title: George Eliot

text: In 1836 her mother died and Evans (then 16) returned home to act as housekeeper, but she continued correspondence with her tutor Maria Lewis. When she was 21, her brother Isaac married and took over the family home, so Evans and her father moved to Foleshill near Coventry. The closeness to Coventry society brought new influences, most notably those of Charles and Cara Bray. Charles Bray had become rich as a ribbon manufacturer and had used his wealth in the building of schools and in other philanthropic causes. Evans, who had been struggling with religious doubts for some time, became intimate friends with the radical, free-thinking Brays, whose "Rosehill" home was a haven for people who held and debated radical views. The people whom the young woman met at the Brays' house included Robert Owen, Herbert Spencer, Harriet Martineau, and Ralph Waldo Emerson. Through this society Evans was introduced to more liberal and agnostic theologies and to writers such as David Strauss and Ludwig Feuerbach, who cast doubt on the literal truth of Biblical texts. In fact, her first major literary work was an English translation of Strauss's "Das Leben Jesu kritisch bearbeitet" as "The Life of Jesus, Critically Examined" (1846), which she completed after it had been left incomplete by Elizabeth "Rufa" Brabant, another member of the "Rosehill Circle".


title: George Eliot

text: The Strauss book had caused a sensation in Germany by arguing that the miracles in the New Testament were mythical additions with little basis in fact. Evans's translation had a similar effect in England, the Earl of Shaftesbury calling her translation "the most pestilential book ever vomited out of the jaws of hell." Later she translated Feuerbach's "The Essence of Christianity" (1854). The ideas in these books would have an effect on her own fiction, as detailed below.


title: George Eliot

text: As a product of their friendship, Bray published some of Evans's own earliest writing, such as reviews, in his newspaper the "Coventry Herald and Observer". As Evans began to question her own religious faith, her father threatened to throw her out of the house, but his threat was not carried out. Instead, she respectfully attended church and continued to keep house for him until his death in 1849, when she was 30. Five days after her father's funeral, she travelled to Switzerland with the Brays. She decided to stay on in Geneva alone, living first on the lake at Plongeon (near the present-day United Nations buildings) and then on the second floor of a house owned by her friends François and Juliet d'Albert Durade on the rue de Chanoines (now the rue de la Pelisserie). She commented happily that "one feels in a downy nest high up in a good old tree". Her stay is commemorated by a plaque on the building. While residing there, she read avidly and took long walks in the beautiful Swiss countryside, which was a great inspiration to her. François Durade painted her portrait there as well.


title: George Eliot

text: On her return to England the following year (1850), she moved to London with the intent of becoming a writer, and she began referring to herself as Marian Evans. She stayed at the house of John Chapman, the radical publisher whom she had met earlier at Rosehill and who had published her Strauss translation. Chapman had recently purchased the campaigning, left-wing journal "The Westminster Review". Evans became its assistant editor in 1851 after joining just a year earlier. Evans's writings for the paper were comments on her views of society and the Victorian way of thinking. She was sympathetic to the lower classes and criticised organised religion throughout her articles and reviews and commented on contemporary ideas of the time. Much of this was drawn from her own experiences and knowledge and she used this to critique other ideas and organisations. This led to her writing being viewed as authentic and wise but not too obviously opinionated. Evans also focused on the business side of the Review with attempts to change its layout and design. Although Chapman was officially the editor, it was Evans who did most of the work of producing the journal, contributing many essays and reviews beginning with the January 1852 issue and continuing until the end of her employment at the "Review" in the first half of 1854. Eliot sympathized with the 1848 Revolutions throughout continental Europe, and even hoped that the Italians would chase the "odious Austrians" out of Lombardy and that "decayed monarchs" would be pensioned off, although she believed a gradual reformist approach to social problems was best for England.


title: George Eliot

text: In 1850–51, Evans attended classes in mathematics at the Ladies College in Bedford Square, later known as Bedford College, London.


title: George Eliot

text: The philosopher and critic George Henry Lewes (1817–78) met Evans in 1851, and by 1854 they had decided to live together. Lewes was already married to Agnes Jervis, although in an open marriage. In addition to the three children they had together, Agnes also had four children by Thornton Leigh Hunt. In July 1854, Lewes and Evans travelled to Weimar and Berlin together for the purpose of research. Before going to Germany, Evans continued her theological work with a translation of Feuerbach's "The Essence of Christianity", and while abroad she wrote essays and worked on her translation of Baruch Spinoza's "Ethics", which she completed in 1856, but which was not published in her lifetime. In 1981, Eliot's translation of Spinoza's "Ethics" was finally published by Thomas Deegan, and was determined to be in the public domain in 2018 and published by the "George Eliot Archive". It has been re-published in 2020 by Princeton University Press.


title: George Eliot

text: The trip to Germany also served as a honeymoon for Evans and Lewes, who subsequently considered themselves married. Evans began to refer to Lewes as her husband and to sign her name as Mary Ann Evans Lewes, legally changing her name to Mary Ann Evans Lewes after his death. It was not so much the adultery itself, but the refusal to conceal the relationship, that was felt to breach the social convention of the time, and attracted so much disapproval.


title: George Eliot

text: While continuing to contribute pieces to the "Westminster Review", Evans resolved to become a novelist, and set out a pertinent manifesto in one of her last essays for the "Review", "Silly Novels by Lady Novelists" (1856). The essay criticised the trivial and ridiculous plots of contemporary fiction written by women. In other essays, she praised the realism of novels that were being written in Europe at the time, an emphasis on realistic storytelling confirmed in her own subsequent fiction. She also adopted a nom-de-plume, George Eliot; as she explained to her biographer J. W. Cross, George was Lewes's forename, and Eliot was "a good mouth-filling, easily pronounced word". Although female authors were published under their own names during her lifetime, she wanted to escape the stereotype of women's writing being limited to lighthearted romances or other lighter fare not to be taken very seriously. She also wanted to have her fiction judged separately from her already extensive and widely known work as a translator, editor, and critic. Another factor in her use of a pen name may have been a desire to shield her private life from public scrutiny, thus avoiding the scandal that would have arisen because of her relationship with the married George Henry Lewes.


title: George Eliot

text: In 1857, when she was 37 years of age, "The Sad Fortunes of the Reverend Amos Barton", the first of the three stories included in "Scenes of Clerical Life", and the first work of "George Eliot", was published in "Blackwood's Magazine". "The Scenes" (published as a 2-volume book in 1858), was well received, and was widely believed to have been written by a country parson, or perhaps the wife of a parson.


title: George Eliot

text: Eliot was profoundly influenced by the works of Thomas Carlyle. As early as 1841, she referred to him as "a grand favourite of mine", and references to him abound in her letters from the 1840s and 1850s. According to University of Victoria professor Lisa Surridge, Carlyle "stimulated Eliot's interest in German thought, encouraged her turn from Christian orthodoxy, and shaped her ideas on work, duty, sympathy, and the evolution of the self." These themes made their way into Evans's first complete novel, "Adam Bede" (1859). It was an instant success, and prompted yet more intense curiosity as to the author's identity: there was even a pretender to the authorship, one Joseph Liggins. This public interest subsequently led to Marian Evans Lewes's acknowledgment that it was she who stood behind the pseudonym George Eliot. "Adam Bede" is known for embracing a realist aesthetic inspired by Dutch visual art.


title: George Eliot

text: The revelations about Eliot's private life surprised and shocked many of her admiring readers, but this did not affect her popularity as a novelist. Her relationship with Lewes afforded her the encouragement and stability she needed to write fiction, but it would be some time before the couple were accepted into polite society. Acceptance was finally confirmed in 1877 when they were introduced to Princess Louise, the daughter of Queen Victoria. The queen herself was an avid reader of all of Eliot's novels and was so impressed with "Adam Bede" that she commissioned the artist Edward Henry Corbould to paint scenes from the book.


title: George Eliot

text: When the American Civil War broke out in 1861, Eliot expressed sympathy for the Union cause, something which historians have attributed to her abolitionist sympathies. In 1868, she supported philosopher Richard Congreve's protests against governmental policies in Ireland and had a positive view of the growing movement in support of Irish home rule.


title: George Eliot

text: She was influenced by the writings of John Stuart Mill and read all of his major works as they were published. In Mill's "Subjection of Women" (1869) she judged the second chapter excoriating the laws which oppress married women "excellent." She was supportive of Mill's parliamentary run, but believed that the electorate was unlikely to vote for a philosopher and was surprised when he won. While Mill served in parliament, she expressed her agreement with his efforts on behalf of female suffrage, being "inclined to hope for much good from the serious presentation of women's claims before Parliament." In a letter to John Morley, she declared her support for plans "which held out reasonable promise of tending to establish as far as possible an equivalence of advantage for the two sexes, as to education and the possibilities of free development", and dismissed appeals to nature in explaining women's lower status. In 1870, she responded enthusiastically to Lady Amberley's feminist lecture on the claims of women for education, occupations, equality in marriage, and child custody.


title: George Eliot

text: After the success of "Adam Bede", Eliot continued to write popular novels for the next fifteen years. Within a year of completing "Adam Bede", she finished "The Mill on the Floss", dedicating the manuscript: "To my beloved husband, George Henry Lewes, I give this MS. of my third book, written in the sixth year of our life together, at Holly Lodge, South Field, Wandsworth, and finished 21 March 1860." "Silas Marner" (1861) and "Romola" (1863) soon followed, and later "Felix Holt, the Radical" (1866) and her most acclaimed novel, "Middlemarch" (1871–1872).


title: George Eliot

text: Her last novel was "Daniel Deronda", published in 1876, after which she and Lewes moved to Witley, Surrey. By this time Lewes's health was failing, and he died two years later, on 30 November 1878. Eliot spent the next two years editing Lewes's final work, "Life and Mind", for publication, and found solace and companionship with John Walter Cross, a Scottish commission agent 20 years her junior, whose mother had recently died.


title: George Eliot

text: On 16 May 1880 Eliot married John Walter Cross (1840–1924) and again changed her name, this time to Mary Ann Cross. While the marriage courted some controversy due to the difference in ages, it pleased her brother Isaac, who had broken off relations with her when she had begun to live with Lewes, and now sent congratulations. While the couple were honeymooning in Venice, Cross, in a reported suicide attempt, jumped from the hotel balcony into the Grand Canal. He survived, and the newlyweds returned to England. They moved to a new house in Chelsea, but Eliot fell ill with a throat infection. This, coupled with the kidney disease with which she had been afflicted for several years, led to her death on 22 December 1880 at the age of 61.


