delivering his speech against the Compromise of 1850, Calhoun predicted the destruction of the Union over the slavery issue. Speaking to Senator Mason, he said:


title: John C. Calhoun

text: Calhoun was consistently opposed to the War with Mexico, arguing that an enlarged military effort would only feed the alarming and growing lust of the public for empire regardless of its constitutional dangers, bloat executive powers and patronage, and saddle the republic with a soaring debt that would disrupt finances and encourage speculation. Calhoun feared, moreover, that Southern slave owners would be shut out of any conquered Mexican territories, as nearly happened with the Wilmot Proviso. He argued that the war would detrimentally lead to the annexation of all of Mexico, which would bring Mexicans into the country, whom he considered deficient in moral and intellectual terms. He said, in a speech on January 4, 1848:


title: John C. Calhoun

text: Anti-slavery Northerners denounced the war as a Southern conspiracy to expand slavery; Calhoun in turn perceived a connivance of Yankees to destroy the South. By 1847 he decided the Union was threatened by a totally corrupt party system. He believed that in their lust for office, patronage and spoils, politicians in the North pandered to the anti-slavery vote, especially during presidential campaigns, and politicians in the slave states sacrificed Southern rights in an effort to placate the Northern wings of their parties. Thus, the essential first step in any successful assertion of Southern rights had to be the jettisoning of all party ties. In 1848–49, Calhoun tried to give substance to his call for Southern unity. He was the driving force behind the drafting and publication of the "Address of the Southern Delegates in Congress, to Their Constituents". It alleged Northern violations of the constitutional rights of the South, then warned Southern voters to expect forced emancipation of slaves in the near future, followed by their complete subjugation by an unholy alliance of unprincipled Northerners and blacks. Whites would flee and the South would "become the permanent abode of disorder, anarchy, poverty, misery, and wretchedness". Only the immediate and unflinching unity of Southern whites could prevent such a disaster. Such unity would either bring the North to its senses or lay the foundation for an independent South. But the spirit of union was still strong in the region and fewer than 40% of the Southern congressmen signed the address, and only one Whig.


title: John C. Calhoun

text: Many Southerners believed his warnings and read every political news story from the North as further evidence of the planned destruction of the white southern way of life. The climax came a decade after Calhoun's death with the election of Republican Abraham Lincoln in 1860, which led to the secession of South Carolina, followed by six other Southern states. They formed the new Confederate States, which, in accordance with Calhoun's theory, did not have any organized political parties.


title: John C. Calhoun

text: Calhoun's basic concern for protecting the diversity of minority interests is expressed in his chief contribution to political science—the idea of a concurrent majority across different groups as distinguished from a numerical majority. A concurrent majority is a system in which a minority group is permitted to exercise a sort of veto power over actions of a majority that are believed to infringe upon the minority's rights.


title: John C. Calhoun

text: According to the principle of a numerical majority, the will of the more numerous citizens should always rule, regardless of the burdens on the minority. Such a principle tends toward a consolidation of power in which the interests of the absolute majority always prevail over those of the minority. Calhoun believed that the great achievement of the American constitution was in checking the tyranny of a numerical majority through institutional procedures that required a concurrent majority, such that each important interest in the community must consent to the actions of government. To secure a concurrent majority, those interests that have a numerical majority must compromise with the interests that are in the minority. A concurrent majority requires a unanimous consent of all the major interests in a community, which is the only sure way of preventing tyranny of the majority. This idea supported Calhoun's doctrine of interposition or nullification, in which the state governments could refuse to enforce or comply with a policy of the Federal government that threatened the vital interests of the states.


title: John C. Calhoun

text: Historian Richard Hofstadter (1948) emphasizes that Calhoun's conception of minority was very different from the minorities of a century later:


title: John C. Calhoun

text: Unlike Jefferson, Calhoun rejected attempts at economic, social, or political leveling, claiming that true equality could not be achieved if all classes were given equal rights and responsibilities. Rather, to ensure true prosperity, it was necessary for a stronger group to provide protection and care for the weaker one. This meant that the two groups should not be equal before the law. For Calhoun, "protection" (order) was more important than freedom. Individual rights were something to be earned, not something bestowed by nature or God. Calhoun was concerned with protecting the interests of the Southern States (which he identified with the interests of their slaveholding elites) as a distinct and beleaguered minority among the members of the federal Union; his idea of a concurrent majority as a protection for minority rights has gained some acceptance in American political thought. Political scientist Malcolm Jewell argues, "The decision-making process in this country resembles John Calhoun's 'concurrent majority': A large number of groups both within and outside the government must, in practice, approve any major policy."


title: John C. Calhoun

text: Calhoun's ideas on the concurrent majority are illustrated in "A Disquisition on Government". The "Disquisition" is a 100-page essay on Calhoun's definitive and comprehensive ideas on government, which he worked on intermittently for six years until its 1849 completion. It systematically presents his arguments that a numerical majority in any government will typically impose a despotism over a minority unless some way is devised to secure the assent of all classes, sections, and interests and, similarly, that innate human depravity would debase government in a democracy.


title: John C. Calhoun

text: In the 1840s three interpretations of the constitutional powers of Congress to deal with slavery in territories emerged: the "free-soil doctrine," the "popular sovereignty position," and the "Calhoun doctrine". The Free Soilers stated that Congress had the power to outlaw slavery in the territories. The popular sovereignty position argued that the voters living there should decide. The Calhoun doctrine said that neither Congress nor the citizens of the territories could outlaw slavery in the territories.


title: John C. Calhoun

text: In what historian Robert R. Russell calls the "Calhoun Doctrine", Calhoun argued that the Federal Government's role in the territories was only that of the trustee or agent of the several sovereign states: it was obliged not to discriminate among the states and hence was incapable of forbidding the bringing into any territory of anything that was legal property in any state. Calhoun argued that citizens from every state had the right to take their property to any territory. Congress and local voters, he asserted, had no authority to place restrictions on slavery in the territories. In a February 1847 speech before the Senate, Calhoun declared that "the enactment of any law which should directly, or by its effects, deprive the citizens of any of the States of this Union from emigrating, with their property, in to any of the territories of the United States, will make such discrimination and would therefore be a violation of the Constitution". Enslavers therefore had a fundamental right to take their property wherever they wished. As constitutional historian Hermann von Holst noted, "Calhoun's doctrine made it a solemn constitutional duty of the United States government and of the American people to act as if the existence or non-existence of slavery in the Territories did not concern them in the least." The Calhoun Doctrine was opposed by the Free Soil forces, which merged into the new Republican Party around 1854. Chief Justice Roger B. Taney used Calhoun's arguments in his decision in the 1857 Supreme Court case "Dred Scott v. Sandford," in which he ruled that the federal government could not prohibit slavery in any of the territories.


title: John C. Calhoun

text: Many different places, streets, and schools were named after Calhoun, as may be seen on the list linked above. Some, such as Springfield, Illinois (1832) and Jackson County, Kansas (1859), were subsequently renamed. The "Immortal Trio" (Calhoun, Daniel Webster, and Henry Clay) were memorialized with streets in Uptown New Orleans.


title: John C. Calhoun

text: In June 2020, Clemson University removed John C. Calhoun's name from Clemson University Calhoun Honors College, renaming it to Clemson University Honors College. This action was taken in response to a petition which was supported by NFL stars DeAndre Hopkins and Deshaun Watson who are Clemson University alumni. Against the backdrop of the George Floyd protests, University chairman Smyth McKissick said that "we must recognize there are central figures in Clemson's history whose ideals, beliefs and actions do not represent the university's core values of respect and diversity".


