title: True Grit (2010 film)

text: After pursuing and catching up to the lawmen, Mattie is spanked for her perceived insolence by LaBoeuf. This, combined with a further disagreement, prompts Cogburn to end his arrangement with LaBoeuf; the latter leaves to pursue Chaney on his own. At a rural dugout, Cogburn and Mattie find two outlaws, Quincy and Moon, who surrender after Cogburn shoots and injures Moon. Initially, the outlaws deny any knowledge of Ned Pepper or Chaney, but Cogburn, using Moon's worsening injury as leverage, convinces Moon to cooperate. Quincy, enraged, stabs Moon and is himself shot and killed by Cogburn. A dying Moon informs Cogburn that Pepper and his gang will arrive at the dugout later that night for supplies.


title: True Grit (2010 film)

text: Cogburn and Mattie plan an ambush for the Pepper gang, but LaBoeuf arrives first and is confronted by the gang. Cogburn shoots two gang members and accidentally hits LaBoeuf, but Pepper escapes. The next morning the three set off again in pursuit of Chaney and the Pepper gang, who Cogburn believes may be hiding out in the Winding Stair Mountains. Cogburn begins to drink heavily, and after several days of searching, the three find no trace of Chaney or the Pepper gang. Cogburn declares that the trail has gone cold and quits the pursuit; LaBoeuf leaves the posse, declaring he will return to Texas.


title: True Grit (2010 film)

text: While retrieving water from a stream, Mattie happens upon Chaney. She shoots and wounds him, but her revolver then misfires, allowing Chaney to take her hostage. Ned Pepper convinces Cogburn to leave the area by threatening to kill Mattie. Pepper leaves Mattie alone with Chaney, ordering him not to harm her. Pepper then departs with the rest of the gang, stating he will return with a fresh horse for Chaney. Chaney, musing that Pepper has abandoned him to be captured by the law, attempts to kill Mattie. LaBoeuf, having rendezvoused with Cogburn, arrives and knocks Chaney unconscious, while Cogburn intercepts the fleeing gang in a four-to-one standoff.


title: True Grit (2010 film)

text: Cogburn and the outlaws charge at each other headlong, with Cogburn killing two of the gang before his own horse is shot and falls, trapping him. As Pepper, mortally wounded, prepares to execute Cogburn, LaBoeuf shoots Pepper from 400 yards with his Sharps rifle. Chaney regains consciousness and knocks out LaBoeuf, but Mattie seizes LaBoeuf's rifle and shoots Chaney in the chest, killing him. The recoil knocks her into a pit, where she is bitten by a rattlesnake. Cogburn arrives and rescues Mattie, promising to send help for LaBoeuf before departing with Mattie to reach a doctor. After their horse collapses from exhaustion, Cogburn carries a delirious Mattie on foot to reach help. Mattie's arm is ultimately amputated, and although Cogburn stays with her until she is out of danger, he is gone by the time she regains consciousness.


title: True Grit (2010 film)

text: Twenty-five years later, Mattie receives a letter from Cogburn inviting her to attend a traveling Wild West show in which he is performing. When she arrives at the show site, she learns that Cogburn died three days earlier. She has his body moved to her family cemetery and stands over the grave, reflecting on this decision, her choice not to marry, and her hope of hearing from LaBoeuf again if he is still alive.


title: True Grit (2010 film)

text: Ahead of shooting, Ethan Coen said that the film would be a more faithful adaptation of the novel than the 1969 version.


title: True Grit (2010 film)

text: It's partly a question of point-of-view. The book is entirely in the voice of the 14-year-old girl. That sort of tips the feeling of it over a certain way. I think [the book is] much funnier than the movie was so I think, unfortunately, they lost a lot of humor in both the situations and in her voice. It also ends differently than the movie did. You see the main character – the little girl – 25 years later when she's an adult. Another way in which it's a little bit different from the movie – and maybe this is just because of the time the movie was made – is that it's a lot tougher and more violent than the movie reflects. Which is part of what's interesting about it.


title: True Grit (2010 film)

text: Mattie Ross "is a pill", said Ethan Coen in a December 2010 interview, "but there is something deeply admirable about her in the book that we were drawn to", including the Presbyterian-Protestant ethic so strongly imbued in a 14-year-old girl. Joel Coen said that the brothers did not want to "mess around with what we thought was a very compelling story and character". The film's producer, Scott Rudin, said that the Coens had taken a "formal, reverent approach" to the Western genre, with its emphasis on adventure and quest. "The patois of the characters, the love of language that permeates the whole film, makes it very much of a piece with their other films, but it is the least ironic in many regards".


title: True Grit (2010 film)

text: Nevertheless, there are subtle ways in which the film adaptation differs from the original novel. This is particularly evident in the negotiation scene between Mattie and her father's undertaker. In the film, Mattie bargains over her father's casket and proceeds to spend the night among the corpses to avoid paying for the boardinghouse. This scene is, in fact, nonexistent in the novel, where Mattie is depicted as refusing to bargain over her father's body, and never entertains the thought of sleeping among the corpses.


title: True Grit (2010 film)

text: Open casting sessions were held in Texas in November 2009 for the role of Mattie Ross. The following month, Paramount Pictures announced a casting search for a 12- to 16-year-old girl, describing the character as a "simple, tough as nails young woman" whose "unusually steely nerves and straightforward manner are often surprising". Steinfeld, then age 13, was selected for the role from a pool of 15,000 applicants. "It was, as you can probably imagine, the source of a lot of anxiety", Ethan Coen told "The New York Times". "We were aware if the kid doesn't work, there's no movie".


title: True Grit (2010 film)

text: The film was shot in the Santa Fe, New Mexico, area on 22 March and wrapped on 27 April 2010, as well as in Bartlett, Granger and Austin, Texas. The first trailer was released in September; a second trailer premiered with "The Social Network".


title: True Grit (2010 film)

text: For the final segment of the film, a one-armed body double was needed for Elizabeth Marvel (who played the adult Mattie). After a nationwide call, the Coen brothers cast Ruth Morris – a 29-year-old social worker and student who was born without a left forearm.


title: True Grit (2010 film)

text: In the holiday weekend following its December 22 North American debut, "True Grit" took in $25.6 million at the box office, twice its pre-release projections. By its second weekend ending January 2, the film had earned $87.1 million domestically, becoming the Coen brothers' highest-grossing film, surpassing "No Country for Old Men", which earned $74.3 million. "True Grit" was the only mainstream movie of the 2010 holiday season to exceed the revenue expectations of its producers. Based on that performance, "The Los Angeles Times" predicted that the film would likely become the second-highest grossing western of all time when inflation is discounted, exceeded only by "Dances with Wolves". On Thursday, December 23, 2010, it opened to behind "Little Fockers" and "Tron: Legacy". On Friday, December 24, 2010, it went up to behind "Little Fockers". On Friday, December 31, 2010, it went up to and then on January 1, 2011, it went back to until January 3, 2011. It stayed until January 14 and then went down to behind "The Green Hornet" and "The Dilemma". On February 11, 2011, it went down to behind "Justin Bieber: Never Say Never", "Just Go With It", "Gnomeo and Juliet", "The Eagle", "The Roommate", "The King's Speech", "No Strings Attached", and "Sanctum". It closed in theaters on April 28, 2011. "True Grit" took in an additional $15 million in what is usually a slow month for movie attendance, reaching $110 million. According to Box Office Mojo, "True Grit" has grossed over $170 million domestically and $250 million worldwide as of July 2011.


title: True Grit (2010 film)

text: Both the brothers and Paramount Vice Chairman Rob Moore attributed the film's success partly to its "soft" PG-13 rating, atypical for a Coen brothers film, which helped broaden audience appeal. Paramount anticipated that the film would be popular with the adults who often constitute the Coen brothers' core audience, as well as fans of the Western genre. But "True Grit" also drew extended families: parents, grandparents, and teenagers. Geographically, the film played strongest in Los Angeles and New York, but its top 20 markets also included Oklahoma City; Plano, Texas; and Olathe, Kansas.


title: True Grit (2010 film)

text: "True Grit" received critical acclaim. Roger Ebert awarded 3.5 stars out of 4, writing, "What strikes me is that I'm describing the story and the film as if it were simply, if admirably, a good Western. That's a surprise to me, because this is a film by the Coen Brothers, and this is the first straight genre exercise in their career. It's a loving one. Their craftsmanship is a wonder", and also remarking, "The cinematography by Roger Deakins reminds us of the glory that was, and can still be, the Western."


title: True Grit (2010 film)

text: The "Los Angeles Times" critic Kenneth Turan gave the film 4 out of 5 stars, writing, "The Coens, not known for softening anything, have restored the original's bleak, elegiac conclusion and as writer-directors have come up with a version that shares events with the first film but is much closer in tone to the book ... Clearly recognizing a kindred spirit in Portis, sharing his love for eccentric characters and odd language, they worked hard, and successfully, at serving the buoyant novel as well as being true to their own black comic brio."


title: True Grit (2010 film)

text: In his review for the Minneapolis "Star Tribune" Colin Covert wrote: "the Coens dial down the eccentricity and deliver their first classically made, audience-pleasing genre picture. The results are masterful." Richard Corliss of "Time" named Hailee Steinfeld's performance one of the Top 10 Movie Performances of 2010, saying "She delivers the orotund dialogue as if it were the easiest vernacular, stares down bad guys, wins hearts. That's a true gift".


title: True Grit (2010 film)

text: Rex Reed of the "New York Observer" criticized the film's pacing, referring to plot points as "mere distractions ... to divert attention from the fact that nothing is going on elsewhere". Reed considers Damon "hopelessly miscast" and finds Bridges' performance mumbly, lumbering, and self-indulgent. Entertainment Weekly gave the movie a B+: "Truer than the John Wayne showpiece and less gritty than the book, this "True Grit" is just tasty enough to leave movie lovers hungry for a missing spice."


title: True Grit (2010 film)

text: The US Conference of Catholic Bishops review called the film "exceptionally fine" and said "[a]mid its archetypical characters, mythic atmosphere and amusingly idiosyncratic dialogue, writer-directors Joel and Ethan Coen's captivating drama uses its heroine's sensitive perspective – as well as a fair number of biblical and religious references – to reflect seriously on the violent undertow of frontier life".


title: True Grit (2010 film)

text: Rotten Tomatoes reported that 95% of critics gave the film a positive review based on 275 reviews, with an average score of 8.32/10 and with its consensus stating: "Girded by strong performances from Jeff Bridges, Matt Damon, and newcomer Hailee Steinfeld, and lifted by some of the Coens' most finely tuned, unaffected work, "True Grit" is a worthy companion to the Charles Portis book." Metacritic gave the film an average score of 80 out of 100 based on 41 reviews from mainstream critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B+" on an A+ to F scale. Total Film gave the film a five-star review (denoting 'outstanding'): "This isn't so much a remake as a masterly re-creation. Not only does it have the drop on the 1969 version, it's the first great movie of 2011".


