title: Microwave oven

text: Closed containers, such as eggs, can explode when heated in a microwave oven due to the increased pressure from steam. Intact fresh egg yolks outside the shell also explode as a result of superheating. Insulating plastic foams of all types generally contain closed air pockets, and are generally not recommended for use in a microwave oven, as the air pockets explode and the foam (which can be toxic if consumed) may melt. Not all plastics are microwave-safe, and some plastics absorb microwaves to the point that they may become dangerously hot.


title: Microwave oven

text: Products that are heated for too long can catch fire. Though this is inherent to any form of cooking, the rapid cooking and unattended nature of the use of microwave ovens results in additional hazard.


title: Microwave oven

text: Contrary to popular assumptions, metal objects can be safely used in a microwave oven, but with some restrictions. Any metal or conductive object placed into the microwave oven acts as an antenna to some degree, resulting in an electric current. This causes the object to act as a heating element. This effect varies with the object's shape and composition, and is sometimes utilized for cooking.


title: Microwave oven

text: Any object containing pointed metal can create an electric arc (sparks) when microwaved. This includes cutlery, crumpled aluminium foil (though some foil used in microwave ovens is safe, see below), twist-ties containing metal wire, the metal wire carry-handles in oyster pails, or almost any metal formed into a poorly conductive foil or thin wire, or into a pointed shape. Forks are a good example: the tines of the fork respond to the electric field by producing high concentrations of electric charge at the tips. This has the effect of exceeding the dielectric breakdown of air, about 3 megavolts per meter (3×10 V/m). The air forms a conductive plasma, which is visible as a spark. The plasma and the tines may then form a conductive loop, which may be a more effective antenna, resulting in a longer lived spark. When dielectric breakdown occurs in air, some ozone and nitrogen oxides are formed, both of which are unhealthy in large quantities.


title: Microwave oven

text: Microwaving an individual smooth metal object without pointed ends, for example, a spoon or shallow metal pan, usually does not produce sparking. Thick metal wire racks can be part of the interior design in microwave ovens (see illustration). In a similar way, the interior wall plates with perforating holes which allow light and air into the oven, and allow interior-viewing through the oven door, are all made of conductive metal formed in a safe shape.


title: Microwave oven

text: The effect of microwaving thin metal films can be seen clearly on a Compact Disc or DVD (particularly the factory pressed type). The microwaves induce electric currents in the metal film, which heats up, melting the plastic in the disc and leaving a visible pattern of concentric and radial scars. Similarly, porcelain with thin metal films can also be destroyed or damaged by microwaving. Aluminium foil is thick enough to be used in microwave ovens as a shield against heating parts of food items, if the foil is not badly warped. When wrinkled, aluminium foil is generally unsafe in microwaves, as manipulation of the foil causes sharp bends and gaps that invite sparking. The USDA recommends that aluminium foil used as a partial food shield in microwave oven cooking cover no more than one quarter of a food object, and be carefully smoothed to eliminate sparking hazards.


title: Microwave oven

text: Another hazard is the resonance of the magnetron tube itself. If the microwave oven is run without an object to absorb the radiation, a standing wave forms. The energy is reflected back and forth between the tube and the cooking chamber. This may cause the tube to overload and burn out. High reflected power may also cause magnetron arcing, possibly resulting in primary power fuse failure, though such a causal relationship isn't easily established. Thus, dehydrated food, or food wrapped in metal which does not arc, is problematic for overload reasons, without necessarily being a fire hazard.


title: Microwave oven

text: Certain foods such as grapes, if properly arranged, can produce an electric arc. Prolonged arcing from food carries similar risks to arcing from other sources as noted above.


title: Microwave oven

text: Some other objects that may conduct sparks are plastic/holographic print thermoses (such as Starbucks novelty cups) or cups with metal lining. If any bit of the metal is exposed, all the outer shell can burst off the object or melt.


title: Microwave oven

text: The high electrical fields generated inside a microwave oven often can be illustrated by placing a radiometer or neon glow-bulb inside the cooking chamber, creating glowing plasma inside the low-pressure bulb of the device.


title: Microwave oven

text: Direct microwave exposure is not generally possible, as microwaves emitted by the source in a microwave oven are confined in the oven by the material out of which the oven is constructed. Furthermore, ovens are equipped with redundant safety interlocks, which remove power from the magnetron if the door is opened. This safety mechanism is required by United States federal regulations. Tests have shown confinement of the microwaves in commercially available ovens to be so nearly universal as to make routine testing unnecessary. According to the United States Food and Drug Administration's Center for Devices and Radiological Health, a U.S. Federal Standard limits the amount of microwaves that can leak from an oven throughout its lifetime to 5 milliwatts of microwave radiation per square centimeter at approximately (2 in) from the surface of the oven. This is far below the exposure level currently considered to be harmful to human health.


title: Microwave oven

text: The radiation produced by a microwave oven is non-ionizing. It therefore does not have the cancer risks associated with ionizing radiation such as X-rays and high-energy particles. Long-term rodent studies to assess cancer risk have so far failed to identify any carcinogenicity from microwave radiation even with chronic exposure levels (i.e. large fraction of life span) far larger than humans are likely to encounter from any leaking ovens. However, with the oven door open, the radiation may cause damage by heating. Microwave ovens are sold with a protective interlock so that it cannot be run when the door is open or improperly latched.


title: Microwave oven

text: Microwaves generated in microwave ovens cease to exist once the electrical power is turned off. They do not remain in the food when the power is turned off, any more than light from an electric lamp remains in the walls and furnishings of a room when the lamp is turned off. They do not make the food or the oven radioactive. In contrast with conventional cooking, the nutritional content of some foods may be altered differently, but generally in a positive way by preserving more micronutrients - see above. There is no indication of detrimental health issues associated with microwaved food.


title: Microwave oven

text: There are, however, a few cases where people have been exposed to direct microwave radiation, either from appliance malfunction or deliberate action. This exposure generally results in physical burns to the body, as human tissue, particularly the outer fat and muscle layers, has a similar composition to some foods that are typically cooked in microwave ovens and so experiences similar dielectric heating effects when exposed to microwave electromagnetic radiation.


title: Microwave oven

text: The use of unmarked plastics for microwave cooking raises the issue of plasticizers leaching into the food, or the plastics chemically reacting to microwave energy, with by-products leaching into the food, suggesting that even plastic containers marked "microwavable" may still leach plastic by-products into the food.


title: Microwave oven

text: The plasticizers which received the most attention are bisphenol A (BPA) and phthalates, although it is unclear whether other plastic components present a toxicity risk. Other issues include melting and flammability. An alleged issue of release of dioxins into food has been dismissed as an intentional red herring distraction from actual safety issues.


title: Microwave oven

text: Some current plastic containers and food wraps are specifically designed to resist radiation from microwaves. Products may use the term "microwave safe", may carry a microwave symbol (three lines of waves, one above the other) or simply provide instructions for proper microwave oven use. Any of these is an indication that a product is suitable for microwaving when used in accordance with the directions provided.


title: Microwave oven

text: Microwave ovens are frequently used for reheating leftover food, and bacterial contamination may not be repressed if the microwave oven is used improperly. If safe temperature is not reached, this can result in foodborne illness, as with other reheating methods. While microwave ovens can destroy bacteria as well as conventional ovens can, they cook rapidly and may not cook as evenly, similar to frying or grilling, leading to a risk of some food regions failing to reach recommended temperatures. Therefore, a standing period after cooking to allow temperatures in the food to equalize is recommended, as well as the use of a food thermometer to verify internal temperatures.


title: Microwave oven

text: Microwave ovens, although shielded for safety purposes, still emit low levels of microwave radiation. This is not harmful to humans, but can sometimes cause interference to Wi-Fi and Bluetooth and other devices that communicate on the 2.45 GHz wavebands; particularly at close range.


title: Sublime (band)

text: Sublime was an American reggae rock and ska punk band from Long Beach, California, formed in 1988. The band's line-up, consistent throughout its duration, consisted of Bradley Nowell (vocals and guitar), Eric Wilson (bass), and Bud Gaugh (drums). Lou Dog, Nowell's dalmatian, was the mascot of the band. Nowell died of a heroin overdose in 1996, resulting in the band's breakup. In 1997, songs such as "What I Got", "Santeria", "Wrong Way", "Doin' Time", and "April 29, 1992 (Miami)" were released to U.S. radio.


title: Sublime (band)

text: Sublime released three studio albums, one live album, five compilation albums (one of which also contains never-before released material), three EPs, and one box set. Although their first two albums—"40oz. to Freedom" (1992) and "Robbin' the Hood" (1994)—were slightly popular in the United States, Sublime did not experience major commercial success until 1996 with their self-titled third album, released two months after Nowell's death, which peaked at No. 13 on the "Billboard" 200, and spawned the single "What I Got", which remains the band's only No. 1 hit single (on the "Billboard" Alternative Songs chart) in their musical career. As of 2022, the band has sold over 20 million albums worldwide, including about ten million in the U.S. alone. Michael "Miguel" Happoldt and Marshall "Ras MG" Goodman contributed to several Sublime songs.


title: Sublime (band)

text: In 2009, the surviving members attempted to reform the band with Rome Ramirez, a young guitarist and avowed Sublime fan from California. However, not long after performing at Cypress Hill's Smokeout Festival, a Los Angeles judge banned the new lineup from using the Sublime name as they needed permission from Nowell's estate, which owns the rights to the Sublime name. This prompted the lineup of Wilson, Gaugh and Ramirez to change their name to Sublime with Rome, which has since released three albums, although Gaugh left the group shortly after the release of their 2011 debut "Yours Truly".


title: Sublime (band)

text: Eric Wilson and Bud Gaugh were childhood friends. Having grown up in the same Long Beach neighborhood, Eric's father, Billy Wilson taught Gaugh how to read music and play the drums. Gaugh and Wilson, together with future Sublime manager Michael Happoldt, formed a three-piece punk band called "The Juice Bros" during their high school years. About this time, Bradley Nowell, who had recently dropped out of University of California, Santa Cruz, joined the band. Nowell helped introduce Gaugh and Wilson (who at the time listened exclusively to punk rock) to reggae and ska.


