title: Espionage

text: The Hague Convention of 1907 addresses the status of wartime spies, specifically within "Laws and Customs of War on Land" (Hague IV); October 18, 1907: CHAPTER II Spies". Article 29 states that a person is considered a spy who, acts clandestinely or on false pretences, infiltrates enemy lines with the intention of acquiring intelligence about the enemy and communicate it to the belligerent during times of war. Soldiers who penetrate enemy lines in proper uniforms for the purpose of acquiring intelligence are not considered spies but are lawful combatants entitled to be treated as prisoners of war upon capture by the enemy. Article 30 states that a spy captured behind enemy lines may only be punished following a trial. However, Article 31 provides that if a spy successfully rejoined his own military and is then captured by the enemy as a lawful combatant, he cannot be punished for his previous acts of espionage and must be treated as a prisoner of war. Note that this provision does not apply to citizens who committed treason against their own country or co-belligerents of that country and may be captured and prosecuted at any place or any time regardless whether he rejoined the military to which he belongs or not or during or after the war.


title: Espionage

text: The ones that are excluded from being treated as spies while behind enemy lines are escaping prisoners of war and downed airmen as international law distinguishes between a disguised spy and a disguised escaper. It is permissible for these groups to wear enemy uniforms or civilian clothes in order to facilitate their escape back to friendly lines so long as they do not attack enemy forces, collect military intelligence, or engage in similar military operations while so disguised. Soldiers who are wearing enemy uniforms or civilian clothes simply for the sake of warmth along with other purposes rather than engaging in espionage or similar military operations while so attired are also excluded from being treated as unlawful combatants.


title: Espionage

text: Saboteurs are treated as spies as they too wear disguises behind enemy lines for the purpose of waging destruction on an enemy's vital targets in addition to intelligence gathering. For example, during World War II, eight German agents entered the U.S. in June 1942 as part of Operation Pastorius, a sabotage mission against U.S. economic targets. Two weeks later, all were arrested in civilian clothes by the FBI thanks to two German agents betraying the mission to the U.S. Under the Hague Convention of 1907, these Germans were classified as spies and tried by a military tribunal in Washington D.C. On August 3, 1942, all eight were found guilty and sentenced to death. Five days later, six were executed by electric chair at the District of Columbia jail. Two who had given evidence against the others had their sentences reduced by President Franklin D. Roosevelt to prison terms. In 1948, they were released by President Harry S. Truman and deported to the American Zone of occupied Germany.


title: Espionage

text: The U.S. codification of enemy spies is Article 106 of the Uniform Code of Military Justice. This provides a mandatory death sentence if a person captured in the act is proven to be "lurking as a spy or acting as a spy in or about any place, vessel, or aircraft, within the control or jurisdiction of any of the armed forces, or in or about any shipyard, any manufacturing or industrial plant, or any other place or institution engaged in work in aid of the prosecution of the war by the United States, or elsewhere".


title: Espionage

text: Spies have long been favorite topics for novelists and filmmakers. An early example of espionage literature is "Kim" by the English novelist Rudyard Kipling, with a description of the training of an intelligence agent in the Great Game between the UK and Russia in 19th century Central Asia. An even earlier work was James Fenimore Cooper's classic novel, "The Spy," written in 1821, about an American spy in New York during the Revolutionary War.


title: Espionage

text: During the many 20th-century spy scandals, much information became publicly known about national spy agencies and dozens of real-life secret agents. These sensational stories piqued public interest in a profession largely off-limits to human interest news reporting, a natural consequence of the secrecy inherent in their work. To fill in the blanks, the popular conception of the secret agent has been formed largely by 20th and 21st-century fiction and film. Attractive and sociable real-life agents such as Valerie Plame find little employment in serious fiction, however. The fictional secret agent is more often a loner, sometimes amoral—an existential hero operating outside the everyday constraints of society. Loner spy personalities may have been a stereotype of convenience for authors who already knew how to write loner private investigator characters that sold well from the 1920s to the present.


title: Espionage

text: Johnny Fedora achieved popularity as a fictional agent of early Cold War espionage, but James Bond is the most commercially successful of the many spy characters created by intelligence insiders during that struggle. Other fictional agents include Le Carré's George Smiley, and Harry Palmer as played by Michael Caine.


title: Espionage

text: Jumping on the spy bandwagon, other writers also started writing about spy fiction featuring female spies as protagonists, such as "The Baroness", which has more graphic action and sex, as compared to other novels featuring male protagonists.


title: Espionage

text: Spy fiction has permeated the video game world as well, in games such as "Perfect Dark", "GoldenEye 007", "", and the "Metal Gear" series.


title: Espionage

text: Espionage has also made its way into comedy depictions. The 1960s TV series "Get Smart", the 1983 Finnish film "Agent 000 and the Deadly Curves", and "Johnny English" film trilogy portrays an inept spy, while the 1985 movie "Spies Like Us" depicts a pair of none-too-bright men sent to the Soviet Union to investigate a missile.


title: Espionage

text: The historical novel "The Emperor and the Spy" highlights the adventurous life of U.S. Colonel Sidney Forrester Mashbir, who during the 1920s and 1930s attempted to prevent war with Japan, and when war did erupt, he became General MacArthur's top advisor in the Pacific Theater of World War Two.


title: Espionage

text: Black Widow is also a fictional agent who was introduced as a Russian spy, an antagonist of the superhero Iron Man. She later became an agent of the fictional spy agency S.H.I.E.L.D. and a member of the superhero team the Avengers.


title: Rick Harrison

text: Richard Kevin Harrison (born March 22, 1965) is an American businessman, reality television personality, and owner of the Gold & Silver Pawn Shop which is featured on the History series "Pawn Stars". Harrison and his father, Richard Benjamin Harrison, opened the shop in 1989, which they co-owned until his father's death in 2018.


title: Rick Harrison

text: Rick Harrison was born on March 22, 1965, in Lexington, North Carolina, the son of Richard Benjamin Harrison Jr., a U.S. Navy veteran, and Joanne Rhue Harrison. Harrison is the younger brother of Sherry Joanne Harrison (died at age 6), and Joseph Kent Harrison, and the older brother of Chris Harrison. According to Harrison's son Corey, his grandfather stated that they are related to U.S. President William Henry Harrison. Harrison has indicated that he does not give much credence to this idea, although Harrison's father stated the family is distantly related to Benjamin Harrison, a grandson of William Henry Harrison.


title: Rick Harrison

text: In 1967, when Harrison was two years old, his father was transferred to San Diego, California, where the family relocated. As a child, Harrison began having epileptic seizures at age eight. As a result, he spent much of his time in bed which led to a lifelong love of reading. He became particularly enamored of a series of books by John D. Fitzgerald called "The Great Brain", whose main character, a ten-year-old Utah con artist named Tom D. Fitzgerald with the ability to conjure up money-making schemes, greatly influenced Harrison.


title: Rick Harrison

text: Harrison developed a love of books in general, in particular on physics and history, with his favorite area of historical study being the Royal Navy, from the late 1700s to the early 1800s. Harrison attended Taft Middle School, which is part of the San Diego Unified School District, but dropped out during tenth grade to pursue his "$2,000-a-week business of selling fake Gucci bags".


title: Rick Harrison

text: The Harrison family relocated to Las Vegas, Nevada, in April 1981 after the collapse of his parents' real estate business. When Harrison was 17, his girlfriend Kim became pregnant. Despite a subsequent miscarriage, the couple decided to marry. Their first child, Corey, was born on April 27, 1983. Within two years, their second child, Adam, was born. Soon after Adam's birth, Harrison and Kim separated. Nine months later Harrison met the woman who would become his second wife, Tracy, on a blind double date. After dating for six months they moved in together, and eight months after this they married, and assumed the responsibility of raising Corey and Adam.


title: Rick Harrison

text: In 1981 Harrison's father opened his first 300-square-foot secondhand store, the Gold & Silver Coin Shop, which opened on Las Vegas Boulevard South. Harrison worked for his father in the store in the daytime while repossessing cars at night. After five years the store moved to a larger location on Fremont Street. After two years at that location the Harrisons lost their lease. They subsequently moved into a new building in a commercial neighborhood on Las Vegas Boulevard. Harrison relates in his autobiography that he and his father had long-sought to convert the store into a pawn shop, calling it a "logical progression." Because of a 1955 Las Vegas law requiring the issuing of new pawn licenses to be limited on the basis of the city's population, which by 1988 was over 200,000 and rapidly growing, Harrison called the city statistician every week, so that they could apply for a rare and much-coveted pawn license as soon as the city's population reached 250,000. By 1989 the city's population reached that number and after some legal struggles, the Harrisons obtained their pawn license. That year Harrison and his father opened the Gold & Silver Pawn Shop less than two miles from the Las Vegas Strip. By 2005, Harrison and his father were loaning out about $3 million annually, which brought them about $700,000 in interest income.


title: Rick Harrison

text: By 2006, the shop had developed a reputation for carrying special sports items with unique histories, including a 2001 New England Patriots Super Bowl ring that belonged to American football cornerback Brock Williams. It also served gamblers who, according to Harrison's son Corey, often came in to "pawn something so they have gas to get back home."


title: Rick Harrison

text: According to Harrison in 2010, the items most often brought into the store are jewelry. Since the inception of "Pawn Stars", Harrison's inventory typically has a ratio of 5,000 items pawned per 12,000.


title: Rick Harrison

text: Harrison spent four years pitching the idea of making a show about a pawn shop after his shop was featured in the show "Insomniac with Dave Attell" in 2003, but his efforts did not yield success. In 2008, Brent Montgomery and Colby Gaines of Leftfield Pictures came up with an idea about a reality show based in a Las Vegas pawn shop and approached Harrison. The series was originally pitched to HBO, though the network preferred the series to have been a "Taxicab Confessions"-style series taking place at the Gold & Silver's night window. In a February 2009 YouTube video titled "Pawn star$", Corey Harrison promised to gun down an intruder with a handgun he displayed, and a woman screamed as she was removed from the store after demanding that the wedding ring her husband sold to the shop be returned.


title: Rick Harrison

text: Nancy Dubuc of the History Channel changed the format, which included on-camera experts appraising the items brought into the Gold & Silver as well as personality dynamics of the store's staff and patrons. Initially to have been titled "Pawning History", the program was renamed "Pawn Stars" at the suggestion of a Leftfield staffer, playing off the term "porn stars" for more marketing appeal. The show features Harrison and his father, Richard Harrison (generally referred to on the show as "The Old Man") along with his son Corey ("Big Hoss") and Corey's childhood friend and employee Austin "Chumlee" Russell. Richard Harrison died in June 2018, during production of the fifteenth season. In 2010, the National Pawnbrokers Association awarded the Pawnbroker of the Year Award to Harrison for his contributions in enlightening the public about the pawn industry.


