title: Terrell Owens

text: Owens was born to Marilyn Heard and her neighbor L.C. Russell in Alexander City, Alabama. At 10 years old, he discovered his father's identity after liking his daughter, only to learn that she was his sister. He grew up with three other siblings and was raised by his mother and grandmother. He enjoyed watching football, especially his favorite player, Jerry Rice. However, Owens’ grandmother initially forbade him from playing sports until high school. Owens attended Benjamin Russell High School, where he participated in football, baseball, track, and basketball. Owens did not start on his high school football team until his junior year, when one of his teammates missed a game due to illness.


title: Terrell Owens

text: While enrolled at the University of Tennessee at Chattanooga, Owens played basketball, football, and ran track. Owens played in the 1995 NCAA basketball tournament. He became a starter during his sophomore year. Owens caught 38 passes for 724 yards and eight touchdowns during his sophomore year, and 34 passes for 357 yards and three touchdowns during his junior year. Having gained respect in the NCAA, Owens faced double coverage more frequently during his senior year, and was limited to 43 receptions for 667 yards and one touchdown. Owens previously held the single-season receptions record at Chattanooga until it was broken in 2007 by Alonzo Nix. In his senior year, he anchored the school's 4 × 100 relay team at the NCAA championship. He also participated in the Senior Bowl, a college all-star game played by college seniors, in preparation for the NFL Draft.


title: Terrell Owens

text: Because he played his college football at UT-Chattanooga, an FCS school that did not have a winning season during his time there, Owens' visibility to NFL scouts was lessened, and he dropped to the third round of the 1996 NFL Draft, where the San Francisco 49ers drafted him 89th overall. Owens played his first professional game against the New Orleans Saints, where he served as a member of the 49ers' special teams. His first two catches were recorded against the Carolina Panthers on September 22, 1996, for a total of six yards. His first touchdown came on October 20 against the Cincinnati Bengals; in the fourth quarter he caught a 45-yard touchdown pass from Steve Young that tied a game eventually won by the 49ers 28–21.


title: Terrell Owens

text: After the 49ers' top receiver Jerry Rice suffered a torn ACL early in the 1997 NFL season, Owens took Rice's place in the lineup, beating out former 1st round pick J.J. Stokes for the job. He and quarterback Young helped the 49ers win 13 games that season; Owens finished with 936 receiving yards and eight touchdowns; he added a touchdown in San Francisco's playoff win over the Minnesota Vikings.


title: Terrell Owens

text: 1998 was another 12–4 season for the 49ers and the first 1,000-yard year for Owens, as he caught 67 balls for 1,097 yards and 14 touchdowns; he even had a rushing touchdown in October against the St. Louis Rams. In the Wildcard playoff game, the 49ers faced the Green Bay Packers who had beaten them five straight times, three of them playoff games. Owens struggled, dropping a number of passes as a result of being briefly blinded by late-afternoon sun. Despite this, Young kept throwing to Owens and he redeemed himself by catching the game-winning touchdown (immortalized by the impassioned game call of 49ers radio play-by-play announcer Joe Starkey) for a 30–27 comeback victory.


title: Terrell Owens

text: In 1999, Owens had 60 catches for 754 yards and four touchdowns. Young retired after the 1999 season after he was unable to pass medical tests as a result of a concussion sustained that season, and Jeff Garcia was named the 49ers' starting quarterback. In 2000, the 49ers managed to win only six games. However, Owens had a record-breaking day on December 17, 2000 with 20 catches for 283 yards in a 17-0 49ers win over the Chicago Bears. The record-breaking 20 receptions surpassed a 50-year-old mark held by Tom Fears (it has since been surpassed by Brandon Marshall, who made 21 receptions in a game in 2009). Owens finished the year with 1,451 receiving yards and thirteen touchdowns.


title: Terrell Owens

text: The 2001 49ers had a 12–4 record but were defeated by the Packers in a Wild Card playoff game. Owens finished with 16 touchdown catches (half the 32 thrown by Garcia that season) and 1,412 receiving yards. The 49ers followed up in 2002 with a 10–6 record and their 17th NFC West title; in this season, Owens had 100 catches for 1,300 yards and 13 touchdowns. The 49ers hosted the New York Giants in the Wild Card playoff round, and after falling behind 38–14, the 49ers erupted to 25 unanswered points; Owens had two touchdown catches and caught two 2-point conversions in the 49ers' 39–38 win. However, they were shot down 31–6 against the soon-to-be Super Bowl champion Tampa Bay Buccaneers, who held Owens to only four catches for 35 yards.


title: Terrell Owens

text: Coach Steve Mariucci was fired and former Seahawks coach Dennis Erickson took over. The ensuing season in 2003 proved subpar as the 49ers finished 7–9. It was here that Owens decided to leave. In the summer of 2004, when Garcia, who had been released in the off-season, was a member of the Cleveland Browns, and Owens was a member of the Philadelphia Eagles, Owens appeared in an interview for "Playboy" magazine, where he was asked about long-standing rumors that his former teammate Garcia was homosexual, to which he implied he thought there might be truth to the rumors.


title: Terrell Owens

text: Although Owens was eager to leave the 49ers, the 49ers asserted that Owens' previous agent, David Joseph, had missed the deadline to void the final years of his contract with the team. The National Football League Players Association and Owens disputed this assertion, contending that the deadline referred to by the 49ers was not the applicable deadline. On March 4, 2004, San Francisco, believing it still held Owens' rights, attempted to trade Owens to the Baltimore Ravens for a second-round pick in the 2004 draft. However, Owens challenged the 49ers' right to make the deal. Owens assumed that he would become a free agent on March 3, and did not believe that the earlier deadline was applicable. Hence, he negotiated with other teams in advance of his expected free agency, and reached a contract agreement with the Philadelphia Eagles, whose fan base strongly supported Owens in his desire to play for the team. The NFLPA filed a grievance on his behalf.


title: Terrell Owens

text: Before an arbitrator could make a ruling on Owens' grievance, the NFL and the three teams involved in the controversy reached a settlement on March 16, 2004. The Ravens got their second-round pick back from San Francisco, and the 49ers in turn received a conditional fifth-round pick and defensive end Brandon Whiting from the Eagles in exchange for the rights to Owens. Owens' contract with the Eagles was worth about $49 million for seven years, including a $10 million signing bonus.


title: Terrell Owens

text: In September 2004, Owens released an autobiography: "Catch This! Going Deep with the NFL's Sharpest Weapon", which he co-wrote with bestselling author Stephen Singular.


title: Terrell Owens

text: On December 19, 2004, Owens sustained a severely sprained ankle and a fractured fibula when Dallas Cowboys safety Roy Williams took him down with a horse-collar tackle; Williams' horse-collars resulted in injuries to several NFL players, and the horse-collar tackle was later prohibited. Owens' injury required surgery, including insertion of a screw into his leg, and Eagles trainer Rick Burkholder stated that he would miss the rest of the season, with only an outside chance of playing in the Super Bowl if the Eagles advanced.


title: Terrell Owens

text: After the Eagles defeated the Atlanta Falcons in the NFC Championship game, Owens defied the advice of his doctors and played in Super Bowl XXXIX. Owens' trainer, James "Buddy" Primm, helped bring Owens back much sooner with the use of Microcurrent and a hyperbaric chamber. Owens started in the game and had nine receptions for 122 yards, but the Eagles lost to the New England Patriots. After the game, Owens stated that the media would have called Brett Favre "a warrior" for playing with such an injury, but that "For me, they said I was selfish."


title: Terrell Owens

text: In April 2005, Owens announced that he had hired a new agent, Drew Rosenhaus, and indicated that he would seek to have his contract with the Eagles renegotiated. Owens made $9 million in 2004 (most of which was bonus money, as his base salary was only $660,000), and was slated to make $4.5 million in 2005. This two-year amount did not place Owens in the top ten paid wide receivers playing. He also made a comment that he "wasn't the guy who got tired in the Super Bowl." The remark, directed at quarterback Donovan McNabb, caused a controversy to heat up between them. On July 1, Owens' relationship with the Eagles became even more tense after Eagles owner Jeffrey Lurie and club president Joe Banner denied Owens permission to play basketball in a summer league under the auspices of the National Basketball Association's Sacramento Kings.


title: Terrell Owens

text: Owens, with the negotiating help of Rosenhaus, continued to lobby for a new contract. Owens and Rosenhaus met with Eagles head coach Andy Reid and president Joe Banner, but no agreement was reached (this was in line with the Eagles' policy against contract renegotiations). Owens threatened to hold out of training camp until a deal was reached, but reported to camp on time. When the 2005 football season began, Owens was in the second year of a seven-year, $49 million contract. However, the contract was heavily back-loaded, and while the $49 million figure was routinely touted by the sports media as an example of Owens' greed, the money guaranteed to him was under the annual average for a top-tier wide receiver.


title: Terrell Owens

text: In 2005, after a game against the Dallas Cowboys on October 9 in which the Eagles lost, Owens was seen by reporters wearing a throwback jersey of former Cowboys player Michael Irvin on the team plane. On November 2, Owens was involved in an argument in the training room with team ambassador Hugh Douglas, which led to a fistfight between the two. The argument was reportedly started after Douglas said there were players on the team who were faking injuries.


title: Terrell Owens

text: During an ESPN interview the next day, Owens made several comments that Eagles fans perceived as verbal jabs at McNabb and the team. In this interview, when asked whether he agreed with a comment made by analyst Michael Irvin saying that the Eagles would be undefeated if Brett Favre was on the team, Owens replied, "That's a good assessment. I would agree with that." Owens went on to state that if Favre were the Eagles quarterback, "I just feel like we'd be in a better situation." Owens stated on his radio show that his remarks were taken out of context, noting that he had just stated two questions prior that the Eagles' record would also be better had McNabb not been injured. While he did not comment on Owens' slight at the time, McNabb later stated in an interview that "It was definitely a slap in the face to me."


title: Terrell Owens

text: Two days after the interview aired, the Eagles suspended Owens indefinitely for "conduct detrimental to the team." According to Owens' agent Drew Rosenhaus, head coach Andy Reid demanded that Owens make a public apology to McNabb. An apology was drafted by Rosenhaus, but Owens balked at reading a specific apology to McNabb, and crossed that part of the statement out. The apology he read on TV did not address McNabb directly. The following day, Reid announced that Owens' suspension would be increased to four games and that he would be deactivated for the remainder of the season.


