title: Supermassive black hole

text: Some of the best evidence for the presence of black holes is provided by the Doppler effect whereby light from nearby orbiting matter is red-shifted when receding and blue-shifted when advancing. For matter very close to a black hole the orbital speed must be comparable with the speed of light, so receding matter will appear very faint compared with advancing matter, which means that systems with intrinsically symmetric discs and rings will acquire a highly asymmetric visual appearance. This effect has been allowed for in modern computer-generated images such as the example presented here, based on a plausible model for the supermassive black hole in Sgr A* at the center of the Milky Way. However, the resolution provided by presently available telescope technology is still insufficient to confirm such predictions directly.


title: Supermassive black hole

text: What already has been observed directly in many systems are the lower non-relativistic velocities of matter orbiting further out from what are presumed to be black holes. Direct Doppler measures of water masers surrounding the nuclei of nearby galaxies have revealed a very fast Keplerian motion, only possible with a high concentration of matter in the center. Currently, the only known objects that can pack enough matter in such a small space are black holes, or things that will evolve into black holes within astrophysically short timescales. For active galaxies farther away, the width of broad spectral lines can be used to probe the gas orbiting near the event horizon. The technique of reverberation mapping uses variability of these lines to measure the mass and perhaps the spin of the black hole that powers active galaxies.


title: Supermassive black hole

text: Astronomers are confident that the Milky Way galaxy has a supermassive black hole at its center, 26,000 light-years from the Solar System, in a region called Sagittarius A* because:


title: Supermassive black hole

text: Infrared observations of bright flare activity near Sagittarius A* show orbital motion of plasma with a period of at a separation of six to ten times the gravitational radius of the candidate SMBH. This emission is consistent with a circularized orbit of a polarized "hot spot" on an accretion disk in a strong magnetic field. The radiating matter is orbiting at 30% of the speed of light just outside the innermost stable circular orbit.


title: Supermassive black hole

text: On January 5, 2015, NASA reported observing an X-ray flare 400 times brighter than usual, a record-breaker, from Sagittarius A*. The unusual event may have been caused by the breaking apart of an asteroid falling into the black hole or by the entanglement of magnetic field lines within gas flowing into Sagittarius A*, according to astronomers.


title: Supermassive black hole

text: Unambiguous dynamical evidence for supermassive black holes exists only in a handful of galaxies; these include the Milky Way, the Local Group galaxies M31 and M32, and a few galaxies beyond the Local Group, such as NGC 4395. In these galaxies, the root mean square (or rms) velocities of the stars or gas rises proportionally to 1/ near the center, indicating a central point mass. In all other galaxies observed to date, the rms velocities are flat, or even falling, toward the center, making it impossible to state with certainty that a supermassive black hole is present. Nevertheless, it is commonly accepted that the center of nearly every galaxy contains a supermassive black hole. The reason for this assumption is the M–sigma relation, a tight (low scatter) relation between the mass of the hole in the 10 or so galaxies with secure detections, and the velocity dispersion of the stars in the bulges of those galaxies. This correlation, although based on just a handful of galaxies, suggests to many astronomers a strong connection between the formation of the black hole and the galaxy itself.


title: Supermassive black hole

text: On March 28, 2011, a supermassive black hole was seen tearing a mid-size star apart. That is the only likely explanation of the observations that day of sudden X-ray radiation and the follow-up broad-band observations. The source was previously an inactive galactic nucleus, and from study of the outburst the galactic nucleus is estimated to be a SMBH with mass of the order of a . This rare event is assumed to be a relativistic outflow (material being emitted in a jet at a significant fraction of the speed of light) from a star tidally disrupted by the SMBH. A significant fraction of a solar mass of material is expected to have accreted onto the SMBH. Subsequent long-term observation will allow this assumption to be confirmed if the emission from the jet decays at the expected rate for mass accretion onto a SMBH.


title: Supermassive black hole

text: The nearby Andromeda Galaxy, 2.5 million light-years away, contains a central black hole, significantly larger than the Milky Way's. The largest supermassive black hole in the Milky Way's vicinity appears to be that of Messier 87 (i.e., M87*), at a mass of at a distance of 48.92 million light-years. The supergiant elliptical galaxy NGC 4889, at a distance of 336 million light-years away in the Coma Berenices constellation, contains a black hole measured to be .


title: Supermassive black hole

text: Masses of black holes in quasars can be estimated via indirect methods that are subject to substantial uncertainty. The quasar TON 618 is an example of an object with an extremely large black hole, estimated at . Its redshift is 2.219. Other examples of quasars with large estimated black hole masses are the hyperluminous quasar APM 08279+5255, with an estimated mass of , and the quasar SMSS J215728.21-360215.1, with a mass of , or nearly 10,000 times the mass of the black hole at the Milky Way's Galactic Center.


title: Supermassive black hole

text: Some galaxies, such as the galaxy 4C +37.11, appear to have two supermassive black holes at their centers, forming a binary system. If they collided, the event would create strong gravitational waves. Binary supermassive black holes are believed to be a common consequence of galactic mergers. The binary pair in OJ 287, 3.5 billion light-years away, contains the most massive black hole in a pair, with a mass estimated at . In 2011, a super-massive black hole was discovered in the dwarf galaxy Henize 2-10, which has no bulge. The precise implications for this discovery on black hole formation are unknown, but may indicate that black holes formed before bulges.


title: Supermassive black hole

text: In 2012, astronomers reported an unusually large mass of approximately for the black hole in the compact, lenticular galaxy NGC 1277, which lies 220 million light-years away in the constellation Perseus. The putative black hole has approximately 59 percent of the mass of the bulge of this lenticular galaxy (14 percent of the total stellar mass of the galaxy). Another study reached a very different conclusion: this black hole is not particularly overmassive, estimated at between with being the most likely value. On February 28, 2013, astronomers reported on the use of the NuSTAR satellite to accurately measure the spin of a supermassive black hole for the first time, in NGC 1365, reporting that the event horizon was spinning at almost the speed of light.


title: Supermassive black hole

text: In September 2014, data from different X-ray telescopes have shown that the extremely small, dense, ultracompact dwarf galaxy M60-UCD1 hosts a 20 million solar mass black hole at its center, accounting for more than 10% of the total mass of the galaxy. The discovery is quite surprising, since the black hole is five times more massive than the Milky Way's black hole despite the galaxy being less than five-thousandths the mass of the Milky Way.


title: Supermassive black hole

text: Some galaxies lack any supermassive black holes in their centers. Although most galaxies with no supermassive black holes are very small, dwarf galaxies, one discovery remains mysterious: The supergiant elliptical cD galaxy A2261-BCG has not been found to contain an active supermassive black hole of at least , despite the galaxy being one of the largest galaxies known; over six times the size and one thousand times the mass of the Milky Way. Despite that, several studies gave very large mass values for a possible central black hole inside A2261-BGC, such as about as large as or as low as . Since a supermassive black hole will only be visible while it is accreting, a supermassive black hole can be nearly invisible, except in its effects on stellar orbits. This implies that either A2261-BGC has a central black hole that is accreting at a low level or has a mass rather below .


title: Supermassive black hole

text: In December 2017, astronomers reported the detection of the most distant quasar known by this time, ULAS J1342+0928, containing the most distant supermassive black hole, at a reported redshift of z = 7.54, surpassing the redshift of 7 for the previously known most distant quasar ULAS J1120+0641.


title: Supermassive black hole

text: In February 2020, astronomers reported the discovery of the Ophiuchus Supercluster eruption, the most energetic event in the Universe ever detected since the Big Bang. It occurred in the Ophiuchus Cluster in the galaxy NeVe 1, caused by the accretion of nearly of material by its central supermassive black hole. The eruption lasted for about 100 million years and released 5.7 million times more energy than the most powerful gamma-ray burst known. The eruption released shock waves and jets of high-energy particles that punched the intracluster medium, creating a cavity about 1.5 million light-years wide – ten times the Milky Way's diameter.


title: Supermassive black hole

text: In February 2021, astronomers released, for the first time, a very high-resolution image of 25,000 active supermassive black holes, covering four percent of the Northern celestial hemisphere, based on ultra-low radio wavelengths, as detected by the Low-Frequency Array (LOFAR) in Europe.


title: Dom DeLuise

text: Dominick DeLuise (August 1, 1933 – May 4, 2009) was an American actor, comedian, director, producer, chef, and author. Known primarily for his comedic performances, he rose to fame in the 1970s as a frequent guest on television variety shows. He is often identified for his work in the films of Mel Brooks and Gene Wilder, as well as a series of collaborations and appearances with Burt Reynolds. Beginning in the 1980s, his popularity expanded to younger audiences from voicing characters in several major animated productions, particularly those of Don Bluth.


title: Dom DeLuise

text: DeLuise was born in Brooklyn, New York, to Italian American parents Vincenza "Jennie" (née DeStefano), a homemaker, and John DeLuise, a public employee (garbage collector).<ref name="latimes/1999-jan-10-cl-62046"></ref> He was the youngest of three children, having an older brother, Nicholas "Nick" DeLuise, and an older sister, Antoinette DeLuise-Daurio. DeLuise graduated from Manhattan's High School of Performing Arts and later attended Tufts University in Medford, Massachusetts, where he majored in biology. DeLuise was Roman Catholic and had a particular devotion to the Virgin Mary.


title: Dom DeLuise

text: DeLuise's paid stage debut, at age 18, of "Bernie the dog" was in the drama "Bernies Christmas Wish". His first steady gig was as an intern at the Cleveland Play House, 1952-54, as stage manager and actor.<ref name="cleveland/2009/05/apdom_deluise"></ref>


title: Dom DeLuise

text: In 1961, DeLuise played in the off-Broadway musical revue "Another Evening with Harry Stoons", which lasted nine previews and one performance. Another member of the cast was 19-year-old Barbra Streisand. He was also in the off-Broadway play "All in Love", which opened on November 10, 1961, at the Martinique Theatre and ran for 141 performances. Other New York theater performances included "Half-Past Wednesday" (off-Broadway) (1962); "Around the World in 80 Days" (off-Broadway) (1963); "The Student Gypsy" (Broadway) (1963); "Here's Love" (Broadway) (1963); and "Last of the Red Hot Lovers" (Broadway) (1969).


title: Dom DeLuise

text: DeLuise generally appeared in comedic parts, although an early appearance in the movie "Fail-Safe" as a nervous USAF technical sergeant showed a broader range. His first acting credit was as a regular performer in the television show "The Entertainers" in 1964. He gained early notice for his supporting turn in the Doris Day film "The Glass Bottom Boat" (1966). In his review in "The New York Times", Vincent Canby panned the film but singled out the actor, stating, "[T]he best of the lot, however, is a newcomer, Dom DeLuise, as a portly, bird-brained spy."