title: Rick Harrison

text: In January 2011, "Pawn Stars" was the highest rated program on the History Channel, and the second-highest rated reality show behind "Jersey Shore". On June 7 2011, Harrison published a biography called "License to Pawn: Deals, Steals, and My Life at the Gold & Silver". His book reached No. 22 on "The New York Times" Best Seller list on June 26, 2011.


title: Rick Harrison

text: Harrison appeared as himself, alongside his son Corey and Chumlee, in "iLost My Head in Vegas", the November 3, 2012 episode of the American TV series "iCarly". Four days later, he appeared as an antique store owner in "The Safe", the November 7, 2012 episode of the TV series "The Middle".


title: Rick Harrison

text: In January 2014, Harrison became spokesperson for the Micro Touch One Razor, a personal care shaving product for men. Harrison appeared in a television commercial promoting the One Razor product line. In June 2014, History premiered "United Stuff of America", a series from the producers of "Pawn Stars" that focuses on notable artifacts that were used in important moments in history, such as the cane with which Andrew Jackson fended off a presidential assassin, the axe Abraham Lincoln used as a young rail splitter, and the pencils Ulysses S. Grant used to write his memoirs. In July 2014, the game show "Pawnography" premiered on the History Channel, in which Harrison, Corey, and Chumlee compete against players in an attempt to prevent them from winning cash and items from the inventory of the Gold & Silver Pawn Shop.


title: Rick Harrison

text: Harrison has two sons, Corey and Adam, with his first wife Kim, and one son, Jake, with his second wife, Tracy. Adam worked at the pawn shop, and later became a plumber. According to Corey, quoted in a 2016 "HuffPost" article, Adam had no apparent interest in appearing on the show. In 2012, Harrison, twice divorced, announced his engagement to Deanna Burditt, who was also twice divorced. The couple married on July 21, 2013, in Laguna Beach, California. "Counting Cars" star and car expert Danny Koker became an ordained minister and performed the ceremony, while "Pawn Stars" costar Austin "Chumlee" Russell served as a ring bearer.


title: Rick Harrison

text: Harrison supported Donald Trump candidacy for president, and Daniel Rodimer for Nevada's 3rd congressional district in 2020. He had mused a potential run for governor of Nevada in 2022.


title: Rick Harrison

text: In a 2018 interview on the Fox News program "Life, Liberty & Levin", Harrison described himself as "more of a libertarian" than a conservative, and telling host Mark Levin that history proves that less government leads to a better economy.


title: Tomorrow (South Korean TV series)

text: Tomorrow () is a South Korean television series directed by Kim Tae-yoon and Sung Chi-wook, starring Kim Hee-sun, Rowoon, Lee Soo-hyuk, and Yoon Ji-on. Based on Naver webtoon which was published in 2017, the series is about the grim reapers who guide the dead to save the people who want to die. It premiered on MBC TV on April 1, 2022, and aired every Friday and Saturday at 21:50 (KST) with 16 episodes. It is also available for streaming on Netflix.


title: Tomorrow (South Korean TV series)

text: Choi Jun-woong (Rowoon) is a young job seeker who is unable to secure a job. Through an accident, he meets the grim reapers Koo Ryeon (Kim Hee-sun) and Lim Ryung Gu (Yoon Ji-on) who have the task of preventing suicide, and works with them as the youngest contract worker in the crisis management team of death angels.


title: Four temperaments

text: The four temperament theory is a proto-psychological theory which suggests that there are four fundamental personality types: sanguine, choleric, melancholic, and phlegmatic. Most formulations include the possibility of mixtures among the types where an individual's personality types overlap and they share two or more temperaments. Greek physician Hippocrates (c. 460 – c. 370 BC) described the four temperaments as part of the ancient medical concept of humourism, that four bodily fluids affect human personality traits and behaviours. Modern medical science does not define a fixed relationship between internal secretions and personality, although some psychological personality type systems use categories similar to the Greek temperaments.


title: Four temperaments

text: Temperament theory has its roots in the ancient theory of humourism. It may have originated in Mesopotamia, but it was Greek physician Hippocrates (460–370 BC) (and later Galen) who developed it into a medical theory. He believed that certain human moods, emotions, and behaviours were caused by an excess or lack of body fluids (called "humours"), which he classified as blood, yellow bile, black bile, and phlegm. Each of which was responsible for different patterns in personalities, as well as how susceptible you were to getting a disease. Galen (AD 129 – c. 200) developed the first typology of temperament in his dissertation "De temperamentis", and searched for physiological reasons for different behaviours in humans. He classified them as "hot/cold" and "dry/wet" taken from the four elements. There could also be balance between the qualities, yielding a total of nine temperaments. The word "temperament" itself comes from Latin ""temperare"", "to mix". In the ideal personality, the complementary characteristics were exquisitely balanced among warm-cool and dry-moist. In four less-ideal types, one of the four qualities was dominant over all the others. In the remaining four types, one pair of qualities dominated the complementary pair; for example, warm and moist dominated cool and dry. These last four were the temperamental categories which Galen named "sanguine", "choleric", "melancholic", and "phlegmatic" after the bodily humours. Each was the result of an excess of one of the humours which produced the imbalance in paired qualities.


title: Four temperaments

text: The properties of these humours also corresponded to the four seasons. Thus blood, which was considered hot and wet, corresponded to spring. Yellow bile, considered hot and dry, corresponded to summer. Black bile, cold and dry, corresponded to autumn. And finally, phlegm, cold and wet, corresponded to winter.


title: Four temperaments

text: These properties were considered the basis of health and disease. This meant that having a balance and good mixture of the humours defined good health, while an imbalance or separation of the humours led to disease. Because the humours corresponded to certain seasons, one way to avoid an imbalance or disease was to change health-related habits depending on the season. Some physicians did this by regulating a patient's diet, while some used remedies such as phlebotomy and purges to get rid of excess blood. Even Galen proposed a theory of the importance of proper digestion in forming healthy blood. The idea was that the two most important factors when digesting are the types of food and the person's body temperature. This meant that if too much heat were involved, then the blood would become "overcooked." This meant that it would contain too much of the yellow bile, and the patient would become feverish. If there were not enough heat involved, this would cause there to be too much phlegm.


title: Four temperaments

text: Persian polymath Avicenna (980–1037 AD) extended the theory of temperaments in his "Canon of Medicine", which was a standard medical text at many medieval universities. He applied them to "emotional aspects, mental capacity, moral attitudes, self-awareness, movements and dreams." Nicholas Culpeper (1616–1654) suggested that the humors acted as governing principles in bodily health, with astrological correspondences, and explained their influence upon physiognomy and personality. He proposed that some people had a single temperament, while others had an admixture of two, a primary and secondary temperament.


title: Four temperaments

text: Modern medical science has rejected the theories of the four temperaments, though their use persists as a metaphor within certain psychological fields. Immanuel Kant (1724–1804), Erich Adickes (1866–1925), Alfred Adler (1879–1937), Eduard Spranger (1914), Ernst Kretschmer (1920), and Erich Fromm (1947) all theorised on the four temperaments (with different names) and greatly shaped modern theories of temperament. Hans Eysenck (1916–1997) was one of the first psychologists to analyse personality differences using a psycho-statistical method called factor analysis, and his research led him to believe that temperament is biologically based. The factors that he proposed in his book "Dimensions of Personality" were neuroticism (N), the tendency to experience negative emotions, and extraversion (E), the tendency to enjoy positive events, especially social ones. By pairing the two dimensions, Eysenck noted how the results were similar to the four ancient temperaments.


title: Four temperaments

text: In the field of physiology. Studies of physiologist Ivan Pavlov on the types and properties of the nervous system, where three main properties were identified: (1) strength, (2) mobility of nervous processes and (3) balance between excitation and inhibition and derived four types based on these three properties.


title: Four temperaments

text: Other researchers developed similar systems, many of which did not use the ancient temperament names, and several paired extraversion with a different factor which would determine relationship and task-orientation. Examples are DISC assessment and social styles. One of the most popular today is the Keirsey Temperament Sorter, whose four temperaments were based largely on the Greek gods Apollo, Dionysus, Epimetheus, and Prometheus, and were mapped to the 16 types of the Myers–Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI). They were renamed as Artisan (SP), Guardian (SJ), Idealist (NF), and Rational (NT).


title: Four temperaments

text: Waldorf education and anthroposophy believe that the temperaments help to understand personality. They also believe that is useful for education, helping the teachers understand how the child learns. Christian writer Tim LaHaye has attempted to repopularize the ancient temperaments through his books.


title: Four temperaments

text: The 18th century classical composer Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach composed a trio sonata in C minor known as "Sanguineus et Melancholicus" (Wq 161/1). In the 20th century, Carl Nielsen's Symphony No. 2 (Op.16) is subtitled "The Four Temperaments", each of the four movements being inspired by a sketch of a particular temperament. Paul Hindemith's Theme and Four Variations for string orchestra and piano is also known as "The Four Temperaments": although originally conceived as a ballet for Léonide Massine, the score was ultimately completed as a commission for George Balanchine, who subsequently choreographed it as a neoclassical ballet, using the theory of the temperaments as a point of departure.


title: Four temperaments

text: The 19th century French author Émile Zola used the four temperaments as a basis for his novel "Thérèse Raquin".


title: Hanuman Chalisa

text: The Hanuman Chalisa (; "Forty chaupais on Hanuman") is a Hindu devotional hymn ("stotra") in praise of Hanuman. It was authored by Tulsidas in the Awadhi language, and is his best known text apart from the "Ramcharitmanas". Apart from Awadhi, the "Hanuman Chalisa" is also available in various languages including Sanskrit, Kannada, Marathi, Telugu, Tamil, Gujarati and Bengali. The word "chālīsā" is derived from "chālīs", which means the number forty in Hindi, as the "Hanuman Chalisa" has 40 verses (excluding the couplets at the beginning and at the end).


title: Hanuman Chalisa

text: Hanuman is a devotee of Rama and one of the central characters of the "Ramayana". According to the Shaivite tradition, God Hanuman is also an incarnation of God Shiva. Folk tales acclaim the powers of Hanuman. The qualities of lord Hanuman – his strength, courage, wisdom, celibacy, devotion to Lord Rama and the many names by which he is known – are detailed in the "Hanuman Chalisa". Recitation or chanting of the "Hanuman Chalisa" is a common religious practice. The "Hanuman Chalisa" is the most popular hymn in praise of Hanuman, and is recited by millions of Hindus every day.


title: Hanuman Chalisa

text: A Gulshan Kumar produced rendition of "Hanuman Chalisa" sung by Hariharan has received more than 2 billion views on YouTube as of June 2022, making it the first devotional song on the platform to achieve this feat.