title: Terrell Owens

text: On November 8, Owens and Rosenhaus held a news conference at Owens' residence, where he apologized to the fans, the team, and McNabb specifically, and also made an appeal for reinstatement to the team. The NFL Players Association filed a grievance against the Eagles, claiming violation of the sport's collective bargaining agreement, but Owens' suspension and deactivation were upheld by an arbitrator.


title: Terrell Owens

text: On March 18, 2006, the Dallas Cowboys signed Owens to a 3-year, $25 million deal, including a $5 million signing bonus, with a $5 million first-year salary.


title: Terrell Owens

text: Owens returned to the field during the Cowboys' 2006 season opener against the Jacksonville Jaguars. While the game ended in a Jaguars victory, Owens recorded eight receptions for 80 yards and one touchdown. The following week against the Redskins, Owens broke his finger while blocking, and was forced to leave the game. He had a plate screwed into the finger, and returned to play the team's next game against the Tennessee Titans, where he accounted for 88 receiving yards.


title: Terrell Owens

text: The following week, Owens made his highly anticipated return to Philadelphia, where he played against his former teammate, Donovan McNabb. Upon his return, Owens was met by a hail of angry jeers and taunts, including chants of "O.D." throughout the game. Despite pregame talk about a weak Eagles secondary, Owens struggled throughout the game. Owens had three catches for 45 yards, while the Cowboys went on to lose, 38–24.


title: Terrell Owens

text: After the Cowboys defeated the Atlanta Falcons, 38–28, owner Jerry Jones revealed that Owens had injured a tendon on the same finger that he had broken earlier in the season. The doctors recommended season-ending surgery, but Owens elected to risk permanent damage to his finger and decided to wait until the end of the season to repair the damage. "There's no question about what he's willing to do for his team", Jones said.


title: Terrell Owens

text: Owens led the league in regular season with 13 touchdown receptions. On March 1, 2007, he underwent surgery twice to repair his right ring finger.


title: Terrell Owens

text: In the 2007 season, Owens and the Cowboys began to live up to their potential. On November 18, Owens set a new career high and tied a franchise record, with four touchdown catches against the Washington Redskins. With his touchdown catch against Green Bay on November 29, Owens became the first player in NFL history with at least one touchdown catch and six receptions in seven straight games. Also with this win, the Cowboys clinched a playoff berth for the second consecutive season, making this the third time Owens would participate in back-to-back postseasons. Owens was one of the starting wide receivers to represent the NFC in the Pro Bowl along with Arizona Cardinals wide receiver Larry Fitzgerald. On January 9, Owens made the All-Pro team along with teammates Jason Witten and DeMarcus Ware. On December 22 in a Week 16 game against the Carolina Panthers, Owens caught his 15th touchdown catch of the season to set a new Cowboys record for touchdown catches in a season. During this game, however, Owens suffered a high ankle sprain after making a catch in the second quarter, which kept him out of the rest of the regular season. Owens was leading the league in receiving yards and was second in receiving touchdowns at the time. He finished the season with 81 receptions, 15 touchdowns, and 1,355 receiving yards, as the team finished 13-3 and clinched the NFC's top seed.


title: Terrell Owens

text: Owens returned for the divisional playoff game against the Giants, where he caught four passes for 49 yards and a touchdown. The Cowboys lost the game, however, 21-17 and Owens broke down crying during the postgame press conference in a now-infamous incident.


title: Terrell Owens

text: In the 2008 Pro Bowl, Owens caught seven passes for 101 yards and two touchdowns in an NFC win. Despite his efforts, Minnesota Vikings rookie running back Adrian Peterson was named MVP.


title: Terrell Owens

text: In the Cowboys' second game of the season, the last Monday Night game at Texas Stadium, Owens passed Cris Carter to move to second in touchdowns behind former teammate Jerry Rice.


title: Terrell Owens

text: The Cowboys released Owens on March 4, 2009. Owens later said that Jones had assured him that he would be remaining with the team and that he was blindsided by his release.


title: Terrell Owens

text: On March 8, 2009, the Buffalo Bills signed Owens to a 1-year, $6.5 million contract. Owens had his first catch with the Bills when he had a 27-yard play on a 3rd-and-1 in the 25–24 loss to the New England Patriots at Gillette Stadium. With that catch, he passed former Bills receiver Andre Reed on the all-time Top 20 career leaders list for pass receptions. Owens debuted with two catches for 45 yards in the game. Owens caught his first touchdown pass with Buffalo in a 33–20 win over the Tampa Bay Buccaneers on September 20, 2009. However, the following week, Owens was held without a catch against the New Orleans Saints, ending a 185-game streak of consecutive games with a catch that was the longest streak among active players at the time.


title: Terrell Owens

text: Owens had his best game with the Bills in a 15–18 loss to the Jacksonville Jaguars, with nine receptions for 197 yards and a touchdown. Owens and Ryan Fitzpatrick set a Bills record for longest touchdown reception when Fitzpatrick connected with Owens for a 98-yard TD, which also became Owens' longest career touchdown reception. He also became the oldest player to have a touchdown reception of more than 76 yards (35 years, 350 days). Against the Atlanta Falcons in week 16, Owens became the sixth player to reach 1,000 receptions in a career after catching an 8-yard pass from Brian Brohm. He finished his lone season with Buffalo with 55 catches for 829 yards and 5 receiving touchdowns, and also rushed 6 times for 54 yards and a touchdown.


title: Terrell Owens

text: On July 27, 2010, Owens signed a one-year contract with the Cincinnati Bengals. It was reportedly worth $2 million, with another $2 million possible from bonuses. He joined Carson Palmer and Chad Johnson, both of whom lobbied for the Bengals to sign Owens. With the retirement of Isaac Bruce, Owens spent his last active season in the NFL as the active career leader in receiving yards. He received his customary number, #81, given to him by free-agent acquisition wide receiver Antonio Bryant in exchange for an undisclosed sum of money, some of which went to a charity of Bryant's choice.


title: Terrell Owens

text: Against the Cleveland Browns in Week4, he had a spectacular game with ten receptions, 222 yards and a touchdown of 78 yards. On December 21, Owens was placed on injured reserve, for the first time in his 15-year career. He still managed to lead all Bengals' receivers (including Ochocinco) with receptions (72), yards (983), and touchdowns (9) for the season. However, the Bengals fell from a 10–6 record the year before Owens joined to a 4–12 record with Owens. The Bengals decided not to re-sign Owens for the 2011 season.


title: Terrell Owens

text: He suffered a torn ACL during the 2011 offseason and underwent surgery in April 2011. According to his agent, he was cleared to play again on October 19. He held a televised workout on October 25, which no NFL teams chose to attend.


title: Terrell Owens

text: On November 2, 2011, the Allen Wranglers of the Indoor Football League announced they had extended a six-figure contract offer to Owens to play for the Wranglers in the 2012 season. On January 18, 2012, Owens announced via Twitter that he had accepted the Wranglers' offer and joined their ownership group, with an official press conference to follow the following week. In his debut for the Wranglers, Owens caught three passes for 53 yards and three touchdowns as the Wranglers defeated the Wichita Wild 50–30. His statistics were: eight games played; 35 catches; 420 yards; 52.5 yards per game; 12 yards per catch; 45 longest catch; and ten touchdowns.


title: Terrell Owens

text: On May 29, 2012, Owens was released. The Wranglers' co-owners stated Owens was released for showing a lack of effort both on and off the field.


title: Terrell Owens

text: On August 6, 2012, Owens signed a one-year, $925,000 contract with the Seattle Seahawks. On August 26, 2012, Owens announced on his Twitter account that the Seahawks had released him.


title: Terrell Owens

text: On January 13, 2015, in an interview with Sports Illustrated Now, Owens stated that he had not retired and that, after a hiatus, he had trained with numerous NFL players during the 2014 NFL season and the offseason. He did not state when he planned to return to the NFL.


title: Terrell Owens

text: On June 28, 2017, Owens played as team captain for Team Owens in the inaugural game for the newly formed American Flag Football League.


title: Terrell Owens

text: On June 19, 2018, the Edmonton Eskimos of the Canadian Football League (CFL) added Owens to their negotiation list. On July 14, Owens activated his 10-day signing window with the Eskimos, requiring the team to offer him a contract in ten days, else he would've become a CFL free agent and be eligible to sign with any of the eight other CFL teams. On July 20, 2018 the Eskimos dropped Owens from their negotiation list. On August 5, 2018, a day after his Hall of Fame induction, Owens worked out for the Saskatchewan Roughriders.


title: Terrell Owens

text: On March 31, 2022, Owens signed with Fan Controlled Football. Though FCF players typically rotate through multiple teams in a season, Owens was expected to be given a franchise tag by the Zappers (one of two Zappers franchise players, along with quarterback Johnny Manziel) committing Owens to that team. On May 11, 2022, Owens was traded to the Knights of Degen in a three-team, four-player trade.


title: Terrell Owens

text: Owens is the father of two daughters and two sons. In September 2011, Owens was sued by Melanie Paige Smith III, the mother of his daughter, for failure to pay child support, but the case was settled prior to trial. Owens insisted that the reason for the missed child support payments was due to his wages decreasing in the NFL and Smith was aware of his circumstances. His daughter Kylee plays volleyball at Prairie View A&M University.


title: Terrell Owens

text: On a May 8, 2012 episode of "Dr. Phil", three of the four mothers to his children accused Owens of either coming up short in his monthly child support payments or not paying at all. Owens said he was paying some $45,000 per month in child support at one time.


title: Terrell Owens

text: On November 15, 2004, Owens, wearing a Philadelphia Eagles uniform, appeared with television actress Nicollette Sheridan (of the ABC series "Desperate Housewives" in character as Edie Britt) in an introductory skit which opened that evening's "Monday Night Football" telecast, in which Owens and the Eagles played the Cowboys at Texas Stadium. Some observers (especially then-Indianapolis Colts coach Tony Dungy) condemned the skit as being sexually suggestive because of Sheridan removing a towel, and ABC later apologized for airing it. However, on March 14, 2005, the Federal Communications Commission ruled that the skit did not violate decency standards, because it contained no outright nudity or foul language.


title: Terrell Owens

text: Some media outlets in Dallas reported on the morning of September 27, 2006, that Owens had tried to kill himself by intentionally ingesting an overdose of hydrocodone, a pain medication. A police report filed on the night of September 26 seemed to confirm the attempt, saying that Owens's publicist, Kim Etheredge, found him unresponsive with an empty bottle of pain killers, pried two pills from his mouth, and called 9-1-1, after which an ambulance transported him four blocks from his Deep Ellum condo to Baylor University Medical Center.