title: John C. Calhoun

text: The Confederate government honored Calhoun on a 1¢ postage stamp, which was printed in 1862 but was never officially released.


title: John C. Calhoun

text: In 1887, at the height of the Jim Crow era, white segregationists erected a monument to Calhoun in Marion Square in Charleston, South Carolina; the base was within easy reach and the local black population defaced it. Finally, it was replaced in 1896 standing atop a column base at a total of 115 feet as well as fenced in to deter attackers. It continued as a target of vandalism regardless. The statue has been a topic of debate for a long time. In 2017, Charleston's city council deferred a proposal to put a plaque on the statue that would have stated his white-supremacist views. It was No. 5 on the Make It Right Project's 2018 list of the 10 Confederate monuments it most wanted removed. The Make It Right Project organized a protest at the monument on May 16, 2019. The monument was removed on June 24, 2020 following a unanimous vote by the Charleston City Council to relocate the monument. The removal of this monument was featured on the 5th episode in the 7th season of "Southern Charm".


title: John C. Calhoun

text: In 1910, the state of South Carolina gave a statue of John C. Calhoun to the National Statuary Hall Collection.


title: John C. Calhoun

text: The USS "JohnC. Calhoun", in commission from 1963 to 1994, was a Fleet Ballistic Missile nuclear submarine.


title: John C. Calhoun

text: In 1817, surveyors sent by Secretary of War Calhoun to map the area around Fort Snelling named the largest lake in what became Minneapolis, Minnesota, for him. Two centuries later, the city of Minneapolis renamed the lake with the Dakota language name Bde Maka Ska, meaning "White Earth Lake" or "White Banks Lake". The Calhoun-Isles Community Band in the Uptown district of Minneapolis changed its name to City of Lakes Community Band in November 2018, to distance itself from Calhoun's pro-slavery legacy, following the renaming of the lake. Calhoun Square and Calhoun Beach Club, both in Minneapolis, announced name changes, and the road around the lake was renamed Bde Maka Ska Parkway. In 2022, the city councilors of Savannah, Georgia, voted unanimously to remove his name from Calhoun Square.


title: John C. Calhoun

text: Calhoun was portrayed by actor Arliss Howard in the 1997 film "Amistad". The film depicts the controversy and legal battle surrounding the status of slaves who in 1839 rebelled against their transporters on the "La Amistad" slave ship.


title: John C. Calhoun

text: Calhoun was despised by Jackson and his supporters for his alleged attempts to subvert the unity of the nation for his own political gain. On his deathbed, Jackson regretted that he had not had Calhoun executed for treason. "My country," he declared, "would have sustained me in the act, and his fate would have been a warning to traitors in all time to come." Even after his death, Calhoun's reputation among Jacksonians remained poor. They disparaged him by portraying him as a man thirsty for power, who when he failed to attain it, sought to tear down his country with him.


title: John C. Calhoun

text: Writing more than thirty years after Calhoun's death, James G. Blaine portrayed him as a mix of personal integrity and wrongheaded ideology:


title: John C. Calhoun

text: Calhoun is often remembered for his defense of minority rights, in the context of defending white Southern interests from perceived Northern threats, by use of the "concurrent majority". He is also noted and criticized for his strong defense of slavery. These positions played an enormous role in influencing Southern secessionist leaders by strengthening the trend of sectionalism, thus contributing to the Civil War.


title: John C. Calhoun

text: Calhoun has been held in regard by some Lost Cause of the Confederacy historians, who hold a romanticized view of the antebellum Southern way of life and its cause during the Civil War. Historians such as Charles M. Wiltse and Margaret Coit have, in their writings, portrayed Calhoun as a sympathetic or heroic figure.


title: John C. Calhoun

text: John Niven paints a portrait of Calhoun that is both sympathetic and tragic. He says that Calhoun's ambition and personal desires "were often thwarted by lesser men than he". Niven identifies Calhoun as a "driven man and a tragic figure". He argues that Calhoun was motivated by the near-disaster of the War of 1812, of which he was a "thoughtless advocate," to work towards fighting for the freedoms and securities of the white Southern people against any kind of threat. Ultimately, Niven says, he "... would overcompensate and in the end would more than any other individual destroy the culture he sought to preserve, perpetuating for several generations the very insecurity that had shaped his public career".


title: John C. Calhoun

text: In 1957, a five-member "special" committee, led by Senator John F. Kennedy, selected Calhoun as one of the five senators to enter the newly created senatorial pantheon "hall of fame". This "hall of fame" was established to fill five vacant portrait spaces in the Senate Reception Room.


title: John C. Calhoun

text: Recently, Calhoun's reputation has suffered particularly due to his defense of slavery. The racially motivated Charleston church shooting in South Carolina in June 2015 reinvigorated demands for the removal of monuments dedicated to prominent pro-slavery and Confederate States figures. That month, the monument to Calhoun in Charleston was found vandalized, with spray-painted denunciations of Calhoun as a racist and a defender of slavery. Later, in 2020, during the George Floyd protests in South Carolina, the monument was vandalized with signs and spray paint, with calls from the public demanding its removal, causing the city of Charleston to erect a chain-link fence around the statue to prevent the public from accessing it, before announcing on June 23, 2020, that the statue would be removed.


title: John C. Calhoun

text: In response to decades of requests, Yale President Peter Salovey announced in 2017 that the university's Calhoun College would be renamed to honor Grace Murray Hopper, a pioneering computer programmer, mathematician and Navy rear admiral who graduated from Yale. Calhoun is commemorated elsewhere on the campus, including the exterior of Harkness Tower, a prominent campus landmark, as one of Yale's "Eight Worthies".


title: Dmitry Utkin

text: Dmitry Valerievich Utkin (; born 11 June 1970) is a Russian army officer. He served as a special forces officer in the GRU, where he held a rank of lieutenant colonel. He is alleged to have founded the Wagner Group, with his own call-sign reportedly being "Wagner". Utkin has received four Orders of Courage of Russia.


title: Dmitry Utkin

text: Utkin was born on 11 June 1970, in the village of Smolino, Kirovograd, of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic.


title: Dmitry Utkin

text: Members of Wagner Group reported that Utkin is a Rodnover, a believer of Slavic native faith. Utkin has been alleged by the Latvia-based "Meduza" to have sympathies with Nazi Germany, and believed by the British "NationalWorld" to be a neo-Nazi because of the images that surfaced in 2021, purportedly showing Utkin with a "Waffen-SS" collar tab and "Reichsadler" tattoos on his neck and chest.


title: Dmitry Utkin

text: Utkin served as the commander of the 700th Separate Special Detachment of the 2nd Separate Special Brigade of the Main Directorate of the General Staff of the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation (GRU), stationed in Pechory, Pskov Oblast, until 2013. After retiring, he joined the Slavonic Corps, fighting on the side of Syrian President Bashar al-Assad during the civil war in 2013, but returned to Moscow in October.


title: Dmitry Utkin

text: Almost immediately after returning to Russia, Utkin reportedly created his own mercenary group. Utkin, who reportedly has a passion for the history of the Third Reich, had the call-sign "Wagner", allegedly in honour of Richard Wagner. Utkin and his "Wagner Group", as well as several veterans of the Slavonic Corps were seen both in Crimea in February 2014 and then in Donbas, where they fought for the pro-Russian separatists during the Russo-Ukrainian War. "Gazeta.ru" reports that Utkin and his men could have been involved in the killing of several field commanders of the self-proclaimed Luhansk People's Republic. Turkish newspaper Yeni Şafak reported that Utkin was possibly a figurehead for the company, while the real head of Wagner was someone else.