title: Hanuman Chalisa

text: The authorship of the "Hanuman Chalisa" is attributed to Tulsidas, a poet-saint who lived in the 16th century CE. He mentions his name in the last verse of the hymn. It is said in the 39th verse of the "Hanuman Chalisa" that whoever chants it with full devotion to Hanuman, will have Hanuman's grace. Among Hindus worldwide, it is a very popular belief that chanting the Chalisa invokes Hanuman's divine intervention in grave problems.


title: Hanuman Chalisa

text: Tulsidas (1497/1532–1623) was a Hindu poet-saint, reformer and philosopher renowned for his devotion for Rama. A composer of several popular works, he is best known for being the author of the epic "Ramcharitmanas", a retelling of the "Ramayana" in the vernacular Awadhi language. Tulsidas was acclaimed in his lifetime to be a reincarnation of Valmiki, the composer of the original Ramayan in Sanskrit. Tulsidas lived in the city of Varanasi until his death. The Tulsi Ghat in Varnasi is named after him. He founded the Sankat Mochan Hanuman Temple dedicated to Hanuman in Varanasi, believed to stand at the place where he had the sight of Hanuman. Tulsidas started the Ramlila plays, a folk-theatre adaption of the Ramayan. He has been acclaimed as one of the greatest poets in Hindi, Indian, and World literature. The impact of Tulsidas and his works on the art, culture and society in India is widespread and is seen to date in vernacular language, Ramlila plays, Hindustani classical music, popular music, and television series.


title: Hanuman Chalisa

text: There are 2 couplets in the beginning and one couplet at the ending between the 40 verses of "Hanuman Chalisa". The Chalisa detail in the order of his knowledge, devotion to Rama and man without any desire. As with the case of devotional literature, Tulsidas starts the poem with two couplets praising his Guru (teacher). The language of Chalisa is in the Awadhi language.


title: Hanuman Chalisa

text: The Hindu deity to whom the prayer is addressed as the 11th rudra avatar of lord Shiva, Hanuman, is an ardent devotee of Ram (the seventh avatar of Vishnu) and a central character in the "Ramayana". A general among the vanaras, Hanuman was a warrior of Ram in the war against the demon king Ravan. Hanuman's exploits are much celebrated in a variety of religious and cultural traditions, particularly in Hinduism, to the extent that he is often the object of worship according to some bhakti traditions, and is the prime deity in many temples known as Hanuman Mandirs. He is one of seven chiranjeevs (immortals) as per Sanatan Dharma. Hanuman also appears in Mahabharata on Arjuna's chariot as 'dhwaj' (flag).


title: Hanuman Chalisa

text: The work consists of forty-three verses – two introductory Dohas, forty Chaupais and one Doha in the end. The first introductory Doha begins with the word "shrī", which refers to Shiva, who is considered the Guru of Hanuman. The auspicious form, knowledge, virtues, powers and bravery of Hanuman are described in the first ten Chaupais. Chaupais eleven to twenty describe the acts of Hanuman in his service to Ram, with the eleventh to fifteenth Chaupais describing the role of Hanuman in bringing back Lakshman to consciousness. From the twenty-first Chaupai, Tulsidas describes the need of Hanuman's Kripa. At the end, Tulsidas greets Lord Hanuman with subtle devotion and requests him to reside in his heart and in the heart of devotees. The concluding Doha again requests Hanuman to reside in the heart, along with Ram, Lakshman and Sita.


title: Hanuman Chalisa

text: The translation below follows the English and Hindi translations by Gita Press, Rao, Mehta and Rambhadracharya.


title: Hanuman Chalisa

text: "Cleansing the mirror in the form of my mind with the pollen of the lotus-feet of the Guru, I describe the unblemished glory of Rama, which bestows the four fruits: "Dharma" (righteousness, moral values), Artha (prosperity, economic values), Kama (pleasure, love, psychological values) and "Moksha" (liberation, spiritual values)."


title: Hanuman Chalisa

text: Gita Press translation interprets the four fruits as the four Puruṣārthas – Dharma, Artha, Kāma, and Mokṣa. Rambhadracharya comments that the four fruits refer to any of the following


title: Hanuman Chalisa

text: "Knowing my body to be devoid of intelligence, I remember Hanuman, the son of Vāyu. Give me strength, intelligence and knowledge and remove all ailments (kalesa) and impurities (bikāra)."


title: Hanuman Chalisa

text: Gita Press interprets "kalesa" as bodily ailments and "bikāra" as mental maladies. Rambhadracharya comments that "kalesa" (Sanskrit "kleśa") refers to the five afflictions (Avidyā, Asmitā, Rāga, Dveṣa, and Abhiniveśa) as described in the Yoga Sutras, and "bikāra" (Sanskrit "vikāra") refers to the six impurities of the mind (Kāma, Krodha, Lobha, Moha, Mada, and Mātsarya). Rambhadracharya adds that these five afflictions and six impurities are the eleven enemies, and Hanuman is capable of removing them as he is the incarnation of the eleven Rudras.


title: Hanuman Chalisa

text: "O Hanuman, the ocean of knowledge and virtues, may you be victorious. O the chief amongst Vanaras famous across the three Lokas (Pātāla, Prithvi (earth) and Svarga), may you be victorious."


title: Hanuman Chalisa

text: Rambhadracharya comments that Hanuman is called ocean of knowledge by Tulsidas as the Valmiki Ramayana describes him as one who knows the three Vedas (Ṛigveda, Yajurveda, and Sāmaveda) and Vyākaraṇa.


title: Hanuman Chalisa

text: "You are the trusted messenger of Rama and you are the abode of incomparable strength. You are known by the names of Anjaniputra (son of Anjana) and Pavanasuta (son of Vāyu)."


title: Hanuman Chalisa

text: Hanuman is called "Anjaniputra" as he was born from the womb of Anjana, who was an Apsara with the name Puñjikasthalā and was born as a Vanara by the curse of Agastya. Hanuman is called Pavanasuta since he is the divine son of Vāyu, and since the Valmiki Ramayana calls Hanuman as Vāyu's own son ("mārutasyaurasaḥ putraḥ").


title: Hanuman Chalisa

text: "You are the great hero, you are endowed with valour, your body is as strong as Indra's Vajra. You are the destroyer of vile intellect, and you are the companion of one whose intellect is pure."


title: Hanuman Chalisa

text: Rambhadracharya explains the word "bajarangī" to come from Sanskrit "Vajrāṅgī" and gives two meanings of the word "bikrama" based on the root "kram" in Sanskrit and usage of the verb form "vikramasva" in Valmiki Ramayana –


title: Hanuman Chalisa

text: "Your complexion is that of molten gold, and you are resplendent in your handsome form. You wear Kundalas (small earrings worn in old times by Hindus) in your ears and your hair is curly."


title: Hanuman Chalisa

text: Noting that in the Ramcharitmanas Tulsidas calls Hanuman as "Subeṣa" (one with a handsome form), Rambhadracharya comments that this verse describes the form of Hanuman when he took the appearance of a Brahmin, which happens three times in the Ramcharitmanas.


title: Hanuman Chalisa

text: "You have the Vajra and the flag in your hands, and the sacred-thread (Yajnopavita) made of the Munja grass adorns your shoulder."


title: Hanuman Chalisa

text: "O embodiment of Shiva (or son of Vāyu carrying the power of Shiva), the delighter of Kesari, your aura and majesty is great and is revered by the whole world."


title: Hanuman Chalisa

text: Rao and Mehta explain the first half as Hanuman is the son of Kesari and Shiva. Rambhadracharya gives two variant readings for the first part–


title: Hanuman Chalisa

text: Rambhadracharya explains "kesarī nandana" as the "Kṣetraja" son of Kesari, which is one of the twelve kinds of offspring recognized in the ancient Hindu law.


title: Hanuman Chalisa

text: "You are the praiseworthy abode of the eighteen types of Vidyā (knowledge), all virtues reside in you, and you are exceedingly clever." "You are ever eager to perform tasks for Rama."


title: Hanuman Chalisa

text: "You delight in listening to the acts of Rama (Ramayana)." "Rama, Lakshmana and Sita reside in your mind." Alternately, "you reside in the minds of Rama, Lakshmana and Sita [owing to their affection towards you]."


title: Hanuman Chalisa

text: "You assumed an extremely minute form and appeared to Sita in the Ashok Vatika. You assumed a very large and scary form and burnt the city of Lanka."


title: Hanuman Chalisa

text: "You assumed a frightening form and destroyed the demons [in the army of Ravana]. You carried out all the tasks of Rama."


title: Hanuman Chalisa

text: Rambhadracharya comments that the word "bhīma" is an allusion to the event in the Mahabharata when Hanuman showed the same frightening form to Bhima.


title: Hanuman Chalisa

text: "You brought the Sanjivini, the life saving herb from Dronagiri in Himalayas, and revitalized Lakshman. Out of elation, Rama embraced you."


title: Hanuman Chalisa

text: "Rama, the chief among Raghu's descendants, praised you profusely saying "You are dear to me like my brother Bharata."


title: Hanuman Chalisa

text: Rambhadracharya associates the term "bhāī" with "bharata". In contrast, Rao and Mehta interpret the second half as "Rama said that you (Hanuman) are my dear brother, like Bharata."


title: Hanuman Chalisa

text: Rao and Mehta's translation – "Rama also added that a thousand people will praise Hanuman's glory and embraced him again."


title: Hanuman Chalisa

text: Rambhadracharya interprets "sahasa badana" as the thousand-hooded serpent Shesha. His translation is "The serpent Shesha, who has a thousand mouths, sings and will sing your glory, saying thus Rama embraces Hanuman again and again."


title: Hanuman Chalisa

text: Rao and Mehta translate the two verses as "Saints like Sanka, Bramha, Munisa, Narad, Sarad, Sahit and Ahisa have blessed Hanuman; Yama (God of death), Kubera (God of wealth), Dikpala (Gods of eight directions), Kavis (poets), Kovidas (folk singers) cannot describe Hanuman's reputation." Rambhadracharya associates the verb "gāvai" in verse 13 with verse 14 and first half of verse 15 also, interprets "ahīsā" as standing for both Shiva and Vishnu, and "kovida" as one who knows Vedas. His translation reads "The celibate Rishis like Sanaka, the Devatas like Brahma, Narada the best among Munis (sages), Saraswati with Shiva and Vishnu, the eight Dikpalas including Yama and Kubera – all these will sing your glory. To what extent can the mortal poets and scholars of Vedas speak about your infinite glory?"


title: Hanuman Chalisa

text: "You did Sugriva a great favour by making him meet Rama and bestowing on him the kingdom of Kishkindha."


