title: Unified Payments Interface

text: In April 2009, National Payment Corporation of India (NPCI) was formed to integrate all the payment mechanisms in India and make them uniform for all retail payments. By March 2011, RBI found out that in India, only six non-cash transactions happen every year by an individual citizen while 10 million (1 crore) retailers accepted card-based payment. Around 145 million (14.5 crore) families have no access to any form of banking. There is also the problem of tackling black money and corruption that happens mostly in cash.


title: Unified Payments Interface

text: RBI in 2012 released a vision statement for a period of four years that indicated commitment towards building a safe, efficient, accessible, inclusive, interoperable and authorized payment and settlement system in India. It is part of the Green Initiative to decrease the usage of paper in domestic payments market. UPI was officially launched in 2016 for public use.


title: Unified Payments Interface

text: Under RBI guidance, NPCI became the primary body tasked with developing a new payment system that is simple, secure, and interoperable. UPI works on four pillar push-pull interoperable model where there will be remitter/beneficiary front end PSP (payment service provider) and remitter/beneficiary back end bank that settles the monetary transaction for the users. According to CEO of Netmagic Solutions, UPI became one of the most successful deep-tech innovation coming out of India.


title: Unified Payments Interface

text: In December 2019], noting the success of UPI, Google suggested Federal Reserve Board to follow UPI as example in developing FedNow, a real-time payment system for United States.


title: Unified Payments Interface

text: With exponential growth of UPI, India became the world's largest real-time payment market with 25.50 billion (25.5 billion) annual transactions in 2020 per data from ACI Worldwide and GlobalData, ahead of China and United States.


title: Unified Payments Interface

text: As per the Economist Intelligence Unit Report 2021, UPI made India a leader in global real-time payment market followed by China and South Korea. After the decision of Ministry of Finance to nullify merchant discount rate (MDR) in 2019 from UPI, the number of low value transactions skyrocketed making huge gains on real-time transaction volume data. Nations such as Brazil, Bahrain, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, United States and European Union are now trying to emulate the success of UPI in their own market.


title: Unified Payments Interface

text: From January 1, 2019, UPI became a popular payment option for initial public offerings (IPOs). The transaction limit was enhanced from ₹ to ₹ in March 2020. From December 2021, RBI again increased the limit to ₹ for Retail Direct Scheme and IPO applications. To make UPI economically feasible for payment companies, RBI is considering merchant discount rate (MDR) on future UPI transactions. In its first monetary policy for financial year 2022–23, RBI proposed cardless cash withdrawal facility from ATM using UPI based QR code. In partnership with NSDL Payments Bank and NPCI, ToneTag launched VoiceSE which will enable 40 crore feature phone users to make UPI payment using voice in Hindi, Tamil, Telugu, Malayalam, Kannada, and Bengali languages.


title: Unified Payments Interface

text: On 16 August 2018, UPI 2.0 was launched which enabled users to link their overdraft accounts to a UPI handle. Users were also able to pre-authorise transactions by issuing a mandate for specific merchant. This version also included a feature to view and store the invoice for the transactions. An AutoPay facility for recurring payments was also added. As of August 2021, State Bank of India, Bank of Baroda and Paytm Payment Bank are live on UPI AutoPay each registering , , and mandates, respectively. From 15 March 2022, Government removed the need of debit card for UPI registration. NPCI is planning to expand AutoPay to international markets and operationalize real-time payment dispute resolution mechanism covering 90% of the complaints by September 2022.


title: Unified Payments Interface

text: From 8 June 2022, RBI allowed linking RuPay credit cards with UPI. Customers can now make credit card payments using UPI, in the absence of a physical card. NPCI is working on a real-time feature that will reduce the 24 hours time period taken by banks to unblock funds over time-out or transaction decline to 30 seconds. The service was officially launched on 20 September 2022. On 7 December 2022, RBI announced that UPI will upgrade from single-block-single to single-block-multiple debit for recurring transactions and investments in securities. The feature will help the user block funds for specific purpose and release it when needed.


title: Unified Payments Interface

text: As part of financial inclusion initiative, NPCI with fintech start-up Naffa Innovations with their product ToneTag in 2021 started working on developing a voice-based payment service for feature phone users in low connectivity zones over UPI payment ecosystem under Interactive Voice Response (IVR) project. The system will use Dual Tone Multi-Frequency (DTMF) signalling technology with two-factor authentication (2FA) flow for peer-to-peer (P2P) transaction. From September 2020 to June 2021, it was under beta testing while awaiting RBI approval for large scale deployment. The beta testing and pilot experiment was completed by October 2021 and RBI started formulating guidelines for nationwide use.


title: Unified Payments Interface

text: RBI governor, Shaktikanta Das launched the service called UPI 123PAY on 8 March 2022, with an aim to help almost 40 crore (400 million) feature phone users in the country. Till now, UPI payments were only possible through payment applications on smartphones and USSD-based service for feature phones. But as per deputy governor T Rabi Shankar the latter has been found to be cumbersome due to the unavailability of the services on several mobile networks.


title: Unified Payments Interface

text: As per NPCI, some of the early use cases involve FASTag recharges, insurance payments, and EMI collections. As of 20 September 2022, Ultracash Technologies in collaboration with Bharat Petroleum helped 200,000 active users make LPG booking and payment through UPI 123PAY.


title: Unified Payments Interface

text: Around 777 million Indian consumers shop across the border in 2021. To make ease of payment, NPCI International Payments Limited (NIPL) signed memorandum of understanding (MoU) with UK based PPRO Financial on 17 November 2021 to expand the acceptance of UPI into foreign markets especially in China and United States which accounts for half of all international transaction coming from India. On 26 January 2022, UK based fintech startup Transact365 enabled UPI for global merchants with real time currency conversion facility that will help them do business in India independent of local presence. As per NPCI and RBI mandate, banks, payment service providers (PSPs) and third-party application providers (TPAPs) in India must enable international acceptance through UPI from 30 September 2022.


title: Unified Payments Interface

text: With the release of Payments Vision 2025 document on 17 June 2022, RBI will push for internationalization of UPI with nations using United States dollar, Pound sterling and Euro under bilateral treaties. Ministry of External Affairs (MEA) also actively pushing for internationalization of UPI due to geopolitical concerns. But several countries including Canada are reluctant to accept UPI due to push back from American firms. MEA is looking for Central Bank to Central Bank transfer using UPI as the pipeline and a collaborative effort if the countries have a similar system like UPI. On 12 October 2022, India offered UPI and related technologies to Commonwealth of Nations.


title: Unified Payments Interface

text: Due to increasing remittances to India, NIPL with Western Union is going to integrate UPI to help the Indian diaspora receive and send money abroad with ease. The service will become operational from second quarter of 2022. IndusInd Bank and Thailand based financial service provider DeeMoney will use UPI ID to verify customers in India for cross border transaction. This is part of Money Transfer Operator (MTO) partners programme of NPCI. IndusInd Bank is planning to collaborate with more foreign entities to increase acceptability of UPI abroad. NIPL on 27 January 2022 signed MoU with Netherlands based Terra Payment Services that will help UPI users receive international payments from around the globe in real time.


title: Unified Payments Interface

text: To save the cost borne by Indians living abroad when sending money back home, NPCI is planning to move 32 million expatriate population from SWIFT to UPI. The 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine and removal of Russian banks from SWIFT made development of an alternative all the more important for Indian policy makers.


title: Unified Payments Interface

text: For real-time payments from one bank account to another, any UPI client app can be used and multiple bank accounts can be linked to a single app. Money can be sent or requested using a user-created Virtual Payment Address (VPA) or UPI ID for each bank account using the KYC-linked mobile number. UPI also generates a specific QR code for each user account for contactless payments.


title: Unified Payments Interface

text: Any UPI app can be used to transfer funds from and to UPI enabled banks. Apart from various third-party apps such as Google Pay (previously Tez), PhonePe, Paytm, MobiKwik, Amazon Pay, Samsung Pay, WhatsApp Pay, NPCI manages its own app, BHIM.


title: Unified Payments Interface

text: In June 2021, NPCI removed the restriction placed on WhatsApp on UPI customer onboarding which until then was limited to 20 million users. With 530 million registered users in the Indian market, WhatsApp could then roll out UPI to all its customers.


title: Unified Payments Interface

text: NPCI called this feature UPI Lite. It can scan QR code without the need of an internet connection. In phase 1, UPI Lite will process the debit transaction offline while the credit will happen when the device goes online. But the final goal is to achieve both credit and debit transaction through offline mode. The upper limit of UPI Lite On-Device wallet is ₹2,000. Additional factor authentication or UPI AutoPay feature will be used to securely load the desirable amount. Since 50% of UPI transactions are below ₹200 with a higher frequency rate, it creates a large backlog of volume which increases the failure rate and affects the stability of the entire payment network. To save electricity consumption and computing power of banks, UPI mobile apps will have to support on-device wallet features as per the RBI directive from December 2021. The in-built wallet will help in low-value instant payment by using the infrastructure of the mobile app developer, thus decreasing the load on banks through decentralization of back-end infrastructure and resources.


title: Unified Payments Interface

text: On September 20, RBI governor Shaktikanta Das officially launched UPI Lite at Global Fintech Fest 2022. Canara Bank, HDFC Bank, Indian Bank, Kotak Mahindra Bank, Punjab National Bank, State Bank of India, Union Bank of India and Utkarsh Small Finance Bank enabled UPI Lite feature on BHIM.


title: Unified Payments Interface

text: The NPCI website lists the banks that facilitate UPI, termed as Payment Service Providers (PSP) – listed with their UPI application and handle – and issuers. PSP includes banks which have their own mobile application to facilitate transaction and issuers include banks which don't have their own payments interface and rely on third-party software for transactions.


title: Unified Payments Interface

text: e-RUPI or e₹UPI "(portmanteau of electronic Rupee and UPI)" developed in collaboration with Department of Financial Services, Ministry of Health and Family Welfare and National Health Authority. It was introduced from 2 August 2021. e-RUPI is to ensure leak proof delivery of welfare services and bypassing middle man to decrease corruption. Private sector can use the service for their own corporate social responsibility initiative (CSR). e-RUPI is basically e-voucher based on QR code or SMS string that can be delivered through mobile phone. e-RUPI will act as a precursor for future Central bank digital currency (CBDC) that will be launched by RBI as it will help in highlighting the gaps within the national digital payment infrastructure.


title: Unified Payments Interface

text: Financial Software and Systems (FSS) integrated e-RUPI on 1 December 2021 for financially underserved segments of the society. Government of Karnataka partnered with NPCI to provide student scholarship through e-RUPI which can even be received on feature phones.