title: Dmitry Utkin

text: Utkin was seen in the Kremlin during the celebration of Fatherland's Heroes Day on 9 December 2016. He attended the celebration as a laureate of four Orders of Courage, and was photographed with the President of Russia, Vladimir Putin. Dmitry Peskov, the Press Secretary for the Russian President, admitted that Utkin was indeed among the invitees, but did not comment on his connection with the mercenaries.


title: Dmitry Utkin

text: "RBK" reported that after completing a training in Krasnodar Krai, Utkin and his men returned to Syria in 2015. Soon after the start of the Russian aerial strikes, reports emerged on the deaths of Russian mercenaries fighting on the ground. Several images spread in the social media apparently depicting armed Russian men killed during the Battle of Palmyra in March 2016. Sky News reported that approximately 500 to 600 people, mostly Wagner mercenaries, were killed in Syria in 2016.


title: Dmitry Utkin

text: In June 2017, the United States imposed sanctions against Utkin as the head of Wagner Group. In November 2017, "RBK" reported the appointment of Utkin as CEO of Concord Management and Consulting, the managing company of the restaurant holding owned by Yevgeny Prigozhin, who is believed to be the financier of Wagner Group. Bellingcat contends that this was a different Dmitry Utkin, however.


title: Dmitry Utkin

text: On 13 December 2021, the Council of the European Union imposed restrictive measures against Utkin and other individuals associated with the Wagner Group. In relation to Utkin, he was accused of being "responsible for serious human rights abuses committed by the group, which include torture and extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions and killings."


title: UFC 274

text: UFC 274: Oliveira vs. Gaethje was a mixed martial arts event produced by the Ultimate Fighting Championship that took place on May 7, 2022, at the Footprint Center in Phoenix, Arizona, United States.


title: UFC 274

text: The event was originally linked to Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, but the promotion eventually decided to move the event from that location. It took place in Phoenix, Arizona. It was the city's first event since in February 2019.


title: UFC 274

text: A UFC Light Heavyweight Championship bout between current champion Glover Teixeira and former Rizin Light Heavyweight Champion Jiří Procházka was expected to take place at the event. However, the bout was pushed back to UFC 275 for undisclosed reasons.


title: UFC 274

text: A UFC Lightweight Championship bout between current champion Charles Oliveira and former interim champion Justin Gaethje (also former WSOF Lightweight Champion) headlined the event. At the weigh-ins, Oliveira weighed in at 155.5 pounds, half a pound over the title limit. As a result, upon commencement of the fight, Oliveira was stripped of the title and only Gaethje was eligible to win it.


title: UFC 274

text: A UFC Women's Strawweight Championship rematch between current two-time champion Rose Namajunas and former champion (also former Invicta FC Strawweight Champion) Carla Esparza took place at the event. The pairing previously met 7 and a half years prior at for the inaugural championship, which Esparza won via third round submission.


title: UFC 274

text: A lightweight bout between Joe Lauzon and former lightweight title challenger Donald Cerrone was scheduled for . However, the bout was removed from this event. In turn, the bout was cancelled on the day of the event when Cerrone suffered from food poisoning.


title: UFC 274

text: Amanda Ribas and former Invicta FC Atomweight Champion Michelle Waterson were expected to meet at this event. They were originally expected to meet at UFC 257, but Waterson pulled out of the bout due to undisclosed reasons. They were then rescheduled for , but an injury forced Waterson out of the pairing once again. Waterson announced in early March that her injury could potentially be "career ending" and would not compete at this event.


title: UFC 274

text: A lightweight bout between Michael Johnson and Alan Patrick was expected to take place at the event. However, the bout was pushed back one week to for undisclosed reasons.


title: UFC 274

text: At the weigh-ins, Norma Dumont weighed in at 146.5 pounds, half a pound over the women's featherweight non-title fight limit. Her bout proceeded at catchweight and she was fined 30% of her individual purse, which went to her opponent women's featherweight winner Macy Chiasson.


title: UFC 274

text: It was announced during the event's broadcast that former UFC Light Heavyweight and Heavyweight Champion Daniel Cormier will be inducted into the UFC Hall of Fame at this year's class.


title: UFC 274

text: This event had five split decision bouts tying UFC 222 for the most split decision bouts in UFC history.


title: UFC 274

text: The following fighters received Crypto.com "Fan Bonus of the Night" awards paid in bitcoin of US$30,000 for first place, US$20,000 for second place, and US$10,000 for third place.


title: Okja

text: Okja (; ) is a 2017 action-adventure film directed by Bong Joon-ho with a screenplay by Bong and Jon Ronson from a story by Bong. The film is about a young girl who raised a genetically modified "super pig" (the titular Okja) and, after she is taken to the United States, goes on a mission to rescue her from mistreatment at the hands of the meat industry. An international co-production of South Korea and the United States, it stars an ensemble cast headed by South Korean child actress Ahn Seo-hyun, South Korean actors Byun Hee-bong, Yoon Je-moon, and Choi Woo-shik, and Hollywood actors Tilda Swinton, Paul Dano, Steven Yeun, Lily Collins, Shirley Henderson, Daniel Henshall, Devon Bostick, Giancarlo Esposito, and Jake Gyllenhaal.


title: Okja

text: The film competed for the "Palme d'Or" in the main competition section at the 2017 Cannes Film Festival. It was released on Netflix on June 28, 2017. The film received positive reviews from critics.


title: Okja

text: In 2007, "environmentalist" Lucy Mirando becomes CEO of the Mirando Corporation, succeeding her twin sister. Announcing they have been breeding a special kind of "super pig", 26 specimens are sent to farmers around the world, and ten years later, one will be crowned the winner as the best pig.


title: Okja

text: In 2017, a young girl named Mija lives in South Korea with her grandfather and their super pig, Okja. Mija and Okja have a very close relationship; they spend much of their time together, and at one point, Okja saves Mija from falling off a cliff. They are visited by Mirando spokesperson and zoologist Dr. Johnny Wilcox, who declares Okja the best super pig, and announces that they will take her to NYC. Her grandfather gives Mija a gold pig, explaining he saved up to replace Okja when she was taken away. Devastated, Mija goes to Seoul to find Okja, where she sees her being loaded onto a truck. Mija chases down the truck but it is intercepted by the Animal Liberation Front (ALF).


title: Okja

text: In the resulting chaos, Mija and Okja run away but are eventually saved by the ALF, led by Jay. He asks another ALF member, K, to translate and tell Mija that they plan to put a recording device in Okja's ear and let her be recaptured by the Mirando Corporation to document how they mistreat animals. Mija asks them to return her to the mountains but K purposely mistranslates and tells them Mija agrees. They leave, and Okja is recaptured.


title: Okja

text: To minimize PR damage to the company, Lucy pays for Mija to come to NYC to reunite with her pig. Okja is taken to a laboratory where she is forcibly bred with another super pig and flesh is taken from her for a taste test. After the ALF sees the footage, K reveals that he lied to the rest of the group about Mija's support of the plan. Jay beats K, and expels him from the ALF.