title: Sublime (band)

text: Sublime played its first gig on the 4th of July, 1988 in a small club. Music venues were skeptical of the band's eclectic musical fusion and many refused to book the band. In response, the band created their own music label, Skunk Records, and told venues that they were "Skunk Records recording artists", which helped the band seem more accomplished and subsequently book more shows. For the next several years, the group focused primarily on playing at parties and small clubs throughout Southern California with local ska bands such as Smokestacks, No Doubt and Skeletones. The trio recorded a few songs and put forth a number of short demos.


title: Sublime (band)

text: In February 1990, Nowell adopted an abused dalmatian puppy from a shelter and named him "Louie" after his grandfather. Louie Nowell, King Louie, or "Lou Dog" as he was called, became something of a mascot for the band. Lou Dog was often allowed to wander around the stage during the band's concert performances. One of Sublime's early club venues in 1990 was at a downtown club in Long Beach called Toe Jam. This club was owned and operated by David Rice, James Walker, Jason Burch and Jeff King. A private party was held in February 1991 at Toe Jam for one of the owners. Special thanks can be found for Toe Jam and the owners on the back of the later produced album, "40oz. to Freedom".


title: Sublime (band)

text: In late 1990, music student Michael "Miguel" Happoldt approached the band, offering to let the band record in the studio at the school where Happoldt was studying. The band enthusiastically agreed and trespassed into the school at night, where they recorded from midnight to seven in the morning. The recording session resulted in the popular cassette tape called "Jah Won't Pay the Bills", which was then released in 1991 and featured songs that would appear on the band's future albums. The tape helped the band gain a grassroots following throughout Southern California.


title: Sublime (band)

text: Eventually, Sublime developed a large following in California. After concentrating on playing live shows, the band released "40oz. to Freedom" in 1992 under Nowell's label, Skunk Records. The record established Sublime's blend of ska, reggae, punk, surf rock, and hip hop, and helped to further strengthen the group's growing California following. Initially being sold exclusively at their live shows, the album became widely known in the greater Los Angeles area after rock radio station KROQ began playing the song, "Date Rape". By 1996, "40oz. to Freedom" had sold more than 209,000 units, beating the future self-titled album's running total of 145,000 unit sales.


title: Sublime (band)

text: In 1992/1993, Sublime was briefly signed to Danny Holloway's True Sound imprint. However, the band stayed on Skunk Records and then in June 1994, they were signed to the label Gasoline Alley of MCA Records by Jon Phillips who subsequently became Sublime's manager. Sublime released their second album "Robbin' the Hood" in 1994, an experimental effort with its diffuse mixture of rock, rap, spoken-word nonsense and folk-leaning acoustic home recordings. "Robbin' the Hood" was a commercial failure. The band toured extensively throughout 1994–1995, their popularity increasing gradually beyond the West Coast as "Date Rape" began earning radio play. In 1995, the band co-headlined the inaugural nationwide Vans Warped Tour. The band was eventually asked to leave the tour for a week due to unruly behavior of Sublime guests and Lou Dog biting four different individuals. Gaugh reflected on the experience: "Basically, our daily regimen was wake up, drink, drink more, play, and then drink a lot more. We'd call people names. Nobody got our sense of humor. Then we brought the dog out and he bit a few skaters, and that was the last straw." After the Warped Tour and the subsequent Three Ring Circus Tour, the band was pressured to begin producing new studio material as a follow-up to "Robbin' the Hood".


title: Sublime (band)

text: In early 1996, Sublime headlined the very first SnoCore Tour. In February, they began recording what would comprise the band's self-titled third record and their major label debut album. Sublime completed it before Nowell died of a heroin overdose on May 25, 1996, at a motel in San Francisco, California, the day after their last live show in Petaluma, California (May 24, 1996), and two months prior to the release of the self-titled album. Nowell was found dead at 11:30 a.m. in a motel room after a night of partying. He was 28 years old. Some Sublime fans were not aware of Nowell's death when the self-titled album became a huge success, including the single "What I Got", which peaked at number one on the Modern Rock chart. The album earned the band worldwide fame, and was certified 5× platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) in December 1999. In addition to "What I Got", the album included several other popular posthumous singles, including "Santeria", "Doin' Time", "Wrong Way" and "April 29, 1992 (Miami)", all of which received heavy airplay.


title: Sublime (band)

text: Jason Westfall, one of Sublime's managers, was quoted as saying that "the surviving members of Sublime had no interest in continuing to perform and record under the 'Sublime' name. "Just like Nirvana, Sublime died when Brad died."


title: Sublime (band)

text: A number of posthumous releases followed, among them "Second-Hand Smoke" in 1997 and both "Stand by Your Van" and "" in 1998. "Second-Hand Smoke", produced by Michael "Miguel" Happoldt, is described as an "assemblage of leftovers, remixes and rarities" that hints at possible musical directions Sublime may have pursued if Nowell had not died. By the release of their "Greatest Hits" compilation in 1999 the band had released as many albums after Nowell's death as during his lifetime. A box set of demos, rarities and live recordings, entitled "Everything Under the Sun", was released on November 14, 2006. The band later released several vinyl picture discs including "40 Oz. To Freedom", "Second Hand Smoke", and "Stand By Your Van". On June 16, 2012, the group reunited to give a show at the D-Tox Rockfest in Montebello, Quebec (under the Sublime with Rome moniker).


title: Sublime (band)

text: Nowell's widow, Troy Holmes Nowell, has negotiated with the band's record label and entertainment impresario Paul Ruffino to produce a documentary film about Sublime's successful association with Brad Nowell; the project was delayed until Mr. Nowell's estate could be settled.


title: Sublime (band)

text: In October 1997, Troy and singer Courtney Love collaborated with the advocacy group Partnership for a Drug-Free America on a series of public service announcements for television intended to de-glamorize drug use and help disassociate it from the music industry.


title: Sublime (band)

text: Following Sublime's dissolution, former members Eric Wilson and Bud Gaugh founded the Long Beach Dub Allstars in 1997, which also included many frequent Sublime contributors such as Michael "Miguel" Happoldt (former member of The Ziggens), Marshall Goodman "Ras MG" (former Sublime member), and Todd Forman (3rd Alley). LBDAS disbanded in 2002, due to several members of the band breaking a no-drug vow they had taken.


title: Sublime (band)

text: Bud Gaugh joined the short-lived Eyes Adrift, a supergroup consisting of Bud on drums, Krist Novoselic (of Nirvana) on bass and Curt Kirkwood (of the Meat Puppets) on guitar and lead vocals. On September 24, 2002, Eyes Adrift released their only album, a self-titled LP consisting of 12 songs. They released one single from the CD, entitled "Alaska".


title: Sublime (band)

text: In 2005, No Doubt bassist Tony Kanal, who had performed with the group, recollected on their career, saying "They made a sound that somehow fused rock, reggae, punk and hip-hop in a way that was seamless and credible, bound together by the undeniable soul of Brad Nowell's voice." He was joined by other members of bands that had performed with Sublime, such as Pennywise, punk progenitor Mike Watt, Philadelphia neo-bluesman G Love, California beachcomber Jack Johnson, Latin-rock eclecticists Ozomatli and progressive hip-hop figures Michael Franti and Gift of Gab on "Look at All the Love We Found: A Tribute to Sublime," to donate money to help support artists with substance abuse problems.


title: Sublime (band)

text: On June 5, 2013, it was announced that Sublime would be celebrating the 25th anniversary of their first show (which happened on July 4, 1988) with the release of their first live album/concert film. The album, titled "3 Ring Circus - Live at The Palace", features footage recorded at a 1995 show in Hollywood and was released on June 18, 2013. The deluxe version features extras including a poster, backstage pass and a separate concert film of the band's performance recorded in 1995 at the Las Palmas Theatre.


title: Sublime (band)

text: In August 2021, Sublime announced a special limited 25th anniversary edition cassette tape of their third (and final) acclaimed self-titled album. Cassettes were released on October 1, 2021, and includes classics like "Santeria", "What I Got", "Doin' Time" and "Wrong Way".


title: Sublime (band)

text: Also in 2021, Sublime created a remix project, "Sublime Meets Scientist & Mad Professor Inna L.B.C.", which was released digitally on June 12. The new collection of eight Sublime songs were remixed by dub musicians, Scientist and Mad Professor. The album was initially released on a limited-edition CD for Record Store Day by Geffen Records.


title: Sublime (band)

text: The record version features a yellow vinyl pressing and both versions feature artwork by Tony McDermott, whose illustrations have graced albums by artists from Eek-A-Mouse, Shabba Ranks and Shaggy. Another version is available digitally and includes two bonus tracks, "Garden Grove Vocal Dub (Scientist Mix)" and "Hong Kong Phooey Dub (Mad Professor Mix)" that were not included on the Record Store Day Vinyl LP and is only available on the limited-edition Record Store Day CD release.


title: Sublime (band)

text: Sublime was one of the most popular bands of the third wave of ska, specifically characterized as ska punk. Sublime often combined punk rock and hardcore punk with hip hop, heavy metal, dancehall, reggae, ska, funk, and (21st century) surf music. Sublime also has been described as reggae rock.


title: Sublime (band)

text: Bob Marley and associated Jamaican reggae acts The Wailers, and Peter Tosh feature prominently in Sublime's songs, as do other Jamaican reggae and dancehall acts such as Born Jamericans, Toots & the Maytals, The Melodians, Wayne Smith, Tenor Saw, Frankie Paul, The Wailing Souls, Barrington Levy, Half Pint and Yellowman. The band additionally covered "Smoke Two Joints" originally by Oregon-based reggae group The Toyes.


title: Sublime (band)

text: Sublime was also heavily influenced by the 1980s and 1990s hip-hop and rap scene of Los Angeles and New York City, alluding to or borrowing from such acts as N.W.A and Eazy-E (who died 14 months before Nowell), Beastie Boys, Just-Ice, Public Enemy and Flavor Flav, KRS-One, Doug E. Fresh, Too $hort, Mobb Deep, as well as the Philadelphia-based rapper Steady B and Texas hip-hop group The Geto Boys.