title: George Eliot

text: Due to her denial of the Christian faith and her adulterous affair with Lewes, Eliot was not buried in Westminster Abbey. She was instead interred in Highgate Cemetery (East), Highgate, London, in the area reserved for political and religious dissenters and agnostics, beside the love of her life, George Henry Lewes. The graves of Karl Marx and her friend Herbert Spencer are nearby. In 1980, on the centenary of her death, a memorial stone was established for her in the Poets' Corner.


title: George Eliot

text: Several landmarks in her birthplace of Nuneaton are named in her honour. These include The George Eliot Academy, Middlemarch Junior School, George Eliot Hospital (formerly Nuneaton Emergency Hospital), and George Eliot Road, in Foleshill, Coventry.


title: George Eliot

text: A statue of Eliot is in Newdegate Street, Nuneaton, and Nuneaton Museum & Art Gallery has a display of artifacts related to her.


title: George Eliot

text: Throughout her career, Eliot wrote with a politically astute pen. From "Adam Bede" to "The Mill on the Floss" and "Silas Marner", Eliot presented the cases of social outsiders and small-town persecution. "Felix Holt, the Radical" and "The Legend of Jubal" were overtly political, and political crisis is at the heart of "Middlemarch", in which she presents the stories of a number of inhabitants of a small English town on the eve of the Reform Bill of 1832; the novel is notable for its deep psychological insight and sophisticated character portraits. The roots of her realist philosophy can be found in her review of John Ruskin's "Modern Painters" in "Westminster Review" in 1856.


title: George Eliot

text: Readers in the Victorian era praised her novels for their depictions of rural society. Much of the material for her prose was drawn from her own experience. She shared with Wordsworth the belief that there was much value and beauty to be found in the mundane details of ordinary country life. Eliot did not, however, confine herself to stories of the English countryside. "Romola", an historical novel set in late fifteenth century Florence, was based on the life of the Italian priest Girolamo Savonarola. In "The Spanish Gypsy", Eliot made a foray into verse, but her poetry's initial popularity has not endured.


title: George Eliot

text: Working as a translator, Eliot was exposed to German texts of religious, social, and moral philosophy such as Friedrich Strauss’s "Life of Jesus", Feuerbach’s "The Essence of Christianity", and Spinoza’s "Ethics". Elements from these works show up in her fiction, much of which is written with her trademark sense of agnostic humanism. She had taken particular notice of Feuerbach’s conception of Christianity, positing that our understanding of the nature of the divine was to be found ultimately in the nature of humanity projected onto a divine figure. An example of this philosophy appeared in her novel "Romola", in which Eliot’s protagonist displayed a "surprisingly modern readiness to interpret religious language in humanist or secular ethical terms." Though Eliot herself was not religious, she had respect for religious tradition and its ability to maintain a sense of social order and morality.


title: George Eliot

text: The religious elements in her fiction also owe much to her upbringing, with the experiences of Maggie Tulliver from "The Mill on the Floss" sharing many similarities with the young Mary Ann Evans. Eliot also faced a quandary similar to that of Silas Marner, whose alienation from the church simultaneously meant his alienation from society. Because Eliot retained a vestigial respect for religion, German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche excoriated her system of morality for figuring sin as a debt that can be expiated through suffering, which he demeaned as characteristic of "little moralistic females à la Eliot."


title: George Eliot

text: She was at her most autobiographical in "Looking Backwards", part of her final published work "Impressions of Theophrastus Such". By the time of "Daniel Deronda", Eliot's sales were falling off, and she had faded from public view to some degree. This was not helped by the posthumous biography written by her husband, which portrayed a wonderful, almost saintly, woman totally at odds with the scandalous life people knew she had led. In the 20th century she was championed by a new breed of critics, most notably by Virginia Woolf, who called "Middlemarch" "one of the few English novels written for grown-up people". In 1994, literary critic Harold Bloom . In a 2007 authors' poll by "Time", "Middlemarch" was voted the tenth greatest literary work ever written. In 2015, writers from outside the UK voted it first among all British novels "by a landslide". The various film and television adaptations of Eliot's books have re-introduced her to the wider reading public.


title: Type A and Type B personality theory

text: Type A and Type B personality hypothesis describes two contrasting personality types. In this hypothesis, personalities that are more competitive, highly organized, ambitious, impatient, highly aware of time management, or aggressive are labeled Type A, while more relaxed, "receptive", less "neurotic" and "frantic" personalities are labeled Type B.


title: Type A and Type B personality theory

text: The two cardiologists, Meyer Friedman and Ray Rosenman, who developed this theory came to believe that Type A personalities had a greater chance of developing coronary heart disease. Following the results of further studies and considerable controversy about the role of the tobacco industry funding of early research in this area, some reject, either partially or completely, the link between Type A personality and coronary disease. Nevertheless, this research had a significant effect on the development of the health psychology field, in which psychologists look at how an individual's mental state affects physical health.


title: Type A and Type B personality theory

text: Type A personality behavior was first described as a potential risk factor for heart disease in the 1950s by cardiologists Meyer Friedman and Ray Rosenman. They credit their insight to an upholsterer who called to their attention the peculiar fact that the chairs in their waiting rooms were only worn out on the front edge of the seat. After an eight-and-a-half-year-long study of healthy men between the ages of 35 and 59, Friedman and Rosenman estimated that Type A behavior more than doubled the risk of coronary heart disease in otherwise healthy individuals. The individuals enrolled in this study were followed well beyond the original time frame of the study. Participants were asked to fill out a questionnaire, that asked questions like "Do you feel guilty if you use spare time to relax?" and "Do you generally move, walk, and eat rapidly?" Subsequent analysis indicated that although Type A personality is associated with the incidence of coronary heart disease, it does not seem to be a risk factor for mortality. It was originally called 'Type A Personality' by Friedman and Roseman, it has now been conceptualized as the Type A behavior pattern.


title: Type A and Type B personality theory

text: The hypothesis describes Type A individuals as outgoing, ambitious, rigidly organized, highly status-conscious, impatient, anxious, proactive, and concerned with time management. People with Type A personalities are often high-achieving "workaholics". They push themselves with deadlines, and hate both delays and ambivalence. People with Type A personalities experience more job-related stress and less job satisfaction. They tend to set high expectations for themselves, and may believe others have these same high expectations of them as well. Interestingly, those with Type A personalities do not always outperform those with Type B personalities. Depending on the task and the individual's sense of time urgency and control, it can lead to poor results when there are complex decisions to be made. However, research has shown that Type A individuals are in general associated with higher performance and productivity. Moreover, Type A students tend to earn higher grades than Type B students, and Type-A faculty members were shown to be more productive than their Type B behavior counterparts (Taylor, Locke, Lee, & Gist, 1984).


title: Type A and Type B personality theory

text: In his 1996 book dealing with extreme Type A behavior, "Type A Behavior: Its Diagnosis and Treatment", Friedman suggests that dangerous Type A behavior is expressed through three major symptoms: (1) free-floating hostility, which can be triggered by even minor incidents; (2) time urgency and impatience, which causes irritation and exasperation usually described as being "short-fused"; and (3) a competitive drive, which causes stress and an achievement-driven mentality. The first of these symptoms is believed to be covert and therefore less observable, while the other two are more overt.


title: Type A and Type B personality theory

text: Type A people were said to be hasty, impatient, impulsive, hyperalert, potentially hostile, and angry. Research has also shown that Type A personalities my be used to deal with reality or avoiding difficult realizations. Therefore, those with Type A may use certain defenses or ways of dealing with reality to avoid difficult realizations. For example, one study found that the those with Type A personality are more likely to show higher levels of denial, than Type B, in stressful situations.


title: Type A and Type B personality theory

text: There are two main methods to assessing Type A behavior, the first being the SI and the second being the Jenkins Activity Survey (JAS). The SI assessment involves an interviewer measuring a person's emotional, nonverbal and verbal responses (expressive style). The JAS involves a self-questionnaire with three main categories: Speed and Impatience, Job Involvement, and Hard-Driving Competitiveness.


title: Type A and Type B personality theory

text: Individuals with Type A personalities have often been linked to higher rates of coronary heart disease, higher morbidity rates, and other undesirable physical outcomes.


title: Type A and Type B personality theory

text: Type B is a behavior pattern that is lacking in Type A behaviors. A-B personality is a continuum where one either leans to be more Type A or Non Type A (Type B).


title: Type A and Type B personality theory

text: The hypothesis describes Type B individuals as a contrast to those of Type A. Type B personalities, by definition, are noted to live at lower stress levels. They typically work steadily and may enjoy achievement, although they have a greater tendency to disregard physical or mental stress when they do not achieve. When faced with competition, they may focus less on winning or losing than their Type A counterparts, and more on enjoying the game regardless of winning or losing. Type B individuals are also more likely to be predominately right brained, and have a poorer sense of time.


title: Type A and Type B personality theory

text: Type B personality types are more tolerant than individuals in the Type A category. This can be evident through their relationship style that members of upper management prefer. Type B individuals can "...see things from a global perspective, encourage teamwork, and exercise patience in decision making..."


title: Type A and Type B personality theory

text: Type A individuals' proclivity for competition and aggression is illustrated in their interactions with other Type As and Type Bs. When playing a modified Prisoner's Dilemma game, Type A individuals elicited more competitiveness and angry feelings from both Type A and Type B opponents than did the Type B individuals. Type A individuals punished their Type A counterparts more than their Type B counterparts, and more than Type Bs punished other Type Bs. The rivalry between Type A individuals was shown by more aggressive behavior in their interactions, including initial antisocial responses, refusal to cooperate, verbal threats, and behavioral challenges.


title: Type A and Type B personality theory

text: Friedman et al. (1986) conducted a randomized controlled trial on 862 male and female post-myocardial infarction patients, ruling out (by probabilistic equivalence) diet and other confounds. Subjects in the control group received group cardiac counseling, and subjects in the treatment group received cardiac counseling plus Type-A counseling, and a comparison group received no group counseling of any kind. The recurrence rate was 21% in the control group and 13% in the treatment group, a strong and statistically significant (p <.005) finding, whereas the comparison group experienced a 28% recurrence rate. The investigative studies following Friedman and Rosenman's discovery compared Type A behavior to independent coronary risk factors such as hypertension and smoking; in contrast, the results here suggest that the negative effects on cardiovascular health associated with Type A personality can be mitigated by modifying Type A behavior patterns.