title: Dom DeLuise

text: In the 1970s and 1980s, he often co-starred with his real-life friend Burt Reynolds. Together they appeared in the films "The Cannonball Run" and "Cannonball Run II", "Smokey and the Bandit II", "The End", and "The Best Little Whorehouse in Texas". DeLuise was the host of the television show "Candid Camera" from 1991 to 1992. He was a mainstay of "Burke's Law", an American television series that aired on CBS during the 1993–94 and 1994–95 television seasons.


title: Dom DeLuise

text: DeLuise also lent his distinctive voice to various animated films and was a particular staple of Don Bluth's features, playing major roles in "The Secret of NIMH", "An American Tail", "A Troll in Central Park" and "All Dogs Go to Heaven". "All Dogs Go to Heaven" also featured Reynolds' voice as Charlie B. Barkin, the cheeky and crazy main character, and DeLuise voiced Itchy Itchiford, Charlie's best friend, wing-man and later partner in business. Unlike DeLuise, however, Reynolds would not contribute a voiceover to any of the eventual film or television series or sequels.


title: Dom DeLuise

text: DeLuise also voiced the legendary character of Charles Dickens' Fagin in the Walt Disney film "Oliver & Company" and made voice guest appearances on several animated TV series.


title: Dom DeLuise

text: TV producer Greg Garrison hired DeLuise to appear as a specialty act on "The Dean Martin Show". DeLuise ran through his "Dominick the Great" routine, a riotous example of a magic act gone wrong, with host Martin as a bemused volunteer from the audience. Dom's catchphrase, with an Italian accent, was "No Applause Please, Save-a to the End". The show went so well that DeLuise was soon a regular on Martin's program, participating in both songs and sketches.


title: Dom DeLuise

text: Garrison also featured DeLuise in his own hour-long comedy specials for ABC. (Martin was often off-camera when these were taped, and his distinctive laugh can be heard.)


title: Dom DeLuise

text: In 1968, DeLuise hosted his own hour-long comedy variety series for CBS, "The Dom DeLuise Show". Taped in Miami at The Jackie Gleason Theater, it featured many regular Gleason show cast members including The June Taylor Dancers and The Sammy Spear Orchestra. DeLuise's wife Carol Arthur also regularly appeared. The 16-week run was the summer replacement for "The Jonathan Winters Show". He later starred in his own sitcom, "Lotsa Luck" (1973–1974).


title: Dom DeLuise

text: DeLuise was probably best known as a regular in Mel Brooks' films. He appeared in "The Twelve Chairs", "Blazing Saddles", "Silent Movie", "History of the World, Part I", "Spaceballs", and "". Brooks' then-wife, actress Anne Bancroft, directed Dom in "Fatso" (1980).


title: Dom DeLuise

text: DeLuise exhibited his comedic talents while playing the speaking part of the jailer Frosch in the comedic operetta "Die Fledermaus" at the Metropolitan Opera, playing the role in four separate revivals of the work at the Met between December 1989 and January 1996. In the production, while the singing was in German, the spoken parts were in English. A lifelong opera fan, he also portrayed the role of L'Opinion Publique in drag for the Los Angeles Opera's production of Offenbach's "Orpheus in the Underworld".


title: Dom DeLuise

text: An avid cook and author of several books on cooking, he appeared as a regular contributor to a syndicated home improvement radio show, "On The House with The Carey Brothers", giving listeners tips on culinary topics. He was also a friend and self-proclaimed "look-alike" of famous Cajun chef Paul Prudhomme and author of seven children's books.


title: Dom DeLuise

text: In 1964, while working in a summer theater in Provincetown, Massachusetts, DeLuise met actress Carol Arthur. They married in 1965 and had three sons, all of whom are actors: Peter, Michael, and David DeLuise.


title: Dom DeLuise

text: DeLuise died of kidney failure on May 4, 2009, at Saint John's Health Center in Santa Monica, California, at age 75. He had been battling cancer for more than a year prior to his death and was also suffering from high blood pressure and diabetes.


title: Dom DeLuise

text: Burt Reynolds paid tribute to Deluise in the "Los Angeles Times", saying: "As you get older and start to lose people you love, you think about it more, and I was dreading this moment. Dom always made you feel better when he was around, and there will never be another like him." Mel Brooks also made a statement to the same paper, telling them that DeLuise "created so much joy and laughter on the set that you couldn’t get your work done. So every time I made a movie with Dom, I would plan another two days on the schedule just for laughter. It's a sad day. It's hard to think of this life and this world without him."


title: Cocaine Bear

text: Cocaine Bear is an upcoming American black comedy thriller film directed and co-produced by Elizabeth Banks from a screenplay by Jimmy Warden. It is inspired by the true story of the eponymous character, an American black bear who ingested a duffel bag full of cocaine in 1985. The film features an ensemble cast that includes Keri Russell, O'Shea Jackson Jr., Christian Convery-Jennings, Alden Ehrenreich, Jesse Tyler Ferguson, Brooklynn Prince, Isiah Whitlock Jr., Kristofer Hivju, Hannah Hoekstra, Aaron Holliday, Margo Martindale, and Ray Liotta in one of his final performances before his death.


title: Cocaine Bear

text: "Cocaine Bear" is scheduled to be released in the United States on February 24, 2023, by Universal Pictures.


title: Cocaine Bear

text: After ingesting a duffel bag full of cocaine, an American black bear goes on a murderous rampage in a small Georgia town where a group of locals and tourists must join forces in order to survive the attack.


title: Cocaine Bear

text: The film is inspired by the real story of a American black bear that died after ingesting a duffel bag full of cocaine in December 1985. The cocaine had been dropped out of an airplane piloted by Andrew C. Thornton II, a former narcotics officer and convicted drug smuggler, because his plane was carrying too heavy a load. Thornton then jumped off the plane with a faulty parachute and died. The bear was found three months later in the north of the state of Georgia alongside 40 opened plastic containers of cocaine. The bear is currently on display at the Kentucky for Kentucky Fun Mall in Lexington, Kentucky, US, who named the creature "Cocaine Bear" in 2015.


title: Cocaine Bear

text: In December 2019, it was announced that Phil Lord and Christopher Miller were producing an untitled horror comedy project inspired by the true story, based from a spec script written by Jimmy Warden. The producers approached Radio Silence collectives Matt Bettinelli-Olpin and Tyler Gillett to direct but both opted out of the film in favor of making the fifth "Scream" installment.


title: Cocaine Bear

text: On March 9, 2021, Universal Pictures announced that the film was in development. It was also confirmed that the film would instead be directed by Elizabeth Banks, and produced by Banks and Max Handelman for Brownstone Productions, who joined the producing team alongside Lord, Miller, and Aditya Sood for Lord Miller Productions, and Brian Duffield. The ensemble cast was revealed between July and August 2021.


title: Cocaine Bear

text: In February 2022, Natalie Holt was reported to compose the film score. However, Mark Mothersbaugh replaced her as composer in November 2022. It marks his second collaboration with Banks after "Pitch Perfect 2" (2015).


title: Cocaine Bear

text: Prior to the film's release, it went viral on social media. Yasmin Tayag of "The Atlantic" wrote that part of the film's popularity on social media may have been due to the appeal of man versus nature narratives or the shock value of the premise. However, she noted that the bear was also presented in a sympathetic light by the film.


title: Chlamydia

text: Chlamydia, or more specifically a chlamydia infection, is a sexually transmitted infection caused by the bacterium "Chlamydia trachomatis". Most people who are infected have no symptoms. When symptoms do appear they may occur only several weeks after infection; the incubation period between exposure and being able to infect others is thought to be on the order of two to six weeks. Symptoms in women may include vaginal discharge or burning with urination. Symptoms in men may include discharge from the penis, burning with urination, or pain and swelling of one or both testicles. The infection can spread to the upper genital tract in women, causing pelvic inflammatory disease, which may result in future infertility or ectopic pregnancy.


title: Chlamydia

text: Chlamydia infections can occur in other areas besides the genitals, including the anus, eyes, throat, and lymph nodes. Repeated chlamydia infections of the eyes that go without treatment can result in trachoma, a common cause of blindness in the developing world.


title: Chlamydia

text: Chlamydia can be spread during vaginal, anal, or oral sex, and can be passed from an infected mother to her baby during childbirth. The eye infections may also be spread by personal contact, flies, and contaminated towels in areas with poor sanitation. Infection by the bacterium "Chlamydia trachomatis" only occurs in humans. Diagnosis is often by screening which is recommended yearly in sexually active women under the age of twenty-five, others at higher risk, and at the first prenatal visit. Testing can be done on the urine or a swab of the cervix, vagina, or urethra. Rectal or mouth swabs are required to diagnose infections in those areas.


title: Chlamydia

text: Prevention is by not having sex, the use of condoms, or having sex with only one other person, who is not infected. Chlamydia can be cured by antibiotics with typically either azithromycin or doxycycline being used. Erythromycin or azithromycin is recommended in babies and during pregnancy. Sexual partners should also be treated, and infected people should be advised not to have sex for seven days and until symptom free. Gonorrhea, syphilis, and HIV should be tested for in those who have been infected. Following treatment people should be tested again after three months.


title: Chlamydia

text: Chlamydia is one of the most common sexually transmitted infections, affecting about 4.2% of women and 2.7% of men worldwide. In 2015, about 61 million new cases occurred globally. In the United States about 1.4 million cases were reported in 2014. Infections are most common among those between the ages of 15 and 25 and are more common in women than men. In 2015 infections resulted in about 200 deaths. The word "chlamydia" is from the Greek χλαμύδα, meaning "cloak".


title: Chlamydia

text: Chlamydial infection of the cervix (neck of the womb) is a sexually transmitted infection which has no symptoms for around 70% of women infected. The infection can be passed through vaginal, anal, or oral sex. Of those who have an asymptomatic infection that is not detected by their doctor, approximately half will develop pelvic inflammatory disease (PID), a generic term for infection of the uterus, fallopian tubes, and/or ovaries. PID can cause scarring inside the reproductive organs, which can later cause serious complications, including chronic pelvic pain, difficulty becoming pregnant, ectopic (tubal) pregnancy, and other dangerous complications of pregnancy.


title: Chlamydia

text: Chlamydia is known as the "silent epidemic", as at least 70% of genital C. trachomatis infections in women (and 50% in men) are asymptomatic at the time of diagnosis, and can linger for months or years before being discovered. Signs and symptoms may include abnormal vaginal bleeding or discharge, abdominal pain, painful sexual intercourse, fever, painful urination or the urge to urinate more often than usual (urinary urgency).