title: Sublime (band)

text: The southern California metal, surf rock and punk scene influencing Sublime includes Big Drill Car (who were thanked in the first two albums), The Ziggens, Minutemen, Descendents, Bad Religion, The Bel-Airs, Butthole Surfers, Secret Hate, as well as new wave/fusion band Fishbone. Sublime was also influenced by Washington, D.C., hardcore acts such as Minor Threat, Fugazi (who were also thanked in the first album) and Bad Brains. The band also referenced popular California-based rock bands and artists like Grateful Dead, The Doors, Jimi Hendrix,


title: Sublime (band)

text: Red Hot Chili Peppers, sixties underground and counter-culture icon, Frank Zappa, and even Swedish pop band ABBA.


title: Sublime (band)

text: A few references are made to funk, R&B, and soul artists and bands such as James Brown, the Ohio Players, Aswad, as well as a smattering of Irish, Scottish and English bands like Boomtown Rats, the ska band The Specials, and Primal Scream.


title: Sublime (band)

text: Sublime's music was highlighted by bass-driven grooves, reggae rhythms, elaborately cadenced rhyme schemes and transitions between paces and styles throughout a given song, sometimes alternating between thrash punk, ska and reggae within the same song (see "Seed"). Their music often contains psychedelic, harmonic minor-based or bluesy guitar solos, rhythmically improvised bass solos or dub-lines, turntable scratching and rolling drum transitions and heavy bass lines. They are known for being one of the first and most influential reggae fusion musicians.


title: Sublime (band)

text: With the mainstream success of their self-titled album, going five times platinum and earning worldwide airplay, Sublime's influence persists to this day.


title: Sublime (band)

text: Their signature sound and their songs are often associated with the beach and coastal areas of Southern California, such as San Diego, Orange County, Venice Beach and Long Beach as well as areas of Northern California like Eureka. Over two decades after Nowell's death and the band's breakup, Sublime remains immensely popular throughout North America, especially in its state of origin, California.


title: Sublime (band)

text: Sublime's songs have been featured via soundtrack in a variety of media. Los Angeles alternative rock radio station KROQ has listed Sublime at No. 3 in their annual "Top 106.7 biggest KROQ bands of all time" list for the past six years in a row, behind Red Hot Chili Peppers and Nirvana, and No. 81 at the "Top 166 Artists of 1980–2008" list.


title: Sublime (band)

text: With over 17 million units sold worldwide, Sublime is one of the most successful, and "powerfully moving" ska-punk acts of all time influencing many modern reggae and ska acts.


title: Sublime (band)

text: In March, 2017, for the 25th anniversary of their seminal debut album "40oz. to Freedom", Sublime announced that they teamed up with AleSmith Brewing Company to release a Mexican-style lager initially dubbed "40oz. to Freedom". A limited edition of the batch of beer was bottled in 40-ounce containers and sold through the San Diego brewery. The entire run of 40-ounce bottles sold out in five minutes. The cans, which feature Sublime's trademark sun design created by artist Opie Ortiz, were headed toward 19 states as of September 14, 2017. AleSmith was on pace to ship 3,400 barrels of the beer (renamed to Sublime Mexican Lager) by December 31, which is 8.5% of AleSmith's 40,000 barrels of total production for 2017.


title: Sublime (band)

text: In 2017, Brad's sister Kellie Nowell, along with her father Jim "Papa" Nowell, started the Nowell Family Foundation and Bradley's House, a drug treatment facility focused on musicians in recovery. Their message is "If there's a will, there's a way out." The foundation's goal is to have a six-bedroom house as a rehab facility in Laguna Beach, California, that will "supply an affordable 90-day program that pairs music-based social curriculum with help from certified drug treatment professionals along with on-site yoga and a gym."


title: Sublime (band)

text: As the foundation's executive director, Kellie worked to turn the project into a reality by hiring certified staff and developing new rehabilitation programs. Many musicians and bands including Pepper, O.A.R. and Jim Lindburg of Pennywise who were close to Bradley or were inspired by his music chipped in with benefit concerts.


title: Sublime (band)

text: On September 4, 2020, a compilation album of Sublime cover songs, "The House That Bradley Built", was released on Pepper's label, LAW Records. The compilation was to help raise money for the Nowell Family Foundation's opioid recovery project for Bradley's House. The idea for the compilation was by LAW Records co-founders, Paul Milbury and Yesod Williams (drummer for Pepper), who both came to Kellie with the idea. The compilation featured never-before-released acoustic covers from the catalogue of Bradley's band, Sublime, performed by 20-plus punk and reggae bands.


title: Sublime (band)

text: Also in 2020, Sublime teamed up with Z2 Comics to create "The Official Sublime graphic novel called "$5.00 at the Door". It comes in hardcover or softcover with an exclusive picture disc vinyl, limited edition Lou Dog vinyl figure and more through three different bundles. The comic is a "heartfelt anthology of Sublime legends brought to life" from playing backyard parties and selling cassette tapes out of their van to a platinum-selling multi-genre busting band. Written by Ryan Cady (from Green Lantern comic) with illustrations by Audrey Mok, Alex Diotto, Hayden Sherman, Logan Faeber, Bill Masuku, Robert Ahmad and Julianne Griep. Featuring brand-new cover artwork by Sublime family members Opie Ortiz and DJ Product ©1969.


title: Sublime (band)

text: In October 2021, Sublime collaborated with Tempe, Arizona's Dixxon Flannel Company on a Sublime flannel shirt. To Celebrate 30 years of the band's EP, "Jah Won't Pay the Bills", the "Sublime Flannel" features a gray, black, and green plaid pattern that's available in men's and women's sizes online starting on October 7.


title: Sublime (band)

text: In September 2022, it was reported that a biographical film about the band is in development by Sony Pictures with Francis Lawrence attached as director and Chris Mundy as the script writer.


title: 2023 Rugby World Cup

text: The 2023 Rugby World Cup is scheduled to be the tenth men's Rugby World Cup, the quadrennial world championship for men's rugby union teams. It is scheduled to take place in France from 8 September to 28 October 2023 in nine venues across the country. The opening match and final will take place at the Stade de France, in the commune of Saint-Denis, north of Paris. The tournament will take place in the bicentenary year of the "invention" of the sport by William Webb Ellis. Originally, the tournament was scheduled to last the typical six weeks; however, on 23 February 2021, World Rugby announced an additional week to accommodate the additional rest day requirement for player welfare. This means that teams will have a minimum of five rest days for all matches, optimising recovery and preparation for the tournament. It will be the third time France has hosted the Rugby World Cup, having previously hosted the 2007 Rugby World Cup, as well as the 1991 Rugby World Cup as joint hosts with England, Ireland, Scotland and Wales. It precedes the 2024 Summer Olympics in Paris and will take place less than a year before the Olympic opening ceremony.


title: 2023 Rugby World Cup

text: Chile will make its first ever appearance at the Rugby World Cup, and Portugal will return for its second appearance, after 16 years.


title: 2023 Rugby World Cup

text: World Rugby requested that any members wishing to host the 2023 event were to submit an expression of interest by June 2015. A total of six unions responded. The Italian Rugby Federation were among the members interested, but withdrew from their bid on 28 September 2016. The Argentine Rugby Union and USA Rugby both expressed their interest in hosting the event but ultimately decided against a formal bid. Three bids were officially submitted to World Rugby by the June 2017 deadline.


title: 2023 Rugby World Cup

text: On 15 November 2017, the French Rugby Federation bid was chosen ahead of bids by the South African Rugby Union and the Irish Rugby Football Union. France had launched its bid on 9 February 2017.


title: 2023 Rugby World Cup

text: On 17 March 2017, twelve host cities were selected. This list was later reduced to nine cities (excluding Paris, Montpellier and Lens):


title: 2023 Rugby World Cup

text: Twenty teams are set to compete. A total of 12 teams gained automatic qualification for the tournament after finishing in the top three of their pool at the 2019 Rugby World Cup, which included France already automatically qualified as host. The remaining eight spaces will be decided by regional competitions followed by a few cross-regional play-offs.


title: 2023 Rugby World Cup

text: Spain originally qualified as Europe 2, but Romania lodged an official complaint that Spain had fielded an ineligible player during the qualifying tournament. After a controversial investigation, it was concluded that the player in question had falsified his passport: Spain received a deduction of 10 points, resulting in them being effectively ejected from the competition, with Romania replacing them as Europe 2 and Portugal taking Romania's spot in the repechage tournament.


title: 2023 Rugby World Cup

text: On 18 November 2022, Portugal won the repechage tournament to be the last country to qualify for the 2023 Rugby World Cup. It was the first time ever that Canada did not qualify for the Rugby World Cup, the first time since 1995 that the United States did not qualify, and the first time three teams from South America qualified. This is the first Rugby World Cup without any participation from North America.


title: 2023 Rugby World Cup

text: The pool draw took place on 14 December 2020 in Paris. The draw returned to its traditional place of the year following the previous World Cup, after the end-of-year internationals.


title: 2023 Rugby World Cup

text: The seeding system from previous Rugby World Cups was retained with the 12 automatic qualifiers from 2019 being allocated to their respective bands based on their World Rugby Rankings on 1 January 2020:


title: 2023 Rugby World Cup

text: The remaining two bands were made up of the eight qualifying teams, with allocation to each band being based on the previous Rugby World Cup playing strength:


title: 2023 Rugby World Cup

text: This meant the 20 teams, qualified and qualifiers, were seeded thus (world ranking as of 1 January 2020):


title: 2023 Rugby World Cup

text: The knockout stage of the Rugby World Cup will consist of three single-elimination rounds leading to a final and a third-place playoff. Following a tie in regulation time, two 10-minute periods of extra time will be used to determine a winner. If the scores are tied at the end of extra time, an additional 10-minute "sudden death" period is played, with the first team to score any points being declared the winner. If the score remains tied at the end of extra time, a kicking competition would ensue.


title: Silent Hill (film)

text: Silent Hill is a 2006 supernatural horror film directed by Christophe Gans and written by Roger Avary, based on the video game series of the same name published by Konami. The film stars Radha Mitchell, Sean Bean, Laurie Holden, Deborah Kara Unger, Kim Coates, Tanya Allen, Alice Krige, and Jodelle Ferland. The film follows Rose, who takes her adopted daughter, Sharon, to the town of Silent Hill, for which Sharon cries while sleepwalking. Rose is involved in a car accident near the town and awakens to find Sharon missing. While searching for her daughter, she fights a local cult and begins to uncover Sharon's connection to the town's dark past.


