title: George I of Greece

text: The King was related by marriage to the British, Russian and Prussian monarchs, maintaining a particularly strong attachment to the Prince and Princess of Wales, who visited Athens in 1869. Their visit occurred despite continued lawlessness which culminated in the kidnap of a party of British and Italian tourists, including Lord and Lady Muncaster. Two female hostages, a child and Lord Muncaster were released, but four of the others were murdered: British diplomat E. H. C. Herbert (the first cousin of Lord Carnarvon), Frederick Vyner (the brother-in-law of Lord Ripon, Lord President of the Council), Italian diplomat Count Boyl di Putifigari, and Mr. Lloyd (an engineer). George's relationships with other ruling houses assisted him and his small country but also often put them at the center of national political struggles in Europe.


title: George I of Greece

text: From 1864 to 1874, Greece had 21 governments, the longest of which lasted a year and a half. In July 1874, Charilaos Trikoupis, a member of the Greek Parliament, wrote an anonymous article in the newspaper "Kairoi" blaming King George and his advisors for the continuing political crisis caused by the lack of stable governments. In the article, he accused the King of acting like an absolute monarch by imposing minority governments on the people. If the King insisted, he argued, that only a politician commanding a majority in the "Vouli" could be appointed prime minister, then politicians would be forced to work together more harmoniously to construct a coalition government. Such a plan, he wrote, would end the political instability and reduce the large number of smaller parties. Trikoupis admitted to writing the article after a man supposed by the authorities to be the author was arrested, whereupon he was taken into custody himself. After a public outcry, he was released and subsequently acquitted of the charge of "undermining the constitutional order". The following year, the King asked Trikoupis to form a government (without a majority) and then read a speech from the throne declaring that in future the leader of the majority party in parliament would be appointed prime minister.


title: George I of Greece

text: Throughout the 1870s, Greece kept pressure on the Ottoman Empire, seeking territorial expansion into Epirus and Thessaly. The Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878 provided the first potential alliance for the Greek kingdom. George's sister Dagmar was the daughter-in-law of Alexander II of Russia, and she sought to have Greece join the war. The French and British refused to countenance such an act, and Greece remained neutral. At the Congress of Berlin convened in 1878 to determine peace terms for the Russo-Turkish War, Greece staked a claim to Crete, Epirus and Thessaly.


title: George I of Greece

text: The borders were still not finalized in June 1880 when a proposal very favorable to Greece that included Mount Olympus and Ioannina was offered by the British and French. When the Ottoman Turks strenuously objected, Prime Minister Trikoupis made the mistake of threatening a mobilization of the Hellenic Army. A coincident change of government in France, the resignation of Charles de Freycinet and his replacement with Jules Ferry, led to disputes among the Great Powers and, despite British support for a more pro-Greek settlement, the Turks subsequently granted Greece all of Thessaly but only the part of Epirus around Arta. When the government of Trikoupis fell, the new prime minister, Alexandros Koumoundouros, reluctantly accepted the new boundaries.


title: George I of Greece

text: While Trikoupis followed a policy of retrenchment within the established borders of the Greek state, having learned a valuable lesson about the vicissitudes of the Great Powers, his main opponents, the Nationalist Party led by Theodoros Deligiannis, sought to inflame the anti-Turkish feelings of the Greeks at every opportunity. The next opportunity arose in 1885 when Bulgarians rose in revolt in Eastern Rumelia and united the province with Bulgaria. Deligiannis rode to victory over Trikoupis in elections that year saying that if the Bulgarians could defy the Treaty of Berlin, so should the Greeks.


title: George I of Greece

text: Deligiannis mobilized the Hellenic Army, and the British Royal Navy blockaded Greece. The admiral in charge of the blockade was Prince Alfred, Duke of Edinburgh, who had been the first choice of the Greeks to be their king in 1863, and the First Lord of the Admiralty at the time was Lord Ripon, whose brother-in-law had been murdered in Greece 16 years before. This was not the last time that King George discovered that his family ties were not always to his advantage. Deligiannis was forced to demobilize and Trikoupis regained the premiership. Between 1882 and 1897, Trikoupis and Deligiannis alternated the premiership as their fortunes rose and fell.


title: George I of Greece

text: George's silver jubilee in 1888 was celebrated throughout the Hellenic world, and Athens was decorated with garlands for the anniversary of his accession on 30 October. Visitors included the Crown Prince of Denmark, the Prince and Princess of Wales, the Duke and Duchess of Edinburgh, Grand Dukes Sergei and Paul of Russia, and Djevad Pasha from the Ottoman Empire, who presented the King with two Arabian horses as gifts. Jubilee events in the week of 30 October included balls, galas, parades, a thanksgiving service at the Metropolitan Cathedral of Athens, and a lunch for 500 invited guests in a blue and white tent on the Acropolis.


title: George I of Greece

text: Greece in the last decades of the 19th century was increasingly prosperous and was developing a sense of its role on the European stage. In 1893, the Corinth Canal was built by a French company cutting the sea journey from the Adriatic Sea to Piraeus by . In 1896, the Olympic Games were revived in Athens, and the Opening Ceremony of the 1896 Summer Olympics was presided over by the King. When Spiridon Louis, a shepherd from just outside Athens, ran into the Panathinaiko Stadium to win the Marathon event, the Crown Prince ran down onto the field to run the last thousand yards beside the Greek gold medalist, while the King stood and applauded.


title: George I of Greece

text: The popular desire to unite all Greeks within a single territory ("Megali Idea") was never far below the surface and another revolt against Turkish rule erupted in Crete. In February 1897, King George sent his son, Prince George, to take possession of the island. The Greeks refused an Ottoman offer of an autonomous administration, and Deligiannis mobilized for war. The Great Powers refused to allow the expansion of Greece, and on 25 February 1897 announced that Crete would be under an autonomous administration and ordered the Greek and Ottoman Turk militias to withdraw.


title: George I of Greece

text: The Turks agreed, but Prime Minister Deligiannis refused and dispatched 1400 troops to Crete under the command of Colonel Timoleon Vassos. While the Great Powers announced a blockade, Greek troops crossed the Macedonian border and Abdul Hamid II declared war. The announcement that Greece was finally at war with the Turks was greeted by delirious displays of patriotism and spontaneous parades in honor of the King in Athens. Volunteers by the thousands streamed north to join the forces under the command of Crown Prince Constantine.


title: George I of Greece

text: The war went badly for the ill-prepared Greeks; the only saving grace was the swiftness with which the Hellenic Army was overrun. By the end of April 1897, the war was lost. The worst consequences of defeat for the Greeks were mitigated by the intervention of the King's relations in Britain and Russia; nevertheless, the Greeks were forced to give up Crete to international administration, and agree to minor territorial concessions in favor of the Turks and an indemnity of 4 million Turkish pounds.


title: George I of Greece

text: The jubilation with which Greeks had hailed their king at the beginning of the war was reversed in defeat. For a time, he considered abdication. It was not until the King faced down an assassination attempt on 27 February 1898 with great bravery that his subjects again held their monarch in high esteem. Returning from a trip to the beach at Phaleron in an open carriage, George and his daughter Maria were shot at by two riflemen. The King tried to shield his daughter; both were unhurt though the coachman and a horse were wounded. The gunmen (an Athens clerk called Karditzis and his assistant) fled into the Hymettus hills but they were spotted and arrested. Both were beheaded at Nauplia.


title: George I of Greece

text: Later that year, after continued unrest in Crete, which included the murder of the British vice-consul, Prince George of Greece was made the Governor-General of Crete under the suzerainty of the Sultan, after the proposal was put forward by the Great Powers. Greece was effectively in day-to-day control of Crete for the first time in modern history.


title: George I of Greece

text: The death of Britain's Queen Victoria on 22 January 1901 left King George as the second-longest-reigning monarch in Europe. His always cordial relations with his brother-in-law, the new King Edward VII, continued to tie Greece to Britain. This was abundantly important in Britain's support of King George's son Prince George as Governor-General of Crete. Nevertheless, Prince George resigned in 1906 after a leader in the Cretan Assembly, Eleftherios Venizelos, campaigned to have him removed.


title: George I of Greece

text: As a response to the Young Turk Revolution of 1908, Venizelos's power base was further strengthened, and on 8 October 1908 the Cretan Assembly passed a resolution in favor of union despite both the reservations of the Athens government under Georgios Theotokis and the objections of the Great Powers. The muted reaction of the Athens Government to the news from Crete led to an unsettled state of affairs on the mainland.


title: George I of Greece

text: In August 1909, a group of army officers that had formed a military league, "Stratiotikos Syndesmos", demanded, among other things, that the royal family be stripped of their military commissions. To save the King the embarrassment of removing his sons from their commissions, they resigned them. The military league attempted a coup d'état, and the King insisted on supporting the duly elected Hellenic Parliament in response. Eventually, the military league joined forces with Venizelos in calling for a National Assembly to revise the constitution. King George gave way, and new elections to the revising assembly were held in August 1910. After some political maneuvering, Venizelos became prime minister of a minority government. Just a month later, Venizelos called new elections for , at which he won an overwhelming majority after most of the opposition parties declined to take part.


title: George I of Greece

text: Venizelos and the King were united in their belief that the nation required a strong army to repair the damage of the humiliating defeat of 1897. Crown Prince Constantine was reinstated as Inspector-General of the Army, and later Commander-in-Chief. Under his and Venizelos's close supervision the military was retrained and equipped with French and British help, and new ships were ordered for the Hellenic Navy. Meanwhile, through diplomatic means, Venizelos had united the Christian countries of the Balkans in opposition to the ailing Ottoman Empire.


title: George I of Greece

text: When the Kingdom of Montenegro declared war on Turkey on 8 October 1912, it was joined quickly by Serbia, Bulgaria, and Greece in what is known as the First Balkan War. George was on vacation in Denmark, so he immediately returned to Greece via Vienna, arriving in Athens to be met by a large and enthusiastic crowd on the evening of 9 October. The results of this campaign differed radically from the Greek experience at the hands of the Turks in 1897. The well-trained Greek forces, 200,000 strong, won victory after victory. On 9 November 1912, Greek forces commanded by Crown Prince Constantine rode into Thessaloniki, just a few hours ahead of a Bulgarian division. Three days later King George rode in triumph through the streets of Thessaloniki, the second-largest Greek city, accompanied by the Crown Prince and Venizelos.