title: Okja

text: In NYC, Mija has to comply with the Mirando Corp. Jay slips into her room and tells her they plan to rescue Okja while on stage. During the Mirando parade, a battered and temporarily blinded Okja attacks Mija. Jay tries to hurt Okja to protect the girl, but Mija doesn’t let him and calms Okja down. The ALF shows Okja's mistreatment to the public, who quickly turn on Mirando. Lucy surrenders the company to her twin sister Nancy, who contacts a private security firm to take out ALF members. Okja is recaptured and the ALF members are arrested, except for Mija and Jay, who are rescued by K. Nancy, Lucy’s twin sister, reassumes the position of CEO and starts full-time operations at their slaughterhouse.


title: Okja

text: K, Mija, and Jay travel to a processing plant in search of Okja, and find her at the processing plant, being forced up a ramp into a slaughterhouse. Mija shows a Mirando employee a photo of herself with baby Okja, prompting him to stop. Nancy arrives and Mija offers the gold pig in exchange for Okja's life. Nancy agrees, having Jay and K arrested. As Mija and Okja are escorted away, a pair of super pigs push their newborn to Okja to hide it and take it away.


title: Okja

text: In a post-credits scene, Jay is released from prison, boarding a bus with K and the other members of the organization. With their newest member Kim Woo-shik, a former driver for Mirando Corporation, they plan to disrupt a major Mirando shareholders meeting.


title: Okja

text: In October 2015, it was announced that director Bong Joon-ho's next film would feature a South Korean female lead and a cast of English-speaking supporting actors, with filming set in New York. On November 10, 2015, it was picked up by Netflix and Plan B Entertainment with a budget of $50 million, with production starting in late 2016 for release in 2017. Darius Khondji joined the film as cinematographer in February 2016.


title: Okja

text: Bong sought out Welsh author Jon Ronson to help with the script. Working with a rough draft of the story, Ronson helped develop the English-speaking characters.


title: Okja

text: Principal photography began on April 22, 2016, in Seoul, South Korea. It moved to Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada for more filming on July 31, 2016. Bong visited a Colorado slaughterhouse to prepare for the film's slaughterhouse sequence, an experience that converted Bong and producer Dooho Choi into temporary vegans. Bong has called Okja "a very shy and introverted animal. It's a unique animal that we've not seen before." Filming wrapped on August 27, 2016.


title: Okja

text: In an interview, Bong said the film touched on "capitalism". Co-writer Jon Ronson said he believed the movie would "turn people vegetarian", adding, "I really don’t think that was my intention or Bong’s intention".


title: Okja

text: "Okja" had its world premiere at the 2017 Cannes Film Festival on May 18, 2017. During the first few minutes of its screening at its Cannes premiere, the film was met with boos mixed with some applause twice: once when the Netflix logo appeared on the screen and again during a technical glitch which projected the film in an incorrect aspect ratio for its first seven minutes. The festival later issued an apology to its filmmakers for projecting the film incorrectly. But despite the initial negative audience response, the film received a four-minute standing ovation at its end.


title: Okja

text: The film was released on Netflix on June 28, 2017. The movie was released as part of the Criterion Collection in July 2022.


title: Okja

text: Several independent theatres in South Korea screened the film to much success, with earnings totalling 2.3 billion KRW ($2.1 million USD) from 300,953 tickets sold.


title: Okja

text: On the film review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 86% based on 236 reviews, with a weighted average of 7.5/10. The website's critical consensus reads, ""Okja" sees Bong Joon-ho continuing to create defiantly eclectic entertainment – and still hitting more than enough of his narrative targets in the midst of a tricky tonal juggling act." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 75 out of 100, based on 36 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".


title: Okja

text: "Okja" was named as one of the "New York Times"s ten most influential films of the decade in November 2019. Critic A.O. Scott wrote, ""Okja" is a miracle of imagination and technique, and Okja insists, with abundant mischief and absolute sincerity, that she possesses a soul."


title: Density

text: Density (volumetric mass density or specific mass) is the substance's mass per unit of volume. Density is a standard mechanical quantity. The symbol most often used for density is "ρ" (the lower case Greek letter rho), although the Latin letter "D" can also be used. Mathematically, density is defined as mass divided by volume:


title: Density

text: where "ρ" is the density, "m" is the mass, and "V" is the volume. In some cases (for instance, in the United States oil and gas industry), density is loosely defined as its weight per unit volume, although this is scientifically inaccurate – this quantity is more specifically called specific weight.


title: Density

text: Different materials usually have different densities, and density may be relevant to buoyancy, purity and packaging. Osmium and iridium are the densest known elements at standard conditions for temperature and pressure.


title: Density

text: To simplify comparisons of density across different systems of units, it is sometimes replaced by the dimensionless quantity "relative density" or "specific gravity", i.e. the ratio of the density of the material to that of a standard material, usually water. Thus a relative density less than one relative to water means that the substance floats in water.


title: Density

text: The density of a material varies with temperature and pressure. This variation is typically small for solids and liquids but much greater for gases. Increasing the pressure on an object decreases the volume of the object and thus increases its density. Increasing the temperature of a substance (with a few exceptions) decreases its density by increasing its volume. In most materials, heating the bottom of a fluid results in convection of the heat from the bottom to the top, due to the decrease in the density of the heated fluid, which causes it to rise relative to denser unheated material.


title: Density

text: The reciprocal of the density of a substance is occasionally called its specific volume, a term sometimes used in thermodynamics. Density is an intensive property in that increasing the amount of a substance does not increase its density; rather it increases its mass.


title: Density

text: Other conceptually comparable quantities or ratios include specific density, relative density (specific gravity), and specific weight.


title: Density

text: In a well-known but probably apocryphal tale, Archimedes was given the task of determining whether King Hiero's goldsmith was embezzling gold during the manufacture of a golden wreath dedicated to the gods and replacing it with another, cheaper alloy. Archimedes knew that the irregularly shaped wreath could be crushed into a cube whose volume could be calculated easily and compared with the mass; but the king did not approve of this. Baffled, Archimedes is said to have taken an immersion bath and observed from the rise of the water upon entering that he could calculate the volume of the gold wreath through the displacement of the water. Upon this discovery, he leapt from his bath and ran naked through the streets shouting, "Eureka! Eureka!" (Εύρηκα! Greek "I have found it"). As a result, the term "eureka" entered common parlance and is used today to indicate a moment of enlightenment.


title: Density

text: The story first appeared in written form in Vitruvius' "books of architecture", two centuries after it supposedly took place. Some scholars have doubted the accuracy of this tale, saying among other things that the method would have required precise measurements that would have been difficult to make at the time.


title: Density

text: A number of techniques as well as standards exist for the measurement of density of materials. Such techniques include the use of a hydrometer (a buoyancy method for liquids), Hydrostatic balance (a buoyancy method for liquids and solids), immersed body method (a buoyancy method for liquids), pycnometer (liquids and solids), air comparison pycnometer (solids), oscillating densitometer (liquids), as well as pour and tap (solids). However, each individual method or technique measures different types of density (e.g. bulk density, skeletal density, etc.), and therefore it is necessary to have an understanding of the type of density being measured as well as the type of material in question.


title: Density

text: From the equation for density ("ρ" = "m"/"V"), mass density has any unit that is "mass divided by volume". As there are many units of mass and volume covering many different magnitudes there are a large number of units for mass density in use. The SI unit of kilogram per cubic metre (kg/m) and the cgs unit of gram per cubic centimetre (g/cm) are probably the most commonly used units for density. One g/cm is equal to 1000 kg/m. One cubic centimetre (abbreviation cc) is equal to one millilitre. In industry, other larger or smaller units of mass and or volume are often more practical and US customary units may be used. See below for a list of some of the most common units of density.