title: True Grit (2010 film)

text: The film won the Broadcast Film Critics Association Award for Best Young Performer (Hailee Steinfeld) and received ten additional nominations in the following categories: Best Film, Best Actor (Jeff Bridges), Best Supporting Actress (Steinfeld), Best Director, Best Adapted Screenplay, Best Cinematography, Best Art Direction, Best Costume Design, Best Makeup, and Best Score. The ceremony took place on January 14, 2011.


title: True Grit (2010 film)

text: It was nominated for two Screen Actors Guild Awards: Best Actor in a Leading Role (Bridges) and Best Actress in a Supporting Role (Steinfeld). The ceremony took place on January 30, 2011.


title: True Grit (2010 film)

text: It was nominated for eight British Academy Film Awards: Best Film, Best Actor in a Leading Role (Bridges), Best Actress in a Leading Role (Steinfeld), Best Adapted Screenplay, Best Cinematography, Best Production Design, Best Costume Design. Roger Deakins won the award for Best Cinematography.


title: True Grit (2010 film)

text: It was nominated for ten Academy Awards, but won none: Best Picture, Best Director, Best Adapted Screenplay, Best Actor (Bridges), Best Supporting Actress (Steinfeld), Best Art Direction, Best Cinematography, Best Costume Design, Best Sound Mixing, and Best Sound Editing. When told of all the nominations, the Coen brothers stated, "Ten seems like an awful lot. We don't want to take anyone else's."


title: Big Floppa

text: Big Floppa, or simply Floppa (), is an internet meme based around a caracal named Gosha () also referred to as Gregory. Gregory is less preferred and the meme community uses "Floppa".


title: Big Floppa

text: On December 23, 2019, Instagram user prozhony posted a photograph of their pet caracal named Gosha (Гоша) and a Maine Coon cat lying next to the pet caracal. The image received over 16,600 views in six months (driven largely by its meme popularity). The name "Big Floppa" originated in reference to the caracal's distinctive large tufted ears.


title: Big Floppa

text: Gosha was born on December 21, 2017 in Kyiv, Ukraine. In April 2018, he was adopted by Andrey Bondarev and Elena Bondareva from Moscow. Andrey and Elena also own a Maine Coon named Justin (, ), who is 4 years older than Gosha and shares a room with him. Gosha enjoys eating shrimp and mice and is very active around his apartment.


title: Big Floppa

text: Following the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, many social media websites and services have been banned in Russia, including Instagram, where Gosha's owners typically post. In response to this, a post was made on their instagram page which read "Dear friends, today Instagram will be blocked in Russia, but we remain with you!". Soon after this announcement, they also announced the creation of a YouTube channel and a Telegram channel. Gosha's YouTube channel, called 'Big Floppa Official' hosts livestreams of Gosha with various webcams around Andrey and Dino's house. As of October 2022, Gosha's channel has 20.3k subscribers.


title: Big Floppa

text: Within this community the term "Floppa/floppas" (lowercase when used generically) has come to refer to caracals with a social media presence in general, notably a caracal named Pumba from Latvia. In 2022, Gosha and Pumba met virtually via Skype. Another notable caracal associated to the meme is a caracal named Adolf, also from Russia.


title: Big Floppa

text: "Big Floppa", as a distinct title, is now usually reserved for Gosha alone, and is often compared with rap monikers as it is very similar to many rappers' scene names, with "Big Floppa" itself being a reference to the 1994 Notorious B.I.G song Big Poppa.


title: Big Floppa

text: The meme notably involves Gosha committing war crimes and terrorist attacks, that his owners have since comically addressed.


title: Big Floppa

text: In Russian Internet culture, there is a flash mob called "Мам, смотри, это Шлёпа, он тебе нравится?" ("Mom, look, it's Floppa, do you like him?").


title: Pocahontas (1995 film)

text: Pocahontas is a 1995 American animated musical historical drama film based on the life of Powhatan woman Pocahontas and the arrival of English colonial settlers from the Virginia Company. The film romanticizes Pocahontas' encounter with John Smith and her legendary saving of his life. The film was produced by Walt Disney Feature Animation and released by Walt Disney Pictures. It is the 33rd Disney animated feature film and the sixth film produced and released during the Disney Renaissance.


title: Pocahontas (1995 film)

text: The film was directed by Mike Gabriel and Eric Goldberg (in his feature directorial debut) and produced by Jim Pentecost, from a screenplay written by Phillip LaZebnik, Carl Binder, and Susannah Grant. The voice cast features Irene Bedard and Mel Gibson as Pocahontas and Smith, respectively, with David Ogden Stiers, Russell Means, Christian Bale, Billy Connolly, and Linda Hunt providing other voices. The score was composed by Alan Menken, who also wrote the film's songs with lyricist Stephen Schwartz.


title: Pocahontas (1995 film)

text: After making his directorial debut with "The Rescuers Down Under" (1990), Gabriel conceived the film during a Thanksgiving weekend. The project went into development concurrently with "The Lion King" (1994), and attracted most of Disney's top animators. Meanwhile, Disney studio chairman Jeffrey Katzenberg decided that the film should be a serious romantic epic in the vein of "Beauty and the Beast" (1991), in hope that like "Beauty", it would also be nominated for the Academy Award for Best Picture. Screenwriters Binder, Grant, and LaZebnik took creative liberties with history in an attempt to make the film palatable to audiences.


title: Pocahontas (1995 film)

text: "Pocahontas" was released on June 16, 1995, to mixed reactions from reviewers, who praised its animation, voice performances, and music, but criticized its story with its lack of focus on tone. The film's historical inaccuracies and racial overtones received polarized responses. "Pocahontas" earned over $346 million at the box office. The film received two Academy Awards for Best Musical or Comedy Score for Menken and Best Original Song for "Colors of the Wind". According to critics, the depiction of Pocahontas as an empowered heroine influenced subsequent Disney films like "Mulan" (1998) and "Frozen" (2013).


title: Pocahontas (1995 film)

text: In 1607, the Susan Constant travels from London to the New World, carrying Englishmen from the Virginia Company. The crewmen, including Captain John Smith, talk of adventure, finding gold, fighting "Injuns" and potentially settling in the new land.


title: Pocahontas (1995 film)

text: In the Powhatan tribe in Werowocomoco, Tsenacommacah, Virginia, Pocahontas, the daughter of Chief Powhatan, is uncertain about being wed to Kocoum, a warrior of her village whom she sees as too serious for her own free-spirited nature. After having recent dreams about a strange spinning arrow, Pocahontas visits Grandmother Willow, a talking willow tree spirit for advice and is convinced that the arrow points to her true destiny. As she listens to the spirits of the earth for guidance, they alert her to the arrival of the English settlers.


title: Pocahontas (1995 film)

text: The voyage's leader Governor Ratcliffe, who only seeks wealth and status, dubs the settlement Jamestown and immediately has his crew build in a wooden fort and dig for gold. John departs to explore the wilderness and encounters Pocahontas. At first, she cannot understand what he says, but eventually does after remembering Grandmother Willow’s advice to “listen with her heart”. They quickly bond, becoming fascinated by each other's worlds, and end up falling in love. After a fight between the settlers and natives, Powhatan orders the tribe to stay away from the Englishmen and calls upon fellow warriors from other tribes to come and help them fight off the colonists. Ratcliffe also learns of John's encounters and angrily warns him and anyone else against sparing any Natives, threatening death under treason. John learns of Ratcliffe’s plan to attack the Natives, ignorantly believing them to be hiding the gold from him. As Pocahontas leaves her village to warn John of her tribe’s attack, her best friend, Nakoma, concerned for her safety, warns Kocoum. Meanwhile, as John sneaks out of his camp to meet Pocahontas, Thomas, a friend of John’s, is ordered to follow him by Ratcliffe.


title: Pocahontas (1995 film)

text: Later, John and Pocahontas meet with Grandmother Willow and plan to bring peace between the colonists and the tribe. While both parties spy on the couple, John and Pocahontas share a kiss. Furious, Kocoum attacks and attempts to kill John, but Thomas intervenes by shooting and killing the native. John orders Thomas to leave before the tribesmen arrive and capture him, before retrieving Kocoum’s body. Enraged at Kocoum’s death, Powhatan angrily berates Pocahontas for leaving the village and declares war on the English, beginning with John's execution at dawn.


title: Pocahontas (1995 film)

text: Reaching Jamestown, Thomas informs the settlers of John's capture. Ratcliffe, seeing this as the perfect opportunity to annihilate the tribe and find their nonexistent gold, rallies his men for battle against the Natives just as Powhatan prepares his tribe for war as well. As a dispirited Pocahontas feels lost, she realizes while visiting Grandmother Willow that the arrow from a compass given to her by John is the same spinning arrow from her dream, showing her way back to John. Morning comes and Powhatan and his tribe drag John to a cliff for execution while Ratcliffe leads the armed colonists to fight Powhatan's warriors. Just as Powhatan is about to kill John, Pocahontas intervenes and finally convinces him to end the fighting between the two groups and spare John's life. Both sides stand down and John is released, but when the unmoved Ratcliffe orders his men to open fire, they refuse. Enraged, Ratcliffe fires his musket at Powhatan, but John takes the shot to save him. Livid, the settlers turn on Ratcliffe and detain him for hurting their comrade.


title: Pocahontas (1995 film)

text: John’s wounds are treated by the tribe but must return to England in order to fully recover. Ratcliffe is also sent back to face punishment for his crimes against the settlement. John asks Pocahontas to come with him, but she chooses to stay with her tribe to help keep the peace. John leaves without Pocahontas, but with Powhatan's blessing to return anytime he likes. Pocahontas makes her way to the top of a cliff and watches as the ship carrying John departs.


title: Pocahontas (1995 film)

text: Three actors in the film have been involved in other Pocahontas-related projects. Gordon Tootoosis acted as Chief Powhatan in "" (1995). Christian Bale and Irene Bedard would portray John Rolfe and Pocahontas's mother, respectively, in Terrence Malick's "The New World" (2005).


title: Pocahontas (1995 film)

text: Following the release of "The Rescuers Down Under" (1990), director Mike Gabriel was eager to collaborate with veteran Disney story artist Joe Grant on a follow-up project that was vastly different from the animated adventure film. In April and May 1991, they first partnered on an adaptation of "Swan Lake" with both of them writing story outlines and creating conceptual artwork. Gabriel and Grant then submitted their outline for approval, but it was negatively received by the studio's live-action script readers. Earlier, during Thanksgiving weekend, 1990, Gabriel had wanted to direct an animated musical set in the American West. At a relative's Thanksgiving dinner, while glancing through numerous titles in their bookcase, Gabriel struck on the idea of adapting the life of Pocahontas after finding a book about her. Following the cancellation of "Swan Lake", Gabriel returned to the idea.