title: Hanuman Chalisa

text: "Your Mantra was accepted by Vibishana, as a result of which he became the king of Lanka." "The whole world knows this."


title: Hanuman Chalisa

text: "On your own you dashed upon the sun, Surya, which is thousands of yojanas away, thinking it to be a sweet fruit."


title: Hanuman Chalisa

text: "O Lord, placing the ring given by Rama in your mouth, you leaped across the ocean – there is no wonder here."


title: Hanuman Chalisa

text: "You are the doorkeeper and protector of the door to Rama's court. Without your command, nobody can enter the abode of Rama."


title: Hanuman Chalisa

text: "Once in your refuge, a Sādhaka obtains all the pleasures. You are the protector, and there is nothing to be afraid of."


title: Hanuman Chalisa

text: Rambhadracharya comments that this verse refers to the narrative of Jambavan reminding Hanuman of his powers in the Kishkindha Kanda of Ramayana.


title: Hanuman Chalisa

text: "Evil spirits (bhūta) and meat-eating ghosts (pishācha) do not come near those chant the Mahāvira name of yours."


title: Hanuman Chalisa

text: "The brave Hanuman, when invoked incessantly by the means of Japa, destroys all ailments and removes all sufferings."


title: Hanuman Chalisa

text: "Hanuman extricates those from all adversities who remember him (or contemplate upon him) in their heart, by their actions and by their words."


title: Hanuman Chalisa

text: Rambhadracharya explains that the word "saba para" is from Sanskrit "sarvapara", meaning supreme. A variant reading of this verse is "sabapara rāma rāya siratājā", on which Rambhadracharya's commentary says Rama is the supreme God and king of kings.


title: Hanuman Chalisa

text: "And whoever comes to you with any wish, that wish is fulfilled beyond limits (literally, "they obtain the unlimited fruit of the wish") in this very birth."


title: Hanuman Chalisa

text: Rambharacharya adds that this verse refers to the Immortality and Glory of Lord Hanuman in all the four Yugas.


title: Hanuman Chalisa

text: "You are the protector of Sadhus (good people or ascetics) and Sants (saints). You are the destroyer of demons and dear as a son to Rama."


title: Hanuman Chalisa

text: Rambhadracharya interprets the word "sādhu" as Bhaktas who are performing "sādhanā" and the word "santa" as Bhaktas whose "sādhanā" is complete.


title: Hanuman Chalisa

text: "You are the bestower the eight "Siddhis "(supernatural powers named Aṇimā, Garimā, Mahimā, Laghimā, Prāpti, Prākāmya, Īśitva, and Vaśitva) and the nine Nidhis" (divine treasures named Mahāpadma, Padma, Śaṅkha, Makara, Kacchapa, Mukunda, Kunda, Nīla and Kharva). Mother Sita, the daughter of Janaka, has granted you this boon."


title: Hanuman Chalisa

text: "You have the treasure of Rama's Bhakti ("rāma rasāyana") with you. Oh, respectfully, the servant of Raghupati (Shri Raam)."


title: Hanuman Chalisa

text: "Singing of you (Hanuman), a Bhakta obtains Rama and forgets the adversities and afflictions of many births."


title: Hanuman Chalisa

text: Rambhadracharya explains using verses from Ramcharitmanas and Kavitavali, that as per Tulsidas Jñāna and Vairāgya are the two means to obtain Rama, and Hanuman is both Jñāna and Vairāgya incarnate. Hence serving Hanuman leads to Rama.


title: Hanuman Chalisa

text: "As a result of devotion to you, a Bhakta goes to Sāketa Loka ("raghubara pura") at the time of their end (physical death). Once the Bhakta reaches Sāketa, wherever they take birth, they are known as the Bhaktas of Hari."


title: Hanuman Chalisa

text: Rambhadracharya interprets this verse to mean that the Bhakta, even discards the blissful Moksha to take birth again in this world as a devotee of Hari, as Tulsidas says in the fourth book of Ramcharitmanas.


title: Hanuman Chalisa

text: "Even one who does not contemplate on any other Devatas in their mind and only serves Hanuman, achieves all favourable bliss in this world and the next."


title: Hanuman Chalisa

text: Rambhadracharya explains that as per Bhagavad Gita, only Devatas can grant the desired results of actions, but even if one serves Hanuman and no other Devata, they obtain all worldly and other-worldly bliss.


title: Hanuman Chalisa

text: "Whoever remembers the brave and mighty Hanuman gets free of all adversities and relief from all pains."


title: Hanuman Chalisa

text: "O Hanuman, the master of senses, may you be victorious, may you be victorious, may you be victorious. May you shower your grace lovingly, as a Guru does, and reveal to me the knowledge of devotion to Rama."


title: Hanuman Chalisa

text: "One who recites "Hanuman Chalisa" a hundred times (or for hundred days) is released from bondage and obtains great bliss"."


title: Hanuman Chalisa

text: Rambhadracharya interprets "shata" as standing for the number 108 and "bāra" (Sanskrit "vāra") to mean a day. He explains the words to mean that one who recites the "Hanuman Chalisa" 108 times daily for 108 days will be released from the bondages of this world and the next, and will obtain great bliss.


title: Hanuman Chalisa

text: "One who reads this "Hanuman Chalisa" obtains Siddhi (accomplishment or liberation). Shiva himself bears witness to this statement."


title: Hanuman Chalisa

text: Rao and Mehta explain this as "One who reads "Hanuman Chalisa" attains "siddhis" of God Shiva and becomes his friend."


title: Hanuman Chalisa

text: Rambhadracharya offers three explanations for this verse in accordance with three different "Anvaya"s (connection of words) –


title: Hanuman Chalisa

text: "O Son of Vāyu, remover of adversities, one with an auspicious form, and the chief among all Devas, may you reside in our hearts along with Rama, Lakshman and Sita."


title: Hanuman Chalisa

text: Rambhadracharya explains that Tulsidas addresses Hanuman with four adjectives in this final verse to indicate that Hanuman helps cleanse the mind ("Manas"), intellect ("Buddhi"), heart ("Citta") and ego ("Ahaṅkāra"), and by asking him to reside in the heart of the devotee, Tulsidas ends the work by implying that the refuge of Hanuman is the supreme pursuit.


title: Hanuman Chalisa

text: Before the 1980s, no commentary had been composed on the "Hanuman Chalisa", which Rambhadracharya attributes to the work not being included in printed editions of collected works of Tulsidas. Indubhushan Ramayani authored the first brief commentary on "Hanuman Chalisa". Rambhadracharya's "Mahaviri" commentary in Hindi, authored in 1983, was called the best commentary on "Hanuman Chalisa" by Ram Chandra Prasad.


title: Hanuman Chalisa

text: Swami Karpatri considered "Hanuman Chalisa" to be a supreme "pramana", omnipotent and capable of fulfilling all wishes, like the Vedic mantras. Rambhadracharya called it full of auspiciousness and a "jewel amongst stotras", and said that he had witnessed and heard of many instances where the wishes of people reciting the Chalisa with faith were granted.


title: Hanuman Chalisa

text: The "Hanuman Chalisa" is recited by millions of Hindus every day, and most practising Hindus in India know its text by heart. The work is known to be popular among people from diverse educational, social, linguistic, musical, and geographical groups.


title: Hanuman Chalisa

text: The "Hanuman Chalisa" is one of the best selling Hindu religious books and has been sung by many popular bhajan, classical and folk singers. The rendition of "Hanuman Chalisa" by Hari Om Sharan, originally released in 1974 by the Gramophone Company of India and re-released in 1995 by Super Cassettes Industries, is one of the most popular, and is regularly played at temples and homes across Northern India. This rendition is based on traditional melodies in the Mishra Khamaj, a raga belonging to the Khamaj That, with the base note taken at the second black key ("kali do") of the harmonium. A recording based on the same traditional melodies was released in 1992 by Super Cassettes Industries, with Hariharan as the singer and Gulshan Kumar as the artiste.


title: Hanuman Chalisa

text: Other notable renditions include those by bhajan singers Anup Jalota and Ravindra Jain, Hindustani vocalists Pandit Jasraj and Rajan and Sajan Mishra, and the Carnatic vocalist M.S. Subbulakshmi. The renditions by Unni Krishnan, Nithyasree Mahadevan, Pandit Bhimsen Joshi, Ganapathi Sachchidananda Swamiji and Morari Bapu are also popular.


title: Hanuman Chalisa

text: In the Hindi movie "1920" (directed by Vikram Bhatt), "Hanuman Chalisa" is frequently used in different scenes. One of the scenes show the protagonist Arjun Singh Rathod (played by Rajneesh Duggal), reciting the "Hanuman Chalisa" in full. It is used in an important sequence in "Bajrangi Bhaijaan," when the protagonist fights back against child traffickers and rescues a little girl from them.


title: Hanuman Chalisa

text: An animation movie named "Shri Hanuman Chalisa" directed by Charuvi Agarwal and designed by Charuvi Design Labs is a film on Hanuman.


title: Hanuman Chalisa

text: Popular singers who have sung the "Hanuman Chalisa" include Carnatic singer M. S. Subbulakshmi, as well as Lata Mangeshkar, Mahendra Kapoor, S. P. Balasubrahmanyam, Shankar Mahadevan, and Udit Narayan.


title: Hanuman Chalisa

text: The "Hanuman Chalisa" was sung by Amitabh Bachchan in chorus with twenty other singers. This recording was released as a part of the "Shri Hanuman Chalisa" album in 2011 and received an unprecedented response by the releasing music label during November 2011.


title: Hanuman Chalisa

text: A rendition of "Hanuman Chalisa" sung by Gulshan Kumar and Hariharan became the first devotional song and first on YouTube to cross 2 billion views in November 2021. It is also currently the most viewed Indian music video on YouTube.


title: Irish people

text: The Irish ( or "Na hÉireannaigh") are an ethnic group and nation native to the island of Ireland, who share a common history and culture. There have been humans in Ireland for about 33,000 years, and it has been continually inhabited for more than 10,000 years (see Prehistoric Ireland). For most of Ireland's recorded history, the Irish have been primarily a Gaelic people (see Gaelic Ireland). From the 9th century, small numbers of Vikings settled in Ireland, becoming the Norse-Gaels. Anglo-Normans also conquered parts of Ireland in the 12th century, while England's 16th/17th-century conquest and colonisation of Ireland brought many English and Lowland Scots to parts of the island, especially the north. Today, Ireland is made up of the Republic of Ireland (officially called Ireland) and Northern Ireland (a part of the United Kingdom). The people of Northern Ireland hold various national identities including British, Irish, Northern Irish or some combination thereof.