title: Density

text: The density at all points of a homogeneous object equals its total mass divided by its total volume. The mass is normally measured with a scale or balance; the volume may be measured directly (from the geometry of the object) or by the displacement of a fluid. To determine the density of a liquid or a gas, a hydrometer, a dasymeter or a Coriolis flow meter may be used, respectively. Similarly, hydrostatic weighing uses the displacement of water due to a submerged object to determine the density of the object.


title: Density

text: If the body is not homogeneous, then its density varies between different regions of the object. In that case the density around any given location is determined by calculating the density of a small volume around that location. In the limit of an infinitesimal volume the density of an inhomogeneous object at a point becomes: formula_2, where formula_3 is an elementary volume at position formula_4. The mass of the body then can be expressed as


title: Density

text: In practice, bulk materials such as sugar, sand, or snow contain voids. Many materials exist in nature as flakes, pellets, or granules.


title: Density

text: Voids are regions which contain something other than the considered material. Commonly the void is air, but it could also be vacuum, liquid, solid, or a different gas or gaseous mixture.


title: Density

text: The bulk volume of a material—inclusive of the void fraction—is often obtained by a simple measurement (e.g. with a calibrated measuring cup) or geometrically from known dimensions.


title: Density

text: Mass divided by "bulk" volume determines bulk density. This is not the same thing as volumetric mass density.


title: Density

text: To determine volumetric mass density, one must first discount the volume of the void fraction. Sometimes this can be determined by geometrical reasoning. For the close-packing of equal spheres the non-void fraction can be at most about 74%. It can also be determined empirically. Some bulk materials, however, such as sand, have a "variable" void fraction which depends on how the material is agitated or poured. It might be loose or compact, with more or less air space depending on handling.


title: Density

text: In practice, the void fraction is not necessarily air, or even gaseous. In the case of sand, it could be water, which can be advantageous for measurement as the void fraction for sand saturated in water—once any air bubbles are thoroughly driven out—is potentially more consistent than dry sand measured with an air void.


title: Density

text: In the case of non-compact materials, one must also take care in determining the mass of the material sample. If the material is under pressure (commonly ambient air pressure at the earth's surface) the determination of mass from a measured sample weight might need to account for buoyancy effects due to the density of the void constituent, depending on how the measurement was conducted. In the case of dry sand, sand is so much denser than air that the buoyancy effect is commonly neglected (less than one part in one thousand).


title: Density

text: Mass change upon displacing one void material with another while maintaining constant volume can be used to estimate the void fraction, if the difference in density of the two voids materials is reliably known.


title: Density

text: In general, density can be changed by changing either the pressure or the temperature. Increasing the pressure always increases the density of a material. Increasing the temperature generally decreases the density, but there are notable exceptions to this generalization. For example, the density of water increases between its melting point at 0 °C and 4 °C; similar behavior is observed in silicon at low temperatures.


title: Density

text: The effect of pressure and temperature on the densities of liquids and solids is small. The compressibility for a typical liquid or solid is 10 bar (1 bar = 0.1 MPa) and a typical thermal expansivity is 10 K. This roughly translates into needing around ten thousand times atmospheric pressure to reduce the volume of a substance by one percent. (Although the pressures needed may be around a thousand times smaller for sandy soil and some clays.) A one percent expansion of volume typically requires a temperature increase on the order of thousands of degrees Celsius.


title: Density

text: where is the molar mass, is the pressure, is the universal gas constant, and is the absolute temperature. This means that the density of an ideal gas can be doubled by doubling the pressure, or by halving the absolute temperature.


title: Density

text: In the case of volumic thermal expansion at constant pressure and small intervals of temperature the temperature dependence of density is


title: Density

text: where formula_8 is the density at a reference temperature, formula_9 is the thermal expansion coefficient of the material at temperatures close to formula_10.


title: Density

text: The density of a solution is the sum of mass (massic) concentrations of the components of that solution.


title: Density

text: Expressed as a function of the densities of pure components of the mixture and their volume participation, it allows the determination of excess molar volumes:


title: Density

text: Knowing the relation between excess volumes and activity coefficients of the components, one can determine the activity coefficients:


title: Density

text: The litre and tonne are not part of the SI, but are acceptable for use with it, leading to the following units:


title: Density

text: Densities using the following metric units all have exactly the same numerical value, one thousandth of the value in (kg/m). Liquid water has a density of about 1 kg/dm, making any of these SI units numerically convenient to use as most solids and liquids have densities between 0.1 and 20 kg/dm.


title: Density

text: Imperial units differing from the above (as the Imperial gallon and bushel differ from the US units) in practice are rarely used, though found in older documents. The Imperial gallon was based on the concept that an Imperial fluid ounce of water would have a mass of one Avoirdupois ounce, and indeed 1 g/cm ≈ 1.00224129 ounces per Imperial fluid ounce = 10.0224129 pounds per Imperial gallon. The density of precious metals could conceivably be based on Troy ounces and pounds, a possible cause of confusion.


title: Density

text: Knowing the volume of the unit cell of a crystalline material and its formula weight (in daltons), the density can be calculated. One dalton per cubic ångström is equal to a density of 1.660 539 066 60 g/cm.


title: First they came ...

text: "First they came …" is the poetic form of a 1946 post-war confessional prose by the German Lutheran pastor Martin Niemöller (1892–1984). It is about the silence of German intellectuals and certain clergy—including, by his own admission, Niemöller himself—following the Nazis' rise to power and subsequent incremental purging of their chosen targets, group after group. Many variations and adaptations in the spirit of the original have been published in the English language. It deals with themes of persecution, guilt, repentance, and personal responsibility.


title: First they came ...

text: The best-known versions of the confession in English are the edited versions in poetic form that began circulating by the 1950s. The United States Holocaust Memorial Museum quotes the following text as one of the many poetic versions of the speech:


title: First they came ...

text: A longer version by the Holocaust Memorial Day Trust, a charity established by the British government, is as follows:


title: First they came ...

text: Martin Niemöller was a German Lutheran pastor and theologian born in Lippstadt, Germany, in 1892. Niemöller was an anti-Communist and supported Adolf Hitler's rise to power. But when, after he came to power, Hitler insisted on the supremacy of the state over religion, Niemöller became disillusioned. He became the leader of a group of German clergymen opposed to Hitler. In 1937 he was arrested and eventually confined in Sachsenhausen and Dachau. He was released in 1945 by the Allies. He continued his career in Germany as a clergyman and as a leading voice of penance and reconciliation for the German people after World War II.


title: First they came ...

text: Niemöller made confession in his speech for the Confessing Church in Frankfurt on 6 January 1946, of which this is a partial translation:


title: First they came ...

text: This speech was translated and published in English in 1947, but was later retracted when it was alleged that Niemöller was an early supporter of the Nazis. The "sick, the so-called incurables" were killed in the euthanasia programme "Aktion T4". A 1955 version of the speech, mentioned in an interview of a German professor quoting Niemöller, lists Communists, socialists, schools, Jews, the press, and the Church. An American version delivered by a congressman in 1968 includes industrialists, who were only persecuted by the Nazis on an individual basis, and omits Communists.


title: First they came ...