title: Unified Payments Interface

text: From 93,000 transactions in August 2016 valued at ₹30 million, UPI generated 800 million transactions in March 2019 with a total value of ₹1330 billion. In June 2021, UPI recorded 1.94 million IPO mandates that increased to 7.66 million in July. This was the highest ever since UPI was made mandatory by Securities and Exchange Board of India for domestic retail investors for IPO process. By late August 2020, with 18 billion annual transactions, UPI surpassed American Express in India. NITI Aayog predicted that UPI will also surpass Visa and Mastercard by 2023. UPI took three years to reach 1.14 billion in October 2019 while by the end of October 2020, the payment system registered 2.07 billion transactions. In 2020, $457 billion worth of value was moved on UPI platform which was 15% of India's GDP.


title: Unified Payments Interface

text: As of July 2021, UPI registered 43.25 crore (432.5 million) transactions that accounted for ₹56,734.5 crore with highest average daily transaction of approximately 100 million that is double the amount from July 2020. As of August 2021, UPI forms 10% of all retail payment in India. PhonePe and Google Pay both recorded 1 billion transactions in August with a market share of 45.94% and 34.45% respectively in the UPI payment ecosystem while Paytm took 11.94% share with ₹387.85 million transaction.


title: Unified Payments Interface

text: From the financial year 2015–21, the domestic retail payment by value on UPI grew at 18% at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) while between 2017 and 2021, the collective payment on all forms of UPI grew at 400% CAGR. In the financial year 2021, ₹41 trillion (short scale) worth of money was exchanged on the UPI platform that is 2.8 times the value of debit and credit card payment at point of sale (POS) terminals and 20 times the value of digital wallet and prepaid instruments in India.


title: Unified Payments Interface

text: UPI registered 355 crore (3.55 billion) transactions in August 2021, a growth of 9.56% from the previous month. In terms of value, ₹6.39 lakh crore worth of money was transacted in August alone. From ₹3.2 lakh crore to ₹6 lakh crore, the growth in value terms doubled between September 2020 to July 2021. It had reached an all-time high of 3.65 billion transactions worth ₹6.54 lakh crore in value since inception in the month of September. By now the total transaction for the year 2021, reached ₹50 lakh crore.


title: Unified Payments Interface

text: UPI touched value of ₹7.71 lakh crore in October 2021 which is a 56% jump from September. As per NPCI, daily UPI payment for the month of October is between ₹25,000 crore to ₹30,000 crore. Out of all UPI transactions done in the month of October, 54% are Person-to-Person (P2P) while 46% were Person-to-Merchant (P2M). UPI reached $844 billion in value until November 2021. In December, the total transaction value on UPI reached ₹8.27 lakh crore with 99% annual growth rate. The largest share in $2 trillion of annual digital payment in India comes from UPI. The Q2 of 2022 saw 20.57 billion transactions worth ₹36.08 trillion as per Worldline SA. P2P accounted for 49% in volume and 67% in value while P2M accounted for 34% in volume and 17% in value. As per CEO Dilip Asbe of NPCI, P2M as of November 2022 accounts for more than 50% of UPI transaction volumes.


title: Unified Payments Interface

text: On 26 March 2021, NPCI defined standard operating procedure for third-party payment providers on 30% market cap. The limit will be calculated on the basis of total volume of transactions processed over UPI during the preceding three months on a rolling basis starting from 1 January 2021. Compliance deadline is until December 2023. NPCI will push first alert through an email or a letter to third-party payment providers and their partner banks when UPI transactions hits 25-27% threshold which payment providers must acknowledge. In return, payment providers will send second alert to NPCI with evidence on the steps taken for compliance. In case 30% mark is breached, payment providers and banks must stop new user on-boarding. In special cases, payment providers and banks may get an exemption of 6 months for compliance. The report of breaching 30% market cap must reach NPCI within first five working days with plan for corrective measures. During the same period, payment providers and banks must inform new customers about the issue. Non compliance of market cap bring penalties under UPI procedural guidelines. NPCI will check operating procedures of UPI every 6 months to meet objectives without creating inconvenience for end users.


title: Unified Payments Interface

text: PhonePe made a formal request to NPCI to defer 30% market cap deadline from January 2023 to January 2026. NPCI is discussing this issue with RBI and Government. Industry stakeholders want to do away with 30% market cap proposed by NPCI, instead want organic growth based on customer demand. Implementation is another contentious issue since it results in blocking existing users from performing payment to maintain 30% market cap which is not feasible from business point of view. RBI also started looking for solutions to fix the duopoly situation created by Google Pay and PhonePe. Both the players will get two additional years till 31 December 2024 to fix their market cap.


title: Unified Payments Interface

text: There are talks happening to operate UPI in the United Arab Emirates and Singapore which has sizeable Indian expatriates and for ease of payment for Indian tourists travelling abroad. Committee on digital payments led by Nandan Nilekani had suggested that NPCI should internationalise payment services like UPI, RuPay and BHIM. NPCI is planning to link UPI with standalone mobile wallets so that users can transfer money from one provider to another one which until now is restricted due to use of closed source technology. There is also provision for off-line UPI payment through the use of near field communication (NFC).


title: Unified Payments Interface

text: From 5 September 2019, Play Store enabled UPI for purchasing apps, games and in-app content. On 20 April 2020, Google added support for UPI payment in India to buy membership of YouTube Premium and YouTube Music either directly through a website or on the mobile application. Now Indian users can also buy or rent movies from Google TV. UPI is also enabled for the YouTube SuperChat feature.


title: Unified Payments Interface

text: From July 2021, Apple iPhone, iPad, and IPod Touch users in India can use UPI on App Store and iTunes Store. NPCI International Payments Limited (NIPL) was planning to extend UPI to markets in the United States, West Asia and Europe. On 4 August 2021, ICICI Prudential Life Insurance started supporting UPI AutoPay feature for insurance payment.


title: Unified Payments Interface

text: In August 2021, Dish TV introduced UPI scan and pay feature for the first time in a nationwide rollout due to COVID-19 restriction and heavy demand for no contact digital payment solutions. From 31 August 2021, Netflix integrated UPI AutoPay feature for Indian subscribers which was until now limited to credit and debit cards from Visa, Mastercard, American Express, and Diners Club International. As per April 2021 RBI Monetary Policy Committee directive, after March 31, 2022, all the know you customer (KYC) compliant digital wallets will become interoperable by using UPI system. In August 2021, Hotstar started supporting UPI AutoPay feature. The Hindu, Times Prime, PayU, Financial Software and Systems, Testbook Edu Solutions, Open Financial Technologies, Angel Broking and 5Paisa Capital moved to UPI AutoPay in September 2021.


title: Unified Payments Interface

text: Due to high usage, Samsung Electronics integrated UPI barcode scanner directly into mobile camera application for faster payment. On 3 January 2022, SonyLIV launched UPI AutoPay for all its subscribers. NPCI with Jio introduced UPI AutoPay for prepaid and postpaid mobile subscribers from 6 January 2022. Tata Mutual Fund with CAMSPay enabled UPI AutoPay feature for Systematic Investment Plan (SIP) from July 2022. Google Play started supporting UPI AutoPay for subscription services from 15 November 2022. Bangalore Metropolitan Transport Corporation (BMTC) will start UPI based ticketing system from 2023.


title: Unified Payments Interface

text: Cross border digital payment service provider Liquid Group signed memorandum of understanding (MoU) with NIPL in September 2021 to introduce UPI based QR code payment system in Singapore, Malaysia, Thailand, Philippines, Vietnam, Cambodia, Hong Kong, Taiwan, South Korea, and Japan from 2022. NIPL signed MoU with Arab Monetary Fund (AMF) on 8 March 2022 to link UPI with Buna Payment Platform that is connected with the central banks and financial institutions from Arab region. This will help in cross border multi currency transaction. Till 4 July 2022, India already initiated talks with 30 countries for UPI integration.


title: Unified Payments Interface

text: UPI is accepted at merchant locations to ease transaction experience of Indian tourists. The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) and Monetary Authority of Singapore (MAS) will operationalise interoperability between UPI and PayNow from July, 2022. Technical preparations on interoperability are complete as of November 2022. The system is now waiting for an official rollout. The same channel in future will help connect Indian and ASEAN economies.


title: Unified Payments Interface

text: In 2021, Malaysian company Merchantrade Asia partnered with NIPL to send remittance in India through UPI infrastructure.


title: Unified Payments Interface

text: LuLu Financial Holding, a subsidiary of LuLu Group International signed MoU with NIPL in August 2021, to offer real time remittance to India from United Arab Emirates (UAE) and the Middle Eastern region.The MoU will help LuLu Financial Holding and its affiliates to connect with the UPI infrastructure and help in validation, compliance checks and facilitate all the requisite protocols for a safer cross border monetary transaction. NIPL tied up with Mashreq bank in 2021 to increase UPI person-to-person (P2P) and person to merchant (P2M) transactions in UAE.


title: Unified Payments Interface

text: Network International on 18 November 2021 signed MoU with NIPL for acceptance of UPI in UAE through its network. Merchants under Network International will able to accept UPI payment from Q1 2022. On 21 April 2022, UPI went live and started accepting payment through NeoPay, a payment subsidiary of Mashreq bank.


title: Unified Payments Interface

text: On 17 February 2022, NIPL announced that it will deploy UPI in Nepal for person to person (P2P), person to merchant (P2M) and to enable cross border remittances with India in collaboration with Nepal's Manam Infotech and Gateway Payments Service.


title: Unified Payments Interface

text: NIPL signed MoU with French payment company Lyra Network, that will allow Indian tourists and students make payment using UPI in France.


title: Unified Payments Interface

text: All POS terminals in UK under payment solution provider PayXpert will enable UPI based QR code payment in partnership with NIPL.


title: Unified Payments Interface

text: India and Russia expressed interest in continuing dialogue on accepting UPI and Faster Payments System (FPS) of Central Bank of Russia within their respective national payment infrastructures. As of August 2022, both nations started working on interaction between UPI and FPS.


title: Unified Payments Interface

text: NPCI signed MoU with Central Bank of Oman on 4 October 2022 to connect UPI with similar system in Oman on a reciprocal basis. It will make UPI QR code based payment available in the country and make it easier for Indian diaspora to send their remittance money in a cost effective way.