title: Type A and Type B personality theory

text: Further discrediting the so-called Type A Behavior Pattern (TABP), a study from 2012 – based on searching the Legacy Tobacco Documents Library – suggests the phenomenon of initially promising results followed by negative findings to be partly explained by the tobacco industry's involvement in TABP research to undermine the scientific evidence on smoking and health. Documents indicate that around 1959, the tobacco industry first became interested in the TABP when the Tobacco Insititute Research Committee, received an application for funding from New York University in order to investigate the relationship between smoking and personality. The industry's interest in TABP lasted at least four decades until the late 1990s, involving substantial funding to key researchers encouraged to prove smoking to simply correlate with a personality type prone to coronary heart disease (CHD) and cancer. Hence, until the early 1980s, the industry's strategy consisted of suggesting the risks of smoking to be caused by psychological characteristics of individual smokers rather than tobacco products by deeming the causes of cancer to be multifactorial with stress as a key contributing factor. Philip Morris (today Altria) and RJ Reynolds helped generate substantial evidence to support these claims by funding workshops and research aiming to educate about and alter TABP to reduce risks of CHD and cancer. Moreover, Philip Morris primarily funded the Meyer Friedman Institute, e.g. conducting the "crown-jewel" trial on the effectiveness of reducing TABP whose expected findings could discredit studies associating smoking with CHD and cancer but failing to control for Type A behavior.


title: Type A and Type B personality theory

text: In 1994, Friedman wrote to the US Occupational Safety and Health Administration criticising restrictions on indoor smoking to reduce CHD, claiming the evidence remained unreliable since it did not account for the significant confounder of Type A behavior, although by then, TABP had proven to be significant in only three of twelve studies. Though apparently unpaid for, this letter was approved by and blind-copied to Philip Morris, and Friedman (falsely) claimed to receive funding largely from the National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute.


title: Type A and Type B personality theory

text: When TABP finally became untenable, Philip Morris supported research on its hostility component, allowing Vice President Jetson Lincoln to explain passive smoking lethality by the stress exerted on a non-smoking spouse through media claiming the smoking spouse to be slowly killing themselves. When examining the most recent review on TABP and CHD in this light, the close relationship to the tobacco industry becomes evident: of thirteen etiologic studies in the review, only four reported positive findings, three of which had a direct or indirect link to the industry. Also on the whole most TABP studies had no relationship to the tobacco lobby but the majority of those with positive findings did. Furthermore, TABP was used as a litigation defence, similar to psychosocial stress. Hence, Petticrew et al. proved the tobacco industry to have substantially helped generate the scientific controversy on TABP, contributing to the (in lay circles) enduring popularity and prejudice for Type A personality even though it has been scientifically disproven.


title: Type A and Type B personality theory

text: Some scholars argue that Type A behavior is not a good predictor of coronary heart disease. According to research by Redford Williams of Duke University, the hostility component of Type A personality is the only significant risk factor. Thus, it is a high level of expressed anger and hostility, not the other elements of Type A behavior, that constitutes the problem. Research done by Hecker et al. (1988) showed that the ‘hostility’ component of the Type A description was predictive of cardiac disease. As time continued, more research was conducted, and the focus became more more on on different components of type A behavior such as hostility, depression, and anxiety predicting cardiac disease.


title: Type A and Type B personality theory

text: The initial study that pointed to the association of Type A personality and heart attacks had a massive number of questions under consideration. When there are a lot of questions there is a high probability of a false positive. A study undertaken by the U.S. National Institute of Aging, Sardinian and Italian researchers, as well as bio-statisticians from the University of Michigan, had specifically tested for a direct relationship between coronary heart disease and Type A personalities, and the results had indicated that no such relation exists. A simple explanation is that the initial finding was chance due to multiple questions being under consideration. Those considerations may have changed.


title: Type A and Type B personality theory

text: A study (that later was questioned for nonplausible results and considered unsafe publication) was performed that tested the effect of psychosocial variables, in particular personality and stress, as risk factors for cancer and coronary heart disease (CHD). In this study, four personality types were recorded. Type 1 personality is cancer-prone, Type 2 is CHD-prone, Type 3 is alternating between behaviors characteristic of Types 1 and 2, and Type 4 is a healthy, autonomous type hypothesized to survive best. The data suggest that the Type 1 probands die mainly from cancer, type 2 from CHD, whereas Type 3 and especially Type 4 probands show a much lower death rate. Two additional types of personalities were measured Type 5 and Type 6. Type 5 is a rational anti-emotional type, which shows characteristics common to Type 1 and Type 2. Type 6 personality shows psychopathic tendencies and is prone to drug addiction and AIDS.


title: Type A and Type B personality theory

text: While most studies attempt to show the correlation between personality types and coronary heart disease, studies (that also later were questioned for non plausible results and were considered unsafe) suggested that mental attitudes constitute an important prognostic factor for cancer and that as a method of treatment for cancer-prone patients, behavior therapy should be used. The patient is taught to express his/her emotions more freely, in a socially acceptable manner, to become autonomous and be able to stand up for his/her rights. Behavior therapy would also teach them how to cope with stress-producing situations more successfully. The effectiveness of therapy in preventing death in cancer and CHD is evident. The statistical data associated with higher death rates is impressive. Other measures of therapy have been attempted, such as group therapy. The effects were not as dramatic as behavior therapy, but still showed improvement in preventing death among cancer and CHD patients.


title: Type A and Type B personality theory

text: From the study above, several conclusions have been made. A relationship between personality and cancer exists, along with a relationship between personality and coronary heart disease. Personality type acts as a risk factor for diseases and interacts synergistically with other risk factors, such as smoking and heredity. It has been statistically proven that behavior therapy can significantly reduce the likelihood of cancer or coronary heart disease mortality. Studies suggest that both body and mental disease arise from each other. Mental disorders arise from physical causes, and likewise, physical disorders arise from mental causes. While Type A personality did not show a strong direct relationship between its attributes and the cause of coronary heart disease, other types of personalities have shown strong influences on both cancer-prone patients and those prone to coronary heart disease.


title: Type A and Type B personality theory

text: A study conducted by the "International Journal of Behavioral Medicine" re-examined the association between the Type A concept with cardiovascular (CVD) and non-cardiovascular (non-CVD) mortality by using a long follow-up (on average 20.6 years) of a large population-based sample of elderly males (N = 2,682), by applying multiple Type A measures at baseline, and looking separately at early and later follow-up years. The study sample was the participants of the Kuopio Ischemic Heart Disease Risk Factor Study, (KIHD), which includes a randomly selected representative sample of Eastern Finnish men, aged 42–60 years at baseline in the 1980s. They were followed up until the end of 2011 through linkage with the National Death Registry. Four self-administered scales, Bortner Short Rating Scale, Framingham Type A Behavior Pattern Scale, Jenkins Activity Survey, and Finnish Type A Scale, were used for Type A assessment at the start of follow-up. Type A measures were inconsistently associated with cardiovascular mortality, and most associations were non-significant. Some scales suggested a slightly decreased, rather than increased, risk of CVD death during the follow-up. Associations with non-cardiovascular deaths were even weaker. The study's findings further suggest that there is no evidence to support the Type A as a risk factor for CVD and non-CVD mortality.


title: Type A and Type B personality theory

text: In a 1998 study done by Ball et al., they looked at differences in Type A and Type B personalities based on substance use. Their results showed that Type B personalities had more severe issues with substance use disorders than Type A personalities. Another discovery in their research was more Type B personalities had been diagnosed with a personality disorder than users who had Type A personalities. Type B personalities were rated higher than Type A personalities on symptoms of all DSM-IV personality disorders, with the exception of schizoid personality disorder.


title: Type A and Type B personality theory

text: The research conducted in the experiment was tested on 370 outpatients and inpatients who used alcohol, cocaine, and opiates. The personality types and distinctions were replicated. Additionally within the personality dimensions Type A and Type B exhibited different results. Type A personality portrayed higher levels of agreeableness, conscientiousness, cooperativeness, and self-directedness. In contrast, Type B personality showed higher levels of neuroticism, novelty seeking, and harm avoidance. These dimensions can have high correlational levels with mental illness or substance use disorders. Furthermore, even after antisocial personality and psychiatric symptoms, these effects remained.


title: Jermaine Jackson

text: Jermaine La Jaune Jackson (born December 11, 1954) is an American singer-songwriter and bassist. He is best known for being a member of the Jackson family. From 1964 to 1975, Jermaine was second vocalist after his brother Michael of The Jackson 5, and played bass guitar. Since 1983 he rejoined the group, now known as The Jacksons.


title: Jermaine Jackson

text: Jermaine sang the lead on some of The Jackson Five's biggest hits,and featured in "I'll Be There" and "I Want You Back" amongst others. When the four others left and had to reform as The Jacksons, Jermaine, who had just married Motown founder Berry Gordy's daughter Hazel, stayed at Motown and was replaced by his youngest brother, Randy. Jermaine had a solo career concurrent with his brother Michael's and some top-30 hits until the 1980s, produced and recorded duets with Whitney Houston at her debut in 1985, and was a producer for the band Switch. After seven years he rejoined The Jacksons and remained throughout their various breakups and reunions.


title: Jermaine Jackson

text: Jermaine was born December 11, 1954, at St Mary's Mercy Hospital in Gary, Indiana, after his brother Tito Jackson. He is the fourth child born to Joseph and Katherine Jackson. His siblings are Rebbie, Jackie, Tito, La Toya, Marlon, Brandon (Marlon's twin who died shortly after birth in 1957), Michael, Randy, and Janet. Father, Joe had musical aspirations, playing guitar with his brother Luther in an R&B band, the Falcons, and mother Katherine a devout Jehovah's Witness was a passionate pianist and singer. Their large family and limited means made them refocus, with Katherine becoming a housewife and Joe a steel mill worker at nearby Inland Steel Company in East Chicago, Indiana, where they lived before moving to Gary in 1950.