title: Terrell Owens

text: According to the police report, Owens and Etheredge both said he was depressed, and Owens answered "yes" when asked whether he had intended to harm himself. Owens' publicist, however, refuted the report, stating that Owens had suffered an allergic reaction to the medication combined with a dietary supplement. ESPN reported that about half the police report was blacked out, but included the phrases "attempting suicide by prescription pain medication" and "a drug overdose".


title: Terrell Owens

text: Owens left the hospital later on September 27. At a news conference after his release, Owens denied having made a suicide attempt, stating that he expected to join the team for practice the next morning. He stated that he was "not depressed" and was "very happy to be here", and denied that doctors had pumped his stomach, calling speculation to that effect "definitely untrue". The press conference took place after Owens had run routes and caught passes with the Cowboys at the team's practice facility in Valley Ranch.


title: Terrell Owens

text: Afterwards, Owens' publicist stated that she felt the police had taken advantage of Owens. The president of the union representing Dallas police officers subsequently demanded an apology from Owens and his publicist for her comments, which he said damaged the reputations of three patrolmen. On Thursday, September 28, the Dallas Police Department reported the incident to be an "accidental overdose" and ended their investigation.


title: Terrell Owens

text: The pain medication Owens had ingested had been prescribed to him for a broken finger he had suffered in a Week2 victory against the Washington Redskins. Bill Parcells had noted in a press conference a few days before the incident that the medication Owens had been taking had made him sick, and he had been prescribed a milder pain killer.


title: Terrell Owens

text: After the December 16, 2006, game against the Atlanta Falcons, Falcons cornerback DeAngelo Hall stated that Owens spat in his face after a play early in the game. Game officials and reporters were unaware of the incident and Owens was not asked about it until his post-game interview with the NFL Network, when he confirmed it. Owens said, "I got frustrated and I apologize for that. It was a situation where he kept hugging me and getting in my face. He had a lot of words, I didn't. I just wanted to come and prove I’m not a guy to be schemed with." Hall said that he lost all respect for Owens. When made aware that Hall was saying Owens did it deliberately, Owens said that it was an accident that occurred while they were in each other's face, talking trash. Despite no video evidence, the NFL fined Owens $35,000 for the incident. After initially refusing to take a phone call from Owens, Hall was convinced by Deion Sanders to speak with Owens two days after the incident and later stated that they "cleared it all out."


title: Terrell Owens

text: Owens was not voted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame in his first two years of eligibility, despite being statistically ranked near the top of every NFL receiving category. Commentators attributed Owens' exclusion to his issues off the field.


title: Terrell Owens

text: In 2018, Owens was voted into the Hall of Fame. He subsequently caused controversy in his induction by skipping the official celebration in Canton, Ohio, and instead choosing to host his own celebration in McKenzie Arena on the campus of the University of Tennessee at Chattanooga, his alma mater. Owens is the only inductee of the hall to skip his induction and instead host a separate induction ceremony.


title: Terrell Owens

text: During his playing career, Owens attracted attention for his flamboyant celebrations after scoring touchdowns, some of which resulted in fines from the NFL front office.


title: Terrell Owens

text: Owens is depicted in a photographic work by contemporary African-American artist Hank Willis Thomas entitled "Liberation of T.O.: Ain't no way I'm go'n in back ta'work fa'massa in dat darn field" (2004). The work was featured in "Frequency", the Studio Museum in Harlem's 2006 exhibition of emerging artists.


title: Terrell Owens

text: Outside of his football career, Owens also appeared in various commercials, television shows, and films. Owens played himself, as a wide receiver wearing #82 for the fictional Miami Sharks, in the 1999 film "Any Given Sunday". In 2003, he appeared in a commercial for the ESPY Awards where he caught a home run ball from Barry Bonds in McCovey Cove. Owens appeared in an episode of "Punk'd", starring Ashton Kutcher, which is based on his November 19, 2005 suspension.


title: Terrell Owens

text: In August 2008, Owens was featured in the pilot episode of the web series FACETIME, on My Damn Channel. He and Three 6 Mafia interview each other in the episode.


title: Terrell Owens

text: He starred in a summer 2009 reality show on VH1, dubbed "The T.O. Show"; the show followed Owens and his "best friends and publicists" as they re-evaluated Owens' personal life.


title: Terrell Owens

text: Owens appeared in the NBA All-Star celebrity game again in 2009 scoring 17 points including two alley-oops, to secure his second consecutive MVP award.


title: Terrell Owens

text: In June 2009, Owens starred in ABC's reincarnation of "Superstars", a sports competition show from the 70s where celebrities are paired with professional athletes. The first episode is rumored to have ended in controversy, as evidenced by a leaked clip of partner supermodel Joanna Krupa calling Owens a "prima donna".


title: Terrell Owens

text: As a one-time rating sweeps week stunt, Owens replaced WKBW-TV sports anchor Jeff Russo for their 6:00p.m. newscast on May 18, 2009.


title: Terrell Owens

text: On May 8, 2012, Owens appeared on "Dr. Phil" with the mothers of three of his children to discuss relationships.


title: Terrell Owens

text: In 2014, Owens made a cameo appearance in R&B singer Faith Evans' music video "I Deserve It", featuring Missy Elliott and Sharaya J.


title: Terrell Owens

text: On September 5, 2017, Owens was announced as one of the celebrities set to compete on season 25 of "Dancing with the Stars". He was partnered with professional dancer Cheryl Burke and was the eighth contestant eliminated.


title: Terrell Owens

text: In May 2018, it was announced that Owens would be featured on the cover of the "Hall of Fame" edition of "Madden NFL 19".


title: Terrell Owens

text: An avid bowler, Owens has twice won Chris Paul's CP3 PBA Celebrity Invitational, an annual televised event in which celebrities and PBA Tour professionals team up to benefit the Chris Paul Family Foundation. Owens won in 2016 with Pete Weber, and again in 2021 with AJ Johnson. Owens has also won the Celebrity Clash at this event twice, in 2018 and 2021.


title: Terrell Owens

text: In the summer of 2009, VH1 premiered "The T.O. Show", which followed Owens in his personal life off the football field. The show was renewed for two additional seasons.


title: Terrell Owens

text: In September 2013, Owens launched a podcast on the Sideshow Network with co-hosts comedian Alonzo Bodden and former-"Survivor" contestant and podcast host, Rob Cesternino. Shows are released each Wednesday and the discussion centers on the week's NFL games and news. Comedian Roy Wood, Jr. has been a regular guest.


title: Terrell Owens

text: Guests have been from both the sports and the entertainment worlds. Some of them were: Ron Artest, Ray J, comic Sam Tripoli, and writer Caleb Bacon.


title: Okinawa Island

text: Okinawa has been a critical strategic location for the United States Armed Forces since the Battle of Okinawa and the end of World War II. The island was under American administration until 1972, and today hosts around 26,000 US military personnel, about half of the total complement of the United States Forces Japan, spread among 32 bases and 48 training sites.


title: Okinawa Island

text: Early Okinawan history is defined by midden or shell heap culture and is divided into Early, Middle, and Late Shell Mound periods. The Early Shell Mound period was a hunter-gatherer society, with the wave-like opening Jōmon pottery. In the latter part of this period, archaeological sites moved near the seashore, suggesting the engagement of people in fishing. On Okinawa, rice was not cultivated until the Middle Shell Mound period. Shell rings for arms made of shells obtained in the Sakishima Islands, namely Miyakojima and Yaeyama islands, were imported by Japan. In these islands, the presence of shell axes from 2,500 years ago suggests the influence of a southeastern-Pacific culture.


title: Okinawa Island

text: After the Late Shell Mound period, agriculture started about the 12th century, and the population center moved from the seashore to higher places. This period is called the Gusuku period. Gusuku is the term used for the distinctive Ryukyuan form of castles or fortresses. Many gusukus and related cultural remains in the Ryukyu Islands have been listed by UNESCO as World Heritage Sites. There are three perspectives regarding the nature of gusukus: 1) a holy place, 2) dwellings encircled by stones, and 3) a castle of a leader of people. In this period, porcelain trade between Okinawa and other countries became commonplace, and Okinawa was an important relay point in eastern-Asian trade. Ryukyuan kings, such as Shunten and Eiso, were important rulers. An attempted Mongolian invasion in 1291 during the Eiso Dynasty failed. Hiragana was imported from Japan by Ganjin in 1265. "Noro", village priestesses of the Ryukyuan religion, appeared.


title: Okinawa Island

text: The Sanzan period began in 1314 when the kingdoms of Hokuzan and Nanzan declared independence from Chūzan. The three kingdoms competed with one another for recognition and trade with Ming China. King Satto, leading Chūzan, was very successful, establishing relations with Korea and Southeast Asia as well as China. The Hongwu Emperor sent 36 families from Fujian in 1392 at the request of the Ryukyuan king. Their job was to manage maritime dealings in the kingdom. They assisted the Ryukyuans in developing their technology and diplomatic relations. In 1407, however, a man named Hashi overthrew Satto's descendant, King Bunei, and installed his father, Shishō, as king of Chūzan.


title: Okinawa Island

text: In 1429, King Shō Hashi completed the unification of the three kingdoms and founded the Ryūkyū Kingdom with its capital at Shuri Castle. His descendants conquered the Amami Islands. In 1469, King Shō Taikyū died, so the royal government chose a man named Kanemaru as the new king, who chose the name Shō En and established the Second Shō Dynasty. His son Shō Shin conquered the Sakishima Islands and centralized the royal government, the military, and the noro priestesses.


title: Okinawa Island

text: In 1609, the Japanese domain of Satsuma launched an invasion of the Ryukyu Kingdom, ultimately capturing the king and his capital after a long struggle. Ryukyu was forced to cede the Amami Islands and become a vassal of Satsuma. The kingdom became both a tributary of China and a tributary of Japan. Because China would not make a formal trade agreement unless a country was a tributary state, the kingdom was a convenient loophole for Japanese trade with China. When Japan officially closed off trade with European nations except for the Dutch, Nagasaki, Tsushima, and Kagoshima became the only Japanese trading ports offering connections with the outside world. At some time, karate came into its existence as a type of systemised martial arts.