title: Silent Hill (film)

text: After attempting to gain the film rights to "Silent Hill" for five years, Gans sent a video interview to Konami explaining his plans for adapting it and how important the games were to him. Konami awarded him the film rights as a result, and he and Avary began working on the script in 2004. Avary used Centralia, Pennsylvania as an inspiration for the town. Principal photography began in April 2005 and lasted three months with an estimated $50 million budget, and was shot on sound sets and on location in Ontario, Canada. Most of the monsters encountered in the film were played by professional dancers, while a minority were created with CGI.


title: Silent Hill (film)

text: "Silent Hill" was released theatrically in Canada on April 21, 2006, by Alliance Atlantis; in France on April 26, by Metropolitan Filmexport; and in Japan on July 8, by Shochiku; and grossed $100.6 million worldwide. The film received generally negative reviews from critics, although receiving better contemporary reviews and gaining a cult status in the video game adaptations.


title: Silent Hill (film)

text: A sequel, "", was released in October 2012, while another sequel, "Return to Silent Hill", has been announced to be in early development.


title: Silent Hill (film)

text: Rose Da Silva and her husband Christopher are disturbed by their adopted daughter Sharon's constant sleepwalking and nightmares about Silent Hill, a town in West Virginia that was abandoned in the 1970s due to a massive coal seam fire. Desperate for a solution, Rose takes Sharon on a trip to Silent Hill to find answers. Her erratic behavior concerns police officer Cybil Bennett when they encounter her at a gas station en route. As they enter Silent Hill, a girl steps out into the road, causing Rose to crash and blackout. She awakens in the fog-shrouded dimension of Silent Hill, and realizes that Sharon is missing.


title: Silent Hill (film)

text: Searching the town for Sharon, Rose pursues the girl she encountered prior to the crash, who resembles Sharon. At various points, the town suddenly transitions into a nightmarish world inhabited by inhuman monsters, including the fearsome Pyramid Head. Cybil encounters and tries to arrest Rose, but while attempting to bring her to the local station, they realize they are trapped, all roads out of town ending in a mysterious cliff. Rose encounters many other inhuman creatures and learns of Alessa Gillespie, a young girl burned as a witch by the Brethren, the town's fanatical Manichean cult. Her mother Dahlia wanders the streets as an outcast, guilt-ridden over her negligence that led to Alessa's suffering. In the real world, Christopher searches the abandoned town with policeman Thomas Gucci, but they find nothing: the town appears to them simply as a dilapidated, abandoned place devoid of fog or creatures. Gucci later reveals he lived in Silent Hill and saved Alessa from the fire. He encourages Christopher to end his futile search.


title: Silent Hill (film)

text: In the Silent Hill dimension, Rose encounters the girl again, revealed to be an aspect of Alessa. When the town transitions into the dark dimension, Rose, Cybil, and Anna, a Brethren member, flee to an old church, but Pyramid Head catches and flays Anna alive. Brethren members lead Rose and Cybil to a hospital, claiming the demon that has taken Sharon is in the basement. Upon noticing an image of Sharon in Rose's locket, Christabella, the high priestess of the Brethren, identifies Sharon as a likeness of Alessa. She decries the two women as witches and orders her Brethren to stop them. Cybil holds them off while Rose descends into the basement, but is quickly subdued and captured.


title: Silent Hill (film)

text: Rose explores the basement but is barricaded by a group of disfigured nurses. She sneaks past them and enters Alessa's room. In a flashback, it is revealed that Alessa was stigmatized by the townspeople for being born out of wedlock. Christabella convinced Dahlia to "purify" Alessa after Alessa was raped by the school janitor. Christabella immolated Alessa during a ritual in 1974, but Dahlia alerted Gucci. The pair arrived too late, and the ritual went awry, igniting the coal seam fire. Hospitalized and in excruciating pain, Alessa's rage split her soul apart, one half manifesting as the dark entity responsible for the shifting dimensions of Silent Hill. Her remaining innocence manifested as Sharon, who was taken to the real world to be adopted. Desperate to find Sharon, Rose allows Dark Alessa's spirit into her body, allowing it access to the church. Sharon, despite being protected by Dahlia, is captured by the Brethren.


title: Silent Hill (film)

text: In the church, Christabella burns Cybil as a witch and plans to do the same to Sharon. Rose confronts Christabella, denouncing her as a murderer before Christabella stabs Rose in the heart. Alessa emerges from the blood flowing from the wound as a disfigured being bound to a hospital bed, and tears Christabella and her followers apart with razor wire. Rose rescues Sharon, and Sharon and Alessa/Dark Alessa reunite into one body. Rose and Alessa leave the town and return home. Upon arriving, they discover they are still in the foggy dimension, separated from reality. Meanwhile, Christopher awakens alone in the real world and discovers that the front door has mysteriously opened.


title: Silent Hill (film)

text: The idea of the film adaptation of "Silent Hill" (1999) was voiced by director Christophe Gans for the first time to producer Samuel Hadida during the filming of the film "Brotherhood of the Wolf" (2001). Hadida, knowing the game's rich visual aesthetics, believed that eerie storytelling matched Gans' encyclopedic knowledge of cinematography. Gans became acquainted with the video game series approximately six years before the release of his film, and initially wanted to adapt the second game (2001) since it was the most "emotional" of all four and the most beloved by fans. He compared it to the myth of Orpheus, who descended into the underworld after Eurydice. However, he said that "Silent Hill 2" was not the "real "Silent Hill"": there was no mythology, and the city only played the role of a backdrop for the unfolding story. As a result, he realized that it was impossible to film an adaptation of the second game without saying a word about the origin of the city.


title: Silent Hill (film)

text: According to Gans, the first game captivated him with its extraordinary plot: it was so "completely unique" and "absolutely frightening" that it was worthy to become the basis for a real film. Many of his entourage were surprised at the opinion that a banal video game can scare someone. To this, the director replied that "Silent Hill" was one of the scariest experiences he ever had. He called it "an experiment with a unique and independent world, which is both beautiful and terrible at the same time". Even before the release of "Silent Hill 2", Gans sent "a ton of letters" to copyright holders, but received no response. He presented his vision of the film and how important the games are to him in a 37-minute video with Japanese subtitles, which was shown at a meeting of the Konami board of directors. Representatives of the company realized that Gans was the only one among the major studios fighting for the right to film adaptation who understood the essence of the game, and the director received the filming rights after two months, which he sought for a total of five years. The publishers insisted that the project retain the original plot and setting.


title: Silent Hill (film)

text: Gans had not previously directed any game adaptations, and stated that the process is completely unlike anything else. According to him, in projects of this type, the most important challenge is to bring the background story in the game to the foreground. Hadida said that ""Silent Hill" is something outside of cinema." He believed that the game was so popular because everyone felt something unique when playing it, and the film only enhances that feeling. The creators have also said that the film is a tribute to the horror genre. Gans considered his film to be halfway between science fiction, Clive Barker's books, and hardcore horror.


title: Silent Hill (film)

text: When the decision was made to adapt "Silent Hill", Gans and Hadida phoned screenwriter Roger Avary. They outlined their plans and offered to write a script. "It's not so easy", Avary said, "when you're going to film something, especially a game, you need to be ready to take everything apart, and then put it together in a new way. The only thing that remains of the original material is the main idea, the concept, which all your actions are subordinated to." It was decided to combine in-game monsters with creatures invented by the film crew. Gans tried to stick as close to the original source as possible, while Avary saw it as his main task to convey the spirit of the game; he kept some storylines, and tried to combine the rest of the elements into new compositions. Thus, the director was more faithful to the creator's intention, and the screenwriter preferred to interpret the original material broadly.


title: Silent Hill (film)

text: Since Gans had already formed the concept of the future plot of the film, he sent the screenwriter several discs with "atmospheric" videos to point Avary's work in the right direction, as well as the developments compiled by himself and Nicolas Boukhrief. They were written in French, but the scriptwriter was required to translate them into English, write dialogues and change a few conceptual factors. Avary did not limit himself to acquaintance with the presented film library and personally went through all entries of the game series. All changes made by Avary were translated into Christophe's native language. A rough draft of the work was ready by October 2004. Nevertheless, due to the complete absence of male characters, the script was rejected by the producers; only after the script was modified to include Sean Bean's character and subplot was it approved. Avary recalled that as soon as they received the "stupid note from the studio", Gans got angry. Yet, later they realized that this storyline can be made interesting and emphasize the peculiarities of the perception of reality. As a result, the plot became a combination of the first game with separate elements of the second and third. Gans elaborated: "We weren't trying to put all three games into a two-hour production, this is an adaptation of the first "Silent Hill". However, there are so many interesting details [in the following installments] that it was impossible to resist."


title: Silent Hill (film)

text: Roger Avary regularly received letters from fans, whom he called "crazy". He saved some messages, the senders of which claimed that only they can write the script, and if Roger does not cope with his task, then he will be found and killed. Avary believed these threats were very real. Fans sent him their own versions of scripts to his mailbox, but Avary, saying that "it all smacks of delirium", deleted them without reading.


title: Silent Hill (film)

text: Avary used the town of Centralia, Pennsylvania as a prototype for the town of Silent Hill; he commented that as a child, his father, who was a mining engineer, used to tell him stories about Centralia, where coal deposits from the local mine caught fire and released toxic gases into the town, as well as creating sinkholes when the abandoned mineshafts and coal seams began to collapse. This forced the town to evacuate forever. Avary was fascinated since childhood by the idea that fires underneath the town would be burning for such a long time. The film acquired its working title in honor of the city — "Centralia".


title: Silent Hill (film)

text: Samuel Hadida tried to approach the writing of the script with the same feelings that arose during the gameplay of Silent Hill. The script also required the creation of a logical splicing between the various levels so that a person not familiar with the game could easily understand what was happening on the screen. The creators were guided by the impressions of the fans, who suggested what impressed them more, what kept them in suspense, which characters seemed the most effective. At the heart of the plot, there is the search for a daughter, which leads the main character. Roger liked long dialogues, while Christophe preferred to shorten them as much as possible. In the end, they managed to achieve balance. Actions accounted for 30 pages, in which Rose explores the world of Silent Hill. There were long debates over the ending. For the ending, Avary wanted to use the theme of forgiveness, while Gans wanted to see a darker ending, the key message of which would be revenge. As a result, Avary gave up as he was convinced by the director's logical arguments.