title: Unified Payments Interface

text: As per MoU signed on 11 October 2022, Worldline SA will enable European merchants POS terminal to accept UPI. The payment will be facilitated through Worldline QR code. The initial market expansion will start with Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg and Switzerland.


title: Unified Payments Interface

text: During a bilateral virtual summit on 21 March 2022, India proposed early integration of UPI with Australian New Payment Platform to improve higher education access and tourism potential.


title: Unified Payments Interface

text: During a meeting with Majid bin Abdullah Al Qasabi on 19 September 2022, Commerce and Industry Minister Piyush Goyal discussed on introducing UPI in the country. Operationalization of UPI is one of the priority area in bilateral Fintech collaboration.


title: Unified Payments Interface

text: The Clearing House is working with EBA Clearing and SWIFT for real-time USD-Euro payment called Immediate Cross-Border (IXB) that may launch in 2023. There are talks of payment corridor between IXB and UPI.


title: Uncle Sam

text: Uncle Sam (which has the same initials as "United States") is a common national personification of the federal government of the United States or the country in general. According to legend, the character came into use during the War of 1812 and may have been named for Samuel Wilson. The actual origin is obscure.


title: Uncle Sam

text: Since the early 19th century, Uncle Sam has been a popular symbol of the U.S. government in American culture and a manifestation of patriotic emotion.


title: Uncle Sam

text: While the figure of Uncle Sam specifically represents the government, the female figure of Columbia represents the United States as a nation. An archaic character, Brother Jonathan, was known to represent the American populace.


title: Uncle Sam

text: Uncle Sam has developed notoriety for his appearance in military propaganda, popularized by a famous 1917 World War I recruiting poster by J.M. Flagg.


title: Uncle Sam

text: The first reference to Uncle Sam in formal literature (as distinct from newspapers) was in the 1816 allegorical book "The Adventures of Uncle Sam, in Search After His Lost Honor" by Frederick Augustus Fidfaddy, Esq.


title: Uncle Sam

text: The earliest known personification of the United States was as a woman named Columbia, who first appeared in 1738 (pre-US) and sometimes was associated with another female personification, Lady Liberty.


title: Uncle Sam

text: Uncle Sam finally appeared after the War of 1812. Columbia appeared with either Brother Jonathan or Uncle Sam, but her use declined as a national person in favor of Liberty, and she was effectively abandoned once she became the mascot of Columbia Pictures in the 1920s.


title: Uncle Sam

text: weighed anchor stood down the harbor, passed Sandy Hook, where there are two light-houses, and put to sea, first and the second day out most deadly seasick, oh could I have got onshore in the hight ["sic"] of it, I swear that uncle Sam, as they call him, would certainly forever have lost the services of at least one sailor.


title: Uncle Sam

text: An 1810 edition of "Niles' Weekly Register" has a footnote defining Uncle Sam as "a cant term in the army for the United States." Presumably, it came from the abbreviation of the United States: U.S.


title: Uncle Sam

text: The precise origin of the Uncle Sam character is unclear, but a popular legend is that the name "Uncle Sam" was derived from Samuel Wilson, a meatpacker from Troy, New York, who supplied rations for American soldiers during the War of 1812. There was a requirement at the time for contractors to stamp their name and where the rations came from onto the food they were sending. Wilson's packages were labeled "E.A.—U.S." When someone asked what that stood for, a co-worker jokingly said, "Elbert Anderson [the contractor] and Uncle Sam," referring to Wilson, though the "U.S." actually stood for "United States".


title: Uncle Sam

text: Doubts have been raised as to the authenticity of this story, as the claim did not appear in print until 1842. Additionally, the earliest known mention definitely referring to the metaphorical Uncle Sam is from 1810, predating Wilson's contract with the government.


title: Uncle Sam

text: In 1835, Brother Jonathan made a reference to Uncle Sam, implying that they symbolized different things: Brother Jonathan was the country itself, while Uncle Sam was the government and its power.


title: Uncle Sam

text: A clockmaker in an 1849 comedic novel explains "we call...the American public Uncle Sam, as you call the British John Bull."


title: Uncle Sam

text: By the 1850s, the names Brother Jonathan and Uncle Sam were being used nearly interchangeably, to the point that images of what had previously been called "Brother Jonathan" were being called "Uncle Sam". Similarly, the appearance of both personifications varied wildly. For example, one depiction of Uncle Sam in 1860 showed him looking like Benjamin Franklin, while a contemporaneous depiction of Brother Jonathan looks more like the modern version of Uncle Sam, though without a goatee.


title: Uncle Sam

text: An 1893 article in "The Lutheran Witness" claims Uncle Sam was simply another name for Brother Jonathan:When we meet him in politics we call him Uncle Sam; when we meet him in society we call him Brother Jonathan. Here of late Uncle Sam "alias" Brother Jonathan has been doing a powerful lot of complaining, hardly doing anything else.


title: Uncle Sam

text: Uncle Sam did not get a standard appearance, even with the effective abandonment of Brother Jonathan near the end of the American Civil War, until the well-known recruitment image of Uncle Sam was first created by James Montgomery Flagg during World War I. The image was inspired by a British recruitment poster showing Lord Kitchener in a similar pose. It is this image more than any other that has influenced the modern appearance of Uncle Sam: an elderly white man with white hair and a goatee, wearing a white top hat with white stars on a blue band, a blue tail coat, and red-and-white-striped trousers.


title: Uncle Sam

text: Flagg's depiction of Uncle Sam was shown publicly for the first time, according to some, on the cover of the magazine "Leslie's Weekly" on July 6, 1916, with the caption "What Are You Doing for Preparedness?" More than four million copies of this image were printed between 1917 and 1918. Flagg's image was also used extensively during World War II, during which the US was codenamed "Samland" by the German intelligence agency Abwehr. The term was central in the song "The Yankee Doodle Boy", which was featured in 1942 in the musical "Yankee Doodle Dandy".


title: Uncle Sam

text: There are two memorials to Uncle Sam, both of which commemorate the life of Samuel Wilson: the Uncle Sam Memorial Statue in Arlington, Massachusetts, his birthplace; and a memorial near his long-term residence in Riverfront Park, Troy, New York. Wilson's boyhood home can still be visited in Mason, New Hampshire. Samuel Wilson died on July 31, 1854, aged 87, and is buried in Oakwood Cemetery, Troy, New York.


title: Uncle Sam

text: In 1976, Uncle Sam was depicted in "Our Nation's 200th Birthday, The Telephone's 100th Birthday" by Stanley Meltzoff for Bell System.


title: Uncle Sam

text: In 1989, "Uncle Sam Day" became official. A Congressional joint resolution designated September 13, 1989, as "Uncle Sam Day", the birthday of Samuel Wilson. In 2015, the family history company MyHeritage researched Uncle Sam's family tree and claims to have tracked down his living relatives.


title: Basil

text: Basil (, ; Ocimum basilicum , also called great basil, is a culinary herb of the family Lamiaceae (mints). It is a tender plant, and is used in cuisines worldwide. In Western cuisine, the generic term "basil" refers to the variety also known as sweet basil or Genovese basil. Basil is native to tropical regions from Central Africa to Southeast Asia. In temperate climates basil is treated as an annual plant, however, basil can be grown as a short-lived perennial or biennial in warmer horticultural zones with tropical or Mediterranean climates.


title: Basil

text: There are many varieties of basil including sweet basil, Thai basil ("O. basilicum" var. "thyrsiflora"), and Mrs. Burns' Lemon ("O. basilicum var. citriodora"). "O. basilicum" can cross-pollinate with other species of the "Ocimum" genus, producing hybrids such as lemon basil ("O. × citriodorum") and African blue basil ("O. × kilimandscharicum").


title: Basil

text: The name "basil" comes from the Latin , and the Greek (), meaning "royal/kingly plant", possibly because the plant was believed to have been used in production of royal perfumes. Basil is likewise sometimes referred to in French as ('the royal herb'). The Latin name has been confused with basilisk, as it was supposed to be an antidote to the basilisk's venom.


title: Basil

text: Basil is an annual, or sometimes perennial, herb used for its leaves. Depending on the variety, plants can reach heights of between . Its leaves are richly green and ovate, but otherwise come in a wide variety of sizes and shapes depending on cultivar. Leaf sizes range from long, and between wide. Basil grows a thick, central taproot. Its flowers are small and white, and grow from a central inflorescence, or spike, that emerges from the central stem atop the plant. Unusual among Lamiaceae, the four stamens and the pistil are not pushed under the upper lip of the corolla, but lie over the inferior lip. After entomophilous pollination, the corolla falls off and four round achenes develop inside the bilabiate calyx.


title: Basil

text: The various basils have such distinct scents because the volatile aromatic compounds vary with cultivars. The essential oil from European basil contains high concentrations of linalool and methyl chavicol (estragole), in a ratio of about 3:1. Other constituents include: 1,8-cineole, eugenol, and myrcene, among others. The clove scent of sweet basil is derived from eugenol. The aroma profile of basil includes 1,8-cineole and methyl eugenol. In this species eugenol is synthesised from coniferyl acetate and NADPH. Some of these are useful as insect repellents, see below.


title: Basil

text: Basil is native to India and other tropical regions stretching from Africa to South East Asia, but has now become globalized due to human cultivation.


title: Basil

text: The exact taxonomy of basil is uncertain due to the immense number of cultivars, its ready polymorphy, and frequent cross-pollination (resulting in new hybrids) with other members of the genus "Ocimum" and within the species. "Ocimum basilicum" has at least 60 varieties, which further complicates taxonomy.


title: Basil

text: Most basils are cultivars of sweet basil. Most basil varieties have green leaves, but a few are purple, such as, 'Purple Delight'.


title: Basil

text: Some similar species in the same genus may be commonly called "basil", although they are not varieties of "Ocimum basilicum".


title: Basil

text: Basil is sensitive to cold, with best growth in hot, dry conditions. It behaves as an annual if there is any chance of a frost. However, due to its popularity, basil is cultivated in many countries around the world. Production areas include countries in the Mediterranean area, those in the temperate zone, and others in subtropical climates.


title: Basil

text: In Northern Europe, Canada, the northern states of the U.S., and the South Island of New Zealand, basil grows best if sown under glass in a peat pot, then planted out in late spring/early summer (when there is little chance of a frost); however, it can also thrive when planted outside in these climates. Additionally, it may be sown in soil once chance of frost is past. It fares best in well-drained soil with direct exposure to the sun.