title: Okinawa Island

text: Several Europeans visited Ryukyu starting in the late 18th century. The most important visits to Okinawa were from Captain Basil Hall in 1816 and Commodore Matthew C. Perry in 1852. A Christian missionary, Bernard Jean Bettelheim, lived in the Gokoku-ji temple in Naha from 1846 to 1854.


title: Okinawa Island

text: In 1879, Japan annexed the entire Ryukyu archipelago. The Meiji government then established Okinawa Prefecture. The monarchy in Shuri was abolished, and the deposed King Shō Tai was forced to relocate to Tokyo.


title: Okinawa Island

text: Hostility against Japan increased in the islands immediately after the annexation, in part because of the systematic attempt on the part of Japan to eliminate Ryukyuan culture, including the language, religion, and cultural practices.


title: Okinawa Island

text: Okinawa Island had the bloodiest ground battle of the Pacific War from April 1 to June 22, 1945. During this 82-day-long battle, about 95,000 Imperial Japanese Army troops and 20,195 Americans were killed. The Cornerstone of Peace at the Peace Memorial Park in Itoman lists 149,193 persons from Okinawa – approximately one quarter of the civilian population – were either killed or committed suicide during the Battle of Okinawa and the Pacific War. Very few Japanese ended up in POW camps. This may have been because of Japanese soldiers' reluctance to surrender. The total number of casualties shocked American military strategists. This made them apprehensive to invade the other main islands of Japan, because it would result in very high casualties.


title: Okinawa Island

text: Japan became a pacifist country with the 1947 constitution, so America was obligated to protect Japan against foreign threats. During the American military occupation of Japan (1945–1952), which followed the Imperial Japanese surrender on September 2, 1945, in Tokyo Bay, the United States controlled Okinawa Island and the rest of the Ryukyu Islands. The Amami Islands were returned to Japanese control in 1953. The remaining Ryukyu Islands were returned to Japan on June 17, 1971. America kept numerous U.S. military bases on the islands. There are 32 United States military bases on Okinawa Island by the U.S.-Japan alliance since 1951. U.S. bases on Okinawa played critical roles in the Korean War, Vietnam War, Laotian Civil War, Cambodian campaign, War in Afghanistan, and Iraq War. Okinawa served as a prime staging post for the aforementioned wars. Its ports and airports were used to transport supplies. The base at Camp Chinen, Nanjo City was used by the CIA for covert operations. In 1965, Admiral Ulysses S. Grant Sharp stated that “Without Okinawa, we couldn't continue fighting the Vietnam war.”


title: Okinawa Island

text: Intense use of the island by the US military caused damage to the environment and residents. There were oil and fuel spills. Exposure to toxic substances caused illness of service members such as a nerve agent leak in 1969. Aircraft crashes, hit-and runs and murders killed residents. The perpetrators were often unpunished, since they could not be prosecuted in Okinawa Courts. The 1970s and 80s also had severe pollution of waterways and wells with PFAS toxic chemicals in foam used by fire fighting training at US facilities such as Kadena Air Base.


title: Okinawa Island

text: In the early 1970s, according to a US government report, Okinawa was a key conduit for smuggling drugs such as heroin from Thailand via Okinawa to the United States. It was called "The Okinawa System” in the global drug trade. A testimony by a head of the Department of Defense said that drug abuse was "quite extensive." It began in the second half of 1968; marijuana was smuggled from Thailand to Okinawa and grown near an unidentified US Marine Corps training area in northern Okinawa. A package of marijuana fell from an aircraft, and another was discovered at a military post office. From the mid-1970s onwards, LSD and heroin became more prevalent. Deserters worked as "passport civilians" and smuggled the drugs into Okinawa. A lack of customs inspections made smuggling easy. There were well organized Ryukyuan smuggling rings who brought heroin, LSD, and marijuana to Okinawa, and produced LSD on the island.


title: Okinawa Island

text: In 2013, following escalating tensions following competing claims to the uninhabited Senkaku Islands, the People's Republic of China began questioning Japan's sovereignty to the island of Okinawa, citing its past as the independent tributary state of Ryukyu. On 31 October 2019, the main courtyard structures of Shurijo were destroyed in a fire. It marked the fifth time that Shurijo was destroyed following previous incidents in 1453, 1660, 1709 and 1945.


title: Okinawa Island

text: On 31 October 2019, a large fire burned down sections of Shuri Castle; "Six castle buildings occupying some in total were gutted." Rebuilding efforts were underway as of 10 February 2020.


title: Okinawa Island

text: As of September, 2009, the Japanese government estimates the population at 1,384,762, which includes American military personnel and their families. The Okinawan language, called "Uchinaaguchi", is spoken mostly by the elderly, but several local groups promote the use of the Okinawan language by younger people.


title: Okinawa Island

text: Whereas the northern half of Okinawa Island is sparsely populated, the south-central and southern parts of the island are markedly urbanized—particularly the city of Naha and the urban corridor stretching north from there to Okinawa City. The population distribution is approximately 120,000 in northern Okinawa, 590,000 in central Okinawa and 540,000 in southern Okinawa. It has a high population density of 1,014.93 people per km2.


title: Okinawa Island

text: During the Meiji Period, Okinawan ethnic identity, tradition, culture and language were suppressed by the Meiji government, which sought to assimilate the Okinawans as Japanese (Yamato). Many ethnic Japanese have since migrated to Okinawa. The modern inhabitants of Okinawa are mainly ethnic Okinawan, Japanese, half Japanese and mixed.


title: Okinawa Island

text: Five times as many Okinawans reach 100 years old compared to the rest of Japan. The Okinawan diet consists of low-fat, low-salt foods, such as whole fruits and vegetables, legumes, tofu, and seaweed. Okinawans are known for their longevity. This particular island is a so-called Blue Zone, an area where the people live longer than most others elsewhere in the world. there were 34.7 centenarians for every 100,000 inhabitants, which is the highest ratio worldwide. Possible explanations are diet, low-stress lifestyle, caring community, activity, and spirituality of the inhabitants of the island.


title: Okinawa Island

text: Okinawa is the fifth largest island of Japan. The island has an area of . The coastline is long. The straight-line distance is about from north to south. Okinawa is in the northeastern end of Okinawa Prefecture. Since 1972 over of land reclamation has been conducted.


title: Okinawa Island

text: It is roughly south of the main island of Kyushu. Okinawa is connected to nearby islands near a land bridge: Katsuren Peninsula is connected via the Mid-Sea Road to Henza Island, Miyagi Island, Ikei Island, and Hamahiga Island. Similarly, from the Motobu Peninsula on the northwestern side, all of Sesoko-jima plus Yagaji Island and Kōri-jima are connected by bridges. Okinawa Island has several beaches such as Manza Beach, Emerald Beach, Okuma Beach, Zanpa Beach, Moon Beach and Sunset Beach (Chatan-cho). Mount Omoto, at , is the highest mountain in Okinawa, with Mount Yonaha being the second highest.


title: Okinawa Island

text: The Motobu Peninsula in the north has limestone layers and karst development. In the center and south is mainly a Ryukyu limestone layer and mudstone. The topography is flat, there are few hills over with very few rivers. The subtropical rains accelerate erosion so there are many drainages and uvala. The southern end of the island consists of uplifted coral reef, whereas the northern half has proportionally more igneous rock. The easily eroded limestone of the south has many caves, the most famous of which is Gyokusendō in Nanjō. The northernmost Cape Hedo is only away from Yoronjima. Cape Arasaki is the southernmost location of Okinawa island. It is sometimes confused with Cape Kiyanmisaki.


title: Okinawa Island

text: The northern half of Okinawa has one of the largest tracts of subtropical rainforest in Asia called the Yanbaru. There are many endemic species of flora and fauna. There are a small number of endemic Yanbaru kuina (also known as the Okinawa rail), a small flightless bird that is close to extinction. The critically endangered Okinawa woodpecker is also endemic on this island. The Indian mongoose was introduced to the island to prevent the native habu pit viper from attacking the birds. It did not succeed in eliminating the habu but instead preyed on birds, increasing the threat to the Okinawa rail.


title: Okinawa Island

text: The Coconut crab is the largest terrestrial hermit crab of Okinawa and the Ryukyu Islands. They're an endangered species due to over-hunting which made them scarce on Okinawa island. In 2021, Coconut crabs were found to live in a small cave system on the islet Nagashima off the Henoko district.


title: Okinawa Island

text: A small population of endangered dugongs lives around Okinawa. The estimates are between 3 and 50 survivors.


title: Okinawa Island

text: The island has a humid subtropical climate bordering on a tropical rainforest climate. The climate supports a dense Subtropical forest in the northern Yanbaru National Park. A rainy season occurs in the late spring.


title: Okinawa Island

text: There are many local pubs ("izakaya") and cafes that serve Okinawan cuisine and dishes, such as "gōyā chanpurū" (bitter melon stir fry), "fu chanpurū" (wheat gluten chanpurū), and "tonkatsu" (tenderized, breaded, fried pork cutlet). Okinawan soba is the signature dish and consists of wheat noodles served hot in a soup, usually with pork (rib or pork belly). This contrasts with the mainland soba, which is buckwheat noodles. Rafute, which is braised pork belly, is another popular Okinawan dish. American presence on the island has also led to some creative dishes such as taco rice, which is now a common meal served in bentos, and the common use of spam.


title: Okinawa Island

text: Among the prefectures of Japan, Okinawa has the youngest and fastest-growing population but has the lowest employment rate and average income. The island economy is primarily driven by tourism and the U.S. military presence, with efforts in recent years to diversify into other sectors.


title: Okinawa Island

text: The Motobu Peninsula has a large-scale quarry and cement factory, taking advantage of the limestone in the area. There is also agriculture with tropical fruit such as "Malpighia emarginata".


title: Okinawa Island

text: Tourist attractions include Okinawa Churaumi Aquarium (at one time the world's largest aquarium), Century Beach, Pineapple Park, the Orion Beer Factory and Hiji Falls. In recent years, Okinawa has become an increasingly popular destination for tourists from China and Southeast Asia. In 2018, Okinawa attracted 9,842,400 tourists, a positive growth of 4.7% from 9,396,200 in the previous year.


title: Okinawa Island

text: The U.S. military bases account for 4 to 5% of the island economy. There is also a smaller contingent of Japanese military bases on the island. Several former U.S. military facilities on Okinawa have been re-developed as commercial areas, most notably the American Village in Chatan, which opened in 1998, and the Aeon Mall Okinawa Rycom in Kitanakagusuku, which opened in 2015.