title: Irish people

text: The Irish have their own customs, language, music, dance, sports, cuisine and mythology. Although Irish (Gaeilge) was their main language in the past, today most Irish people speak English as their first language. Historically, the Irish nation was made up of kin groups or clans, and the Irish also had their own religion, law code, alphabet and style of dress.


title: Irish people

text: There have been many notable Irish people throughout history. After Ireland's conversion to Christianity, Irish missionaries and scholars exerted great influence on Western Europe, and the Irish came to be seen as a nation of "saints and scholars". The 6th-century Irish monk and missionary Columbanus is regarded as one of the "fathers of Europe", followed by saints Cillian and Fergal. The scientist Robert Boyle is considered the "father of chemistry", and Robert Mallet one of the "fathers of seismology". Irish literature has produced famous writers in both Irish- and English-language traditions, such as Eoghan Rua Ó Súilleabháin, Dáibhí Ó Bruadair, Jonathan Swift, Oscar Wilde, W. B. Yeats, Samuel Beckett, James Joyce, Máirtín Ó Cadhain, Eavan Boland, and Seamus Heaney. Notable Irish explorers include Brendan the Navigator, Sir Robert McClure, Sir Alexander Armstrong, Sir Ernest Shackleton and Tom Crean. By some accounts, the first European child born in North America had Irish descent on both sides. Many presidents of the United States have had some Irish ancestry.


title: Irish people

text: The population of Ireland is about 6.9 million, but it is estimated that 50 to 80 million people around the world have Irish forebears, making the Irish diaspora one of the largest of any nation. Historically, emigration from Ireland has been the result of conflict, famine and economic issues. People of Irish descent are found mainly in English-speaking countries, especially Great Britain, the United States, Canada, New Zealand and Australia. There are also significant numbers in Argentina, Chile, Colombia and Brazil. The United States has the most people of Irish descent, while in Australia those of Irish descent are a higher percentage of the population than in any other country outside Ireland. Many Icelanders have Irish and Scottish Gaelic forebears.


title: Irish people

text: Pytheas made a voyage of exploration to northwestern Europe in about 325 BC, but his account of it, known widely in Antiquity, has not survived and is now known only through the writings of others. On this voyage, he circumnavigated and visited a considerable part of modern-day Great Britain and Ireland. He was the first known scientific visitor to see and describe the Celtic and Germanic tribes.


title: Irish people

text: The terms "Irish" and "Ireland" are probably derived from the goddess Ériu. A variety of tribal groups and dynasties have inhabited the island, including the Airgialla, Fir Ol nEchmacht, Delbhna, the mythical Fir Bolg, Érainn, Eóganachta, Mairtine, Conmaicne, Soghain, and Ulaid. In the cases of the Conmaicne, Delbhna, and perhaps Érainn, it can be demonstrated that the tribe took their name from their chief deity, or in the case of the Ciannachta, Eóganachta, and possibly the Soghain, a deified ancestor. This practice is paralleled by the Anglo-Saxon dynasties.


title: Irish people

text: One legend states that the Irish were descended from the Milesians, who supposedly conquered Ireland around 1000 BC or later.


title: Irish people

text: Genetic research shows a strong similarity between the Y chromosome haplotypes of Irish men with Goidelic surnames, and males from the area of Spain and Portugal, especially Galicia, Asturias, and Cantabria (and perhaps former Basque country). The incidence of the R1b-M269 haplogroup is 70% or more in Ireland, Cumbria and Cornwall in England, the Northern region in Portugal (Douro Litoral, Minho and Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro), northern Spain (Galicia, Asturias, León, Cantabria and Basque Country), western France (Gascony, Saintonge, Poitou, and Brittany), and Wales and Scotland in Britain. R1b-M269's incidence declines gradually with distance from these areas but it is still common across the central areas of Europe. R1b-M269 is the most frequent haplogroup in Germany and in the Low Countries, and is common in southern Scandinavia and in northern and central Italy.


title: Irish people

text: However, this haplogroup is now believed to have originated over 12,000 years more recently than previously thought, at only 5,000 years ago. According to 2009 studies by Bramanti et al. and Malmström et al. on mtDNA, related western European populations appear to be largely from the neolithic and not paleolithic era, as previously thought. There was discontinuity between mesolithic central Europe and modern European populations mainly due to an extremely high frequency of haplogroup U (particularly U5) types in mesolithic central European sites.


title: Irish people

text: The existence of an especially strong genetic association between the Irish and the Basques was first challenged in 2005, and in 2007 scientists began looking at the possibility of a more recent Mesolithic- or even Neolithic-era entrance of R1b into Europe. A new study published in 2010 by Balaresque et al. implies either a Mesolithic- or Neolithic- (not Paleolithic-) era entrance of R1b into Europe. Unlike previous studies, large sections of autosomal DNA were analyzed in addition to paternal Y-DNA markers. They detected an autosomal component present in modern Europeans which was not present in Neolithic or Mesolithic Europeans, and which would have been introduced into Europe with paternal lineages R1b and R1a, as well as the Indo-European languages. This genetic component, labelled as "Yamnaya" in the studies, then mixed to varying degrees with earlier Mesolithic hunter-gatherer and/or Neolithic farmer populations already existing in western Europe.


title: Irish people

text: A more recent whole genome analysis of Neolithic and Bronze Age skeletal remains from Ireland suggested that the original Neolithic farming population was most similar to present-day Sardinians, while the three Bronze Age remains had a large genetic component from the Pontic-Caspian Steppe. Modern Irish are the population most genetically similar to the Bronze Age remains, followed by Scottish and Welsh, and share more DNA with the three Bronze Age men from Rathlin Island than with the earlier Ballynahatty Neolithic woman.


title: Irish people

text: A 2017 genetic study done on the Irish shows that there is fine-scale population structure between different regional populations of the island, with the largest difference between native 'Gaelic' Irish populations and those of Ulster Protestants known to have recent, partial British ancestry. They were also found to have most similarity to two main ancestral sources: a 'French' component (mostly northwestern French) which reached highest levels in the Irish and other Celtic populations (Welsh, Highland Scots and Cornish) and showing a possible link to the Bretons; and a 'West Norwegian' component related to the Viking era.


title: Irish people

text: Irish Travellers are an ethnic people of Ireland. A DNA study found they originally descended from the general Irish population, however, they are now very distinct from it. The emergence of Travellers as a distinct group occurred long before the Great Famine, a genetic analysis shows. The research suggests that Traveller origins may in fact date as far back as 420 years to 1597. The Plantation of Ulster began around that time, with native Irish displaced from the land, perhaps to form a nomadic population.


title: Irish people

text: One Roman historian records that the Irish people were divided into "sixteen different nations" or tribes. Traditional histories assert that the Romans never attempted to conquer Ireland, although it may have been considered. The Irish were not, however, cut off from Europe; they frequently raided the Roman territories, and also maintained trade links.


title: Irish people

text: Among the most famous people of ancient Irish history are the High Kings of Ireland, such as Cormac mac Airt and Niall of the Nine Hostages, and the semi-legendary Fianna. The 20th-century writer Seumas MacManus wrote that even if the Fianna and the Fenian Cycle were purely fictional, they would still be representative of the character of the Irish people:


title: Irish people

text: The introduction of Christianity to the Irish people during the 5th century brought a radical change to the Irish people's foreign relations. The only military raid abroad recorded after that century is a presumed invasion of Wales, which according to a Welsh manuscript may have taken place around the 7th century. In the words of Seumas MacManus:


title: Irish people

text: Following the conversion of the Irish to Christianity, Irish secular laws and social institutions remained in place.


title: Irish people

text: The 'traditional' view is that, in the 4th or 5th century, Goidelic language and Gaelic culture was brought to Scotland by settlers from Ireland, who founded the Gaelic kingdom of Dál Riata on Scotland's west coast. This is based mostly on medieval writings from the 9th and 10th centuries. The archaeologist Ewan Campbell argues against this view, saying that there is no archaeological or placename evidence for a migration or a takeover by a small group of elites. He states that "the Irish migration hypothesis seems to be a classic case of long-held historical beliefs influencing not only the interpretation of documentary sources themselves but the subsequent invasion paradigm being accepted uncritically in the related disciplines of archaeology and linguistics." Dál Riata and the territory of the neighbouring Picts merged to form the Kingdom of Alba, and Goidelic language and Gaelic culture became dominant there. The country came to be called "Scotland", after the Roman name for the Gaels: "Scoti". The Isle of Man and the Manx people also came under massive Gaelic influence in their history.


title: Irish people

text: Irish missionaries such as Saint Columba brought Christianity to Pictish Scotland. The Irishmen of this time were also "aware of the cultural unity of Europe", and it was the 6th-century Irish monk Columbanus who is regarded as "one of the fathers of Europe". Another Irish saint, Aidan of Lindisfarne, has been proposed as a possible patron saint of the United Kingdom, while Saints Kilian and Vergilius became the patron saints of Würzburg in Germany and Salzburg in Austria, respectively.


title: Irish people

text: Irish missionaries founded monasteries outside Ireland, such as Iona Abbey, the Abbey of St Gall in Switzerland, and Bobbio Abbey in Italy.


title: Irish people

text: Common to both the monastic and the secular bardic schools were Irish and Latin. With Latin, the early Irish scholars "show almost a like familiarity that they do with their own Gaelic". There is evidence also that Hebrew and Greek were studied, the latter probably being taught at Iona.


title: Irish people

text: Since the time of Charlemagne, Irish scholars had a considerable presence in the Frankish court, where they were renowned for their learning. The most significant Irish intellectual of the early monastic period was the 9th century Johannes Scotus Eriugena, an outstanding philosopher in terms of originality. He was the earliest of the founders of scholasticism, the dominant school of medieval philosophy. He had considerable familiarity with the Greek language, and translated many works into Latin, affording access to the Cappadocian Fathers and the Greek theological tradition, previously almost unknown in the Latin West.


title: Irish people

text: The influx of Viking raiders and traders in the 9th and 10th centuries resulted in the founding of many of Ireland's most important towns, including Cork, Dublin, Limerick, and Waterford (earlier Gaelic settlements on these sites did not approach the urban nature of the subsequent Norse trading ports). The Vikings left little impact on Ireland other than towns and certain words added to the Irish language, but many Irish taken as slaves inter-married with the Scandinavians, hence forming a close link with the Icelandic people. In the Icelandic "Laxdœla saga", for example, "even slaves are highborn, descended from the kings of Ireland." The first name of Njáll Þorgeirsson, the chief protagonist of "Njáls saga", is a variation of the Irish name Neil. According to "Eirik the Red's Saga", the first European couple to have a child born in North America was descended from the Viking Queen of Dublin, Aud the Deep-minded, and a Gaelic slave brought to Iceland.