title: Basil

text: Although basil grows best outdoors, it can be grown indoors in a pot and, like most herbs, will do best on a sun-facing windowsill, kept away from extremely cold drafts. A greenhouse or row cover is ideal if available. It can, however, even be grown in a basement under fluorescent lights. Supplemental lighting produces greater biomass and phenol production, with red + blue specifically increasing growth and flower bud production. UV-B increases the volatiles in "O. basilicum" essential oil, which has not been reproducible in other plants, and so may be unique to the genus or even to this species.


title: Basil

text: Basil plants require regular watering, but not as much attention as is needed in other climates. If its leaves have wilted from lack of water, it will recover if watered thoroughly and placed in a sunny location. Yellow leaves towards the bottom of the plant are an indication that the plant has been stressed; usually this means that it needs less water, or less or more fertilizer. Basil can be propagated reliably from cuttings with the stems of short cuttings suspended in water for two weeks or until roots develop.


title: Basil

text: Once a stem produces flowers, foliage production stops on that stem, the stem becomes woody, and essential oil production declines. To prevent this, a basil-grower may pinch off any flower stems before they are fully mature. Because only the blooming stem is so affected, some stems can be pinched for leaf production, while others are left to bloom for decoration or seeds. Picking the leaves off the plant helps promote growth, largely because the plant responds by converting pairs of leaflets next to the topmost leaves into new stems.


title: Basil

text: Once the plant is allowed to flower, it may produce seed pods containing small black seeds, which can be saved and planted the following year. If allowed to go to seed, a basil plant will grow back the next year.


title: Basil

text: Basil suffers from several plant pathogens that can ruin the crop and reduce yield. Fusarium wilt is a soil-borne fungal disease that will quickly kill younger basil plants. Seedlings may be killed by "Pythium" damping off. A common foliar disease of basil is gray mold caused by "Botrytis cinerea"; it can cause infections post-harvest and is capable of killing the entire plant. Black spot can be seen on basil foliage and is caused by the fungi genus "Colletotrichum". Downy mildew caused by "Peronospora belbahrii" is a significant disease, as first reported in Italy in 2004. It was reported in the U.S. in 2007 and 2008.


title: Basil

text: Basil is most commonly used fresh in recipes. In general, it is added last, as cooking quickly destroys the flavor. The fresh herb can be kept for a short time in plastic bags in the refrigerator, or for a longer period in the freezer, after being blanched quickly in boiling water.


title: Basil

text: The most commonly used Mediterranean basil cultivars are "Genovese", "Purple Ruffles", "Mammoth", "Cinnamon", "Lemon", "Globe", and "African Blue". Basil is one of the main ingredients in pesto, an Italian sauce with olive oil and basil as its primary ingredients. Many national cuisines use fresh or dried basils in soups and other foods, such as to thicken soups. Basil is commonly steeped in cream or milk to create flavor in ice cream or chocolate truffles.


title: Basil

text: Lemon basil has a strong lemony smell and flavor due to the presence of citral. It is widely used in Indonesia, where it is called and served raw as an accompaniment to meat or fish.


title: Basil

text: When soaked in water, the seeds of several basil varieties become gelatinous, and are used in Asian drinks and desserts such as the Indian "faluda", the Iranian , or . In Kashmir, the Ramadan fast is often broken with "babre beole", a sharbat made with basil seeds.


title: Basil

text: Studies of the essential oil have shown insecticidal and insect-repelling properties, including potential toxicity to mosquitos. The essential oil is found by Huignard et al. 2008 to inhibit electrical activity by decreasing action potential amplitude, by shortening the post hyperpolarization phase, and reducing the action frequency of action potentials. In Huignard's opinion this is due to the linalool and estagole, the amplitude reduction due to linalool, and the phase shortening due to both.


title: Basil

text: "Callosobruchus maculatus", a pest which affects cowpea, is repelled by the essential oil. The essential oil mixed with kaolin is both an adulticide and an ovicide, effective for three months in against "C. maculatus" in cowpea. The thrips "Frankliniella occidentalis" and "Thrips tabaci" are repelled by "O. basilicum", making this useful as an insect repellent in other crops. The pests "Sitophilus oryzae", "Stegobium paniceum", "Tribolium castaneum", and "Bruchus chinensis" are evaluated by Deshpande et al. 1974 and '77.


title: Basil

text: The essential oil is found by Malik et al. 1987 and Sangwan et al. 1990 to be nematicidal against "Tylenchulus semipenetrans", "Meloidogyne javanica", "Anguina tritici", and "Heterodera cajani".


title: Basil

text: The essential oil of the leaf and/or terminal shoot is effective against a large number of bacterial species including "Lactiplantibacillus plantarum" and "Pseudomonas" spp. The essential oil of leaf and/or terminal shoot is also effective against a large number of fungal species including "Aspergillus" spp., "Candida" spp., "Mucor" spp., and "Geotrichum candidum".


title: Basil

text: There are many rituals and beliefs associated with basil. The ancient Egyptians and ancient Greeks believed basil would open the gates of heaven for a person passing on. Jewish folklore suggests it adds strength while fasting. However, Herbalist Nicholas Culpeper saw basil as a plant of dread and suspicion.


title: Basil

text: In Portugal, dwarf bush basil is traditionally presented in a pot, together with a poem and a paper carnation, to a sweetheart, on the religious holidays of John the Baptist (see ) and Saint Anthony of Padua. In Giovanni Boccaccio's 14th century "Decameron", the fifth story of the narrative's fourth day involves a pot of basil as a central plot device. This famous story inspired John Keats to write his 1814 poem "Isabella, or the Pot of Basil", which was in turn the inspiration for two paintings of the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood: John Everett Millais's "Isabella" in 1849 and in 1868 the "Isabella and the Pot of Basil" by William Holman Hunt.


title: Basil

text: Basil has religious significance in the Greek Orthodox Church, where it is used to sprinkle holy water. The Bulgarian Orthodox Church, Serbian Orthodox Church, Macedonian Orthodox Church and Romanian Orthodox Church use basil (, ; , ; , ) to prepare holy water and pots of basil are often placed below church altars. Some Greek Orthodox Christians even avoid eating it due to its association with the legend of the Elevation of the Holy Cross.


title: Mason Gooding

text: Mason Gooding (born November 14, 1996) is an American actor. He is best known for his roles in "Booksmart", "Everything's Gonna Be Okay" and "Love, Victor" and has most recently starred in "Scream". He is the son of actor Cuba Gooding Jr.


title: Mason Gooding

text: Gooding was born on November 14, 1996, in Los Angeles, California, to Sara (Kapfer) and Cuba Gooding Jr. He is the eldest of three children. His paternal grandfather was Cuba Gooding Sr., the former lead singer of R&B band, The Main Ingredient, and his uncle is actor Omar Gooding. His paternal great-grandfather was originally from Barbados.


title: Mason Gooding

text: Gooding attended Windward High School in California, where he played varsity football for four years. He graduated in 2015. During high school, his main interests were football and theater. He wanted to begin acting after his graduation, but decided to attend college after visiting his father on set in New York. He enrolled in New York University Tisch School of the Arts to study dramatic writing and psychology. He dropped out during his junior year in order to pursue acting full time.


title: Mason Gooding

text: In 2017, while he was still in college, Gooding found a manager and an agent and started booking roles. He booked his first major acting role in the HBO's dramedy "Ballers" opposite Dwayne Johnson. In 2018, Gooding booked his first major film role in "Booksmart" directed by Olivia Wilde in her directorial debut. In 2019, Gooding was cast as Andrew in "Love, Victor", the television spinoff of the 2018 film "Love, Simon". Originally developed for Disney+, the series premiered on Hulu in 2020. While he played football in high school, Gooding had to learn how to play basketball for the role. Gooding also appeared in Netflix's Christmas themed romantic comedy "Let It Snow" later that year. In 2020, he began appearing in Freeform's sitcom, "Everything's Gonna Be Okay". In September 2020, Gooding was cast as Chad Meeks-Martin in the fifth "Scream" film, which was directed by Matt Bettinelli-Olpin and Tyler Gillett. The film was released on January 14, 2022.


title: Mason Gooding

text: In late August, Gooding co-starred alongside Kesha and Chloe Bailey in the scripted podcast, "Electric Easy", a musical neo-noir science fiction show set in a futuristic Los Angeles in which humans struggle to co-exist with robots, known as “electrics”. The show was created by Vanya Asher and executively produced by Kesha. The podcast premiered on August 30, 2021.


title: Aphrodisiac

text: An aphrodisiac is a substance that increases sexual desire, sexual attraction, sexual pleasure, or sexual behavior. Substances range from a variety of plants, spices, foods, and synthetic chemicals. Natural aphrodisiacs like cannabis or cocaine are classified into plant-based and non-plant-based substances. There are non-naturally-occurring aphrodisiacs like MDMA and methamphetamine. Aphrodisiacs can be classified by their type of effects (i.e., psychological or physiological). Aphrodisiacs that contain hallucinogenic properties like Bufotenin have psychological effects on a person that can increase sexual desire and sexual pleasure. Aphrodisiacs that contain smooth muscle relaxing properties like yohimbine have physiological effects on a person that can affect hormone levels and increase blood flow.


title: Aphrodisiac

text: It is possible that the aphrodisiac effect of a substance is due to the placebo effect. Other substances that impede on areas that aphrodisiacs aim to enhance are classified as anaphrodisiacs.


title: Aphrodisiac

text: Both males and females can benefit from the use of aphrodisiacs, but they are more focused on males as their properties tend to increase testosterone levels rather than estrogen levels. This is in part due to the historical context of aphrodisiacs, which focused solely on males. Only recent attention has been paid to understanding how aphrodisiacs can aid female sexual function. In addition, cultural influence in appropriate sexual behavior from males and females also play a part in the research gap.


title: Aphrodisiac

text: The name comes from the Greek ἀφροδισιακόν, "aphrodisiakon", i.e. "sexual, aphrodisiac", from "aphrodisios", i.e. "pertaining to Aphrodite", the Greek goddess of love. Throughout human history, food, drinks, and behaviors have had a reputation for making sex more attainable and/or pleasurable. However, from a historical and scientific standpoint, the alleged results may have been mainly due to mere belief by their users that they would be effective (placebo effect). Likewise, many medicines are reported to "effect" libido in inconsistent or idiopathic ways: enhancing or diminishing overall sexual desire depending on the situation of the subject. For example, Bupropion (Wellbutrin) is known as an antidepressant that can counteract other co-prescribed antidepressants having libido-diminishing effects. However, because Wellbutrin only increases the libido in the special case that it is already impaired by related medications, it is not generally classed as an aphrodisiac.


