title: Brooklyn Bridge

text: The New York and Brooklyn Bridge was opened for use on May 24, 1883. Thousands of people attended the opening ceremony, and many ships were present in the East River for the occasion. Officially, Emily Warren Roebling was the first to cross the bridge. The bridge opening was also attended by U.S. president Chester A. Arthur and New York mayor Franklin Edson, who crossed the bridge and shook hands with Brooklyn mayor Seth Low at the Brooklyn end. Abram Hewitt gave the principal address.


title: Brooklyn Bridge

text: Though Washington Roebling was unable to attend the ceremony (and rarely visited the site again), he held a celebratory banquet at his house on the day of the bridge opening. Further festivity included the performance by a band, gunfire from ships, and a fireworks display. On that first day, a total of 1,800 vehicles and 150,300 people crossed the span. Less than a week after the Brooklyn Bridge opened, ferry crews reported a sharp drop in patronage, while the bridge's toll operators were processing over a hundred people a minute. However, cross-river ferries continued to operate until 1942.


title: Brooklyn Bridge

text: The bridge had cost in 1883 dollars (about US$ in ) to build, of which Brooklyn paid two-thirds. The bonds to fund the construction would not be paid off until 1956. An estimated 27 men died during its construction. Since the New York and Brooklyn Bridge was the only bridge across the East River at that time, it was also called the East River Bridge. Until the construction of the nearby Williamsburg Bridge in 1903, the New York and Brooklyn Bridge was the longest suspension bridge in the world, 20% longer than any built previously.


title: Brooklyn Bridge

text: At the time of opening, the Brooklyn Bridge was not complete; the proposed public transit across the bridge was still being tested, while the Brooklyn approach was being completed. On May 30, 1883, six days after the opening, a woman falling down a stairway at the Brooklyn approach caused a stampede which resulted in at least twelve people being crushed and killed. In subsequent lawsuits, the Brooklyn Bridge Company was acquitted of negligence. However, the company did install emergency phone boxes and additional railings, and the trustees approved a fireproofing plan for the bridge. Public transit service began with the opening of the New York and Brooklyn Bridge Railway, a cable car service, on September 25, 1883. On May 17, 1884, one of the circus master P. T. Barnum's most famous attractions, Jumbo the elephant, led a parade of 21 elephants over the Brooklyn Bridge. This helped to lessen doubts about the bridge's stability while also promoting Barnum's circus.


title: Brooklyn Bridge

text: Patronage across the Brooklyn Bridge increased in the years after it opened; a million people paid to cross in the six first months. The bridge carried 8.5 million people in 1884, its first full year of operation; this number doubled to 17 million in 1885 and again to 34 million in 1889. Many of these people were cable car passengers. Additionally, about 4.5 million pedestrians a year were crossing the bridge for free by 1892.


title: Brooklyn Bridge

text: The first proposal to make changes to the bridge was sent in only two and a half years after it opened, when Linda Gilbert suggested glass steam-powered elevators and an observatory be added to the bridge and a fee charged for use, which would in part fund the bridge's upkeep and in part fund her prison reform charity. This proposal was considered but not acted upon. Numerous other proposals were made during the first fifty years of the bridge's life.


title: Brooklyn Bridge

text: Trolley tracks were added in the center lanes of both roadways in 1898, allowing trolleys to use the bridge as well. That year, the formerly separate City of Brooklyn was unified with New York City, and the Brooklyn Bridge fell under city control.


title: Brooklyn Bridge

text: Concerns about the Brooklyn Bridge's safety were raised during the turn of the century. In 1898, traffic backups due to a dead horse caused one of the truss cords to buckle. There were more significant worries after twelve suspender cables snapped in 1901, though a thorough investigation found no other defects. After the 1901 incident, five inspectors were hired to examine the bridge each day, a service that cost $250,000 a year. The Brooklyn Rapid Transit Company, which operated routes across the Brooklyn Bridge, issued a notice in 1905 saying that the bridge had reached its transit capacity.


title: Brooklyn Bridge

text: By 1890, due to the popularity of the Brooklyn Bridge, there were proposals to construct other bridges across the East River between Manhattan and Long Island. Although a second deck for the Brooklyn Bridge was proposed, it was thought to be infeasible because doing so would overload the bridge's structural capacity. The first new bridge across the East River, the Williamsburg Bridge, opened upstream in 1903 and connected Williamsburg, Brooklyn, with the Lower East Side of Manhattan. This was followed by the Queensboro Bridge between Queens and Manhattan in March 1909, and the Manhattan Bridge between Brooklyn and Manhattan in December 1909. Several subway, railroad, and road tunnels were also constructed, which helped to accelerate the development of Manhattan, Brooklyn, and Queens.