title: Silent Hill (film)

text: After taking the script, Radha Mitchell read only 10 pages of text. She was alone in her apartment and, by her own admission, she felt uncomfortable with fear. She finished reading it only a week later in the light of the sun, and said: "That's what attracted me to the piece as well because it was definitely a page-turner and it freaked me out". Sean Bean also found the plot scary. In contrast to these impressions, Laurie Holden liked the script — she deemed it spectacular, complex, multi-level with wonderful themes and therefore interesting to work with. Deborah Kara Unger called it ""Alice in Wonderland" meets "Dante's Inferno"".


title: Silent Hill (film)

text: An integral part of the "Silent Hill" universe is the reality and unreality of the city. Silent Hill exists simultaneously in four different variations: the city of the 1970s, Silent Hill in the present, Silent Hill in the fog, and Silent Hill in the darkness. Two of the above measurements are based on temporal changes — one represents the city of thirty years ago and is used only in flashbacks, the other displays the current state of the city to which Christopher goes in search of his wife and daughter. The two remaining dimensions include a foggy day in which Rose searches for her daughter, symbolizing purgatory, and a gloomy day, consisting of enveloping darkness, which is the embodiment of Hell. Gans reported that in his work he tried to discover new dimensions of space and time in metaphysical and mystical aspects. He stated, "We're not trying to explain everything, as I prefer people to find meaning in this story themselves. It is much more pleasant to enjoy the understatement. It's kind of a playful invitation to be smart".


title: Silent Hill (film)

text: According to executive producer Andrew Mason, "Silent Hill" is a story of what happens in the moments between death and fate. The film talks about people who deny their own fate and therefore fall into the trap of alternate dimensions. It "deals with the terror of loneliness, the fear of the dark, the fear of taking responsibility for your own evil side, and the fear of your own fate". The game created a sense of constant threat, while the film "seeks to reproduce that experience for a wider audience".


title: Silent Hill (film)

text: The film's leitmotif is motherhood, faith and persecution, presented at a symbolic level. Motherhood represents a form of the virgin birth. In addition to Rose, the key characters in the themes of the dramatic structure are the childless Cybil, Dahlia, and Christabella; the latter of whom lost her child, believing that abandoning motherhood is a blessing for society. Gans stated that motherhood in the film is about "Immaculate Conception — motherhood achieved in the noblest way." By the time "Silent Hill" comes to its denouement, which takes place in the sanctuary of the sect, the film turns into a cautionary tale warning against religious fanaticism. The director noted that monotheistic religions constantly attacked the idea of femininity, but the film, at the same time, is not moralizing.


title: Silent Hill (film)

text: Gans described the concept of the town's connection to the child Alessa and the cult: "It's a town of people trapped in dark dreams, and she inflicts onto the town what those people did to her body. That is, to me, the meaning of the darkness. The appearance of the town is corrupted in the way that her own flesh was wounded." He furthers expands on Alessa's connection to the alternate reality seen in the film, saying that the alternate reality is "in [Alessa's] head". "It's interesting because the town itself mirrors this fractured psychology—different dimensions, different doubles of the same person." In speaking about the creatures in "Silent Hill", Gans said that "these monsters are [damned], with the poetic direction of the term: they are a little like the Japanese phantoms, i.e. residues of forgotten feelings as strong as hatred or [guilt]." "The monsters in the game are not really monsters, but rather a mockery of human beings. The real monsters are the people, the cultists who tortured Alessa. When I approached the film, I knew that it was impossible to represent the monsters as simply beasts that jump on you."


title: Silent Hill (film)

text: The appearance of the games in the series was largely influenced by Adrian Lyne's film "Jacob's Ladder" (1990), especially the subway and hospital scenes. Gans believed that the film crew was able to create a unique piece that did not rely on the style of Lyne's film. Gans' film adaptation is not an imitation of Lyne's film, as "Silent Hill" has long evolved into a completely separate phenomenon that exists on its own. The film was influenced by the work of Sergio Leone and David Lean: the city of the seventies was created under the inspiration of the films "Lawrence of Arabia" (1962) and "The Good, the Bad and the Ugly" (1966), and in general, it was filmed under the influence of various works ranging from a book of pictures about Chernobyl to "The Matrix" In the film, Gans paid homage to the works of Salvador Dalí, Hans Bellmer, Francis Bacon, Jean Cocteau, Alberto Giacometti, Clive Barker, H. P. Lovecraft, David Cronenberg and Michael Mann.


title: Silent Hill (film)

text: According to the director's initial idea, six Pyramid Heads were to be present in the film's denouement, destroying the sectarians with various weapons, which was supposed to be an allusion to the events of "Dante's Inferno". But due to budgetary constraints, the final scene was changed. In it, Alessa kills cultists with barbed wire — this sequence was inspired by the anime "Urotsukidōji". In one of the scenes, Rose tries to remember how to get to the hospital room, and, studying the map, says: "down, down, left, right, left, right". Valery Korneev considered this scene a reference to the Konami Code, describing it as a barely noticeable curtsey towards the adult gamer audience. The ringtone on Rose's phone matches that of Solid Snake every time he receives a coded message. The director drew parallels between Avary's script and episodes of "The Twilight Zone" (1959–1964). Based on the film, a literary adaptation of the same name was written in Japanese by Paula Edgewood and Osamu Makino.


title: Silent Hill (film)

text: The director noted that in the game, each character is very emotional and vulnerable, but at the same time the characters were called flat and schematic. After they were put on paper, Gans realized that the result was a failure. The actors represented more expansive and complex personas, so many of the characters were revamped. The filmmakers wanted all the characters in the film to appear gray and murky, as if they were in different dimensions simultaneously. When selecting actors, Christophe paid attention to those people who worked in independent cinema, as they brought a "different quality".


title: Silent Hill (film)

text: The protagonist of the original video game is a man named Harry Mason. The director of the film made a significant departure from the original source and replaced the main character with a woman, Rose Da Silva. Cristophe and the writers suddenly realized that they were working "with a completely feminine world". Gans explained that if you look closely at the game and do not take into account the appearance, you can see that the characters behave more like women than like men. They are worried about the child, they are very sensitive and often cry — all this is stereotypical for mother characters. "The whole movie is about motherhood", the director said. He believed that in any sinister story there must be a "saving grace". This change, despite the fact that Gans himself is a fan of the media franchise, did not bother him in the least "because the game is a game, and the film is a film".


title: Silent Hill (film)

text: The creators spent a lot of time and effort to find an actress for the role of Rose, sophisticated and defenseless, who had the right amount of sensitivity in her character. They needed an actress with a vulnerable image, full of determination. The audience had to worry about Rose and at the same time admire her ability to get out of various difficult situations with honor. Milla Jovovich and Meg Ryan auditioned for the role, but in the end the choice fell on Australian Radha Mitchell, previously known for her roles in 2004 films such as Woody Allen's "Melinda and Melinda", Tony Scott's "Man on Fire", and Marc Forster's "Finding Neverland". Mitchell herself became interested in the project mainly because of Gans' personality — she was deeply impressed by his previous film, "Brotherhood of the Wolf". The executive producer of the film, Andrew Mason, noted that Mitchell had the freshness, energy and joy of life necessary for the main character, who will lead the audience through a terrible world. Gans characterized Mitchell as a sophisticated and elegant sixties-style actress, reminiscent of Grace Kelly and Mia Farrow. Radha said that during the filming, she had to run a lot around the set and shout "Sharon" in 50 different ways. Also during the filming process, her attitude towards the character changed. She stated that there is something feminist in the concept of the film, since all female characters are in some kind of fantasy world, while men are only in reality. For the main character, about a hundred costumes were created, each of which was slightly darker than the previous one. In the beginning, Rose is dressed in a very light dress, and in the end — in a blood red, which symbolizes her evolution.


title: Silent Hill (film)

text: Ten-year-old Jodelle Ferland played three roles at once — her character exists in the "Silent Hill" universe in several incarnations: Sharon is the embodiment of "all the best" that was in the immolated Alessa, the suffering Alessa and the demonic Dark Alessa. The filmmakers intended to cast three different girls for these roles, but, nevertheless, a young actress was found capable of portraying these roles at the same time. Gans saw Ferland as "the ideal actress", drawing attention to her performance in the "Kingdom Hospital" miniseries and Terry Gilliam's "Tideland". After Jodelle made her audition statement "I've always wanted to play the devil", and the director watched 15 hours of footage featuring the actress, she was approved for the role. Ferland, who had 26 acting credits at the time, reported that she has already played several girls similar to her character from the film: "I usually get creepy roles, like Dark Alessa". Gans supported Ferland's performances with "a combination of charm and gentle direction".


title: Silent Hill (film)

text: The role of Sean Bean, who plays Rose's husband, Kim Coates, who plays the police officer Gucci, and all the related storylines were missing from the initial script. They were introduced after the producers familiarized themselves with the initial version of the script and a note sent to the director about the need to introduce male characters into the film. Sean Bean was the only one of all the actors in the lead roles who did not even try to play the game — he just saw the game packaging. He described his character as someone who is constantly between despair and determination to see the case through. Christopher tries to get to the bottom of it, no matter what it costs him. He is a successful businessman and a loving husband who senses the presence of evil. There is a certain nostalgia in his relationship with Rose. The actor for the role of Christopher was selected as the last one. The character was named after the director. The prototype of Cristopher was the game's protagonist Harry Mason. Coates considered "Silent Hill" to be the strangest film he had ever starred in. His character officer Gucci's name is briefly mentioned in one of the notes found in the game — in it, he is described as a narcotics officer who suddenly dies of a heart attack.


title: Silent Hill (film)

text: Gans cast Holden after seeing her in "The Majestic," stating, "in "The Majestic", she was beautifully feminine and I cast her so I could show her other side, make her strong and sleek." To prepare for her role, Krige read the book "The End of Days" by Erna Paris, a book about tyranny during the Spanish Inquisition.


title: Silent Hill (film)

text: The film was greenlit on September 19, 2003. Principal photography commenced on April 25, 2005. It was filmed in both Brantford and Hamilton as well as on soundstages in Toronto in 2005 and on location in Alma College. American studio Sony Pictures bought the distribution rights for $14 million for the United States and Latin America to be released under its TriStar Pictures genre film subsidiary.