title: George I of Greece

text: As he approached the fiftieth anniversary of his accession, the King made plans to abdicate in favor of his son Constantine immediately after the celebration of his golden jubilee in October 1913. Just as he did in Athens, George went about Thessaloniki without any meaningful protection force. While out on an afternoon walk near the White Tower on 18 March 1913, he was shot at close range in the back by Alexandros Schinas, who was "said to belong to a Socialist organization" and "declared when arrested that he had killed the King because he refused to give him money". George died instantly, the bullet having penetrated his heart. The Greek government denied any political motive for the assassination, saying that Schinas was an alcoholic vagrant. Schinas was tortured in prison and fell to his death from a police station window six weeks later.


title: George I of Greece

text: The King's body was taken to Athens on the "Amphitrite", escorted by a flotilla of naval vessels. For three days the coffin of the King, draped in the Danish and Greek flags, lay in the Metropolitan Cathedral in Athens before his body was committed to a tomb at his palace in Tatoi.


title: George I of Greece

text: The distinctive Greek flag of blue and white cross was first hoisted during the Greek War of Independence in March 1822. This was later modified so that the shade of blue matched that of the Bavarian coat of arms of the first King of Greece, Otto. The shield is emblazoned with a smaller version of the royal arms of Denmark, including the three lions of the arms of Denmark proper, the two lions of Schleswig, the nettle leaf of Holstein, the horse head of Lauenburg, the two red bars of the House of Oldenburg and the cross of Delmenhorst. The supporters on either side both depicting Heracles are quite similar to the two wild men from the Danish royal arms. Beneath the shield is the motto in Greek, Ἰσχύς μου ἡ αγάπη τοῦ λαοῦ ("The people's love is my strength"). Beneath the motto dangles the Grand Cross of the Order of the Redeemer, Greece's premier decoration of honor.


title: Thomas Hobbes

text: Thomas Hobbes ( ; 5/15 April 1588 – 4/14 December 1679) was an English philosopher, considered to be one of the founders of modern political philosophy. Hobbes is best known for his 1651 book "Leviathan", in which he expounds an influential formulation of social contract theory. In addition to political philosophy, Hobbes contributed to a diverse array of other fields, including history, jurisprudence, geometry, theology, and ethics, as well as philosophy in general.


title: Thomas Hobbes

text: Thomas Hobbes was born on 5 April 1588 (Old Style), in Westport, now part of Malmesbury in Wiltshire, England. Having been born prematurely when his mother heard of the coming invasion of the Spanish Armada, Hobbes later reported that "my mother gave birth to twins: myself and fear." Hobbes had a brother, Edmund, about two years older, as well as a sister named Anne.


title: Thomas Hobbes

text: Although Thomas Hobbes's childhood is unknown to a large extent, as is his mother's name, it is known that Hobbes's father, Thomas Sr., was the vicar of both Charlton and Westport. Hobbes's father was uneducated, according to John Aubrey, Hobbes's biographer, and he "disesteemed learning." Thomas Sr. was involved in a fight with the local clergy outside his church, forcing him to leave London. As a result, the family was left in the care of Thomas Sr.'s older brother, Francis, a wealthy glove manufacturer with no family of his own.


title: Thomas Hobbes

text: Hobbes Jr. was educated at Westport church from age four, passed to the Malmesbury school, and then to a private school kept by a young man named Robert Latimer, a graduate of the University of Oxford. Hobbes was a good pupil, and between 1601 and 1602 he went up to Magdalen Hall, the predecessor to Hertford College, Oxford, where he was taught scholastic logic and mathematics. The principal, John Wilkinson, was a Puritan and had some influence on Hobbes. Before going up to Oxford, Hobbes translated Euripides' "Medea" from Greek into Latin verse.


title: Thomas Hobbes

text: At university, Thomas Hobbes appears to have followed his own curriculum as he was little attracted by the scholastic learning. Leaving Oxford, Hobbes completed his B.A. degree by incorporation at St John's College, Cambridge, in 1608. He was recommended by Sir James Hussey, his master at Magdalen, as tutor to William, the son of William Cavendish, Baron of Hardwick (and later Earl of Devonshire), and began a lifelong connection with that family. William Cavendish was elevated to the peerage on his father's death in 1626, holding it for two years before his death in 1628. His son, also William, likewise became the 3rd Earl of Devonshire. Hobbes served as a tutor and secretary to both men. The 1st Earl's younger brother, Charles Cavendish, had two sons who were patrons of Hobbes. The elder son, William Cavendish, later 1st Duke of Newcastle, was a leading supporter of Charles I during the civil war personally financing an army for the king, having been governor to the Prince of Wales, Charles James, Duke of Cornwall. It was to this William Cavendish that Hobbes dedicated his "Elements of Law".


title: Thomas Hobbes

text: Hobbes became a companion to the younger William Cavendish and they both took part in a grand tour of Europe between 1610 and 1615. Hobbes was exposed to European scientific and critical methods during the tour, in contrast to the scholastic philosophy that he had learned in Oxford. In Venice, Hobbes made the acquaintance of Fulgenzio Micanzio, an associate of Paolo Sarpi, a Venetian scholar and statesman.


title: Thomas Hobbes

text: His scholarly efforts at the time were aimed at a careful study of classic Greek and Latin authors, the outcome of which was, in 1628, his great translation of Thucydides' "History of the Peloponnesian War", the first translation of that work into English from a Greek manuscript. It has been argued that three of the discourses in the 1620 publication known as "Horae Subsecivae: Observations and Discourses" also represent the work of Hobbes from this period.


title: Thomas Hobbes

text: Although he did associate with literary figures like Ben Jonson and briefly worked as Francis Bacon's amanuensis, translating several of his "Essays" into Latin, he did not extend his efforts into philosophy until after 1629. In June 1628, his employer Cavendish, then the Earl of Devonshire, died of the plague, and his widow, the countess Christian, dismissed Hobbes.


title: Thomas Hobbes

text: Hobbes soon found work as a tutor to Gervase Clifton, the son of Sir Gervase Clifton, 1st Baronet, mostly spent in Paris until 1631. Thereafter, he again found work with the Cavendish family, tutoring William Cavendish, 3rd Earl of Devonshire, the eldest son of his previous pupil. Over the next seven years, as well as tutoring, he expanded his own knowledge of philosophy, awakening in him curiosity over key philosophic debates. He visited Galileo Galilei in Florence while he was under house arrest upon condemnation, in 1636, and was later a regular debater in philosophic groups in Paris, held together by Marin Mersenne.


title: Thomas Hobbes

text: Hobbes's first area of study was an interest in the physical doctrine of motion and physical momentum. Despite his interest in this phenomenon, he disdained experimental work as in physics. He went on to conceive the system of thought to the elaboration of which he would devote his life. His scheme was first to work out, in a separate treatise, a systematic doctrine of body, showing how physical phenomena were universally explicable in terms of motion, at least as motion or mechanical action was then understood. He then singled out Man from the realm of Nature and plants. Then, in another treatise, he showed what specific bodily motions were involved in the production of the peculiar phenomena of sensation, knowledge, affections and passions whereby Man came into relation with Man. Finally, he considered, in his crowning treatise, how Men were moved to enter into society, and argued how this must be regulated if people were not to fall back into "brutishness and misery". Thus he proposed to unite the separate phenomena of Body, Man, and the State.


title: Thomas Hobbes

text: Hobbes came back home from Paris, in 1637, to a country riven with discontent, which disrupted him from the orderly execution of his philosophic plan. However, by the end of the Short Parliament in 1640, he had written a short treatise called "The Elements of Law, Natural and Politic". It was not published and only circulated as a manuscript among his acquaintances. A pirated version, however, was published about ten years later. Although it seems that much of "The Elements of Law" was composed before the sitting of the Short Parliament, there are polemical pieces of the work that clearly mark the influences of the rising political crisis. Nevertheless, many (though not all) elements of Hobbes's political thought were unchanged between "The Elements of Law" and "Leviathan", which demonstrates that the events of the English Civil War had little effect on his contractarian methodology. However, the arguments in "Leviathan" were modified from "The Elements of Law" when it came to the necessity of consent in creating political obligation: Hobbes wrote in "The Elements of Law" that Patrimonial kingdoms were not necessarily formed by the consent of the governed, while in "Leviathan" he argued that they were. This was perhaps a reflection either of Hobbes's thoughts about the engagement controversy or of his reaction to treatises published by Patriarchalists, such as Sir Robert Filmer, between 1640 and 1651.


title: Thomas Hobbes

text: When in November 1640 the Long Parliament succeeded the Short, Hobbes felt that he was in disfavour due to the circulation of his treatise and fled to Paris. He did not return for 11 years. In Paris, he rejoined the coterie around Mersenne and wrote a critique of the "Meditations on First Philosophy" of Descartes, which was printed as third among the sets of "Objections" appended, with "Replies" from Descartes, in 1641. A different set of remarks on other works by Descartes succeeded only in ending all correspondence between the two.


title: Thomas Hobbes

text: Hobbes also extended his own works in a way, working on the third section, "De Cive", which was finished in November 1641. Although it was initially only circulated privately, it was well received, and included lines of argumentation that were repeated a decade later in "Leviathan". He then returned to hard work on the first two sections of his work and published little except a short treatise on optics ("Tractatus opticus"), included in the collection of scientific tracts published by Mersenne as "Cogitata physico-mathematica" in 1644. He built a good reputation in philosophic circles and in 1645 was chosen with Descartes, Gilles de Roberval and others to referee the controversy between John Pell and Longomontanus over the problem of squaring the circle.


title: Thomas Hobbes

text: The English Civil War began in 1642, and when the royalist cause began to decline in mid-1644, many royalists came to Paris and were known to Hobbes. This revitalised Hobbes's political interests, and the "De Cive" was republished and more widely distributed. The printing began in 1646 by Samuel de Sorbiere through the Elsevier press in Amsterdam with a new preface and some new notes in reply to objections.


title: Thomas Hobbes

text: In 1647, Hobbes took up a position as mathematical instructor to the young Charles, Prince of Wales, who had come to Paris from Jersey around July. This engagement lasted until 1648 when Charles went to Holland.


title: Thomas Hobbes

text: The company of the exiled royalists led Hobbes to produce "Leviathan", which set forth his theory of civil government in relation to the political crisis resulting from the war. Hobbes compared the State to a monster (leviathan) composed of men, created under pressure of human needs and dissolved by civil strife due to human passions. The work closed with a general "Review and Conclusion", in response to the war, which answered the question: Does a subject have the right to change allegiance when a former sovereign's power to protect is irrevocably lost?


title: Thomas Hobbes

text: During the years of composing "Leviathan", Hobbes remained in or near Paris. In 1647, he suffered a near-fatal illness that disabled him for six months. On recovering, he resumed his literary task and completed it by 1650. Meanwhile, a translation of "De Cive" was being produced; scholars disagree about whether it was Hobbes who translated it.


title: Thomas Hobbes

text: In 1650, a pirated edition of "The Elements of Law, Natural and Politic" was published. It was divided into two small volumes: "Human Nature, or the Fundamental Elements of Policie"; and "De corpore politico, or the Elements of Law, Moral and Politick".


title: Thomas Hobbes

text: In 1651, the translation of "De Cive" was published under the title "Philosophical Rudiments concerning Government and Society". Also, the printing of the greater work proceeded, and finally appeared in mid-1651, titled "Leviathan, or the Matter, Forme, and Power of a Common Wealth, Ecclesiastical and Civil". It had a famous title-page engraving depicting a crowned giant above the waist towering above hills overlooking a landscape, holding a sword and a crozier and made up of tiny human figures. The work had immediate impact. Soon, Hobbes was more lauded and decried than any other thinker of his time. The first effect of its publication was to sever his link with the exiled royalists, who might well have killed him. The secularist spirit of his book greatly angered both Anglicans and French Catholics. Hobbes appealed to the revolutionary English government for protection and fled back to London in winter 1651. After his submission to the Council of State, he was allowed to subside into private life in Fetter Lane.


title: Thomas Hobbes

text: In 1658, Hobbes published the final section of his philosophical system, completing the scheme he had planned more than 20 years before. "De Homine" consisted for the most part of an elaborate theory of vision. The remainder of the treatise dealt cursorily with some of the topics more fully treated in the "Human Nature" and the "Leviathan". In addition to publishing some controversial writings on mathematics, including disciplines like geometry, Hobbes also continued to produce philosophical works.


title: Thomas Hobbes

text: From the time of the Restoration, he acquired a new prominence; "Hobbism" became a byword for all that respectable society ought to denounce. The young king, Hobbes's former pupil, now Charles II, remembered Hobbes and called him to the court to grant him a pension of £100.


title: Thomas Hobbes

text: The king was important in protecting Hobbes when, in 1666, the House of Commons introduced a bill against atheism and profaneness. That same year, on 17 October 1666, it was ordered that the committee to which the bill was referred "should be empowered to receive information touching such books as tend to atheism, blasphemy and profaneness... in particular... the book of Mr. Hobbes called the "Leviathan"." Hobbes was terrified at the prospect of being labelled a heretic, and proceeded to burn some of his compromising papers. At the same time, he examined the actual state of the law of heresy. The results of his investigation were first announced in three short Dialogues added as an "Appendix" to his "Latin translation of Leviathan", published in Amsterdam in 1668. In this appendix, Hobbes aimed to show that, since the High Court of Commission had been put down, there remained no court of heresy at all to which he was amenable, and that nothing could be heresy except opposing the Nicene Creed, which, he maintained, "Leviathan" did not do.


title: Thomas Hobbes

text: The only consequence that came of the bill was that Hobbes could never thereafter publish anything in England on subjects relating to human conduct. The 1668 edition of his works was printed in Amsterdam because he could not obtain the censor's licence for its publication in England. Other writings were not made public until after his death, including "Behemoth: the History of the Causes of the Civil Wars of England and of the Counsels and Artifices by which they were carried on from the year 1640 to the year 1662". For some time, Hobbes was not even allowed to respond, whatever his enemies tried. Despite this, his reputation abroad was formidable.


title: Thomas Hobbes

text: Hobbes spent the last four or five years of his life with his patron, William Cavendish, 1st Duke of Devonshire, at the family's Chatsworth House estate. He had been a friend of the family since 1608 when he first tutored an earlier William Cavendish. After Hobbes's death, many of his manuscripts would be found at Chatsworth House.


title: Thomas Hobbes

text: His final works were an autobiography in Latin verse in 1672, and a translation of four books of the "Odyssey" into "rugged" English rhymes that in 1673 led to a complete translation of both "Iliad" and "Odyssey" in 1675.


title: Thomas Hobbes

text: In October 1679 Hobbes suffered a bladder disorder, and then a paralytic stroke, from which he died on 4 December 1679, aged 91,


title: Thomas Hobbes

text: His last words were said to have been "A great leap in the dark", uttered in his final conscious moments. His body was interred in St John the Baptist's Church, Ault Hucknall, in Derbyshire.


title: Thomas Hobbes

text: Hobbes, influenced by contemporary scientific ideas, had intended for his political theory to be a quasi-geometrical system, in which the conclusions followed inevitably from the premises. The main practical conclusion of Hobbes's political theory is that state or society cannot be secure unless at the disposal of an absolute sovereign. From this follows the view that no individual can hold rights of property against the sovereign, and that the sovereign may therefore take the goods of its subjects without their consent. This particular view owes its significance to it being first developed in the 1630s when Charles I had sought to raise revenues without the consent of Parliament, and therefore of his subjects. Hobbes rejected one of the most famous theses of Aristotle's politics, namely that human beings are naturally suited to life in a polis and do not fully realize their natures until they exercise the role of citizen.


title: Thomas Hobbes

text: In "Leviathan", Hobbes set out his doctrine of the foundation of states and legitimate governments and creating an objective science of morality. Much of the book is occupied with demonstrating the necessity of a strong central authority to avoid the evil of discord and civil war.


title: Thomas Hobbes

text: Beginning from a mechanistic understanding of human beings and their passions, Hobbes postulates what life would be like without government, a condition which he calls the state of nature. In that state, each person would have a right, or license, to everything in the world. This, Hobbes argues, would lead to a "war of all against all" ("bellum omnium contra omnes"). The description contains what has been called one of the best-known passages in English philosophy, which describes the natural state humankind would be in, were it not for political community:


title: Thomas Hobbes

text: In such states, people fear death and lack both the things necessary to commodious living, and the hope of being able to obtain them. So, in order to avoid it, people accede to a social contract and establish a civil society. According to Hobbes, society is a population and a sovereign authority, to whom all individuals in that society cede some right for the sake of protection. Power exercised by this authority cannot be resisted, because the protector's sovereign power derives from individuals' surrendering their own sovereign power for protection. The individuals are thereby the authors of all decisions made by the sovereign, "he that complaineth of injury from his sovereign complaineth that whereof he himself is the author, and therefore ought not to accuse any man but himself, no nor himself of injury because to do injury to one's self is impossible". There is no doctrine of separation of powers in Hobbes's discussion. According to Hobbes, the sovereign must control civil, military, judicial and ecclesiastical powers, even the words.


title: Thomas Hobbes

text: In 1654 a small treatise, "Of Liberty and Necessity", directed at Hobbes, was published by Bishop John Bramhall. Bramhall, a strong Arminian, had met and debated with Hobbes and afterwards wrote down his views and sent them privately to be answered in this form by Hobbes. Hobbes duly replied, but not for publication. However, a French acquaintance took a copy of the reply and published it with "an extravagantly laudatory epistle". Bramhall countered in 1655, when he printed everything that had passed between them (under the title of "A Defence of the True Liberty of Human Actions from Antecedent or Extrinsic Necessity").


title: Thomas Hobbes

text: In 1656, Hobbes was ready with "The Questions concerning Liberty, Necessity and Chance", in which he replied "with astonishing force" to the bishop. As perhaps the first clear exposition of the psychological doctrine of determinism, Hobbes's own two pieces were important in the history of the free-will controversy. The bishop returned to the charge in 1658 with "Castigations of Mr Hobbes's Animadversions", and also included a bulky appendix entitled "The Catching of Leviathan the Great Whale".


title: Thomas Hobbes

text: Hobbes opposed the existing academic arrangements, and assailed the system of the original universities in "Leviathan". He went on to publish "De Corpore", which contained not only tendentious views on mathematics but also an erroneous proof of the squaring of the circle. This all led mathematicians to target him for polemics and sparked John Wallis to become one of his most persistent opponents. From 1655, the publishing date of "De Corpore", Hobbes and Wallis continued name-calling and bickering for nearly a quarter century, with Hobbes failing to admit his error to the end of his life. After years of debate, the spat over proving the squaring of the circle gained such notoriety that it has become one of the most infamous feuds in mathematical history.


title: Thomas Hobbes

text: The religious opinions of Hobbes remain controversial as many positions have been attributed to him and range from atheism to Orthodox Christianity. In the Elements of Law, Hobbes provided a cosmological argument for the existence of God, saying that God is "the first cause of all causes".


title: Thomas Hobbes

text: Hobbes was accused of atheism by several contemporaries; Bramhall accused him of teachings that could lead to atheism. This was an important accusation, and Hobbes himself wrote, in his answer to Bramhall's "The Catching of Leviathan", that "atheism, impiety, and the like are words of the greatest defamation possible". Hobbes always defended himself from such accusations. In more recent times also, much has been made of his religious views by scholars such as Richard Tuck and J. G. A. Pocock, but there is still widespread disagreement about the exact significance of Hobbes's unusual views on religion.


title: Thomas Hobbes

text: As Martinich has pointed out, in Hobbes's time the term "atheist" was often applied to people who believed in God but not in divine providence, or to people who believed in God but also maintained other beliefs that were considered to be inconsistent with such belief or judged incompatible with orthodox Christianity. He says that this "sort of discrepancy has led to many errors in determining who was an atheist in the early modern period". In this extended early modern sense of atheism, Hobbes did take positions that strongly disagreed with church teachings of his time. For example, he argued repeatedly that there are no incorporeal substances, and that all things, including human thoughts, and even God, heaven, and hell are corporeal, matter in motion. He argued that "though Scripture acknowledge spirits, yet doth it nowhere say, that they are incorporeal, meaning thereby without dimensions and quantity". (In this view, Hobbes claimed to be following Tertullian.) Like John Locke, he also stated that true revelation can never disagree with human reason and experience, although he also argued that people should accept revelation and its interpretations for the reason that they should accept the commands of their sovereign, in order to avoid war.