title: Irish people

text: The arrival of the Anglo-Normans brought also the Welsh, Flemish, Anglo-Saxons, and Bretons. Most of these were assimilated into Irish culture and polity by the 15th century, with the exception of some of the walled towns and the Pale areas. The Late Middle Ages also saw the settlement of Scottish gallowglass families of mixed Gaelic-Norse and Pict descent, mainly in the north; due to similarities of language and culture they too were assimilated.


title: Irish people

text: The Irish were among the first people in Europe to use surnames as we know them today. It is very common for people of Gaelic origin to have the English versions of their surnames beginning with 'Ó' or 'Mac' (Over time however many have been shortened to 'O' or Mc). 'O' comes from the Irish Ó which in turn came from Ua, which means "grandson", or "descendant" of a named person. Mac is the Irish for son.


title: Irish people

text: Names that begin with "O'" include Ó Bánion (O'Banion), Ó Briain (O'Brien), Ó Ceallaigh (O'Kelly), Ó Conchobhair (O'Connor, O'Conor), Ó Chonaill (O'Connell), O'Coiligh (Cox), Ó Cuilinn (Cullen), Ó Domhnaill (O'Donnell), Ó Drisceoil (O'Driscoll), Ó hAnnracháin, (Hanrahan), Ó Máille (O'Malley), Ó Mathghamhna (O'Mahony), Ó Néill (O'Neill), Ó Sé (O'Shea), Ó Súilleabháin (O'Sullivan), Ó Caiside/Ó Casaide (Cassidy), (Brady) Ó Brádaigh/Mac Bradaigh and Ó Tuathail (O'Toole)


title: Irish people

text: Names that begin with Mac or Mc include Mac Cárthaigh (MacCarthy), Mac Diarmada (MacDermott), Mac Domhnaill (MacDonnell), and Mac Mathghamhna (MacMahon) Mag Uidhir (Maguire)), (McDonagh), (MacNamara), (McInerney), (MacGrath), (McEnery), (McGee), (Magennis), (McCann), (McLaughlin) and (McNally) Mac is commonly anglicised Mc. However, "Mac" and "Mc" are not mutually exclusive, so, for example, both "MacCarthy" and "McCarthy" are used. Both "Mac" and "Ó'" prefixes are both Irish in origin, Anglicized Prefix Mc is far more common in Ireland than Scotland with 2/3 of all Mc Surnames being Irish in origin However, "Mac" is more common in Scotland and Ulster than in the rest of Ireland; furthermore, "Ó" surnames are less common in Scotland having been brought to Scotland from Ireland. The proper surname for a woman in Irish uses the feminine prefix nic (meaning daughter) in place of mac. Thus a boy may be called Mac Domhnaill whereas his sister would be called Nic Dhomhnaill or Ní Dhomhnaill – the insertion of 'h' follows the female prefix in the case of most consonants (bar H, L, N, R, & T).


title: Irish people

text: A son has the same surname as his father. A female's surname replaces Ó with Ní (reduced from Iníon Uí – "daughter of the grandson of") and Mac with Nic (reduced from Iníon Mhic – "daughter of the son of"); in both cases the following name undergoes lenition. However, if the second part of the surname begins with the letter C or G, it is not lenited after Nic. Thus the daughter of a man named Ó Maolagáin has the surname "Ní Mhaolagáin" and the daughter of a man named Mac Gearailt has the surname "Nic Gearailt". When anglicised, the name can remain O' or Mac, regardless of gender.


title: Irish people

text: There are a number of Irish surnames derived from Norse personal names, including Mac Suibhne (Sweeney) from Swein and McAuliffe from "Olaf". The name Cotter, local to County Cork, derives from the Norse personal name Ottir. The name Reynolds is an Anglicization of the Irish Mac Raghnaill, itself originating from the Norse names Randal or Reginald. Though these names were of Viking derivation some of the families who bear them appear to have had Gaelic origins.


title: Irish people

text: "Fitz" is an old Norman French variant of the Old French word "fils" (variant spellings filz, fiuz, fiz, etc.), used by the Normans, meaning "son". The Normans themselves were descendants of Vikings, who had settled in Normandy and thoroughly adopted the French language and culture. With the exception of the Gaelic-Irish Fitzpatrick (Mac Giolla Phádraig) surname, all names that begin with Fitz – including FitzGerald (Mac Gearailt), Fitzsimons (Mac Síomóin/Mac an Ridire) and FitzHenry (Mac Anraí) – are descended from the initial Norman settlers. A small number of Irish families of Goidelic origin came to use a Norman form of their original surname—so that Mac Giolla Phádraig became Fitzpatrick—while some assimilated so well that the Irish name was dropped in favour of a new, Hiberno-Norman form. Another common Irish surname of Norman Irish origin is the 'de' habitational prefix, meaning 'of' and originally signifying prestige and land ownership. Examples include de Búrca (Burke), de Brún, de Barra (Barry), de Stac (Stack), de Tiúit, de Faoite (White), de Londras (Landers), de Paor (Power). The Irish surname "Walsh" (in Irish "Breathnach") was routinely given to settlers of Welsh origin, who had come during and after the Norman invasion. The Joyce and Griffin/Griffith (Gruffydd) families are also of Welsh origin.


title: Irish people

text: The Mac Lochlainn, Ó Maol Seachlainn, Ó Maol Seachnaill, Ó Conchobhair, Mac Loughlin and Mac Diarmada families, all distinct, are now all subsumed together as MacLoughlin. The full surname usually indicated which family was in question, something that has been diminished with the loss of prefixes such as Ó and Mac. Different branches of a family with the same surname sometimes used distinguishing epithets, which sometimes became surnames in their own right. Hence the chief of the clan Ó Cearnaigh (Kearney) was referred to as An Sionnach (Fox), which his descendants use to this day. Similar surnames are often found in Scotland for many reasons, such as the use of a common language and mass Irish migration to Scotland in the late 19th and early to mid-20th centuries.


title: Irish people

text: The Irish people of the Late Middle Ages were active as traders on the European continent. They were distinguished from the English (who only used their own language or French) in that they only used Latin abroad—a language "spoken by all educated people throughout Gaeldom". According to the writer Seumas MacManus, the explorer Christopher Columbus visited Ireland to gather information about the lands to the west, a number of Irish names are recorded on Columbus' crew roster preserved in the archives of Madrid and it was an Irishman named Patrick Maguire who was the first to set foot in the Americas in 1492; however, according to Morison and Miss Gould, who made a detailed study of the crew list of 1492, no Irish or English sailors were involved in the voyage.


title: Irish people

text: An English report of 1515 states that the Irish people were divided into over sixty Gaelic lordships and thirty Anglo-Irish lordships. The English term for these lordships was "nation" or "country". The Irish term ""oireacht"" referred to both the territory and the people ruled by the lord. Literally, it meant an "assembly", where the Brehons would hold their courts upon hills to arbitrate the matters of the lordship. Indeed, the Tudor lawyer John Davies described the Irish people with respect to their laws:


title: Irish people

text: Another English commentator records that the assemblies were attended by "all the scum of the country"—the labouring population as well as the landowners. While the distinction between "free" and "unfree" elements of the Irish people was unreal in legal terms, it was a social and economic reality. Social mobility was usually downwards, due to social and economic pressures. The ruling clan's "expansion from the top downwards" was constantly displacing commoners and forcing them into the margins of society.


title: Irish people

text: As a clan-based society, genealogy was all important. Ireland 'was justly styled a "Nation of Annalists"'. The various branches of Irish learning—including law, poetry, history and genealogy, and medicine—were associated with hereditary learned families. The poetic families included the Uí Dhálaigh (Daly) and the MacGrath. Irish physicians, such as the O'Briens in Munster or the MacCailim Mor in the Western Isles, were renowned in the courts of England, Spain, Portugal and the Low Countries. Learning was not exclusive to the hereditary learned families, however; one such example is Cathal Mac Manus, the 15th century diocesan priest who wrote the "Annals of Ulster". Other learned families included the Mic Aodhagáin and Clann Fhir Bhisigh. It was this latter family which produced Dubhaltach Mac Fhirbhisigh, the 17th century genealogist and compiler of the "Leabhar na nGenealach". (see also Irish medical families).


title: Irish people

text: The 16th century Age of exploration brought an interest among the English to colonize Ireland with the reign of the Tudors. King Henry IV established surrender and regrants to the Irish, but it wasn't until the catholic queen Mary I of England who started the first plantations in Ireland in 1550, this would become the model for English colonization moving forward in Ireland and would later form the British imperial model The 1550 plantation counties were known as Philipstown (now Daingean) and Maryborough (now Portlaoise) named by the English planters at the time. A famous group of explorers the West Country Men were active in Ireland at around this time.


title: Irish people

text: The Enterprise of Ulster which pitted Shane O'Neill (Irish chieftain) against Queen Elizabeth I was a total failure This was followed by the somewhat successful first British-English colony the Munster planations which had a population of 4,000 in 1580 and in the 1620s may have grown to 16,000


title: Irish people

text: After the defeat of the Irish in Ulster in the Nine Years' War (Ireland); which was not exclusively confined to ulster. The English would try again to colonize Ireland fearing another rebellion in Ulster, using previous colonial Irish endeavours as their influence. King James would succeed Queen Elizabeth the I, because King James I was previously King James VI of Scotland, he would plant both English and Scottish in the plantations of Ulster drawing upon the Munster Plantations, this proved to be the most successful they were settled in what's mostly Now Northern Ireland. The Plantations of Ireland introduced Tudor English settlers to Ireland, while The Plantation of Ulster in the 17th century introduced a great number of Scottish and to a lesser extent English as well as French Huguenots as colonists. All previous endeavours were solely an English venture. The Lord Protector Oliver Cromwell (1653–1658) after the defeat of the Irish rebels would also plant New English in Ireland, known as the Protestant ascendency.


title: Irish people

text: There have been notable Irish scientists. The Anglo-Irish scientist Robert Boyle (1627–1691) is considered the father of chemistry for his book "The Sceptical Chymist", written in 1661. Boyle was an atomist, and is best known for Boyle's Law. The hydrographer Rear Admiral Francis Beaufort (1774–1857), an Irish naval officer of Huguenot descent, was the creator of the Beaufort scale for indicating wind force. George Boole (1815–1864), the mathematician who invented Boolean algebra, spent the latter part of his life in Cork. The 19th century physicist George Stoney introduced the idea and the name of the electron. He was the uncle of another notable physicist, George FitzGerald.