title: Brooklyn Bridge

text: Though tolls had been instituted for carriages and cable-car customers since the bridge's opening, pedestrians were spared from the tolls originally. However, by the first decade of the 20th century, pedestrians were also paying tolls. Tolls on all four bridges across the East River—the Brooklyn Bridge, as well as the Manhattan, Williamsburg, and Queensboro bridges to the north—were abolished in July 1911 as part of a populist policy initiative headed by New York City mayor William Jay Gaynor. The city government passed a bill to officially name the structure the "Brooklyn Bridge" in January 1915. Ostensibly in an attempt to reduce traffic on nearby city streets, Grover Whalen, the commissioner of Plant and Structures, banned motor vehicles from the Brooklyn Bridge in 1922. The real reason for the ban was an incident the same year where two cables slipped due to high traffic loads. Both Whalen and Roebling called for the renovation of the Brooklyn Bridge and the construction of a parallel bridge, though the parallel bridge was never built.


title: Brooklyn Bridge

text: The first major upgrade to the Brooklyn Bridge commenced in 1948, when a contract for redesigning the roadways were awarded to David B. Steinman. The renovation was expected to double the capacity of the bridge's roadways to nearly 6,000 cars per hour, at a projected cost of $7 million. The renovation included the demolition of both the elevated and the trolley tracks on the roadways, the removal of trusses separating the inner elevated tracks from the existing vehicle lanes and the widening of each roadway from two to three lanes, as well as the construction of a new steel-and-concrete floor. In addition, new ramps were added to Adams Street, Cadman Plaza, and the Brooklyn Queens Expressway (BQE) on the Brooklyn side, and to Park Row on the Manhattan side. The trolley tracks closed in March 1950 to allow for the widening work to occur. During the construction project, one roadway at a time was closed, allowing reduced traffic flows to cross the bridge in one direction only. The widened south roadway was completed in May 1951, followed by the north roadway in October 1953. The restoration was finished in May 1954 with the completion of the reconstructed elevated promenade.


title: Brooklyn Bridge

text: While the rebuilding of the span was ongoing, a fallout shelter was constructed beneath the Manhattan approach in anticipation of the Cold War. The abandoned space in one of the masonry arches was stocked with emergency survival supplies for a potential nuclear attack by the Soviet Union; these supplies remained in place half a century later. In addition, defensive barriers were added to the bridge as a safeguard against sabotage.


title: Brooklyn Bridge

text: Simultaneous with the rebuilding of the Brooklyn Bridge, a double-decked viaduct for the BQE was being built through an existing steel overpass of the bridge's Brooklyn approach ramp. The segment of the BQE from Brooklyn Bridge south to Atlantic Avenue opened in June 1954, but the direct ramp from the northbound BQE to the Manhattan-bound Brooklyn Bridge did not open until 1959. The city also widened the Adams Street approach in Brooklyn, between the bridge and Fulton Street, from between 1954 and 1955. Subsequently, Boerum Place from Fulton Street south to Atlantic Avenue was also widened. This required the demolition of the old Kings County courthouse. The towers were cleaned in 1958 and the Brooklyn anchorage was repaired the next year.


title: Brooklyn Bridge

text: On the Manhattan side, the city approved a controversial rebuilding of the Manhattan entrance plaza in 1953. The project, which would add a grade-separated junction over Park Row, was hotly contested because it would require the demolition of 21 structures, including the old New York World Building. The reconstruction also necessitated the relocation of 410 families on Park Row. In December 1956, the city started a two-year renovation of the plaza. This required the closure of one roadway at a time, as was done during the rebuilding of the bridge itself. Work on redeveloping the area around the Manhattan approach started in the mid-1960s. At the same time, plans were announced for direct ramps to the FDR Drive elevated highway to alleviate congestion at the approach. The ramp from the FDR Drive to the Brooklyn Bridge was opened in 1968, followed by the ramp from the bridge to the FDR Drive the next year. A single ramp from the Manhattan-bound Brooklyn Bridge to northbound Park Row was constructed in 1970. A repainting of the bridge was announced two years later in advance of its 90th anniversary.


title: Brooklyn Bridge

text: The Brooklyn Bridge gradually deteriorated due to age and neglect. While it had 200 full-time dedicated maintenance workers before World War II, that number dropped to five by the late 20th century, and the city as a whole only had 160 bridge maintenance workers. In 1974, heavy vehicles such as vans and buses were banned from the bridge to prevent further erosion of the concrete roadway. A report in "The New York Times" four years later noted that the cables were visibly fraying and the pedestrian promenade had holes in it. The city began planning to replace all the Brooklyn Bridge's cables at a cost of $115 million, as part of a larger project to renovate all four toll-free East River spans. By 1980, the Brooklyn Bridge was in such dire condition that it faced imminent closure. In some places, half of the strands in the cables were broken.


title: Brooklyn Bridge

text: In June 1981, two of the diagonal stay cables snapped, seriously injuring a pedestrian who later died. Subsequently, the anchorages were found to have developed rust, and an emergency cable repair was necessitated less than a month later after another cable developed slack. Following the incident, the city accelerated the timetable of its proposed cable replacement, and it commenced a $153 million rehabilitation of the Brooklyn Bridge in advance of the 100th anniversary. As part of the project, the bridge's original suspender cables installed by J. Lloyd Haigh were replaced by Bethlehem Steel in 1986, marking the cables' first replacement since construction. In addition, the staircase at Washington Street in Brooklyn was renovated, the stairs from Tillary and Adams Streets were replaced with a ramp, and the short flights of steps from the promenade to each tower's balcony were removed. In a smaller project, the bridge was floodlit at night starting in 1982 to highlight its architectural features.


title: Brooklyn Bridge

text: Additional problems persisted, and in 1993, high levels of lead were discovered near the bridge's towers. Further emergency repairs were undertaken in mid-1999 after small concrete shards began falling from the bridge into the East River. The concrete deck had been installed during the 1950s renovations and had a lifespan of about 60 years. The Park Row exit from the bridge's westbound lanes was closed as a safety measure after the September 11, 2001, attacks on the nearby World Trade Center. That section of Park Row had been closed off since it ran right underneath 1 Police Plaza, the headquarters of the New York City Police Department (NYPD). In early 2003, to save money on electricity, the NYCDOT turned off the bridge's "necklace lights" at night. They were turned back on later that year after several private entities made donations to fund the lights.


title: Brooklyn Bridge

text: After the 2007 collapse of the I-35W bridge in Minneapolis, public attention focused on the condition of bridges across the U.S. "The New York Times" reported that the Brooklyn Bridge approach ramps had received a "poor" rating during an inspection in 2007. However, a NYCDOT spokesman said that the poor rating did not indicate a dangerous state but rather implied it required renovation. In 2010, the NYCDOT began renovating the approaches and deck, as well as repainting the suspension span. Work included widening two approach ramps from one to two lanes by re-striping a new prefabricated ramp; raising clearance over the eastbound BQE at York Street; seismic retrofitting; replacement of rusted railings and safety barriers; and road deck resurfacing. The work necessitated detours for four years. At the time, the project was scheduled to be completed in 2014; but completion was later delayed to 2015, then again to 2017. The project's cost also increased from $508 million in 2010 to $811 million in 2016.


title: Brooklyn Bridge

text: In August 2016, after the renovation had been completed, the NYCDOT announced that it would conduct a seven-month, $370,000 study to verify if the bridge could support a heavier upper deck that consisted of an expanded bicycle and pedestrian path. , about 10,000 pedestrians and 3,500 cyclists use the pathway on an average weekday. Work on the pedestrian entrance on the Brooklyn side was underway by 2017.


title: Brooklyn Bridge

text: The NYCDOT also indicated in 2016 that it planned to reinforce the Brooklyn Bridge's foundations to prevent it from sinking, as well as repair the masonry arches on the approach ramps, which had been damaged by Hurricane Sandy in 2012. In July 2018, the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission approved a further renovation of the Brooklyn Bridge's suspension towers and approach ramps. That December, the federal government gave the city $25 million in funding, which would pay for a $337 million rehabilitation of the bridge approaches and the suspension towers. Work started in late 2019 and was scheduled to be completed in 2023.


title: Brooklyn Bridge

text: In early 2020, City Council speaker Corey Johnson and the nonprofit Van Alen Institute hosted an international contest to solicit plans for the redesign of the bridge's walkway. Ultimately, in January 2021, the city decided to install a two-way protected bike path on the Manhattan-bound roadway, replacing the leftmost vehicular lane. The bike lane would allow the existing promenade to be used exclusively by pedestrians. Work on the bike lane started in June 2021, and the new path was completed on September 14, 2021.


title: Brooklyn Bridge

text: Horse-drawn carriages have been allowed to use the Brooklyn Bridge's roadways since its opening. Originally, each of the two roadways carried two lanes of a different direction of traffic. The lanes were relatively narrow at only wide. In 1922, motor vehicles were banned from the bridge, while horse-drawn carriages were restricted from the Manhattan Bridge. Thereafter, the only vehicles allowed on the Brooklyn Bridge were horse-drawn.