title: Chlamydia

text: For sexually active women who are not pregnant, screening is recommended in those under 25 and others at risk of infection. Risk factors include a history of chlamydial or other sexually transmitted infection, new or multiple sexual partners, and inconsistent condom use. Guidelines recommend all women attending for emergency contraceptive are offered chlamydia testing, with studies showing up to 9% of women aged <25 years had chlamydia.


title: Chlamydia

text: In men, those with a chlamydial infection show symptoms of infectious inflammation of the urethra in about 50% of cases. Symptoms that may occur include: a painful or burning sensation when urinating, an unusual discharge from the penis, testicular pain or swelling, or fever. If left untreated, chlamydia in men can spread to the testicles causing epididymitis, which in rare cases can lead to sterility if not treated. Chlamydia is also a potential cause of prostatic inflammation in men, although the exact relevance in prostatitis is difficult to ascertain due to possible contamination from urethritis.


title: Chlamydia

text: Trachoma is a chronic conjunctivitis caused by "Chlamydia trachomatis". It was once the leading cause of blindness worldwide, but its role diminished from 15% of blindness cases by trachoma in 1995 to 3.6% in 2002. The infection can be spread from eye to eye by fingers, shared towels or cloths, coughing and sneezing and eye-seeking flies. Symptoms include mucopurulent ocular discharge, irritation, redness, and lid swelling. Newborns can also develop chlamydia eye infection through childbirth (see below). Using the SAFE strategy (acronym for surgery for in-growing or in-turned lashes, antibiotics, facial cleanliness, and environmental improvements), the World Health Organization aims for the global elimination of trachoma by 2020 (GET 2020 initiative).


title: Chlamydia

text: Chlamydia may also cause reactive arthritis—the triad of arthritis, conjunctivitis and urethral inflammation—especially in young men. About 15,000 men develop reactive arthritis due to chlamydia infection each year in the U.S., and about 5,000 are permanently affected by it. It can occur in both sexes, though is more common in men.


title: Chlamydia

text: As many as half of all infants born to mothers with chlamydia will be born with the disease. Chlamydia can affect infants by causing spontaneous abortion; premature birth; conjunctivitis, which may lead to blindness; and pneumonia. Conjunctivitis due to chlamydia typically occurs one week after birth (compared with chemical causes (within hours) or gonorrhea (2–5 days)).


title: Chlamydia

text: A different serovar of Chlamydia trachomatis is also the cause of lymphogranuloma venereum, an infection of the lymph nodes and lymphatics. It usually presents with genital ulceration and swollen lymph nodes in the groin, but it may also manifest as rectal inflammation, fever or swollen lymph nodes in other regions of the body.


title: Chlamydia

text: Chlamydia can be transmitted during vaginal, anal, or oral sex, or direct contact with infected tissue such as conjunctiva. Chlamydia can also be passed from an infected mother to her baby during vaginal childbirth. It is assumed that the probability of becoming infected is proportionate to the number of bacteria one is exposed to.


title: Chlamydia

text: "Chlamydiae" have the ability to establish long-term associations with host cells. When an infected host cell is starved for various nutrients such as amino acids (for example, tryptophan), iron, or vitamins, this has a negative consequence for "Chlamydiae" since the organism is dependent on the host cell for these nutrients. Long-term cohort studies indicate that approximately 50% of those infected clear within a year, 80% within two years, and 90% within three years.


title: Chlamydia

text: The starved chlamydiae enter a persistent growth state wherein they stop cell division and become morphologically aberrant by increasing in size. Persistent organisms remain viable as they are capable of returning to a normal growth state once conditions in the host cell improve.


title: Chlamydia

text: There is debate as to whether persistence has relevance. Some believe that persistent chlamydiae are the cause of chronic chlamydial diseases. Some antibiotics such as β-lactams have been found to induce a persistent-like growth state.


title: Chlamydia

text: The diagnosis of genital chlamydial infections evolved rapidly from the 1990s through 2006. Nucleic acid amplification tests (NAAT), such as polymerase chain reaction (PCR), transcription mediated amplification (TMA), and the DNA strand displacement amplification (SDA) now are the mainstays. NAAT for chlamydia may be performed on swab specimens sampled from the cervix (women) or urethra (men), on self-collected vaginal swabs, or on voided urine. NAAT has been estimated to have a sensitivity of approximately 90% and a specificity of approximately 99%, regardless of sampling from a cervical swab or by urine specimen. In women seeking an sexually transmitted infection (STI) clinic and a urine test is negative, a subsequent cervical swab has been estimated to be positive in approximately 2% of the time.


title: Chlamydia

text: At present, the NAATs have regulatory approval only for testing urogenital specimens, although rapidly evolving research indicates that they may give reliable results on rectal specimens.


title: Chlamydia

text: Because of improved test accuracy, ease of specimen management, convenience in specimen management, and ease of screening sexually active men and women, the NAATs have largely replaced culture, the historic gold standard for chlamydia diagnosis, and the non-amplified probe tests. The latter test is relatively insensitive, successfully detecting only 60–80% of infections in asymptomatic women, and often giving falsely-positive results. Culture remains useful in selected circumstances and is currently the only assay approved for testing non-genital specimens. Other methods also exist including: ligase chain reaction (LCR), direct fluorescent antibody resting, enzyme immunoassay, and cell culture.


title: Chlamydia

text: Rapid point-of-care tests are, as of 2020, not thought to be effective for diagnosing chlamydia in men of reproductive age and nonpregnant women because of high false-negative rates.


title: Chlamydia

text: Prevention is by not having sex, the use of condoms, or having sex with only one other person, who is not infected.


title: Chlamydia

text: For sexually active women who are not pregnant, screening is recommended in those under 25 and others at risk of infection. Risk factors include a history of chlamydial or other sexually transmitted infection, new or multiple sexual partners, and inconsistent condom use. For pregnant women, guidelines vary: screening women with age or other risk factors is recommended by the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force (USPSTF) (which recommends screening women under 25) and the American Academy of Family Physicians (which recommends screening women aged 25 or younger). The American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists recommends screening all at risk, while the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention recommend universal screening of pregnant women. The USPSTF acknowledges that in some communities there may be other risk factors for infection, such as ethnicity. Evidence-based recommendations for screening initiation, intervals and termination are currently not possible. For men, the USPSTF concludes evidence is currently insufficient to determine if regular screening of men for chlamydia is beneficial. They recommend regular screening of men who are at increased risk for HIV or syphilis infection. A Cochrane review found that the effects of screening are uncertain in terms of chlamydia transmission but that screening probably reduces the risk of pelvic inflammatory disease in women.


title: Chlamydia

text: "C. trachomatis" infection can be effectively cured with antibiotics. Guidelines recommend azithromycin, doxycycline, erythromycin, levofloxacin or ofloxacin. In men, doxycycline (100 mg twice a day for 7 days) is probably more effective than azithromycin (1 g single dose) but evidence for the relative effectiveness of antibiotics in women is very uncertain. Agents recommended during pregnancy include erythromycin or amoxicillin.


title: Chlamydia

text: An option for treating sexual partners of those with chlamydia or gonorrhea includes patient-delivered partner therapy (PDT or PDPT), which is the practice of treating the sex partners of index cases by providing prescriptions or medications to the patient to take to his/her partner without the health care provider first examining the partner.


title: Chlamydia

text: Globally, as of 2015, sexually transmitted chlamydia affects approximately 61 million people. It is more common in women (3.8%) than men (2.5%). In 2015 it resulted in about 200 deaths.


title: Chlamydia

text: In the United States about 1.6 million cases were reported in 2016. The CDC estimates that if one includes unreported cases there are about 2.9 million each year. It affects around 2% of young people. Chlamydial infection is the most common bacterial sexually transmitted infection in the UK.


title: Chlamydia

text: Chlamydia causes more than 250,000 cases of epididymitis in the U.S. each year. Chlamydia causes 250,000 to 500,000 cases of PID every year in the United States. Women infected with chlamydia are up to five times more likely to become infected with HIV, if exposed.


title: Vidyut Jammwal

text: Vidyut Dev Singh Jammwal (born 10 December 1980) is an Indian actor, martial artist and film producer who predominantly works in Hindi films. He is also a practitioner of Kalaripayattu. He is best known for his roles in Commando film series, and is recipient of several awards including one Filmfare Award.


title: Vidyut Jammwal

text: He made his Telugu debut with "Sakthi", Hindi with "Force" and Tamil debut with "Billa II", all in negative roles. His first lead role was in the successful film "". He went onto appear in various films including "Anjaan", "Thuppakki", "Baadshaho", "", "Junglee", "Yaara", "Commando 3" and "Sanak".


title: Vidyut Jammwal

text: Vidyut Jammwal was born in Jammu, Jammu and Kashmir, India. He is one of three children born to an Army officer and lived in various parts of India (owing to his father's transferable job) and trained in Kalaripayattu in an ashram in Palakkad, Kerala which was run by his mother, since he was three years old. He traveled to many countries training with martial artists in various forms, some of which find their base in Kalaripayattu. Jammwal travelled to over 25 countries, where he performed in live action shows.


title: Vidyut Jammwal

text: Jammwal made his Bollywood debut with the John Abraham starrer 2011 film "Force", a remake of the Tamil-language film "Kaakha Kaakha". He played a negative role in the film and won multiple best debut awards including the Filmfare Award for Best Male Debut.


title: Vidyut Jammwal

text: 2011 witnessed Jammwal featuring in negative roles in the Telugu-language films "Shakti" and "Oosaravelli", both starring NTR. In 2012, Jammwal made his debut in Tamil cinema with "Billa II", as the antagonist opposite Ajith Kumar which earned him critical appreciation. The same year, he played the antagonist in "Thuppakki" opposite actor Vijay, which became a blockbuster. He also received a SIIMA Award for Best Actor in a Negative Role for the film.


title: Vidyut Jammwal

text: Jammwal later acted in Hindi-language film "" as a protagonist and performing real-world combat-based action without the aid of stuntmen. The film was showcased internationally for the first time in July 2013 at the Fantasia Film Fest in Montreal, followed by a screening at the Fantastic Fest in Texas in September 2013. He received positive feedback from international media and action directors, calling him India's answer to Bruce Lee and Tony Jaa. After the success of "Commando", he played a sharpshooter cop in Tigmanshu Dhulia's "Bullett Raja". In 2014, he played a supporting role in the Tamil-language film "Anjaan", alongside Suriya. In 2017, he starred in "", the sequel to "Commando", which became a box office success. "Baadshaho was" his next release that year in which he played Major Seher Singh, the movie did average business worldwide.