title: Pocahontas (1995 film)

text: Shortly after, Gabriel pitched his idea at the "Gong Show" meeting held by Michael Eisner, Jeffrey Katzenberg, Peter Schneider, and Roy E. Disney. He had written the title "Walt Disney's Pocahontas" on an image of Tiger Lily from "Peter Pan" (1953) to the back of which he taped a brief pitch that read "an Indian [sic] princess who is torn between her father's wishes to destroy the English settlers and her wishes to help them – a girl caught between her father and her people, and her love for the enemy." Coincidentally, Feature Animation president Peter Schneider had been developing an animated version of William Shakespeare's play "Romeo and Juliet", and observed several similarities between his idea and Gabriel's "Pocahontas" pitch; Schneider recalled: "We were particularly interested in exploring the theme of 'If we don't learn to live with one another, we will destroy ourselves.'" Gabriel's pitch was quickly accepted, becoming the quickest story turnaround in Disney studio history.


title: Pocahontas (1995 film)

text: After "Beauty and the Beast" (1991) was unprecedentedly nominated for an Academy Award for Best Picture at the 64th Academy Awards, then-studio chairman Jeffrey Katzenberg opted to produce another animated romance film in the hopes of achieving a similar feat. While "Aladdin" (1992) and "The Lion King" (1994) were considered to be too far into development, Katzenberg deemed "Pocahontas" a promising candidate, and thus pushed for the heroine to be older, the romance between her and Smith to be more mature, and the animals to be mute. Head of story Tom Sito went on the record stating he wanted to include "broader" jokes, but the "higher-ups wanted it more winsome, more gentle. Some of the folks were so concerned about political correctness, they didn't want to be cuckoo-wacky about it."


title: Pocahontas (1995 film)

text: Eric Goldberg—following his contributions to "Aladdin" as the supervising animator of the Genie and with all animation units for "The Lion King" already occupied—was asked to co-direct "Pocahontas" alongside Gabriel, to which he agreed. Likewise, he had originally expected the film to be more comedic and cartoonish like "Aladdin", but Schneider informed him that the film would be produced in a vein more similar to that of "Beauty and the Beast"; the then-ongoing 1992 Los Angeles riots further convinced Goldberg to commit to the film due to its racial themes. However, executive interference would grow so much that Goldberg himself decided to work for Chuck Jones Productions under the pseudonym "Claude Raynes" during production. It eventually reached a peak when Joe Grant drew Percy wearing a Native American feather, by which the animators took the concept one step further by placing a Spanish ruff on Meeko. One executive exclaimed, "Animals don't have the intelligence to switch their clothes! They don't even have opposing thumbs." The animators would retain their concept for the film.


title: Pocahontas (1995 film)

text: Under Katzenberg, Frank Wells, and Michael Eisner, the Disney studios had begun a correlation of hiring Broadway personnel to manage the Disney animation staff on their feature films that brought such producers as Amy Pell to "Aladdin" and Sarah McArthur and Thomas Schumacher to "The Lion King". Before making his producing debut on "Pocahontas", James Pentecost had earlier worked as a production stage manager on several Broadway productions including "La Cage aux Folles" and "Crimes of the Heart".


title: Pocahontas (1995 film)

text: In June 1992, the filmmakers embarked on a research trip to the Jamestown Settlement where Pentecost first met Shirley "Little Dove" Custalow-McGowan and Debbie "White Dove" Custalow, both descendants of the Powhatan Native Americans. The trip also included a visit to the Pamunkey Indian Reservation, and conducted interviews with historians at Old Dominion University. Following the research trip, Custalow-McGowan served as a consultant traveling to the Disney studios three times, and while Custalow-McGowan offered her services for free, Disney paid her a $500 daily consulting fee plus expenses. Ultimately, when it came to light that historical accuracy was not being pursued to the extent she had hoped, McGowan has voiced her feelings of shame she felt in conjunction with her work on the film, saying "[she] wish[ed her] name wasn't on it". Additional Native American consultants were brought in to authenticate the clothing and war dance choreography. That same month, Katzenberg held a meeting with the Feature Animation staff in which he predicted that "Pocahontas" would be a commercial hit, while deeming "The Lion King" experimental and less likely to succeed. As a result, most of the animators of Walt Disney Feature Animation decided to work on "Pocahontas" instead, believing it would be the more prestigious and successful of the two.


title: Pocahontas (1995 film)

text: In January 1993, Carl Binder joined the project, having previous expertise as a television writer on shows such as "Punky Brewster", "War of the Worlds", "", and "Top Cops". Four months later, Susannah Grant and Philip LaZebnik joined the writing team. Susannah Grant was selected by Disney as a screenwriter on "Pocahontas" after winning the Nicholl Fellowships in Screenwriting awarded by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences the year before while still attending film school. On board as a screenwriter, she was only one of the many who was contributing the specific vision the upper management at Disney had in mind, and collaborated with Native American consultants. While working on the film, Susannah Grant wrote to a specific story outline, and no scene was rewritten less than thirty-five times until she felt it was perfect.


title: Pocahontas (1995 film)

text: Story supervisor Tom Sito, who became the project's unofficial historical consultant, did extensive research into the early colonial era and the story of John Smith and Pocahontas, but was confronted over the historical inaccuracies by historians. Already knowing that in reality, Pocahontas married John Rolfe, Gabriel explained it was felt that "the story of Pocahontas and Rolfe was too complicated and violent for a youthful audience" so instead, they would focus on Pocahontas's meeting with John Smith. The filmmakers discovered that Pocahontas was around twelve years old and Smith was "not a very likeable character", in which producer James Pentecost confessed that dramatic license was needed to be taken. Likewise, when searching for an appropriate age for Pocahontas to begin her relationship with Smith, Glen Keane explained, "We had the choice of being historically accurate or socially responsible, so we chose the socially responsible side" by increasing Pocahontas's age from a girl into a young woman.


title: Pocahontas (1995 film)

text: One of Gabriel's early ideas was for Pocahontas's mother to be embodied in a certain star in the sky that would help Pocahontas find her path to Smith. "The Lion King" however had concurrently carried a similar idea of the ancestors giving wisdom and guidance to the protagonist so the idea was discarded. Michael Eisner pushed for Pocahontas to have a mother, lamenting that "We're always getting fried for having no mothers." The writers countered that Powhatan was polygamous and formed dynastic alliances among other neighboring tribes by impregnating a local woman and giving away the child, so it was believed that Pocahontas herself probably did not see her mother that much. "Well", Eisner conceded, "I guess that means we're toasted." Ultimately, her mother's spirit would become the swirling wind that occurs throughout the film.


title: Pocahontas (1995 film)

text: For the villain, they chose John Ratcliffe, whose portrayal was based on actual English captains, including John Martin, Christopher Newport, and Edward Maria Wingfield. In reality, it was Wingfield who despised John Smith, but the filmmakers preferred the sinister sound of "Ratcliffe". The writers tried to adapt actual events from Pocahontas's life into the film such as her warning Smith that the Native Americans were after him so he could escape in the middle of the night, Powhatan ordering the captured Smith to make bead necklaces to humiliate him, and Pocahontas being captured by Ratcliffe (instead of Samuel Argall), though none of them worked with the story.


title: Pocahontas (1995 film)

text: Sito mentioned that Joe Grant contributed heavily towards the film, as he was the creator of Redfeather, Meeko, and Flit. Redfeather was a wise-cracking turkey who was intended to be voiced by John Candy, and Percy, who was to be voiced by Richard E. Grant, was revised to become mute. Following the death of John Candy in March 1994, co-screenwriter Susannah Grant decided the turkey was inappropriate for the script she co-wrote for "Pocahontas", and a more realistic approach would have the animals pantomime instead of talking. Joe Grant stated Redfeather "had comic potential–he thought he was handsome, a lady's man. When we decided he couldn't talk, and, having no hands, he couldn't mime ...".


title: Pocahontas (1995 film)

text: Joe Grant would later draw a concept sketch of a hair-braiding raccoon, in which Glen Keane animated and claimed the directors "loved the idea and got rid of the turkey character." Similarly, according to Sito, Meeko was created because they were "naturally enigmatic, because they have little hands and a little mask over their face like a thief." Gabriel described the inspiration for Flit the hummingbird from having "hummingbirds all over my backyard, [and] I thought, 'That's a great animal to animate.'" According to the directors, Governor Ratcliffe's pampered pet, Percy, was based on history as the royalty of the time often carried small pugs wherever they went.


title: Pocahontas (1995 film)

text: For the spiritual ancestor, a male character named Old Man River was originally envisioned, and Gregory Peck was cast in the role. Peck later realized that the character ought to be a maternal figure and reluctantly turned down the role. Conceived as a tree of life whose seasonal changes would frame the story, Grandmother Willow grew out of a concept sketch of a sawed-off tree with a branch pointing to its rings drawn by Joe Grant, which would serve as a narrator that would "remember back to Pocahontas 300 years earlier". Joe Grant would continue to protest to have the tree be more a character within the story, and her character flowered into the idea of a grandmotherly spiritual adviser to Pocahontas. Because of Katzenberg's opposition to having Grandmother Willow in the story, Joe Grant assisted fellow veteran story artist Burny Mattinson with coming up tree puns such as "My bark is worse than my bite", "The roots of all problems", and "They're barking up the wrong tree." Mattinson reluctantly added them to his pitch for the next morning, and during the story meeting, he exclaimed, "Everybody loved it! All of a sudden: 'Oh, I want her in!' 'Let's build her part bigger!'"


title: Pocahontas (1995 film)

text: In September 1992, Disney began casting actors for "Pocahontas" telling talent agents that they were particularly interested in Native American actors for the project. For the role of Pocahontas, Broadway actress-singer Judy Kuhn was hired to provide the singing voice for the eponymous character before Irene Bedard was cast. Kuhn explained "They said, 'You are going to do the dialogue unless we find a Native American actress whose singing voice matched yours.' I was cast before Irene, so it actually went backwards." Bedard herself was filming "" (1994) where she was informed by the casting director that they were looking for someone to voice the title role. According to Bedard, she took a train to Buffalo, New York, where she walked in wearing a sundress and a straw hat, and read for the part. Back on the set of "Lakota Woman", she learned that she was cast in the role. Michelle St. John had also auditioned for the role of Pocahontas, and was given the role of Nakoma after Bedard was cast.


title: Pocahontas (1995 film)

text: Mel Gibson was cast as English settler John Smith following a desire to make "something for my kids." In a notable contrast to previous voice actors for Disney animated features, Gibson provided the singing voice for his character, which the actor has described as the most difficult part of his role.