title: Irish people

text: The Irish bardic system, along with the Gaelic culture and learned classes, were upset by the plantations and went into decline. Among the last of the true bardic poets were Brian Mac Giolla Phádraig (c. 1580–1652) and Dáibhí Ó Bruadair (1625–1698). The Irish poets of the late 17th and 18th centuries moved toward more modern dialects. Among the most prominent of this period were Séamas Dall Mac Cuarta, Peadar Ó Doirnín, Art Mac Cumhaigh, Cathal Buí Mac Giolla Ghunna, and Seán Clárach Mac Domhnaill. Irish Catholics continued to receive an education in secret "hedgeschools", in spite of the Penal laws. A knowledge of Latin was common among the poor Irish mountaineers in the 17th century, who spoke it on special occasions, while cattle were bought and sold in Greek in the mountain market-places of Kerry.


title: Irish people

text: For a comparatively small population of about 6 million people, Ireland made an enormous contribution to literature. Irish literature encompasses the Irish and English languages. Notable Irish writers, playwrights and poets include Jonathan Swift, Laurence Sterne, Oscar Wilde, Oliver Goldsmith, James Joyce, George Bernard Shaw, Samuel Beckett, Bram Stoker, W.B Yeats, Séamus Heaney and Brendan Behan.


title: Irish people

text: Known as "An Górta Mór" ("The Great Hurt") in the Irish language, during the famine millions of Irish people died and emigrated during Ireland's largest famine. The famine lasted from 1845 - 1849, and it was worst in the year 1847, which became known as Black '47. The famine occurred due to the extremely impoverished Irish population's staple food the potato being infected with Blight, and the British administration appropriating all other crops and livestock to feed her armies abroad. This meant the crop failed and turned black. Starving people who tried to eat them would only vomit it back up soon afterwards. Soup kitchens were set up but made little difference. The British government produced little aid, only sending raw corn known as 'Peel's Brimstone' to Ireland. It was known by this name after the British Prime Minister at the time, Robert Peel, and the fact that many Irish weren't aware of how to cook corn. This led to little or no improvement. The British government set up workhouses which were disease-ridden (with cholera, TB and others) but they also failed as little food was available and many died on arrival as they were overworked. Some British political figures at the time saw the famine as a purge from God to exterminate the majority of the native Irish population.


title: Irish people

text: Irish people emigrated to escape the famine journeying predominantly to the east coast of the United States, especially Boston and New York, as well as Liverpool in England, Australia, Canada and New Zealand. Many records show the majority of Irish emigrants to Australia were in fact prisoners. A substantial proportion of these committed crimes in hopes of being extradited to Australia, favouring it to the persecution and hardships they endured in their homeland. Emigrants travelled on 'Coffin Ships', which got their name from the often high mortality rates on board. Many died of disease or starved. Conditions on board were abysmal - tickets were expensive so stowaways were common, and little food stuff was given to passengers who were simply viewed as cargo in the eyes of the ship workers. Famous coffin ships include the Jeanie Johnston and the Dunbrody.


title: Irish people

text: There are many statues and memorials in Dublin, New York and other cities in memory of the famine. The Fields of Athenry is a famous song about the Great Famine and is often sung at national team sporting events in memory and homage to those affected by the famine.


title: Irish people

text: The Great Famine is one of the biggest events in Irish history and is ingrained in the identity on the nation to this day. It was a major factor in Irish Nationalism and Ireland's fight for Independence during subsequent rebellions, as many Irish people felt a stronger need to regain independence from British rule.


title: Irish people

text: After the Irish War of Independence (1919–1921) the Anglo-Irish Treaty was signed which led to the formation of the independent Irish Free State (now the independent Republic of Ireland) which consisted of 26 of Ireland's 32 traditional counties. The remaining six counties in the northeast remained in the United Kingdom as Northern Ireland. It is predominantly religion, historical, and political differences that divide the two communities of (nationalism and unionism). Four polls taken between 1989 and 1994 revealed that when asked to state their national identity, over 79% of Northern Irish Protestants replied "British" or "Ulster" with 3% or less replying "Irish", while over 60% of Northern Irish Catholics replied "Irish" with 13% or less replying "British" or "Ulster". A survey in 1999 showed that 72% of Northern Irish Protestants considered themselves "British" and 2% "Irish", with 68% of Northern Irish Catholics considering themselves "Irish" and 9% "British". The survey also revealed that 78% of Protestants and 48% of all respondents felt "Strongly British", while 77% of Catholics and 35% of all respondents felt "Strongly Irish". 51% of Protestants and 33% of all respondents felt "Not at all Irish", while 62% of Catholics and 28% of all respondents felt "Not at all British".


title: Irish people

text: In the Republic of Ireland, as of 2016, 3.7 million people or about 78.3% of the population are Catholic. In Northern Ireland, about 41.6% of the population are Protestant (19.1% Presbyterian, 13.7% Church of Ireland, 3.0% Methodist, 5.8% other Christian) whilst approximately 40.8% are Catholic as of 2011.


title: Irish people

text: The 31st International Eucharistic Congress was held in Dublin in 1932, that year being the supposed 1,500th anniversary of Saint Patrick's arrival. Ireland was then home to 3,171,697 Catholics, about a third of whom attended the Congress. It was noted in "Time Magazine" that the Congress' special theme would be "the Faith of the Irish". The massive crowds were repeated at Pope John Paul II's Mass in Phoenix Park in 1979. The idea of faith has affected the question of Irish identity even in relatively recent times, apparently more so for Catholics and Irish-Americans. Today the majority of Irish people in the Republic of Ireland identify as Catholic, although church attendance has significantly dropped in recent decades. In Northern Ireland, where almost 50% of the population is Protestant, there has also been a decline in attendances.


title: Irish people

text: This has been a matter of concern over the last century for the followers of nationalist ideologists such as DP Moran.


title: Irish people

text: Thomas Davis, a prominent Protestant Irish nationalist and founder of the Irish nationalist Young Ireland movement, identified the Irish as a Celtic nation. He estimated that ethnically, 5/6ths of the nation were either of Gaelic Irish-origin, or descended from returned Scottish Gaels (including much of the Ulster Scots) and some Celtic Welsh (such as his own ancestors and those carrying surnames such as Walsh and Griffiths). As part of this he was a staunch supporter of the Irish language as the "national language". In regards to the Germanic minority in Ireland (of Norman and Anglo-Saxon origin) he believed that they could be assimilated into Irishness if they had a "willingness to be part of the Irish Nation".


title: Irish people

text: The Republic of Ireland and the United Kingdom joined the European Community in 1973, and Irish citizens became additionally Citizens of the European Union with the Maastricht Treaty signed in 1992. This brought a further question for the future of Irish identity; whether Ireland was "closer to Boston than to Berlin:"


title: Irish people

text: The Irish diaspora consists of Irish emigrants and their descendants in countries such as the United States, Great Britain, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, and nations of the Caribbean such as Jamaica and Barbados. These countries all have large minorities of Irish descent, who in addition form the core of the Catholic Church in those countries.


title: Irish people

text: Many famous and influential figures have claimed Irish ancestry such as Che Guevara, Walt Disney, Barack Obama, JFK, Muhammad Ali and "Maréchal" The 1st Duke of Magenta, the second President of the Third Republic.


title: Irish people

text: Many Irish people were also transported to the island of Montserrat, to work as indentured servants, exiled prisoners or slaves. Unlike African chattel slaves, the majority of Irish labourers who were sent to Montserrat did so by personal choice. Some were Irish Confederate troops exiled by the English Parliamentarian Oliver Cromwell following the Irish Confederate Wars. The African slave population on the island attempted a rebellion against the Irish plantation owners on 17 March 1768. The date was chosen with the idea that the plantation owners would be distracted by St.Patrick's day festivities, but the plot was ultimately discovered and several of those involved were put to death. To this day, the Island celebrates St. Patrick's Day as a public holiday to commemorate the revolt and honour those who lost their lives. People of Irish descent also feature strongly in Latin America, especially in Argentina and important minorities in Brazil, Chile, and Mexico. In 1995, President Mary Robinson reached out to the "70 million people worldwide who can claim Irish descent". Today the diaspora is believed to contain an estimated 80 million people.


title: Irish people

text: There are also large Irish communities in some mainland European countries, notably in Spain, France and Germany. Between 1585 and 1818, over half a million Irish departed Ireland to serve in the wars on the Continent, in a constant emigration romantically styled the"Flight of the Wild Geese" and, before that, in the 'Flight of the Earls', just before the Plantation of Ulster. In the early years of the English Civil War, a French traveller remarked that the Irish "are better soldiers abroad than at home". Later, Irish brigades in France and Spain would fight in the Wars of the Spanish and Austrian Succession and the Napoleonic Wars. In the words of Field Marshal The 1st Duke of Wellington, the Irish-born 'Iron Duke', a notable representative of the Irish military diaspora, "Ireland was an inexhaustible nursery for the finest soldiers".


title: Irish people

text: The British Legions were units that fought under Simón Bolívar against Spain for the independence of Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, and Peru. Venezuelans called them the Albion Legion. They were composed of over seven thousand volunteers, mainly Napoleonic War veterans from Great Britain and Ireland. Volunteers in the British Legion were motivated by a combination of both genuine political and mercenary motives. The most famous cause of emigration was the Great Famine of the late 1840s. A million are thought to have emigrated to Liverpool as a result of the famine. For both the Irish in Ireland and those in the resulting diaspora, the famine entered folk memory and became a rallying point for various nationalist movements.


title: Irish people

text: There are Afro-Caribbean people descended from Irish immigrants in the Caribbean, especially on Barbados, Jamaica, and Montserrat. They often have Irish surnames, speak a form of Caribbean English influenced by the Irish vernacular and, in some cases, sing Irish songs.


title: Irish people

text: People of Irish descent are the second largest self-reported ethnic group in the United States, after German Americans. Nine of the signatories of the American Declaration of Independence were of Irish origin. Among them was the sole Catholic signatory, Charles Carroll of Carrollton, whose family were the descendants of Ely O'Carroll, an Irish prince who had suffered under Cromwell. At least twenty-five presidents of the United States have some Irish ancestral origins, including George Washington. Since John F. Kennedy took office in 1961, every American President (with the exception of Gerald Ford and Donald Trump) has had some Irish blood. An Irish-American, James Hoban, was the designer of the White House. Commodore John Barry, who was born in County Wexford, was the "Father of the United States Navy".


title: Irish people

text: In the mid-19th century, large numbers of Irish immigrants were conscripted into Irish regiments of the United States Army at the time of the Mexican–American War. The vast majority of the 4,811 Irish-born soldiers served in the U.S. Army, but some deserted to the Mexican Army, primarily to escape mistreatment by Protestant officers and the strong anti-Catholic discrimination in America. These were the "San Patricios", or Saint Patrick's Battalion—a group of Irish led by Galway-born John O'Riley, with some German, Scottish and American Catholics. They fought until their surrender at the decisive Battle of Churubusco, and were executed outside Mexico City by the American government on 13 September 1847. The battalion is commemorated in Mexico each year on 12 September.