title: Vidyut Jammwal

text: In 2019, Jammwal starred in American director Chuck Russell's first Bollywood film "Junglee" and "Commando 3". The latter saw him returning to the "Commando series" and became the most successful film in the franchise. His next project was Tigmanshu Dhulia's "Yaara", an official remake of the French film "Les Lyonnais." "Yaara" was one of three films Vidyut signed for – the other two being large format films by director Ram Madhvani, creating an aura similar to the Hollywood flick "300". In 2020, he appeared in an action thriller Khuda Haafiz which was inspired from real life events. The movie became his biggest opener ever and its sequel "Khuda Haafiz Chapter II" was announced with same leads. He also played the lead role in the movie "Sanak".


title: Vidyut Jammwal

text: Jammwal has also been part of a number of popular magazine lists. He ranked in The Times of India's listing of India's Top 10 Most Desirable Men in 2012 and 2013. Men's Health declared him as List of Best Bodies and Top 5 Fittest Men in 2011 and 2012 respectively. In 2012, People Magazine India listed him in as one of The Sexiest Men Alive. In 2014, He was honoured as PETA's Hottest Vegetarian along with Kangana Ranaut. In 2018, he was declared as "Top 6 Martial Artists Around The World".


title: The Bodyguard (1992 film)

text: The Bodyguard is a 1992 American romantic drama thriller film directed by Mick Jackson, written by Lawrence Kasdan, and starring Kevin Costner, Whitney Houston (in her acting debut), Gary Kemp, Bill Cobbs, and Ralph Waite. The film follows a former United States Secret Service agent turned bodyguard who is hired to protect a famous actress and singer from an unknown stalker. Kasdan wrote the film in the mid-1970s, originally as a vehicle for Steve McQueen and Diana Ross.


title: The Bodyguard (1992 film)

text: Warner Bros. Pictures on November 25, 1992. The film grossed $411 million worldwide, becoming the second highest-grossing film of 1992 behind "Aladdin" and at the time of its release the tenth highest-grossing film of all time. However, the film was generally panned by critics who criticized its screenplay and performances of the lead actors. The film's accompanying soundtrack by Houston became the best-selling soundtrack album of all-time, with sales of over 45 million copies worldwide, and won the Grammy Award for Album of the Year, while the singles "I Have Nothing" and "Run to You" received nominations for the Academy Award for Best Original Song. The film received seven nominations at the 13th Golden Raspberry Awards, including for Worst Picture, Worst Actor (for Costner) and Worst Actress (for Houston).


title: The Bodyguard (1992 film)

text: Rachel Marron is an Academy Award-nominated actress and music superstar who is being sent death threats by a stalker. After a bomb explodes in her dressing room, her manager Bill Devaney seeks out professional bodyguard Frank Farmer, a former Secret Service agent who served on the Carter and Reagan presidential details, to protect her. Frank reluctantly accepts Devaney's offer, but he feels Rachel is a spoiled diva who is oblivious to the threats against her life.


title: The Bodyguard (1992 film)

text: Rachel soon accuses Frank of being paranoid, complaining that his extensive protection techniques are intrusive. However, Frank and Rachel grow closer when he rescues her from danger after a riot erupts at one of her concerts. Her existing bodyguard, Tony, resents Frank's presence, leading to a brawl between the two in Rachel's kitchen. Though Frank tries to remain professional, he and Rachel sleep together; he breaks off the affair the next day, realizing it compromises his ability to protect her. Hurt, Rachel begins to defy Frank's security measures. Then, to make Frank jealous, Rachel flirts with his former Secret Service colleague, Greg Portman, whom she meets at a Miami party.


title: The Bodyguard (1992 film)

text: When her stalker places a threatening phone call, Rachel finally recognizes the seriousness of the situation and her need to trust Frank completely. Frank, Rachel, her son Fletcher, her older sister Nicki, and her driver, Henry, then travel to a large lakefront cabin in the mountains, the home of Frank's father, Herb. The next day, Frank rescues Fletcher from a small motorboat just before it blows up. After Frank secures the house for the night, a drunk Nicki, upset that Fletcher could have died, admits to Frank that she hired a hitman to kill Rachel during a fit of jealousy, but that the letters from the stalker came before that. She has paid in full and does not know the killer's identity. Abruptly, the hitman breaks into the dark house and fatally shoots Nicki. Frank pursues the killer into the woods; he shoots at the assailant, misses, and the assailant escapes. Frank learns that the stalker had been apprehended earlier that day, and was in custody when Nicki was killed.


title: The Bodyguard (1992 film)

text: A few days after Nicki's funeral is the Academy Awards ceremony, where Frank gives Rachel a panic button in the shape of a cross to immediately alert him to any trouble. Despite this, a plethora of backstage technical issues hamper Frank's efforts to monitor the proceedings closely. While presenting an award, Rachel freezes and runs offstage, angry at Frank for embarrassing her with overprotective measures. Later, Rachel is announced as the winner for Best Actress, but as she comes on stage to accept the award, Portman is revealed to be the hitman, masquerading as the bodyguard for the ceremony's host. Frank notices Portman pointing a gun disguised as a camera at Rachel; as Portman prepares for the fatal shot, Frank runs onstage and leaps in front of Rachel, taking the bullet meant for her and setting off chaos amongst the audience. Immediately regaining his balance, Frank shoots and kills Portman while the gun is aimed at Rachel. Frank is left wounded, and Rachel calls for help, all the while urging him to stay with her as he slowly passes out.


title: The Bodyguard (1992 film)

text: Frank recovers from the shooting and bids farewell to Rachel at the airport, both knowing their relationship would never work out. After the plane starts to take off, Rachel suddenly orders the plane to stop, jumps out and runs to Frank for one last passionate kiss. Sometime later Rachel performs "I Will Always Love You" on a stage, while elsewhere Frank is at an annual dinner keeping a vigilant eye on his next assignment while a minister is seen holding a cross similar to the one he gave Rachel.


title: The Bodyguard (1992 film)

text: In addition, Tony Pierce plays the stalker, while the Academy Awards ceremony includes Robert Wuhl as the host, Richard Schiff as a stage manager, journalist Chris Connelly as the red carpet M.C. and Debbie Reynolds as herself. David Foster and Linda Thompson also have cameos as the Oscars music director and an audience member respectively.


title: The Bodyguard (1992 film)

text: Lawrence Kasdan was an advertising copywriter who wanted to get into filmmaking. He wrote eight scripts in eight years, including "The Bodyguard" which Kasdan says was inspired by "Yojimbo" with Steve McQueen as the lead. "I was interested in what kind of a guy would do that kind of work: to be willing to lay down his life for a salary, for someone he may care nothing about-maybe even have negative feelings about," said Kasdan. Kasdan says it was the first really good script he wrote:


title: The Bodyguard (1992 film)

text: I loved all my early scripts and I expected everybody else to love them. It wasn't until I wrote 'The Bodyguard' and sensed it was different that I realized I was writing an increased level of density. A good script has levels of action going on, unexpected turns. Movies are an economical form. Your script must communicate in the tersest possible way an emotional feeling, imply it in a mosaic of tiny scenes. An unknown screenwriter selling a speculative script must deliver a delight. An established writer gets a lot of rope. The producer reads his script and says, 'I don't feel any delight but he must know what he's doing.' A lot of times he doesn't, and you have a lousy movie.


title: The Bodyguard (1992 film)

text: Kasdan wrote it in 1975 and the script succeeded in getting him an agent, but it took the agent two years to sell the script—he says 67 people passed on it. Eventually the script was sold to John Calley for $20,000. Calley brought in John Boorman to direct. Kasdan admired Boorman and went to Ireland with the director where they did a treatment for a new movie. "He completely changed it, but I still loved him," said Kasdan.


title: The Bodyguard (1992 film)

text: In November 1978, the film was going ahead with Ryan O'Neal and Diana Ross. Then, Ross pulled out of the movie which went back into development hell.


title: The Bodyguard (1992 film)

text: After Kasdan made his successful directorial debut with "Body Heat" he was asked to direct "The Bodyguard" but he was reluctant, preferring to make "The Big Chill". Kevin Costner read the script when making "Silverado" with Kasdan and became enthusiastic about it. The two men decided to produce it together. After Costner became a major star with the success of "The Untouchables" and "", among others, he had the clout to make "The Bodyguard".


title: The Bodyguard (1992 film)

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, "The Bodyguard" has a 38% approval rating from 50 reviews and an average rating of 5.2/10. The consensus reads, ""The Bodyguard" is a cheesy, melodramatic potboiler with occasional moments of electricity from Whitney Houston." On Metacritic the film has a score of 38 out of 100 based on reviews from 20 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews". Audiences surveyed by CinemaScore gave the film a grade of "B+" on scale of A+ to F.


title: The Bodyguard (1992 film)

text: Owen Gleiberman of "Entertainment Weekly" wrote, "To say that Houston and Costner fail to strike sparks would be putting it mildly." He added that "the movie gives us these two self-contained celebrity icons working hard to look as if they want each other. It's like watching two statues attempting to mate." Roger Ebert gave it three out of four stars and wrote, "The movie does contain a love story, but it's the kind of guarded passion that grows between two people who spend a lot of time keeping their priorities straight."


title: The Bodyguard (1992 film)

text: The film is listed in Golden Raspberry Award founder John Wilson's "The Official Razzie Movie Guide" as one of The 100 Most Enjoyably Bad Movies Ever Made.


title: The Bodyguard (1992 film)

text: In the United States and Canada, "The Bodyguard" opened on November 25, 1992 in 1,717 theaters; it grossed $16.6 million in its opening weekend, ranking third. The film spent 10 weeks in the Top 10, ultimately grossing $121.9 million domestically, and $410.9 million worldwide. Its international gross was a record for Warner Bros. In the United Kingdom, it had a record Christmas opening, with a gross of $2 million for the weekend from 258 screens. In Australia, it set an opening week record of $A4.36 million from 144 screens, beating the record set by "Crocodile Dundee II". It also set the opening weekend record in Denmark. It was the highest-grossing Warner Bros. film in Japan of all-time with a gross in excess of $21 million. It was the seventh-highest-grossing film of 1992 in the United States and Canada and the second-highest-grossing film of 1992, worldwide, behind "Aladdin", which curiously opened on the same day as "The Bodyguard". At the time, it was the tenth-highest-grossing film of all time.


title: The Bodyguard (1992 film)

text: Two songs from the film, "Run to You" and "I Have Nothing", were nominated for an Academy Award for Best Original Song. The soundtrack was nominated for four Grammy Awards, winning three, including Album of the Year for its album of the same name. The film was nominated for several MTV Movie Awards, an Image Award, BMI Film & TV Awards, a Golden Screen Award in Germany and a Japanese Academy Award, according to the Internet Movie Database.


title: The Bodyguard (1992 film)

text: It received seven Golden Raspberry Award nominations, including Worst Picture, Worst Actor (for Costner), and Worst Actress (for Houston). Houston was also nominated for Worst New Star as was Kevin Costner's haircut, however failed to win in any category.