title: Pocahontas (1995 film)

text: Christian Bale auditioned for the role of Thomas. As he explained in an interview with "Disney Adventures", "the directors played with Thomas being Irish and Scottish and younger than I am, so I had to raise my voice and do different accents. But the more we did it, the more he became like me–older and English." Richard White, the voice of Gaston in "Beauty and the Beast", was supposed to voice Ratcliffe, but the crew was worried he might sound too much like Gaston, so he was replaced by his co-star David Ogden Stiers, who also voices Ratcliffe's dimwitted assistant Wiggins.


title: Pocahontas (1995 film)

text: Russell Means was cast as Chief Powhatan, though he initially expressed displeasure with the script in that Native Americans addressed each other using proper names rather than the traditional "my father" or "my friend". Indigenous Canadian actor Gordon Tootoosis was also cast as the tribal medicine man Kekata. Throughout most of the production, the cast members performed their dialogue in separate recording sessions.


title: Pocahontas (1995 film)

text: Renowned for his animation of Ariel in "The Little Mermaid" (1989), supervising animator Glen Keane was immediately tapped to draw the titular Native American princess. Following the demands of Jeffrey Katzenberg to make the title character "the most idealized and finest woman ever made", Keane first sought his inspirations for his depictions of Pocahontas from Shirley 'Little Dove' Custalow-McGowan and Devi White Dove, women he had met during the research trip to Virginia. Keane recalled meeting the women:So I turned around and there's this beautiful Indian woman walking up; a Native American. She said 'Are you Glen Keane? The animator that's going to do Pocahontas?' I said 'Well, yeah.' And then from behind another tree another woman came up and she said, 'Well, my name is Shirley Little Dove, and this is my sister Devi White Dove, and we are descended from Pocahontas.' And as they stood there, I mean I took a picture of both of them, and between their faces was Pocahontas' face in my mind – I could see her.


title: Pocahontas (1995 film)

text: Other inspirations were Natalie Belcon, Naomi Campbell, Jamie Pillow, supermodel Kate Moss, Charmaine Craig, Christy Turlington, Dyna Taylor, and her own voice actress Irene Bedard. For almost three years, Taylor herself sat for four three-hour modeling sessions in which she was videotaped so the animators could draw poses of her from different angles. Keane also looked to a 1620 depiction of Pocahontas from a history book, though he would state the depiction was "not exactly a candidate for "People"s 'Most Beautiful' issue [so] I made a few adjustments to add an Asian feeling to her face." Due to the complexity of the color schemes, shapes, and expressions in the animation, a total of 55 animators worked on the animation of Pocahontas' character alone, including Mark Henn and Pres Romanillos.


title: Pocahontas (1995 film)

text: After working at Sullivan-Bluth Studios for over fourteen years, John Pomeroy, who notoriously resigned alongside Don Bluth during work on "The Fox and the Hound" (1981) in 1979, returned to Disney and worked on the film. Pomeroy noted that initially John Smith was portrayed as well-groomed before the animators tried designs where the character was "sloppier", bearded, and carried daggers and knives. Pomeroy grew more satisfied with the character's design the more simple it became. Additionally, Pomeroy cited inspiration for John Smith from Errol Flynn and the facial features of Gibson.


title: Pocahontas (1995 film)

text: Initially assigned as a supervising animator on "The Lion King", Nik Ranieri did character designs and test animation for Timon, but moved over to "Pocahontas" growing frustrated with an indecisive vision from the directors. There, he was assigned to animate Redfeather until Jeffrey Katzenberg ordered for the animals to be mute. Finding feathers difficult for Redfeather to gesture with, he was again assigned to animate Meeko using a Little Golden Books animal book illustrated by Alice and Martin Provensen as reference. Duncan Marjoribanks utilized geometric shapes to create Ratcliffe. In early drafts of the character, he had a body similar to a pear, but to make him appear more arrogant, the animator increased the force of gravity on his chest so that he seemed more pompous and physically threatening. Chris Buck served as the supervising animator for Percy, Wiggins, and Grandmother Willow. For Grandmother Willow, the face was traditionally animated by Buck, while the cowl and the trunk of the tree were digitally animated under the supervision of Steve Goldberg. Assisted by the effect animators, a 3D software program was employed for the bark to be individually manipulated and for the face to match with the computer-generated texture. The following supervising animators also included Anthony DeRosa for Nakoma, Michael Cedeno for Kocoum, Ken Duncan for Thomas, T. Daniel Hofstedt for the settlers Lon and Ben, and Dave Pruiksma for Flit. While "Mulan" (1998) was within its pre-production stages, 18 minutes were animated by 170 animators and artists at the Disney-MGM Studios.


title: Pocahontas (1995 film)

text: Initially, Gabriel asked Michael Giaimo to create conceptual paintings for the film as they both shared in a style of shape-based and secondary art details. Giaimo, himself a former assistant animator and then a CalArts teacher, accepted in which he worked several months on a freelance basis. After Goldberg became the film's co-director, the two directors asked Giaimo to officially join the staff, in which he was promoted to being the film's art director. For Giaimo, he relied on a color-saturated, elegant designs in a less-than-realistic format inspired by "prehistory Caribbean themes and creatures derived from Mexican and African folk art." Giaimo also sought out inspiration for the visual design from the works produced by earlier Disney art designers such as Richard Kelsey (who had done story sketches for his unproduced film "Hiawatha"), Eyvind Earle, who worked on "Sleeping Beauty" (1959), and Mary Blair.


title: Pocahontas (1995 film)

text: Howard Ashman and Alan Menken were planning to write songs for "Pocahontas" once they were finished working on "Aladdin", but Ashman died in 1991. Following the death of his longtime collaborator, Menken wrote the remaining songs for "Aladdin" with Tim Rice at his home in London, which the New York-based composer found to be difficult. When "Aladdin" was finished, Menken was expected to write songs for "Pocahontas" with Rice. Kevin Bannerman, the studio's director of development, stated Rice "was always gallivanting around the world and it was difficult to get him and Alan together ... And so here was Stephen [Schwartz], who had written scores that we all loved and we were huge fans of, and he lived in the New York area." Disney immediately contacted Stephen Schwartz, who, after working on "Working", "Rags", and "Children of Eden", had quit theater and was taking psychology courses at New York University; he was brought on board to write the lyrics. This would mark the first time Menken had collaborated without Ashman for a Disney animated film. Menken commented that their work included moments of tension because Schwartz was also capable of writing music and Menken had experience with lyrics.


title: Pocahontas (1995 film)

text: Due to corporate interest in the film surrounding its theme of promoting understanding between different groups, and its inclusion of violence and threats of greater conflict, Schwartz became heavily involved in the storytelling. Bannerman estimated that he spent a week with one of the screenwriters and helped work out the overall themes of tolerance and cooperation. In June 1992, Schwartz researched Jamestown, Virginia where he absorbed the atmosphere and bought tapes of Native American music and English sea shanties, as well as other music from the early 17th century that helped inspire numbers in the film. Schwartz modeled his lyrical writing for people of other ethnicities on that of Oscar Hammerstein II and Sheldon Harnick. "Colors of the Wind" was the first song to be written for the film. Gabriel, Goldberg, and Pentecost stated the song had defined the film's "heart and soul". Schwartz began "Colors" with a few draft ideas for lyrics taking inspiration from Chief Seattle's letter to the United States Congress. Then, Menken wrote the melody with Schwartz listening at the piano and making suggestions. Schwartz would add lyrics before a session together where they were refined.


title: Pocahontas (1995 film)

text: "Just Around the Riverbend", also composed by Menken and Schwartz, was devised by Schwartz's wife Carole, with the idea that Pocahontas would have a recurring dream that suggested something coming her way, paving the way for her "I Want" song. The song almost did not make it into the completed film when Disney executives doubted whether her song would have the kind of impact they wanted at that point. Schwartz however stated he and Menken "believed in it very strongly. Indeed, at one point we wrote a different song for that spot, but Alan and I were never as happy with the second song and ultimately everybody at Disney came to feel that way, too."


title: Pocahontas (1995 film)

text: The filmmakers had planned for a song for when Pocahontas and Smith met in the glade, just before Kocoum attacks Smith. There were an estimated three to four songs at this point, including "In the Middle of the River", "First to Dance", which was deemed too silly as it took place before Kocoum's death, and "Powerful Magic", which was another attempt at a cheerful song. A love song, titled "If I Never Knew You", had been finished by the animators, but following a test screening where child and teen audiences were not interested in the song as it played, Menken suggested that the song be removed. It was, although its melody remained in the orchestral underscoring. The soundtrack was successful, reaching number-one on the "Billboard" 200 charts during the week of July 22, 1995. It received a triple platinum certification.


title: Pocahontas (1995 film)

text: To replicate the promotional buzz of "The Lion King", the four-minute musical number, "Colors of the Wind", was released in November 1994, accompanying a theatrical re-release of "The Lion King". On February 3, 1995, Disney began its promotional marketing campaign starting in San Diego, California, launching a nationwide 18-week tour of fashion malls located within twenty-five cities where a mall exhibit named Pocahontas Animation Discovery Adventure was created to help promote the release. There, a Disney animator would guide shoppers on a presentation tour, which featured a walk-through maze with interactive lily pads, flying birds, and huge video wall, a studio workshop where visitors can become the voice of their favorite animated character, and an area where visitors can electronically manipulate images. Additionally, they would demonstrate animation techniques and discuss the design and creation of Pocahontas' character. Further promotional tie-ins included Burger King distributing 55 million toy replicas of the characters with kids' meals, Payless Shoes selling a line of moccasins, and Mattel peddling a Barbie-like Pocahontas doll.


title: Pocahontas (1995 film)

text: A behind-the-scenes documentary television special titled "The Making of Pocahontas: A Legend Comes to Life" aired on the Disney Channel on June 20, 1995, where the animators, voice cast, crew, and studio heads were interviewed on the production of the film. The special was hosted by actress Irene Bedard.


title: Pocahontas (1995 film)

text: The film had the largest premiere in history, on June 10, 1995, in New York's Central Park, followed by a live performance by Vanessa Williams. Disney officials estimated the crowd at 100,000. The premiere's attendees included then-New York Mayor Rudy Giuliani, Caroline Kennedy, Mariah Carey and Michael Eisner.