title: Irish people

text: During the 18th and 19th centuries, 300,000 free emigrants and 45,000 convicts left Ireland to settle in Australia. Today, Australians of Irish descent are one of the largest self-reported ethnic groups in Australia, after English and Australian. In the 2006 Census, 1,803,741 residents identified themselves as having Irish ancestry either alone or in combination with another ancestry. However this figure does not include Australians with an Irish background who chose to nominate themselves as 'Australian' or other ancestries. The Australian embassy in Dublin states that up to thirty per cent of the population claim some degree of Irish ancestry.


title: Irish people

text: It is believed that as many as 30,000 Irish people emigrated to Argentina between the 1830s and the 1890s. This was encouraged by the clergy, as they considered a Catholic country, Argentina, preferable to a more Protestant United States. This flow of emigrants dropped sharply when assisted passage to Australia was introduced at which point the Argentine government responded with their own scheme and wrote to Irish bishops, seeking their support. However, there was little or no planning for the arrival of a large number of immigrants, no housing, no food. Many died, others made their way to the United States and other destinations, some returned to Ireland, a few remained and prospered. Thomas Croke Archbishop of Cashel, said: "I most solemnly conjure my poorer countrymen, as they value their happiness hereafter, never to set foot on the Argentine Republic however tempted to do so they may be by offers of a passage or an assurance of comfortable homes." Some famous Argentines of Irish descent and Irish people who settled in Argentina include Che Guevara, former president Edelmiro Julián Farrell, and admiral William Brown.


title: Irish people

text: There are people of Irish descent all over South America, such as the Chilean liberator Bernardo O'Higgins and the Peruvian photographer Mario Testino. Although some Irish retained their surnames intact, others were assimilated into the Spanish vernacular. The last name "O'Brien", for example, became "Obregón".


title: Irish people

text: People of Irish descent are also one of the largest self-reported ethnic groups in Canada, after English, French and Scottish Canadians. As of 2006, Irish Canadians number around 4,354,155.


title: Public relations

text: Public relations (PR) is the practice of managing and disseminating information from an individual or an organization (such as a business, government agency, or a nonprofit organization) to the public in order to influence their perception. Public relations and publicity differ in that PR is controlled internally, whereas publicity is not controlled and contributed by external parties. Public relations may include an organization or individual gaining exposure to their audiences using topics of public interest and news items that do not require direct payment. The exposure mostly is media-based. This differentiates it from advertising as a form of marketing communications. Public relations aims to create or obtain coverage for clients for free, also known as earned media, rather than paying for marketing or advertising also known as paid media. But in the early 21st century, advertising is also a part of broader PR activities.


title: Public relations

text: An example of good public relations would be generating an article featuring a PR firm's client, rather than paying for the client to be advertised next to the article. The aim of public relations is to inform the public, prospective customers, investors, partners, employees, and other stakeholders, and persuade them to maintain a positive or favorable view about the organization, its leadership, products, or political decisions. Public relations professionals typically work for PR and marketing firms, businesses and companies, government, and public officials as public information officers and nongovernmental organizations, and nonprofit organizations. Jobs central to public relations include internal positions such as public relations coordinator, public relations specialist, public relations manager, and outside agency positions such as account coordinator, account executive, account supervisor, and media relations manager.


title: Public relations

text: Public relations specialists establish and maintain relationships with an organization's target audience, the media, relevant trade media, and other opinion leaders. Common responsibilities include designing communications campaigns, writing press releases and other content for news, working with the press, arranging interviews for company spokespeople, writing speeches for company leaders, acting as an organization's spokesperson, preparing clients for press conferences, media interviews and speeches, writing website and social media content, managing company reputation (crisis management), managing internal communications, and marketing activities like brand awareness and event management. Success in the field of public relations requires a deep understanding of the interests and concerns of each of the company's many stakeholders. The public relations professional must know how to effectively address those concerns using the most powerful tool of the public relations trade, which is publicity.


title: Public relations

text: Ivy Lee, the man who turned around the Rockefeller name and image, and his friend, Edward Louis Bernays, established the first definition of public relations in the early 20th century as follows: "a management function, which tabulates public attitudes, defines the policies, procedures and interests of an organization... followed by executing a program of action to earn public understanding and acceptance." However, when Lee was later asked about his role in a hearing with the United Transit Commission, he said "I have never been able to find a satisfactory phrase to describe what I do." In 1948, historian Eric Goldman noted that the definition of public relations in Webster's would be "disputed by both practitioners and critics in the field."


title: Public relations

text: According to Bernays, the public relations counsel is the agent working with both modern media of communications and group formations of society in order to provide ideas to the public's consciousness. Furthermore, he is also concerned with ideologies and courses of actions as well as material goods and services and public utilities and industrial associations and large trade groups for which it secures popular support.


title: Public relations

text: In August 1978, the World Assembly of Public Relations Associations defined the field as "the art and social science of analyzing trends, predicting their consequences, counselling organizational leaders and implementing planned programs of action, which will serve both the organization and the public interest."


title: Public relations

text: Public Relations Society of America, a professional trade association, defined public relations in 1982 as: "Public relations helps an organization and its publics adapt mutually to each other."


title: Public relations

text: In 2011 and 2012, the PRSA solicited crowd supplied definitions for the term and allowed the public to vote on one of three finalists. The winning definition stated that:


title: Public relations

text: "Public relations is a strategic communication process that builds mutually beneficial relationships between organizations and their publics."


title: Public relations

text: Public relations can also be defined as the practice of managing communication between an organization and its publics.


title: Public relations

text: Public relations has historical roots pre-dating the 20th century. Most textbooks regard the establishment of the "Publicity Bureau" in Boston in 1900 as marking the founding of a public relations profession. Academics have found early forms of public influence and communications management in ancient civilizations. Aristotle's "Rhetoric", for example, explains core foundations for persuasion. Evidence shows that it continued to evolve during the settling of the New World and during the movement to abolish slavery in England. Basil Clarke is considered the founder of public relations in the United Kingdom for his establishment of "Editorial Services" in 1924.


title: Public relations

text: The United States, the United Kingdom, Germany, and others used the concept of propaganda, which later evolved into public relations, to rally domestic support and to demonize enemies during the World Wars (compare journalism). World War I (1914-1918), which affected not only military but whole populations, is considered to be "modern propaganda's launching pad". This led to more sophisticated commercial publicity efforts as public-relations talent entered the private sector. Most historians believe modern-day public relations was first established in the US by Ivy Lee (1877-1934) in 1903 when he started working as the image maker for and corporate advisor for Rockefeller. Edward Bernays (1891-1995), who handled the publicity of theatrical associations in 1913., then spread internationally. Meanwhile, in the nascent Soviet Russia of the 1920s, artists and poets (such as Mayakovsky) engaged in public-relations campaigns for various state agencies and causes (note for example Likbez).


title: Public relations

text: Many American companies with PR departments spread the practice to Europe when they set up European subsidiaries in the wake of the Marshall plan of 1948–1952.


title: Public relations

text: In the second half of the 20th century, public relations entered an era of professional development. Trade associations, PR news-magazines, international PR agencies, and academic principles for the profession were established. In the early 2000s, press-release services began offering social-media press releases. The Cluetrain Manifesto, which predicted the effect of social media in 1999, was controversial in its time, but by 2006 the effect of social media and new Internet technologies became broadly accepted by the general public.


title: Public relations

text: "Cosmopolitan" reported that the average annual salary for a "public relations director" was £77,619 in 2017. One notable former PR practitioner was former Prime Minister David Cameron.


title: Public relations

text: Public relations practitioners typically have a bachelor's degree in journalism, communications, public relations, marketing, or English. Many senior practitioners have advanced degrees; a 2015 survey found that 40% of chief communications officers at Fortune 500 companies had master's degrees.


title: Public relations

text: The Public Relations Society of America helps create diversity, professionalism, leadership, and networking for the members involved. In 2013, a survey of the 21,000 members of the Public Relations Society of America found that 18-percent held the Accreditation in Public Relations. Being a member of society is a way new public relations practitioners can develop skills needed for the rest of their career.


title: Public relations

text: In 2019, a "PR Week" survey found a median annual compensation of $95,000 for public relations practitioners, with sector medians ranging from $85,000 in the non-profit sector, $96,000 in a private agency setting, and $126,000 in a for-profit corporation. The Bureau of Labor Statistics, meanwhile, reports the median annual for "public relations specialists" at $68,000 in 2017 and $114,000 for "public relations managers".


title: Public relations

text: According to a study made by the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics in 2020, they found that public relations practitioners in the United States private sector – working at PR agencies – have a median salary of $57,940. Individuals that work within the federal sector have reported to be making a median income of $65,310. The information collected shows those that work for professional, labor, political, and similar organizations average $66,340 a year.


title: Public relations

text: The C-level position of chief communications officer (CCO), used in some private companies, usually earned more than $220,000 annually as of 2013. CCOs at Fortune 200 companies, meanwhile, had an average compensation package of just over $1 million annually, according to a 2009 survey by "Fortune"; this amount included base salary, bonus, and stock options.


title: Public relations

text: Within the U.S. federal government, public affairs workers had a 2016 average salary of approximately $101,922, with the U.S. Forest Service employing the most such professionals. Of federal government agencies employing more than one public affairs worker, those at the Federal Aviation Administration earned the most, on average, at approximately $150,130. The highest-earning public affairs worker within the U.S. government, meanwhile, earned $229,333.


title: Public relations

text: Salaries of public relations specialists in local government vary widely. The chief communications officer of the Utah Transit Authority earned $258,165 in total compensation in 2014 while an early career public information officer for the city of Conway, South Carolina had a pay range beginning at approximately $59,000 per year in 2017.


title: Public relations

text: "Indeed" reported that the average annual salary for a "public relations manager" was $59,326 in June 2019. According to Stats Canada, there has been no growth in the demand for journalists in Canada, but the demand for PR practitioners continues to grow. Most journalists transition into public relations smoothly and bring a much-needed skill set to the profession.


title: Public relations

text: Public relations practitioners typically have a bachelor's degree in communications, public relations, journalism, or English. Some senior practitioners have advanced degrees. The industry has seen an influx of journalists because newsrooms are in decline and the salaries tend to be higher.


title: Public relations

text: A society that has been growing the careers of many public relations practitioners in Canada, is known as the CPRS. The CPRS, or the Canadian Public Relation Society, is an association in Canada that ensures public relations specialists are ethical, and progressive in their field of work. This association was founded in 1948 to regulate the way PR workers: