text: "All Quiet on the Western Front" received tremendous praise in the United States. In the "New York Daily News", Irene Thirer wrote: "It smack ["sic"] of directional geniusnothing short of this; sensitive performances by a marvelous cast and the most remarkable camera work which has been performed on either silent or sound screen, round about the Hollywood studios. [...] We have praise for everyone concerned with this picture." "Variety" lauded it as a "harrowing, gruesome, morbid tale of war, so compelling in its realism, bigness and repulsiveness".


title: All Quiet on the Western Front (1930 film)

text: In a retrospective review, American film critic Pauline Kael commented, "The year 1930 was, of course, a good year for pacifism, which always flourishes between wars; Milestone didn't make pacifist films during the Second World War—nor did anybody else working in Hollywood. And wasn't it perhaps easier to make "All Quiet" just because its heroes were German? War always seems like a tragic waste when told from the point of view of the losers."


text: Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reports an approval rating of 97% based on 77 reviews, with an average rating of 9.2/10. The site's critics' consensus reads: "Director Lewis Milestone's brilliant anti-war polemic, headlined by an unforgettable performance from Lew Ayres, lays bare the tragic foolishness at the heart of war." On Metacritic, the film has a score of 91 out of 100 based on 16 reviews, indicating "universal acclaim".


text: However, controversy would attend the film's subject matter elsewhere. Due to its anti-war and perceived anti-German messages, Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party opposed the film. During and after its German premiere in Berlin on December 4, 1930, Nazi brownshirts under the command of Joseph Goebbels disrupted the viewings by setting off stink bombs, throwing sneezing powder in the air and releasing white mice in the theaters, eventually escalating to attacking audience members perceived to be Jewish and forcing projectors to shut down. They repeatedly yelled out ""Judenfilm!"" ("Jewish film!") while doing this.


text: The Nazi campaign was successful and German authorities outlawed the film on December 11, 1930. A heavily cut version was briefly allowed in 1931, before the Nazis came to power in 1933 and the film was outlawed again. The film was finally re-released in Germany on April 25, 1952, in the Capitol Theatre in West Berlin.


text: Between 1930 and 1941, this was one of many films to be banned in Victoria, Australia, on the ground of 'pacifism', by the Chief Censor Creswell O'Reilly. However, it was said to enjoy "a long and successful run" in other states, though the book was banned nationally. The film was also banned in Italy and Austria in 1931, with the prohibition officially raised only in the 1980s, and in France up to 1963.


title: Incandescent light bulb

text: An incandescent light bulb, incandescent lamp or incandescent light globe is an electric light with a wire filament heated until it glows. The filament is enclosed in a glass bulb with a vacuum or inert gas to protect the filament from oxidation. Current is supplied to the filament by terminals or wires embedded in the glass. A bulb socket provides mechanical support and electrical connections.


title: Incandescent light bulb

text: Incandescent bulbs are manufactured in a wide range of sizes, light output, and voltage ratings, from 1.5 volts to about 300 volts. They require no external regulating equipment, have low manufacturing costs, and work equally well on either alternating current or direct current. As a result, the incandescent bulb became widely used in household and commercial lighting, for portable lighting such as table lamps, car headlamps, and flashlights, and for decorative and advertising lighting.


title: Incandescent light bulb

text: Incandescent bulbs are much less efficient than other types of electric lighting, converting less than 5% of the energy they use into visible light. The remaining energy is lost as heat. The luminous efficacy of a typical incandescent bulb for 120 V operation is 16 lumens per watt, compared with 60 lm/W for a compact fluorescent bulb or 150 lm/W for some white LED lamps.


title: Incandescent light bulb

text: Some applications use the heat generated by the filament. Heat lamps are made for uses such as incubators, lava lamps, and the Easy-Bake Oven toy. Quartz tube halogen infrared heaters are used for industrial processes such as paint curing or space heating.


title: Incandescent light bulb

text: Incandescent bulbs typically have short lifetimes compared with other types of lighting; around 1,000 hours for home light bulbs versus typically 10,000 hours for compact fluorescents and 20,000–30,000 hours for lighting LEDs. Most incandescent bulbs can be replaced by fluorescent lamps, high-intensity discharge lamps, and light-emitting diode lamps (LED). Some areas have implemented phasing out the use of incandescent light bulbs to reduce energy consumption.


title: Incandescent light bulb

text: Historians Robert Friedel and Paul Israel list inventors of incandescent lamps prior to Joseph Swan and Thomas Edison. They conclude that Edison's version was able to outstrip the others because of a combination of three factors: an effective incandescent material, a higher vacuum than others were able to achieve (by use of the Sprengel pump) and a high resistance that made power distribution from a centralized source economically viable.


title: Incandescent light bulb

text: Historian Thomas Hughes has attributed Edison's success to his development of an entire, integrated system of electric lighting.


title: Incandescent light bulb

text: In 1802, Humphry Davy used what he described as "a battery of immense size", consisting of 2,000 cells housed in the basement of the Royal Institution of Great Britain, to create an incandescent light by passing the current through a thin strip of platinum, chosen because the metal had an extremely high melting point. It was not bright enough nor did it last long enough to be practical, but it was the precedent behind the efforts of scores of experimenters over the next 75 years.


title: Incandescent light bulb

text: Over the first three-quarters of the 19th century, many experimenters worked with various combinations of platinum or iridium wires, carbon rods, and evacuated or semi-evacuated enclosures. Many of these devices were demonstrated and some were patented.


title: Incandescent light bulb

text: In 1835, James Bowman Lindsay demonstrated a constant electric light at a public meeting in Dundee, Scotland. He stated that he could "read a book at a distance of one and a half feet". However he did not develop the electric light any further.


title: Incandescent light bulb

text: In 1838, Belgian lithographer Marcellin Jobard invented an incandescent light bulb with a vacuum atmosphere using a carbon filament.


title: Incandescent light bulb

text: In 1840, British scientist Warren De la Rue enclosed a coiled platinum filament in a vacuum tube and passed an electric current through it. The design was based on the concept that the high melting point of platinum would allow it to operate at high temperatures and that the evacuated chamber would contain fewer gas molecules to react with the platinum, improving its longevity. Although a workable design, the cost of the platinum made it impractical for commercial use.


title: Incandescent light bulb

text: In 1841, Frederick de Moleyns of England was granted the first patent for an incandescent lamp, with a design using platinum wires contained within a vacuum bulb. He also used carbon.


title: Incandescent light bulb

text: In 1845, American John W. Starr patented an incandescent light bulb using carbon filaments. His invention was never produced commercially.


title: Incandescent light bulb

text: In 1851, Jean Eugène Robert-Houdin publicly demonstrated incandescent light bulbs on his estate in Blois, France. His light bulbs are on display in the museum of the Château de Blois.


title: Incandescent light bulb

text: In 1859, Moses G. Farmer built an electric incandescent light bulb using a platinum filament. Thomas Edison later saw one of these bulbs in a shop in Boston, and asked Farmer for advice on the electric light business.


title: Incandescent light bulb

text: In 1872, Russian Alexander Lodygin invented an incandescent light bulb and obtained a Russian patent in 1874. He used as a burner two carbon rods of diminished section in a glass receiver, hermetically sealed, and filled with nitrogen, electrically arranged so that the current could be passed to the second carbon when the first had been consumed. Later he lived in the US, changed his name to Alexander de Lodyguine and applied for and obtained patents for incandescent lamps having chromium, iridium, rhodium, ruthenium, osmium, molybdenum and tungsten filaments, and a bulb using a molybdenum filament was demonstrated at the world fair of 1900 in Paris.


title: Incandescent light bulb

text: On 24 July 1874, a Canadian patent was filed by Henry Woodward and Mathew Evans for a lamp consisting of carbon rods mounted in a nitrogen-filled glass cylinder. They were unsuccessful at commercializing their lamp, and sold rights to their patent () to Thomas Edison in 1879.


title: Incandescent light bulb

text: On 4 March 1880, just five months after Edison's light bulb, Alessandro Cruto created his first incandescent lamp. Cruto produced a filament by deposition of graphite on thin platinum filaments, by heating it with an electric current in the presence of gaseous ethyl alcohol. Heating this platinum at high temperatures leaves behind thin filaments of platinum coated with pure graphite. By September 1881 he had achieved a successful version of this the first synthetic filament. The light bulb invented by Cruto lasted five hundred hours as opposed to the forty of Edison's original version. In 1882 Munich Electrical Exhibition in Bavaria, Germany Cruto's lamp was more efficient than the Edison's one and produced a better, white light.


title: Incandescent light bulb

text: In 1893, Heinrich Göbel claimed he had designed the first incandescent light bulb in 1854, with a thin carbonized bamboo filament of high resistance, platinum lead-in wires in an all-glass envelope, and a high vacuum. Judges of four courts raised doubts about the alleged Göbel anticipation, but there was never a decision in a final hearing due to the expiration of Edison's patent. A research work published 2007 concluded that the story of the Göbel lamps in the 1850s is a legend.


title: Incandescent light bulb

text: Joseph Swan (1828–1914) was a British physicist and chemist. In 1850, he began working with carbonized paper filaments in an evacuated glass bulb. By 1860, he was able to demonstrate a working device but the lack of a good vacuum and an adequate supply of electricity resulted in a short lifetime for the bulb and an inefficient source of light. By the mid-1870s better pumps had become available, and Swan returned to his experiments.


title: Incandescent light bulb

text: With the help of Charles Stearn, an expert on vacuum pumps, in 1878, Swan developed a method of processing that avoided the early bulb blackening. This received a British Patent in 1880. On 18 December 1878, a lamp using a slender carbon rod was shown at a meeting of the Newcastle Chemical Society, and Swan gave a working demonstration at their meeting on 17 January 1879. It was also shown to 700 who attended a meeting of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Newcastle upon Tyne on 3 February 1879. These lamps used a carbon rod from an arc lamp rather than a slender filament. Thus they had low resistance and required very large conductors to supply the necessary current, so they were not commercially practical, although they did furnish a demonstration of the possibilities of incandescent lighting with relatively high vacuum, a carbon conductor, and platinum lead-in wires. This bulb lasted about 40 hours. Swan then turned his attention to producing a better carbon filament and the means of attaching its ends. He devised a method of treating cotton to produce 'parchmentised thread' in the early 1880s and obtained British Patent 4933 that same year. From this year he began installing light bulbs in homes and landmarks in England. His house, Underhill, Low Fell, Gateshead, was the first in the world to be lit by a lightbulb. In the early 1880s he had started his company. In 1881, the Savoy Theatre in the City of Westminster, London was lit by Swan incandescent lightbulbs, which was the first theatre, and the first public building in the world, to be lit entirely by electricity. The first street in the world to be lit by an incandescent lightbulb was Mosley Street, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom. It was lit by Joseph Swan's incandescent lamp on 3 February 1879.


title: Incandescent light bulb

text: Thomas Edison began serious research into developing a practical incandescent lamp in 1878. Edison filed his first patent application for "Improvement in Electric Lights" on 14 October 1878. After many experiments, first with carbon in the early 1880s and then with platinum and other metals, in the end Edison returned to a carbon filament. The first successful test was on 22 October 1879, and lasted 13.5 hours. Edison continued to improve this design and by 4 November 1879, filed for a US patent for an electric lamp using "a carbon filament or strip coiled and connected ... to platina contact wires." Although the patent described several ways of creating the carbon filament including using "cotton and linen thread, wood splints, papers coiled in various ways," Edison and his team later discovered that a carbonized bamboo filament could last more than 1200 hours. In 1880, the Oregon Railroad and Navigation Company steamer, "Columbia", became the first application for Edison's incandescent electric lamps (it was also the first ship to use a dynamo).


title: Incandescent light bulb

text: Albon Man, a New York lawyer, started Electro-Dynamic Light Company in 1878 to exploit his patents and those of William Sawyer. Weeks later the United States Electric Lighting Company was organized. This company didn't make their first commercial installation of incandescent lamps until the fall of 1880 at the Mercantile Safe Deposit Company in New York City, about six months after the Edison incandescent lamps had been installed on the "Columbia". Hiram S. Maxim was the chief engineer at the United States Electric Lighting Company. After the great success in the United States, the incandescent light bulb patented by Edison also began to gain widespread popularity in Europe as well; among other places, the first Edison light bulbs in the Nordic countries were installed at the weaving hall of the Finlayson's textile factory in Tampere, Finland in March 1882.


title: Incandescent light bulb

text: Lewis Latimer, employed at the time by Edison, developed an improved method of heat-treating carbon filaments which reduced breakage and allowed them to be molded into novel shapes, such as the characteristic "M" shape of Maxim filaments. On 17 January 1882, Latimer received a patent for the "Process of Manufacturing Carbons", an improved method for the production of light bulb filaments, which was purchased by the United States Electric Light Company. Latimer patented other improvements such as a better way of attaching filaments to their wire supports.


title: Incandescent light bulb

text: In Britain, the Edison and Swan companies merged into the Edison and Swan United Electric Company (later known as Ediswan, and ultimately incorporated into Thorn Lighting Ltd). Edison was initially against this combination, but after Swan sued him and won, Edison was eventually forced to cooperate, and the merger was made. Eventually, Edison acquired all of Swan's interest in the company. Swan sold his US patent rights to the Brush Electric Company in June 1882.


title: Incandescent light bulb

text: The United States Patent Office gave a ruling 8 October 1883, that Edison's patents were based on the prior art of William Sawyer and were invalid. Litigation continued for a number of years. Eventually on 6 October 1889, a judge ruled that Edison's electric light improvement claim for "a filament of carbon of high resistance" was valid.


title: Incandescent light bulb

text: The main difficulty with vacuumizing the lamps was moisture adsorbing to the glass inside the bulb, which, if not removed, split when the lamp was lit, with resulting oxygen attacking the filament. In the 1880s, phosphoric anhydride was used in combination with expensive mercury vacuum pumps. However, about 1893, Italian inventor (1865–1939), who lacked these pumps, discovered that introduction of phosphorus vapours did the job of chemically bounding the remaining amounts of water and oxygen. In 1896 he patented a process of introducing red phosphorus as the so-called getter (a much later term) inside the bulb (now mostly replaced by triphosphorus pentanitride), which allowed obtaining economic bulbs lasting 800 hours; his patent was acquired by Edison in 1898.


title: Incandescent light bulb

text: In 1897, German physicist and chemist Walther Nernst developed the Nernst lamp, a form of incandescent lamp that used a ceramic globar and did not require enclosure in a vacuum or inert gas. Twice as efficient as carbon filament lamps, Nernst lamps were briefly popular until overtaken by lamps using metal filaments.


title: Incandescent light bulb

text: US575002A patent on 01.Dec.1897 to Alexander Lodyguine (Lodygin, Russia) describes filament made of rare metals, amongst them was tungsten. Lodygin later sold the patent rights to GE.


title: Incandescent light bulb

text: In 1902, Siemens developed a tantalum lamp filament that was more efficient than even graphitized carbon filaments since they could operate at higher temperature. Since tantalum metal has a lower resistivity than carbon, the tantalum lamp filament was quite long and required multiple internal supports. The metal filament gradually shortened in use; the filaments were installed with large slack loops. Lamps used for several hundred hours became quite fragile. Metal filaments had the property of breaking and re-welding, though this would usually decrease resistance and shorten the life of the filament. General Electric bought the rights to use tantalum filaments and produced them in the US until 1913.


title: Incandescent light bulb

text: From 1898 to around 1905, osmium was also used as a lamp filament in Europe. The metal was so expensive that used broken lamps could be returned for partial credit. It could not be made for 110 V or 220 V so several lamps were wired in series for use on standard voltage circuits.


title: Incandescent light bulb

text: On 13 December 1904, Hungarian Sándor Just and Croatian Franjo Hanaman were granted a Hungarian patent (No. 34541) for a tungsten filament lamp that lasted longer and gave brighter light than the carbon filament. Tungsten filament lamps were first marketed by the Hungarian company Tungsram in 1904. This type is often called Tungsram-bulbs in many European countries. Filling a bulb with an inert gas such as argon or nitrogen slows down the evaporation of the tungsten filament compared to operating it in a vacuum. This allows for greater temperatures and therefore greater efficacy with less reduction in filament life.


title: Incandescent light bulb

text: In 1906, William D. Coolidge developed a method of making "ductile tungsten" from sintered tungsten which could be made into filaments while working for General Electric Company. By 1911 General Electric had begun selling incandescent light bulbs with ductile tungsten wire.


title: Incandescent light bulb

text: In 1913, Irving Langmuir found that filling a lamp with inert gas instead of a vacuum resulted in twice the luminous efficacy and reduced bulb blackening.


title: Incandescent light bulb

text: In 1917, Burnie Lee Benbow was granted a patent for the "coiled coil filament", in which a coiled filament is then itself wrapped into a coil by use of a mandrel. In 1921, Junichi Miura created the first double-coil bulb using a coiled coil tungsten filament while working for Hakunetsusha (a predecessor of Toshiba). At the time, machinery to mass-produce coiled coil filaments did not exist. Hakunetsusha developed a method to mass-produce coiled coil filaments by 1936.


title: Incandescent light bulb

text: Between 1924 and the outbreak of the Second World War, the Phoebus cartel attempted to fix prices and sales quotas for bulb manufacturers outside of North America.


title: Incandescent light bulb

text: In 1925, Marvin Pipkin, an American chemist, patented a process for frosting the inside of lamp bulbs without weakening them. In 1947, he patented a process for coating the inside of lamps with silica.


title: Incandescent light bulb

text: In 1930, Hungarian Imre Bródy filled lamps with krypton gas rather than argon, and designed a process to obtain krypton from air. Production of krypton filled lamps based on his invention started at Ajka in 1937, in a factory co-designed by Polányi and Hungarian-born physicist Egon Orowan.


title: Incandescent light bulb

text: By 1964, improvements in efficiency and production of incandescent lamps had reduced the cost of providing a given quantity of light by a factor of thirty, compared with the cost at introduction of Edison's lighting system.


title: Incandescent light bulb

text: Consumption of incandescent light bulbs grew rapidly in the US. In 1885, an estimated 300,000 general lighting service lamps were sold, all with carbon filaments. When tungsten filaments were introduced, about 50 million lamp sockets existed in the US. In 1914, 88.5 million lamps were used, (only 15% with carbon filaments), and by 1945, annual sales of lamps were 795 million (more than 5 lamps per person per year).


title: Incandescent light bulb

text: More than 95% of the power consumed by a typical incandescent light bulb is converted into heat rather than visible light. Other electrical light sources are more effective.


title: Incandescent light bulb

text: For a given quantity of light, an incandescent light bulb consumes more power and emits more heat than a fluorescent lamp. In buildings where air conditioning is used, incandescent lamps' heat output increases load on the air conditioning system. While heat from lights will reduce the need to run a building's heating system, the latter can usually produce the same amount of heat at lower cost than incandescent lights.


title: Incandescent light bulb

text: Compared to other incandescent (non-halogen) light types, incandescent halogen lamps will emit the same amount of light using less power, and a more constant output over time, with little dimming.


title: Incandescent light bulb

text: Luminous "efficacy" of a light source is the ratio of the visible light to the total power input to the source, such as a lamp. Visible light is measured in lumens, a unit which is defined in part by the differing sensitivity of the human eye to different wavelengths of light (see luminosity function). Not all wavelengths are equally effective at stimulating the human eye. The units of luminous efficacy are "lumens per watt" (lm/W). By definition, the maximum efficacy is 683 lm/W for monochromatic green light. A white light source with all visible wavelengths present has a lower efficacy, around 250 lumens per watt.


title: Incandescent light bulb

text: The luminous "efficiency" is defined as the ratio of the luminous efficacy to the theoretical maximum luminous efficacy of 683 lm/W for green light.


title: Incandescent light bulb

text: The chart below lists values of luminous efficacy and efficiency for some general service, 120-volt, 1000-hour lifespan incandescent bulb, and several idealized light sources. A longer chart in luminous efficacy compares a broader array of light sources.


title: Incandescent light bulb

text: The spectrum emitted by a blackbody radiator at temperatures of incandescent bulbs does not match the characteristics of the human eye, with most of the radiation in the range that the eye can't see. An upper limit for incandescent lamp luminous efficacy is around 52 lumens per watt, the theoretical value emitted by tungsten at its melting point.


title: Incandescent light bulb

text: The spectrum of light produced by an incandescent lamp closely approximates that of a black body radiator at the same temperature. The basis for light sources used as the standard for color perception is a tungsten incandescent lamp operating at a defined temperature.


title: Incandescent light bulb

text: Light sources such as fluorescent lamps, high-intensity discharge lamps and LED lamps have higher luminous efficiency. These devices produce light by luminescence. Their light has bands of characteristic wavelengths, without the "tail" of invisible infrared emissions, instead of the continuous spectrum produced by a thermal source. By careful selection of fluorescent phosphor coatings or filters which modify the spectral distribution, the spectrum emitted can be tuned to mimic the appearance of incandescent sources, or other different color temperatures of white light. When used for tasks sensitive to color, such as motion picture lighting, these sources may require particular techniques to duplicate the appearance of incandescent lighting. Metamerism describes the effect of different light spectrum distributions on the perception of color.


title: Incandescent light bulb

text: The initial cost of an incandescent bulb is small compared to the cost of the energy it uses over its lifetime. Incandescent bulbs have a shorter life than most other lighting, an important factor if replacement is inconvenient or expensive. Some types of lamp, including incandescent and fluorescent, emit less light as they age; this may be an inconvenience, or may reduce effective lifetime due to lamp replacement before total failure. A comparison of incandescent lamp operating cost with other light sources must include illumination requirements, cost of the lamp and labor cost to replace lamps (taking into account effective lamp lifetime), cost of electricity used, effect of lamp operation on heating and air conditioning systems. When used for lighting in houses and commercial buildings, the energy lost to heat can significantly increase the energy required by a building's air conditioning system. During the heating season heat produced by the bulbs is not wasted, although in most cases it is more cost effective to obtain heat from the heating system. Regardless, over the course of a year a more efficient lighting system saves energy in nearly all climates.


title: Incandescent light bulb

text: Since incandescent light bulbs use more energy than alternatives such as CFLs and LED lamps, many governments have introduced measures to ban their use, by setting minimum efficacy standards higher than can be achieved by incandescent lamps. Measures to ban light bulbs have been implemented in the European Union, the United States, Russia, Brazil, Argentina, Canada and Australia, among others. The European Commission has calculated that the ban contributes 5 to 10 billion euros to the economy and saves 40 TWh of electricity every year, translating in CO emission reductions of 15 million tonnes.


title: Incandescent light bulb

text: Objections to banning the use of incandescent light bulbs include the higher initial cost of alternatives and lower quality of light of fluorescent lamps. Some people have concerns about the health effects of fluorescent lamps.


title: Incandescent light bulb

text: Some research has been carried out to improve the efficacy of commercial incandescent lamps. In 2007, General Electric announced a "high efficiency incandescent" (HEI) lamp project, which they claimed would ultimately be as much as four times more efficient than current incandescents, although their initial production goal was to be approximately twice as efficient. The HEI program was terminated in 2008 due to slow progress.


title: Incandescent light bulb

text: US Department of Energy research at Sandia National Laboratories initially indicated the potential for dramatically improved efficiency from a photonic lattice filament. However, later work indicated that initially promising results were in error.


title: Incandescent light bulb

text: Prompted by legislation in various countries mandating increased bulb efficiency, "hybrid" incandescent bulbs have been introduced by Philips. The "Halogena Energy Saver" incandescents can produce about 23 lm/W; about 30 percent more efficient than traditional incandescents, by using a reflective capsule to reflect formerly wasted infrared radiation back to the filament from which some is re-emitted as visible light. This concept was pioneered by Duro-Test in 1980 with a commercial product that produced 29.8 lm/W. More advanced reflectors based on interference filters or photonic crystals can theoretically result in higher efficiency, up to a limit of about 270 lm/W (40% of the maximum efficacy possible). Laboratory proof-of-concept experiments have produced as much as 45 lm/W, approaching the efficacy of compact fluorescent bulbs.


title: Incandescent light bulb

text: Incandescent light bulbs consist of an air-tight glass enclosure (the envelope, or bulb) with a filament of tungsten wire inside the bulb, through which an electric current is passed. Contact wires and a base with two (or more) conductors provide electrical connections to the filament. Incandescent light bulbs usually contain a stem or glass mount anchored to the bulb's base that allows the electrical contacts to run through the envelope without air or gas leaks. Small wires embedded in the stem in turn support the filament and its lead wires.


title: Incandescent light bulb

text: An electric current heats the filament to typically , well below tungsten's melting point of . Filament temperatures depend on the filament type, shape, size, and amount of current drawn. The heated filament emits light that approximates a continuous spectrum. The useful part of the emitted energy is visible light, but most energy is given off as heat in the near-infrared wavelengths.


title: Incandescent light bulb

text: Most light bulbs have either clear or coated glass. Coated glass bulbs have kaolin clay blown in and electrostatically deposited on the interior of the bulb. The powder layer diffuses the light from the filament. Pigments may be added to the clay to adjust the color of the light emitted. Kaolin diffused bulbs are used extensively in interior lighting because of their comparatively gentle light. Other kinds of colored bulbs are also made, including the various colors used for "party bulbs", Christmas tree lights and other decorative lighting. These are created by coloring the glass with a dopant; which is often a metal like cobalt (blue) or chromium (green). Neodymium-containing glass is sometimes used to provide a more natural-appearing light.


title: Incandescent light bulb

text: The glass bulb of a general service lamp can reach temperatures between . Lamps intended for high power operation or used for heating purposes will have envelopes made of hard glass or fused quartz.


title: Incandescent light bulb

text: If a light bulb envelope leaks, the hot tungsten filament reacts with air, yielding an aerosol of brown tungsten nitride, brown tungsten dioxide, violet-blue tungsten pentoxide, and yellow tungsten trioxide that then gets deposited on the nearby surfaces or the bulb interior.


title: Incandescent light bulb

text: Most modern bulbs are filled with an inert gas to reduce evaporation of the filament and prevent its oxidation. The gas is at a pressure of about .


title: Incandescent light bulb

text: The gas reduces evaporation of the filament, but the fill must be chosen carefully to avoid introducing significant heat losses. For these properties, chemical inertness and high atomic or molecular weight is desirable. The presence of gas molecules knocks the liberated tungsten atoms back to the filament, reducing its evaporation and allowing it to be operated at higher temperature without reducing its life (or, for operating at the same temperature, prolongs the filament life). On the other hand, the presence of the gas leads to heat loss from the filament—and therefore efficiency loss due to reduced incandescence—by heat conduction and heat convection.


title: Incandescent light bulb

text: Early lamps used only a vacuum to protect the filament from oxygen. The vacuum increases evaporation of the filament but eliminates two modes of heat loss. Some small modern lamps use vacuum as well.


title: Incandescent light bulb

text: The gas layer close to the filament (called the Langmuir layer) is stagnant, with heat transfer occurring only by conduction. Only at some distance does convection occur to carry heat to the bulb's envelope.


title: Incandescent light bulb

text: The orientation of the filament influences efficiency. Gas flow parallel to the filament, e.g., a vertically oriented bulb with vertical (or axial) filament, reduces convective losses.


title: Incandescent light bulb

text: The efficiency of the lamp increases with a larger filament diameter. Thin-filament, low-power bulbs benefit less from a fill gas, so are often only evacuated.


title: Incandescent light bulb

text: Early light bulbs with carbon filaments also used carbon monoxide, nitrogen, or mercury vapor. However, carbon filaments operate at lower temperatures than tungsten ones, so the effect of the fill gas was not significant as the heat losses offset any benefits.


title: Incandescent light bulb

text: Early bulbs were laboriously assembled by hand. After automatic machinery was developed, the cost of bulbs fell. Until 1910, when Libbey's Westlake machine went into production, bulbs were generally produced by a team of three workers (two gatherers and a master gaffer) blowing the bulbs into wooden or cast-iron molds, coated with a paste. Around 150 bulbs per hour were produced by the hand-blowing process in the 1880s at Corning Glass Works.


title: Incandescent light bulb

text: The Westlake machine, developed by Libbey Glass, was based on an adaptation of the Owens-Libbey bottle-blowing machine. Corning Glass Works soon began developing competing automated bulb-blowing machines, the first of which to be used in production was the E-Machine.


title: Incandescent light bulb

text: Corning continued developing automated bulb-production machines, installing the Ribbon Machine in 1926 in its Wellsboro, Pennsylvania, factory. The Ribbon Machine surpassed any previous attempts to automate bulb production and was used to produce incandescent bulbs into the 21st century. The inventor, William Woods, along with his colleague at Corning Glass Works, David E. Gray, had created a machine that by 1939 was turning out 1,000 bulbs per minute.


title: Incandescent light bulb

text: The Ribbon Machine works by passing a continuous ribbon of glass along a conveyor belt, heated in a furnace, and then blown by precisely aligned air nozzles through holes in the conveyor belt into molds. Thus the glass bulbs or envelopes are created. A typical machine of this sort can produce anywhere from 50,000 to 120,000 bulbs per hour, depending on the size of the bulb. By the 1970s, 15 ribbon machines installed in factories around the world produced the entire supply of incandescent bulbs. The filament and its supports are assembled on a glass stem, which is then fused to the bulb. The air is pumped out of the bulb, and the evacuation tube in the stem press is sealed by a flame. The bulb is then inserted into the lamp base, and the whole assembly tested. The 2016 closing of Osram-Sylvania's Wellsboro, Pennsylvania plant meant that one of the last remaining ribbon machines in the United States was shut down.


title: Incandescent light bulb

text: The first commercially successful light bulb filaments were made from carbonized paper or bamboo. Carbon filaments have a negative temperature coefficient of resistance—as they get hotter, their electrical resistance decreases. This made the lamp sensitive to fluctuations in the power supply, since a small increase of voltage would cause the filament to heat up, reducing its resistance and causing it to draw even more power and heat even further.


title: Incandescent light bulb

text: Carbon filaments were "flashed" by heating in a hydrocarbon vapor (usually gasoline), to improve their strength and uniformity. Metallized or "graphitized" filaments were first heated to high temperature to transform them into graphite, which further strengthened and smoothed the filament. These filaments have a positive temperature coefficient, like a metallic conductor, which stabilized the lamps operating properties against minor variations in supply voltage.


title: Incandescent light bulb

text: Metal filaments displaced carbon starting around 1904. Tungsten has the highest available melting point. By 1910, a process was developed by William D. Coolidge at General Electric for production of a ductile form of tungsten. The process required pressing tungsten powder into bars, then several steps of sintering, swaging, and then wire drawing. It was found that very pure tungsten formed filaments that sagged in use, and that a very small "doping" treatment with potassium, silicon, and aluminium oxides at the level of a few hundred parts per million greatly improved the life and durability of the tungsten filaments.


title: Incandescent light bulb

text: To improve the efficiency of the lamp, the filament usually consists of multiple coils of coiled fine wire, also known as a coiled coil. Light bulbs using coiled coil filaments are sometimes referred to as 'double-coil bulbs'. For a 60-watt 120-volt lamp, the uncoiled length of the tungsten filament is usually , and the filament diameter is . The advantage of the coiled coil is that evaporation of the tungsten filament is at the rate of a tungsten cylinder having a diameter equal to that of the coiled coil. The coiled-coil filament evaporates more slowly than a straight filament of the same surface area and light-emitting power. As a result, the filament can then run hotter, which results in a more efficient light source while lasting longer than a straight filament at the same temperature.


title: Incandescent light bulb

text: Electrical filaments are also used in hot cathodes of fluorescent lamps and vacuum tubes as a source of electrons or in vacuum tubes to heat an electron-emitting electrode. When used as a source of electrons, they may have a special coating that increases electron production.


title: Incandescent light bulb

text: During ordinary operation, the tungsten of the filament evaporates; hotter, more-efficient filaments evaporate faster. Because of this, the lifetime of a filament lamp is a trade-off between efficiency and longevity. The trade-off is typically set to provide a lifetime of 1,000 to 2,000 hours for lamps used for general illumination. Theatrical, photographic, and projection lamps may have a useful life of only a few hours, trading life expectancy for high output in a compact form. Long-life general service lamps have lower efficiency, but prior to the development of incandescent and LED lamps they were useful in applications where the bulb was difficult to change.


title: Incandescent light bulb

text: Irving Langmuir found that an inert gas, instead of vacuum, would retard evaporation. General service incandescent light bulbs over about 25 watts in rating are now filled with a mixture of mostly argon and some nitrogen, or sometimes krypton. While inert gas reduces filament evaporation, it also conducts heat from the filament, thereby cooling the filament and reducing efficiency. At constant pressure and temperature, the thermal conductivity of a gas depends upon the molecular weight of the gas and the cross sectional area of the gas molecules. Higher molecular weight gases have lower thermal conductivity, because both the molecular weight and cross sectional area are higher. Xenon gas improves efficiency because of its high molecular weight, but is also more expensive, so its use is limited to smaller lamps.


title: Incandescent light bulb

text: "Filament notching" is due to uneven evaporation of the filament. Small variations in resistivity along the filament cause "hot spots" to form at points of higher resistivity; a variation of diameter of only 1% will cause a 25% reduction in service life. Since filament resistance is highly temperature-dependent, spots with higher temperature will have higher resistance, causing them to dissipate more energy, making them hotter – a positive feedback loop. These hot spots evaporate faster than the rest of the filament, permanently increasing the resistance at that point. The process ends in the familiar tiny gap in an otherwise healthy-looking filament.


title: Incandescent light bulb

text: Lamps operated on direct current develop random stairstep irregularities on the filament surface which may cut lifespan in half compared to AC operation; different alloys of tungsten and rhenium can be used to counteract the effect.


title: Incandescent light bulb

text: Since a filament breaking in a gas-filled bulb can form an electric arc, which may spread between the terminals and draw very heavy current, intentionally thin lead-in wires or more elaborate protection devices are therefore often used as fuses built into the light bulb. More nitrogen is used in higher-voltage lamps to reduce the possibility of arcing.


title: Incandescent light bulb

text: In a conventional lamp, the evaporated tungsten eventually condenses on the inner surface of the glass envelope, darkening it. For bulbs that contain a vacuum, the darkening is uniform across the entire surface of the envelope. When a filling of inert gas is used, the evaporated tungsten is carried in the thermal convection currents of the gas, and is deposited preferentially on the uppermost part of the envelope, blackening just that portion of the envelope. An incandescent lamp that gives 93% or less of its initial light output at 75% of its rated life is regarded as unsatisfactory, when tested according to IEC Publication 60064. Light loss is due to filament evaporation and bulb blackening. Study of the problem of bulb blackening led to the discovery of the Edison effect, thermionic emission and invention of the vacuum tube.


title: Incandescent light bulb

text: A very small amount of water vapor inside a light bulb can significantly increase lamp darkening. Water vapor dissociates into hydrogen and oxygen at the hot filament. The oxygen attacks the tungsten metal, and the resulting tungsten oxide particles travel to cooler parts of the lamp. Hydrogen from water vapor reduces the oxide, reforming water vapor and continuing this "water cycle". The equivalent of a drop of water distributed over 500,000 lamps will significantly increase darkening. Small amounts of substances such as zirconium are placed within the lamp as a getter to react with any oxygen that may bake out of the lamp components during operation.


title: Incandescent light bulb

text: Some old, high-powered lamps used in theater, projection, searchlight, and lighthouse service with heavy, sturdy filaments contained loose tungsten powder within the envelope. From time to time, the operator would remove the bulb and shake it, allowing the tungsten powder to scrub off most of the tungsten that had condensed on the interior of the envelope, removing the blackening and brightening the lamp again.


title: Incandescent light bulb

text: The halogen lamp reduces uneven evaporation of the filament and eliminates darkening of the envelope by filling the lamp with a halogen gas at low pressure, along with an inert gas. The halogen cycle increases the lifetime of the bulb and prevents its darkening by redepositing tungsten from the inside of the bulb back onto the filament. The halogen lamp can operate its filament at a higher temperature than a standard gas filled lamp of similar power without loss of operating life. Such bulbs are much smaller than normal incandescent bulbs, and are widely used where intense illumination is needed in a limited space. Fiber-optic lamps for optical microscopy is one typical application.


title: Incandescent light bulb

text: A variation of the incandescent lamp did not use a hot wire filament, but instead used an arc struck on a spherical bead electrode to produce heat. The electrode then became incandescent, with the arc contributing little to the light produced. Such lamps were used for projection or illumination for scientific instruments such as microscopes. These arc lamps ran on relatively low voltages and incorporated tungsten filaments to start ionization within the envelope. They provided the intense concentrated light of an arc lamp but were easier to operate. Developed around 1915, these lamps were displaced by mercury and xenon arc lamps.


title: Incandescent light bulb

text: Incandescent lamps are nearly pure resistive loads with a power factor of 1. Unlike discharge lamps or LED lamps, the power consumed is equal to the apparent power in the circuit. Incandescent light bulbs are usually marketed according to the electrical power consumed. This depends mainly on the operating resistance of the filament. For two bulbs of the same voltage, and type, the higher-powered bulb gives more light.


title: Incandescent light bulb

text: The table shows the approximate typical output, in lumens, of standard 120 volt incandescent light bulbs at various powers. Light output of similar 230 V bulbs is slightly less. The lower current (higher voltage) filament is thinner and has to be operated at a slightly lower temperature for the same life expectancy, which reduces energy efficiency. The lumen values for "soft white" bulbs will generally be slightly lower than for clear bulbs at the same power.


title: Incandescent light bulb

text: The resistance of the filament is temperature dependent. The cold resistance of tungsten-filament lamps is about 1/15 the resistance when operating. For example, a 100-watt, 120-volt lamp has a resistance of 144 ohms when lit, but the cold resistance is much lower (about 9.5 ohms). Since incandescent lamps are resistive loads, simple phase-control TRIAC dimmers can be used to control brightness. Electrical contacts may carry a "T" rating symbol indicating that they are designed to control circuits with the high inrush current characteristic of tungsten lamps. For a 100-watt, 120-volt general-service lamp, the current stabilizes in about 0.10 seconds, and the lamp reaches 90% of its full brightness after about 0.13 seconds.


title: Incandescent light bulb

text: The filament in a tungsten light bulb is not easy to break when the bulb is cold, but filaments are more vulnerable when they are hot because the incandescent metal is less rigid. An impact on the outside of the bulb may cause the filament to break or experience a surge in electric current that causes part of it to melt or vaporize.


title: Incandescent light bulb

text: In most modern incandescent bulbs, part of the wire inside the bulb acts like a fuse: if a broken filament produces an electrical short inside the bulb, the fusible section of wire will melt and cut the current off to prevent damage to the supply lines.


title: Incandescent light bulb

text: A hot glass bulb may fracture on contact with cold objects. When the glass envelope breaks, the bulb implodes, exposing the filament to ambient air. The air then usually destroys the hot filament through oxidation.


title: Incandescent light bulb

text: Some designations are one or more letters followed by one or more numbers, e.g. A55 or PAR38, where the letters identify the shape and the numbers some characteristic size.


title: Incandescent light bulb

text: National standards such as ANSI C79.1-2002, IS 14897:2000 and JIS C 7710:1988 cover a common terminology for bulb shapes.


title: Incandescent light bulb

text: Large lamps may have a screw base or a bayonet base, with one or more contacts on the base. The shell may serve as an electrical contact or only as a mechanical support. Bayonet base lamps are frequently used in automotive lamps to resist loosening by vibration. Some tubular lamps have an electrical contact at either end. Miniature lamps may have a wedge base and wire contacts, and some automotive and special purpose lamps have screw terminals for connection to wires. Very small lamps may have the filament support wires extended through the base of the lamp for connections. A bipin base is often used for halogen or reflector lamps.


title: Incandescent light bulb

text: In the late 19th century, manufacturers introduced a multitude of incompatible lamp bases. General Electric's "Mazda" standard base sizes were soon adopted across the US.


title: Incandescent light bulb

text: Lamp bases may be secured to the bulb with a cement, or by mechanical crimping to indentations molded into the glass bulb.


title: Incandescent light bulb

text: Lamps intended for use in optical systems have bases with alignment features so that the filament is positioned accurately within the optical system. A screw-base lamp may have a random orientation of the filament when the lamp is installed in the socket.


title: Incandescent light bulb

text: Contacts in the lightbulb socket allow the electric current to pass through the base to the filament. The socket provides electrical connections and mechanical support, and allows changing the lamp when it burns out.


title: Incandescent light bulb

text: Incandescent lamps are very sensitive to changes in the supply voltage. These characteristics are of great practical and economic importance.


title: Incandescent light bulb

text: A 5% reduction in voltage will double the life of the bulb, but reduce its light output by about 16%. Long-life bulbs take advantage of this trade-off in applications such as traffic signal lamps. Since electric energy they use costs more than the cost of the bulb, general service lamps emphasize efficiency over long operating life. The objective is to minimize the cost of light, not the cost of lamps. Early bulbs had a life of up to 2500 hours, but in 1924 the Phoebus cartel agreed to limit life to 1000 hours. When this was exposed in 1953, General Electric and other leading American manufacturers were banned from limiting the life.


title: Incandescent light bulb

text: The relationships above are valid for only a few percent change of voltage around standard rated conditions, but they indicate that a lamp operated at low voltage could last much longer than at rated voltage, albeit with greatly reduced light output. The "Centennial Light" is a light bulb that is accepted by the "Guinness Book of World Records" as having been burning almost continuously at a fire station in Livermore, California, since 1901. However, the bulb emits the equivalent light of a four watt bulb. A similar story can be told of a 40-watt bulb in Texas that has been illuminated since 21 September 1908. It once resided in an opera house where notable celebrities stopped to take in its glow, and was moved to an area museum in 1977.


title: Incandescent light bulb

text: Photoflood lamps used for photographic lighting favor light output over life, with some lasting only two hours. The upper temperature limit for the filament is the melting point of the metal. Tungsten is the metal with the highest melting point, . A 50-hour-life projection bulb, for instance, is designed to operate only below that melting point. Such a lamp may achieve up to 22 lumens per watt, compared with 17.5 for a 750-hour general service lamp.


title: Incandescent light bulb

text: Lamps of the same power rating but designed for different voltages have different luminous efficacy. For example, a 100-watt, 1000 hour, 120-volt lamp will produce about 17.1 lumens per watt. A similar lamp designed for 230 V would produce only around 12.8 lumens per watt, and one designed for 30 volts (train lighting) would produce as much as 19.8 lumens per watt. Lower voltage lamps have a thicker filament, for the same power rating. They can run hotter for the same lifetime before the filament evaporates.


title: Incandescent light bulb

text: The wires used to support the filament make it mechanically stronger, but remove heat, creating another tradeoff between efficiency and long life. Many general-service 120-volt lamps use no additional support wires, but lamps designed for "rough service" or "vibration service" may have as many as five. Low-voltage lamps have filaments made of heavier wire and do not require additional support wires.


title: Incandescent light bulb

text: Very low voltages are inefficient since the lead wires would conduct too much heat away from the filament, so the practical lower limit for incandescent lamps is 1.5 volts. Very long filaments for high voltages are fragile, and lamp bases become more difficult to insulate, so lamps for illumination are not made with rated voltages over 300 volts. Some infrared heating elements are made for higher voltages, but these use tubular bulbs with widely separated terminals.


title: To Pimp a Butterfly

text: To Pimp a Butterfly is the third studio album by American rapper Kendrick Lamar. It was released on March 15, 2015, by Top Dawg Entertainment, Aftermath Entertainment and Interscope Records. The album was recorded in studios throughout the United States, with production from Sounwave, Terrace Martin, Taz "Tisa" Arnold, Thundercat, Rahki, LoveDragon, Flying Lotus, Pharrell Williams, Boi-1da, Knxwledge, and several other high-profile hip hop producers, as well as executive production from Dr. Dre and Anthony "Top Dawg" Tiffith. Guest appearances include Thundercat, George Clinton, Bilal, Anna Wise, Snoop Dogg, James Fauntleroy, Ronald Isley, and Rapsody.


title: To Pimp a Butterfly

text: Primarily a hip hop album, "To Pimp a Butterfly" incorporates numerous other musical styles spanning the history of African-American music, most prominently jazz, funk, and soul. Lyrically, it features political commentary and personal themes concerning African-American culture, racial inequality, depression, and institutional discrimination. This thematic direction was inspired by Lamar's tour of historic sites during his visit to South Africa, such as Nelson Mandela's jail cell on Robben Island.


title: To Pimp a Butterfly

text: "To Pimp a Butterfly" sold 324,000 copies in the United States in its first week of release, earning a chart debut at number one on the US "Billboard" 200, while also becoming Lamar's first number-one album in the UK. It was eventually certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) and sold one million copies in the United States by 2017. Five singles were released in promotion of the album, including the top 40 hit "I". Lamar also supported the album with the Kunta's Groove Sessions Tour from late 2015 to early 2016.


title: To Pimp a Butterfly

text: The album has received widespread acclaim from critics, who praised its musical scope and the social relevance of Lamar's lyrics. It earned Lamar seven nominations at the 2016 Grammy Awards, including a win for Best Rap Album and an Album of the Year nomination. He received four additional nominations for other collaborations from that year, receiving a total of 11 Grammy nominations, which was the most nominations for any rapper in a single night. The most critically acclaimed album of 2015 as well as one of the most critically acclaimed of its entire decade, it topped "The Village Voice"s annual Pazz & Jop poll of American critics nationwide, and was also ranked as the best album of 2015 by many other publications. In the years following its release, several publications named "To Pimp a Butterfly" one of the best albums of the 2010s; in 2020, the album was ranked 19th on "Rolling Stone"s updated list of the 500 Greatest Albums of All Time.


title: To Pimp a Butterfly

text: On February 28, 2014, Kendrick Lamar first revealed the plans to release a follow-up to his second studio album, "Good Kid, M.A.A.D City" (2012), during an interview with "Billboard". Between the releases of "Good Kid, M.A.A.D City" and "To Pimp a Butterfly", Lamar traveled to South Africa. Touring the country  and visiting historic sites such as Nelson Mandela's jail cell on Robben Island heavily influenced the direction of the record and led to Lamar scrapping "two or three albums worth of material".


title: To Pimp a Butterfly

text: Co-producer Sounwave spoke on Lamar's visit, saying, "I remember he [Lamar] took a trip to [South] Africa and something in his mind just clicked. For me, that's when this album really started." Regarding his visit to South Africa, Lamar said, "I felt like I belonged in Africa. I saw all the things that I wasn't taught. Probably one of the hardest things to do is put [together] a concept on how beautiful a place can be, and tell a person this while they're still in the ghettos of Compton. I wanted to put that experience in the music." In addition, Lamar said, "The idea was to make a record that reflected all complexions of black women. There's a separation between the light and the dark skin because it's just in our nature to do so, but we're all black. This concept came from South Africa and I saw all these different colors speaking a beautiful language."


title: To Pimp a Butterfly

text: "To Pimp a Butterfly" was recorded at a variety of studios; including Chalice Recording Studios, Downtown Studios, House Studios, Notifi Studios and No Excuses Studios. Lamar wrote the lyrics to the song "Mortal Man" while on Kanye West's Yeezus Tour. During the whole tour, producer Flying Lotus played Lamar a selection of tracks that was intended for Captain Murphy's album (Flying Lotus's alter ego). Lamar kept all the tracks, but only opener "Wesley's Theory", which also features Thundercat and George Clinton, made the final cut onto the album. Lotus had produced a version of "For Sale? (Interlude)" that was ultimately discarded, with Lamar using Taz Arnold's version of the song on the album instead. Lotus stated that it is unlikely his version of the song will see a release. American rapper Rapsody appeared on the album, contributing a verse to the song "Complexion (A Zulu Love)". Lamar had requested that 9th Wonder contact Rapsody and request her appearance. Rapsody and Lamar discussed the song but there was little instruction from Lamar regarding her contribution. Speaking about the song, she stated that Lamar had already decided on the concept of the song and stated that the only instructions he gave were the song's title and the idea that "...we are beautiful no matter our race but he really wanted to speak to our people and address this light versus dark complex". Lamar also contacted Madlib to seek his collaboration on the record but was unable to reach him.


title: To Pimp a Butterfly

text: In 2014, Pharrell Williams, who previously worked with Lamar, along with producer Sounwave, played the track "Alright" at the Holy Ship Festival. The track features the same unidentified sample that Williams used on Rick Ross' track "Presidential" from his album "God Forgives, I Don't" (2012). Reportedly, at one time it featured a guest appearance from American rapper Fabolous. The album went through three different phases before the production team could move forward with the idea. Afterwards, producer Thundercat was brought into the process, after Flying Lotus brought him along to see Lamar's performance on The Yeezus Tour. The album's lead single, titled "I", was produced by Rahki, who also produced a song for the album entitled "Institutionalized". Although the version of "I" appearing on the album is drastically different from that on the single release, both versions contained a sample of the song "That Lady" performed by The Isley Brothers. Lamar personally visited The Isley Brothers, to receive permission from lead vocalist Ronald Isley to sample the song.


title: To Pimp a Butterfly

text: Lamar began traveling to St. Louis and began working with Isley at the studio. Isley also performed on the song "How Much a Dollar Cost" alongside the singer-songwriter James Fauntleroy. Producer and rapper Pete Rock provided some backing vocals and scratches to the song "Complexion (A Zulu Love)", and as he stated, the contribution was unusual, as he was not the producer for the track. Singer Bilal features on the songs "Institutionalized" and "These Walls", and has provided un-credited backing vocals on the songs "U", "For Sale? (Interlude)", "Momma" and "Hood Politics". Bilal stated that he and Lamar were initially unsure of how many songs he would be featured on, stating he worked on various tracks, but did not yet know the outcome. "For a lot of the material, Kendrick had an idea of what he wanted. He would sing out the melody and some of the words, and I would interpret what he was telling me." On the songs where Bilal added backing vocals, he stated that "...some of it was freestyle; just adding color to make it a fuller sound." Lamar also reportedly worked with American musician Prince; however, the duo were too pressed for time during the recording session and therefore were unable to complete any work for inclusion on the album. Lamar professed to having listened often to Miles Davis and Parliament-Funkadelic during the album's recording.


title: To Pimp a Butterfly

text: In 2016, Lamar released "Untitled Unmastered", a compilation album, which contains previously unreleased demos that originated during the recording of "To Pimp a Butterfly". According to producer Thundercat, it "completes the sentence" of Lamar's third studio album.


title: To Pimp a Butterfly

text: According to musicologist Will Fulton, "To Pimp a Butterfly" engages in and celebrates the black music tradition. Much like the singer D'Angelo on his 2014 album "Black Messiah", Lamar "consciously indexes African American musical styles of the past in a dynamic relationship of nostalgic revivalism and vanguardism." Kyle Anderson of "Entertainment Weekly" described the album as "embracing the entire history of black American music." Lamar's co-engineer/mixer MixedByAli praised Lamar, saying, "[Lamar is] a sponge. He incorporated everything that was going on [in Africa] and in his life to complete a million-piece puzzle." Lamar described the album as an "honest, fearful and unapologetic" work that draws on funk, hard bop, spoken word and soul while critics also noted elements of West Coast hip hop and avant-garde. Allison Stewart from "The Washington Post" says the album is "threaded" with G-funk. Speaking on the album's styles, co-producer Terrace Martin said, "If you dig deeper you hear the lineage of James Brown, Jackie Wilson, Mahalia Jackson, the sounds of Africa, and our people when they started over here. I hear something different every time. I heard Cuban elements in it the other day."


title: To Pimp a Butterfly

text: The album features contributions from the collective of musicians called West Coast Get Down, who experiment with jazz and progressive hip hop sounds, and feature Lamar, Flying Lotus, Martin, and saxophonist Kamasi Washington, among others. Consequently, the music is "jazz-like in spirit if not always in sound", according to Ben Ratliff, while Mosi Reeves from "Deadspin" observes a virtuosic quality to its "prog-rap cornucopia". "Stereogum" described "To Pimp a Butterfly" as an "ambitious avant-jazz-rap statement," and "The Source" categorized the album as an experimental hip hop release. Dan Weiss of "Spin" noted "shades of Miles Davis' "On the Corner" and free jazz all over [...], as well as Sly Stone's "There's a Riot Goin' On" and Funkadelic and Erykah Badu's similarly wah-crazy but comparatively lo-fi "New Amerykah (4th World War)"," but stated nonetheless that "the sense of this album is vividly contemporary." Other critics regard it as "throwback" to neo soul music of the 1990s. Greg Kot of "Chicago Tribune" noted the album's affinities with previous black music, but argued that "Lamar takes familiar musical tropes into new territory." "The Atlantic" noted the influence of collaborator Flying Lotus, writing that "his signature sound—jazz instrumentation and hip-hop layered into chaotic collages—is all over the album." Steve Mallon of "The Quietus" noted an "eerily warped psychedelia bursting out of its idiosyncratic arrangements."


title: To Pimp a Butterfly

text: Categorized by "Billboard" as a "politically-charged" conscious rap album, "To Pimp a Butterfly" explores a variety of political and personal themes related to race, culture, and discrimination. Critic Neil Kulkarni said it appraises "the broken promises and bloody pathways in and out of America's heartland malaise". Jay Caspian Kang observed elements of critical race theory, respectability politics, theology, and meta-analysis examining Lamar's success and revered status in the hip hop community. It was compared by California State University, Fullerton professor Natalie Graham to the 1977 television miniseries "Roots". While ""Roots" compresses and simplifies" black history, Graham said "To Pimp a Butterfly" "radically disrupt[s] meanings of black respectability, heroic morality, trauma, and memory".


title: To Pimp a Butterfly

text: In the "Toronto Journal of Theology", James D. McLeod Jr. drew parallels between Lamar's examination of death's domineering significance in the African-American experience and the works of Christian theologian Paul Tillich, with McLeod calling "To Pimp a Butterfly" an original example of "existentialist hip hop." Meanwhile, Adam Blum discerned connections between "To Pimp a Butterfly" and the writings of psychoanalysts such as Wilfred Bion, Nicolas Abraham, and Sigmund Freud. In an essay published in "The Lancet Psychiatry", University of Cambridge professors Akeem Sule and Becky Inkster described Lamar as the "street poet of mental health," noting how "To Pimp a Butterfly" (as well as its predecessor, "Good Kid, M.A.A.D City") explore topics such as addiction, anxiety, depression, and resilience.


title: To Pimp a Butterfly

text: The album continues a nuanced dialogue about weighty topics that affect the African-American community. Releasing his album in a time of renewed black activism, Lamar's song "Alright" has become a rallying cry for the Black Lives Matter movement. With lyrics like "and we hate po-po / Wanna kill us dead in the street fo sho, nigga" he makes it clear that he is supportive of the movement and the families of black men and women like Michael Brown, Sandra Bland, Tamir Rice, and others who have fallen victim to police brutality in the United States. Lamar takes his opinions further to lend his position on black crime in the song "The Blacker the Berry". He criticizes himself and his community by rapping, "So why did I weep when Trayvon Martin was in the street? / When gang bangin' make me kill a nigga blacker than me?". Some critics claim that his attitude facilitates the rhetoric that silences the Black Lives Matter movement. Stereo Williams of "The Daily Beast" wrote in response to his lyrics that "it's dangerous to use that violence as a silencing tactic when the public is angry about the systematic subjugation of black people."


title: To Pimp a Butterfly

text: Lamar has offered explanations of the meanings behind songs such as "Wesley's Theory" and "King Kunta". The album's 1970s funk-inspired opening track "Wesley's Theory" is a reference to Wesley Snipes and how the actor was jailed for tax evasion; according to Lamar, "no one teaches poor black males how to manage money or celebrity, so if they do achieve success, the powers that be can take it from right under them". "For Free? (Interlude)" sees Lamar rapping in a dense, spoken word-esque manner with musical accompaniment by jazz pianist Robert Glasper.


title: To Pimp a Butterfly

text: "King Kunta" is concerned with the "history of negative stereotypes all African-Americans have to reconcile". Lamar also explained his criticism of rappers who use ghostwriters on "King Kunta", revealing that he came to prominence as a ghostwriter, and has respect for writers, but says that "as a new artist, you have to stand behind your work."


title: To Pimp a Butterfly

text: "These Walls" has been described by "Billboard" as "pondering sex and existence in equal measure; it's a yoni metaphor about the power of peace, with sugar walls being escape and real walls being obstacles." Lamar revealed that "U" was inspired by his own experience of depression and suicidal thoughts. He also mentioned feelings of survivor's guilt as inspirations for the album. "Alright" begins as a spoken-word treatise before exploding into a shapeshifting portrait of America that brings in jazz horns, skittering drum beats and Lamar's mellifluous rapping as he struggles with troubles and temptations. Yet at the end of each verse, he reassures himself that "We gon' be alright"—a simple rallying cry for a nation reeling from gun violence and police brutality. For critics a "celebration of being alive", Lamar described "Alright" as a message of hope. "The Blacker the Berry" features a "boom bap beat" and lyrics that celebrate Lamar's African-American heritage and "tackle hatred, racism, and hypocrisy head on." The song's hook is performed by Jamaican dancehall artist Assassin, notable for performing on Kanye West's 2013 LP "Yeezus", whose lyrics similarly address racial inequality, specifically against African Americans.


title: To Pimp a Butterfly

text: The album was originally going to be titled "Tu Pimp a Caterpillar", a backronym for Tu.P.A.C., itself an allusion to the rapper Tupac. Lamar decided to replace "caterpillar" in the original title to "butterfly", which he explained in an interview for MTV, "I just really wanted to show the brightness of life and the word 'pimp' has so much aggression and that represents several things. For me, it represents using my celebrity for good. Another reason is, not being pimped by the industry through my celebrity ... It gets even deeper than that for me. I could be talking all day about it." Lamar later also told "Rolling Stone", "Just putting the word 'pimp' next to 'butterfly'... It's a trip. That's something that will be a phrase forever. It'll be taught in college courses—I truly believe that."


title: To Pimp a Butterfly

text: The album's CD release included a booklet produced with braille letterings; according to Lamar, these characters when translated reveal the "actual full title of the album." "Complex" commissioned a braille translator, who found that it translated to "A Kendrick by Letter Blank Lamar" which "Complex" noted was most likely supposed to read as "A Blank Letter by Kendrick Lamar".


title: To Pimp a Butterfly

text: The album's release was preceded by the release of two singles, "I", on September 23, 2014, and "The Blacker the Berry" in February 2015. The former became Lamar's sixth top-40 single on the US "Billboard" Hot 100 and was performed on "Saturday Night Live". "King Kunta" was released as the third single in March 2015, and "Alright" was released to radio stations on June 30. With the latter's release, several contemporary progressive news outlets, including BET, raised the idea of "Alright" being the modern Black National Anthem, while the media reported youth-lead protests against police brutality across the country chanted the chorus of the song. Primarily for the latter, Lamar was featured on "Ebony" magazine's Power 100, an annual list that recognizes many leaders of the African-American community. "These Walls" was released as the album's fifth single on October 13. Aside from the singles' accompanying music videos, the song "For Free? (Interlude)" also featured visuals, as did "U" with "For Sale? (Interlude)" as part of the short film "God Is Gangsta". In support of the album, Lamar embarked on the Kunta's Groove Sessions Tour, which included eight shows in eight cities during October and November.


title: To Pimp a Butterfly

text: "To Pimp a Butterfly" was first released to the iTunes Store and Spotify on March 15, 2015, eight days ahead of its scheduled release date. According to Anthony Tiffith, CEO of Top Dawg Entertainment, the album's early release was unintentional, apparently caused by an error on the part of Interscope Records. The following day, it was made unavailable on iTunes, and the release was rescheduled for March 23, although it was still available for streaming on Spotify. In its first week of release, "To Pimp a Butterfly" debuted at number one on record charts in the United Kingdom, Australia, and the United States, where it recorded first-week sales of 324,000 copies. The album was streamed 9.6 million times in its first day on Spotify, setting the service's global first-day streaming record. By the end of 2015, "To Pimp a Butterfly" was ranked the sixteenth most popular album on the "Billboard" 200 that year and reached sales of one million copies worldwide. By March 2016, it had sold 850,000 copies in the US, where it was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). In June 2017, it reached one million copies sold in the US.


title: To Pimp a Butterfly

text: "To Pimp a Butterfly" was met with widespread critical acclaim. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from professional publications, the album received an average score of 96, based on 44 reviews. Aggregator AnyDecentMusic? gave it 9.3 out of 10, based on their assessment of the critical consensus. According to "Gigwise" writer Will Butler, it was universally hailed by critics as an "instant classic".


title: To Pimp a Butterfly

text: "Spin" magazine's Dan Weiss regarded "To Pimp a Butterfly" as the "Great American Hip-Hop Album" and an essential listen, while Neil McCormick from "The Daily Telegraph" called it a dense but dazzling masterpiece that positions Lamar ahead of the prog-rap resurgence led by Kanye West and Drake. Writing for "Entertainment Weekly", Kyle Anderson found the record twice as substantial as Lamar's debut major label album and more comprehensive of African-American music styles, with supremely "cinematic" production qualities but "the freedom of a mixtape". "Irish Times" journalist Jim Carroll deemed it "a record for the times we're in", in which Lamar transitioned from his past narratives about Compton to fierce but precise reflections on "black America". In "Rolling Stone", Greg Tate deemed "To Pimp a Butterfly" "a masterpiece of fiery outrage, deep jazz and ruthless self-critique" that along with D'Angelo's third album "Black Messiah", made 2015 "the year radical Black politics and for-real Black music resurged in tandem to converge on the nation's pop mainstream." Robert Christgau wrote in his review on "Cuepoint" that not many artists were as passionate and understanding as Lamar, who offered "a strong, brave effective bid to reinstate hip hop as black America's CNN" during an era of social media.


title: To Pimp a Butterfly

text: While the album's reception was almost universally positive, there were still a few reviews at release that offered minor critiques. For instance, "New York Times" critic Jon Caramanica was less enthusiastic than others, feeling Lamar still struggled in reconciling his density as a lyricist with the music he rapped over: "He hasn't outrun his tendency towards clutter [and] still runs the risk of suffocation." In "The Guardian", Alexis Petridis found the music somewhat erratic and lamented "moments of self-indulgence" such as the twelve-minute "Mortal Man" and Lamar's reflections on fame. However, Petridis still ultimately awarded the album four stars out of five.


title: To Pimp a Butterfly

text: At the end of 2015, "To Pimp a Butterfly" was the most frequently ranked record in top ten lists of the year's best albums. According to Metacritic, it appeared 101 times in the top ten of lists published by critics, magazines, websites, and music stores. The record topped 51 lists, including those by "Rolling Stone", "Billboard", "Pitchfork", "Slant Magazine", "Spin", "The Guardian", "Complex", "Consequence", "The Irish Times", and "Vice". "NME" ranked it second on their list, while "Time" named it the year's third best album. It was voted the best album of 2015 in the Pazz & Jop, an annual poll of American critics nationwide, published by "The Village Voice". Christgau, the Pazz & Jop's creator, ranked it fourth in his ballot for the poll. The album placed ninth in British magazine "The Wire"s annual critics' poll. Based on such rankings, the aggregate website Acclaimed Music lists "To Pimp a Butterfly" as the most critically acclaimed album of 2015.


title: To Pimp a Butterfly

text: On their lists of best albums of the decade, "The Independent" placed it first, "Consequence" second, "Rolling Stone" third, and "Pitchfork" fourth. In "The Guardian"s 2019 poll of 45 music journalists, "To Pimp a Butterfly" was voted the fourth best album of the 21st century, and contributing writer Ben Beaumont-Thomas said in an accompanying that, "as a celebration of the richness of black artistry, the whole album was a riposte to bigotry." Similarly, in his March 2015 review of the album for "The Verge", editor and journalist Micah Singleton had hailed it as "the best album of the 21st century, the best hip-hop album since The Notorious B.I.G.'s "Ready to Die" and Nas' "Illmatic" in 1994, and it cements Kendrick Lamar's spot as an all-time great." In September 2020, "Rolling Stone" released an updated version of their 500 Greatest Albums of All Time list, based on the opinions of over 300 artists, music journalists, and industry insiders, which ranked "To Pimp a Butterfly" as the 19th-best album of all time. "Tampa Bay Times", placed the album as the second on their list of "The 10 Best Albums of the 2010s".


title: To Pimp a Butterfly

text: "To Pimp a Butterfly" also earned Lamar seven nominations at the 2016 Grammy Awards. It was nominated in the categories of Album of the Year and Best Rap Album, winning the latter but losing the former to Taylor Swift's "1989". "Alright" won for Best Rap Performance and Best Rap Song while also being nominated for Song of the Year and Best Music Video. "These Walls" won for Best Rap/Sung Performance. He would also receive four additional nominations for other musical collaborations from that year, making it a total of eleven Grammy nominations for Lamar. This earned Lamar the most Grammy nominations for a rapper in a single night and the second most by any artist in a single night. Michael Jackson and Kenneth "Babyface" Edmonds are tied for the artists with the most Grammy nominations in a single night with twelve; Jackson in 1984 and Babyface in 1997. At the previous year's ceremony, "i" had won Grammy Awards for Best Rap Song and Best Rap Performance. "To Pimp a Butterfly" also received a nomination for Top Rap Album at the 2016 "Billboard" Music Awards.


title: To Pimp a Butterfly

text: The album's immediate influence was felt as "a pantheon for racial empowerment", according to Butler, who also argued that the record helped create a respected space for conscious hip hop and "will be revered not just at the top of some list at the end of the year, but in the subconscious of music fans for decades to come". Writing for "Highsnobiety", Robert Blair said, "["To Pimp a Butterfly"] is the crystallized moment in time where Kendrick became a generation's most potent artistic voice." Uproxx journalist Aaron Williams said the album "proved that left-field, experimental rap can function in both the critical and commercial realms". Jazz saxophonist Kamasi Washington said that the album "changed music, and we're still seeing the effects of it [...] [the album] meant that intellectually stimulating music doesn't have to be underground. It just didn't change the music. It changed the audience." "To Pimp a Butterfly" was an influence on David Bowie's 2016 album "Blackstar". As its producer Tony Visconti recalled, he and Bowie were "listening to a lot of Kendrick Lamar [...] we loved the fact Kendrick was so open-minded and he didn't do a straight-up hip-hop record. He threw everything on there, and that's exactly what we wanted to do."


title: Artillery

text: Artillery is a class of heavy military ranged weapons that launch munitions far beyond the range and power of infantry firearms. Early artillery development focused on the ability to breach defensive walls and fortifications during sieges, and led to heavy, fairly immobile siege engines. As technology improved, lighter, more mobile field artillery cannons developed for battlefield use. This development continues today; modern self-propelled artillery vehicles are highly mobile weapons of great versatility generally providing the largest share of an army's total firepower.


title: Artillery

text: Originally, the word "artillery" referred to any group of soldiers primarily armed with some form of manufactured weapon or armor. Since the introduction of gunpowder and cannon, "artillery" has largely meant cannons, and in contemporary usage, usually refers to shell-firing guns, howitzers, and mortars (collectively called "barrel artillery", "cannon artillery", "gun artillery", or - a layman term - "tube artillery"), and rocket artillery. In common speech, the word "artillery" is often used to refer to individual devices, along with their accessories and fittings, although these assemblages are more properly called "equipment". However, there is no generally recognized generic term for a gun, howitzer, mortar, and so forth: the United States uses "artillery piece", but most English-speaking armies use "gun" and "mortar". The projectiles fired are typically either "shot" (if solid) or "shell" (if not solid). Historically, variants of solid shot including canister, chain shot and grapeshot were also used. "Shell" is a widely used generic term for a projectile, which is a component of munitions.


title: Artillery

text: By association, artillery may also refer to the arm of service that customarily operates such engines. In some armies, the artillery arm has operated field, coastal, anti-aircraft, and anti-tank artillery; in others these have been separate arms, and with some nations coastal has been a naval or marine responsibility.


title: Artillery

text: In the 20th century, technology-based target acquisition devices (such as radar) and systems (such as sound ranging and flash spotting) emerged in order to acquire targets, primarily for artillery. These are usually operated by one or more of the artillery arms. The widespread adoption of indirect fire in the early 20th century introduced the need for specialist data for field artillery, notably survey and meteorological, and in some armies, provision of these are the responsibility of the artillery arm.


title: Artillery

text: Artillery has been used since at least the early Industrial Revolution. The majority of combat deaths in the Napoleonic Wars, World War I, and World War II were caused by artillery. In 1944, Joseph Stalin said in a speech that artillery was "the god of war".


title: Artillery

text: Although not called as such, siege engines performing the role recognizable as artillery have been employed in warfare since antiquity. The first known catapult was developed in Syracuse in 399 BC. Until the introduction of gunpowder into western warfare, artillery was dependent upon mechanical energy which not only severely limited the kinetic energy of the projectiles, it also required the construction of very large engines to store sufficient energy. A 1st-century BC Roman catapult launching stones achieved a kinetic energy of 16,000 joules, compared to a mid-19th-century 12-pounder gun, which fired a round, with a kinetic energy of 240,000 joules, or a 20th-century US battleship that fired a projectile from its main battery with an energy level surpassing 350,000,000 joules.


title: Artillery

text: From the Middle Ages through most of the modern era, artillery pieces on land were moved by horse-drawn gun carriages. In the contemporary era, artillery pieces and their crew relied on wheeled or tracked vehicles as transportation. These land versions of artillery were dwarfed by railway guns; the largest of these large-calibre guns ever conceived – Project Babylon of the Supergun affair – was theoretically capable of putting a satellite into orbit. Artillery used by naval forces has also changed significantly, with missiles generally replacing guns in surface warfare.


title: Artillery

text: Over the course of military history, projectiles were manufactured from a wide variety of materials, into a wide variety of shapes, using many different methods in which to target structural/defensive works and inflict enemy casualties. The engineering applications for ordnance delivery have likewise changed significantly over time, encompassing some of the most complex and advanced technologies in use today.


title: Artillery

text: In some armies, the weapon of artillery is the projectile, not the equipment that fires it. The process of delivering fire onto the target is called gunnery. The actions involved in operating an artillery piece are collectively called "serving the gun" by the "detachment" or gun crew, constituting either direct or indirect artillery fire. The manner in which gunnery crews (or formations) are employed is called artillery support. At different periods in history, this may refer to weapons designed to be fired from ground-, sea-, and even air-based weapons platforms.


title: Artillery

text: Some armed forces use the term "gunners" for the soldiers and sailors with the primary function of using artillery.


title: Artillery

text: The gunners and their guns are usually grouped in teams called either "crews" or "detachments". Several such crews and teams with other functions are combined into a unit of artillery, usually called a battery, although sometimes called a company. In gun detachments, each role is numbered, starting with "1" the Detachment Commander, and the highest number being the Coverer, the second-in-command. "Gunner" is also the lowest rank, and junior non-commissioned officers are "Bombardiers" in some artillery arms.


title: Artillery

text: Batteries are roughly equivalent to a company in the infantry, and are combined into larger military organizations for administrative and operational purposes, either battalions or regiments, depending on the army. These may be grouped into brigades; the Russian army also groups some brigades into artillery divisions, and the People's Liberation Army has artillery corps.


title: Artillery

text: The term "artillery" also designates a combat arm of most military services when used organizationally to describe units and formations of the national armed forces that operate the weapons.


title: Artillery

text: During military operations, field artillery has the role of providing support to other arms in combat or of attacking targets, particularly in-depth. Broadly, these effects fall into two categories, aiming either to suppress or neutralize the enemy, or to cause casualties, damage, and destruction. This is mostly achieved by delivering high-explosive munitions to suppress, or inflict casualties on the enemy from casing fragments and other debris and from blast, or by destroying enemy positions, equipment, and vehicles. Non-lethal munitions, notably smoke, can also suppress or neutralize the enemy by obscuring their view.


title: Artillery

text: Fire may be directed by an artillery observer or another observer, including crewed and uncrewed aircraft, or called onto map coordinates.


title: Artillery

text: Military doctrine has had a significant influence on the core engineering design considerations of artillery ordnance through its history, in seeking to achieve a balance between the delivered volume of fire with ordnance mobility. However, during the modern period, the consideration of protecting the gunners also arose due to the late-19th-century introduction of the new generation of infantry weapons using conoidal bullet, better known as the Minié ball, with a range almost as long as that of field artillery.


title: Artillery

text: The gunners' increasing proximity to and participation in direct combat against other combat arms and attacks by aircraft made the introduction of a gun shield necessary. The problems of how to employ a fixed or horse-towed gun in mobile warfare necessitated the development of new methods of transporting the artillery into combat. Two distinct forms of artillery were developed: the towed gun, used primarily to attack or defend a fixed-line; and the self-propelled gun, intended to accompany a mobile force and to provide continuous fire support and/or suppression. These influences have guided the development of artillery ordnance, systems, organizations, and operations until the present, with artillery systems capable of providing support at ranges from as little as 100 m to the intercontinental ranges of ballistic missiles. The only combat in which artillery is unable to take part in is close-quarters combat, with the possible exception of artillery reconnaissance teams.


title: Artillery

text: The word as used in the current context originated in the Middle Ages. One suggestion is that it comes from French "atelier", meaning the place where manual work is done.


title: Artillery

text: Another suggestion is that it originates from the 13th century and the Old French "", designating craftsmen and manufacturers of all materials and warfare equipments (spears, swords, armor, war machines); and, for the next 250 years, the sense of the word "artillery" covered all forms of military weapons. Hence, the naming of the Honourable Artillery Company, which was essentially an infantry unit until the 19th century.


title: Artillery

text: Another suggestion is that it comes from the Italian "arte de tirare" (art of shooting), coined by one of the first theorists on the use of artillery, Niccolò Tartaglia.


title: Artillery

text: Mechanical systems used for throwing ammunition in ancient warfare, also known as "engines of war", like the catapult, onager, trebuchet, and ballista, are also referred to by military historians as artillery.


title: Artillery

text: During medieval times, more types of artillery were developed, most notably the trebuchet. Traction trebuchets, using manpower to launch projectiles, have been used in ancient China since the 4th century as anti-personnel weapons. However, in the 12th century, the counterweight trebuchet was introduced, with the earliest mention of it being in 1187.


title: Artillery

text: Early Chinese artillery had vase-like shapes. This includes the "long range awe inspiring" cannon dated from 1350 and found in the 14th century Ming Dynasty treatise "Huolongjing". With the development of better metallurgy techniques, later cannons abandoned the vase shape of early Chinese artillery. This change can be seen in the bronze "thousand ball thunder cannon", an early example of field artillery. These small, crude weapons diffused into the Middle East (the "madfaa") and reached Europe in the 13th century, in a very limited manner.


title: Artillery

text: In Asia, Mongols adopted the Chinese artillery and used it effectively in the great conquest. By the late 14th century, Chinese rebels used organized artillery and cavalry to push Mongols out.


title: Artillery

text: As small smooth-bore barrels, these were initially cast in iron or bronze around a core, with the first drilled bore ordnance recorded in operation near Seville in 1247. They fired lead, iron, or stone balls, sometimes large arrows and on occasions simply handfuls of whatever scrap came to hand. During the Hundred Years' War, these weapons became more common, initially as the bombard and later the cannon. Cannon were always muzzle-loaders. While there were many early attempts at breech-loading designs, a lack of engineering knowledge rendered these even more dangerous to use than muzzle-loaders.


title: Artillery

text: In 1415, the Portuguese invaded the Mediterranean port town of Ceuta. While it is difficult to confirm the use of firearms in the siege of the city, it is known the Portuguese defended it thereafter with firearms, namely "bombardas", "colebratas", and "falconetes". In 1419, Sultan Abu Sa'id led an army to reconquer the fallen city, and Marinids brought cannons and used them in the assault on Ceuta. Finally, hand-held firearms and riflemen appear in Morocco, in 1437, in an expedition against the people of Tangiers. It is clear these weapons had developed into several different forms, from small guns to large artillery pieces.


title: Artillery

text: The artillery revolution in Europe caught on during the Hundred Years' War and changed the way that battles were fought. In the preceding decades, the English had even used a gunpowder-like weapon in military campaigns against the Scottish. However, at this time, the cannons used in battle were very small and not particularly powerful. Cannons were only useful for the defense of a castle, as demonstrated at Breteuil in 1356, when the besieged English used a cannon to destroy an attacking French assault tower. By the end of the 14th century, cannon were only powerful enough to knock in roofs, and could not penetrate castle walls.


title: Artillery

text: However, a major change occurred between 1420 and 1430, when artillery became much more powerful and could now batter strongholds and fortresses quite efficiently. The English, French, and Burgundians all advanced in military technology, and as a result the traditional advantage that went to the defense in a siege was lost. The cannon during this period were elongated, and the recipe for gunpowder was improved to make it three times as powerful as before. These changes led to the increased power in the artillery weapons of the time.


title: Artillery

text: Joan of Arc encountered gunpowder weaponry several times. When she led the French against the English at the Battle of Tourelles, in 1430, she faced heavy gunpowder fortifications, and yet her troops prevailed in that battle. In addition, she led assaults against the English-held towns of Jargeau, Meung, and Beaugency, all with the support of large artillery units. When she led the assault on Paris, Joan faced stiff artillery fire, especially from the suburb of St. Denis, which ultimately led to her defeat in this battle. In April 1430, she went to battle against the Burgundians, whose support was purchased by the English. At this time, the Burgundians had the strongest and largest gunpowder arsenal among the European powers, and yet the French, under Joan of Arc's leadership, were able to beat back the Burgundians and defend themselves. As a result, most of the battles of the Hundred Years' War that Joan of Arc participated in were fought with gunpowder artillery.


title: Artillery

text: The army of Mehmet the Conqueror, which conquered Constantinople in 1453, included both artillery and foot soldiers armed with gunpowder weapons. The Ottomans brought to the siege sixty-nine guns in fifteen separate batteries and trained them at the walls of the city. The barrage of Ottoman cannon fire lasted forty days, and they are estimated to have fired 19,320 times. Artillery also played a decisive role in the Battle of St. Jakob an der Birs of 1444. Early cannon were not always reliable; King James II of Scotland was killed by the accidental explosion of one of his own cannon, imported from Flanders, at the siege of Roxburgh Castle in 1460.


title: Artillery

text: The new Ming Dynasty established the "Divine Engine Battalion" (神机营), which specialized in various types of artillery. Light cannons and cannons with multiple volleys were developed. In a campaign to suppress a local minority rebellion near today's Burmese border, "the Ming army used a 3-line method of arquebuses/muskets to destroy an elephant formation."


title: Artillery

text: When the Portuguese and Spanish arrived at Southeast Asia, they found that the local kingdoms were already using cannons. One of the earliest reference to cannon and artillerymen in Java is from the year 1346. Portuguese and Spanish invaders were unpleasantly surprised and even outgunned on occasion. Duarte Barbosa ca. 1514 said that the inhabitants of Java were great masters in casting artillery and very good artillerymen. They made many one-pounder cannons (cetbang or rentaka), long muskets, "spingarde" (arquebus), "schioppi" (hand cannon), Greek fire, guns (cannons), and other fire-works. Every place are considered excellent in casting artillery, and in the knowledge of using it. In 1513, the Javanese fleet led by Pati Unus sailed to attack Portuguese Malacca "with much artillery made in Java, for the Javanese are skilled in founding and casting, and in all works in iron, over and above what they have in India". By the early 16th century, the Javanese already locally-producing large guns, some of them still survived until the present day and dubbed as "sacred cannon" or "holy cannon". These cannons varied between 180 and 260 pounders, weighing anywhere between 3–8 tons, measuring between 3–6 m.


title: Artillery

text: Between 1593 and 1597, about 200,000 Korean and Chinese troops which fought against Japan in Korea actively used heavy artillery in both siege and field combat. Korean forces mounted artillery in ships as naval guns, providing an advantage against Japanese navy which used "Kunikuzushi" (国崩し – Japanese breech-loading swivel gun) and "Ōzutsu" (大筒 – large size Tanegashima) as their largest firearms.


title: Artillery

text: Bombards were of value mainly in sieges. A famous Turkish example used at the siege of Constantinople in 1453 weighed 19 tons, took 200 men and sixty oxen to emplace, and could fire just seven times a day. The Fall of Constantinople was perhaps "the first event of supreme importance whose result was determined by the use of artillery" when the huge bronze cannons of Mehmed II breached the city's walls, ending the Byzantine Empire, according to Sir Charles Oman.


title: Artillery

text: Bombards developed in Europe were massive smoothbore weapons distinguished by their lack of a field carriage, immobility once emplaced, highly individual design, and noted unreliability (in 1460 James II, King of Scots, was killed when one exploded at the siege of Roxburgh). Their large size precluded the barrels being cast and they were constructed out of metal staves or rods bound together with hoops like a barrel, giving their name to the gun barrel.