title: Jermaine Jackson

text: When his father, Joe worked long hours as a crane operator, Jermaine and his brothers, Tito and Jackie, secretly practiced their own songs using Joe's guitar, and they sang harmonies with mother Katherine . Jermaine became the original lead singer, and also played the bass in the Jackson Brothers, an earlier incarnation of the Jackson 5 until 1966, when younger brother Michael began singing lead. Father Joe began rehearsing his sons under a strict regimen when he realized their potential, seeing his sons’ talent as a way out of Gary. Jermaine would continue to provide some leads over the years. Jermaine graduated from Birmingham High School in Van Nuys, Los Angeles, California, in 1973.


title: Jermaine Jackson

text: Jermaine and his brothers first signed as The Jackson 5 with Gordon Keith of Steeltown Records in November 1967, and their first single "Big Boy", was released on January 31, 1968. After the group recorded three more songs with the Steeltown label (on two records) they were signed with Berry Gordy of Motown Records in 1969. As the co-lead singer of The Jackson 5 after his brother Michael, Jermaine sang notable parts of "I Want You Back", "ABC", "I'll Be There", "The Love You Save", "Dancing Machine", and many other Jackson 5 songs. Jermaine performed as part of the group for six years. Not feeling that they were being paid fair royalties by Motown Records for their success as well as their desire for creative control, the Jackson 5 decided to leave the label and sign with Epic Records in 1975. However, Jermaine decided to stay with Motown Records, citing loyalty to the company as the reason. Others argue that Jermaine's marriage to Motown founder Berry Gordy's daughter Hazel, whom he married in 1973, was a deciding factor.


title: Jermaine Jackson

text: Jermaine split from the Jackson Five to start a solo career at Motown, and was replaced by his brother Randy Jackson. Unbeknownst to the group, Gordy had trademarked the name The Jackson Five and did not allow the group to continue using the name when they left the label. Once signed with Epic, the group became known simply as The Jacksons. In 1983, Gordy asked the group to perform at the "" television special. After the success of the broadcast, Jermaine finally rejoined the band to record the album "Victory" which featured all six brothers on the Jackson's album cover. Jermaine also participated in the band's Victory Tour. He stayed with the group for their final album, "2300 Jackson Street", in 1989.


title: Jermaine Jackson

text: Jermaine performs the song If You'd Only Believe, from their 2300 Jackson Street album, on March 15, 1993, with his brothers Jackie, Tito and Randy, on the stage of the Grand Théâtre de Genève for the evening of the Nations. He also performed this song alone, on January 14, 1990, in Atlanta, in tribute to Martin Luther King, during King Week 90 '. In 1997, he was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame with the Jackson 5. In 2001, he reunited with his brothers to perform for the Michael Jackson .


title: Jermaine Jackson

text: Like Michael, Jermaine began a solo career while still a member of The Jackson 5, and had a hit with the 1972 Shep and the Limelites cover "Daddy's Home". It sold over one million copies by March 1973, and was awarded a gold disc. When The Jackson 5 left Motown in 1975, Jermaine left the group and stayed at the label until 1983, when he finally rejoined his brothers for the "" television special, and their album "Victory" the following year. Jermaine was nominated for the Grammy Award for Best Male R&B Vocal Performance for his 1980 album "Let's Get Serious". He had a number of "Billboard" top-30 hits throughout the 1970s and 1980s, including "Daddy's Home" (No. 9), "That's How Love Goes", "Let's Be Young Tonight", "Bass Odyssey", "Feel the Fire", "Let Me Tickle Your Fancy" (featuring Devo on backing vocals) (No. 18), "Let's Get Serious" (No. 9, also one of his only two UK hits, peaking at No. 8), "Dynamite" (No. 15), "Do What You Do" (No. 13), and "I Think It's Love" (No. 16). A duet with his brother Michael, "Tell Me I'm Not Dreamin' (Too Good to Be True)", hit number one on the dance chart in 1984. Michael and he also collaborated with Rockwell, both providing guest vocals on his 1984 hit single, "Somebody's Watching Me".


title: Jermaine Jackson

text: In 1985, his duet with Pia Zadora, "When the Rain Begins to Fall", topped several singles charts in Europe. His final chart success, 1989's "Don't Take It Personal", hit number one on the R&B singles chart. Some of Jermaine's finest moments as a singer can be heard in the soulful "Castles of Sand" and the Earth Wind & Fire-inspired "You Need To Be Loved". Jermaine was the executive producer of The Jackson Family Honors concert televised from the MGM Grand on February 22, 1994 . On May 19, 2003, he performed "Let's Start Right Now" live on the talk show


title: Jermaine Jackson

text: Jackson is proficient on the electric guitar and is a talented bass guitar player. At an early age, he performed the parts of legendary bass player James Jamerson and others when the Five performed live. His main instrument was a Gibson EB-3. Jermaine also composed and produced for other artists, such as Switch and he produced and sang duets on Whitney Houston's debut album for Arista Records. Jackson is featured on the Switch track "Tahiti Hut" released in 2019, recorded during the Reaching For Tomorrow sessions.


title: Jermaine Jackson

text: Jackson was the first housemate to enter the "Celebrity Big Brother UK" house in 2007. After leaving "Big Brother", Jackson did several interviews on UK television explaining why and how he took his peaceful and mediating stance in the "Big Brother" house. He also spoke about the Jackson Five reuniting for a performance. Jackson was part of the second season of the CMT reality show "Gone Country". On the premiere episode of season three of the ABC reality show "Celebrity Wife Swap" on April 15, 2014, Jackson and his wife Halima swapped places with Daniel Baldwin and his on-again, off-again girlfriend Isabella Hofmann.


title: Jermaine Jackson

text: In April 2007, Jackson returned to the UK to take part in a one-off special of ITV's "Challenge Anneka". On the same trip, he appeared in Glasgow with British Prime Minister Gordon Brown, speaking in support of "Searchlight" magazine's anti racism campaign, the "Daily Mirror" "Hope Not Hate bus".


title: Jermaine Jackson

text: On November 23, 2007, Jackson appeared on "" and again talked of a reunion with his brothers on a tour the following year. In 2008, Jackson flew to Australia to be a guest judge and mentor for the top-five Michael Jackson night on "Australian Idol". In March 2008, Jackson was the guest of honor at the Muslim Writers Awards in Birmingham. In 2009, following his brother Michael's passing, Jermaine appeared on the A&E television series "", documenting what was supposed to be a 40th-anniversary reunion between Jermaine and his brothers. The series lasted one season and Jermaine, along with his three brothers, was listed as an executive producer. In October 2010, Jermaine played a concert at the Planet Hollywood hotel and casino in Las Vegas, naming it "40 Years of Jackson Music" and dedicating the concert to Michael. He wrote the memoir "You Are Not Alone: Michael Through a Brother's Eyes" (2011).


title: Jermaine Jackson

text: In a 2012 interview with Luka Neskovic, for "The Huffington Post", Jackson said that his brother planned a reunion with him: "... the plan was to do some shows with the brothers, as well, after he finished his commitment with the "This Is It" [concert], and we probably gonna do some songs with him on the "This Is It" tour". In October 2012, Jackson released "I Wish You Love", his first solo album in 21 years, consisting mostly of jazz covers. The album was arranged and produced by French opera singer David Serero, who recorded a duet on "Autumn Leaves" with Jermaine, and was released by David Serero Productions. They both performed "You Are Not Alone: The Musical", written, directed and produced by Serero, in France in January 2013. The following year, "You Are Not Alone: The Musical Live" was released on video and audio.


title: Jermaine Jackson

text: Jackson has been married and divorced three times, and has seven children. His first marriage was to Motown founder Berry Gordy's daughter, Hazel Gordy (born August 24, 1954), which lasted from December 15, 1973 until 1988. He has three children with Hazel:


title: Jermaine Jackson

text: He began a relationship with Alejandra Genevieve Oaziaza while she was dating his younger brother Randy, with whom she had a daughter and a son. He married Oaziaza on March 18, 1995, and the marriage lasted until May 19, 2003. They have two sons:


title: Jermaine Jackson

text: In January 2004, Jackson met Halima Rashid while in line at Starbucks. In March 2004, he proposed to her and five months later, they were married in a mosque in Los Angeles. Rashid was arrested on November 28, 2015, in Los Angeles for alleged domestic violence. Rashid filed a petition for divorce on June 21, 2016, citing irreconcilable differences.


title: Jermaine Jackson

text: Jermaine supported his brother, Michael, during the 2005 trial. He came to Michael's defense on CNN's "Larry King Live" and appeared with him in court on many occasions. On June 25, 2009, Jermaine held a press conference at Ronald Reagan UCLA Medical Center, and broke the news of Michael Jackson's passing to the media.


title: Jermaine Jackson

text: Jermaine thanked the people that attended Michael Jackson memorial at the Crypto.com Arena, on July 7, 2009. “As you know,” he said, “I am lost for words. I had his back. So did the family. But we thank you. That’s all I can say. We thank you very much.“ Jermaine also tossed a rose on Michael’s casket, after he sang "Smile" by Charlie Chaplin, which Michael also had covered and released. In honor of Michael, Jermaine and his brothers, Tito, Jackie, Marlon and Randy Jackson served as pallbearers wearing a gold necktie, a single white glove and sunglasses.


title: Jermaine Jackson

text: On January 30, 2019, Jermaine spoke out about the allegations against Michael, "Michael was tried by a jury of his peers and he was acquitted." he said. He added: "There was no real evidence, and I will say this - our family are tired. Let this man rest. He did a lot for the world. There is no truth to this. We're living in a time where people can say anything and it's taken as truth." BBC News reported.


title: Jermaine Jackson

text: Jackson, like the rest of his family, was raised as a Jehovah's Witness. In 1989, he converted to Islam after a trip to Bahrain in which he was impressed by the local children's devotion to their religion.


title: Jermaine Jackson

text: Jermaine claimed in an interview that if his brother Michael had converted to Islam, it would have saved his life.


title: RPG-7

text: The RPG-7 () is a portable, reusable, unguided, shoulder-launched, anti-tank, rocket-propelled grenade launcher. The RPG-7 and its predecessor, the RPG-2, were designed by the Soviet Union, and are now manufactured by the Russian company Bazalt. The weapon has the GRAU index (Russian armed forces index) 6G3.


title: RPG-7

text: The ruggedness, simplicity, low cost, and effectiveness of the RPG-7 has made it the most widely used anti-armor weapon in the world. Currently around 40 countries use the weapon; it is manufactured in several variants by nine countries. It is popular with irregular and guerrilla forces. The RPG has been used in almost all conflicts across the world since the mid-1960s from the Vietnam War to the 2022 Russo-Ukrainian War.


title: RPG-7

text: Widely produced, the most commonly seen major variations are the RPG-7D (десантник – "desantnik" – paratrooper) model, which can be broken into two parts for easier carrying; and the lighter Chinese Type 69 RPG. DIO of Iran manufactures RPG-7s with olive green handguards, H&K pistol grips, and a Commando variant.


title: RPG-7

text: The RPG-7 was first delivered to the Soviet Army in 1961 and deployed at squad level. It replaced the RPG-2, having clearly out-performed the intermediate RPG-4 design during testing. The current model produced by the Russian Federation is the RPG-7V2, capable of firing standard and dual high-explosive anti-tank (HEAT) rounds, high explosive/fragmentation, and thermobaric warheads (see below), with a UP-7V sighting device fitted (used in tandem with the standard 2.7× PGO-7 optical sight) to allow the use of extended range ammunition. The RPG-7D3 is the equivalent paratrooper model. Both the RPG-7V2 and RPG-7D3 were adopted by the Russian Ground Forces in 2001.


title: RPG-7

text: The launcher is reloadable and based around a steel tube, 40 millimetres in diameter, 950 millimetres long, and weighing 7 kilograms. The middle of the tube is wood wrapped to protect the user from heat and the end is flared. Sighting is usually optical with a back-up iron sight, and passive infra-red and night sights are also available. The launchers designated RPG-7N1 and RPG-7DN1 can thus mount the multi-purpose night vision scope 1PN51 and the launchers designated RPG-7N2 and RPG-7DN2 can mount the multi-purpose night vision scope 1PN58.


title: RPG-7

text: As with similar weapons, the grenade protrudes from the launch tubes. It is 40–105 millimetres in diameter and weighs between 2.0 and 4.5 kilograms. It is launched by a gunpowder booster charge, giving it an initial speed of 115 metres per second, and creating a cloud of light grey-blue smoke that can give away the position of the shooter. The rocket motor ignites after 10 metres and sustains flight out to 500 metres at a maximum velocity of 295 metres per second. The grenade is stabilized by two sets of fins that deploy in-flight: one large set on the stabilizer pipe to maintain direction and a smaller rear set to induce rotation. The grenade can fly up to 1,100 metres; the fuze sets the maximum range, usually 920 metres.


title: RPG-7

text: According to the United States Army Training and Doctrine Command (TRADOC) Bulletin 3u (1977) "Soviet RPG-7 Antitank Grenade Launcher—Capabilities and Countermeasures", the RPG-7 munition has two sections: a "booster" section and a "warhead and sustainer motor" section. These must be assembled into the ready-to-use grenade. The booster consists of a "small strip powder charge" that serves to propel the grenade out of the launcher; the sustainer motor then ignites and propels the grenade for the next few seconds, giving it a top speed of . The TRADOC bulletin provides anecdotal commentary that the RPG-7 has been fired from within buildings, which agrees with the two-stage design. It is stated that only a 2-metre standoff to a rear obstruction is needed for use inside rooms or fortifications. The fins not only provide drag stabilization, but are designed to impart a slow rotation to the grenade.


title: RPG-7

text: Due to the configuration of the RPG-7 sustainer/warhead section, it responds counter-intuitively to crosswinds. A crosswind will tend to exert pressure on the stabilizing fins, causing the projectile to turn into the wind ("see Weathervane effect"). While the rocket motor is still burning, this will cause the flight path to curve into the wind. The TRADOC bulletin explains aiming difficulties for more distant moving targets in crosswinds at some length. Similar to a recoilless rifle the RPG-7 has no noticeable recoil, the only effect during firing being that of the sudden lightness of the launcher as the rocket leaves the tube.


title: RPG-7

text: The RPG-7 can fire a variety of warheads for anti-armor (HEAT, PG-Protivotankovaya Granata) or anti-personnel (HE, OG-Oskolochnaya Granata) purposes, usually fitting with an impact (PIBD) and a 4.5 second fuze. Armor penetration is warhead dependent and ranges from 30 to 60 centimetres of RHA; one warhead, the PG-7VR, is a 'tandem charge' device, used to defeat reactive armor with a single shot.


title: RPG-7

text: A 1976 U.S. Army evaluation of the weapon gave the hit probabilities on a panel moving sideways at . Crosswinds cause additional issues as the round steers into the wind; in an (3 m/s) wind, firing at a stationary tank sized target, the gunner cannot expect to get a first-round hit more than 50% of the time at 180 m.


title: RPG-7

text: The RPG-7 was first used in 1967 by Egypt during the Six-Day War, and by the Viet Cong during the Vietnam War, but it did not see widespread usage in Vietnam until the following year.


title: RPG-7

text: Accurate firing is difficult at ranges over 200 metres. During the Soviet–Afghan War, the mujahideen tended to use the weapon at ranges of less than 80 metres.


title: RPG-7

text: The RPG-7 was used by the Provisional Irish Republican Army in Northern Ireland from 1969 to 2005, most notably in Lurgan, County Armagh, where it was used against British Army observation posts and the towering military base at Kitchen Hill in the town. The IRA also used them in Catholic areas of West Belfast against British Army armoured personnel carriers and Army forward operating bases (FOB). Beechmount Avenue in Belfast became known as "RPG Avenue" after attacks on British troops.


title: RPG-7

text: During the first and second Chechen wars, Chechens used RPG-7 which they had captured from Soviet bases and used them against Russian armored columns. During the first war, Russians may have lost 100 tanks and 250 AFVs in Grozny. The Chechens were able to knock out T-90s with three or four RPG-7 hits. Against T-90s with Explosive Reactive Armor, the Chechens fired an RPG in close range (within 50m) to detonate the armor and then followed this with RPG hits on the now exposed point of the tank, also from close range. The RPG-7 was also effective against Armoured fighting vehicles (AFVs), buildings and personnel.


title: RPG-7

text: The PG-7VR has been showing up in use by Iraqi insurgents. On 28 August 2003, it achieved a mobility kill against an American M1 Abrams hitting the left side hull next to the forward section of the engine compartment.


title: RPG-7

text: During the War in Afghanistan (2001–2021), several M1A2 Abrams were temporarily disabled by RPG-7 hits.


title: Tye Sheridan

text: Tye Kayle Sheridan (born November 11, 1996) is an American actor and producer. He is best known for playing the young Scott Summers / Cyclops in the reboot "X-Men" film series (2016–2019), as well as Wade Watts in "Ready Player One" (2018) and Ben Goudy in "Scouts Guide to the Zombie Apocalypse" (2015). Sheridan made his feature film debut in Terrence Malick's experimental drama film "The Tree of Life" (2011) and had his first leading role in Jeff Nichols's film "Mud" (2012). He also co-starred in David Gordon Green's drama "Joe" (2013) and the period thriller "The Stanford Prison Experiment" (2015). In 2020 he co-founded AI production tools company Wonder Dynamics with visual effects artist Nikola Todorovic.


title: Tye Sheridan

text: Sheridan was born in Palestine, Texas. His mother, Stephanie (Wright) Sheridan, owns a beauty salon, and his father, Bryan Sheridan, is a driver for UPS. He has a younger sister, Madison. He was enrolled in the Elkhart Independent School District until his film career became a priority focus when he was 16 years old, and he received tutoring on film sets.


title: Tye Sheridan

text: Sheridan made his feature film debut in the Terrence Malick art film "The Tree of Life" (2011), with Brad Pitt, Jessica Chastain, and Sean Penn, after an almost year-long casting search involving more than 10,000 children from Texas and Oklahoma. The film premiered at the 2011 Cannes Film Festival, and went on to be awarded the Palme d'Or and nominated for the Academy Award for Best Picture.


title: Tye Sheridan

text: In 2012, he played the leading role of Ellis in Jeff Nichols' "Mud" opposite Jacob Lofland and Matthew McConaughey. The coming-of-age drama-thriller film premiered at the 2012 Cannes Film Festival and Sheridan received a Critics' Choice Award nomination.


title: Tye Sheridan

text: Sheridan played Gary Jones in the film "Joe", which stars Nicolas Cage playing an ex-con who meets a 15-year-old boy, the eldest child in a homeless family headed by an alcoholic father, and is faced with the choice of redemption or ruin. For his role he received the Marcello Mastroianni Award for best upcoming young actor at the 70th Venice International Film Festival.


title: Tye Sheridan

text: In 2015, Sheridan starred in the three films that premiered at the Sundance Film Festival. He co-starred opposite Gregg Turkington and Michael Cera in the drama "Entertainment", played a prisoner in the film adaptation of "The Stanford Prison Experiment", and appeared in Rodrigo Garcia's drama "Last Days in the Desert" opposite Ewan McGregor, released May 2016. That year, he also had a supporting role in the film adaptation of Gillian Flynn's "Dark Places" and the leading role in the horror comedy "Scouts Guide to the Zombie Apocalypse".


title: Tye Sheridan

text: In 2017, Sheridan starred in the war drama "The Yellow Birds" (2017), opposite Alden Ehrenreich, Jack Huston, and Jennifer Aniston. Also that year, Sheridan co-starred with Kaitlyn Dever in "Grass Stains", a film written and directed by Kyle Wilamowski.


title: Tye Sheridan

text: In 2018, Sheridan played Wade Watts, a.k.a. Parzival, the lead character, in Steven Spielberg's science fiction blockbuster film "Ready Player One." He then reprised the role of Scott Summers/Cyclops in the 2019 film "Dark Phoenix".


title: Tye Sheridan

text: In 2021, Sheridan co-starred in the Neil Burger sci-fi thriller "Voyagers" (2021) with Colin Farrell, Lily-Rose Depp, Isaac Hempstead Wright, and Fionn Whitehead.


title: Petronas Towers

text: The Petronas Towers, also known as the Petronas Twin Towers or KLCC Twin Towers, (Malay: "Menara Berkembar Petronas") are 88-storey supertall skyscrapers in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, standing at . From 1998 to 2003, they were officially designated as the tallest buildings in the world until they were surpassed by the 2004 completion of the Taipei 101. The Petronas Towers are the world's tallest twin skyscrapers and remained as the tallest buildings in Malaysia until 2022, when they were surpassed by the Merdeka 118. The Petronas Towers are a major landmark of Kuala Lumpur, along with the nearby Kuala Lumpur Tower and Merdeka 118, and are visible in many places across the city.


title: Petronas Towers

text: The Petronas Towers' structural system is a tube in tube design, invented by architect Fazlur Rahman Khan. Applying a tube-structure for extreme tall buildings is a common phenomenon.


title: Petronas Towers

text: The 88-floor towers are constructed largely of reinforced concrete, with a steel and glass facade designed to resemble motifs found in Islamic art, a reflection of Malaysia's Muslim religion. Another Islamic influence on the design is that the cross section of the towers is based on a Rub el Hizb, albeit with circular sectors added to meet office space requirements. The circular sectors are similar to the bottom part of the Qutub Minar.


title: Petronas Towers

text: The towers were designed by Argentine-American architect César Pelli. A distinctive postmodern style was chosen to create a 21st-century icon for Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Planning on the Petronas Towers started on 1 January 1992 and included rigorous tests and simulations of wind and structural loads on the design. Seven years of construction followed at the former site of the original Selangor Turf Club, beginning on 1 March 1993 with excavation, which involved moving 500 truckloads of earth every night to dig down below the surface.


title: Petronas Towers

text: The construction of the superstructure commenced on 1 April 1994. Interiors with furniture were completed on 1 January 1996, the spires of Tower 1 and Tower 2 were completed on 1 March 1996, 3 years after its construction was started, and the first batch of Petronas personnel moved into the building on 1 January 1997. The building was officially opened by the Prime Minister of Malaysia, Tun Dr. Mahathir bin Mohamad, on 31 August 1999. The twin towers were built on the site of Kuala Lumpur's race track. It was the tallest structure in Malaysia at the time of its completion. Test boreholes found that the original construction site effectively sat on the edge of a cliff. One half of the site was decayed limestone while the other half was soft rock. The entire site was moved to allow the buildings to sit entirely on the soft rock. Because of the depth of the bedrock, the buildings were built on the world's deepest foundations. 104 concrete piles, ranging from deep, were bored into the ground. The concrete raft foundation, comprising of concrete was continuously poured through a period of 54 hours for each tower. The raft is thick, weighs and held the world record for the largest concrete pour until 2007. The foundations were completed within 12 months by Bachy Soletanche and required massive amounts of concrete.


title: Petronas Towers

text: As a result of the Malaysian government specifying that the buildings be completed in six years, two construction consortia were hired to meet the deadline, one for each tower. Tower 1, the west tower (left in the top-right photograph) was built by a Japanese consortium led by the Hazama Corporation (JA Jones Construction Co., MMC Engineering Services Sdn Bhd, Ho Hup Construction Co. Bhd and Mitsubishi Corp) while Tower 2, the east tower (right in the top-right photograph) was built by a South Korean consortium led by the Samsung C&T Corporation (Kukdong Engineering & Construction and Syarikat Jasatera Sdn Bhd).


title: Petronas Towers

text: Early into construction a batch of concrete failed a routine strength test causing construction to come to a complete halt. All the completed floors were tested but it was found that only one had used a bad batch and it was demolished. As a result of the concrete failure, each new batch was tested before being poured. The halt in construction had cost US$700,000 per day and led to three separate concrete plants being set up on the site to ensure that if one produced a bad batch, the other two could continue to supply concrete. The sky bridge contract was completed by Kukdong Engineering & Construction. Tower 2 (Samsung C&T) became the first to reach the world's tallest building at the time.


title: Petronas Towers

text: Due to the huge cost of importing steel, the towers were constructed on a cheaper radical design of super high-strength reinforced concrete. High-strength concrete is a material familiar to Asian contractors and twice as effective as steel in sway reduction; however, it makes the building twice as heavy on its foundation as a comparable steel building. Supported by 23-by-23 metre concrete cores and an outer ring of widely spaced super columns, the towers use a sophisticated structural system that accommodates its slender profile and provides 560,000 square metres of column-free office space. Below the twin towers is Suria KLCC, a shopping mall, and Petronas Philharmonic Hall, the home of the Malaysian Philharmonic Orchestra.


title: Petronas Towers

text: Tower One is fully occupied by Petronas and a number of its subsidiaries and associate companies, while the office spaces in Tower Two are mostly available for lease to other companies. A number of companies have offices in Tower Two, including SapuraOMV Upstream (Sarawak) Inc., Huawei Technologies, AVEVA, Al Jazeera English, Carigali Hess, Bloomberg, Boeing, IBM, Khazanah Nasional Berhad, McKinsey & Co, WIPRO Limited, TCS, HCL Technologies, Krawler, Microsoft, The Agency (a modelling company) and Reuters.


title: Petronas Towers

text: Suria KLCC is a upscale retail center at the foot of the Petronas Towers. It features mostly foreign luxury goods and high-street labels. Its attractions include an art gallery, an underwater aquarium and also a Science center. Boasting approximately 300 stores, Suria KLCC is touted as one of the largest shopping malls in Malaysia. The Petronas Philharmonic Hall, also built at the base of the towers, is frequently associated with Suria KLCC's floorspace. During holidays or celebration days, Suria KLCC is the top spot to see the beautiful decorations especially at the main entrances and also in Centre Court. It also promotes the uniqueness and beauty of Malaysia’s cultural diversity towards the visitors.


title: Petronas Towers

text: Spanning below the building is the KLCC Park with jogging and walking paths, a fountain with incorporated light show, wading pools, and a children's playground.


title: Petronas Towers

text: The towers feature a double decker skybridge connecting the two towers on the 41st and 42nd floors, which is the highest 2-story bridge in the world. It is not attached to the main structure, but is instead designed to slide in and out of the towers to prevent it from breaking, as the towers sway several feet in towards and away from each other during high winds. It also provides some structural support to the towers in these occasions. The bridge is above the ground and long, weighing 750 tons. The same floor is also known as the podium, since visitors going to higher levels have to change elevators here. Dynamic analyses were performed and iterated to support the final design by studying the structural behavior of the twin towers to time-varying loads such as earthquakes and wind.The skybridge is open to all visitors, but tickets are limited to about 1,000 people per day, and must be obtained on a first-come, first-served basis. Initially, the visit was free but in 2010, the tickets started being sold by Petronas. Visitors can choose to opt for package one which is just a visit to the skybridge or go for package two to go to the skybridge and all the way to level 86. Visitors are only allowed on the 41st floor as the 42nd floor can only be used by the tenants of the building.


title: Petronas Towers

text: The skybridge also acts as a safety device, so that in the event of a fire or other emergency in one tower, tenants can evacuate by crossing the skybridge to the other tower. The total evacuation triggered by a bomb hoax on 12 September 2001 (the day after the September 11 attacks destroyed the twin towers of the World Trade Center in New York City) showed that the bridge would not be useful if both towers need to be emptied simultaneously, as the capacity of the staircases was insufficient for such an event. Plans thus call for the lifts to be used if both towers need to be evacuated, and a successful drill following the revised plan was conducted in 2005.


title: Petronas Towers

text: There is a two hinged arch that supports the skybridge with arch legs, each long, that are bolted to level 29 of each of the towers. After being constructed on the ground, the skybridge was lifted into place on the towers over a period of three days in July 1995. Instead of being directly connected to the towers, the skybridge can shift or slide in and out of them to counterbalance any effect from the wind. Residing on the 41st and 42nd floors, the skybridge connects a conference room, an executive dining room and a prayer room.


title: Petronas Towers

text: The main bank of lifts is located in the centre of each tower. All main lifts are double-decker with the lower deck of the lift taking passengers to even-numbered floors and upper deck to odd-numbered floors. To reach an odd-numbered floor from ground level, passengers must take an escalator to the upper deck of the lift.


title: Petronas Towers

text: There are 29 double-deck passenger elevators, but there are different sets that service certain floors of the towers, specifically two sets of six of these double-deck passenger elevators to floors 1–23 and 1–37 respectively. Another set of 5 passenger lifts transport passengers to the 41st and 42nd floors where they can switch lifts to reach the upper zones of the buildings, each double-deck passenger lift with the capacity of 52 passengers or, 26 passengers per deck. There are also 6 heavy-duty elevators for utility.


title: Petronas Towers

text: The service building is to the east of the Petronas Towers and contains the chiller plant system and the cooling towers to keep the Petronas Towers cool and comfortable.


title: Petronas Towers

text: In order to visit the Petronas Towers, visitors must first purchase tickets. Tickets can be purchased online or at the counter. Discounted tickets for seniors are available for those 55 years of age and above. Queues for tickets can get quite long sometimes. The complete ticketing system is provided by the Malaysian-based Longbow Technologies Sdn Bhd.


title: Hors d'oeuvre

text: An hors d'oeuvre ( ; ), appetiser or starter is a small dish served before a meal in European cuisine. Some hors d'oeuvres are served cold, others hot. Hors d'oeuvres may be served at the dinner table as a part of the meal, or they may be served before seating, such as at a reception or cocktail party. Formerly, hors d'oeuvres were also served between courses. There are two types of hors d'oeuvre from service point of view:


title: Hors d'oeuvre

text: General hors d'oeuvres include cold preparations such as salad, cold meat, and fish. Classical hors d'oeuvres include fruit juice and soft drinks, grapefruit, shellfish cocktail, and so on.


title: Hors d'oeuvre

text: in French literally means "outside the work"; that is, "not part of the ordinary set of courses in a meal". In practice, it is a dish which stands on its own as a snack or supports the main course. The French spelling is the same for singular and plural usage; in English, the typographic ligature is usually replaced by the digraph , with the plural occasionally written 'hors d<nowiki>'</nowiki>"oeuvres"' and pronounced .


title: Hors d'oeuvre

text: A small number of food historians believe that the tradition may have begun in Russia, where small snacks of fish, caviar and meats were common after long travels. However, it may be that the custom originated in China, possibly coming through Steppes, into Russia, Scandinavia, France and other European countries. The tradition may have reached Italy, Greece and the Balkan nations through Russia or Persia. Many national customs are related, including the Swedish smörgåsbord, Russian zakuska, middle eastern mezze, and Italian antipasto. During the Roman Period the meal practice was to have two main courses which were supplemented before the meal with small amounts of fish, vegetables, cheeses, olives and even stuffed dormice. These would be served at the start of the meal known as either "gustatio" or "promulsis". The Greeks called the appetiser course "propoma". As early as 500 CE, the Babylonian Talmud ("Yoma" 83) recounts the practice of feeding sweet desserts to a person before the main course of a meal in order to revive his strength and increase his appetite (Aramaic: מגרר גריר).


title: Hors d'oeuvre

text: During the Middle Ages formal French meals were served with entremets between the serving of plates. These secondary dishes could be either actual food dishes, or elaborate displays and even dramatic or musical presentations. In the 14th century, recipes for entremets were mostly made with meat, fish, pork and vegetables. By the 15th century the elaborate display and performances were served up between courses, and could be edible or displays of subjects relevant to the host, created in butter sculpture or other types of crafted work. With the introduction in the 17th century of "service à la française", where all the dishes are laid out at once in very rigid symmetrical fashion, entremets began to change in meaning but were still mainly savoury. Along with this came elaborate silver and ceramic table displays as well as pièces montées. The entremets were placed between the other dishes within the main work of the meal.


title: Hors d'oeuvre

text: At about this time in the 17th century, smaller dishes began to be served by being placed outside the main work of symmetrically placed dishes. These were known as hors d'oeuvre. Hors d'oeuvres were originally served as a canapé of small toasted bread with a savoury topping before a meal. The first mention of the food item was by François Massialot in 1691, mentioned in his book: "Le cuisinier roial et bourgeois" (The Royal and Bourgeois Cook) and explained as ""Certain dishes served in addition to those one might expect in the normal composition of the feast"". In the French publication "Les plaisirs de la table", Edouard Nignon stated that hors d'oeuvres originated in Asia. He went on to state that the French considered hors-d'oeuvres to be superfluous to a well cooked meal. "Service à la française" continued in Europe until the early 19th century. After the 19th century the entremet would become almost exclusively a sweet dish or dessert with the British custom of the "savoury" being the only remaining tradition of the savoury entremet.


title: Hors d'oeuvre

text: The style of formal dining changed drastically in the 19th century, becoming successive courses served one after the other over a period of time. Some traditional hors d'oeuvres would remain on the table throughout the meal. These included olives, nuts, celery and radishes. The changing, contemporary hors d'oeuvres, sometimes called "dainty dishes", became more complicated in preparation. Pastries, with meat and cream sauces among other elaborate items, had become a course served after the soup.


title: Hors d'oeuvre

text: Food in England is heavily influenced by other countries due to the island nation's dependence on importing outside goods and sometimes, inspiration. Many English culinary words and customs have been directly borrowed from the original French (some completely Anglicised in spelling) such as: "cuisine", "sirloin", "pastry" and "omelette" which came from the 18th century and earlier. In the late 19th and early 20th century, even more words, foods and customs from culinary France made their way into England, such as "éclair", "casserole", "à la carte", "rôtisserie" and hors d'oeuvre.


title: Hors d'oeuvre

text: The custom of the savoury course is of British origin and comes towards the end of the meal, before dessert or sweets or even after the dessert, in contrast to the hors d'oeuvre, which is served before the meal. The British favored the savoury course as a palate cleanser before drinking after the meal, which made the hors d'oeuvre before the meal unnecessary. The savoury is generally small, well spiced and often served hot, requiring cooking just before serving. In the Victorian and Edwardian periods, savouries included such toppings as fried oysters wrapped in bacon, and Scotch woodcock, which was a savoury made of scrambled eggs, ground black pepper and Gentleman's Relish on buttered toast, served hot. In France, cheese was often part of the savoury course or added with simple fruit as a dessert. A typical Edwardian dinner might consist of up to four courses that include two soups, two types of fish, two meats, ending with several savouries then sweets.


title: Hors d'oeuvre

text: The term "appetiser" (American English: "appetizer") is a synonym for hors d'oeuvre. It was first used in the United States and England simultaneously in 1860. Americans also use the term to define the first of three courses in a meal, an optional one generally set on the table before guests were seated. Drinks before dinner became a custom towards the end of the 19th century. As this new fashion caught on, the British took inspiration from the French to begin serving hors d'oeuvres before dinner. A cocktail party is considered a small gathering with mixed drinks and light snacks. Hors d'oeuvres may be served as the only food offering at cocktail parties and receptions, where no dinner is served afterward. After the end of prohibition in the United States, the cocktail party gained acceptance. Prior to the First World War, American dinner guests would be expected to enter the dining room immediately where drinks would be served at the table with appetisers. This changed by the 1920s, when hors d'oeuvres were served prior to a non-alcoholic cocktail; however, after the repeal of Prohibition in the United States, cocktail parties became popular with many different hors d'oeuvres meant as something to help counter the stronger drinks. It is the cocktail party that helped transfer the hors d'oeuvres from the formal dining table to the mobility of the serving tray. These appetisers passed around the cocktail party may also be referred to as canapés.


title: Hors d'oeuvre

text: In restaurants or large estates, hors d'oeuvres are prepared in a "garde manger" which is a cool room. Hors d'oeuvres are often prepared in advance. Some types may be refrigerated or frozen and then precooked and then reheated in an oven or microwave oven as necessary before serving.


title: Hors d'oeuvre

text: If there is an extended period between when guests arrive and when the meal is eaten, for example during a cocktail hour, these might serve the purpose of sustaining guests during the wait, in the same way that apéritifs are served as a drink before meals.


title: Hors d'oeuvre

text: It is also an unwritten rule that the dishes served as hors d'oeuvres do not give any clue to the main meal. They are served with the main meal menu in view either in hot, room temperature or cold forms; when served hot they are brought out after all the guests arrive so that everyone gets to taste the dishes.


title: Hors d'oeuvre

text: Hors d'oeuvres before a meal may be rotated by waiters or passed. Stationary hors d'oeuvres served at the table on a tray may be referred to as table hors d'oeuvres or as buffet-style. Passed hors d'oeuvres provided by servers are part of butler-style service. or butlered hors d'oeuvres.


title: Hors d'oeuvre

text: Though any food served before the main course is technically an hors d'oeuvre, the phrase is generally limited to individual items, such as cheese or fruit. A glazed fig topped with mascarpone and wrapped with prosciutto is an hors d'oeuvre, and plain figs served on a platter may also be served as hors d'oeuvres. It could be pickled beets or anchovy eggs as topping over tomatoes as part of the initial "drinks" session such as of alcoholic or non-alcoholic beverages. They are also served in the forms of dips, spreads, pastries, olives or nuts with or without a base of egg, cheese, meats, vegetables, seafood or breads. Single cold items served are smoked salmon, avocado pear, caviar, pâté, shellfish cocktails and melon with garnishes and decorations. Seasoned hot dishes served are of vegetables, meat, fish, egg, pasta, cheese, soufflés, tartlets, puff pastry or choux pastry.


title: Hors d'oeuvre

text: In Mexico," botanas" refers to the vegetarian varieties commonly served in small portions in wine bars. In many Central American countries, hors d'oeuvres are known as "bocas" (lit. "mouthfuls"). "Pasapalos" (lit. "drink passer") is Venezuelan Spanish for an hors d'oeuvre.


title: Hors d'oeuvre

text: In Arabic, "moqabbelat" (, "things which make one accept what is to come". From root lit. "to accept") is the term for an hors d'oeuvre. In India, it is known as chaat, which is served throughout the day. Dahi puri is another snack from India which is especially popular from the city of Mumbai in the state of Maharashtra and in the Ahmedabad city of Gujarat state. Chaat is the snack food consumed separately and not part of main course meals.


title: Hors d'oeuvre

text: In England, devils on horseback is a hot hors d'oeuvre in different recipes, but in general they are a variation on angels on horseback, made by replacing oysters with dried fruit. The majority of recipes contain a pitted date (though prunes are sometimes used). "Starter" is a common colloquial term for an hors d'oeuvre in the UK, Ireland, and India. Crudités from France are a blend of salads of raw vegetables and the serving has a minimum of three vegetables of striking colors. "Zakuski" are hors d'oeuvres in Russian cuisine and other post-Soviet cuisines, served in the form of a buffet of cured meats and fishes. In Italian "antipasto" means it is served cold in the form of olive, cheese, pickled vegetables; other similar hors d'oeuvres can be found in the rest of Southern Europe under different names ( in Portuguese, or in Spanish). in Dutch means the dish (") before (") the main course. Fattoush is a bread salad in Levantine cuisine made from toasted or fried pieces of pita bread () combined with mixed greens and other vegetables. It belongs to the family of dishes known as (plural) or fatta, which use stale flatbread as a base.


title: Hors d'oeuvre

text: In the United States the custom appears to have come from California, where a foreign saloon owner may have put out trays of simple hors d'oeuvres to serve his customers. This tradition soon became the 5-cent beer and free lunch in early America before prohibition ended the custom.


title: Hors d'oeuvre

text: In the U.S., <nowiki>'</nowiki>"appetizers"<nowiki>'</nowiki>, referring to anything served before a meal, is the most common term for hors d'oeuvres. Light snacks served outside of the context of a meal are called hors d'oeuvres (with the English-language pluralization).


title: Hors d'oeuvre

text: In the Hawaiian language hors d'oeuvres and appetisers are called "". Hawaiian culinary influences are very diverse due to the multiple ethnicities living in the islands. This diversity, along with the Americanization of entertaining in the mid 20th century led to the Hawaiian Cocktail and the "pūpū" (hors-d'oeuvre) served at the beginning of luaus. This invention of a faux Polynesian experience is heavily influenced by Don the Beachcomber, who is credited for the creation of the "pūpū" platter and the drink named the "Zombie" for his Hollywood restaurant. At Don's the food was traditional Cantonese cuisine served with a fancy presentation. The first "pūpū" platters were eggrolls, chicken wings, spare ribs as well as other Chinese-American foods. Eventually Trader Vic would create the Mai Tai in his restaurants in the San Francisco Bay Area and the Tiki bar would become an American cocktail tradition.


title: Hors d'oeuvre

text: Hors d'oeuvres, also called amuse-bouches, served around bars in Australia are oysters and alsace foie gras. Appetisers in New Zealand are lamb skewer or blue cod sliders. In New Zealand the Māori call their snacks "Kai Timotimo". Kiribati appetisers served include pastes made from chickpeas and eggplant, meat dishes with spices and wheat. Samoan foil chicken and roast pork, tidbits of meat in a smoky, spicy sauce are appetisers in Samoa. In Tonga, puu-puus or appetisers served are Waikiki shrimp and grilled pineapple with dipping sauce.


title: Hors d'oeuvre

text: Appetisers served in Kenya are raw and fresh vegetables and assorted dips with decorations. Before modern-day hors d'oeuvre were introduced from Europe into South Africa, starters served consisted of eastern fish sambals and cooked bone marrow served with bread.