title: Thomas Hobbes

text: While in Venice on tour, Hobbes made the acquaintance of Fulgenzio Micanzio, a close associate of Paolo Sarpi, who had written against the pretensions of the papacy to temporal power in response to the Interdict of Pope Paul V against Venice, which refused to recognise papal prerogatives. James I had invited both men to England in 1612. Micanzio and Sarpi had argued that God willed human nature, and that human nature indicated the autonomy of the state in temporal affairs. When he returned to England in 1615, William Cavendish maintained correspondence with Micanzio and Sarpi, and Hobbes translated the latter's letters from Italian, which were circulated among the Duke's circle.


title: The Defenders (miniseries)

text: Marvel's The Defenders is an American television miniseries created by Douglas Petrie and Marco Ramirez for the streaming service Netflix, based on the Marvel Comics characters Daredevil, Jessica Jones, Luke Cage, and Iron Fist, who form the eponymous superhero team. It is set in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU) and acknowledges the continuity of the franchise's films. The miniseries is a crossover event and the culmination for four previously released interconnected series from Marvel and Netflix. It was produced by Marvel Television in association with ABC Studios, Nine and a Half Fingers, Inc., and Goddard Textiles, with Ramirez serving as showrunner.


title: The Defenders (miniseries)

text: The series stars Charlie Cox as Matt Murdock / Daredevil, Krysten Ritter as Jessica Jones, Mike Colter as Luke Cage, and Finn Jones as Danny Rand / Iron Fist, all reprising their roles from their individual series. It also stars Eka Darville, Elden Henson, Jessica Henwick, Simone Missick, Ramón Rodríguez, Rachael Taylor, Deborah Ann Woll, Élodie Yung, Rosario Dawson, and Scott Glenn, all also returning from previous series, as well as Sigourney Weaver. Development began in late 2013, with Cox the first actor cast in May 2014. Petrie and Ramirez joined as showrunners in April, after doing so for the second season of "Daredevil". Petrie left with the start of filming, which took place in New York City from October 2016 to March 2017. Cinematography and design work established the different color palettes from the characters' individual series, and combined them as the team is formed.


title: The Defenders (miniseries)

text: "The Defenders" premiered in New York on July 31, 2017, with all eight episodes released on Netflix on August 18. Critics were mostly positive about the crossover, highlighting the dynamics between the different Defenders as well as Weaver's performance, but were generally disappointed with the overall story, pacing, and the use of the Hand as villains. Third-party analysis indicated that the miniseries was the least-viewed Marvel Netflix series so far and had the largest week-over-week drop in viewership of them all, though it was the third-most "Binge Raced" series globally at the time of its release, according to Netflix. It received several award nominations. "The Defenders", along with the other Marvel Netflix series, was removed from Netflix on March 1, 2022, after Disney regained the license for the series. They began streaming on Disney+ from March 16.


title: The Defenders (miniseries)

text: Set a few months after the second season of "Daredevil", and a month after the first season of "Iron Fist", the vigilantes Daredevil, Jessica Jones, Luke Cage, and Iron Fist team up in New York City to fight a common enemy, the Hand.


title: The Defenders (miniseries)

text: Stan Lee makes a cameo appearance through an on-set photograph as NYPD Captain Irving Forbush, the same photograph seen in previous Marvel Netflix series. The Aeolus Quartet also cameo as themselves, performing Johannes Brahms' First String Quartet for Alexandra.


title: The Defenders (miniseries)

text: In October 2013, "Deadline Hollywood" reported that Marvel Television was preparing four drama series and a miniseries, totaling 60 episodes, to present to video on demand services and cable providers, with Netflix, Amazon, and WGN America expressing interest. A few weeks later, it was announced that Marvel Television and ABC Studios would provide Netflix with live action series centered around Daredevil, Jessica Jones, Luke Cage, and Iron Fist, leading up to a miniseries based on the Defenders. In November 2015, Marvel Comics' editor-in-chief Joe Quesada stated there was no apprehension from Marvel in changing the line up of the Defenders from the "classic" original line-up (Doctor Strange, Hulk, Namor and Silver Surfer) because "to the world at large, no one knows who the Defenders are. So the idea of taking the concept and name and applying it to [the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU)] feels wholly natural" adding there was "a wonderful concept" behind why the group would form in the MCU and why they would be called the Defenders.


title: The Defenders (miniseries)

text: In April 2016, it was announced that Douglas Petrie and Marco Ramirez, the showrunners for the second season of "Daredevil", would serve as showrunners and executive producers on "Marvel's The Defenders". "Daredevil" creator Drew Goddard also serves as an executive producer on the miniseries, along with Karim Zreik, Cindy Holland, Allie Goss, Alison Engel, Kris Henigman, Alan Fine, Stan Lee, Joe Quesada, Jim Chory, and Marvel Television head Jeph Loeb. S. J. Clarkson, director of the miniseries' first two episodes, also serves as an executive producer on the first episode. In July 2016, Loeb confirmed that the miniseries would consist of eight episodes, and stated that Petrie and Ramirez would consult with Melissa Rosenberg, Cheo Hodari Coker, and Scott Buck—the showrunners of "Jessica Jones", "Luke Cage", and "Iron Fist", respectively—on how their characters would act; the other showrunners read each of the scripts for "The Defenders" and provided insight into each individual character's world. On this collaboration, Petrie said of Rosenberg specifically that she was "wonderful because she's in this position of being a fellow artist and letting us do what we do, but at the same time loving her character and being protective of her character and wanting us to get it right". Rosenberg said that she and the other showrunners "felt really included in the process". Loeb compared this relationship to Joss Whedon consulting with the filmmakers of the MCU's before directing the crossover film "The Avengers" (2012). At the start of filming in October 2016, Petrie left the series as co-showrunner. Loeb explained, "We got to a point where the scripts were done, and we wanted Marco to continue, and Doug pursued other avenues."


title: The Defenders (miniseries)

text: By late May 2016, Petrie and Ramirez had turned in a completed story for the miniseries, based on a "very bare-bones structure" from Loeb. Petrie and Ramirez went through a "trapeze act" to have the story work for viewers who had not seen the previous series, while also not have redundant moments of exposition for those who had. Petrie said the miniseries would be a "detour" for the characters, allowing them to return to the worlds of their own series at the end, making it equivalent to "Daredevil" season 2.5, "Luke Cage" season 1.5, "Jessica Jones" season 1.5, and "Iron Fist" season 1.5. Loeb compared the miniseries to the Olympics, where "you get to know all of these athletes in their various sports [and then] they're going to get together", while Coker further compared it to the forming of the Wu-Tang Clan or Voltron.


title: The Defenders (miniseries)

text: Ramirez and Petrie wanted the project to feel earned, grounded, and topical like the individual series, rather than "a corporate mandate". Goddard noted that each of the individual series have different tones, and combining them for the miniseries created a different one. Finding this new tone was the most challenging aspect of the project for Ramirez. Scenes in the early episodes were created to feel like the "most optimal versions" of each individual series, using visual and sonic elements from each that are slowly combined as the miniseries goes on. Loeb cautioned against the "easy comparison" to "The Avengers", noting that lessons would be taken from that crossover such as how that team did not come together right away, but unlike the Avengers in the film, the Defenders do not operate out of one location such as Avengers Tower or have matching costumes. "The Dirty Dozen" (1967), "Seven Samurai" (1954), and other films "where characters came together who did not want to come together" were bigger influences on the project than "The Avengers".


title: The Defenders (miniseries)

text: Choosing an antagonist for the miniseries was another challenge, according to Ramirez. Loeb did not want a villain like the aliens from "The Avengers" because these are "street level heroes [who] come from a very real place", but each of the Defenders has been shown to be "really powerful" in their individual series and the antagonist would have to prove a challenge for the four of them together. Ramirez also felt that the antagonist should be a common denominator rather than having individual villains combining from each series. They settled on the overarching organization of the Hand, and have the characters following individual investigations that lead them to converge on the same location. It was subsequently important to Ramirez that the Hand be destroyed by the end of the miniseries, to give it a definitive ending and to allow the individual characters, especially Iron Fist, to move on to new stories and adversaries. To give something unexpected to the audience, the focus of the story is ultimately revealed to be Elektra Natchios, and her journey of rejecting the people in her life who have told her what to do. This includes her mentor Stick and the miniseries' apparent central antagonist Alexandra, whom she both murders, as well as Daredevil. Ramirez said that the theme of "having to embrace the identity you want" also applies to the four Defenders. He added that Elektra murdering Alexandra made more sense than one of the Defenders doing it, as the writers felt that none of the Defenders were murderous and would have to be pushed into doing it.


title: The Defenders (miniseries)

text: Regarding where the miniseries leaves the Defenders, Ramirez compared their relationship to "people who were on the same bus when it got in an accident ... it's kind of like, 'This was a great adventure to have with you, I'd be okay with seeing you again, I'd also be okay with never seeing you again. The final image of "The Defenders", in which Murdock wakes up with a nun by his side, is an homage to a panel from the "Daredevil" story arc "Born Again" (1986). The nun calling for "Maggie" is an implied reference to Murdock's mother, which Ramirez would not confirm at the time of miniseries' release. He did note that this scene along with several others from Daredevil's story in the miniseries was a direct homage to the comics, and that this panel from "Born Again" was one of his favorite Daredevil panels. Ramirez explained that the scene was included because a third season of "Daredevil" had already been announced, and they did not want to make the audience think they "were trying to cheat them or convince them of something that's not happening".


title: The Defenders (miniseries)

text: At the end of May 2014, Charlie Cox was cast as Daredevil for "Daredevil". In December 2014, Krysten Ritter was cast as Jessica Jones and Mike Colter was cast as Luke Cage for "Jessica Jones", with Colter also headlining "Luke Cage". In February 2016, Finn Jones was reported to be cast as Danny Rand for "Iron Fist", being confirmed the following month. They also confirmed that Cox, Ritter, Colter, and Jones would all reprise their roles to star in "The Defenders".


title: The Defenders (miniseries)

text: In March 2016, Élodie Yung, who portrays Elektra Natchios in "Daredevil", expressed interest in appearing in "The Defenders" as an antagonist, and Eka Darville said a month later that he would reprise his "Jessica Jones" role of Malcolm Ducasse in "The Defenders". In September, Simone Missick said she would be reprising the role of Misty Knight from "Luke Cage" in the miniseries. After production began in October, it was confirmed that Darville, Missick, and Yung would appear, alongside "Daredevil" actors Deborah Ann Woll as Karen Page, Elden Henson as Foggy Nelson, and Scott Glenn as Stick; "Jessica Jones"s Rachael Taylor as Trish Walker; and "Iron Fist"s Jessica Henwick as Colleen Wing. Ramón Rodríguez also reprises his "Iron Fist" role as Bakuto, while Rosario Dawson returns as Claire Temple from all of the previous Marvel Netflix series.