title: Pocahontas (1995 film)

text: At first announced to be released on March 6, 1996, "Pocahontas" was first released on VHS and LaserDisc in the United States on February 28, 1996, under the "Masterpiece Collection" lineup. A deluxe VHS edition included supplemental features such as a making-of documentary, alongside a special edition of "The Art of Pocahontas" book and Disney-certified lithograph prints. On November 13, 1996, the CAV laserdisc Deluxe Edition contained the film, a historical documentary on Pocahontas, and "The Making of Pocahontas", along with added storyboards, character design artwork, concept art, rough animation, publicity and promotional trailers, the deleted "If I Never Knew You" musical sequence, and an audio commentary on a total of four double sided discs. The release was also accompanied with a Special Edition of the "Art of Pocahontas" book. Disney initially shipped 17 million VHS copies to retail stores, with nine million copies sold within its first weekend. By mid-1998, the operating income of the VHS release had accumulated to in worldwide sales.


title: Pocahontas (1995 film)

text: In January 2000, Walt Disney Home Video launched the Walt Disney Gold Classic Collection, with "Pocahontas" re-issued on VHS and DVD on June 6, 2000. The DVD contained the film in its 1.66:1 aspect ratio enhanced with 5.1 surround sound, and was accompanied with special features including two music videos, a trivia game, the theatrical trailer, and a "Fun with Nature" activity booklet. Five years later, the film was remastered for a THX-certified 10th Anniversary 2-disc Special Edition DVD, which was released on May 3, 2005. This release features two versions of the film, which are a new extended cut with two performances of "If I Never Knew You" and the original theatrical version.


title: Pocahontas (1995 film)

text: On August 21, 2012, Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment released "Pocahontas", alongside its sequel "", on Blu-ray Disc as a 2-Movie Collection. "Pocahontas" was re-released yet again in 2016 as a Blu-ray, DVD and Digital HD combo pack, available exclusively through the Disney Movie Club. It featured brand-new cover art, and, for the first time, a digital copy download of the film alongside the physical release.


title: Pocahontas (1995 film)

text: Timed with Pocahontas' 400th birthday, "Pocahontas" had a limited release in North America on June 16, 1995, playing in only six selected theaters in Chicago, Boston, Atlanta, Detroit, St. Louis and Los Angeles. The film grossed $2.7 million during its first weekend, standing at the eighth place in the box office ranking. It beat the record set by "The Lion King" the previous year for the highest-grossing opening weekend on fewer than 50 screens, a record that has not been beaten. The wide release followed on June 23, 1995, in 2,596 screens. Studio estimates initially anticipated "Pocahontas" earning $30.5 million, ranking first and beating out the previous box office champion "Batman Forever" (1995). The figure was later revised to $28.8 million with "Pocahontas" falling second behind "Batman Forever". The final estimates placed "Pocahontas" narrowly ranking first grossing $29.5 million in its first weekend with "Batman Forever" falling into second place taking $29.2 million.


title: Pocahontas (1995 film)

text: By January 1996, the film grossed $141.5 million in the United States, being the fourth-highest-grossing film in North America of 1995, behind "Apollo 13", "Toy Story", and "Batman Forever". Overseas, the film was projected to gross $225 million, though foreign box office grosses eventually amounted to $204.5 million. Cumulatively, "Pocahontas" grossed $346.1 million worldwide. Although at the time it was seen as a commercial box office disappointment in comparison to "The Lion King", in January 1996, then-Disney CEO Michael Eisner contested in an annual shareholders' meeting that ""Pocahontas" is well on its way to being one of our most successful films of all time. It has equalled "Beauty and the Beast"s box office numbers domestically, and now it has taken Europe by storm and is playing well in every country in which it is being shown. Sales of "Pocahontas" merchandise have been phenomenal."


title: Pocahontas (1995 film)

text: "Pocahontas" received generally mixed reviews from film critics. The review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes reports that of critics gave the film a positive review based on reviews, with an average score of . The site's consensus states ""Pocahontas" means well, and has moments of startling beauty, but it's largely a bland, uninspired effort, with uneven plotting and an unfortunate lack of fun." Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 from top reviews from mainstream critics, calculated a score of 58 based on 23 reviews, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A−" on an A+ to F scale.


title: Pocahontas (1995 film)

text: Roger Ebert of the "Chicago Sun-Times", gave the film 3 out of 4 stars, writing that "Pocahontas" was "the best-looking of the modern Disney animated features, and one of the more thoughtful" though he was more critical of the story and portrayal of the villain, ultimately summarizing that "on a list including "Mermaid", "Beauty", "Aladdin" and "Lion King", I'd rank it fifth. It has a lot of good intentions, but a severe scoundrel shortage." On the television program "Siskel & Ebert", Ebert repeated the same sentiment, while his partner Gene Siskel was more praising of the film. Both critics gave the film a "Thumbs Up". In his print review for the "Chicago Tribune", Siskel awarded the film 3 stars out of 4, stating it is a "surprisingly serious, thoughtful and beautifully drawn Disney animated feature about the American birthright of exploitation and racism". He praised it for "sending powerful images to children about threats to the natural order", restoring "a certain majesty to the Indian culture", and for having "the courage that leads to the life-goes-on ending."


title: Pocahontas (1995 film)

text: The film's writing and lack of humor received mixed reviews. Owen Gleiberman of "Entertainment Weekly" stated: "With dismay, I realize that virtually everything in the movie – every character, every story twist, every song – is as generic as the two hygienic lovers. As a fairy-tale confection, a kind of "West Side Story" in Jamestown, "Pocahontas" is pleasant to look at, and it will probably satisfy very small kiddies, but it's the first of the new-era Disney cartoons that feels less than animated." Peter Travers of "Rolling Stone" bemoaned that there were "no funny, fast-talking animals – Meeko the raccoon and Flit the hummingbird remain silent pals to Pocahontas and make you miss the verbal fun that Nathan Lane's wisecracking meerkat brought to "The Lion King"." Desson Howe, reviewing for "The Washington Post", likewise criticized the writing as recycling "elements from "Snow White" to "The Lion King", with a father-child clash, a heroine's saintly pureness that transforms an entire people, a forbidden love, consultations with an oracle/shaman (in this case a tree spirit, voiced by Linda Hunt) and the usual sideshow of funny, fuzzy animals." While calling the screenplay the "film's weakest element", Janet Maslin of "The New York Times" summarized in her review: "Gloriously colorful, cleverly conceived and set in motion with the usual Disney vigor, "Pocahontas" is one more landmark feat of animation. It does everything a children's movie should do except send little viewers home humming its theme song."


title: Pocahontas (1995 film)

text: According to Chief Roy Crazy Horse of the Powhatan Renape Nation, the film "distorts history beyond recognition" and "perpetuates a dishonest and self-serving myth at the expense of the Powhatan Nation". Roy claimed that Disney had refused the tribe's offers to help create a more culturally and historically accurate film. In the "Los Angeles Times", Angela Aleiss said that "Pocahontas" and other portrayals of the Native princess rarely show her having anything more important in her life than her relationships with men. Professor and Director of Indigenous Nations Studies Cornel Pewewardy argues that the film presents damaging stereotypes of the Native American population. Pewewardy feels that the representation of Native characters, like Grandmother Willow, Meeko, and Flit, as animals, has a marginalizing effect. Anthropologist Kiyomi Kutsuzawa also observed that in the film, Kocoum and John Smith fight for Pocahontas's affection. Kutsuzawa viewed Smith's victory over Kocoum in this arena as symbolic of Western Europe's domination of the Americas and white men's domination over men of color.<ref name="Gender/race"></ref>


title: Pocahontas (1995 film)

text: Conversely, Native American activist Russell Means, who portrays Chief Powhatan in the film, praised the film's racial overtones, stating that ""Pocahontas" is the first time Eurocentric male society has admitted its historical deceit", and that it makes the "stunning admission" that the purpose of the European colonization of the Americas was "to kill Indians and rape and pillage the land." Means also said that the film marked "the first time, other than on "Northern Exposure", that a human face has been put on an Indian female," dubbing "Pocahontas" "the finest feature film on American Indians Hollywood has turned out." Sophie Gilbert of "The Atlantic" concurred, stating that the film's narrative "had a progressive attitude when it came to interpreting history", portraying the settlers as "plunderers searching for non-existent gold who were intent upon murdering the 'heathen savages' they encountered in the process", although she criticized the depiction of Pocahontas as stereotypical.


title: Pocahontas (1995 film)

text: Pocahontas's real name was Matoaka. "Pocahontas" was only a nickname, and it can variously be translated to "little wanton", "playful one", "little brat", or "the naughty one". Pocahontas was around 10 or 11 at the time John Smith arrived with the Virginia Company in 1607, in contrast to her portrayal as a young adult in the film.


title: Pocahontas (1995 film)

text: Smith is portrayed as an amiable man; in reality, he was described as having a harsh exterior and a very authoritarian personality by his fellow colonists.


title: Pocahontas (1995 film)

text: Historically, there is no evidence of a romantic relationship emerging between Pocahontas and John Smith. Whether or not Pocahontas saved Smith's life is debated. A group of colonists led by Samuel Argall captured Pocahontas three years after John Smith departed for England; she converted to Christianity in Henricus and later married John Rolfe, who was known for introducing tobacco as a cash crop.


title: Pocahontas (1995 film)

text: The real Governor Ratcliffe, along with 14 fellow colonists, died when they were invited to a gathering with the Powhatan tribe. The Powhatans promised the starving colonists would be given corn, but the colonists were ambushed. Ratcliffe was tied to a stake in front of a fire. Women removed the skin from his entire body with mussel shells and tossed the pieces into the flame as he watched. They skinned his face last and finally burned him at the stake.


title: Pocahontas (1995 film)

text: Ebert criticized the film's deviations from history, writing "Having led one of the most interesting lives imaginable, Pocahontas serves here more as a simplified symbol". Sophie Gilbert of "The Atlantic" wrote that "The movie might have fudged some facts", but that this allowed it to tell "a compelling romantic story".


title: Pocahontas (1995 film)

text: Animator Tom Sito defended the film's relationship to history, stating that "Contrary to the popular verdict that we ignored history on the film, we tried hard to be historically correct and to accurately portray the culture of Virginia's Algonquins."


title: Pocahontas (1995 film)

text: A live musical show titled "The Spirit of Pocahontas" was performed at the Fantasyland Theatre at Disneyland during the film's theatrical release. A video game titled "Disney's Pocahontas" based on the film was released on the Sega Genesis/Mega Drive in 1996. The film was followed by a direct-to-video sequel, titled "", released on August 25, 1998. Bedard and Kuhn reprised their roles as Pocahontas' speaking and singing voices, respectively. Donal Gibson starred as John Smith and Billy Zane starred as John Rolfe. Pocahontas, alongside other Disney Princesses, briefly appeared in the 2018 film "Ralph Breaks the Internet", with Bedard reprising the role.