title: The Bodyguard (1992 film)

text: "The Bodyguard: Original Soundtrack Album" became the best-selling soundtrack of all time and the best-selling album by a female artist of all time. It has been certified diamond in the United States (sales of at least ten million) with shipments of over 17 million copies. Worldwide, the sales are over 45 million copies. In addition, Houston's cover of "I Will Always Love You" sold 20 million units worldwide, becoming the best-selling physical single by a female artist of all time.


title: The Bodyguard (1992 film)

text: The soundtrack features five songs which were hit singles for Houston: "I Will Always Love You" (a cover of the Dolly Parton song), "I'm Every Woman" (a cover of the Chaka Khan song), the two Oscar-nominated songs, "I Have Nothing" and "Run to You", and "Queen of the Night".


title: The Bodyguard (1992 film)

text: Other artists who appear on the soundtrack include fellow Arista recording artists Kenny G ("Even if My Heart Would Break", a duet with Aaron Neville), Lisa Stansfield ("Someday I'm Coming Back") and Curtis Stigers ("What's so Funny 'Bout Peace, Love and Understanding"). Also included is a cover of the Bill Withers standard "Lovely Day" by the S.O.U.L. S.Y.S.T.E.M.


title: The Bodyguard (1992 film)

text: In 2013, La-La Land Records released a limited-edition CD (3,500 units) of Alan Silvestri's original score.


title: The Bodyguard (1992 film)

text: Following the success of the film, Costner contacted his longtime friend, Princess Diana, to star in a sequel. She agreed. The first draft arrived the day before her death. Following her passing, the film was scrapped.


title: The Bodyguard (1992 film)

text: A musical adaptation of the film opened in London's Adelphi Theatre in the West End in Fall 2012. David Ian, who produces the musical, received the stage rights from Kevin Costner and Lawrence Kasdan.


title: Mauna Kea

text: Mauna Kea ( or ; ; abbreviation for "Mauna a Wākea") is a dormant volcano on the island of Hawaii. Its peak is above sea level, making it the highest point in the state of Hawaii and second-highest peak of an island on Earth. The peak is about higher than Mauna Loa, its more massive neighbor. Mauna Kea is unusually topographically prominent for its height: its wet prominence is fifteenth in the world among mountains, at ; its dry prominence of is second in the world, only after Mount Everest This dry prominence is greater than Mount Everest's height above sea level of , and some authorities have labelled Mauna Kea the tallest mountain in the world, from its underwater base.


title: Mauna Kea

text: It is about one million years old and thus passed the most active shield stage of life hundreds of thousands of years ago. In its current post-shield state, its lava is more viscous, resulting in a steeper profile. Late volcanism has also given it a much rougher appearance than its neighboring volcanoes due to construction of cinder cones, decentralization of its rift zones, glaciation on its peak, and weathering by the prevailing trade winds. Mauna Kea last erupted 6,000 to 4,000 years ago and is now thought to be dormant.


title: Mauna Kea

text: In Hawaiian religion, the peaks of the island of Hawaii are sacred. An ancient law allowed only high-ranking aliʻi to visit its peak. Ancient Hawaiians living on the slopes of Mauna Kea relied on its extensive forests for food, and quarried the dense volcano-glacial basalts on its flanks for tool production. When Europeans arrived in the late 18th century, settlers introduced cattle, sheep and game animals, many of which became feral and began to damage the volcano's ecological balance. Mauna Kea can be ecologically divided into three sections: an alpine climate at its summit, a "Sophora chrysophylla"–"Myoporum sandwicense" (or māmane–naio) forest on its flanks, and an "Acacia koa"–"Metrosideros polymorpha" (or koa–ōhia) forest, now mostly cleared by the former sugar industry, at its base. In recent years, concern over the vulnerability of the native species has led to court cases that have forced the Hawaii Department of Land and Natural Resources to work towards eradicating all feral species on the volcano.


title: Mauna Kea

text: With its high elevation, dry environment, and stable airflow, Mauna Kea's summit is one of the best sites in the world for astronomical observation. Since the creation of an access road in 1964, thirteen telescopes funded by eleven countries have been constructed at the summit. The Mauna Kea Observatories are used for scientific research across the electromagnetic spectrum and comprise the largest such facility in the world. Their construction on a landscape considered sacred by Native Hawaiians continues to be a topic of debate to this day.


title: Mauna Kea

text: Mauna Kea is unusually topographically prominent for its height, with a wet prominence fifteenth in the world among mountains, and a dry prominence second in the world, after only Mount Everest. It is the highest peak on its island, so its wet prominence matches its height above sea level, at . Because the Hawaiian Islands slope deep into the ocean, Mauna Kea has a dry prominence of . This dry prominence is taller than Mount Everest's height above sea level of , so Everest would have to include whole continents in its foothills to exceed Mauna Kea's dry prominence.


title: Mauna Kea

text: Given how much Mauna Kea protrudes from the Hawaiian Trough, some authorities have called it the tallest (as opposed to highest) mountain in the world, as measured from base to peak. Unlike prominence, base is loosely defined, which has resulted in numbers ranging from (roughly to the deepest point in the Hawaiian Trough) to (to the root of the mountain deep underground). On those examples, other mountains stake rivaling claims, such as Mount Lamlam claiming higher climb from base (, starting from Challenger Deep), and all of the Himalayan Mountains claiming tremendously deep roots. Greater rises could be measured from the Atacama Trench to the Andes Mountains, for example, the bottom of Richard's Deep ( deep) to the peak of the nearby Llullaillaco ( high) is . Neither Mount Lamlam nor Llullaillaco have the dry prominence of Mauna Kea, because they do not extend into trenches in every direction.


title: Mauna Kea

text: Mauna Kea is one of five volcanoes that form the island of Hawaii, the largest and youngest island of the Hawaiian–Emperor seamount chain. Of these five hotspot volcanoes, Mauna Kea is the fourth oldest and fourth most active. It began as a preshield volcano driven by the Hawaii hotspot around one million years ago, and became exceptionally active during its shield stage until 500,000 years ago. Mauna Kea entered its quieter post-shield stage 250,000 to 200,000 years ago, and is currently dormant. Mauna Kea does not have a visible summit caldera, but contains a number of small cinder and pumice cones near its summit. A former summit caldera may have been filled and buried by later summit eruption deposits.


title: Mauna Kea

text: Mauna Kea is over in volume, so massive that it and its neighbor, Mauna Loa, depress the ocean crust beneath it by .


title: Mauna Kea

text: The volcano continues to slip and flatten under its own weight at a rate of less than per year. Much of its mass lies east of its present summit. It stands above sea level, about higher than its neighbor Mauna Loa, and is the highest point in the state of Hawaii.


title: Mauna Kea

text: Like all Hawaiian volcanoes, Mauna Kea has been created as the Pacific tectonic plate has moved over the Hawaiian hotspot in the Earth's underlying mantle. The Hawaii island volcanoes are the most recent evidence of this process that, over 70 million years, has created the -long Hawaiian Ridge–Emperor seamount chain. The prevailing, though not completely settled, view is that the hotspot has been largely stationary within the planet's mantle for much, if not all of the Cenozoic Era. However, while Hawaiian volcanism is well understood and extensively studied, there remains no definite explanation of the mechanism that causes the hotspot effect.


title: Mauna Kea

text: Lava flows from Mauna Kea overlapped in complex layers with those of its neighbors during its growth. Most prominently, Mauna Kea is built upon older flows from Kohala to the northwest, and intersects the base of Mauna Loa to the south. The original eruptive fissures (rift zones) in the flanks of Mauna Kea were buried by its post-shield volcanism. Hilo Ridge, a prominent underwater rift zone structure east of Mauna Kea, was once believed to be a part of the volcano; however, it is now understood to be a rift zone of Kohala that has been affected by younger Mauna Kea flows.


title: Mauna Kea

text: The shield-stage lavas that built the enormous main mass of the volcano are tholeiitic basalts, like those of Mauna Loa, created through the mixing of primary magma and subducted oceanic crust. They are covered by the oldest exposed rock strata on Mauna Kea, the post-shield alkali basalts of the "Hāmākua Volcanics", which erupted between 250,000 and 70–65,000 years ago. The most recent volcanic flows are hawaiites and mugearites: they are the post-shield "Laupāhoehoe Volcanics", erupted between 65,000 and 4,000 years ago. These changes in lava composition accompanied the slow reduction of the supply of magma to the summit, which led to weaker eruptions that then gave way to isolated episodes associated with volcanic dormancy. The Laupāhoehoe lavas are more viscous and contain more volatiles than the earlier tholeiitic basalts; their thicker flows significantly steepened Mauna Kea's flanks. In addition, explosive eruptions have built cinder cones near the summit. These cones are the most recent eruptive centers of Mauna Kea. Its present summit is dominated by lava domes and cinder cones up to in diameter and hundreds of meters tall.


title: Mauna Kea

text: Mauna Kea is the only Hawaiian volcano with distinct evidence of glaciation. Similar deposits probably existed on Mauna Loa, but have been covered by later lava flows. Despite Hawaii's tropical location, during several past ice ages a drop of a degree in temperature allowed snow to remain at the volcano's summit through summer, triggering the formation of an ice cap. There are three episodes of glaciation that have been recorded from the last 180,000 years: the "Pōhakuloa" (180–130 ka), "Wāihu" (80–60 ka) and "Mākanaka" (40–13 ka) series. These have extensively sculpted the summit, depositing moraines and a circular ring of till and gravel along the volcano's upper flanks. Subglacial eruptions built cinder cones during the Mākanaka glaciation, most of which were heavily gouged by glacial action. The most recent cones were built between 9000 and 4500 years ago, atop the glacial deposits, although one study indicates that the last eruption may have been around 3600 years ago.


title: Mauna Kea

text: At their maximum extent, the glaciers extended from the summit down to between of elevation. A small body of permafrost, less than across, was found at the summit of Mauna Kea before 1974, and may still be present. Small gullies etch the summit, formed by rain- and snow-fed streams that flow only during winter melt and rain showers.


title: Mauna Kea

text: On the windward side of the volcano, stream erosion driven by trade winds has accelerated erosion in a manner similar to that on older Kohala.


title: Mauna Kea

text: Mauna Kea is home to Lake Waiau, the highest lake in the Pacific Basin. At an altitude of , it lies within the Puu Waiau cinder cone and is the only alpine lake in Hawaii. The lake is very small and shallow, with a surface area of and a depth of . Radiocarbon dating of samples at the base of the lake indicates that it was clear of ice 12,600 years ago. Hawaiian lava types are typically permeable, preventing lake formation due to infiltration. Either sulfur-bearing steam altered the volcanic ash to low-permeability clays, or explosive interactions between rising magma and groundwater or surface water during phreatic eruptions formed exceptionally fine ash that reduced the permeability of the lake bed.


title: Mauna Kea

text: No artesian water was known on the island of Hawaii until 1993 when drilling by the University of Hawaii tapped an artesian aquifer more than below sea level, that extended more than of the borehole's total depth. The borehole had drilled through a compacted layer of soil and lava where the flows of Mauna Loa had encroached upon the exposed Mauna Kea surface and had subsequently been subsided below sea level. Isotopic composition shows the water present to have been derived from rain coming off Mauna Kea at higher than above mean sea level. The aquifer's presence is attributed to a freshwater head within Mauna Kea's basal lens. Scientists believe there may be more water in Mauna Kea's freshwater lens than current models may indicate. Two more boreholes were drilled on Mauna Kea in 2012, with water being found at much higher elevations and shallower depths than expected. Donald Thomas, director of the University of Hawaii's Center for the Study of Active Volcanoes believes one reason to continue study of the aquifers is due to use and occupancy of the higher elevation areas, stating: "Nearly all of these activities depend on the availability of potable water that, in most cases, must be trucked to the Saddle from Waimea or Hilo — an inefficient and expensive process that consumes a substantial quantity of our scarce liquid fuels."


title: Mauna Kea

text: The last eruption of Mauna Kea was about 4,600 years ago (about 2600 BC); because of this inactivity, Mauna Kea is assigned a United States Geological Survey hazard listing of 7 for its summit and 8 for its lower flanks, out of the lowest possible hazard rating of 9 (which is given to the extinct volcano Kohala). Since 8000 BC lava flows have covered 20% of the volcano's summit and virtually none of its flanks.


title: Mauna Kea

text: Despite its dormancy, Mauna Kea is expected to erupt again. Based on earlier eruptions, such an event could occur anywhere on the volcano's upper flanks and would likely produce long lava flows, mostly of aā, long. Long periods of activity could build a cinder cone at the source. Although not likely in the next few centuries, such an eruption would probably result in little loss of life but significant damage to infrastructure.


title: Mauna Kea

text: The first Ancient Hawaiians to arrive on Hawaii island lived along the shores, where food and water were plentiful. Settlement expanded inland to the Mauna Loa – Mauna Kea region in the 12th and early 13th centuries. Archaeological evidence suggests that these regions were used for hunting, collecting stone material, and possibly for spiritual reasons or for astronomical or navigational observations. The mountain's plentiful forest provided plants and animals for food and raw materials for shelter. Flightless birds that had previously known no predators became a staple food source.


title: Mauna Kea

text: Early settlement of the Hawaiian islands led to major changes to local ecosystems and many extinctions, particularly amongst bird species. Ancient Hawaiians brought foreign plants and animals, and their arrival was associated with increased rates of erosion.


title: Mauna Kea

text: The prevailing lowland forest ecosystem was transformed from forest to grassland; some of this change was caused by the use of fire, but the prevailing cause of forest ecosystem collapse and avian extinction on Hawaii appears to have been the introduction of the Polynesian (or Pacific) rat.


title: Mauna Kea

text: The five volcanoes of Hawaii are revered as sacred mountains; and Mauna Kea's summit, the highest, is the most sacred. For this reason, a "kapu" (ancient Hawaiian law) restricted visitor rights to high-ranking aliʻi. Hawaiians associated elements of their natural environment with particular deities. In Hawaiian mythology, the summit of Mauna Kea was seen as the "region of the gods", a place where benevolent spirits reside. Poliahu, deity of snow, also resides there. "Mauna Kea" is an abbreviation for Mauna a Wākea and means "white mountain," in reference to its seasonally snow-capped summit.


title: Mauna Kea

text: Around AD 1100, natives established adze quarries high up on Mauna Kea to extract the uniquely dense basalt (generated by the quick cooling of lava flows meeting glacial ice during subglacial eruptions) to make tools. Volcanic glass and gabbro were collected for blades and fishing gear, and māmane wood was preferred for the handles. At peak quarry activity after AD 1400, there were separate facilities for rough and fine cutting; shelters with food, water, and wood to sustain the workers; and workshops creating the finished product.


title: Mauna Kea

text: Lake Waiau provided drinking water for the workers. Native chiefs would also dip the umbilical cords of newborn babies in its water, to give them the strength of the mountain. Use of the quarry declined between this period and contact with Americans and Europeans. As part of the ritual associated with quarrying, the workers erected shrines to their gods; these and other quarry artifacts remain at the sites, most of which lie within what is now the Mauna Kea Ice Age Reserve.


title: Mauna Kea

text: This early era was followed by cultural expansion between the 12th and late 18th century. Land was divided into regions designed for the immediate needs of the populace. These "ahupuaa" generally took the form of long strips of land oriented from the mountain summits to the coast. Mauna Kea's summit was encompassed in the ahupuaa of Kaohe, with part of its eastern slope reaching into the nearby Humuula. Principal sources of nutrition for Hawaiians living on the slopes of the volcano came from the māmane–naio forest of its upper slopes, which provided them with vegetation and bird life. Bird species hunted included the uau ("Pterodroma sandwichensis"), nēnē ("Branta sandvicensis"), and palila ("Loxioides bailleui"). The lower koa–ōhia forest gave the natives wood for canoes and ornate bird feathers for decoration.


title: Mauna Kea

text: There are three accounts of foreigners visiting Hawaii before the arrival of James Cook, in 1778. However, the earliest Western depictions of the isle, including Mauna Kea, were created by explorers in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. Contact with Europe and America had major consequences for island residents. Native Hawaiians were devastated by introduced diseases; port cities including Hilo, Kealakekua, and Kailua grew with the establishment of trade; and the adze quarries on Mauna Kea were abandoned after the introduction of metal tools.


title: Mauna Kea

text: In 1793, cattle were brought by George Vancouver as a tribute to King Kamehameha I. By the early 19th century, they had escaped confinement and roamed the island freely, greatly damaging its ecosystem. In 1809 John Palmer Parker arrived and befriended Kamehameha I, who put him in charge of cattle management on the island. With an additional land grant in 1845, Parker established Parker Ranch on the northern slope of Mauna Kea, a large cattle ranch that is still in operation today. Settlers to the island burned and cut down much of the lower native forest for sugarcane plantations and houses.


title: Mauna Kea

text: The Saddle Road, named for its crossing of the saddle-shaped plateau between Mauna Kea and Mauna Loa, was completed in 1943, and eased travel to Mauna Kea considerably.


title: Mauna Kea

text: The Pohakuloa Training Area on the plateau is the largest military training ground in Hawaii. The base extends from the volcano's lower flanks to elevation, on state land leased to the US Army since 1956. There are 15 threatened and endangered plants, three endangered birds, and one endangered bat species in the area.


title: Mauna Kea

text: Mauna Kea has been the site of extensive archaeological research since the 1980s. Approximately 27 percent of the Science Reserve had been surveyed by 2000, identifying 76 shrines, 4 adze manufacturing workshops, 3 other markers, 1 positively identified burial site, and 4 possible burial sites. By 2009, the total number of identified sites had risen to 223, and archaeological research on the volcano's upper flanks is ongoing. It has been suggested that the shrines, which are arranged around the volcano's summit along what may be an ancient snow line, are markers for the transition to the sacred part of Mauna Kea. Despite many references to burial around Mauna Kea in Hawaiian oral history, few sites have been confirmed. The lack of shrines or other artifacts on the many cinder cones dotting the volcano may be because they were reserved for burial.


title: Mauna Kea

text: In pre-contact times, natives traveling up Mauna Kea were probably guided more by landscape than by existing trails, as no evidence of trails has been found. It is possible that natural ridges and water sources were followed instead. Individuals likely took trips up Mauna Kea's slopes to visit family-maintained shrines near its summit, and traditions related to ascending the mountain exist to this day. However, very few natives reached the summit, because of the strict "kapu" placed on it.


title: Mauna Kea

text: In the early 19th century, the earliest notable "recorded" ascents of Mauna Kea included the following:


title: Mauna Kea

text: In the late 19th and early 20th centuries trails were formed, often by the movement of game herds, that could be traveled on horseback. However, vehicular access to the summit was practically impossible until the construction of a road in 1964, and it continues to be restricted. Today, multiple trails to the summit exist, in various states of use.


title: Mauna Kea

text: Hawaii's geographical isolation strongly influences its ecology. Remote islands like Hawaii have a large number of species that are found nowhere else (see Endemism in the Hawaiian Islands). The remoteness resulted in evolutionary lines distinct from those elsewhere and isolated these endemic species from external biotic influence, and also makes them especially vulnerable to extinction and the effects of invasive species. In addition the ecosystems of Hawaii are under threat from human development including the clearing of land for agriculture; an estimated third of the island's endemic species have already been wiped out. Because of its elevation, Mauna Kea has the greatest diversity of biotic ecosystems anywhere in the Hawaiian archipelago. Ecosystems on the mountain form concentric rings along its slopes due to changes in temperature and precipitation with elevation. These ecosystems can be roughly divided into three sections by elevation: alpine–subalpine, montane, and basal forest.


title: Mauna Kea

text: Contact with Americans and Europeans in the early 19th century brought more settlers to the island, and had a lasting negative ecological effect. On lower slopes, vast tracts of koa–ōhia forest were converted to farmland. Higher up, feral animals that escaped from ranches found refuge in, and damaged extensively, Mauna Kea's native māmane–naio forest. Non-native plants are the other serious threat; there are over 4,600 introduced species on the island, whereas the number of native species is estimated at just 1,000.


title: Mauna Kea

text: The summit of Mauna Kea lies above the tree line, and consists of mostly lava rock and alpine tundra. An area of heavy snowfall, it is inhospitable to vegetation, and is known as the Hawaiian tropical high shrublands. Growth is restricted here by extremely cold temperatures, a short growing season, low rainfall, and snow during winter months. A lack of soil also retards root growth, makes it difficult to absorb nutrients from the ground, and gives the area a very low water retention capacity.


title: Mauna Kea

text: Plant species found at this elevation include "Styphelia tameiameiae", "Taraxacum officinale", "Tetramolopium humile", "Agrostis sandwicensis", "Anthoxanthum odoratum", "Trisetum glomeratum", "Poa annua", "Sonchus oleraceus", and "Coprosma ernodiodes". One notable species is Mauna Kea silversword ("Argyroxiphium sandwicense" var. "sandwicense"), a highly endangered endemic plant species that thrives in Mauna Kea's high elevation cinder deserts. At one stage reduced to a population of just 50 plants, Mauna Kea silversword was thought to be restricted to the alpine zone, but in fact has been driven there by pressure from livestock, and can grow at lower elevations as well.


title: Mauna Kea

text: The Mauna Kea Ice Age Reserve on the southern summit flank of Mauna Kea was established in 1981. The reserve is a region of sparsely vegetated cinder deposits and lava rock, including areas of aeolian desert and Lake Waiau. This ecosystem is a likely haven for the threatened uau ("Pterodroma sandwichensis") and also the center of a study on wēkiu bugs ("Nysius wekiuicola").


title: Mauna Kea

text: Wēkiu bugs feed on dead insect carcasses that drift up Mauna Kea on the wind and settle on snow banks. This is a highly unusual food source for a species in the genus "Nysius", which consists of predominantly seed-eating insects. They can survive at extreme elevations of up to because of natural antifreeze in their blood. They also stay under heated surfaces most of the time. Their conservation status is unclear, but the species is no longer a candidate for the Endangered Species List; studies on the welfare of the species began in 1980. The closely related "Nysius aa" lives on Mauna Loa. Wolf spiders (Lycosidae) and forest tent caterpillar moths have also been observed in the same Mauna Kea ecosystem; the former survive by hiding under heat-absorbing rocks, and the latter through cold-resistant chemicals in their bodies.


title: Mauna Kea

text: The forested zone on the volcano, at an elevation of , is dominated by māmane ("Sophora chrysophylla") and naio ("Myoporum sandwicense"), both endemic tree species, and is thus known as māmane–naio forest. Māmane seeds and naio fruit are the chief foods of the birds in this zone, especially the palila ("Loxioides bailleui"). The palila was formerly found on the slopes of Mauna Kea, Mauna Loa, and Hualālai, but is now confined to the slopes of Mauna Kea—only 10% of its former range—and has been declared critically endangered.


title: Mauna Kea

text: The largest threat to the ecosystem is grazing by feral sheep, cattle ("Bos primigenius"), and goats ("Capra hircus") introduced to the island in the late 18th century. Feral animal competition with commercial grazing was severe enough that a program to eradicate them existed as far back as the late 1920s, and continued through to 1949. One of the results of this grazing was the increased prevalence of herbaceous and woody plants, both endemic and introduced, that were resistant to browsing. The feral animals were almost eradicated, and numbered a few hundred in the 1950s. However, an influx of local hunters led to the feral species being valued as game animals, and in 1959 the Hawaii Department of Land and Natural Resources, the governing body in charge of conservation and land use management, changed its policy to a sustained-control program designed to facilitate the sport.


title: Mauna Kea

text: Mouflon ("Ovis aries orientalis") was introduced from 1962 to 1964, and a plan to release axis deer ("Axis axis") in 1964 was prevented only by protests from the ranching industry, who said that they would damage crops and spread disease. The hunting industry fought back, and the back-and-forth between the ranchers and hunters eventually gave way to a rise in public environmental concern. With the development of astronomical facilities on Mauna Kea commencing, conservationists demanded protection of Mauna Kea's ecosystem. A plan was proposed to fence 25% of the forests for protection, and manage the remaining 75% for game hunting. Despite opposition from conservationists the plan was put into action. While the land was partitioned no money was allocated for the building of the fence. In the midst of this wrangling the Endangered Species Act was passed; the National Audubon Society and Sierra Club Legal Defense Fund filed a lawsuit against the Hawaii Department of Land and Natural Resources, claiming that they were violating federal law, in the landmark case "Palila v. Hawaii Department of Land and Natural Resources" (1978).


title: Mauna Kea

text: The court ruled in favor of conservationists and upheld the precedence of federal laws before state control of wildlife. Having violated the Endangered Species Act, Hawaii state was required to remove all feral animals from the mountainside. This decision was followed by a second court order in 1981. A public hunting program removed many of the feral animals, at least temporarily. An active control program is in place, though it is not conducted with sufficient rigor to allow significant recovery of the māmane-naio ecosystem. There are many other species and ecosystems on the island, and on Mauna Kea, that remain threatened by human development and invasive species.


title: Mauna Kea

text: The Mauna Kea Forest Reserve protects of māmane-naio forest under the jurisdiction of the Hawaii Department of Land and Natural Resources. Ungulate hunting is allowed year-round. A small part of the māmane–naio forest is encompassed by the Mauna Kea State Recreation Area.


title: Mauna Kea

text: A band of ranch land on Mauna Kea's lower slopes was formerly "Acacia koa" – "Metrosideros polymorpha" (koa-ōhia) forest. Its destruction was driven by an influx of European and American settlers in the early 19th century, as extensive logging during the 1830s provided lumber for new homes. Vast swathes of the forest were burned and cleared for sugarcane plantations. Most of the houses on the island were built of koa, and those parts of the forest that survived became a source for firewood to power boilers on the sugarcane plantations and to heat homes. The once vast forest had almost disappeared by 1880, and by 1900, logging interests had shifted to Kona and the island of Maui. With the collapse of the sugar industry in the 1990s, much of this land lies fallow but portions are used for cattle grazing, small-scale farming and the cultivation of eucalyptus for wood pulp.


title: Mauna Kea

text: The Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge is a major koa forest reserve on Mauna Kea's windward slope. It was established in 1985, covering of ecosystem remnant. Eight endangered bird species, twelve endangered plants, and the endangered Hawaiian hoary bat ("Lasiurus cinereus semotus") have been observed in the area, in addition to many other rare biota. The reserve has been the site of an extensive replanting campaign since 1989. Parts of the reserve show the effect of agriculture on the native ecosystem, as much of the land in the upper part of the reserve is abandoned farmland.


title: Mauna Kea

text: Bird species native to the acacia koa–ōhia forest include the Hawaiian crow ("Corvus hawaiiensis"), the akepa ("Loxops coccineus"), Hawaii creeper ("Oreomystis mana"), ʻakiapōlāʻau ("Hemignathus munroi"), and Hawaiian hawk ("Buteo solitarius"), all of which are endangered, threatened, or near threatened; the Hawaiian crow in particular is extinct in the wild, but there are plans to reintroduce the species into the Hakalau reserve.


title: Mauna Kea

text: Mauna Kea's summit is one of the best sites in the world for astronomical observation due to favorable observing conditions. The arid conditions are important for submillimeter and infrared astronomy for this region of the electromagnetic spectrum. The summit is above the inversion layer, keeping most cloud cover below the summit and ensuring the air on the summit is dry, and free of atmospheric pollution. The summit atmosphere is exceptionally stable, lacking turbulence for some of the world's best astronomical seeing. The very dark skies resulting from Mauna Kea's distance from city lights are preserved by legislation that minimizes light pollution from the surrounding area; the darkness level allows the observation of faint astronomical objects. These factors historically made Mauna Kea an excellent spot for stargazing.


title: Mauna Kea

text: In the early 1960s, the Hawaii Island Chamber of Commerce encouraged astronomical development of Mauna Kea, as economic stimulus; this coincided with University of Arizona astronomer Gerard Kuiper's search for sites to use newly improved detectors of infrared light. Site testing by Kuiper's assistant Alika Herring in 1964 confirmed the summit's outstanding suitability. An intense three-way competition for NASA funds to construct a large telescope began between Kuiper, Harvard University, and the University of Hawaii (UH), which only had experience in solar astronomy. This culminated in funds being awarded to the "upstart" UH proposal. UH rebuilt its small astronomy department into a new Institute for Astronomy, and in 1968 the Hawaii Department of Land and Natural Resources gave it a 65-year lease for all land within a radius of its telescope, essentially that above . On its completion in 1970, the UH was the seventh largest optical/infrared telescope in the world.


title: Mauna Kea

text: By 1970, two telescopes had been constructed by the US Air Force and Lowell Observatory. In 1973, Canada and France agreed to build the 3.6 m CFHT on Mauna Kea. However, local organisations started to raise concerns about the environmental impact of the observatory. This led the Department of Land and Natural Resources to prepare an initial management plan, drafted in 1977 and supplemented in 1980. In January 1982, the UH Board of Regents approved a plan to support the continued development of scientific facilities at the site. In 1998, were transferred from the observatory lease to supplement the Mauna Kea Ice Age Reserve. The 1982 plan was replaced in 2000 by an extension designed to serve until 2020: it instituted an Office of Mauna Kea Management, designated for astronomy, and shifted the remaining to "natural and cultural preservation". This plan was further revised to address concern expressed in the Hawaiian community that a lack of respect was being shown toward the cultural values of the mountain.


title: Mauna Kea

text: Today the Mauna Kea Science Reserve has 13 observation facilities, each funded by as many as 11 countries. There are nine telescopes working in the visible and infrared spectrum, three in the submillimeter spectrum, and one in the radio spectrum, with mirrors or dishes ranging from . In comparison, the Hubble Space Telescope has a mirror, similar in size to the UH88, now the second smallest telescope on the mountain.


title: Mauna Kea

text: A "Save Mauna Kea" movement believes development of the mountain to be sacrilegious. Native Hawaiian non-profit groups such as Kahea, concerned with cultural heritage and the environment, also oppose development for cultural and religious reasons. The multi-telescope "outrigger" proposed in 2006 was eventually canceled. A planned new telescope, the Thirty Meter Telescope (TMT), has attracted controversy and protests. The TMT was approved in April 2013. In October 2014, the groundbreaking ceremony for the telescope was interrupted by protesters causing the project to temporarily halt. In late March 2015, demonstrators blocked access of the road to the summit again. On April 2, 2015, 300 protestors were gathered near the visitor's center when 12 people were arrested with 11 more arrested at the summit. Among the concerns of the protest groups are the land appraisals and Native Hawaiians consultation. Construction was halted on April 7, 2015, after protests expanded over the state. After several halts, the project has been voluntarily postponed. Governor Ige announced substantial changes to the management of Mauna Kea in the future but stated the project can move forward. The Supreme Court of Hawaii approved the resumption of construction on October 31, 2018. Protestors have posted online petitions as a reaction against the Thirty Meter Telescope. The online petition titled "The Immediate Halt to the Construction of the TMT Telescope" was posted to Change.org on July 14, 2019. The online petition has currently gathered over 278,057 signatures worldwide. Some protesters have also called for the impeachment of Hawaiian Governor David Ige because of his support for the Thirty Meter Telescope. On July 18, 2019, an online petition titled "Impeach Governor David Ige" had been posted to Change.org and has currently gathered over 62,562 signatures.


title: Mauna Kea

text: As of late 2021 construction plans are currently on hold due to the ongoing effects of the COVID-19 pandemic and a shift in funding for the project that may see federal funds made available through the National Science Foundation. The controversy surrounding construction of the Thirty Meter Telescope continues. Independent polls commissioned by local media organizations show consistent support for the project in the islands with over two thirds of local residents supporting the project. These same polls indicate Native Hawaiian community support remains split with about half of Hawaiian respondents supporting construction of the new telescope.


title: Mauna Kea

text: A July, 2022, state law responds to the protests by removing sole control over the master land lease from the University of Hawaii. After a joint transition period from 2023 to 2028, control will shift to the new Mauna Kea Stewardship and Oversight Authority, which will include representatives from the university, astronomers and native Hawaiians.


title: Mauna Kea

text: Mauna Kea has an alpine climate (ET). Due to the influence of its tropical latitude, temperature swings are very low. Frosts are common year round, but the average monthly temperature remains above freezing throughout the year.


title: Mauna Kea

text: A weather station was operated from 1972 to 1982; however, only 33 months within this period have temperature records; many years only have data for two months. The temperatures presented below are smoothed averages, not the raw numbers recorded by NOAA.


title: Mauna Kea

text: Mauna Kea's coastline is dominated by the Hamakua Coast, an area of rugged terrain created by frequent slumps and landslides on the volcano's flank. The area includes several recreation parks including Kalopa State Recreation Area, Wailuku River State Park and Akaka Falls State Park.


title: Mauna Kea

text: There are over 3,000 registered hunters on Hawaii island, and hunting, for both recreation and sustenance, is a common activity on Mauna Kea. A public hunting program is used to control the numbers of introduced animals including pigs, sheep, goats, turkey, pheasants, and quail. The Mauna Kea State Recreation Area functions as a base camp for the sport. Birdwatching is also common at lower levels on the mountain. A popular site is "Kīpuka Puu Huluhulu", a kīpuka on Mauna Kea's flank that formed when lava flows isolated the forest on a hill.


title: Mauna Kea

text: Mauna Kea's great height and the steepness of its flanks provide a better view and a shorter hike than the adjacent Mauna Loa. The height with its risk of altitude sickness, weather concerns, steep road grade, and overall inaccessibility make the volcano dangerous and summit trips difficult. Until the construction of roads in the mid-20th century, only the hardy visited Mauna Kea's upper slopes; hunters tracked game animals, and hikers traveled up the mountain. These travelers used stone cabins constructed by the Civilian Conservation Corps in the 1930s as base camps, and it is from these facilities that the modern mid-level Onizuka Center for International Astronomy telescope support complex is derived. The first Mauna Kea summit road was built in 1964, making the peak accessible to more people.


title: Mauna Kea

text: Today, multiple hiking trails exist, including the Mauna Kea Trail, and by 2007 over 100,000 tourists and 32,000 vehicles were going each year to the Visitor Information Station (VIS) adjacent to the Onizuka Center for International Astronomy. The Mauna Kea Access Road is paved up to the Center at . One study reported that around a third of visitors and two thirds of professional astronomers working on the mountain have experienced symptoms of acute altitude sickness; visitors traveling up the volcano's flanks are advised to stop for at least half an hour and preferably longer at the visitor center to acclimate to the higher elevation. It is strongly recommended to use a four-wheel drive vehicle to drive all the way to the top. Brakes often overheat on the way down and there is no fuel available on Mauna Kea. A free Star Gazing Program was previously held at the VIS every night from 6-10 pm, with the program canceled due to both a change in operating hours and closure due to the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic. Between 5,000 and 6,000 people visit the summit of Mauna Kea each year, and to help ensure safety, and protect the integrity of the mountain, a ranger program was implemented in 2001.


title: Pachinko (novel)

text: Pachinko is the second novel by Harlem-based author and journalist Min Jin Lee. Published in 2017, "Pachinko" is an epic historical fiction novel following a Korean family who immigrates to Japan. The character-driven story features an ensemble of characters who encounter racism, discrimination, stereotyping, and other aspects of the 20th-century Korean experience of Japan.


title: Pachinko (novel)

text: "Pachinko" was a 2017 finalist for the National Book Award for Fiction. Apple Inc.'s streaming service Apple TV+ produced a television adaptation of the novel and it was released in March 2022.


title: Pachinko (novel)

text: The novel takes place over the course of three sections, which begin with quotations from the works of Charles Dickens, Park Wan-suh, and Benedict Anderson, respectively.


title: Pachinko (novel)

text: In 1883, in the little island fishing village of Yeongdo, which is a ferry ride from Busan, an aging fisherman and his wife take in lodgers to make a little more money. They have three sons, but only one, Hoonie, who has a cleft lip and twisted foot, survives to adulthood. Because of his deformities, Hoonie is considered ineligible for marriage. When he is 27, Japan annexes Korea, and many families are left destitute and without food. Due to their prudent habits, Hoonie's family's situation is comparatively more stable, and a matchmaker arranges a marriage between Hoonie and Yangjin, the daughter of a poor farmer who had lost everything in the colonial conquest. Hoonie and Yangjin take over the lodging house upon the passing of Hoonie's parents.


title: Pachinko (novel)

text: In the mid-1910s, Yangjin and Hoonie have a daughter named Sunja. After her thirteenth birthday, she is raised by her mother Yangjin, her father Hoonie having died from tuberculosis. At age sixteen, Sunja is pursued by a wealthy fishbroker named Koh Hansu. Sunja becomes pregnant, after which Hansu reveals that he is already married but intends to keep her as his mistress. Ashamed, Sunja refuses to be his mistress and ends their relationship. Her mother finds out Sunja is pregnant, but Sunja keeps the father's identity a secret. Yangjin discusses the matter with one of their lodgers, a Christian minister suffering from tuberculosis. Baek Isak, the minister, believes he will die soon due to his many illnesses, and decides to marry Sunja to give her child a name and to give meaning to his life. Sunja agrees to the plan, marries Isak, and travels with him to Osaka to live with Isak's brother and his wife. In Osaka, Sunja is shocked to learn that Koreans are treated poorly: most are forced to live in a small ghetto and are only hired for menial jobs. Sunja's brother-in-law, Yoseb, insists on supporting the entire household on his own salary, but Sunja and her sister-in-law Kyunghee come to learn he is in heavy debt due to paying for Sunja and Isak's passage to Osaka. To repay the debtors, a pregnant Sunja sells a watch Hansu had given her in Yeongdo.


title: Pachinko (novel)

text: The novel jumps in time, and in Book II, Sunja raises her two children, Noa (Hansu's son), and Mozasu (Isak's son). While Noa resembles Hansu in appearance, he is similar in personality to Isak, and he seeks a quiet life of learning, reading, and academia. Shortly after Mozasu is born, a member of Isak's church is caught reciting the Lord's Prayer when they were supposed to be worshiping the emperor, and Isak is sent to prison. Despite Yoseb's resistance, Sunja begins to work in the market, selling kimchi that she and Kyunghee make at home. Their small business is profitable, but as Japan enters World War II and ingredients grow scarce, they struggle to make money. Sunja is eventually approached by the owner of a restaurant, Kim Changho, who pays her and Kyunghee to make kimchi in his restaurant daily, providing them with financial security. A dying Isak is eventually released from prison, and he is able to briefly reunite with his family before dying.


title: Pachinko (novel)

text: A few years later, on the eve of the restaurant's closure, Sunja is approached by Hansu, who reveals that he is the actual owner of the restaurant and has been manipulating her family for years, having tracked Sunja down after she sold her watch. He arranges for her to spend the rest of the war in the countryside with Kyunghee and her children and for Yoseb to wait the rest of the war out working at a factory in Nagasaki. During her time at the farm, Hansu also reunites Sunja with her mother, Yangjin, and eventually returns a permanently crippled Yoseb to the family after he is horrifically burned during the bombings.


title: Pachinko (novel)

text: The Baek family return to Osaka where Noa and Mozasu resume their studies. The family continues to struggle in spite of Hansu's help. Though they long to return to the North of Korea, where Kyunghee has family, Hansu warns them not to. Noa succeeds in passing the entrance exams for Waseda University. Despite Sunja's resistance, Hansu pays for Noa's entire university education, pretending it is simply because as an older Korean man he feels responsible for helping the younger generation. Meanwhile, Mozasu drops out of school and goes to work for Goro, a man who runs pachinko parlors. Mozasu meets and falls in love with a Korean seamstress, Yumi, who dreams of moving to America. The two marry and have a son, Solomon. Yumi later dies in a car accident, leaving Mozasu to raise their son on his own. Noa, who has continued his studies and looks up to Hansu as a mentor, accidentally discovers that Hansu is his father, and he learns of his ties to the yakuza. Ashamed of his true heritage and of being linked to corrupt blood, he drops out of university and disowns his family.


title: Pachinko (novel)

text: Noa moves to Nagano, intending to work off his debt to Hansu and rid himself of his shameful heritage. He becomes a bookkeeper for a racist pachinko owner who won't hire Koreans and lives undercover using his Japanese name, Nobuo, marrying a Japanese woman and having four children. After having abandoned his birth family and living sixteen years under a false identity, Noa is tracked down by Hansu at the request of Sunja. Though Hansu warns Sunja not to immediately approach Noa, Sunja refuses to listen to his warnings and begs Noa to reunite with her and the rest of the family. Noa promises to call, and he commits suicide shortly after Sunja leaves.


title: Pachinko (novel)

text: In the meantime, Mozasu has become extremely wealthy, owning his own pachinko parlors and dating a Japanese divorcee, Etsuko, who refuses to marry him. Hana, Etsuko's troubled teenage daughter from her previous marriage, arrives to stay with her mother after learning she is pregnant, and later she has an abortion. Hana is drawn to Solomon's innocence and they begin a sexual relationship. He quickly falls in love with her, giving her large sums of money which she uses to run away to Tokyo.


title: Pachinko (novel)

text: Years later, Solomon, now attending college in New York City and dating a Korean-American woman named Phoebe, receives a call from a drunken Hana in Roppongi. He relays the information to Etsuko and Mozasu, who manage to locate her. After graduating from Columbia University, Solomon takes a job at a British bank and moves back to Japan with Phoebe. His first major client project involves convincing an elderly Korean woman to sell her land in order to clear the way for the construction of a golf resort, which he accomplishes by calling in a favor from his father's friend Goro. When the woman dies of natural causes soon afterwards, Solomon's employers claim that the deal will attract negative publicity and they fire him, citing his father's connections to pachinko and implying that the woman was murdered.


title: Pachinko (novel)

text: With newfound resolve and a clearer outlook on life, Solomon breaks up with Phoebe, goes to work for his father's business, and makes amends with a dying Hana in the hospital. Now an elderly woman, Sunja visits Isak's grave and reflects on her life. She learns from the cemetery groundskeeper that despite the shame Noa felt for his family, Noa had regularly visited Isak's grave even after moving to Nagano. This gives Sunja the closure and reassurance she needs, and she buries a photo of Noa beside Isak's grave.