text: Niemöller is quoted as having used many versions of the text during his career, but evidence identified by professor Harold Marcuse at the University of California Santa Barbara indicates that the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum version is inaccurate because Niemöller frequently used the word "communists" and not "socialists." The substitution of "socialists" for "communists" is an effect of anti-communism, and most common in the version that has proliferated in the United States. According to Harold Marcuse, "Niemöller's original argument was premised on naming groups he and his audience would instinctively not care about. The omission of Communists in Washington, and of Jews in Germany, distorts that meaning and should be corrected."


title: First they came ...

text: In 1976, Niemöller gave the following answer in response to an interview question asking about the origins of the poem. The "Martin-Niemöller-Stiftung" ("Martin Niemöller Foundation") considers this the "classical" version of the speech:


title: First they came ...

text: Like most Protestant pastors, Niemöller was a national conservative, and openly supported the conservative opponents of the Weimar Republic. He thus welcomed Hitler's accession to power in 1933, believing that it would bring a national revival. By the autumn of 1934, Niemöller joined other Lutheran and Protestant churchmen such as Karl Barth and Dietrich Bonhoeffer in founding the Confessional Church, a Protestant group that opposed the Nazification of the German Protestant churches.


title: First they came ...

text: Still in 1935, Niemöller made pejorative remarks about Jews of faith while protecting—in his own church—those of Jewish descent who had been baptised but were persecuted by the Nazis due to their racial heritage. In one sermon in 1935, he remarked: "What is the reason for [their] obvious punishment, which has lasted for thousands of years? Dear brethren, the reason is easily given: the Jews brought the Christ of God to the cross!"


title: First they came ...

text: In 1936, however, he decidedly opposed the Nazis' "Aryan Paragraph". Niemöller signed the petition of a group of Protestant churchmen which sharply criticized Nazi policies and declared the Aryan Paragraph incompatible with the Christian virtue of charity. The Nazi regime reacted with mass arrests and charges against almost 800 pastors and ecclesiastical lawyers.


title: First they came ...

text: Author and Nobel Prize laureate Thomas Mann published Niemöller's sermons in the United States and praised his bravery.


title: First they came ...

text: At the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum in Washington, D.C., the quotation is on display, the museum website has a discussion of the history of the quotation.


title: First they came ...

text: A version of the poem is on display at the Holocaust memorial Yad Vashem in Jerusalem. The poem is also presented at the Virginia Holocaust Museum in Richmond, Virginia, the New England Holocaust Memorial in Boston, Massachusetts, the Florida Holocaust Museum in St. Petersburg, Florida, and the Illinois Holocaust Museum and Education Center in Skokie, Illinois.


title: CID (Indian TV series)

text: CID is an Indian police procedural television series created by B. P. Singh for Sony Entertainment Television India. The series stars Shivaji Satam as ACP Pradyuman, Aditya Srivastava as Sr. Inspector Abhijeet, Dayanand Shetty as Sr. Inspector Daya, Dinesh Phadnis as Inspector Fredricks aka Freddy and Narendra Gupta as Forensic expert Dr. Salunkhe respectively.


title: CID (Indian TV series)

text: The location of "CID" is set in Mumbai. The series premiered on 21 January 1998 and is the longest-running television series in India. The series aired for 20 years on Sony TV. The last episode aired on 27 October 2018. The series aired its 500th episode on 18 January 2008; 1,000th episode on 13 September 2013 and 1,500th episode on 25 February 2018 and last episode 1547 on 27 October 2018.


title: CID (Indian TV series)

text: The first thrilling investigative series on Indian Television is one of the most popular shows on Sony Entertainment Television. Dramatic and absolutely unpredictable, C.I.D. has captivated viewers over the (1998-2018) and continues to keep audiences glued to their television sets with its thrilling plots and excitement. Also interwoven in its fast-paced plots are the personal challenges that the C.I.D. team faces non-stop adventure, tremendous pressure, and risk, all in the name of duty. The series consists of hard-core police procedural stories dealing with investigation, detection, and suspense. The protagonists of the serial are an elite group of police officers belonging to the Crime Investigation Department of the police force, led by ACP Pradyuman [played by the dynamic Shivaji Satam]. While the stories are plausible, there is an emphasis on dramatic plotting and technical complexities faced by the police. At every stage, the plot throws up intriguing twists and turns to keep the officers on the move as they track criminals, led by the smallest of clues.


title: CID (Indian TV series)

text: "CID" got into both the Limca Book of Records and the Guinness Book of World Records on 7 November 2004 for its record-breaking single shot episode of 111 minutes (1 hour and 51 minutes), entitled ""The Inheritance"" without a cut which writer – director – producer B. P. Singh feels ""every Indian should be proud of because no one has achieved this before"".


title: CID (Indian TV series)

text: Run time of episodes 1 to 404 is around 20 minutes and episodes 405 to 1547 is approximately 43 minutes on an average.


title: CID (Indian TV series)

text: Episodes from 1 to 68 aired on Monday & Tuesday at 10:30 pm with air time of 30 minutes and episodes 69 to 168 aired from Monday to Firday at 10:30 pm with air time of 30 minutes.


title: CID (Indian TV series)

text: Marathi theatre veteran, Shivaji Satam, who plays ACP Pradyuman, had worked with B. P. Singh on many projects before "CID". He said in an interview: ""Having worked with B. P. Singh on so many projects, I had to be a part of CID"". Aditya Shrivastav, who portrays Senior Inspector Abhijeet, was introduced in the show as a criminal but was later added into the team ""I had agreed to do only 26 episodes. In 1998, I was also doing some films, and B. P. Singh Sir gave me the flexibility to come and go as I felt like. But I began to enjoy the role of Abhijeet, and so stayed on"", said Shrivastav. Singh wanted Srivastav to be part of his team after seeing his work in Ram Gopal Varma's "Satya". Dayanand Shetty, who portrays Senior Inspector Daya was spotted by Sanjay Shetty, a member of the "CID" production team in a community play in which he was adjudged best actor. Singh was so impressed with Shetty that he finalized him just 5 minutes into the audition.


title: CID (Indian TV series)

text: "CID" is primarily shot in Mumbai, Maharashtra, India. During the long course of the show, the series has been shot in various locations all over India. The series has also been shot in foreign countries. Some Foreign locations have included places like Uzbekistan, a major shoot in Paris, and Switzerland which included tourist attractions like Interlaken as well as cities such as Berne and Zurich. The major shoot in Paris-Switzerland was for the 2 hourly special episode ""Aakhri Chunauti"", and a part of the production team's 13th anniversary celebration plan.


title: CID (Indian TV series)

text: The show was decided to end suddenly by the channel and on 27 October 2018, the last episode was aired. Rumours of the show getting cancelled was going rounds while the official statement by the channel stated the show will go off air for three months to give the producers enough time to reboot it. Further it was reported that “"CID is not wrapping up. But it is going on a short break and that's only for a creative reason. The makers haven't received any closure letter from the channel that proves that they are still in contract with them. The break has been decided mutually by the makers and channel as they want to reboot the show."” But no announcement of it returning was made since then. Actor Dayanand Shetty who played Daya quoted that the show would not return after this break saying, ""No, I don't think it's coming back. I doubt it's coming back. There can't be a break. It's just a convenient way of killing the show.""


title: CID (Indian TV series)

text: On 7 July 2006, a nationwide talent hunt show called "Operation Talaash" was launched in search of a new officer to join the "CID" team. This concluded on 1 September 2006, with Vivek V. Mashru being chosen to play Sub-Inspector Vivek.