title: Pocahontas (1995 film)

text: Critics have also discussed the influence of "Pocahontas" on other films. Sophie Gilbert of "The Atlantic" argues that the strong and brave title character of "Pocahontas" influenced the portrayal of subsequent heroines of Disney animated films, specifically Mulan, Rapunzel, Merida, and Elsa. Similarly, "The Verge" Tasha Robinson wrote that "Moana" (2016) "draws on" "Pocahontas" in its portrayal of a woman buoyed by her culture. According to "HuffPost", James Cameron's "Avatar" (2009) is a "rip-off" of "Pocahontas". "Avatar"s producer Jon Landau has said that "Avatar" is akin to "Pocahontas" with the Na'vi aliens taking the place of Native Americans. Cameron has said that he first conceived of "Avatar" in the 1960s, long before "Pocahontas" was released, but he has also said that "Avatar" does reference the story of Pocahontas, the historical figure. Kirsten Acuna of "Business Insider" wrote that, while "Avatar" may be based on Cameron's own ideas, it nevertheless takes inspiration from animated films like "Pocahontas" and "" (1992).


title: Tuppence Middleton

text: Tuppence Middleton (born 21 February 1987) is an English actress known for her performances in film, television and theatre. In 2010, she was nominated for the "London Evening Standard" Film Awards for Most Promising Newcomer.


title: Tuppence Middleton

text: Middleton appeared in various films before making her breakthrough in Morten Tyldum's historical drama "The Imitation Game" (2014), and subsequently appeared in The Wachowskis' science fiction film "Jupiter Ascending" (2015), Alfonso Gomez-Rejon's historical drama "The Current War" (2017), the film "Downton Abbey" (2019), and David Fincher's film "Mank" (2020).


title: Tuppence Middleton

text: She made her first television appearance in "Bones" (2008) and subsequently appeared as a guest in "New Tricks" (2010), "Friday Night Dinner" (2011), and "Lewis" (2013). She also appeared in "Black Mirror" (2013), as Miss Havisham in "Dickensian" (2015–2016), as Russian princess Hélène Kuragina in "War & Peace" (2016), as Riley "Blue" Gunnarsdóttir in "Sense8" (2015–2018), and "Philip K. Dick's Electric Dreams" (2017). In 2018, she starred in Vicky Jones' play "The One" at the Soho Theatre in London.


title: Tuppence Middleton

text: Middleton was born in Bristol on 21 February 1987, the daughter of Tina and Nigel Middleton. She has an older sister named Angel and younger brother named Josh. She was named "Tuppence" after the childhood nickname her grandmother gave to her mother. She was raised in Clevedon, Somerset. She has described her younger self as shy, reclusive, and "geeky" at school, but "quite loud and brash" at home; she found youth theatre an "outlet" in which she could be confident. She attended Bristol Grammar School, where she was involved in school plays such as "Guys and Dolls". She also attended Stagecoach, a performing arts school in Portishead. She appeared in local drama productions, including a pantomime with her sister at the Princes Hall in Clevedon. She subsequently studied acting at the Arts Educational School in London, earning an honours degree in acting.


title: Tuppence Middleton

text: Middleton gained a following for her appearance in the 2009 British horror/comedy film "Tormented". Her character, head girl Justine Fielding, dates one of the most popular boys in school, only to find that he and his friends were responsible for a classmate's death. She has also appeared in adverts for the chewing gum Extra and for Sky TV.


title: Tuppence Middleton

text: In 2010 she was nominated for the London Evening Standard Film Awards 2010 for Most Promising Newcomer and she starred in Samuel Abrahams's BAFTA-nominated short film "Connect". In 2011, she played the character Tanya Green in the British sitcom "Friday Night Dinner", and Sarah in "Sirens". In 2012 she appeared in "Cleanskin", a terrorist thriller. In March 2013 she made her professional theatre debut in "The Living Room". She also played a minor role in the Danny Boyle film "Trance". In 2015, she starred in the Netflix Original Series "Sense8" as Riley Blue.


title: Tuppence Middleton

text: She starred in the 2016 BBC drama "War & Peace", playing Russian aristocrat Princess Hélène Kuragina. The series received critical acclaim. The "Daily Express" said: "Rising star Tuppence Middleton takes on the role of the delightfully evil Hélène Kuragina, who is one half of the incestuous duo. Audiences witnessed her brother getting a little too intimate with his sibling in the first episode before she turned her attentions to Pierre and dug her claws into him. She is a vile character who will use and abuse Pierre without giving him a second thought." Andrew Davies, who adapted "War and Peace", described Middleton's Hélène as "the naughtiest woman on TV at the moment".


title: Tuppence Middleton

text: She has narrated BBC World Service documentaries about the Spitfire and the life of Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh.


title: Tuppence Middleton

text: An August 2018 announcement indicated that Middleton would be among the new cast to join the original series's actors in the feature film "Downton Abbey", which started principal photography at about the same time. She will be starring alongside Ken Watanabe, Laura Dern and Felicity Jones in the Nine Network/Disney+ historical period drama miniseries "The Golden Bowl".


title: Tuppence Middleton

text: In 2020, she starred in the psychological horror film "Possessor" and biographical drama film "Mank" on Netflix. She appeared in the miniseries The Defeated as Claire Franklin.


title: Tuppence Middleton

text: In October 2021, she was set to star in folk horror film "Lord of Misrule" with Ralph Ineson and Matt Stokoe, directed by William Brent Bell.


title: Tuppence Middleton

text: In March 2022, she starred as Fi Lawson in ITV 1's drama "Our House" alongside Martin Compston and Rupert Penry-Jones. The series is based on Louise Candlish's Sunday Times best-selling real-estate novel.


title: Tuppence Middleton

text: In August 2022 it was reported that Middleton had given birth to her first child with Swedish film director Mans Marlind.


title: Arnold Schwarzenegger filmography

text: Austrian-American actor Arnold Schwarzenegger has appeared in over 40 films, and has also ventured into directing and producing. He began his acting career primarily with small roles in film and television starting in 1969. For his first film role, he was credited as "Arnold Strong", but was credited with his birth name thereafter. He has appeared mainly in action and comedy films. In addition to films and television, he has appeared in music videos for AC/DC, Bon Jovi, and Guns N' Roses.


title: Arnold Schwarzenegger filmography

text: In the 1980s, Schwarzenegger became his primary character in two film franchises: as Conan in the "Conan" series and as The Terminator in the "Terminator" series. His other film roles include "Commando", "The Running Man", "Predator", "Total Recall", "Last Action Hero" and "True Lies". Although Schwarzenegger's acting career was put on hiatus due to his position as Governor of California, he also made several cameos in various films while in office, including "The Kid & I" and "The Expendables". On February 11, 2011, just over a month after leaving office, Schwarzenegger announced he would return to acting.


title: Arnold Schwarzenegger filmography

text: Schwarzenegger has received several awards and nominations for his work in films. In "Stay Hungry", one of his early roles, he won a Golden Globe Award for Best Acting Debut in a Motion Picture. He has also been nominated for various awards for his roles in "", "Junior", and "True Lies". According to Box Office Mojo, a box office revenue tracking website, films in which Schwarzenegger has acted have grossed a total of more than $1.7 billion within the United States, with an average of $67 million per film and total $4.0 billion worldwide. According to The Numbers, another box office revenue tracking website, films in which Schwarzenegger has acted have total grossed around $4.5 billion worldwide.


title: Pre-eclampsia

text: Pre-eclampsia is a disorder of pregnancy characterized by the onset of high blood pressure and often a significant amount of protein in the urine. When it arises, the condition begins after 20 weeks of pregnancy. In severe cases of the disease there may be red blood cell breakdown, a low blood platelet count, impaired liver function, kidney dysfunction, swelling, shortness of breath due to fluid in the lungs, or visual disturbances. Pre-eclampsia increases the risk of undesirable outcomes for both the mother and the fetus. If left untreated, it may result in seizures at which point it is known as eclampsia.


title: Pre-eclampsia

text: Risk factors for pre-eclampsia include obesity, prior hypertension, older age, and diabetes mellitus. It is also more frequent in a woman's first pregnancy and if she is carrying twins. The underlying mechanism involves abnormal formation of blood vessels in the placenta amongst other factors. Most cases are diagnosed before delivery. Commonly, pre-eclampsia continues into the period after delivery, then known as postpartum pre-eclampsia. Rarely, pre-eclampsia may begin in the period after delivery. While historically both high blood pressure and protein in the urine were required to make the diagnosis, some definitions also include those with hypertension and any associated organ dysfunction. Blood pressure is defined as high when it is greater than 140 mmHg systolic or 90 mmHg diastolic at two separate times, more than four hours apart in a woman after twenty weeks of pregnancy. Pre-eclampsia is routinely screened during prenatal care.


title: Pre-eclampsia

text: Recommendations for prevention include: aspirin in those at high risk, calcium supplementation in areas with low intake, and treatment of prior hypertension with medications. In those with pre-eclampsia, delivery of the baby and placenta is an effective treatment but full recovery can take days or weeks. When delivery becomes recommended depends on how severe the pre-eclampsia and how far along in pregnancy a woman is. Blood pressure medication, such as labetalol and methyldopa, may be used to improve the mother's condition before delivery. Magnesium sulfate may be used to prevent eclampsia in those with severe disease. Bed rest and salt intake have not been found to be useful for either treatment or prevention.


title: Pre-eclampsia

text: Pre-eclampsia affects 2–8% of pregnancies worldwide. Hypertensive disorders of pregnancy (which include pre-eclampsia) are one of the most common causes of death due to pregnancy. They resulted in 46,900 deaths in 2015. Pre-eclampsia usually occurs after 32 weeks; however, if it occurs earlier it is associated with worse outcomes. Women who have had pre-eclampsia are at increased risk of heart disease and stroke later in life.


title: Pre-eclampsia

text: The word "eclampsia" is from the Greek term for lightning. The first known description of the condition was by Hippocrates in the 5th century BC.


title: Pre-eclampsia

text: Oedema (especially in the hands and face) was originally considered an important sign for a diagnosis of pre-eclampsia. However, because oedema is a common occurrence in pregnancy, its utility as a distinguishing factor in pre-eclampsia is not high. Pitting edema (unusual swelling, particularly of the hands, feet, or face, notable by leaving an indentation when pressed on) can be significant, and should be reported to a health care provider.


title: Pre-eclampsia

text: In general, none of the signs of pre-eclampsia are specific, and even convulsions in pregnancy are more likely to have causes other than eclampsia in modern practice. Further, a symptom such as epigastric pain may be misinterpreted as heartburn. Common features of pre-eclampsia which are screened for during pre-natal visits include elevated blood pressure and excess protein in the urine. Diagnosis depends on finding a coincidence of several pre-eclamptic features, the final proof being their regression within the days and weeks after delivery.