title: The Defenders (miniseries)

text: At New York Comic Con in October, Sigourney Weaver was announced to be playing the main antagonist of the miniseries, later revealed to be Alexandra. The producers had referred to the character as "a Sigourney Weaver type" for four months before Loeb contacted her about the project. Additionally, J. Mallory McCree recurs as Cole; Michelle Federer and Chloe Levine portray Michelle and Lexi Raymond; and Ron Simons appears as police captain Strieber. Babs Olusanmokun and Yutaka Takeuchi portray Sowande and Murakami, respectively, both being leaders of the Hand.


title: The Defenders (miniseries)

text: Other actors reprising their roles for the miniseries include "Daredevil"s Wai Ching Ho as Madame Gao, Peter McRobbie as Father Lantom, Amy Rutberg as Marci Stahl, and Susan Varon as Josie; "Jessica Jones" Carrie-Anne Moss as Jeri Hogarth and Nichole Yannetty as Nicole; and Rob Morgan as Turk Barrett, from previous Marvel Netflix series.


title: The Defenders (miniseries)

text: Director S. J. Clarkson, cinematographer Matthew J. Lloyd, production designer Loren Weeks, and costume designer Stephanie Maslansky worked together to create distinct color palettes for each of the characters, maintaining the looks from their individual series, rather than attempting to blend the looks of all the different series for the miniseries. Maslansky explained that the palettes were used for the lighting, sets and locations, and costumes for the lead characters as well as extras. When the characters begin to crossover, so do the colors, and decisions were made regarding which colors come to the foreground and which are seen less on a scene-by-scene basis.


title: The Defenders (miniseries)

text: The series' title sequence, designed by Elastic, evokes the work that the company did for the series "True Detective" by recreating the characters of the show out of elements of its setting: the sequence depicts the four Defenders out of colored topographical maps of New York City, showing the different areas of the city that each of them come from.


title: The Defenders (miniseries)

text: Clarkson, who also directed for "Jessica Jones", said that series is "very dark and very steely and very blue" while "Daredevil" focused more on red, and so these were emphasized early on. When Murdock and Jones meet, they are in a "steely gray-blue" room to indicate that it is Jones's world, with Knight there wearing a "Luke Cage"-appropriate tan color, and Murdock entering and letting red into the room to show the connecting of the two characters. Clarkson was inspired by New York-set films such as "The French Connection" (1971), "Shaft" (1971), and "Serpico" (1973) when establishing the look of the miniseries.


title: The Defenders (miniseries)

text: Lloyd began work on the miniseries several weeks before the start of filming, taking the development work that Clarkson had already done for the project and refining it; he avoided pushing the different colors so far that they made the scenes look unrealistic, and noted that red can be an overwhelming hue on camera so limited this for the Daredevil scenes by just using it as an accent. Lloyd did not want to recreate the techniques used on the individual series that he did not work on, and instead focused on the specific looks that Clarkson desired. For Cage's scenes, Lloyd was inspired by Harris Savides work on "American Gangster" (2007), and for Iron Fist he looked to Wong Kar-wai's "The Grandmaster" (2013). Rather than dedicate a significant amount of time to color grading the footage for the project in post-production, Lloyd opted to try and create as much of the desired color palette look as possible in-camera so that he could send his scenes with some written notes to colorist Tony D'Amore of Deluxe's Encore to complete the work while Lloyd was on set. D'Amore's work was challenging in scenes that combined multiple characters as he would have to adjust specific areas of each frame depending on where the characters were. He also had to create different color grades for the high dynamic range and standard dynamic range versions of the show that are released on Netflix.


title: The Defenders (miniseries)

text: After her work on "Jessica Jones", Clarkson was most comfortable working in that more grounded world and instinctively knew what lighting and camera angles to use. She was less comfortable with the world of "Iron Fist" and portraying the more mythological elements of that series. During pre-production on "The Defenders", filming on "Iron Fist" was taking place. When a director from that series was not available to return to the production to reshoot a scene, Clarkson was asked to direct the new take. Clarkson found this experience "incredibly valuable", giving her a chance to work with Jones and experience the tone of his series ahead of the beginning of filming for "The Defenders". Clarkson and Lloyd also learned the technical requirements for depicting the character's Iron Fist based on the process used by that series' crew, along with how the effect of Cage's abilities were created.


title: The Defenders (miniseries)

text: Maslansky, who designed the costumes for the previous Marvel Netflix series, had the choice between designing for "The Defenders" or the first season of "The Punisher" due to a scheduling conflict between the two productions, and chose to work on "The Defenders" so she could create the culmination of all her work on the previous series. She described the process of highlighting the individual character's color palettes as a celebration, looking to infuse the costumes with red for Daredevil, navies and lavender for Jessica Jones, olive green for Iron Fist, and gold "Harlem colors" for Luke Cage. The characters' costumes were kept consistent with their individual series, though for Daredevil's superhero costume, which is created by Hargate Costumes in Los Angeles, the helmet was changed for "The Defenders" to having a matte surface that was less shiny than in "Daredevil". The end of the season introduces a new costume for Iron Fist, an homage to the tracksuit that the character wears in the comics. Maslansky felt that the full tracksuit was "very '70s, a little too wise-guy, Italian mafia", and so designed a track jacket that used the classic design and colors of green with gold stripes, and paired it with cargo pants.


title: The Defenders (miniseries)

text: For Alexandra and the Hand, the executive producers suggested the color white as a repurposing of the phrase "the light at the end of the tunnel" given the group are immortal supervillains. Alexandra's costumes also feature metallic elements to suggest that she was more of a warrior in a past life and has that "fierceness or a power within her". In general, her costumes are European inspired and of "an older world" to create "a global feeling to her wardrobe, very lush ... her wardrobe reflects that kind of ancientness". The resurrected Elektra receives a new costume inspired by her comics appearance. Because it would look out of place on the streets of New York, Maslansky also designed a coat for her to cover this up that was inspired by "The French Lieutenant's Woman" (1981) and "The Matrix" (1999), and meant to appeal to Alexandra's taste in clothing.


title: The Defenders (miniseries)

text: Marvel announced in February 2014 that the miniseries would be filmed in New York City, with Marvel Comics' editor-in-chief Joe Quesada stating in April that the show would be filming in areas of Brooklyn and Long Island City that still look like the old Hell's Kitchen, in addition to sound stage work. In April 2016, Cox confirmed a late 2016 start for filming, following the conclusion of production on "Iron Fist" in October 2016. Filming for "The Defenders" began on October 31, under the working title "Group Therapy". Lloyd previously served as cinematographer for the first season of "Daredevil" and the first episode of "Jessica Jones". Due to the production demands, he brought his long-time second unit cinematography collaborator Jim McMillan onto the miniseries to help balance the workload for when episodes were filming simultaneously. Lloyd was the primary cinematographer for "The Defenders", but McMillan is credited for several episodes on which he did the most work.


title: The Defenders (miniseries)

text: Lloyd described the production of the miniseries as being more similar to a film than the previous Marvel Netflix television series due to the scheduling requirements of the larger cast and the fact that episodes would not always be shot in order due to location requirements. The schedule also demanded more days per episode for filming, so the overall production was not as significantly shorter as Lloyd had expected given the episode count is lower than the usual Netflix order of 13. Additional filming locations for the miniseries included Upper West Side, Hell's Kitchen, and Williamsburg, Brooklyn, Stapleton, Staten Island, St. Nicholas Park, the lobby and exterior of Atelier ("Midland Circle"), the Central Park Mall, the rooftop gardens at Rockefeller Center, the Downtown Manhattan Heliport, 240 Centre Street in Manhattan, the Appel Room at Time Warner Center, and the New York City Municipal Archives. It was filmed back-to-back with the second season of "Jessica Jones", potentially overlapping with that production. Filming wrapped on March 19, 2017.


title: The Defenders (miniseries)

text: Lloyd shot the miniseries with the RED Weapon camera. Clarkson used a set of vintage Panavision lenses for her two episodes which she had used on "Jessica Jones". The use of these lenses created issues for the series' camera team and created supply issues with Panavision, with Lloyd noting that though the use of lenses such as these are popular, they are difficult to work with. So, for the rest of the miniseries Lloyd returned to the modern Arri Master Prime lenses that he had used on "Daredevil", which he said did not create a significant difference in look for the miniseries. The miniseries used a lot of steadicam work, so much that they essentially had two A-camera steadicam operators working simultaneously. Clarkson also planned out multiple cinematic "hero" shots which required complex camera movements and a lot of technocrane work.


title: The Defenders (miniseries)

text: Clarkson tried to have as much individual time with each hero as possible to help the audience understand who each character was if they had not watched all of the individual series. In addition to using color to show the characters were coming together, Clarkson tried to "twist" the episodes such as in a moment in the first episode where Cage leaves an apartment and puts his head up, which cuts to Jones entering a flat and putting her head down. Clarkson said on this, "I tried to do transitions that connected them ... so you constantly felt these world were eventually going to come together." She also used trains in transitions to show that the characters were just a train-ride away from each other, and shot the characters with the same lenses and framing to indicate that they live in the same world even with different color palettes. Particularly difficult sequences for Clarkson to shoot included the opening of the miniseries, which features a sword fight in a wet tunnel with water on set causing issues for the crew; the introduction of Matt Murdock in a courtroom, which was shot in a single take as a reference to the single take fight sequences that the character has in his series; and the earthquake scene, which combined practical effects such as "pulling all these things with strings and making everything move" with planning for visual effects and could have come across as "hokey" if done wrong.