title: CID (Indian TV series)

text: Sony Entertainment Television had launched "CID: Gallantry Awards", an initiative to encourage and honour acts of bravery in society on 26 January 2010 Republic Day. The second edition of this initiative was aired on 23 January 2011. The third and fourth editions were aired on 1 April 2012 and 14 April 2013 respectively.


title: CID (Indian TV series)

text: On 10 July 2015; Sony TV announced the Shaatir Lekhak Contest, in which 3 incomplete stories and clues were presented. Contestants were required to complete any one story out of three. The contest ended on 26 July 2015. The winning story appeared in episodes and prizes were also given to the winner. From the total entries, 3 winners were selected, one for each story. The result for the winners were declared during one of the episodes of "CID" prior to 1 September 2015.


title: CID (Indian TV series)

text: "CID" had three crossover episodes with the series "Aahat", once on 13 November 2009; second time on 12 February 2010 and third time on 25 June 2010.


title: CID (Indian TV series)

text: It also had crossover episodes with "Adaalat", once on 3–4 December 2010; second time on 15 July 2012 titled CID Viruddh Adaalat and third time on 20 December 2014 titled "CID V/s Adaalat – Karmyudh".


title: CID (Indian TV series)

text: It also had a crossover with Sab TV's comedy series Taarak Mehta Ka Ooltah Chashmah for 4 episodes. Titled as ""Mahasangram"", it started and ended in July 2014.


title: CID (Indian TV series)

text: It entered in both Guinness Book of World records and Limca Book of Records for uncut shooting for 111 minutes for the episode named "'The Inheritance"' during October 2004.


title: CID (Indian TV series)

text: Rediff gave the series 4.5 / 5 stars, and stated, ""Much of the credit for CID's success should go to Singh, and its cast, especially Shivaji Satam who plays ACP Pradyuman"". It stated, ""Its actors, or at least the core of the cast who have been a part of the series since its inception are so popular they have become household names."" Rahul Hegde of Rediff giving the same ratings stated, ""The crime detective series is still going strong"".


title: CID (Indian TV series)

text: Times of India stated, ""CID which has constantly entertained its viewers with unique and challenging cases is also known for its different jokes in the world of internet"."


title: Fever

text: Fever, also referred to as pyrexia, is defined as having a temperature above the normal range due to an increase in the body's temperature set point. There is not a single agreed-upon upper limit for normal temperature with sources using values between in humans. The increase in set point triggers increased muscle contractions and causes a feeling of cold or chills. This results in greater heat production and efforts to conserve heat. When the set point temperature returns to normal, a person feels hot, becomes flushed, and may begin to sweat. Rarely a fever may trigger a febrile seizure, with this being more common in young children. Fevers do not typically go higher than .


title: Fever

text: A fever can be caused by many medical conditions ranging from non-serious to life-threatening. This includes viral, bacterial, and parasitic infections—such as influenza, the common cold, meningitis, urinary tract infections, appendicitis, Lassa, COVID-19, and malaria. Non-infectious causes include vasculitis, deep vein thrombosis, connective tissue disease, side effects of medication or vaccination, and cancer. It differs from hyperthermia, in that hyperthermia is an increase in body temperature over the temperature set point, due to either too much heat production or not enough heat loss.


title: Fever

text: Treatment to reduce fever is generally not required. Treatment of associated pain and inflammation, however, may be useful and help a person rest. Medications such as ibuprofen or paracetamol (acetaminophen) may help with this as well as lower temperature. Children younger than three months require medical attention, as might people with serious medical problems such as a compromised immune system or people with other symptoms. Hyperthermia requires treatment.


title: Fever

text: Fever is one of the most common medical signs. It is part of about 30% of healthcare visits by children and occurs in up to 75% of adults who are seriously sick. While fever evolved as a defense mechanism, treating a fever does not appear to improve or worsen outcomes. Fever is often viewed with greater concern by parents and healthcare professionals than is usually deserved, a phenomenon known as fever phobia.


title: Fever

text: A fever is usually accompanied by sickness behavior, which consists of lethargy, depression, loss of appetite, sleepiness, hyperalgesia, dehydration, and the inability to concentrate. Sleeping with a fever can often cause intense or confusing nightmares, commonly called "fever dreams". Mild to severe delirium (which can also cause hallucinations) may also present itself during high fevers.


title: Fever

text: A range for normal temperatures has been found. Central temperatures, such as rectal temperatures, are more accurate than peripheral temperatures.


title: Fever

text: Fever is generally agreed to be present if the elevated temperature is caused by a raised set point and:


title: Fever

text: In adults, the normal range of oral temperatures in healthy individuals is among men and among women, while when taken rectally it is among men and among women, and for ear measurement it is among men and among women.


title: Fever

text: Normal body temperatures vary depending on many factors, including age, sex, time of day, ambient temperature, activity level, and more. Normal daily temperature variation has been described as 0.5 °C (0.9 °F). A raised temperature is not always a fever. For example, the temperature rises in healthy people when they exercise, but this is not considered a fever, as the set point is normal. On the other hand, a "normal" temperature may be a fever, if it is unusually high for that person; for example, medically frail elderly people have a decreased ability to generate body heat, so a "normal" temperature of may represent a clinically significant fever.


title: Fever

text: Hyperthermia is an elevation of body temperature over the temperature set point, due to either too much heat production or not enough heat loss. Hyperthermia is thus not considered fever. Hyperthermia is not to be confused with hyperpyrexia (which is a very high fever).


title: Fever

text: Clinically, it is important to distinguish between fever and hyperthermia as hyperthermia may quickly lead to death and does not respond to antipyretic medications. The distinction may however be difficult to make in an emergency setting, and is often established by identifying possible causes.


title: Fever

text: Various patterns of measured patient temperatures have been observed, some of which may be indicative of a particular medical diagnosis:


title: Fever

text: Among the types of intermittent fever are ones specific to cases of malaria caused by different pathogens. These are:


title: Fever

text: In addition, there is disagreement regarding whether a specific fever pattern is associated with Hodgkin's lymphoma—the Pel–Ebstein fever, with patients argued to present high temperature for one week, followed by low for the next week, and so on, where the generality of this pattern is debated.


title: Fever

text: Persistent fever that cannot be explained after repeated routine clinical inquiries is called fever of unknown origin. A neutropenic fever, also called febrile neutropenia, is a fever in the absence of normal immune system function. Because of the lack of infection-fighting neutrophils, a bacterial infection can spread rapidly; this fever is, therefore, usually considered to require urgent medical attention. This kind of fever is more commonly seen in people receiving immune-suppressing chemotherapy than in apparently healthy people.


title: Fever

text: Hyperpyrexia is an extreme elevation of body temperature which, depending upon the source, is classified as a core body temperature greater than or equal to ; the range of hyperpyrexias includes cases considered severe (≥ 40 °C) and extreme (≥ 42 °C). It differs from hyperthermia in that one's thermoregulatory system's set point for body temperature is set above normal, then heat is generated to achieve it. In contrast, hyperthermia involves body temperature rising above its set point due to outside factors. The high temperatures of hyperpyrexia are considered medical emergencies, as they may indicate a serious underlying condition or lead to severe morbidity (including permanent brain damage), or to death. A common cause of hyperpyrexia is an intracranial hemorrhage. Other causes in emergency room settings include sepsis, Kawasaki syndrome, neuroleptic malignant syndrome, drug overdose, serotonin syndrome, and thyroid storm.