title: Pre-eclampsia

text: There is no definitive known cause of pre-eclampsia, though it is likely related to a number of factors. Some of these factors include:


title: Pre-eclampsia

text: Physiologically, research has linked pre-eclampsia to the following physiologic changes: alterations in the interaction between the maternal immune response and the placenta, placental injury, endothelial cell injury, altered vascular reactivity, oxidative stress, imbalance among vasoactive substances, decreased intravascular volume, and disseminated intravascular coagulation.


title: Pre-eclampsia

text: While the exact cause of pre-eclampsia remains unclear, there is strong evidence that a major cause predisposing a susceptible woman to pre-eclampsia is an abnormally implanted placenta. This abnormally implanted placenta may result in poor uterine and placental perfusion, yielding a state of hypoxia and increased oxidative stress and the release of anti-angiogenic proteins along with inflammatory mediators into the maternal plasma. A major consequence of this sequence of events is generalized endothelial dysfunction. The abnormal implantation may stem from the maternal immune system's response to the placenta, specifically a lack of established immunological tolerance in pregnancy. Endothelial dysfunction results in hypertension and many of the other symptoms and complications associated with pre-eclampsia. Those with pre-eclampsia may have a lower risk of breast cancer.


title: Pre-eclampsia

text: Abnormal chromosome 19 microRNA cluster (C19MC) impairs extravillus trophoblast cell invasion to the spiral arteries, causing high resistance, low blood flow, and low nutrient supply to the fetus.


title: Pre-eclampsia

text: Despite a lack of knowledge on specific causal mechanisms of pre-eclampsia, there is strong evidence to suggest it results from both environmental and heritable factors. A 2005 study showed that women with a first-degree relative who had a pre-eclamptic birth are twice as likely to develop it themselves. Furthermore, men related to someone with affected birth have an increased risk of fathering a pre-eclamptic pregnancy. Fetuses affected by pre-eclampsia have a higher chance of later pregnancy complications including growth restriction, prematurity, and stillbirth.


title: Pre-eclampsia

text: The onset of pre-eclampsia is thought to be caused by several complex interactions between genetics and environmental factors. Our current understanding of the specifically heritable cause involves an imbalance of angiogenic factors in the placenta. Angiogenesis involves the growth of new blood vessels from existing vessels, and an imbalance during pregnancy can affect the vascularization, growth, and biological function of the fetus. The irregular expression of these factors is thought to be controlled by multiple loci on different chromosomes. Research on the topic has been limited because of the heterogeneous nature of the disease. Maternal, paternal, and fetal genotypes all play a role as well as complex epigenetic factors such as whether the parents smoke, maternal age, sexual cohabitation, and obesity. Currently, there is very little understanding behind the mechanisms of these interactions. Due to the polygenic nature of pre-eclampsia, a majority of the studies that have been conducted thus far on the topic have utilized genome-wide association studies.


title: Pre-eclampsia

text: One known effector of pre-eclampsia is the fetal loci FLT1. Located on chromosome 13 in the q12 region, FLT1 codes for Fms-like tyrosine kinase 1, an angiogenic factor expressed in fetal trophoblasts. Angiogenic factors are crucial for vascular growth in the placenta. An FLT1 soluble isoform caused by a splice variant is sFLT1, which works as an antiangiogenic factor, reducing vascular growth in the placenta. A healthy, normotensive pregnancy is characterized by a balance between these factors. However, upregulation of this variant and overexpression of sFL1 can contribute to endothelial dysfunction. Reduced vascular growth and endothelial dysfunction manifest primarily in maternal symptoms such as renal failure, edema, and seizures. However, these factors can also lead to inadequate oxygen, nutrient, or blood supply to the fetus. Furthermore, in this loci region, several single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) have been observed to impact the overexpression of sFL1. Specifically, SNPs rs12050029 and rs4769613's risk alleles are linked with low red blood cell counts and carry an increased risk of late-onset pre-eclampsia.


title: Pre-eclampsia

text: Patau syndrome, or Trisomy 13, is also associated with the upregulation of sFLT1 due to the extra copy of the 13th chromosome. Because of this upregulation of an antiangiogenic factor, women with trisomy 13 pregnancies often experience reduced placental vascularization and are at higher risk for developing pre-eclampsia.


title: Pre-eclampsia

text: Beyond fetal loci, there have been some maternal loci identified as effectors of pre-eclampsia. Alpha-ketoglutarate-dependent hydroxylase expression on chromosome 16 in the q12 region is also associated with pre-eclampsia. Specifically, allele rs1421085 heightens the risk of not just pre-eclampsia but also an increase in BMI and hypertension. This pleiotropy is one of the reasons why these traits are considered to be a risk factor. Furthermore, ZNF831 (zinc finger protein 831) and its loci on chromosome 20q13 were identified as another significant factor in pre-eclampsia. The risk allele rs259983 is also associated with both pre-eclampsia and hypertension, further evidence that the two traits are possibly linked.


title: Pre-eclampsia

text: While the current understanding suggests that maternal alleles are the main hereditary cause of pre-eclampsia, paternal loci have also been implicated. In one study, paternal DLX5 (Distal-Less Homeobox 5) was identified as an imprinted gene. Located on chromosome 7 in the q21 region, DLX5 serves as a transcription factor often linked with the developmental growth of organs. When paternally inherited, DLX5 and its SNP rs73708843 are shown to play a role in trophoblast proliferation, affecting vascular growth and nutrient delivery.


title: Pre-eclampsia

text: Besides specific loci, several important genetic regulatory factors contribute to the development of pre-eclampsia. Micro RNAs, or miRNAs, are noncoding mRNAs that down-regulate posttranscriptional gene expression through RNA-induced silencing complexes. In the placenta, miRNAs are crucial for regulating cell growth, angiogenesis, cell proliferation, and metabolism. These placental-specific miRNAs are clustered in large groups, mainly on chromosomes 14 and 19, and irregular expression of either is associated with an increased risk of an affected pregnancy. For instance, miR-16 and miR-29 are vascular endothelial growth factors (VEGFs) and play a role in upregulating sFLT-1. In particular, the overexpression of miRNA miR-210 has been shown to induce hypoxia, which affects spiral artery remodeling, an important part of the pathogenesis of pre-eclampsia.


title: Pre-eclampsia

text: Although much research into mechanism of pre-eclampsia has taken place, its exact pathogenesis remains uncertain. Pre-eclampsia is thought to result from an abnormal placenta, the removal of which ends the disease in most cases. During normal pregnancy, the placenta vascularizes to allow for the exchange of water, gases, and solutes, including nutrients and wastes, between maternal and fetal circulations. Abnormal development of the placenta leads to poor placental perfusion. The placenta of women with pre-eclampsia is abnormal and characterized by poor trophoblastic invasion. It is thought that this results in oxidative stress, hypoxia, and the release of factors that promote endothelial dysfunction, inflammation, and other possible reactions.


title: Pre-eclampsia

text: The clinical manifestations of pre-eclampsia are associated with general endothelial dysfunction, including vasoconstriction and end-organ ischemia. Implicit in this generalized endothelial dysfunction may be an imbalance of angiogenic and anti-angiogenic factors. Both circulating and placental levels of soluble fms-like tyrosine kinase-1 (sFlt-1) are higher in women with pre-eclampsia than in women with normal pregnancy. sFlt-1 is an anti-angiogenic protein that antagonizes vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and placental growth factor (PIGF), both of which are proangiogenic factors. Soluble endoglin (sEng) has also been shown to be elevated in women with pre-eclampsia and has anti-angiogenic properties, much like sFlt-1 does.


title: Pre-eclampsia

text: Both sFlt-1 and sEng are upregulated in all pregnant women to some extent, supporting the idea that hypertensive disease in pregnancy is a normal pregnancy adaptation gone awry. As natural killer cells are intimately involved in placentation and placentation involves a degree of maternal immune tolerance for a foreign placenta, it is not surprising that the maternal immune system might respond more negatively to the arrival of some placentae under certain circumstances, such as a placenta which is more invasive than normal. Initial maternal rejection of the placental cytotrophoblasts may be the cause of the inadequately remodeled spiral arteries in those cases of pre-eclampsia associated with shallow implantation, leading to downstream hypoxia and the appearance of maternal symptoms in response to upregulated sFlt-1 and sEng.


title: Pre-eclampsia

text: Oxidative stress may also play an important part in the pathogenesis of pre-eclampsia. The main source of reactive oxygen species (ROS) is the enzyme xanthine oxidase (XO) and this enzyme mainly occurs in the liver. One hypothesis is that the increased purine catabolism from placental hypoxia results in increased ROS production in the maternal liver and release into the maternal circulation that causes endothelial cell damage.


title: Pre-eclampsia

text: Abnormalities in the maternal immune system and insufficiency of gestational immune tolerance seem to play major roles in pre-eclampsia. One of the main differences found in pre-eclampsia is a shift toward Th responses and the production of IFN-γ. The origin of IFN-γ is not clearly identified and could be the natural killer cells of the uterus, the placental dendritic cells modulating responses of T helper cells, alterations in synthesis of or response to regulatory molecules, or changes in the function of regulatory T cells in pregnancy. Aberrant immune responses promoting pre-eclampsia may also be due to an altered fetal allorecognition or to inflammatory triggers. It has been documented that fetal cells such as fetal erythroblasts as well as cell-free fetal DNA are increased in the maternal circulation in women who develop pre-eclampsia. These findings have given rise to the hypothesis that pre-eclampsia is a disease process by which a placental lesion such as hypoxia allows increased fetal material into the maternal circulation, that in turn leads to an immune response and endothelial damage, and that ultimately results in pre-eclampsia and eclampsia.


title: Pre-eclampsia

text: One hypothesis for vulnerability to pre-eclampsia is the maternal-fetal conflict between the maternal organism and fetus. After the first trimester trophoblasts enter the spiral arteries of the mother to alter the spiral arteries and thereby gain more access to maternal nutrients. Occasionally there is impaired trophoblast invasion that results in inadequate alterations to the uterine spiral arteries. It is hypothesized that the developing embryo releases biochemical signals that result in the woman developing hypertension and pre-eclampsia so that the fetus can benefit from a greater amount of maternal circulation of nutrients due to increased blood flow to the impaired placenta. This results in a conflict between maternal and fetal fitness and survival because the fetus is invested in only its survival and fitness while the mother is invested in this and subsequent pregnancies.


title: Pre-eclampsia

text: Another evolutionary hypothesis for vulnerability to pre-eclampsia is the idea of ensuring pair-bonding between the mother and father and paternal investment in the fetus. Researchers posit that pre-eclampsia is an adaptation for the mother to terminate investment in a fetus that might have an unavailable father, as determined by repeated semen exposure of the father to the mother. Various studies have shown that women who frequently had exposure to partners' semen before conception had a reduced risk of pre-eclampsia. Also, subsequent pregnancies by the same father had a reduced risk of pre-eclampsia while subsequent pregnancies by a different father had a higher risk of developing pre-eclampsia.