title: The Defenders (miniseries)

text: Clarkson looked to film the action sequences in the different ways that the other series had, such as the "incredibly choreographed and ... almost balletic" fights from "Daredevil", or the more "scrappy, messy" sequences from "Jessica Jones". For Cage, Clarkson felt that he is "this solid, central figure that is bulletproof, is unbreakable", so she often filmed him with a static camera or steady camera, while Iron Fist was filmed in a lot more movements and with handheld cameras. The fight between the two, in the second episode, combined those two styles. In response to criticisms of the fight sequences in "Iron Fist", Jones noted that he had more experience with the fighting on "The Defenders" due to having completed the first season of his series before beginning work on the miniseries, and had more time to learn the choreography because he was in less scenes for the ensemble project over his individual series and could rehearse in between filming. Additionally, he noted the different stunt team and directors for "The Defenders" allowed for improvements to be made, calling the choreography of the miniseries' action "a lot slicker" and more cohesive. However, the miniseries still had a limited television schedule, which proved especially challenging for sequences in which the Defenders all fought together, with Cox noting that on his series it is usually just him fighting stunt-men while "The Defenders" required all of the hero actors to learn the choreography and work around each in a limited time. They generally had a day to learn a fight, but choreography would also be changed on set.


title: The Defenders (miniseries)

text: In February 2017, John Paesano was announced as the composer for the miniseries, after previously composing for the first two seasons of "Daredevil". Paesano felt "there was more license to push the envelope and lean a bit more into the orchestral colors" of each character since they were "dealing with outright superheroes that audience is familiar with". His score, which was a hybrid of synthesizers and a 30-piece orchestra, borrows the "color" of each character's themes from their individual series "to remind viewers of their individual personalities". The music of Johannes Brahms is used throughout the miniseries, first in the second episode where Alexandra is shown listening to a performance of his First String Quartet by the Aeolus Quartet. The scene establishes Alexandra to be "a Brahms aficionado". The composer's First Symphony is then heard as the leaders of the Hand prepare to attack the Defenders in the miniseries' fifth episode. Finally, Alexandra listens to a defective recording of Brahms' Tragic Overture.


title: The Defenders (miniseries)

text: A soundtrack album featuring Paesano's score was released digitally by Hollywood Records and Marvel Music on August 17, 2017. All music composed by John Paesano:


title: The Defenders (miniseries)

text: "The Defenders" is the final series of the initially ordered Netflix series, after "Daredevil", "Jessica Jones", "Luke Cage" and "Iron Fist". In August 2014, Vincent D'Onofrio, Wilson Fisk in "Daredevil", stated Marvel Television planned to "branch out" after the Netflix series. In March 2015, Loeb confirmed that there was potential for the series to crossover with the MCU films and the ABC television series since they are all set in the same universe, but said they would each remain self-contained at first because "the audience needs to understand who all of these characters are and what the world is before you then start co-mingling".


title: The Defenders (miniseries)

text: Midland Circle, where the four Defenders all initially meet, was previously mentioned in the first and second seasons of "Daredevil" and the first season of "Iron Fist." It is revealed to be an operation of the Hand, who bought the building to search for the life substance hidden beneath it. Ramirez said that after showing the Hand purchasing the building in the first season of "Daredevil", and introducing the hole they were digging in "Daredevil"s second season, it was up to the writers on "The Defenders" to decide what would be in the hole. Ramirez felt that having the skeleton of a dead dragon be the source of the substance the Hand sought was the best way to tie the different series together, including because it references the first season of "Daredevil" where Gao sells a drug made from crushed dragon's bone. The miniseries also references the events of "The Avengers".


title: The Defenders (miniseries)

text: At the 2016 San Diego Comic-Con, a teaser trailer was shown featuring the word "Defend" forming from pieces of the logos from the four previous series over "the ominous shape of a giant hand", along with Glenn providing a voice over as Stick, asking how the four heroes plan to save New York when they cannot save themselves. For New York Comic Con later that year, the four Defenders' actors appeared together on stage, along with Weaver, to promote the miniseries.


title: The Defenders (miniseries)

text: In April 2017, series' release date was revealed via a teaser trailer designed to look like security footage showing the four Defenders inside a Midland Circle elevator. The teaser also featured a hidden URL which led to a faux website for the "New York Bulletin" featuring "plenty of easter eggs and little details". Dave Lewis of the "Los Angeles Times" felt having the security footage teaser end on the timecode 08:18:20:17, was "a fun way to indicate the show's release date". A month later, Netflix and Marvel released a trailer for the miniseries. They also released multiple motion graphics showcasing various character crossovers through the social media accounts for "The Defenders" as well as each of the individual series. Nicole Sobon of "Comic Book Resources" felt releasing these this way was "a smart marketing move by both Marvel and Netflix, as over the course of the years, the Twitter accounts [for each series] have managed to drive in plenty of fan interaction by their 'conversations' between the characters". Cox, Ritter, Colter, Jones, and additional stars of the miniseries appeared at the 2017 San Diego Comic-Con to promote the series, where the first episode was also screened. A red carpet premiere for the series was held at the Tribeca Performing Arts Center on July 31, 2017, where the first two episodes were screened.


title: The Defenders (miniseries)

text: "The Defenders" was released on August 18, 2017, on the streaming service Netflix, worldwide, in Ultra HD 4K and high dynamic range. The eight, hour-long episodes were released simultaneously, as opposed to a serialized format, to encourage binge-watching, a format which has been successful for other Netflix series. Despite being branded as a "Netflix Original", "The Defenders" was licensed to Netflix from Disney.


title: The Defenders (miniseries)

text: "The Defenders" was removed from Netflix on March 1, 2022, along with the other Marvel Netflix series, due to Netflix's license for the series ending and Disney regaining the rights. Disney opted not to have Netflix pay a large licensing fee to retain the distribution rights for the series, and instead announced that all the series would be made available on Disney+ on March 16 in the United States, Canada, United Kingdom, Ireland, Australia, and New Zealand, and in Disney+'s other markets by the end of 2022. In the United States, revised parental controls were introduced to the service to allow the more mature content of the series to be added, similarly to the controls that already exist for other regions that have the Star content hub.


title: The Defenders (miniseries)

text: As Netflix does not reveal subscriber viewership numbers for any of their original series, the marketing analytics firm Jumpshot determined the series garnered 17% of the viewers that the second season of "Daredevil" received in its first 30 days, which was the most viewed season according to the firm. "The Defenders" was, comparably, the least-viewed of the Marvel Netflix series and had the largest week-over-week drop in viewership, declining by 67%, 48%, and 41%, respectively, over the 30-day period. Jumpshot, which "analyzes anonymized click-stream data from a panel of more than 100 million internet consumers", looked at the viewing behavior and activity of the company's U.S. members, factoring in the relative number of U.S. Netflix viewers who watched at least one episode of the season. The data excludes viewing that occurred on Netflix's connected TV or mobile apps.


title: The Defenders (miniseries)

text: In October 2017, Netflix revealed "The Defenders" was the third-most "Binge Raced" Netflix original series globally, and first in South Korea. Netflix defined "Binge Racers" as viewers who watched the entire series within 24 hours after its release, and that data accommodated "for time zones and is reflective of a show's launch within 24 hours of a country's release". The company did note in their announcement that the "Binge Racing" ranking had "no relation to overall viewership".


title: The Defenders (miniseries)

text: The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 78% approval rating with an average rating of 6.60/10 based on 100 reviews. The site's critical consensus reads, ""Marvel's The Defenders" further develops well-known characters in an action-packed arc whose payoff packs more than enough of a punch to offset its flaws." Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned a score of 63 out of 100, based on 30 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".


title: The Defenders (miniseries)

text: The early screening of the first episode at San Diego Comic-Con was met by "applause throughout" from the crowd. Tracy Brown of the "Los Angeles Times" noted after "a quick refresher on where each hero's solo story left off ... there is forward progress in the narratives for each" of the Defenders, despite them not interacting in the episode. She added that the episode included elements expected for a Marvel Netflix series, and concluded with a binge-watching-appropriate cliffhanger. "Polygon"s Julia Alexander was "stupidly excited to binge the rest of the season" after seeing the first episode, praising the "intriguing" Alexandra and her relationship with Elektra, as well as the miniseries' efforts to focus on the individual identities of the Defenders. Peter Sciretta for "/Film" called the episode "a fine start" to "The Defenders", but felt it did not succeed in introducing the characters to viewers who had not seen the individual series. He highlighted the use of color throughout the episode to differentiate the characters.


title: The Defenders (miniseries)

text: Reviewing the first four episodes of the series, Katharine Trendacosta for "io9" appreciated the writers for addressing the questions viewers wanted answered and depicting moments that fans wanted to see without "sacrificing the characters or the story". She did criticize the amount of exposition, the unoriginal story, and the "over-the-top" villains, but felt that "the good of "The Defenders" far outweighs the bad ... it's all a canvas to showcase Matt, Jessica, Luke, and Danny coming together [to be] more entertaining". "The Washington Post"s David Betancourt also gave a positive review, calling the event "well worth the wait", enjoying the pairing of Cage and Rand and calling Weaver's "compelling" Alexandra the "biggest surprise" of the series. Jeff Jensen for "Entertainment Weekly" gave the series a "B+", calling it "lively genre entertainment that recharges your interest in Marvel pop". He praised the fact that "The Defenders" was only 8 episodes long, compared to the 13 of previous Marvel Netflix seasons. Dan Jolin of "Empire" gave "The Defenders" 3 out of 5 stars, finding "enough joy" in the interactions between the Defenders to make it feel "worth the wait". However, he felt it failed to "up the ante story-wise", and was disappointed that Weaver's Alexandra was "yet another businessperson baddie whose dirty deeds are hidden by sharp suits".


title: The Defenders (miniseries)

text: "Collider"s Allison Keene also gave the miniseries 3 stars out of 5. She felt some of the solo series issues such as pacing and narrative choices were still present, but there were still elements to enjoy including Jessica Jones and the banter among the heroes. Keene felt that the pacing issues improve once the Defenders finally unite. She criticized the focus on Rand's company, and also said that the miniseries felt less like a culmination or ending than she would have liked. Reviewing the series for "Uproxx", Alan Sepinwall felt "The Defenders" borrowed the best elements of the previous series, such as the fights scenes of "Daredevil", Jessica Jones's "snappy dialogue, the music (particularly in Luke Cage's scenes), and Rosario Dawson. However, he felt that the pacing of the four episodes reviewed was "yet another Netflix ultra-slow burn". He saw this improve once the four heroes meet in the fourth episode, and hoped that in the second half of the season "both [the] show and team could justify their existence as something more than a package Marvel put together years ago in the hopes everything would work out". "Variety"s Maureen Ryan felt "The Defenders" had some positive elements and especially praised Weaver's performance, but described the series as "workmanlike" and said it was "a bit blander" than a series about superheroes and ninjas should have been.