title: Silent Hill (film)

text: The movie was filmed in the Super 35 film format, except the scenes with the darkness, which were filmed in high-definition video, because of its ability to cleanly capture light and digitally manipulate it in post-production. The film contains around 107 different sets specifically used to represent the different versions of the town. The bipedal creatures in the film were played by professional actors or dancers covered in latex and prosthetic makeup. After filming, over 619 visual effects shots were used in the film, with the most prominent uses being the fog that drenches the town, the transitions to darkness, and the insects that surround Pyramid Head. Rotoscoping was used to add the fog and ash effects to shots including live-action actors, and the film made extensive use of set extensions as backdrops.


title: Silent Hill (film)

text: To maintain the feel of the games, Gans had the sound designer of the original "Silent Hill", Akira Yamaoka, flown to the set several times. Additionally, Gans had a 40-inch television brought onto the set, to which he attached a PlayStation 2; Gans then played the original "Silent Hill" on the system so that the actors and cinematographers could see how Gans wanted to emulate various camera angles and movements.


title: Silent Hill (film)

text: Budgetary concerns caused a few scenes in the film to be rewritten. The meeting of Anna originally featured her being attacked by an injured armless creature, where she is saved by Cybil and Rose. Due to budget concerns, choreographer Roberto Campanella was sent home for the day, and without him the scene did not meet Gans's expectations. To rectify this, the scene was simplified and rewritten. Gans stated that his original vision of the film's finale revolved around six Red Pyramids appearing inside the church, each carrying a different weapon, and slaughtering the cult members in reference to Dante's Inferno. When budgetary and time constraints prevented this ending from being filmed, he created the new ending that revolved around the barbed wire slaying of the cult by Alessa, which was inspired by the erotic anime "Legend of the Overfiend".


title: Silent Hill (film)

text: The score consists almost entirely of music from Yamaoka's soundtracks to the original four games in the series. The only other piece of music used in the film is Johnny Cash's "Ring of Fire". Yamaoka's scores were arranged by film composer Jeff Danna, with some tracks appearing in almost identical form to their in-game counterparts, while others were recreated entirely.


title: Silent Hill (film)

text: "Silent Hill" was released to theaters on April 21, 2006, in the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, and Ireland. France, Belgium, Hungary, and Greece also saw April releases. It was released in Australia on August 31, 2006. The film was later released in 19 other countries in 2006 which include Russia, Germany, Spain, Italy, Japan, and Mexico. The film's poster of a mouthless Alessa was the subject of some vandalism, with many malefactors drawing cartoon mouths (smiling, screaming, sporting vampire fangs, etc.) or placing stickers where her mouth would be.


title: Silent Hill (film)

text: On August 22, 2006, Sony Pictures Home Entertainment and TriStar Pictures released the DVD, Blu-ray, and UMD versions of the film in North America. The DVD and Blu-ray were released in both Anamorphic Widescreen 2.35:1 and pan and scan versions and both included a Dolby Digital 5.1 audio track. The releases also included a number of special features, such as film previews and a six-part making-of documentary. The film was also released on UMD for Sony's PlayStation Portable on August 22, 2006; there are no special features but the disc includes a 1.78 widescreen format, Dolby Digital 2.0, and subtitles. An HD DVD was released in Germany by Concorde Home Entertainment on August 22, 2007, containing the film encoded in the VC-1 video codec and also has the main audio track in DTS-HD, and retaining the film aspect ratio of 2.35:1.


title: Silent Hill (film)

text: On July 9, 2019, Shout! Factory released a 2-disc Collector's Edition Blu-Ray of "Silent Hill" through their "Scream! Factory" label. In addition to containing previous special features, the Collector's Edition also featured new bonus content, including cast and crew interviews, a commentary track with cinematographer Dan Laustsen, and a new HD remaster of the film.


title: Silent Hill (film)

text: "Silent Hill" opened in 2,932 theaters and earned $20 million in the US on its opening weekend and opened at number one at the U.S. box office. The film grossed over $46 million in the US and $100 million total worldwide. The film sold 1,316,169 DVDs in 4 weeks, grossing $22.1 million, and making the total gross of the film jump to $120 million worldwide. "Silent Hill" has landed in the top 10 highest-grossing film adaptations of video game properties listed on Box Office Mojo (from 1980 to present) at No. 9, grossing $47 million in the US, just behind "", which grossed $50.6 million in the US.


title: Silent Hill (film)

text: According to the distributor, advance screenings of "Silent Hill" were never given to critics. On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, of critics have given the film a positive review, and the average rating is . The site's critical consensus reads, ""Silent Hill" is visually impressive, but as with many video game adaptations, it's plagued by inane dialogue, a muddled plot, and an overlong runtime." Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade "C" on an A+ to F scale.


title: Silent Hill (film)

text: James Berardinelli of ReelViews awarded the film two and a half stars out of four, opining that it "is overlong, with too many unnecessary scenes" and that "a lot of the movie seems like pointless running around", but added that it "looks great" and "packs in a few scary moments and offers a nicely ambiguous conclusion". Roger Ebert of the "Chicago Sun-Times" gave one and a half stars out of four, calling it "an incredibly good-looking film", but noting that he "did not understand the story" and criticizing how "all through the movie, characters are pausing in order to offer arcane back-stories and historical perspectives and metaphysical insights and occult orientations". Don R. Lewis of Film Threat praised the visuals but wrote that "this entire film is downright confusing and not in an intriguing way", calling it "the best-looking bad film I've ever seen".


title: Silent Hill (film)

text: Owen Gleiberman of "Entertainment Weekly" gave a score of D+, stating that "a few of the images are startling" but ""Silent Hill" is mostly paralyzing in its vagueness". Dennis Harvey of "Variety" opined that "above-average interest is generated for a time by [the] elaborate visual package", but "in the end, "Silent Hill" degenerates into an overblown replay of all those "Twilight Zone" and Stephen King stories in which outsiders stumble upon a time-warped location from which there's no escape". According to Nathan Lee of "The New York Times", "It begins as a quest, develops into a ghost-town mystery, devolves into a preposterous cautionary tale about witchcraft and religious fundamentalism, and wraps up like the outrageously overwrought fantasy of a movie nerd obsessed with horror who has been given obscene amounts of money to adapt a video game."


title: Silent Hill (film)

text: A sequel, "", taking place six years after the first film's events, was released on October 26, 2012. Christophe Gans could not direct the sequel because he was busy directing an "Onimusha" film adaptation. Roger Avary was originally attached to write the screenplay and had written the first draft before he was arrested for vehicular manslaughter in November 2010. M. J. Bassett was later hired to write and direct the sequel. The sequel was panned by critics, holding rating on Rotten Tomatoes.


title: Silent Hill (film)

text: On 31 January 2020, Christophe Gans expressed an interest in working on another "Silent Hill" film. On October 19, 2022, a sequel to the first film was announced to be in early development, referred to as "Return to Silent Hill".


title: Constitution

text: A constitution is the aggregate of fundamental principles or established precedents that constitute the legal basis of a polity, organisation or other type of entity and commonly determine how that entity is to be governed.


title: Constitution

text: When these principles are written down into a single document or set of legal documents, those documents may be said to embody a "written constitution"; if they are encompassed in a single comprehensive document, it is said to embody a "codified constitution". The Constitution of the United Kingdom is a notable example of an "uncodified constitution"; it is instead written in numerous fundamental Acts of a legislature, court cases or treaties.


title: Constitution

text: Constitutions concern different levels of organizations, from sovereign countries to companies and unincorporated associations. A treaty which establishes an international organization is also its constitution, in that it would define how that organization is constituted. Within states, a constitution defines the principles upon which the state is based, the procedure in which laws are made and by whom. Some constitutions, especially codified constitutions, also act as limiters of state power, by establishing lines which a state's rulers cannot cross, such as fundamental rights.


title: Constitution

text: The Constitution of India is the longest written constitution of any country in the world, with 146,385 words in its English-language version, while the Constitution of Monaco is the shortest written constitution with 3,814 words. The Constitution of San Marino might be the world's oldest active written constitution, since some of its core documents have been in operation since 1600, while the Constitution of the United States is the oldest active codified constitution. The historical life expectancy of a constitution since 1789 is approximately 19 years.


title: Constitution

text: The term "constitution" comes through French from the Latin word "constitutio", used for regulations and orders, such as the imperial enactments ("constitutiones principis": edicta, mandata, decreta, rescripta). Later, the term was widely used in canon law for an important determination, especially a decree issued by the Pope, now referred to as an "apostolic constitution".


title: Constitution

text: William Blackstone used the term for significant and egregious violations of public trust, of a nature and extent that the transgression would justify a revolutionary response. The term as used by Blackstone was not for a legal text, nor did he intend to include the later American concept of judicial review: "for that were to set the judicial power above that of the legislature, which would be subversive of all government".


title: Constitution

text: Generally, every modern written constitution confers specific powers on an organization or institutional entity, established upon the primary condition that it abides by the constitution's limitations. According to Scott Gordon, a political organization is constitutional to the extent that it "contain[s] institutionalized mechanisms of power control for the protection of the interests and liberties of the citizenry, including those that may be in the minority".


title: Constitution

text: Activities of officials within an organization or polity that fall within the constitutional or statutory authority of those officials are termed "within power" (or, in Latin, "intra vires"); if they do not, they are termed "beyond power" (or, in Latin, "ultra vires"). For example, a students' union may be prohibited as an organization from engaging in activities not concerning students; if the union becomes involved in non-student activities, these activities are considered to be "ultra vires" of the union's charter, and nobody would be compelled by the charter to follow them. An example from the constitutional law of sovereign states would be a provincial parliament in a federal state trying to legislate in an area that the constitution allocates exclusively to the federal parliament, such as ratifying a treaty. Action that appears to be beyond power may be judicially reviewed and, if found to be beyond power, must cease. Legislation that is found to be beyond power will be "invalid" and of no force; this applies to primary legislation, requiring constitutional authorization, and secondary legislation, ordinarily requiring statutory authorization. In this context, "within power", "intra vires", "authorized" and "valid" have the same meaning; as do "beyond power", "ultra vires", "not authorized" and "invalid".