title: Okinawa Island

text: The United States maintains American military bases in Japan as part of the U.S.-Japan alliance since 1951. Most U.S. military is in Okinawa Prefecture. In 2013, there were approximately 50,000 U.S. military personnel stationed in Japan with 40,000 dependents and 5,500 American civilians employed by the United States Department of Defense. About 26,000 U.S. military personnel are on Okinawa Island.


title: Okinawa Island

text: There are 13 United States military bases on Okinawa Island. Approximately 62% of all United States bases in Japan are on Okinawa. They cover 25% of Okinawa island. The major bases are Futenma, Kadena, Hansen, Torii, Schwab, Foster, and Kinser. There are 28 U.S. military facilities on Okinawa. They are mainly concentrated in the central area. At one point, Okinawa hosted approximately 1,200 nuclear warheads. There were several nuclear weapons incidents on Okinawa and in the sea near the islands.


title: Okinawa Island

text: In 2020, tests around Kadena Air Base showed severe contamination of the wells and waterways of Dakujaku River and Hija river with toxic chemicals PFAS. This affects the drinking water of 450,000 residents. PFAS was used in foam at fire fighting training sites on US facilities during the 1970s and 80s.


title: Okinawa Island

text: The 1971 Okinawa Reversion Agreement officially ended the U.S. military occupation on Okinawa. The bases primarily exist to serve Japanese and American strategic interests but are unpopular with most local residents, despite recent efforts to move the bases out of core areas following incidents involving military personnel and resultant protests (including the 1995 Okinawa rape incident).


title: Okinawa Island

text: In 2012, an agreement was struck between the United States and Japan to reduce the number of U.S. military personnel on the island, moving 9,000 personnel to other locations and moving bases out of heavily populated Greater Naha, but 10,000 Marines will remain on the island, along with other U.S. military units. Attempts to completely close bases on the southern third of the island, where 90% of the population lives (all but about 120,000 people) have been impeded by both the American desire that alternative locations be found where bases subject to closure could move to (e.g. Henoko Peninsula, mid-island), as well as by local Okinawan opposition to any suggested locations on the island (who demand no U.S. troops at all anywhere on the island). Tokyo says the U.S. bases are important for national security. Locals complain that despite being home to less than 1% of Japan's population and area, Okinawa hosts the majority of the U.S. military presence in Japan. In late December 2013, Governor Hirokazu Nakaima gave permission for land reclamation to begin for a new U.S. military base at Henoko, reneging on previous promises and furthering the effort to consolidate the American troop presence on the island, though away from urban Naha.


title: Okinawa Island

text: In December 2016 the U.S. returned of the Northern Training Area on Okinawa to Japan. This reduced the footprint of the U.S. forces by 20% on the island. It was the biggest land return since 1972.


title: Okinawa Island

text: Okinawa has various historical buildings and monuments, such as feudal castles, ruins, UNESCO, and other historical significant sites.


title: Okinawa Island

text: Naha Airport is the main transportation hub for the Ryukyu Islands and has an increasingly large role in regional logistics. All Nippon Airways opened a cargo hub at the airport in 2009, providing overnight freight service between Japan and other Asian countries.


title: Okinawa Island

text: The Okinawa Urban Monorail (Yui Rail) runs from Naha Airport to Japan's south-easternmost monorail station, Akamine Station, before heading to its final destination of Tedako-Uranishi Station (Urasoe) and back.


title: Okinawa Island

text: The Okinawa Expressway is a toll road that runs from Naha to Nago, and has a speed limit of , the highest on the island.


title: Okinawa Island

text: There are many ferries to many of the nearby islands, such as Ie Shima. Tomarin Port in Naha, has ferries to nearby islands such as Aguni, Tokashiki and Zamami.


title: Okinawa Island

text: With Kunigami district, it has an area of and a population of about 120,000. There is much nature with subtropical rainforest.


title: Okinawa Island

text: With Nakagami district, it has an area of and a population of about 590,000. Most US military facilities are located here. Urasoe has strong connections with the southern municipalities, including the Southern Wide Area Municipal Area Administrative Association, Nishihara town, Nakagusuku village, and Kitanakagusuku Village. These belong to the Southern Wide Area Administrative Association.


title: Okinawa Island

text: With Kunigami district or Yamabaru . It has an area of and a population of about 120,000. Rich nature remains.


title: Salmonella

text: Salmonella is a genus of rod-shaped (bacillus) Gram-negative bacteria of the family Enterobacteriaceae. The two species of "Salmonella" are "Salmonella enterica" and "Salmonella bongori". "S. enterica" is the type species and is further divided into six subspecies that include over 2,600 serotypes. "Salmonella" was named after Daniel Elmer Salmon (1850–1914), an American veterinary surgeon.


title: Salmonella

text: "Salmonella" species are non-spore-forming, predominantly motile enterobacteria with cell diameters between about 0.7 and 1.5 μm, lengths from 2 to 5 μm, and peritrichous flagella (all around the cell body, allowing them to move). They are chemotrophs, obtaining their energy from oxidation and reduction reactions, using organic sources. They are also facultative anaerobes, capable of generating ATP with oxygen ("aerobically") when it is available, or using other electron acceptors or fermentation ("anaerobically") when oxygen is not available.


title: Salmonella

text: "Salmonella" species are intracellular pathogens, of which certain serotypes cause illness. Most infections are due to ingestion of food contaminated by animal feces, or by human feces, such as by a food-service worker at a commercial eatery. "Salmonella" serotypes can be divided into two main groups—typhoidal and nontyphoidal. Nontyphoidal serotypes are zoonotic and can be transferred from animal-to-human and from human-to-human. They usually invade only the gastrointestinal tract and cause salmonellosis, the symptoms of which can be resolved without antibiotics. However, in sub-Saharan Africa, nontyphoidal "Salmonella" can be invasive and cause paratyphoid fever, which requires immediate treatment with antibiotics. Typhoidal serotypes can only be transferred from human-to-human, and can cause food-borne infection, typhoid fever, and paratyphoid fever. Typhoid fever is caused by "Salmonella" invading the bloodstream (the typhoidal form), or in addition spreading throughout the body, invading organs, and secreting endotoxins (the septic form). This can lead to life-threatening hypovolemic shock and septic shock, and requires intensive care including antibiotics.


title: Salmonella

text: The genus "Salmonella" is part of the family of Enterobacteriaceae. Its taxonomy has been revised and has the potential to confuse. The genus comprises two species, "S. bongori" and "S. enterica", the latter of which is divided into six subspecies: "S. e. enterica", "S. e. salamae", "S. e. arizonae", "S. e. diarizonae", "S. e. houtenae", and "S. e. indica". The taxonomic group contains more than 2500 serotypes (also serovars) defined on the basis of the somatic O (lipopolysaccharide) and flagellar H antigens (the Kauffman–White classification). The full name of a serotype is given as, for example, "Salmonella enterica" subsp. "enterica" serotype Typhimurium, but can be abbreviated to "Salmonella" Typhimurium. Further differentiation of strains to assist clinical and epidemiological investigation may be achieved by antibiotic sensitivity testing and by other molecular biology techniques such as pulsed-field gel electrophoresis, multilocus sequence typing, and, increasingly, whole genome sequencing. Historically, salmonellae have been clinically categorized as invasive (typhoidal) or noninvasive (nontyphoidal salmonellae) based on host preference and disease manifestations in humans.


title: Salmonella

text: "Salmonella" was first visualized in 1880 by Karl Eberth in the Peyer's patches and spleens of typhoid patients. Four years later, Georg Theodor Gaffky was able to successfully grow the pathogen in pure culture. A year after that, medical research scientist Theobald Smith discovered what would be later known as "Salmonella enterica" (var. Choleraesuis). At the time, Smith was working as a research laboratory assistant in the Veterinary Division of the United States Department of Agriculture. The division was under the administration of Daniel Elmer Salmon, a veterinary pathologist. Initially, "Salmonella" Choleraesuis was thought to be the causative agent of hog cholera, so Salmon and Smith named it "Hog-cholerabacillus". The name "Salmonella" was not used until 1900, when Joseph Leon Lignières proposed that the pathogen discovered by Salmon's group be called "Salmonella" in his honor.


title: Salmonella

text: In the late 1930s, Australian bacteriologist Nancy Atkinson established a salmonella typing laboratory – one of only three in the world at the time – at the Government of South Australia's Laboratory of Pathology and Bacteriology in Adelaide (later the Institute of Medical and Veterinary Science). It was here that Atkinson described multiple new strains of salmonella, including Salmonella Adelaide, which was isolated in 1943. Atkinson published her work on salmonellas in 1957.


title: Salmonella

text: Serotyping is done by mixing cells with antibodies for a particular antigen. It can give some idea about risk. A 2014 study showed that "S. reading" is very common among young turkey samples, but it is not a significant contributor to human salmonellosis. Serotyping can assist in identifying the source of contamination by matching serotypes in people with serotypes in the suspected source of infection. Appropriate prophylactic treatment can be identified from the known antibiotic resistance of the serotype.


title: Salmonella

text: Looking at the comparison of xMAP "Salmonella" Serotyping Assay With Traditional Serotyping and Discordance Resolution by Whole Genome Sequencing, study showed that molecular serotyping is promising as a rapid method for "Salmonella" serotyping.


title: Salmonella

text: Real-Time PCR Assay for Differentiation of Typhoidal and Nontyphoidal "Salmonella is also available."


title: Salmonella

text: Most subspecies of "Salmonella" produce hydrogen sulfide, which can readily be detected by growing them on media containing ferrous sulfate, such as is used in the triple sugar iron test. Most isolates exist in two phases, a motile phase and a non-motile phase. Cultures that are nonmotile upon primary culture may be switched to the motile phase using a Craigie tube or ditch plate. RVS broth can be used to enrich for "Salmonella" species for detection in a clinical sample.


title: Salmonella

text: "Salmonella" can also be detected and subtyped using multiplex or real-time polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) from extracted "Salmonella" DNA.


title: Salmonella

text: Mathematical models of "Salmonella" growth kinetics have been developed for chicken, pork, tomatoes, and melons. "Salmonella" reproduce asexually with a cell division interval of 40 minutes.


title: Salmonella

text: "Salmonella" species lead predominantly host-associated lifestyles, but the bacteria were found to be able to persist in a bathroom setting for weeks following contamination, and are frequently isolated from water sources, which act as bacterial reservoirs and may help to facilitate transmission between hosts. "Salmonella" is notorious for its ability to survive desiccation and can persist for years in dry environments and foods.