title: Jack Kilmer

text: John Wallace Kilmer (born June 6, 1995) is an American actor. He is known for starring in the 2013 film "Palo Alto", for playing Pelle "Dead" Ohlin in the 2018 Norwegian black metal biopic "Lords of Chaos", and for playing Ozzy Osbourne in Ozzy's "Under the Graveyard" video. He is also the narrator of "Val", a documentary about his father Val Kilmer.


title: Jack Kilmer

text: Kilmer, born to actors Joanne Whalley and Val Kilmer, grew up in Los Angeles and attended primary school at The Center for Early Education, where he met would-be filmmaker Gia Coppola (he was in the first grade; she was in the sixth).


title: Jack Kilmer

text: Coppola asked him to review her script for "Palo Alto", a film adaptation of James Franco's book of the same name which she also planned to direct. She asked him to advise whether the dialog was an authentic reflection of "kids today". After he ran through a table read with her, she encouraged him to audition for one of the film's main roles, Teddy. Coppola filmed him as he read through the lines and this became his audition tape; he eventually won the role. After he was cast as Teddy, his father, actor Val Kilmer, joined the cast as the father of another character. Before filming "Palo Alto" when he was 16 years old, Kilmer had never acted before, and did not aspire to be an actor.


title: Jack Kilmer

text: The film was released in May 2014 to mostly positive reviews, and Kilmer's performance was described as "formidable", "naturalistic and sincere".


title: Jack Kilmer

text: Kilmer graduated from high school in 2013. He intended for his acting job on "Palo Alto" to be a brief project before applying to colleges, but after the film's production he decided to enter acting full-time. In April 2014, he filmed "Len and Company" with Juno Temple and Rhys Ifans. He played Chet, a young film projectionist who proves vital to the investigation in the 2016 neo-noir crime buddy comedy film "The Nice Guys", which was written and directed by Shane Black, who had previously worked with Kilmer's father Val on the 2005 crime buddy comedy "Kiss Kiss Bang Bang".


title: Jack Kilmer

text: In 2014, Kilmer also dipped into the high-fashion modeling world, posing for portraits in Saint Laurent's Permanent Collection, as well as walking the runway in the brand's 2015 spring-summer show.


title: Jack Kilmer

text: Kilmer provided extensive narration for the 2021 documentary "Val", which details the life of his father. In reviewing the documentary, many critics noted the similarity in voice between Kilmer and his father as a young man. The film premiered on Amazon Prime on August 6, 2021 following a screening at the Cannes Film Festival.


title: Jack Kilmer

text: Kilmer enjoys surfing and skateboarding. He is a musician, playing guitar and drums, and was previously in a band called "Glimmer." He also occasionally DJs at a club in Los Angeles.


title: Waste management

text: Waste management or waste disposal includes the processes and actions required to manage waste from its inception to its final disposal.


title: Waste management

text: This includes the collection, transport, treatment and disposal of waste, together with monitoring and regulation of the waste management process and waste-related laws, technologies, economic mechanisms.


title: Waste management

text: Waste can be solid, liquid, or gases and each type has different methods of disposal and management. Waste management deals with all types of waste, including industrial, biological, household, municipal, organic, biomedical, radioactive wastes. In some cases, waste can pose a threat to human health. Health issues are associated throughout the entire process of waste management. Health issues can also arise indirectly or directly. Directly, through the handling of solid waste, and indirectly through the consumption of water, soil and food. Waste is produced by human activity, for example, the extraction and processing of raw materials. Waste management is intended to reduce adverse effects of waste on human health, the environment, planetary resources and aesthetics.


title: Waste management

text: The aim of waste management is to reduce the dangerous effects of such waste on the environment and human health. A big part of waste management deals with municipal solid waste, which is created by industrial, commercial, and household activity.


title: Waste management

text: Waste management practices are not uniform among countries (developed and developing nations); regions (urban and rural areas), and residential and industrial sectors can all take different approaches.


title: Waste management

text: Proper management of waste is important for building sustainable and liveable cities, but it remains a challenge for many developing countries and cities. A report found that effective waste management is relatively expensive, usually comprising 20%–50% of municipal budgets. Operating this essential municipal service requires integrated systems that are efficient, sustainable, and socially supported. A large portion of waste management practices deal with municipal solid waste (MSW) which is the bulk of the waste that is created by household, industrial, and commercial activity. According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), municipal solid waste is expected to reach approximately 3.4 Gt by 2050; however, policies and lawmaking can reduce the amount of waste produced in different areas and cities of the world. Measures of waste management include measures for integrated techno-economic mechanisms of a circular economy, effective disposal facilities, export and import control and optimal sustainable design of products that are produced.


title: Waste management

text: In the first systematic review of the scientific evidence around global waste, its management and its impact on human health and life, authors concluded that about a fourth of all the municipal solid terrestrial waste is not collected and an additional fourth is mismanaged after collection, often being burned in open and uncontrolled fires – or close to one billion tons per year when combined. They also found that broad priority areas each lack a "high-quality research base", partly due to the absence of "substantial research funding", which motivated scientists often require. Electronic waste (ewaste) includes discarded computer monitors, motherboards, mobile phones and chargers, compact discs (CDs), headphones, television sets, air conditioners and refrigerators. According to the Global E-waste Monitor 2017, India generates ~ 2 million tonnes (Mte) of e-waste annually and ranks fifth among the e-waste producing countries, after the US, P.R. China, Japan and Germany.


title: Waste management

text: The waste hierarchy refers to the "3 Rs" Reduce, Reuse and Recycle, which classifies waste management strategies according to their desirability in terms of waste minimisation. The waste hierarchy is the bedrock of most waste minimization strategies. The aim of the waste hierarchy is to extract the maximum practical benefits from products and to generate the minimum amount of end waste; see: resource recovery. The waste hierarchy is represented as a pyramid because the basic premise is that policies should promote measures to prevent the generation of waste. The next step or preferred action is to seek alternative uses for the waste that has been generated i.e. by re-use. The next is recycling which includes composting. Following this step is material recovery and waste-to-energy. The final action is disposal, in landfills or through incineration without energy recovery. This last step is the final resort for waste which has not been prevented, diverted or recovered. The waste hierarchy represents the progression of a product or material through the sequential stages of the pyramid of waste management. The hierarchy represents the latter parts of the life-cycle for each product.


title: Waste management

text: The life-cycle begins with the design, then proceeds through manufacture, distribution, and primary use and then follows through the waste hierarchy's stages of reduce, reuse and recycle. Each stage in the life-cycle offers opportunities for policy intervention, to rethink the need for the product, to redesign to minimize waste potential, to extend its use. Product life-cycle analysis is a way to optimize the use of the world's limited resources by avoiding the unnecessary generation of waste.


title: Waste management

text: Resource efficiency reflects the understanding that global economic growth and development can not be sustained at current production and consumption patterns. Globally, humanity extracts more resources to produce goods than the planet can replenish. Resource efficiency is the reduction of the environmental impact from the production and consumption of these goods, from final raw material extraction to the last use and disposal.


title: Waste management

text: The polluter-pays principle mandates that the polluting party pays for the impact on the environment. With respect to waste management, this generally refers to the requirement for a waste generator to pay for appropriate disposal of the unrecoverable material.


title: Waste management

text: Throughout most of history, the amount of waste generated by humans was insignificant due to low levels of population density and exploitation of natural resources. Common waste produced during pre-modern times was mainly ashes and human biodegradable waste, and these were released back into the ground locally, with minimum environmental impact. Tools made out of wood or metal were generally reused or passed down through the generations.


title: Waste management

text: However, some civilizations have been more profligate in their waste output than others. In particular, the Maya of Central America had a fixed monthly ritual, in which the people of the village would gather together and burn their rubbish in large dumps.


title: Waste management

text: Following the onset of industrialisation and the sustained urban growth of large population centres in England, the buildup of waste in the cities caused a rapid deterioration in levels of sanitation and the general quality of urban life. The streets became choked with filth due to the lack of waste clearance regulations. Calls for the establishment of a municipal authority with waste removal powers occurred as early as 1751, when Corbyn Morris in London proposed that "... as the preservation of the health of the people is of great importance, it is proposed that the cleaning of this city, should be put under one uniform public management, and all the filth be...conveyed by the Thames to proper distance in the country".


title: Waste management

text: However, it was not until the mid-19th century, spurred by increasingly devastating cholera outbreaks and the emergence of a public health debate that the first legislation on the issue emerged. Highly influential in this new focus was the report "The Sanitary Condition of the Labouring Population" in 1842 of the social reformer, Edwin Chadwick, in which he argued for the importance of adequate waste removal and management facilities to improve the health and wellbeing of the city's population.


title: Waste management

text: In the UK, the Nuisance Removal and Disease Prevention Act of 1846 began what was to be a steadily evolving process of the provision of regulated waste management in London. The Metropolitan Board of Works was the first citywide authority that centralized sanitation regulation for the rapidly expanding city and the Public Health Act 1875 made it compulsory for every household to deposit their weekly waste in "moveable receptacles" for disposal—the first concept for a dust-bin. In the Ashanti Empire by the 19th century, there existed a Public Works Department that was responsible for sanitation in Kumasi and its suburbs. They kept the streets clean daily and commanded civilians to keep their compounds clean and weeded.


title: Waste management

text: The dramatic increase in waste for disposal led to the creation of the first incineration plants, or, as they were then called, "destructors". In 1874, the first incinerator was built in Nottingham by Manlove, Alliott & Co. Ltd. to the design of Alfred Fryer. However, these were met with opposition on account of the large amounts of ash they produced and which wafted over the neighbouring areas.


title: Waste management

text: Similar municipal systems of waste disposal sprung up at the turn of the 20th century in other large cities of Europe and North America. In 1895, New York City became the first U.S. city with public-sector garbage management.


title: Waste management

text: Early garbage removal trucks were simply open bodied dump trucks pulled by a team of horses. They became motorized in the early part of the 20th century and the first closed body trucks to eliminate odours with a dumping lever mechanism were introduced in the 1920s in Britain. These were soon equipped with 'hopper mechanisms' where the scooper was loaded at floor level and then hoisted mechanically to deposit the waste in the truck. The Garwood Load Packer was the first truck in 1938, to incorporate a hydraulic compactor.