title: Constitution

text: In most but not all modern states the constitution has supremacy over ordinary statutory law (see Uncodified constitution below); in such states when an official act is unconstitutional, i.e. it is not a power granted to the government by the constitution, that act is "null and void", and the nullification is "ab initio", that is, from inception, not from the date of the finding. It was never "law", even though, if it had been a statute or statutory provision, it might have been adopted according to the procedures for adopting legislation. Sometimes the problem is not that a statute is unconstitutional, but that the application of it is, on a particular occasion, and a court may decide that while there are ways it could be applied that are constitutional, that instance was not allowed or legitimate. In such a case, only that application may be ruled unconstitutional. Historically, the remedies for such violations have been petitions for common law writs, such as "quo warranto".


title: Constitution

text: Scholars debate whether a constitution must necessarily be autochthonous, resulting from the nations "spirit". Hegel said "A constitution...is the work of centuries; it is the idea, the consciousness of rationality so far as that consciousness is developed in a particular nation."


title: Constitution

text: Since 1789, along with the Constitution of the United States of America (U.S. Constitution), which is the oldest and shortest written constitution still in force, close to 800 constitutions have been adopted and subsequently amended around the world by independent states.


title: Constitution

text: In the late 18th century, Thomas Jefferson predicted that a period of 20 years would be the optimal time for any constitution to be still in force, since "the earth belongs to the living, and not to the dead." Indeed, according to recent studies, the average life of any new written constitution is around 19 years. However, a great number of constitutions do not last more than 10 years, and around 10% do not last more than one year, as was the case of the French Constitution of 1791. By contrast, some constitutions, notably that of the United States, have remained in force for several centuries, often without major revision for long periods of time.


title: Constitution

text: The most common reasons for these frequent changes are the political desire for an immediate outcome and the short time devoted to the constitutional drafting process. A study in 2009 showed that the average time taken to draft a constitution is around 16 months, however there were also some extreme cases registered. For example, the Myanmar 2008 Constitution was being secretly drafted for more than 17 years, whereas at the other extreme, during the drafting of Japan's 1946 Constitution, the bureaucrats drafted everything in no more than a week. Japan has the oldest unamended constitution in the world. The record for the shortest overall process of drafting, adoption, and ratification of a national constitution belongs to the Romania's 1938 constitution, which installed a royal dictatorship in less than a month. Studies showed that typically extreme cases where the constitution-making process either takes too long or is extremely short were non-democracies. Constitutional rights are not a specific characteristic of democratic countries. Non-democratic countries have constitutions, such as that of North Korea, which officially grants every citizen, among other rights, the freedom of expression.


title: Constitution

text: Excavations in modern-day Iraq by Ernest de Sarzec in 1877 found evidence of the earliest known code of justice, issued by the Sumerian king Urukagina of Lagash c. 2300 BC. Perhaps the earliest prototype for a law of government, this document itself has not yet been discovered; however it is known that it allowed some rights to his citizens. For example, it is known that it relieved tax for widows and orphans, and protected the poor from the usury of the rich.


title: Constitution

text: After that, many governments ruled by special codes of written laws. The oldest such document still known to exist seems to be the Code of Ur-Nammu of Ur (c. 2050 BC). Some of the better-known ancient law codes are the code of Lipit-Ishtar of Isin, the code of Hammurabi of Babylonia, the Hittite code, the Assyrian code, and Mosaic law.


title: Constitution

text: In 621 BC, a scribe named Draco codified the oral laws of the city-state of Athens; this code prescribed the death penalty for many offenses (thus creating the modern term "draconian" for very strict rules). In 594 BC, Solon, the ruler of Athens, created the new "Solonian Constitution". It eased the burden of the workers, and determined that membership of the ruling class was to be based on wealth (plutocracy), rather than on birth (aristocracy). Cleisthenes again reformed the Athenian constitution and set it on a democratic footing in 508 BC.


title: Constitution

text: Aristotle (c. 350 BC) was the first to make a formal distinction between ordinary law and constitutional law, establishing ideas of constitution and constitutionalism, and attempting to classify different forms of constitutional government. The most basic definition he used to describe a constitution in general terms was "the arrangement of the offices in a state". In his works "Constitution of Athens", "Politics", and "Nicomachean Ethics", he explores different constitutions of his day, including those of Athens, Sparta, and Carthage. He classified both what he regarded as good and what he regarded as bad constitutions, and came to the conclusion that the best constitution was a mixed system including monarchic, aristocratic, and democratic elements. He also distinguished between citizens, who had the right to participate in the state, and non-citizens and slaves, who did not.


title: Constitution

text: The Romans initially codified their constitution in 450 BC as the "Twelve Tables". They operated under a series of laws that were added from time to time, but Roman law was not reorganised into a single code until the "Codex Theodosianus" (438 AD); later, in the Eastern Empire, the "Codex repetitæ prælectionis" (534) was highly influential throughout Europe. This was followed in the east by the "Ecloga" of Leo III the Isaurian (740) and the "Basilica" of Basil I (878).


title: Constitution

text: The "Edicts of Ashoka" established constitutional principles for the 3rd century BC Maurya king's rule in India. For constitutional principles almost lost to antiquity, see the code of Manu.


title: Constitution

text: Many of the Germanic peoples that filled the power vacuum left by the Western Roman Empire in the Early Middle Ages codified their laws. One of the first of these Germanic law codes to be written was the Visigothic "Code of Euric" (471 AD). This was followed by the "Lex Burgundionum", applying separate codes for Germans and for Romans; the "Pactus Alamannorum"; and the Salic Law of the Franks, all written soon after 500. In 506, the "Breviarum" or ""Lex Romana"" of Alaric II, king of the Visigoths, adopted and consolidated the "Codex Theodosianus" together with assorted earlier Roman laws. Systems that appeared somewhat later include the "Edictum Rothari" of the Lombards (643), the "Lex Visigothorum" (654), the "Lex Alamannorum" (730), and the "Lex Frisionum" (c. 785). These continental codes were all composed in Latin, while Anglo-Saxon was used for those of England, beginning with the Code of Æthelberht of Kent (602). Around 893, Alfred the Great combined this and two other earlier Saxon codes, with various Mosaic and Christian precepts, to produce the "Doom book" code of laws for England.


title: Constitution

text: Japan's "Seventeen-article constitution" written in 604, reportedly by Prince Shōtoku, is an early example of a constitution in Asian political history. Influenced by Buddhist teachings, the document focuses more on social morality than on institutions of government, and remains a notable early attempt at a government constitution.


title: Constitution

text: The Constitution of Medina (, Ṣaḥīfat al-Madīna), also known as the Charter of Medina, was drafted by the Islamic prophet Muhammad after his flight (hijra) to Yathrib where he became political leader. It constituted a formal agreement between Muhammad and all of the significant tribes and families of Yathrib (later known as Medina), including Muslims, Jews, and pagans. The document was drawn up with the explicit concern of bringing to an end the bitter intertribal fighting between the clans of the Aws (Aus) and Khazraj within Medina. To this effect it instituted a number of rights and responsibilities for the Muslim, Jewish, and pagan communities of Medina bringing them within the fold of one community – the Ummah. The precise dating of the Constitution of Medina remains debated, but generally scholars agree it was written shortly after the Hijra (622).


title: Constitution

text: The "Pravda Yaroslava", originally combined by Yaroslav the Wise the Grand Prince of Kyiv, was granted to Great Novgorod around 1017, and in 1054 was incorporated into the "Ruska Pravda"; it became the law for all of Kievan Rus. It survived only in later editions of the 15th century.


title: Constitution

text: In England, Henry I's proclamation of the Charter of Liberties in 1100 bound the king for the first time in his treatment of the clergy and the nobility. This idea was extended and refined by the English barony when they forced King John to sign "Magna Carta" in 1215. The most important single article of the "Magna Carta", related to ""habeas corpus"", provided that the king was not permitted to imprison, outlaw, exile or kill anyone at a whim – there must be due process of law first. This article, Article 39, of the "Magna Carta" read:


title: Constitution

text: This provision became the cornerstone of English liberty after that point. The social contract in the original case was between the king and the nobility, but was gradually extended to all of the people. It led to the system of Constitutional Monarchy, with further reforms shifting the balance of power from the monarchy and nobility to the House of Commons.


title: Constitution

text: The Nomocanon of Saint Sava () was the first Serbian constitution from 1219. St. Sava's Nomocanon was the compilation of civil law, based on Roman Law, and canon law, based on Ecumenical Councils. Its basic purpose was to organize the functioning of the young Serbian kingdom and the Serbian church. Saint Sava began the work on the Serbian Nomocanon in 1208 while he was at Mount Athos, using "The Nomocanon in Fourteen Titles", "Synopsis of Stefan the Efesian", "Nomocanon of John Scholasticus", and Ecumenical Council documents, which he modified with the canonical commentaries of Aristinos and Joannes Zonaras, local church meetings, rules of the Holy Fathers, the law of Moses, the translation of Prohiron, and the Byzantine emperors' Novellae (most were taken from Justinian's Novellae). The Nomocanon was a completely new compilation of civil and canonical regulations, taken from Byzantine sources but completed and reformed by St. Sava to function properly in Serbia. Besides decrees that organized the life of church, there are various norms regarding civil life; most of these were taken from Prohiron. Legal transplants of Roman-Byzantine law became the basis of the Serbian medieval law. The essence of Zakonopravilo was based on Corpus Iuris Civilis.


title: Constitution

text: Stefan Dušan, emperor of Serbs and Greeks, enacted Dušan's Code () in Serbia, in two state congresses: in 1349 in Skopje and in 1354 in Serres. It regulated all social spheres, so it was the second Serbian constitution, after St. Sava's Nomocanon (Zakonopravilo). The Code was based on Roman-Byzantine law. The legal transplanting within articles 171 and 172 of Dušan's Code, which regulated the juridical independence, is notable. They were taken from the Byzantine code Basilika (book VII, 1, 16–17).


title: Constitution

text: Between 1220 and 1230, a Saxon administrator, Eike von Repgow, composed the "Sachsenspiegel", which became the supreme law used in parts of Germany as late as 1900.