title: Aphrodisiac

text: Ancient civilizations like Chinese, Indian, Egyptian, Roman, and Greek cultures believed that certain substances could provide the key to improving sexual desire, sexual pleasure, and/or sexual behavior. This was important because some men suffered from erectile dysfunction and could not reproduce. Men who were unable to impregnate their wives and father large families were seen as failures, whereas those who could were respected. Hence, a stimulant was needed. Others who did not suffer from this also desired performance enhancers. Regardless of their usage, these substances gained popularity and began to be documented with information being passed down generations. Hindu cultures wrote poems dated back around 2000 to 1000 BC that spoke of performance enhancers, ingredients, and usage tips. Chinese cultures wrote text dated back to 2697 to 2595 BC. Roman and Chinese cultures documented their belief in aphrodisiac qualities in animal genitalia while Egyptian wrote tips for treating erectile dysfunction. In Post-classical West Africa, a volume titled "Advising Men on Sexual Engagement with Their Women" from the Timbuktu Manuscripts acted as a guide on aphrodisiacs and infertility remedies. It offered advice to men on "winning back" their wives. According to Hammer, "At a time when women’s sexuality was barely acknowledged in the West, the manuscript, a kind of Baedeker to orgasm, offered tips for maximizing sexual pleasure on both sides."


title: Aphrodisiac

text: Ambrien, Bufo toad, yohimbine, horny goat weed, ginseng, alcohol, and food are recorded throughout these texts as containing aphrodisiac qualities. While numerous plants, extracts or manufactured hormones have been proposed as aphrodisiacs, there is little high-quality clinical evidence for the efficacy or long-term safety of using them.


title: Aphrodisiac

text: There has been increasing attention in recent years surrounding the use of aphrodisiac drugs. In 2020, Julian Savulescu and co-editor Brian Earp published a philosophy book entitled "Love Drugs: The Chemical Future of Relationships". They argued that certain forms of medications can be ethically consumed as a "helpful complement" in relationships. Both to fall in love, and, to fall out of it.


title: Aphrodisiac

text: Ambrien is found in the gut of sperm whales. It is commonly used in Arab cultures as relief medication for headaches or as a performance enhancer. The chemical structure of Ambrien has shown to increase testosterone levels triggering sexual desire and sexual behavior in animal studies only. Further research is needed to know the effects on humans.


title: Aphrodisiac

text: Bufotenin is found in the skin and glands of Bufo toads. It is commonly used in West Indian and Chinese cultures. West Indian cultures use it as an aphrodisiac called 'Love Stone'. Chinese cultures use bufotenin as heart medication called "Chan su". Research shows that it can have a negative effect on heart rate.


title: Aphrodisiac

text: Yohimbine is a substance found in the bark of yohim trees in West Africa. It was traditionally used in West African cultures, in which the bark would be boiled and the resulting water drunk until its effects showed proven benefits in increasing sexual desire. It is now approved by the Food and Drug Administration and can be prescribed for sexual dysfunction in the United States and Canada. It is also found in over-the-counter health products. The chemical structure of yohimbine is an indole alkaloid that contains an adrenergic receptor blocker. This blocker affects the central nervous system, autonomic nervous system, and penile tissue and vascular smooth muscle cells that help men with physiological issues and treats psychogenic erectile dysfunction. Known side effects include nausea, anxiety, irregular heartbeats, and restlessness.


title: Aphrodisiac

text: Horny goat weed ("Epimedii herba") is used in Chinese folk medicine. It was thought useful for treating medical conditions and improving sexual desire, sexual pleasure, and/or sexual behavior. Horny goat weed contains icariin, a flavanol glycoside.


title: Aphrodisiac

text: Alcohol has been associated as an aphrodisiac due to its effect as a central nervous system depressant. Depressants can increase sexual desire and sexual behavior through disinhibition. Alcohol affects people both physiologically and psychologically, and is therefore difficult to determine exactly how people are experiencing its aphrodisiacal effects (i.e., aphrodisiac qualities or the expectancy effect). Alcohol taken in moderate quantities can elicit a positive increase in sexual desire whereas larger quantities are associated with difficulties reaching sexual pleasure. Chronic alcohol consumption is related to sexual dysfunction.


title: Aphrodisiac

text: Marijuana reports are mixed with half of users claiming an increase in sexual desire and sexual pleasure while the other half reports no effect. Consumption, individual sensitivity, and possibly marijuana strain are known factors that affect results.


title: Aphrodisiac

text: Many cultures have turned to food as a source of increasing sexual desire; however, significant research is lacking in the study of aphrodisiac qualities in food. Most claims can be linked to the placebo effect aforementioned. Misconceptions revolve around the visual appearance of these foods in relation to male and female genitalia (i.e., carrots, bananas, oysters, and the like). Other beliefs arise from the thought of consuming animal genitals and absorbing their properties (i.e., cow cod soup in Jamaica or balut in the Philippines). Korean bug is a popular aphrodisiac in China, Korea, and Southeast Asia either eaten alive or in gelatin form. The story of Aphrodite, who was born from the sea, is another reason why individuals believe seafood is another source of aphrodisiacs. Foods that contain volatile oils have gained little recognition in their ability to improve sexual desire, sexual pleasure, and/or sexual behavior because they are irritants when released through the urinary tract. Chocolate has been reported to increase sexual desire in women who consume it over those who do not. Cloves and sage have been reported to demonstrate aphrodisiac qualities but their effects are not yet specified.


title: Aphrodisiac

text: Ginseng is the root of any member of the genus "Panax". Ginseng's active ingredients are ginsenosides and saponin glycosides. There are three different ways to process ginseng. Fresh ginseng is cut at four years of growth, white ginseng is cut at four to six years of growth, and red ginseng is cut, dried, and steamed at six years of growth. Red ginseng has been reported to be the most effective aphrodisiac of the three. Known side effects include mild gastrointestinal upset.


title: Aphrodisiac

text: Maca is a Peruvian plant sometimes called "Peruvian ginseng" (but not closely related to "Panax"). It has been used as a tonic to improve sexual performance.


title: Aphrodisiac

text: Popular party substances have been reported by users to consist of aphrodisiac properties because of their enhancing effects with sexual pleasure.


title: Aphrodisiac

text: Ecstasy users have reported an increase in sexual desire and sexual pleasure; however, there have been reports of delays in orgasm in both sexes and erectile difficulties in men. Poppers, an inhalant, have been linked to increased sexual pleasure. Known side effects are headaches, nausea, and temporary erectile difficulties.


title: Aphrodisiac

text: Amphetamine, methylphenidate, and methamphetamine are phenethylamine derivatives which are known to increase libido and cause frequent or prolonged erections as potential side effects, particularly at high supratherapeutic doses where sexual hyperexcitability and hypersexuality can occur; however, in some individuals who use these drugs, libido is reduced.


title: Aphrodisiac

text: 2C-B was sold commercially in 5 mg pills as a purported aphrodisiac under the trade name "Erox", which was manufactured by the German pharmaceutical company Drittewelle.


title: Aphrodisiac

text: Libido in males is linked to levels of sex hormones, particularly testosterone. When a reduced sex drive occurs in individuals with relatively low levels of testosterone, particularly in postmenopausal women or men over age 60, dietary supplements that are purported to increase serum testosterone concentrations have been used with intent to increase libido, although with limited benefit. Long-term therapy with synthetic oral testosterone is associated with increased risk of cardiovascular diseases.


title: Aphrodisiac

text: Solid evidence is hard to obtain as these substances come from many different environments cross-culturally and therefore affect results due to variations in its growth and extraction. The same is also true for unnatural substances as variations in consumption and individual sensitivity can affect results. Folk medicine and self-prescribed methods can be potentially harmful as side effects are not fully known and therefore are not made aware to the people searching this topic on the internet.


title: Aphrodisiac

text: The invention of an aphrodisiac is the basis of a number of films including , "Spanish Fly", "She'll Follow You Anywhere", "Love Potion No. 9" and "A Serbian Film". The first segment of Woody Allen's "Everything You Always Wanted to Know About Sex* (*But Were Afraid to Ask)" is called "Do Aphrodisiacs Work?", and casts Allen as a court jester trying to seduce the queen. The "Despair Arc" of "" features a class being dosed with aphrodisiacs.


title: Johnny Lewis

text: Jonathan Kendrick Lewis (October 29, 1983 – September 26, 2012), also credited as Johnny K. Lewis, was an American film and television actor. He played Kip "Half-Sack" Epps in the first two seasons of the FX series "Sons of Anarchy", and other television roles such as Gilby in "The Sausage Factory" (2001–2002), Pearce Chase in "Quintuplets" (2004–2005), and Dennis "Chili" Childress in "The O.C." (2005–2006). He also appeared in supporting roles in the films "Underclassman" (2005), "" (2007), "Felon" (2008), and "The Runaways" (2010).


title: Johnny Lewis

text: After an accident in 2011, he developed a brain injury which would lead to his arrests and ultimately his death, an incident where he killed his landlady before falling off the roof of the house they lived in.


title: Johnny Lewis

text: Lewis grew up in the Los Angeles neighborhoods of North Hollywood and Sherman Oaks. He was the middle child of Michael and Divona Lewis. His parents were practicing Scientologists and Johnny was himself a Scientologist for most of his life. After finishing school, he left home at the age of 18 to pursue an acting career.


title: Johnny Lewis

text: Lewis began making television appearances while in his late teens, with guest starring roles in "Boston Public" (2000), "The Guardian" (2001), and "American Dreams" (2002), among others. His debut feature film performance premiered in 2004, in New Line Cinema's "Raise Your Voice", and he followed that up with Miramax Films' "Underclassman" in 2005. He co-starred as Pearce Chase, one of five siblings on the Fox series "Quintuplets", and appeared in the movie "Raise Your Voice" (2004) alongside Hilary Duff. He guest starred in four episodes of the Nickelodeon television series "Drake & Josh" as Scottie, one of Drake's bandmates, and from 2005 to 2006, he played Dennis "Chili" Childress on "The O.C." Lewis also had a guest spot in the third episode of "Smallville" season 5.


title: Johnny Lewis

text: He also starred in the film "Magic Valley" (2011), which premiered at the Tribeca Film Festival. Lewis was well known for his role as prospect biker Kip "Half-Sack" Epps in the first two seasons of the FX series "Sons of Anarchy".


title: Johnny Lewis

text: Lewis dated American singer Katy Perry from 2005 to 2006. In mid-2009, Lewis learned he and his then-girlfriend, actress Diane Gaeta, were expecting a baby. The couple had split up by April 6, 2010, when the couple's daughter, Culla May, was born, but briefly attempted sharing a residence. Lewis eventually moved out, after which the couple engaged in a "long and painful" custody battle that Lewis ultimately lost.


title: Johnny Lewis

text: Lewis was raised in a "Jewish-oriented household", though his family also practiced Scientology; his parents attained the highest available level within Scientology, called "Operating Thetan", or OT VIII. He starred in Scientology training films, and was a sponsor of the Scientology drug rehabilitation group Narconon. Lewis left the Church of Scientology in his early 20s.


title: Johnny Lewis

text: Lewis was arrested three times between 2011 and 2012. In January 2012, he struck two men in the head with a bottle while engaged in a fight. He pleaded no contest to charges of assault with a deadly weapon in the case. The second arrest came about six weeks after the first, with Lewis accused of attempting to break into a woman's home. He pleaded no contest in that case as well. Considering the cases, a probation official expressed that he was "very concerned for the well-being of not only the community but that of the defendant", that Lewis suffered from mental health issues as well as chemical dependency, and that Lewis would "continue to be a threat to any community he may reside in". Lewis was released from a Los Angeles County, California, jail on September 21, 2012, five days before his death.


title: Johnny Lewis

text: On October 30, 2011, Lewis suffered head injuries from a high-speed motorcycle accident. Though an MRI was recommended, and Lewis' father scheduled MRI tests twice, Lewis refused to take them. Lewis's father also states that he "pursued and encouraged psychiatric treatment for his son. It was Johnny who refused to comply." He started manifesting bizarre and illogical behavior from that point on and concurrent to his ensuing legal troubles.


title: Johnny Lewis

text: Bill Jensen reported in "Los Angeles" magazine that Lewis and his attorneys pushed for rehab for marijuana addiction. When Lewis rejected this, they pursued rehab for alcoholism, to avoid trial.


title: Johnny Lewis

text: In early August 2012, Lewis was well enough to be granted provisional out-patient status. He made a deal with the District Attorney of the San Fernando Court - his freedom for "time served". Lewis was assured that he would likely just spend a couple more days in jail, no more. The couple of days turned into nearly two more months, during which he suffered a severe downturn in health and spirits. He was released from jail September 21, 2012.


title: Johnny Lewis

text: On September 26, 2012, Lewis and his 81-year-old landlady, Catherine Davis were found dead at Davis' home. Davis was known in Hollywood for operating the Writers' Villa, a bed-and-breakfast for up-and-coming performers, directors and writers, in her home. Lewis, who had previously lived there in 2009, had recently moved back in. Police were called by neighbors after Lewis violently attacked two people at the property next door and Davis was heard screaming. Officers from the Los Angeles Police Department (LAPD) found Lewis' body on the home's driveway. Davis was found dead inside the house with severe head injuries; her pet cat was also found dead in a bathroom.


title: Johnny Lewis

text: Neighbors reported that Lewis had jumped over a fence to the next-door property, assaulted a house painter and the homeowner (to whom Lewis had earlier introduced himself as "John, your new neighbor"), and then jumped back over the fence onto Davis' property. According to the LAPD, Lewis then either fell or jumped from the roof, garage, or patio of Davis' house. His death was investigated as a homicide, and it was later determined that he had killed Davis by manual strangulation and blunt force trauma to her head.


title: Johnny Lewis

text: An autopsy report released on November 29, 2012, stated that Lewis did not have any drugs or alcohol in his system when he died. He had a history of drug abuse, leading to speculation by his attorney that the actor may have suffered a drug-induced psychosis when he allegedly killed his landlady. Toxicology reports came back negative for alcohol, cocaine, marijuana, psychedelic drugs, or anti-psychotic medication. The autopsy indicated he had suffered partial strangulation and had fingernail marks on his neck when he died. There was no indication that Lewis had been pushed or that he jumped from the roof in an act of suicide. His death was ruled accidental.


title: Johnny Lewis

text: Lewis' family has spoken out about his history of untreated head trauma, leading some to speculate that he developed a psychological disorder, which led to his sudden spurts of violence. "Sons of Anarchy" creator Kurt Sutter tweeted about his death: "It was a tragic end for an extremely talented guy, who unfortunately had lost his way. I wish I could say that I was shocked by the events last night, but I was not. I am deeply sorry that an innocent life had to be thrown into his destructive path. Yes, it's day of mourning, but it's also a day of awareness and gratitude. Sadly, some of us carry the message by dying."


title: Phoebe Tonkin

text: Phoebe Jane Elizabeth Tonkin (born 12 July 1989) is an Australian actress. She is known for portraying Cleo Sertori in "", Fiona Maxwell in "Tomorrow, When the War Began", Faye Chamberlain in "The Secret Circle", and Hayley Marshall in The CW series "The Vampire Diaries" and its spin-off series "The Originals".


title: Phoebe Tonkin

text: Tonkin was born in Sydney. When she was four, she attended dance courses in classical ballet, hip hop, contemporary dance, and tap dance. At the age of 12, Tonkin began courses at the Australian Theatre for Young People (ATYP) at the Wharf Theatre. Tonkin graduated from Queenwood School for Girls.


title: Phoebe Tonkin

text: In 2005, Tonkin was cast in the role of Cleo Sertori on the Australian children's television series "", which follows the lives of three teenage girls who turn into mermaids. She worked on improving her swimming abilities during pre-production. The series premiered on 7 July 2006 on Network Ten, and went on to be aired to a worldwide audience of over 250 million. As part of the promotional activities for the series, Tonkin and her co-stars presented the "Best Band" award at the Nickelodeon UK Kids' Choice Awards in October 2007. In 2008, she was nominated for "Best Lead Actress in a Television Series" at the prestigious Australian Film Institute Awards. The series ran for three seasons, with the series finale airing on 16 April 2010.


title: Phoebe Tonkin

text: Tonkin has appeared on the Australian television shows "Packed to the Rafters" and "Home and Away". In September 2010, she made her film debut starring in the Australian action ensemble film "Tomorrow, When the War Began". The film revolves around a group of teenagers waging a guerrilla war against an invading foreign power in their fictional hometown of Wirrawee. Tonkin played the rich and uptight Fiona Maxwell. In December 2010, a sequel was announced, in which Tonkin was expected to return, but production never eventuated.


title: Phoebe Tonkin

text: In January 2011, Tonkin moved to Los Angeles to pursue her international acting career. In March 2011, she was cast as Faye Chamberlain in The CW's supernatural drama series "The Secret Circle", which premiered on 15 September 2011 to over 3.5 million viewers. The series follows a group of young witches who form a secret coven. Tonkin received critical acclaim for her performance, with critics calling her the break-out star of the series; she was featured on "Variety" list of "new faces to watch", and named one of 2011's break-out TV stars by "E! Online". The show, however, had only one full season and was cancelled on 11 May 2012.


title: Phoebe Tonkin

text: In August 2010, Tonkin was cast in the 3D horror film "Bait 3D". Filming took place in the coastal city of Gold Coast, Queensland; the film follows a group of strangers trapped in a supermarket with a pack of great white sharks after a freak tsunami. Tonkin reunited with her "HO: Just Add Water" co-star Cariba Heine for this film, which was expected to be released in Australia in September 2012. In August 2012, Tonkin joined the cast of The CW television series "The Vampire Diaries", in the recurring role of Hayley, a friend of Tyler's. Once again, she reunited with a co-star from "HO: Just Add Water"—this time Claire Holt, who portrays Rebekah Mikaelson on the show.


title: Phoebe Tonkin

text: On 11 January 2013, The CW confirmed that a spin-off series to "The Vampire Diaries" was in the works, titled "The Originals". The series revolves around the Original Vampire family members, and Tonkin would be "heavily featured in the prospective pilot" of the series. The CW confirmed on 13 February that Claire Holt would also join the cast of "The Originals", marking the third time Tonkin and Holt have starred together on a show.


title: Phoebe Tonkin

text: On 15 May 2017, SBS announced that Tonkin had been cast in their new four-part drama "Safe Harbour" about a group of Australians on a sailing vacation who come across a boat of refugees. Tonkin revealed on Instagram that her character's name would be "Olivia". In 2018, she appeared on an episode of "The Affair" as Delphine, the protégé of an art gallery owner who had an affair with Cole's father.


title: Phoebe Tonkin

text: After her having expressed in interviews a desire to continue working in Australia, it was announced on 20 August 2018 that Tonkin had been cast in "Bloom", to be aired on the streaming platform Stan, as the young Gwen Reid, a character whose older version is portrayed by Jacki Weaver. In 2019, Tonkin wrote and directed her first short film, "Furlough", which was screened around the world in film festivals in 2020. Since 2019, she has participated in the Tribeca Chanel Women's Filmmaker Program, aimed at empowering female directors.


title: Phoebe Tonkin

text: In April 2021, it was announced that Tonkin would co-star in a horror film titled "Night Shift", alongside Lamorne Morris and Madison Hu. The film will be directed by Paul and Benjamin China.


title: Phoebe Tonkin

text: Tonkin has appeared in a number of advertisements which include Vauxhall Motors and was previously signed to Chic Management. Her modelling career includes shoots for "Girlfriend", "Teen Vogue", "Elle Australia", "Complex", "Miss Vogue", "Vogue Australia", "Dolly" and Free People.


title: Phoebe Tonkin

text: In 2012, Tonkin opened a website about health with friend Teresa Palmer called "Your Zen Life". In June 2015, Tonkin announced she was stepping down from her involvement in the site due to work commitments.


title: Phoebe Tonkin

text: Tonkin has appeared as the face of New York-based stylist Ilona Hamer's swimwear line "Matteau Swim" from 2015 to 2017, completing 3 seasons with the brand. She supported the lifestyle clothing line for Witchery in 2015.


title: Phoebe Tonkin

text: In September 2017, Tonkin appeared in the ad campaign "Journey To The Wild Side" for Smythson to promote their latest product range.


title: Phoebe Tonkin

text: Tonkin is a Chanel brand ambassador. For the April 2018 issue of Vogue Australia, Tonkin underwent another photoshoot in partnership with Chanel makeup director Lucia Pica. She was revealed in September 2018 as one of nine women taking part in a digital campaign for Chanel's Gabrielle line of products.


title: Phoebe Tonkin

text: In October 2020, Tonkin launched her own clothing brand "Lesjour!", a sustainable loungewear brand which Tonkin describes as being inspired by the leisure suit of the 70's and California living. Tonkin cited that the clothing brand was the reason she relocated permanently from New York back to LA - where the brand was designed, manufactured using EcoVero, and ships from. Tonkin stated that she'd had the idea for a clothing brand for two years, and decided to launch it as her job as an actress was affected by the COVID-19 pandemic.


title: The Man from Toronto (2022 film)

text: The Man from Toronto is a 2022 American action-comedy film directed by Patrick Hughes. The film stars Kevin Hart and Woody Harrelson, Kaley Cuoco, Jasmine Mathews, Lela Loren, Pierson Fodé, Jencarlos Canela, and Ellen Barkin.


title: The Man from Toronto (2022 film)

text: "The Man from Toronto" was released on June 24, 2022, by Netflix. The film received generally negative reviews from critics.


title: The Man from Toronto (2022 film)

text: Teddy, a struggling fitness entrepreneur in Yorktown, Virginia, is fired from his job at a local gym. He decides not to tell his wife Lori, taking her to Onancock for her birthday. Leaving her at a spa, Teddy arrives at the wrong cabin, where a man named Coughlin is being held hostage. Mistaken for "the Man from Toronto", a mysterious assassin with a talent for brutal interrogation, the clueless Teddy manages to intimidate Coughlin into giving up a code.


title: The Man from Toronto (2022 film)

text: The cabin is raided by the FBI, who convince Teddy to pose as the Man from Toronto to help capture would-be Venezuelan dictator Colonel Marin. Much to Teddy's jealousy, an agent is assigned to accompany Lori and her friend Anne on a day of luxury in Washington, D.C., telling them the trip has been provided by Teddy's job. As Toronto, Teddy meets Marin's wife Daniela, who flies him to San Juan, Puerto Rico with orders to identify Green, Coughlin's partner, and bring him to the Colonel in D.C.


title: The Man from Toronto (2022 film)

text: En route, Teddy is ambushed by the Man from Toronto, whose real name is Randy. Planning to complete the $2 million contract by maintaining the ruse that Teddy is Toronto, Randy informs his Handler, who sends another assassin, the Man from Miami. Randy and Teddy arrive at a tech conference where Marin's men have captured Green’s research team. Randy guides Teddy through interrogating the hostages; inadvertently cutting one of the men, Teddy vomits all over him and another hostage, who admits he is Green, and Randy kills Marin's guards.


title: The Man from Toronto (2022 film)

text: Green explains that he and Coughlin worked for DARPA developing a weapon with a dual failsafe — Coughlin's code and Green's thumbprint — but realized they were working on behalf of Marin, who plans to use the weapon to assassinate the President of Venezuela during a visit to D.C. Teddy leaves the room while Randy cuts off Green's thumb, and they are attacked by the Man from Miami but manage to subdue him.


title: The Man from Toronto (2022 film)

text: They return to D.C. to attend Lori's birthday dinner, where Randy finds himself connecting with Anne. Miami steals the thumb, which he and the Handler deliver to Marin. Teddy and Randy crash the deal, and the FBI arrives; Randy flees with the $2 million, while Miami and the Handler escape. The FBI discover that the thumb actually belonged to Marin's henchman, as Randy chose not to let Marin arm the weapon.


title: The Man from Toronto (2022 film)

text: Teddy returns home to find Lori has gone to stay with her mother, having learned that he lost his job and lied to her. Racing to stop her, Teddy is nearly killed by Miami, but Randy intervenes. They fight off several other assassins summoned by the Handler, who arrives demanding the money. She pursues them into a warehouse, where Teddy unintentionally drops her into a vat of boiling oil, frying her alive.


title: The Man from Toronto (2022 film)

text: Teddy is confronted by a final assassin, the Man from Tokyo, but Randy dispatches him with "Debora", his beloved 1969 Dodge Charger. Taking the car, Teddy reconciles with Lori at the train station but parks on the tracks, and the car is destroyed by a train. A year later, Randy has followed through on his dream of opening his own restaurant, and is in a relationship with Anne. Teddy declares Randy his partner in his new online gym, presenting him with a small payment toward replacing Debora, but Randy later calls Teddy during a livestream workout to threaten him.


title: The Man from Toronto (2022 film)

text: It was announced in January 2020 that Patrick Hughes was set to direct Robbie Fox's script "The Man from Toronto", with Jason Statham and Kevin Hart set to star; Jason Blumenthal, Todd Black, Bill Bannerman, and Steve Tisch producing through Escape Artists; and Sony Pictures distributing. In March, Statham abruptly exited the project six weeks prior to filming after clashing with producers over the tone and rating of the film. Woody Harrelson was cast to replace him. Kaley Cuoco was added to the cast in April, and Pierson Fodé was added in May. Jasmine Mathews, Ellen Barkin, Lela Loren, and Tomohisa Yamashita were added in October. Filming was set to begin in April 2020 in Atlanta, but in March, production was shut down due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Filming began on October 12, 2020 in the Toronto area. Rob Hardy was the cinematographer. During post-production, the film's music was composed by Ramin Djawadi.


title: The Man from Toronto (2022 film)

text: The film was initially scheduled to be theatrically released by Sony Pictures Releasing on November 20, 2020. On April 24, 2020, the date was moved to September 17, 2021 due to the COVID-19 pandemic delaying the film's production. In March 2021, it was pulled from the schedule. In April 2021, the film was rescheduled to be released on January 14, 2022. In November 2021, it was again delayed to August 12, 2022. Netflix signed a deal with Sony Pictures for the right to exclusively stream upcoming films, including this film after their theatrical and home media windows. In April 2022, Sony sold the film's distribution rights to Netflix, who is distributing the film worldwide excluding China, where Sony would distribute. Sony would also retain home entertainment and linear television rights to the film through the Columbia Pictures label.


title: The Man from Toronto (2022 film)

text: On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 34 out of 100 based on reviews from 20 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews."


title: Supermassive black hole

text: A supermassive black hole (SMBH or sometimes SBH) is the largest type of black hole, with its mass being on the order of hundreds of thousands, or millions to billions of times the mass of the Sun (). Black holes are a class of astronomical objects that have undergone gravitational collapse, leaving behind spheroidal regions of space from which nothing can escape, not even light. Observational evidence indicates that almost every large galaxy has a supermassive black hole at its center. For example, the Milky Way has a supermassive black hole in its Galactic Center, corresponding to the radio source Sagittarius A*. Accretion of interstellar gas onto supermassive black holes is the process responsible for powering active galactic nuclei (AGNs) and quasars.


title: Supermassive black hole

text: Two supermassive black holes have been directly imaged by the Event Horizon Telescope: the black hole in the giant elliptical galaxy Messier 87 and the black hole at the Milky Way’s center.


title: Supermassive black hole

text: Supermassive black holes are classically defined as black holes with a mass above 100,000 () solar masses (); some have masses of several billion . Supermassive black holes have physical properties that clearly distinguish them from lower-mass classifications. First, the tidal forces in the vicinity of the event horizon are significantly weaker for supermassive black holes. The tidal force on a body at a black hole's event horizon is inversely proportional to the square of the black hole's mass: a person at the event horizon of a black hole experiences about the same tidal force between their head and feet as a person on the surface of the earth. Unlike with stellar mass black holes, one would not experience significant tidal force until very deep into the black hole's event horizon.


title: Supermassive black hole

text: It is somewhat counterintuitive to note that the average density of a SMBH within its event horizon (defined as the mass of the black hole divided by the volume of space within its Schwarzschild radius) can be less than the density of water. This is because the Schwarzschild radius (formula_1) is directly proportional to its mass. Since the volume of a spherical object (such as the event horizon of a non-rotating black hole) is directly proportional to the cube of the radius, the density of a black hole is inversely proportional to the square of the mass, and thus higher mass black holes have lower average density.


title: Supermassive black hole

text: The Schwarzschild radius of the event horizon of a nonrotating and uncharged supermassive black hole of around is comparable to the semi-major axis of the orbit of planet Uranus, which is 19 AU.


title: Supermassive black hole

text: Some astronomers refer to black holes of greater than as 'ultramassive black holes' (UMBHs or UBHs), but the term is not broadly used. Possible examples include the black holes at the centres of TON 618, NGC 6166, ESO 444-46 and NGC 4889, which are among the most massive black holes known.


title: Supermassive black hole

text: Some studies have suggested that the maximum natural mass that a black hole can reach, while being luminous accretors (featuring an accretion disk), is typically of the order of about .


title: Supermassive black hole

text: The story of how supermassive black holes were found began with the investigation by Maarten Schmidt of the radio source 3C 273 in 1963. Initially this was thought to be a star, but the spectrum proved puzzling. It was determined to be hydrogen emission lines that had been red shifted, indicating the object was moving away from the Earth. Hubble's law showed that the object was located several billion light-years away, and thus must be emitting the energy equivalent of hundreds of galaxies. The rate of light variations of the source dubbed a quasi-stellar object, or quasar, suggested the emitting region had a diameter of one parsec or less. Four such sources had been identified by 1964.


title: Supermassive black hole

text: In 1963, Fred Hoyle and W. A. Fowler proposed the existence of hydrogen burning supermassive stars (SMS) as an explanation for the compact dimensions and high energy output of quasars. These would have a mass of about . However, Richard Feynman noted stars above a certain critical mass are dynamically unstable and would collapse into a black hole, at least if they were non-rotating. Fowler then proposed that these supermassive stars would undergo a series of collapse and explosion oscillations, thereby explaining the energy output pattern. Appenzeller and Fricke (1972) built models of this behavior, but found that the resulting star would still undergo collapse, concluding that a non-rotating SMS "cannot escape collapse to a black hole by burning its hydrogen through the CNO cycle".


title: Supermassive black hole

text: Edwin E. Salpeter and Yakov Zeldovich made the proposal in 1964 that matter falling onto a massive compact object would explain the properties of quasars. It would require a mass of around to match the output of these objects. Donald Lynden-Bell noted in 1969 that the infalling gas would form a flat disk that spirals into the central "Schwarzschild throat". He noted that the relatively low output of nearby galactic cores implied these were old, inactive quasars. Meanwhile, in 1967, Martin Ryle and Malcolm Longair suggested that nearly all sources of extra-galactic radio emission could be explained by a model in which particles are ejected from galaxies at relativistic velocities; meaning they are moving near the speed of light. Martin Ryle, Malcolm Longair, and Peter Scheuer then proposed in 1973 that the compact central nucleus could be the original energy source for these relativistic jets.


title: Supermassive black hole

text: Arthur M. Wolfe and Geoffrey Burbidge noted in 1970 that the large velocity dispersion of the stars in the nuclear region of elliptical galaxies could only be explained by a large mass concentration at the nucleus; larger than could be explained by ordinary stars. They showed that the behavior could be explained by a massive black hole with up to , or a large number of smaller black holes with masses below . Dynamical evidence for a massive dark object was found at the core of the active elliptical galaxy Messier 87 in 1978, initially estimated at . Discovery of similar behavior in other galaxies soon followed, including the Andromeda Galaxy in 1984 and the Sombrero Galaxy in 1988.


title: Supermassive black hole

text: Donald Lynden-Bell and Martin Rees hypothesized in 1971 that the center of the Milky Way galaxy would contain a massive black hole. Sagittarius A* was discovered and named on February 13 and 15, 1974, by astronomers Bruce Balick and Robert Brown using the Green Bank Interferometer of the National Radio Astronomy Observatory. They discovered a radio source that emits synchrotron radiation; it was found to be dense and immobile because of its gravitation. This was, therefore, the first indication that a supermassive black hole exists in the center of the Milky Way.


title: Supermassive black hole

text: The Hubble Space Telescope, launched in 1990, provided the resolution needed to perform more refined observations of galactic nuclei. In 1994 the Faint Object Spectrograph on the Hubble was used to observe Messier 87, finding that ionized gas was orbiting the central part of the nucleus at a velocity of ±500 km/s. The data indicated a concentrated mass of lay within a span, providing strong evidence of a supermassive black hole. Using the Very Long Baseline Array to observe Messier 106, Miyoshi et al. (1995) were able to demonstrate that the emission from an HO maser in this galaxy came from a gaseous disk in the nucleus that orbited a concentrated mass of , which was constrained to a radius of 0.13 parsecs. Their ground-breaking research noted that a swarm of solar mass black holes within a radius this small would not survive for long without undergoing collisions, making a supermassive black hole the sole viable candidate. Accompanying this observation which provided the first confirmation of supermassive black holes was the discovery of the highly broadened, ionised iron


title: Supermassive black hole

text: Kα emission line (6.4 keV) from the galaxy MCG-6-30-15. The broadening was due to the gravitational redshift of the light as it escaped from just 3 to 10 Schwarzschild radii from the black hole.


title: Supermassive black hole

text: On April 10, 2019, the Event Horizon Telescope collaboration released the first horizon-scale image of a black hole, in the center of the galaxy Messier 87. In March 2020, astronomers suggested that additional subrings should form the photon ring, proposing a way of better detecting these signatures in the first black hole image.


title: Supermassive black hole

text: The origin of supermassive black holes remains an active field of research. Astrophysicists agree that black holes can grow by accretion of matter and by merging with other black holes. There are several hypotheses for the formation mechanisms and initial masses of the progenitors, or "seeds", of supermassive black holes. Independently of the specific formation channel for the black hole seed, given sufficient mass nearby, it could accrete to become an intermediate-mass black hole and possibly a SMBH if the accretion rate persists.


title: Supermassive black hole

text: Distant and early supermassive black holes, such as J0313–1806, and ULAS J1342+0928, are hard to explain so soon after the Big Bang. Some postulate they might come from direct collapse of dark matter with self-interaction. A small minority of sources argue that they may be evidence that the Universe is the result of a Big Bounce, instead of a Big Bang, with these supermassive black holes being formed before the Big Bounce.


title: Supermassive black hole

text: The early progenitor seeds may be black holes of that are left behind by the explosions of massive stars and grow by accretion of matter. Another model involves a dense stellar cluster undergoing core collapse as the negative heat capacity of the system drives the velocity dispersion in the core to relativistic speeds.


title: Supermassive black hole

text: Before the first stars, large gas clouds could collapse into a "quasi-star", which would in turn collapse into a black hole of around . These stars may have also been formed by dark matter halos drawing in enormous amounts of gas by gravity, which would then produce supermassive stars with . The "quasi-star" becomes unstable to radial perturbations because of electron-positron pair production in its core and could collapse directly into a black hole without a supernova explosion (which would eject most of its mass, preventing the black hole from growing as fast).


title: Supermassive black hole

text: A more recent theory proposes that SMBH seeds were formed in the very early universe each from the collapse of a supermassive star with mass of around .


title: Supermassive black hole

text: Large, high-redshift clouds of metal-free gas, when irradiated by a sufficiently intense flux of Lyman–Werner photons, can avoid cooling and fragmenting, thus collapsing as a single object due to self-gravitation. The core of the collapsing object reaches extremely large values of the matter density, of the order of about , and triggers a general relativistic instability. Thus, the object collapses directly into a black hole, without passing from the intermediate phase of a star, or of a quasi-star. These objects have a typical mass of about and are named direct collapse black holes. A 2022 computer simulation showed that the first supermassive black holes can arise in rare turbulent clumps of gas, called primordial halos, that were fed by unusually strong streams of cold gas. The key simulation result was that cold flows suppressed star formation in the turbulent halo until the halo’s gravity was finally able to overcome the turbulence and formed two direct-collapse black holes of and . The birth of the first SMBHs can therefore be a result of standard cosmological structure formation — contrary to what had been thought for almost two decades.


title: Supermassive black hole

text: Finally, primordial black holes (PBHs) could have been produced directly from external pressure in the first moments after the Big Bang. These black holes would then have more time than any of the above models to accrete, allowing them sufficient time to reach supermassive sizes. Formation of black holes from the deaths of the first stars has been extensively studied and corroborated by observations. The other models for black hole formation listed above are theoretical.


title: Supermassive black hole

text: The formation of a supermassive black hole requires a relatively small volume of highly dense matter having small angular momentum. Normally, the process of accretion involves transporting a large initial endowment of angular momentum outwards, and this appears to be the limiting factor in black hole growth. This is a major component of the theory of accretion disks. Gas accretion is the most efficient and also the most conspicuous way in which black holes grow. The majority of the mass growth of supermassive black holes is thought to occur through episodes of rapid gas accretion, which are observable as active galactic nuclei or quasars. Observations reveal that quasars were much more frequent when the Universe was younger, indicating that supermassive black holes formed and grew early. A major constraining factor for theories of supermassive black hole formation is the observation of distant luminous quasars, which indicate that supermassive black holes of had already formed when the Universe was less than one billion years old. This suggests that supermassive black holes arose very early in the Universe, inside the first massive galaxies.


title: Supermassive black hole

text: There is a natural upper limit to how large supermassive black holes can grow. Supermassive black holes in any quasar or active galactic nucleus (AGN) appear to have a theoretical upper limit of physically around for typical parameters, as anything above this slows growth down to a crawl (the slowdown tends to start around ) and causes the unstable accretion disk surrounding the black hole to coalesce into stars that orbit it. A study concluded that the radius of the innermost stable circular orbit (ISCO) for SMBH masses above this limit exceeds the self-gravity radius, making disc formation no longer possible.


title: Supermassive black hole

text: A larger upper limit of around was represented as the absolute maximum mass limit for an accreting SMBH in extreme cases, for example its maximal prograde spin with a dimensionless spin parameter of "a" = 1, although the maximum limit for a black hole's spin paramater is very slightly lower at "a" = 0.9982. At masses just below the limit, the disc luminosity of a field galaxy is likely to be below the Eddington limit and not strong enough to trigger the feedback underlying the M–sigma relation, so SMBHs close to the limit can evolve above this. It was noted that, however, black holes close to this limit are likely to be rather even rarer, as it would requires the accretion disc to be almost permanently prograde because the black hole grows and the spin-down effect of retrograde accretion is larger than the spin-up by prograde accretion, due to its ISCO and therefore its lever arm. This would in turn require the hole spin to be permanently correlated with a fixed direction of the potential controlling gas flow within the black hole's host galaxy, and thus would tend to produce a spin axis and hence AGN jet direction, which is similarly aligned with the galaxy. However, current observations do not support this correlation. The so-called 'chaotic accretion' presumably has to involve multiple small-scale events, essentially random in time and orientation if it is not controlled by a large-scale potential in this way. This would lead the accretion statistically to spin-down, due to retrograde events having larger lever arms than prograde, and occurring almost as often. There is also other interactions with large SMBHs that trend to reduce their spin, including particularly mergers with other black holes, which can statistically decrease the spin. Every of these considerations suggested that SMBHs usually cross the critical theoretical mass limit at modest values of their spin parameters, so that in all but rare cases.


title: Supermassive black hole

text: Gravitation from supermassive black holes in the center of many galaxies is thought to power active objects such as Seyfert galaxies and quasars, and the relationship between the mass of the central black hole and the mass of the host galaxy depends upon the galaxy type. An empirical correlation between the size of supermassive black holes and the stellar velocity dispersion formula_2 of a galaxy bulge is called the M–sigma relation.


title: Supermassive black hole

text: An AGN is now considered to be a galactic core hosting a massive black hole that is accreting matter and displays a sufficiently strong luminosity. The nuclear region of the Milky Way, for example, lacks sufficient luminosity to satisfy this condition. The unified model of AGN is the concept that the large range of observed properties of the AGN taxonomy can be explained using just a small number of physical parameters. For the initial model, these values consisted of the angle of the accretion disk's torus to the line of sight and the luminosity of the source. AGN can be divided into two main groups: a radiative mode AGN in which most of the output is in the form of electromagnetic radiation through an optically thick accretion disk, and a jet mode in which relativistic jets emerge perpendicular to the disk.


title: Supermassive black hole

text: The interaction of a pair of SMBH-hosting galaxies can lead to merger events. Dynamic friction on the hosted SMBH objects causes them to sink toward the center of the merged mass, eventually forming a pair with a separation of under a kiloparsec. The interaction of this pair with surrounding stars and gas will then gradually bring the SMBH together as a gravitationally bound binary system with a separation of ten parsecs or less. Once the pair draw as close as 0.001 parsecs, gravitational radiation will cause them to merge. By the time this happens, the resulting galaxy will have long since relaxed from the merger event, with the initial starburst activity and AGN having faded away. The gravitational waves from this coalescence can give the resulting SMBH a velocity boost of up to several thousand km/s, propelling it away from the galactic center and possibly even ejecting it from the galaxy.


title: Supermassive black hole

text: Hawking radiation is black-body radiation that is predicted to be released by black holes, due to quantum effects near the event horizon. This radiation reduces the mass and energy of black holes, causing them to shrink and ultimately vanish. If black holes evaporate via Hawking radiation, a non-rotating and uncharged stupendously large black hole with a mass of will evaporate in around . Black holes formed during the predicted collapse of superclusters of galaxies in the far future with would evaporate over a timescale of up to .