title: Salmonella

text: The bacteria are not destroyed by freezing, but UV light and heat accelerate their destruction. They perish after being heated to for 90 min, or to for 12 min, although if inoculated in high fat, high liquid substances like peanut butter, they gain heat resistance and can survive up to for 30 min. To protect against "Salmonella" infection, heating food to an internal temperature of is recommended.


title: Salmonella

text: "Salmonella" species can be found in the digestive tracts of humans and animals, especially reptiles. "Salmonella" on the skin of reptiles or amphibians can be passed to people who handle the animals. Food and water can also be contaminated with the bacteria if they come in contact with the feces of infected people or animals.


title: Salmonella

text: Initially, each "Salmonella" "species" was named according to clinical considerations, for example "Salmonella typhi-murium" (mouse typhoid fever), "S. cholerae-suis". After host specificity was recognized to not exist for many species, new strains received species names according to the location at which the new strain was isolated. Later, molecular findings led to the hypothesis that "Salmonella" consisted of only one species, "S. enterica", and the serotypes were classified into six groups, two of which are medically relevant. As this now-formalized nomenclature is not in harmony with the traditional usage familiar to specialists in microbiology and infectologists, the traditional nomenclature is still common. Currently, the two recognized species are "S. enterica", and "S. bongori". In 2005, a third species, "Salmonella subterranea", was proposed, but according to the World Health Organization, the bacterium reported does not belong in the genus "Salmonella". The six main recognised subspecies are: "enterica" (serotype I), "salamae" (serotype II), "arizonae" (IIIa), "diarizonae" (IIIb), "houtenae" (IV), and "indica" (VI). The former serotype V was "bongori", which is now considered its own species.


title: Salmonella

text: The serotype or serovar, is a classification of "Salmonella" into subspecies based on antigens that the organism presents. It is based on the Kauffman-White classification scheme that differentiates serological varieties from each other. Serotypes are usually put into subspecies groups after the genus and species, with the serotypes/serovars capitalized, but not italicized: An example is "Salmonella enterica" serovar Typhimurium. More modern approaches for typing and subtyping "Salmonella" include DNA-based methods such as pulsed field gel electrophoresis, multiple-loci VNTR analysis, multilocus sequence typing, and multiplex-PCR-based methods.


title: Salmonella

text: "Salmonella" species are facultative intracellular pathogens. "Salmonella" can invade different cell types, including epithelial cells, M cells, macrophages, and dendritic cells. As facultative anaerobic organism, "Salmonella" uses oxygen to make ATP in aerobic environment (i.e., when oxygen is available). However, in anaerobic environment (i.e., when oxygen is not available) "Salmonella" produces ATP by fermentation; by substituting one or more of four less efficient electron acceptors than oxygen at the end of the electron transport chain: sulfate, nitrate, sulfur, or fumarate.


title: Salmonella

text: Most infections are due to ingestion of food contaminated by animal feces, or by human feces, such as by a food-service worker at a commercial eatery. "Salmonella" serotypes can be divided into two main groups—typhoidal and nontyphoidal. Nontyphoidal serotypes are more common, and usually cause self-limiting gastrointestinal disease. They can infect a range of animals, and are zoonotic, meaning they can be transferred between humans and other animals. Typhoidal serotypes include "Salmonella" Typhi and "Salmonella" Paratyphi A, which are adapted to humans and do not occur in other animals.


title: Salmonella

text: Molecular modeling and active site analysis of SdiA homolog, a putative quorum sensor for Salmonella typhimurium pathogenecity reveals specific binding patterns of AHL transcriptional regulators. It is also known that Salmonella plasmid virulence gene spvB enhances bacterial virulence by inhibiting autophagy.


title: Salmonella

text: Infection with nontyphoidal serotypes of "Salmonella" generally results in food poisoning. Infection usually occurs when a person ingests foods that contain a high concentration of the bacteria. Infants and young children are much more susceptible to infection, easily achieved by ingesting a small number of bacteria. In infants, infection through inhalation of bacteria-laden dust is possible.


title: Salmonella

text: The organisms enter through the digestive tract and must be ingested in large numbers to cause disease in healthy adults. An infection can only begin after living salmonellae (not merely "Salmonella"-produced toxins) reach the gastrointestinal tract. Some of the microorganisms are killed in the stomach, while the surviving ones enter the small intestine and multiply in tissues. Gastric acidity is responsible for the destruction of the majority of ingested bacteria, but "Salmonella" has evolved a degree of tolerance to acidic environments that allows a subset of ingested bacteria to survive. Bacterial colonies may also become trapped in mucus produced in the esophagus. By the end of the incubation period, the nearby host cells are poisoned by endotoxins released from the dead salmonellae. The local response to the endotoxins is enteritis and gastrointestinal disorder.


title: Salmonella

text: About 2,000 serotypes of nontyphoidal "Salmonella" are known, which may be responsible for as many as 1.4 million illnesses in the United States each year. People who are at risk for severe illness include infants, elderly, organ-transplant recipients, and the immunocompromised.


title: Salmonella

text: While in developed countries, nontyphoidal serotypes present mostly as gastrointestinal disease, in sub-Saharan Africa, these serotypes can create a major problem in bloodstream infections, and are the most commonly isolated bacteria from the blood of those presenting with fever. Bloodstream infections caused by nontyphoidal salmonellae in Africa were reported in 2012 to have a case fatality rate of 20–25%. Most cases of invasive nontyphoidal "Salmonella" infection (iNTS) are caused by "Salmonella enterica" Typhimurium or "Salmonella enterica" Enteritidis. A new form of "Salmonella" Typhimurium (ST313) emerged in the southeast of the African continent 75 years ago, followed by a second wave which came out of central Africa 18 years later. This second wave of iNTS possibly originated in the Congo Basin, and early in the event picked up a gene that made it resistant to the antibiotic chloramphenicol. This created the need to use expensive antimicrobial drugs in areas of Africa that were very poor, making treatment difficult. The increased prevalence of iNTS in sub-Saharan Africa compared to other regions is thought to be due to the large proportion of the African population with some degree of immune suppression or impairment due to the burden of HIV, malaria, and malnutrition, especially in children. The genetic makeup of iNTS is evolving into a more typhoid-like bacterium, able to efficiently spread around the human body. Symptoms are reported to be diverse, including fever, hepatosplenomegaly, and respiratory symptoms, often with an absence of gastrointestinal symptoms.


title: Salmonella

text: Due to being considered sporadic, between 60% to 80% of salmonella infections cases go undiagnosed. In March 2010, data analysis was completed to estimate an incidence rate of 1140 per 100,000 person-years. In the same analysis, 93.8 million cases of gastroenteritis were due to salmonella infections. At the 5th percentile the estimated amount was 61.8 million cases and at the 95th percentile the estimated amount was 131.6 million cases. The estimated number of deaths due to salmonella was approximately 155,000 deaths. In 2014, in countries such as Bulgaria and Portugal, children under 4 were 32 and 82 times more likely, respectively, to have a salmonella infection. Those who are most susceptible to infection are: children, pregnant women, elderly people, and those with deficient immune systems.


title: Salmonella

text: Risk factors for Salmonella infections include a variety of foods. Meats such as chicken and pork have the possibility to be contaminated. A variety of vegetables and sprouts may also have salmonella. Lastly, a variety of processed foods such as chicken nuggets and pot pies may also contain this bacteria.


title: Salmonella

text: Successful forms of prevention come from existing entities such as: the FDA, United States Department of Agriculture, and the Food Safety and Inspection Service. All of these organizations create standards and inspections to ensure public safety in the U.S. For example, the FSIS agency working with the USDA has a Salmonella Action Plan in place. Recently, it received a two-year plan update in February 2016. Their accomplishments and strategies to reduce Salmonella infection are presented in the plans. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention also provides valuable information on preventative care, such has how to safely handle raw foods, and the correct way to store these products. In the European Union, the European Food Safety Authority created preventative measures through risk management and risk assessment. From 2005 to 2009, the EFSA placed an approach to reduce the exposure of salmonella. Their approach included risk assessment and risk management of poultry, which resulted in a reduction of infection cases by one half. In Latin America an orally administered vaccine for Salmonella in poultry developed by Dr. Sherry Layton has been introduced which prevents the bacteria from contaminating the birds.


title: Salmonella

text: Typhoid fever is caused by "Salmonella" serotypes which are strictly adapted to humans or higher primates—these include "Salmonella" Typhi, Paratyphi A, Paratyphi B, and Paratyphi C. In the systemic form of the disease, salmonellae pass through the lymphatic system of the intestine into the blood of the patients (typhoid form) and are carried to various organs (liver, spleen, kidneys) to form secondary foci (septic form). Endotoxins first act on the vascular and nervous apparatus, resulting in increased permeability and decreased tone of the vessels, upset of thermal regulation, and vomiting and diarrhoea. In severe forms of the disease, enough liquid and electrolytes are lost to upset the water-salt metabolism, decrease the circulating blood volume and arterial pressure, and cause hypovolemic shock. Septic shock may also develop. Shock of mixed character (with signs of both hypovolemic and septic shock) is more common in severe salmonellosis. Oliguria and azotemia may develop in severe cases as a result of renal involvement due to hypoxia and toxemia.


title: Salmonella

text: In Germany, food-borne infections must be reported. From 1990 to 2016, the number of officially recorded cases decreased from about 200,000 to about 13,000 cases. In the United States, about 1,200,000 cases of "Salmonella" infection are estimated to occur each year. A World Health Organization study estimated that 21,650,974 cases of typhoid fever occurred in 2000, 216,510 of which resulted in death, along with 5,412,744 cases of paratyphoid fever.


title: Salmonella

text: The mechanisms of infection differ between typhoidal and nontyphoidal serotypes, owing to their different targets in the body and the different symptoms that they cause. Both groups must enter by crossing the barrier created by the intestinal cell wall, but once they have passed this barrier, they use different strategies to cause infection.


title: Salmonella

text: While travelling to their target tissue in the gastrointestinal tract, "Salmonella" is exposed to stomach acid, to the detergent-like activity of bile in the intestine, to decreasing oxygen supply, to the competing normal gut flora, and finally to antimicrobial peptides present on the surface of the cells lining the intestinal wall. All of these form stresses that "Salmonella" can sense and reacts against, and they form virulence factors and as such regulate the switch from their normal growth in the intestine into virulence.


title: Salmonella

text: The switch to virulence gives access to a replication niche inside the host (such as humans), and can be summarised into several stages:


title: Salmonella

text: Nontyphoidal serotypes preferentially enter M cells on the intestinal wall by bacterial-mediated endocytosis, a process associated with intestinal inflammation and diarrhoea. They are also able to disrupt tight junctions between the cells of the intestinal wall, impairing the cells' ability to stop the flow of ions, water, and immune cells into and out of the intestine. The combination of the inflammation caused by bacterial-mediated endocytosis and the disruption of tight junctions is thought to contribute significantly to the induction of diarrhoea.


title: Salmonella

text: Salmonellae are also able to breach the intestinal barrier via phagocytosis and trafficking by CD18-positive immune cells, which may be a mechanism key to typhoidal "Salmonella" infection. This is thought to be a more stealthy way of passing the intestinal barrier, and may, therefore, contribute to the fact that lower numbers of typhoidal "Salmonella" are required for infection than nontyphoidal "Salmonella". "Salmonella" cells are able to enter macrophages via macropinocytosis. Typhoidal serotypes can use this to achieve dissemination throughout the body via the mononuclear phagocyte system, a network of connective tissue that contains immune cells, and surrounds tissue associated with the immune system throughout the body.


title: Salmonella

text: Much of the success of "Salmonella" in causing infection is attributed to two type III secretion systems (T3SS) which are expressed at different times during the infection. The T3SS-1 enables the injection of bacterial effectors within the host cytosol. These T3SS-1 effectors stimulate the formation of membrane ruffles allowing the uptake of "Salmonella" by nonphagocytic cells. "Salmonella" further resides within a membrane-bound compartment called the "Salmonella"-Containing Vacuole (SCV). The acidification of the SCV leads to the expression of the T3SS-2. The secretion of T3SS-2 effectors by "Salmonella" is required for its efficient survival in the host cytosol and establishment of systemic disease. In addition, both T3SS are involved in the colonization of the intestine, induction of intestinal inflammatory responses and diarrhea. These systems contain many genes which must work cooperatively to achieve infection.


title: Salmonella

text: The AvrA toxin injected by the SPI1 type III secretion system of "S." Typhimurium works to inhibit the innate immune system by virtue of its serine/threonine acetyltransferase activity, and requires binding to eukaryotic target cell phytic acid (IP6). This leaves the host more susceptible to infection.


title: Salmonella

text: Salmonellosis is known to be able to cause back pain or spondylosis. It can manifest as five clinical patterns: gastrointestinal tract infection, enteric fever, bacteremia, local infection, and the chronic reservoir state. The initial symptoms are nonspecific fever, weakness, and myalgia among others. In the bacteremia state, it can spread to any parts of the body and this induces localized infection or it forms abscesses. The forms of localized "Salmonella" infections are arthritis, urinary tract infection, infection of the central nervous system, bone infection, soft tissue infection, etc. Infection may remain as the latent form for a long time, and when the function of reticular endothelial cells is deteriorated, it may become activated and consequently, it may secondarily induce spreading infection in the bone several months or several years after acute salmonellosis.


title: Salmonella

text: A 2018 Imperial College London study also shows how salmonella disrupt specific arms of the immune system (e.g. 3 of 5 NF-kappaB proteins) using a family of zinc metalloproteinase effectors, leaving others untouched.


title: Salmonella

text: A hallmark of "Salmonella" pathogenesis is the ability of the bacterium to survive and proliferate within phagocytes. Phagocytes produce DNA-damaging agents such as nitric oxide and oxygen radicals as a defense against pathogens. Thus, "Salmonella" species must face attack by molecules that challenge genome integrity. Buchmeier" et al.", showed that mutants of "S. enterica" lacking RecA or RecBC protein function are highly sensitive to oxidative compounds synthesized by macrophages, and furthermore these findings indicate that successful systemic infection by "S. enterica" requires RecA- and RecBC-mediated recombinational repair of DNA damage.


title: Salmonella

text: "S. enterica", through some of its serotypes such as Typhimurium and Enteritidis, shows signs of the ability to infect several different mammalian host species, while other serotypes such as Typhi seem to be restricted to only a few hosts. Some of the ways that "Salmonella" serotypes have adapted to their hosts include loss of genetic material and mutation. In more complex mammalian species, immune systems, which include pathogen specific immune responses, target serovars of "Salmonella" through binding of antibodies to structures such as flagella. Through the loss of the genetic material that codes for a flagellum to form, "Salmonella" can evade a host's immune system. "mgtC" leader RNA from bacteria virulence gene (mgtCBR operon) decreases flagellin production during infection by directly base pairing with mRNAs of the "fljB" gene encoding flagellin and promotes degradation. In the study by Kisela "et al.", more pathogenic serovars of "S. enterica" were found to have certain adhesins in common that have developed out of convergent evolution. This means that, as these strains of "Salmonella" have been exposed to similar conditions such as immune systems, similar structures evolved separately to negate these similar, more advanced defenses in hosts. Still, many questions remain about the way that "Salmonella" has evolved into so many different types, but "Salmonella" may have evolved through several phases. As Baumler "et al." have suggested, "Salmonella" most likely evolved through horizontal gene transfer, formation of new serovars due to additional pathogenicity islands. and an approximation of its ancestry. So, "Salmonella" could have evolved into its many different serotypes through gaining genetic information from different pathogenic bacteria. The presence of several pathogenicity islands in the genome of different serotypes has lent credence to this theory.


title: Salmonella

text: "Salmonella" sv. Newport has signs of adaptation to a plant colonization lifestyle, which may play a role in its disproportionate association with foodborne illness linked to produce. A variety of functions selected for during sv. Newport persistence in tomatoes have been reported to be similar to those selected for in sv. Typhimurium from animal hosts. The "papA" gene, which is unique to sv. Newport, contributes to the strain's fitness in tomatoes, and has homologs in genomes of other Enterobacteriaceae that are able to colonize plant and animal hosts.


title: Salmonella

text: In addition to their importance as pathogens, nontyphoidal Salmonella species such as "S. enterica" serovar Typhimurium are commonly used as homologues of typhoid species. Many findings are transferable and it attenuates the danger for the researcher in case of contamination, but is also limited. For example, it is not possible to study specific typhoidal toxins using this model. However, strong research tools such as the commonly-used mouse intestine gastroenteritis model build upon the use of "Salmonella" Typhimurium.


title: Salmonella

text: For genetics, "S." Typhimurium has been instrumental in the development of genetic tools that led to an understanding of fundamental bacterial physiology. These developments were enabled by the discovery of the first generalized transducing phage P22 in "S". Typhimurium, that allowed quick and easy genetic editing. In turn, this made fine structure genetic analysis possible. The large number of mutants led to a revision of genetic nomenclature for bacteria. Many of the uses of transposons as genetic tools, including transposon delivery, mutagenesis, and construction of chromosome rearrangements, were also developed in "S". Typhimurium. These genetic tools also led to a simple test for carcinogens, the Ames test.


title: Salmonella

text: As a natural alternative to traditional antimicrobials, phages are being recognised as highly effective control agents for Salmonella and other foodborne bacteria.


title: Salmonella

text: "S. enterica" genomes have been reconstructed from up to 6,500 year old human remains across Western Eurasia, which provides evidence for geographic widespread infections with systemic "S. enterica" during prehistory, and a possible role of the Neolithization process in the evolution of host adaptation. Additional reconstructed genomes from colonial Mexico suggest "S. enterica" as the cause of "cocoliztli", an epidemic in 16th-century New Spain.


title: 20th century

text: January 1, 1901 (MCMI), and ended on December 31, 2000 (MM). The 20th century was dominated by significant events that defined the modern era: Spanish flu pandemic, World War I and World War II, nuclear weapons, nuclear power and space exploration, nationalism and decolonization, the Cold War and post-Cold War conflicts, and technological advances. These reshaped the political and social structure of the globe.


title: 20th century

text: Additional themes include intergovernmental organizations and cultural homogenization through developments in emerging transportation and communications technology; poverty reduction and rising standards of living, world population growth, awareness of environmental degradation, ecological extinction; and the birth of the Digital Revolution. Automobiles, airplanes and the use of home appliances became common, as did video and audio recording. Great advances in power generation, communication, and medical technology allowed for near-instantaneous worldwide computer communication and genetic modification of life.


title: 20th century

text: The repercussions of the World Wars, Cold War, and globalization crafted a world where people are more united than any previous time in human history, as exemplified by the establishment of international law, international aid, and the United Nations. The Marshall Plan—which spent $13 billion ($ billion in U.S. dollars) to rebuild the economies of post-war nations—launched "Pax Americana". Throughout the latter half of the 20th century, the rivalry between the United States and the Soviet Union created enormous tensions around the world which manifested in various armed proxy regional conflicts and the omnipresent danger of nuclear proliferation. The dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 after the collapse of its European alliance was heralded by the West as the end of communism, though by the century's end roughly one in six people on Earth lived under communist rule, mostly in China which was rapidly rising as an economic and geopolitical power.


title: 20th century

text: It took over two hundred thousand years of modern human history and 6 million years of human evolution for the world's population to reach 1 billion in 1804. During the 20th century, world population had reached an estimated 2 billion in 1927, and by late 2000, the global population had reached 6 billion, with over half in East, South and Southeast Asia. Global literacy averaged 80%. Penicillin and other medical breakthroughs, combined with the World Health Organization's global vaccination campaigns, helped to eradicate smallpox and other diseases responsible for more human deaths than all wars and natural disasters combined yielded unprecedented results; smallpox now only existed in labs. Machines came to be used in all areas of production, feeding increasingly intricate supply chains that allowed mankind for the first time to be constrained not by how much it could produce, but by peoples' willingness to consume. Trade improvements greatly expanded upon the limited set of food-producing techniques used since the Neolithic period, multiplying the diversity of foods available and boosting the quality of human nutrition. Until the early 19th century, life expectancy from birth was about thirty in most populations; global lifespan-averages exceeded 40 years for the first time in history, with over half achieving 70 or more years (three decades longer than a century earlier).


title: 20th century

text: January 1, 1901, and ended on December 31, 2000. It was the tenth and final century of the 2nd millennium. Unlike most century years, the year 2000 was a leap year, and the second century leap year in the Gregorian calendar after 1600.