title: Constitution

text: Around 1240, the Coptic Egyptian Christian writer, 'Abul Fada'il Ibn al-'Assal, wrote the "Fetha Negest" in Arabic. 'Ibn al-Assal took his laws partly from apostolic writings and Mosaic law and partly from the former Byzantine codes. There are a few historical records claiming that this law code was translated into Ge'ez and entered Ethiopia around 1450 in the reign of Zara Yaqob. Even so, its first recorded use in the function of a constitution (supreme law of the land) is with Sarsa Dengel beginning in 1563. The "Fetha Negest" remained the supreme law in Ethiopia until 1931, when a modern-style Constitution was first granted by Emperor Haile Selassie I.


title: Constitution

text: In the Principality of Catalonia, the Catalan constitutions were promulgated by the Court from 1283 (or even two centuries before, if Usatges of Barcelona is considered part of the compilation of Constitutions) until 1716, when Philip V of Spain gave the Nueva Planta decrees, finishing with the historical laws of Catalonia. These Constitutions were usually made formally as a royal initiative, but required for its approval or repeal the favorable vote of the Catalan Courts, the medieval antecedent of the modern Parliaments. These laws, like other modern constitutions, had preeminence over other laws, and they could not be contradicted by mere decrees or edicts of the king.


title: Constitution

text: The Kouroukan Founga was a 13th-century charter of the Mali Empire, reconstructed from oral tradition in 1988 by Siriman Kouyaté.


title: Constitution

text: The Golden Bull of 1356 was a decree issued by a "Reichstag" in Nuremberg headed by Emperor Charles IV that fixed, for a period of more than four hundred years, an important aspect of the constitutional structure of the Holy Roman Empire.


title: Constitution

text: In China, the Hongwu Emperor created and refined a document he called "Ancestral Injunctions" (first published in 1375, revised twice more before his death in 1398). These rules served as a constitution for the Ming Dynasty for the next 250 years.


title: Constitution

text: The oldest written document still governing a sovereign nation today is that of San Marino. The "Leges Statutae Republicae Sancti Marini" was written in Latin and consists of six books. The first book, with 62 articles, establishes councils, courts, various executive officers, and the powers assigned to them. The remaining books cover criminal and civil law and judicial procedures and remedies. Written in 1600, the document was based upon the "Statuti Comunali" (Town Statute) of 1300, itself influenced by the "Codex Justinianus", and it remains in force today.


title: Constitution

text: In 1392 the "Carta de Logu" was legal code of the Giudicato of Arborea promulgated by the "giudicessa" Eleanor. It was in force in Sardinia until it was superseded by the code of Charles Felix in April 1827. The Carta was a work of great importance in Sardinian history. It was an organic, coherent, and systematic work of legislation encompassing the civil and penal law.


title: Constitution

text: The "Gayanashagowa", the oral constitution of the Haudenosaunee nation also known as the Great Law of Peace, established a system of governance as far back as 1190 AD (though perhaps more recently at 1451) in which the Sachems, or tribal chiefs, of the Iroquois League's member nations made decisions on the basis of universal consensus of all chiefs following discussions that were initiated by a single nation. The position of Sachem descends through families and are allocated by the senior female clan heads, though, prior to the filling of the position, candidacy is ultimately democratically decided by the community itself.


title: Constitution

text: In 1634 the Kingdom of Sweden adopted the 1634 Instrument of Government, drawn up under the Lord High Chancellor of Sweden Axel Oxenstierna after the death of king Gustavus Adolphus, it can be seen as the first written constitution adopted by a modern state.


title: Constitution

text: In 1639, the Colony of Connecticut adopted the Fundamental Orders, which was the first North American constitution, and is the basis for every new Connecticut constitution since, and is also the reason for Connecticut's nickname, "the Constitution State".


title: Constitution

text: The English Protectorate that was set up by Oliver Cromwell after the English Civil War promulgated the first detailed written constitution adopted by a modern state; it was called the Instrument of Government. This formed the basis of government for the short-lived republic from 1653 to 1657 by providing a legal rationale for the increasing power of Cromwell after Parliament consistently failed to govern effectively. Most of the concepts and ideas embedded into modern constitutional theory, especially bicameralism, separation of powers, the written constitution, and judicial review, can be traced back to the experiments of that period.


title: Constitution

text: Drafted by Major-General John Lambert in 1653, the "Instrument of Government" included elements incorporated from an earlier document "Heads of Proposals", which had been agreed to by the Army Council in 1647, as a set of propositions intended to be a basis for a constitutional settlement after King Charles I was defeated in the First English Civil War. Charles had rejected the propositions, but before the start of the Second Civil War, the Grandees of the New Model Army had presented the "Heads of Proposals" as their alternative to the more radical Agreement of the People presented by the Agitators and their civilian supporters at the Putney Debates.


title: Constitution

text: On January 4, 1649, the Rump Parliament declared "that the people are, under God, the original of all just power; that the Commons of England, being chosen by and representing the people, have the supreme power in this nation".


title: Constitution

text: The "Instrument of Government" was adopted by Parliament on December 15, 1653, and Oliver Cromwell was installed as Lord Protector on the following day. The constitution set up a state council consisting of 21 members while executive authority was vested in the office of "Lord Protector of the Commonwealth." This position was designated as a non-hereditary life appointment. The "Instrument" also required the calling of triennial Parliaments, with each sitting for at least five months.


title: Constitution

text: The "Instrument of Government" was replaced in May 1657 by England's second, and last, codified constitution, the Humble Petition and Advice, proposed by Sir Christopher Packe. The Petition offered hereditary monarchy to Oliver Cromwell, asserted Parliament's control over issuing new taxation, provided an independent council to advise the king and safeguarded "Triennial" meetings of Parliament. A modified version of the Humble Petition with the clause on kingship removed was ratified on 25 May. This finally met its demise in conjunction with the death of Cromwell and the Restoration of the monarchy.


title: Constitution

text: Other examples of European constitutions of this era were the Corsican Constitution of 1755 and the Swedish Constitution of 1772.


title: Constitution

text: All of the British colonies in North America that were to become the 13 original United States, adopted their own constitutions in 1776 and 1777, during the American Revolution (and before the later Articles of Confederation and United States Constitution), with the exceptions of Massachusetts, Connecticut and Rhode Island. The Commonwealth of Massachusetts adopted its Constitution in 1780, the oldest still-functioning constitution of any U.S. state; while Connecticut and Rhode Island officially continued to operate under their old colonial charters, until they adopted their first state constitutions in 1818 and 1843, respectively.


title: Constitution

text: What is sometimes called the "enlightened constitution" model was developed by philosophers of the Age of Enlightenment such as Thomas Hobbes, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, and John Locke. The model proposed that constitutional governments should be stable, adaptable, accountable, open and should represent the people (i.e., support democracy).


title: Constitution

text: "Agreements and Constitutions of Laws and Freedoms of the Zaporizian Host" was written in 1710 by Pylyp Orlyk, "hetman" of the Zaporozhian Host. It was written to establish a free Zaporozhian-Ukrainian Republic, with the support of Charles XII of Sweden. It is notable in that it established a democratic standard for the separation of powers in government between the legislative, executive, and judiciary branches, well before the publication of Montesquieu's "Spirit of the Laws". This Constitution also limited the executive authority of the "hetman", and established a democratically elected Cossack parliament called the General Council. However, Orlyk's project for an independent Ukrainian State never materialized, and his constitution, written in exile, never went into effect.


title: Constitution

text: Corsican Constitutions of 1755 and 1794 were inspired by Jean-Jacques Rousseau. The latter introduced universal suffrage for property owners.


title: Constitution

text: The Swedish constitution of 1772 was enacted under King Gustavus III and was inspired by the separation of powers by Montesquieu. The king also cherished other enlightenment ideas (as an enlighted despot) and repealed torture, liberated agricultural trade, diminished the use of the death penalty and instituted a form of religious freedom. The constitution was commended by Voltaire.


title: Constitution

text: The United States Constitution, ratified June 21, 1788, was influenced by the writings of Polybius, Locke, Montesquieu, and others. The document became a benchmark for republicanism and codified constitutions written thereafter.


title: Constitution

text: The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth Constitution was passed on May 3, 1791. Its draft was developed by the leading minds of the Enlightenment in Poland such as King Stanislaw August Poniatowski, Stanisław Staszic, Scipione Piattoli, Julian Ursyn Niemcewicz, Ignacy Potocki and Hugo Kołłątaj. It was adopted by the Great Sejm and is considered the first constitution of its kind in Europe and the world's second oldest one after the American Constitution.


title: Constitution

text: The 1811 Constitution of Venezuela was the first Constitution of Venezuela and Latin America, promulgated and drafted by Cristóbal Mendoza and Juan Germán Roscio and in Caracas. It established a federal government but was repealed one year later.


title: Constitution

text: On March 19, the Spanish Constitution of 1812 was ratified by a parliament gathered in Cadiz, the only Spanish continental city which was safe from French occupation. The Spanish Constitution served as a model for other liberal constitutions of several South European and Latin American nations, for example, the Portuguese Constitution of 1822, constitutions of various Italian states during Carbonari revolts (i.e., in the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies), the Norwegian constitution of 1814, or the Mexican Constitution of 1824.


title: Constitution

text: In Brazil, the Constitution of 1824 expressed the option for the monarchy as political system after Brazilian Independence. The leader of the national emancipation process was the Portuguese prince Pedro I, elder son of the king of Portugal. Pedro was crowned in 1822 as first emperor of Brazil. The country was ruled by Constitutional monarchy until 1889, when it adopted the Republican model.


title: Constitution

text: In Denmark, as a result of the Napoleonic Wars, the absolute monarchy lost its personal possession of Norway to Sweden. Sweden had already enacted its 1809 Instrument of Government, which saw the division of power between the Riksdag, the king and the judiciary. However the Norwegians managed to infuse a radically democratic and liberal constitution in 1814, adopting many facets from the American constitution and the revolutionary French ones, but maintaining a hereditary monarch limited by the constitution, like the Spanish one.


title: Constitution

text: The first Swiss Federal Constitution was put in force in September 1848 (with official revisions in 1878, 1891, 1949, 1971, 1982 and 1999).


title: Constitution

text: The Serbian revolution initially led to a proclamation of a proto-constitution in 1811; the full-fledged Constitution of Serbia followed few decades later, in 1835. The first Serbian constitution (Sretenjski ustav) was adopted at the national assembly in Kragujevac on February 15, 1835.