title: Fever

text: Adult and pediatric manifestations for the same disease may differ; for instance, in COVID-19, one metastudy describes 92.8% of adults versus 43.9% of children presenting with fever.


title: Fever

text: Fever is thought to contribute to host defense, as the reproduction of pathogens with strict temperature requirements can be hindered, and the rates of some important immunological reactions are increased by temperature. Fever has been described in teaching texts as assisting the healing process in various ways, including:


title: Fever

text: Having a fever response in response to an infectious disease is generally regarded as protective, whereas fever in non-infections may be maladaptive. Studies have not been consistent on whether treating fever generally worsens or improves mortality risk. Benefits or harms may depend on the type of infection, health status of the patient and other factors. Studies using warm-blooded vertebrates suggest that they recover more rapidly from infections or critical illness due to fever. In sepsis, fever is associated with reduced mortality.


title: Fever

text: Temperature is regulated in the hypothalamus. The trigger of a fever, called a pyrogen, results in the release of prostaglandin E2 (PGE2). PGE2 in turn acts on the hypothalamus, which creates a systemic response in the body, causing heat-generating effects to match a new higher temperature set point. There are four receptors in which PGE2 can bind (EP1-4), with a previous study showing the EP3 subtype is what mediates the fever response. Hence, the hypothalamus can be seen as working like a thermostat. When the set point is raised, the body increases its temperature through both active generation of heat and retention of heat. Peripheral vasoconstriction both reduces heat loss through the skin and causes the person to feel cold. Norepinephrine increases thermogenesis in brown adipose tissue, and muscle contraction through shivering raises the metabolic rate.


title: Fever

text: If these measures are insufficient to make the blood temperature in the brain match the new set point in the hypothalamus, the brain orchestrates heat effector mechanisms via the autonomic nervous system or primary motor center for shivering. These may be:


title: Fever

text: When the hypothalamic set point moves back to baseline—either spontaneously or via medication—normal functions such as sweating, and the reverse of the foregoing processes (e.g., vasodilation, end of shivering, and nonshivering heat production) are used to cool the body to the new, lower setting.


title: Fever

text: This contrasts with hyperthermia, in which the normal setting remains, and the body overheats through undesirable retention of excess heat or over-production of heat. Hyperthermia is usually the result of an excessively hot environment (heat stroke) or an adverse reaction to drugs. Fever can be differentiated from hyperthermia by the circumstances surrounding it and its response to anti-pyretic medications.


title: Fever

text: In infants, the autonomic nervous system may also activate brown adipose tissue to produce heat (non-exercise-associated thermogenesis, also known as non-shivering thermogenesis).


title: Fever

text: A pyrogen is a substance that induces fever. In the presence of an infectious agent, such as bacteria, viruses, viroids, "etc"., the immune response of the body is to inhibit their growth and eliminate them. The most common pyrogens are endotoxins, which are lipopolysaccharides (LPS) produced by Gram-negative bacteria such as "E. coli." But pyrogens include non-endotoxic substances (derived from microorganisms other than gram-negative-bacteria or from chemical substances) as well. The types of pyrogens include internal (endogenous) and external (exogenous) to the body.


title: Fever

text: The "pyrogenicity" of given pyrogens varies: in extreme cases, bacterial pyrogens can act as superantigens and cause rapid and dangerous fevers.


title: Fever

text: Endogenous pyrogens are cytokines released from monocytes (which are part of the immune system). In general, they stimulate chemical responses, often in the presence of an antigen, leading to a fever. Whilst they can be a product of external factors like exogenous pyrogens, they can also be induced by internal factors like damage associated molecular patterns such as cases like rheumatoid arthritis or lupus.


title: Fever

text: Major endogenous pyrogens are interleukin 1 (α and β) and interleukin 6 (IL-6). Minor endogenous pyrogens include interleukin-8, tumor necrosis factor-β, macrophage inflammatory protein-α and macrophage inflammatory protein-β as well as interferon-α, interferon-β, and interferon-γ. Tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF) also acts as a pyrogen, mediated by interleukin 1 (IL-1) release. These cytokine factors are released into general circulation, where they migrate to the brain's circumventricular organs where they are more easily absorbed than in areas protected by the blood–brain barrier. The cytokines then bind to endothelial receptors on vessel walls to receptors on microglial cells, resulting in activation of the arachidonic acid pathway.


title: Fever

text: Of these, IL-1β, TNF, and IL-6 are able to raise the temperature setpoint of an organism and cause fever. These proteins produce a cyclooxygenase which induces the hypothalamic production of PGE2 which then stimulates the release of neurotransmitters such as cyclic adenosine monophosphate and increases body temperature.


title: Fever

text: Exogenous pyrogens are external to the body and are of microbial origin. In general, these pyrogens, including bacterial cell wall products, may act on Toll-like receptors in the hypothalamus and elevate the thermoregulatory setpoint.


title: Fever

text: An example of a class of exogenous pyrogens are bacterial lipopolysaccharides (LPS) present in the cell wall of gram-negative bacteria. According to one mechanism of pyrogen action, an immune system protein, lipopolysaccharide-binding protein (LBP), binds to LPS, and the LBP–LPS complex then binds to a CD14 receptor on a macrophage. The LBP-LPS binding to CD14 results in cellular synthesis and release of various endogenous cytokines, e.g., interleukin 1 (IL-1), interleukin 6 (IL-6), and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNFα). A further downstream event is activation of the arachidonic acid pathway.


title: Fever

text: PGE2 release comes from the arachidonic acid pathway. This pathway (as it relates to fever), is mediated by the enzymes phospholipase A2 (PLA2), cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), and prostaglandin E2 synthase. These enzymes ultimately mediate the synthesis and release of PGE2.


title: Fever

text: PGE2 is the ultimate mediator of the febrile response. The setpoint temperature of the body will remain elevated until PGE2 is no longer present. PGE2 acts on neurons in the preoptic area (POA) through the prostaglandin E receptor 3 (EP3). EP3-expressing neurons in the POA innervate the dorsomedial hypothalamus (DMH), the rostral raphe pallidus nucleus in the medulla oblongata (rRPa), and the paraventricular nucleus (PVN) of the hypothalamus. Fever signals sent to the DMH and rRPa lead to stimulation of the sympathetic output system, which evokes non-shivering thermogenesis to produce body heat and skin vasoconstriction to decrease heat loss from the body surface. It is presumed that the innervation from the POA to the PVN mediates the neuroendocrine effects of fever through the pathway involving pituitary gland and various endocrine organs.


title: Fever

text: Fever does not necessarily need to be treated, and most people with a fever recover without specific medical attention. Although it is unpleasant, fever rarely rises to a dangerous level even if untreated. Damage to the brain generally does not occur until temperatures reach , and it is rare for an untreated fever to exceed . Treating fever in people with sepsis does not affect outcomes. Small trials have shown no benefit of treating fevers of or higher of critical ill patients in ICUs, and one trial was terminated early because patients receiving aggressive fever treatment were dying more often.


title: Fever

text: According to the NIH, the two assumptions which are generally used to argue in favor of treating fevers have not been experimentally validated. These are that (1) a fever is noxious, and (2) suppression of a fever will reduce its noxious effect. Most of the other studies supporting the association of fever with poorer outcomes have been observational in nature. In theory, these critically ill patients and those faced with additional physiologic stress may benefit from fever reduction, but the evidence on both sides of the argument appears to be mostly equivocal.