title: The Defenders (miniseries)

text: "USA Today"s Kelly Lawler was more critical of the series, awarding it 2 out of 4 stars. Lawler felt Rand was the "undeniable handicap" of the series, having hoped that ""The Defenders" would shy away from Danny and his petulance, but unfortunately, Iron Fist is integral to the larger plot". She also felt the series had pacing issues, and said the Defenders as a group "lack chemistry". Lawler felt Weaver was "a bright spot" but concluded "viewers who were attracted to one or more of the Netflix series for their unique perspectives will be disappointed" by "The Defenders". Reviewing the entire miniseries, Daniel Krupa of "IGN" gave it a 6.5 out of 10, saying, "The Defenders" felt "uneven, hastily-planned, and ultimately like a missed opportunity". Krupa pointed out the pacing issues and described the Hand as "an ill-defined, confused and confusing antagonist" that did not compare favorably to previous Marvel Netflix villains such as Wilson Fisk, Kilgrave, and Cornell "Cottonmouth" Stokes. Krupa did call the chemistry between the main characters "excellent", and praised Yung as providing "the most credible and emotionally-rich villain" in Elektra. The highlight of the miniseries for him was the Chinese restaurant scene in the fourth episode.


title: The Defenders (miniseries)

text: Cox and Yung were named TVLine's "Performers of the Week" for the week ending August 26, 2017. The honor was specifically for their final scene of the miniseries, as they fight and argue while a building collapses around them. The site described the scene as an "emotionally compelling two-hander".


title: The Defenders (miniseries)

text: In January 2015, Netflix COO Ted Sarandos said that "The Defenders" was "eligible to go into multiple seasons for sure" and Netflix would look at "how well [they] are addressing both the Marvel fanbase but also the broader fanbase" in terms of determining if additional seasons would be appropriate. However, in July 2016, Loeb referred to the miniseries as a one-off event rather than a season of an ongoing story. Jones said the miniseries "feels like the end of Phase One" of the Marvel Netflix series, with the events of the miniseries leading into "the beginning of another phase", while Ritter said she would be happy to return for more after enjoying the experience making these episodes, despite it planned as a one-time event. In mid-2018, Loeb and Netflix vice president of original content Cindy Holland both said that there were "no plans" to continue the series.


title: The Defenders (miniseries)

text: In September 2018, Netflix renamed the Facebook page for the series to "NX", Netflix's "new geek-friendly division of genre content". Netflix did not alter the series' Twitter account in a similar manner. The change left fans upset at the apparent "bait-and-switch", with many suggesting they would have followed a separate page for NX had it been created in that manner. Kofi Outlaw of "ComicBook.com" felt this change was "a pretty big indicator that Netflix is done with "The Defenders" as one of its original series". In response to this, Loeb reiterated that there were still no plans for the series to continue at that time, but this did not mean that it would never be continued in the future, especially since a "Defenders" team was not actually formed in this miniseries and future "Defenders" stories could then focus on different characters.


title: Japan Air Lines Flight 123

text: Japan Air Lines Flight 123 (JAL123) was a scheduled domestic Japan Air Lines passenger flight from Haneda Airport in Tokyo to Itami International Airport in Osaka. On August 12, 1985, the Boeing 747SR operating this flight suffered a sudden decompression 12 minutes into the flight, and crashed in the area of Mount Takamagahara, Ueno, Gunma Prefecture, from Tokyo 32 minutes later. The crash site was on Osutaka Ridge, near Mount Osutaka.


title: Japan Air Lines Flight 123

text: Japan's Aircraft Accident Investigation Commission (AAIC) concluded, agreeing with investigators from the U.S. National Transportation Safety Board, that the rapid decompression was caused by a faulty repair by Boeing technicians after a tailstrike incident during a landing at Osaka Airport in 1978 as JAL Flight 115. The rear bulkhead of the plane had been repaired with an improperly installed doubler plate, compromising the plane's airworthiness. Cabin pressurization continued to expand and contract the improperly repaired bulkhead until the day of the accident, when the faulty repair failed, causing a rapid decompression that ripped off a large portion of the tail and caused the loss of hydraulic controls to the entire plane.


title: Japan Air Lines Flight 123

text: The aircraft, which was configured with increased economy-class seating, was carrying 524 people. All 15 crew members and 505 of the 509 passengers died in the accident. Some of the passengers survived the initial crash but died of their injuries hours later while awaiting rescue. Surpassing the fatalities of All Nippon Airways Flight 58, which crashed 14 years earlier with 162 fatalities, it is the deadliest single-aircraft accident both in Japan and global aviation history.


title: Japan Air Lines Flight 123

text: The accident aircraft, a Boeing 747SR-46, registration JA8119, serial number 20783, line number 230, first flew on January 28, 1974, and was delivered to Japan Air Lines in February 1974. It had accumulated slightly more than 25,000 flight hours and 18,835 cycles (one cycle consists of a takeoff, cabin pressurization, and a landing) in service.


title: Japan Air Lines Flight 123

text: On June 2, 1978, Japan Air Lines Flight 115, a scheduled domestic passenger flight from Tokyo's Haneda Airport to Itami Airport, Osaka Prefecture, was carrying out an instrument landing system (ILS) approach to runway 32L at Itami Airport in Japan but bounced heavily on landing. The pilot excessively flared the plane, causing a severe tail strike. No fatalities occurred among the 394 people on board, but 25 people were injured, 23 minor and 2 serious. The tailstrike cracked open the aft pressure bulkhead. The damage was repaired by Boeing technicians, and the aircraft was returned to service.


title: Japan Air Lines Flight 123

text: The crew of Flight 115 consisted of a 41-year-old captain who had 7,912 flight hours, including 220 hours on the Boeing 747. The 36-year-old first officer had 564 flight hours, with 286 hours on the 747. The 44-year-old flight engineer had 4,070 hours and was the most experienced on the Boeing 747 out of all crew members, having flown 2,780 hours on it. The aircraft had flown for 8,830 hours at the time of the tailstrike incident.


title: Japan Air Lines Flight 123

text: At the time of the accident, the aircraft was on the fifth of its six planned flights of the day. The flight had 15 crew members, including 3 cockpit crew and 12 flight attendants.


title: Japan Air Lines Flight 123

text: The flight was around the Obon holiday period in Japan when many Japanese people make yearly trips to their hometowns or resorts. Twenty-two non-Japanese were on board the flight. By August 13, 1985, a spokesman for Japan Airlines stated that the list included four residents of Hong Kong, two each from Italy and the United States, and one each from West Germany and the United Kingdom. Some foreigners had dual nationalities, and some of them were residents of Japan.


title: Japan Air Lines Flight 123

text: The four survivors, all women, were seated on the left side and toward the middle of seat rows 54–60, in the rear of the aircraft.


title: Japan Air Lines Flight 123

text: Kyu Sakamoto, who was famous for singing "Ue o Muite Arukō", known in Anglophone countries under the title "Sukiyaki", was among those who perished in the crash.


title: Japan Air Lines Flight 123

text: The aircraft landed at Haneda from Chitose Airport at 4:50p.m. as JL514. After more than an hour on the ground, Flight 123 pushed back from gate 18 at 6:04p.m. and took off from Runway 15L at Haneda Airport in Ōta, Tokyo, Japan, at 6:12p.m., 12 minutes behind schedule. At about 6:24p.m. (or 12 minutes after takeoff), at near cruising altitude over Sagami Bay east of Higashiizu, Shizuoka, the aircraft underwent rapid decompression bringing down the ceiling around the rear lavatories, damaging the unpressurized fuselage aft of the plane, unseating the vertical stabilizer, and severing all four hydraulic lines. A photograph taken from the ground confirmed that the vertical stabilizer was missing.


title: Japan Air Lines Flight 123

text: The pilots set their transponder to broadcast a distress signal. Afterward, Captain Takahama contacted Tokyo Area Control Center to declare an emergency, and to request to return to Haneda Airport, descending and following emergency landing vectors to Oshima. Tokyo Control approved a right-hand turn to a heading of 090° east back towards Oshima, and the aircraft entered an initial right-hand bank of 40°, several degrees greater than observed previously. Captain Takahama, alarmed, ordered First Officer Sasaki to bank the aircraft back ("Don't bank so much."). When the aircraft did not respond to the control wheel being turned left, he expressed confusion, after which the flight engineer reported that the hydraulic pressure was dropping. The captain repeated the order to reduce the bank, as the autopilot had disengaged. He then ordered the first officer to bank it back, then ordered him to pull up. All of these maneuvers produced no response. At this point, the pilots realized that the aircraft had become virtually uncontrollable, and Captain Takahama ordered the copilot to descend.


title: Japan Air Lines Flight 123

text: Heading over the Izu Peninsula at 6:26p.m., the aircraft turned away from the Pacific Ocean, and back towards the shore. Due to the apparent loss of control, the aircraft did not follow Tokyo Control's directions and only turned right far enough to fly a north-westerly course. Seeing that the aircraft was still flying west away from Haneda, Tokyo Control contacted the aircraft again. After confirming that the pilots were declaring an emergency, the controller requested as to the nature of the emergency. At this point, hypoxia appears to have begun setting in, as the pilots did not respond. Also, the captain and co-pilot asked the flight engineer repeatedly if hydraulic pressure was lost, seemingly unable to comprehend it. (Flight engineer: "Hydro pressure all loss." Co-pilot: "All loss?" Captain: "No, look." Flight engineer: "All loss." Co-pilot: "All loss?" Flight Engineer: "Yes.") Tokyo Control then contacted the aircraft again and repeated the direction to descend and turn to a 90° heading to Oshima. Only then did the captain report that the aircraft had become uncontrollable. (Tokyo: "Japan Air 124 [sic] fly heading 090 radar vector to Oshima." JAL123: "But now uncontrol." Tokyo: "Uncontrol, roger understood.")