title: Pre-eclampsia

text: In normal early embryonic development, the outer epithelial layer contains cytotrophoblast cells, a stem cell type found in the trophoblast that later differentiates into the fetal placenta. These cells differentiate into many placental cells types, including extravillous trophoblast cells. Extravillous trophoblast cells are an invasive cell type which remodel the maternal spiral arteries by replacing the maternal epithelium and smooth muscle lining the spiral arteries causing artery dilation. This prevents maternal vasoconstriction in the spiral arteries and allows for continued blood and nutrient supply to the growing fetus with low resistance and high blood flow.


title: Pre-eclampsia

text: In pre-eclampsia, abnormal expression of chromosome 19 microRNA cluster (C19MC) in placental cell lines reduces extravillus trophoblast migration. Specific microRNAs in this cluster which might cause abnormal spiral artery invasion include miR-520h, miR-520b, and 520c-3p. This impairs extravillus trophoblast cells invasion to the maternal spiral arteries, causing high resistance and low blood flow and low nutrient supply to the fetus. There is tentative evidence that vitamin supplementation can decrease the risk.


title: Pre-eclampsia

text: Testing for pre-eclampsia is recommended throughout pregnancy via measuring a woman's blood pressure.


title: Pre-eclampsia

text: Suspicion for pre-eclampsia should be maintained in any pregnancy complicated by elevated blood pressure, even in the absence of proteinuria. Ten percent of individuals with other signs and symptoms of pre-eclampsia and 20% of individuals diagnosed with eclampsia show no evidence of proteinuria. In the absence of proteinuria, the presence of new-onset hypertension (elevated blood pressure) and the new onset of one or more of the following is suggestive of the diagnosis of pre-eclampsia:


title: Pre-eclampsia

text: Pre-eclampsia is a progressive disorder and these signs of organ dysfunction are indicative of severe pre-eclampsia. A systolic blood pressure ≥160 or diastolic blood pressure ≥110 and/or proteinuria >5g in a 24-hour period is also indicative of severe pre-eclampsia. Clinically, individuals with severe pre-eclampsia may also present epigastric/right upper quadrant abdominal pain, headaches, and vomiting. Severe pre-eclampsia is a significant risk factor for intrauterine fetal death.


title: Pre-eclampsia

text: A rise in baseline blood pressure (BP) of 30 mmHg systolic or 15 mmHg diastolic, while not meeting the absolute criteria of 140/90, is important to note but is not considered diagnostic.


title: Pre-eclampsia

text: There have been many assessments of tests aimed at predicting pre-eclampsia, though no single biomarker is likely to be sufficiently predictive of the disorder. Predictive tests that have been assessed include those related to placental perfusion, vascular resistance, kidney dysfunction, endothelial dysfunction, and oxidative stress. Examples of notable tests include:


title: Pre-eclampsia

text: A recent study, ASPRE, known to be the largest multi-country prospective trial, has reported a significant performance in identifying pregnant women at high risk of pre-eclampsia yet during the first trimester of pregnancy. Utilizing a combination of maternal history, mean arterial blood pressure, intrauterine Doppler and PlGF measurement, the study has shown a capacity to identify more than 75% of the women that will develop pre-eclampsia, allowing early intervention to prevent development of later symptoms. This approach is now officially recommended by the International Federation of Gynecologists & Obstetricians (FIGO)


title: Pre-eclampsia

text: Pre-eclampsia can mimic and be confused with many other diseases, including chronic hypertension, chronic renal disease, primary seizure disorders, gallbladder and pancreatic disease, immune or thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura, antiphospholipid syndrome and hemolytic-uremic syndrome. It must be considered a possibility in any pregnant woman beyond 20 weeks of gestation. It is particularly difficult to diagnose when pre-existing conditions such as hypertension are present. Women with acute fatty liver of pregnancy may also present with elevated blood pressure and protein in the urine, but differ by the extent of liver damage. Other disorders that can cause high blood pressure include thyrotoxicosis, pheochromocytoma, and drug misuse.


title: Pre-eclampsia

text: Preventive measures against pre-eclampsia have been heavily studied. Because the pathogenesis of pre-eclampsia is not completely understood, prevention remains a complex issue. Some currently accepted recommendations are:


title: Pre-eclampsia

text: Supplementation with a balanced protein and energy diet does not appear to reduce the risk of pre-eclampsia. Further, there is no evidence that changing salt intake has an effect.


title: Pre-eclampsia

text: Supplementation with antioxidants such as vitamin C, D and E has no effect on pre-eclampsia incidence; therefore, supplementation with vitamins C, E, and D is not recommended for reducing the risk of pre-eclampsia.


title: Pre-eclampsia

text: Calcium supplementation of at least 1 gram per day is recommended during pregnancy as it prevents pre-eclampsia where dietary calcium intake is low, especially for those at high risk. Higher selenium level is associated with lower incidence of pre-eclampsia. Higher cadmium level is associated with higher incidence of pre-eclampsia.


title: Pre-eclampsia

text: Taking aspirin is associated with a 1 to 5% reduction in pre-eclampsia and a 1 to 5% reduction in premature births in women at high risk. The World Health Organization recommends low-dose aspirin for the prevention of pre-eclampsia in women at high risk and recommends it be started before 20 weeks of pregnancy. The United States Preventive Services Task Force recommends a low-dose regimen for women at high risk beginning in the 12th week. Benefits are less if started after 16 weeks.


title: Pre-eclampsia

text: The more recent study ASPRE, besides its efficacy in identifying women suspected to develop pre-eclampsia, has also been able to demonstrate a strong drop in the rate of early pre-eclampsia (-82%) and preterm pre-eclampsia (-62%). The efficacy of aspirin is due to screening to identify high risk women, adjusted prophylaxis dosage (150 mg/day), timing of the intake (bedtime) and must start before week 16 of pregnancy.


title: Pre-eclampsia

text: There is insufficient evidence to recommend either exercise or strict bedrest as preventive measures of pre-eclampsia.


title: Pre-eclampsia

text: In low-risk pregnancies, the association between cigarette smoking and a reduced risk of pre-eclampsia has been consistent and reproducible across epidemiologic studies. High-risk pregnancies (those with pregestational diabetes, chronic hypertension, history of pre-eclampsia in a previous pregnancy, or multifetal gestation) showed no significant protective effect. The reason for this discrepancy is not definitively known; research supports speculation that the underlying pathology increases the risk of pre-eclampsia to such a degree that any measurable reduction of risk due to smoking is masked. However, the damaging effects of smoking on overall health and pregnancy outcomes outweighs the benefits in decreasing the incidence of pre-eclampsia. It is recommended that smoking be stopped prior to, during and after pregnancy.


title: Pre-eclampsia

text: Some studies have suggested the importance of a woman's gestational immunological tolerance to her baby's father, as the baby and father share genetics. There is tentative evidence that ongoing exposure either by vaginal or oral sex to the same semen that resulted in the pregnancy decreases the risk of pre-eclampsia. As one early study described, "although pre-eclampsia is a disease of first pregnancies, the protective effect of multiparity is lost with change of partner". The study also concluded that although women with changing partners are strongly advised to use condoms to prevent sexually transmitted diseases, "a certain period of sperm exposure within a stable relation, when pregnancy is aimed for, is associated with protection against pre-eclampsia".


title: Pre-eclampsia

text: Several other studies have since investigated the decreased incidence of pre-eclampsia in women who had received blood transfusions from their partner, those with long preceding histories of sex without barrier contraceptives, and in women who had been regularly performing oral sex.


title: Pre-eclampsia

text: Having already noted the importance of a woman's immunological tolerance to her baby's paternal genes, several Dutch reproductive biologists decided to take their research a step further. Consistent with the fact that human immune systems tolerate things better when they enter the body via the mouth, the Dutch researchers conducted a series of studies that confirmed a surprisingly strong correlation between a diminished incidence of pre-eclampsia and a woman's practice of oral sex, and noted that the protective effects were strongest if she swallowed her partner's semen. A team from the University of Adelaide has also investigated to see if men who have fathered pregnancies which have ended in miscarriage or pre-eclampsia had low seminal levels of critical immune modulating factors such as TGF-beta. The team has found that certain men, dubbed "dangerous males", are several times more likely to father pregnancies that would end in either pre-eclampsia or miscarriage. Among other things, most of the "dangerous males" seemed to lack sufficient levels of the seminal immune factors necessary to induce immunological tolerance in their partners.


title: Pre-eclampsia

text: As the theory of immune intolerance as a cause of pre-eclampsia has become accepted, women who with repeated pre-eclampsia, miscarriages, or in vitro fertilization failures could potentially be administered key immune factors such as TGF-beta along with the father's foreign proteins, possibly either orally, as a sublingual spray, or as a vaginal gel to be applied onto the vaginal wall before intercourse.


title: Pre-eclampsia

text: The definitive treatment for pre-eclampsia is the delivery of the baby and placenta, but danger to the mother persists after delivery, and full recovery can take days or weeks. The timing of delivery should balance the desire for optimal outcomes for the baby while reducing risks for the mother. The severity of disease and the maturity of the baby are primary considerations. These considerations are situation-specific and management will vary with situation, location, and institution. Treatment can range from expectant management to expedited delivery by induction of labor or Caesarean section, in addition to medications. Important in management is the assessment of the mother's organ systems, management of severe hypertension, and prevention and treatment of eclamptic seizures. Separate interventions directed at the baby may also be necessary. Bed rest has not been found to be useful and is thus not routinely recommended.


title: Pre-eclampsia

text: The World Health Organization recommends that women with severe hypertension during pregnancy should receive treatment with anti-hypertensive agents. Severe hypertension is generally considered systolic BP of at least 160 or diastolic BP of at least 110. Evidence does not support the use of one anti-hypertensive over another. The choice of which agent to use should be based on the prescribing clinician's experience with a particular agent, its cost, and its availability. Diuretics are not recommended for prevention of pre-eclampsia and its complications. Labetalol, hydralazine and nifedipine are commonly used antihypertensive agents for hypertension in pregnancy. ACE inhibitors and angiotensin receptor blockers are contraindicated as they affect fetal development.


title: Pre-eclampsia

text: The goal of treatment of severe hypertension in pregnancy is to prevent cardiovascular, kidney, and cerebrovascular complications. The target blood pressure has been proposed to be 140–160 mmHg systolic and 90–105 mmHg diastolic, although values are variable.


title: Pre-eclampsia

text: The intrapartum and postpartum administration of magnesium sulfate is recommended in severe pre-eclampsia for the prevention of eclampsia. Further, magnesium sulfate is recommended for the treatment of eclampsia over other anticonvulsants. Magnesium sulfate acts by interacting with NMDA receptors.