title: 20th century

text: The century had the first global-scale total wars between world powers across continents and oceans in World War I and World War II. Nationalism became a major political issue in the world in the 20th century, acknowledged in international law along with the right of nations to self-determination, official decolonization in the mid-century, and related regional conflicts.


title: 20th century

text: The century saw a major shift in the way that many people lived, with changes in politics, ideology, economics, society, culture, science, technology, and medicine. The 20th century may have seen more technological and scientific progress than all the other centuries combined since the dawn of civilization. Terms like "nationalism", "globalism", "environmentalism", "ideology", "world war", "genocide," and "nuclear war" entered common usage. Scientific discoveries, such as the theory of relativity and quantum physics, profoundly changed the foundational models of physical science, forcing scientists to realize that the universe was more complex than previously believed, and dashing the hopes (or fears) at the end of the 19th century that the last few details of scientific knowledge were about to be filled in. It was a century that started with horses, simple automobiles, and freighters but ended with high-speed rail, cruise ships, global commercial air travel and the Space Shuttle. Horses and other pack animals, every society's basic form of personal transportation for thousands of years, were replaced by automobiles and buses within a few decades. These developments were made possible by the exploitation of fossil fuel resources, which offered energy in an easily portable form, but also caused concern about pollution and long-term impact on the environment. Humans explored space for the first time, taking their first footsteps on the Moon.


title: 20th century

text: Mass media, telecommunications, and information technology (especially computers, paperback books, public education, and the Internet) made the world's knowledge more widely available. Public health improvements led to global life expectancy increasing from 35 years to 65 years. Rapid technological advancements, however, also allowed warfare to reach unprecedented levels of destruction. World War II alone killed over 60 million people, while nuclear weapons gave humankind the means to annihilate itself in a short time. However, these same wars resulted in the destruction of the imperial system. For the first time in human history, empires and their wars of expansion and colonization ceased to be a factor in international affairs, resulting in a far more globalized and cooperative world. The last time major powers clashed openly was in 1945, and since then, violence has seen an unprecedented decline.


title: 20th century

text: The world also became more culturally homogenized than ever with developments in transportation and communications technology, popular music and other influences of Western culture, international corporations, and what was arguably a truly global economy by the end of the 20th century.


title: 20th century

text: At the beginning of the period, the British Empire was the world's most powerful nation, having acted as the world's policeman for the past century.


title: 20th century

text: Technological advancements during World War I changed the way war was fought, as new inventions such as tanks, chemical weapons, and aircraft modified tactics and strategy. After more than four years of trench warfare in Western Europe, and up to 22 million dead, the powers that had formed the Triple Entente (France, Britain, and Russia, later replaced by the United States and joined by Italy and Romania) emerged victorious over the Central Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria). In addition to annexing many of the colonial possessions of the vanquished states, the Triple Entente exacted punitive restitution payments from them, plunging Germany in particular into economic depression. The Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman empires were dismantled at the war's conclusion. The Russian Revolution resulted in the overthrow of the Tsarist regime of Nicholas II and the onset of the Russian Civil War. The victorious Bolsheviks then established the Soviet Union, the world's first communist state.


title: 20th century

text: Fascism, a movement which grew out of post-war angst and which accelerated during the Great Depression of the 1930s, gained momentum in Italy, Germany, and Spain in the 1920s and 1930s, culminating in World War II, sparked by Nazi Germany's aggressive expansion at the expense of its neighbors. Meanwhile, Japan had rapidly transformed itself into a technologically advanced industrial power and, along with Germany and Italy, formed the Axis powers. Japan's military expansionism in East Asia and the Pacific Ocean brought it into conflict with the United States, culminating in a surprise attack which drew the US into World War II.


title: 20th century

text: After some years of dramatic military success, Germany was defeated in 1945, having been invaded by the Soviet Union and Poland from the East and by the United States, the United Kingdom, Canada, and France from the West. After the victory of the Allies in Europe, the war in Asia ended with the Soviet invasion of Manchuria and the dropping of two atomic bombs on Japan by the US, the first nation to develop nuclear weapons and the only one to use them in warfare. In total, World War II left some 60 million people dead.


title: 20th century

text: Following World War II, the United Nations, successor to the League of Nations, was established as an international forum in which the world's nations could discuss issues diplomatically. It enacted resolutions on such topics as the conduct of warfare, environmental protection, international sovereignty, and human rights. Peacekeeping forces consisting of troops provided by various countries, with various United Nations and other aid agencies, helped to relieve famine, disease, and poverty, and to suppress some local armed conflicts. Europe slowly united, economically and, in some ways, politically, to form the European Union, which consisted of 15 European countries by the end of the 20th century.


title: 20th century

text: After the war, Germany was occupied and divided between the Western powers and the Soviet Union. East Germany and the rest of Eastern Europe became Soviet puppet states under communist rule. Western Europe was rebuilt with the aid of the American Marshall Plan, resulting in a major post-war economic boom, and many of the affected nations became close allies of the United States.


title: 20th century

text: With the Axis defeated and Britain and France rebuilding, the United States and the Soviet Union were left standing as the world's only superpowers. Allies during the war, they soon became hostile to one another as their competing ideologies of communism and democratic capitalism proliferated in Europe, which became divided by the Iron Curtain and the Berlin Wall. They formed competing military alliances (NATO and the Warsaw Pact) which engaged in a decades-long standoff known as the Cold War. The period was marked by a new arms race as the USSR became the second nation to develop nuclear weapons, which were produced by both sides in sufficient numbers to end most human life on the planet had a large-scale nuclear exchange ever occurred. Mutually assured destruction is credited by many historians as having prevented such an exchange, each side being unable to strike first at the other without ensuring an equally devastating retaliatory strike. Unable to engage one another directly, the conflict played out in a series of proxy wars around the world—particularly in China, Korea, Cuba, Vietnam, and Afghanistan—as the USSR sought to export communism while the US attempted to contain it. The technological competition between the two sides led to substantial investment in research and development which produced innovations that reached far beyond the battlefield, such as space exploration and the Internet.


title: 20th century

text: In the latter half of the century, most of the European-colonized world in Africa and Asia gained independence in a process of decolonization. Meanwhile, globalization opened the door for several nations to exert a strong influence over many world affairs. The US's global military presence spread American culture around the world with the advent of the Hollywood motion picture industry and Broadway, jazz, rock music, and pop music, fast food and hippy counterculture, hip-hop, house music, and disco, as well as street style, all of which came to be identified with the concepts of popular culture and youth culture. After the Soviet Union collapsed under internal pressure in 1991, most of the communist governments it had supported around the world were dismantled—with the notable exceptions of China, North Korea, Cuba, Vietnam, and Laos—followed by awkward transitions into market economies.


title: 20th century

text: Due to continuing industrialization and expanding trade, many significant changes of the century were, directly or indirectly, economic and technological in nature. Inventions such as the light bulb, the automobile, and the telephone in the late 19th century, followed by supertankers, airliners, motorways, radio, television, air conditioning, antibiotics, nuclear power, frozen food, computers and microcomputers, the Internet, and mobile telephones affected people's quality of life across the developed world. The quantity of goods consumed by the average person expanded massively. Scientific research, engineering professionalization and technological development—much of it motivated by the Cold War arms race—drove changes in everyday life.


title: 20th century

text: At the beginning of the century, strong discrimination based on race and sex was significant in most societies. Although the Atlantic slave trade had ended in the 19th century, movements for equality for non-white people in the white-dominated societies of North America, Europe, and South Africa continued. By the end of the 20th century, in many parts of the world, women had the same legal rights as men, and racism had come to be seen as unacceptable, a sentiment often backed up by legislation. When the Republic of India was constituted, the disadvantaged classes of the caste system in India became entitled to affirmative action benefits in education, employment and government.


title: 20th century

text: Attitudes toward pre-marital sex changed rapidly in many societies during the sexual revolution of the 1960s and 1970s. Attitudes towards homosexuality also began to change in the later part of the century.


title: 20th century

text: Economic growth and technological progress had radically altered daily lives. Europe appeared to be at a sustainable peace for the first time in recorded history. The people of the Indian subcontinent, a sixth of the world population at the end of the 20th century, had attained an indigenous independence for the first time in centuries. China, an ancient nation comprising a fifth of the world population, was finally open to the world, creating a new state after the near-complete destruction of the old cultural order. With the end of colonialism and the Cold War, nearly a billion people in Africa were left in new nation states.


title: 20th century

text: The world was undergoing its second major period of globalization; the first, which started in the 18th century, having been terminated by World War I. Since the US was in a dominant position, a major part of the process was Americanization. The influence of China and India was also rising, as the world's largest populations were rapidly integrating with the world economy.


title: 20th century

text: Terrorism, dictatorship, and the spread of nuclear weapons were pressing global issues. The world was still blighted by small-scale wars and other violent conflicts, fueled by competition over resources and by ethnic conflicts.


title: 20th century

text: Disease threatened to destabilize many regions of the world. New viruses such as the West Nile virus continued to spread. Malaria and other diseases affected large populations. Millions were infected with HIV, the virus which causes AIDS. The virus was becoming an epidemic in southern Africa.


title: 20th century

text: Based on research done by climate scientists, the majority of the scientific community consider that in the long term environmental problems pose a serious threat. One argument is that of global warming occurring due to human-caused emission of greenhouse gases, particularly carbon dioxide produced by the burning of fossil fuels. This prompted many nations to negotiate and sign the Kyoto treaty, which set mandatory limits on carbon dioxide emissions.


title: 20th century

text: World population increased from about 1.6 billion people in 1901 to 6.1 billion at the century's end.


title: 20th century

text: The number of people killed during the century by government actions was in the hundreds of millions. This includes deaths caused by wars, genocide, politicide and mass murders. The deaths from acts of war during the two world wars alone have been estimated at between 50 and 80 million. Political scientist Rudolph Rummel estimated 262,000,000 deaths caused by democide, which excludes those killed in war battles, civilians unintentionally killed in war and killings of rioting mobs. According to Charles Tilly, "Altogether, about 100 million people died as a direct result of action by organized military units backed by one government or another over the course of the century. Most likely a comparable number of civilians died of war-induced disease and other indirect effects." It is estimated that approximately 70 million Europeans died through war, violence and famine between 1914 and 1945.


title: 20th century

text: The invention of music recording technologies such as the phonograph record, and dissemination technologies such as radio broadcasting, massively expanded the audience for music. Prior to the 20th century, music was generally only experienced in live performances. Many new genres of music were established during the 20th century.