title: Japan Air Lines Flight 123

text: After traversing Suruga Bay and passing over Yaizu, Shizuoka, at 6:31:02p.m., Tokyo Control asked the crew if they could descend, and Captain Takahama replied that they were now descending, and stated that the aircraft's altitude was after Tokyo Control requested their altitude. Captain Takahama also declined Tokyo Control's suggestion to divert to Nagoya Airport away, instead preferring to land at Haneda, which had the facilities to handle the 747. The flight data recorder shows that the flight did not descend, but was instead rising and falling uncontrollably. Hydraulic fluid completely drained away through the rupture. With the total loss of hydraulic control and non-functional control surfaces, the aircraft began up and down oscillations in phugoid cycles lasting about 90 seconds each, during which the aircraft's airspeed decreased as it climbed, then increased as it fell. The rise in airspeed increased the lift over the wings, which resulted in the aircraft climbing and slowing down, then descending and gaining speed again. The loss of the vertical stabilizer and the rudder removed the only means of damping yaw, and the aircraft lost virtually all meaningful yaw stability. Almost immediately after the separation of the stabilizer, the aircraft began to exhibit Dutch roll, simultaneously yawing right and banking left, before yawing back left and banking right. At some points during the flight, the banking motion became very profound, with the banks in large arcs around 50° back and forth in cycles of 12 seconds.


title: Japan Air Lines Flight 123

text: Despite the complete loss of control, the pilots continued to turn the control wheel, pull on the control column, and move the rudder pedals up until the moment of the crash. The pilots also began efforts to establish control using differential engine thrust, as the aircraft slowly wandered back towards Haneda. Their efforts were of limited success. The unpressurized aircraft rose and fell in an altitude range of for 18 minutes, from the moment of decompression until around 6:40p.m., with the pilots seemingly unable to figure out how to descend without flight controls. This is possibly due to the effects of hypoxia at such altitudes, as the pilots seemed to have difficulty comprehending their situation as the aircraft pitched and rolled uncontrollably. The pilots possibly were focused, instead, on the cause of the explosion they heard, and the subsequent difficulty in controlling the jet. The flight engineer did say they should put on their oxygen masks when word reached the cockpit that the rear-most passenger masks had stopped working. None of the pilots put on their oxygen masks, however, though the captain simply replied "yes" to both suggestions by the flight engineer to do so. The accident report indicates that the captain's disregard of the suggestion is one of several features "regarded as hypoxia-related in [the] CVR record[ing]." Their voices can be heard relatively clearly on the cockpit area microphone for the entire duration, until the crash, indicating that they did not put on their oxygen masks at any point in the flight.


title: Japan Air Lines Flight 123

text: Shortly before 6:34p.m., Japan Air Tokyo attempted to call the flight via the selective-calling system multiple times. At 6:35p.m., the flight responded, with the flight engineer handling communications to the company. The company stated that they had been monitoring the emergency, and the flight engineer, having been notified by a flight attendant that the R-5 masks had stopped working, replied that they believed the R-5 door was broken and were making an emergency descent. Japan Air Tokyo asked if they intended to return to Haneda, to which the flight engineer responded that they were making an emergency descent, and to continue to monitor them.


title: Japan Air Lines Flight 123

text: Eventually, the pilots were able to achieve limited control of the aircraft by adjusting engine thrust, and in doing so, they were able to dampen the phugoid cycle and somewhat stabilize their altitude. Suppressing the Dutch roll was another matter, as the engines cannot respond quickly enough to counter the Dutch roll. According to the accident report, "Suppressing of Dutch roll mode by use of the differential thrust between the right and left engines is estimated practically impossible for a pilot." Shortly after 6:40p.m., the landing gear was lowered in an attempt to damp the phugoid cycles and Dutch rolls further, and to attempt to decrease the aircraft's airspeed to descend. This was somewhat successful, as the phugoid cycles were dampened almost completely, and the Dutch roll was damped significantly, but lowering the gear also decreased the directional control the pilots were getting by applying power to one side of the aircraft, and the aircrew's ability to control the aircraft deteriorated.


title: Japan Air Lines Flight 123

text: Shortly after lowering the gear, the flight engineer asked if the speed brakes should be used ("Shall we use speed brakes?"), but the pilots did not acknowledge the request. The aircraft then began a right-hand descending 420° turn from a heading of 040° at 6:40p.m. to a heading of 100° at 6:45p.m., flying in a loop over Otsuki, due to a thrust imbalance created from having the power setting on Engine 1 (the left-most engine) higher than the other three engines. The aircraft also began descending from to , as the pilots had reduced engine thrust to near idle from 6:43 to 6:48p.m.. Upon descending to at 6:45:46p.m., the pilots again reported an uncontrollable aircraft. At this time, the aircraft began to turn slowly to the left, while continuing to descend. The thicker air allowed the pilots more oxygen, and their hypoxia appeared to have subsided somewhat, as they were communicating more frequently. The pilots also appeared to be understanding how grave their situation had become, with Captain Takahama exclaiming, "This may be hopeless" at 6:46:33p.m. At 6:47p.m., the pilots recognized that they were beginning to turn towards the mountains, and despite efforts by the crew to get the aircraft to continue to turn right, it instead turned left, flying directly towards the mountainous terrain on a westerly heading.


title: Japan Air Lines Flight 123

text: Around 6:47p.m., a photographer on the ground captured a photograph of the aircraft, which showed that the vertical stabilizer was missing.


title: Japan Air Lines Flight 123

text: As the aircraft continued west, it descended below and was getting dangerously close to the mountains. The lower altitude and thicker air caused the cabin altitude alert to momentarily turn itself off at this time, before resuming for the rest of the flight. The captain briefly ordered maximum engine power to attempt to get the aircraft to climb to avoid the mountains, and engine power was added abruptly at 6:48p.m., before being reduced back to near idle, then at 6:49p.m., it was ordered raised again. This greatly excited the phugoid motion, and the aircraft pitched up, before pitching back down after power was reduced. When power was added again, the aircraft rapidly pitched up to 40° at 6:49:30p.m., briefly stalling at . The captain immediately ordered maximum power at 6:49:40p.m. as the stick shaker sounded ("Ah, no good... Stall. Max power. Max power. Max power."). The aircraft's airspeed increased as it was brought into an unsteady climb. Possibly as a measure to prevent a recurrence of stalling, due to the lowered airspeed caused by the drag of the landing gear, the crew quickly discussed lowering the flaps. Without hydraulics, the captain expressed that this would not work, but the flight engineer pointed out this could be done via an alternate electrical system. At 6:51p.m., the captain lowered the flaps 5 units as an additional attempt to exert control over the stricken jet. During the period from 6:49:03 – 6:52:11p.m., Japan Air Tokyo attempted to call the aircraft via the selective-calling radio system. During the entire 3-minute period, the SELCAL alarm continued to ring according to the CVR recordings, the pilots most likely ignored it due to the difficulty they were experiencing at the time.


title: Japan Air Lines Flight 123

text: The aircraft reached at 6:53p.m., when the captain reported an uncontrollable aircraft for the third time. Shortly afterward, the controller asked the crew to switch the radio frequency to 119.7 to talk to the Tokyo Approach ("Japan Air 123, switch the frequency to 119.7 please!"), and while the pilots did not acknowledge the request over the radio, they did as instructed (Captain: "Yes, Yes, 119.7" Co-pilot: "Ah, Yes, number 2" Captain: "119.7" Co-pilot: "Yes" Flight Engineer: "Shall we try?" Co-pilot: "Yes"). Tokyo Approach then contacted the flight via the SELCAL system, briefly activating the SELCAL alarm again until the flight engineer responded to Tokyo's request. At this point, the captain asked the flight engineer to request their position (Captain: "Request position" Flight engineer: "Request position"). At 6:54p.m., this was reported to the flight as northwest of Haneda, and west of Kumagaya. At 6:55p.m., the captain requested flap extension, and the co-pilot called out a flap extension to 10 units, while the flaps were already being extended from 5 units at 6:54:30p.m.. This began to cause the aircraft to begin to a bank to the right, possibly due to an imbalance in the lift between the left and right flaps. Power was increased at the same time. A differential thrust setting caused engine power on the left side to be slightly higher than on the right side. This contributed to further increasing the bank angle to the right.


title: Japan Air Lines Flight 123

text: One minute later, the flaps were extended to 25 units, which caused the aircraft to bank dramatically to the right beyond 60°, and the nose began to drop. Captain Takahama immediately ordered the flaps to be retracted ("Hey, halt the flap"), and power was added abruptly, but still with engine power higher on the left vs. the right engines. The captain was heard on the CVR desperately requesting for the flaps to be retracted and for more power to be applied in a last-ditch effort to raise the nose (Captain: "Power! Flap stop crowding together." Co-pilot: "Flap up, flap up, flap up, flap up!" Captain: "Flap up?" Co-pilot: "Yes." Captain: "Power. Power! Flap!" Flight engineer: "It is up!" Captain: "Raise the nose. Raise the nose! Power!"). The aircraft continued to enter an unrecoverable right-hand descent into the mountains as the engines were pushed to full power, during which the ground proximity warning system sounded, and the captain knew it was too late to recover (Captain: "We can not do anything now!"). In the final moments, as the airspeed exceeded , the pitch attitude leveled out and the aircraft ceased descending, with the aircraft and passengers/crew being subjected to 3 g of upward vertical acceleration.


title: Japan Air Lines Flight 123

text: The aircraft was still in a 40° right-hand bank when the right-most (#4) engine struck the trees on top of a ridge located north-northwest of Mount Mikuni at an elevation of , which can be heard on the CVR recording. The backward shock of the impact, measuring 0.14 g, in addition to causing the loss of the thrust of the 4th engine, caused the aircraft to bank sharply back to the right, and the nose to drop again. The aircraft continued on this trajectory for 3 seconds, until the right wing clipped another ridge containing a "U-shaped ditch" west-northwest of the previous ridge at an elevation of . This impact is speculated to have separated the remainder of the weakened tail from the airframe, the outer third of the right-wing, as well as the remaining three engines, which were "dispersed ahead". After this impact, the aircraft flipped on its back, struck another ridge northwest from the second ridge, near Mount Takamagahara, and exploded. The impact registered on a seismometer located in the Shin-Etsu Earthquake Observatory at Tokyo University from 6:56:27p.m. as a small shock, to 6:56:32p.m. as a larger shock, believed to have been caused by the final crash. The shockwaves took an estimated 2.0–2.3 seconds to reach the seismometer, making the estimated time of the final crash 6:56:30p.m.


title: Japan Air Lines Flight 123

text: The aircraft's crash point, at an elevation of , is in Sector 76, State Forest, 3577 Aza Hontani, Ouaza Narahara, Ueno Village, Tano District, Gunma Prefecture. The east-west ridge is about north-northwest of Mount Mikuni. Ed Magnuson of "Time" magazine said that the area where the aircraft crashed was referred to as the "Tibet" of Gunma Prefecture. The elapsed time from the bulkhead failure to the crash was 32 minutes.