title: Brooklyn Bridge

text: After 1950, the main roadway carried six lanes of automobile traffic, three in each direction. It was then reduced to five lanes with the addition of a two-way bike lane on the Manhattan-bound side in 2021. Because of the roadway's height ( posted) and weight ( posted) restrictions, commercial vehicles and buses are prohibited from using the Brooklyn Bridge. The weight restrictions prohibit heavy passenger vehicles such as pickup trucks and SUVs from using the bridge, though this is not often enforced in practice.


title: Brooklyn Bridge

text: On the Brooklyn side, vehicles can enter the bridge from Tillary/Adams Streets to the south, Sands/Pearl Streets to the west, and exit 28B of the eastbound Brooklyn-Queens Expressway. In Manhattan, cars can enter from both the northbound and southbound FDR Drive, as well as Park Row to the west, Chambers/Centre Streets to the north, and Pearl Street to the south. However, the exit from the bridge to northbound Park Row was closed after the September 11 attacks because of increased security concerns: that section of Park Row ran under One Police Plaza, the NYPD headquarters.


title: Brooklyn Bridge

text: Vehicular access to the bridge is provided by a complex series of ramps on both sides of the bridge. There are two entrances to the bridge's pedestrian promenade on either side.


title: Brooklyn Bridge

text: Formerly, rail traffic operated on the Brooklyn Bridge as well. Cable cars and elevated railroads used the bridge until 1944, while trolleys ran until 1950.


title: Brooklyn Bridge

text: The New York and Brooklyn Bridge Railway, a cable car service, began operating on September 25, 1883; it ran on the inner lanes of the bridge, between terminals at the Manhattan and Brooklyn ends. Since Washington Roebling believed that steam locomotives would put excessive loads upon the structure of the Brooklyn Bridge, the cable car line was designed as a steam/cable-hauled hybrid. They were powered from a generating station under the Brooklyn approach. The cable cars could not only regulate their speed on the % upward and downward approaches, but also maintain a constant interval between each other. There were 24 cable cars in total.


title: Brooklyn Bridge

text: Initially, the service ran with single-car trains, but patronage soon grew so much that by October 1883, two-car trains were in use. The line carried three million people in the first six months, nine million in 1884, and nearly 20 million in 1885 following the opening of the Brooklyn Union Elevated Railroad. Accordingly, the track layout was rearranged and more trains were ordered. At the same time, there were highly controversial plans to extend the elevated railroads onto the Brooklyn Bridge, under the pretext of extending the bridge itself. After disputes, the trustees agreed to build two elevated routes to the bridge on the Brooklyn side. Patronage continued to increase, and in 1888, the tracks were lengthened and even more cars were constructed to allow for four-car cable car trains. Electric wires for the trolleys were added by 1895, allowing for the potential future decommissioning of the steam/cable system. The terminals were rebuilt once more in July 1895, and, following the implementation of new electric cars in late 1896, the steam engines were dismantled and sold.


title: Brooklyn Bridge

text: Following the unification of the cities of New York and Brooklyn in 1898, the New York and Brooklyn Bridge Railway ceased to be a separate entity that June and the Brooklyn Rapid Transit Company (BRT) assumed control of the line. The BRT started running through-services of elevated trains, which ran from Park Row Terminal in Manhattan to points in Brooklyn via the Sands Street station on the Brooklyn side. Before reaching Sands Street (at Tillary Street for Fulton Street Line trains, and at Bridge Street for Fifth Avenue Line and Myrtle Avenue Line trains), elevated trains bound for Manhattan were uncoupled from their steam locomotives. The elevated trains were then coupled to the cable cars, which would pull the passenger carriages across the bridge.


title: Brooklyn Bridge

text: The BRT did not run any elevated train through services from 1899 to 1901. Due to increased patronage after the opening of the Interborough Rapid Transit Company (IRT)'s first subway line, the Park Row station was rebuilt in 1906. In the early 20th century, there were plans for Brooklyn Bridge elevated trains to run underground to the BRT's proposed Chambers Street station in Manhattan, though the connection was never opened. The overpass across William Street was closed in 1913 to make way for the proposed connection. In 1929, the overpass was reopened after it became clear that the connection would not be built.


title: Brooklyn Bridge

text: After the IRT's Joralemon Street Tunnel and the Williamsburg Bridge tracks opened in 1908, the Brooklyn Bridge no longer held a monopoly on rail service between Manhattan and Brooklyn, and cable service ceased. New subway lines from the IRT and from the BRT's successor Brooklyn–Manhattan Transit Corporation (BMT), built in the 1910s and 1920s, posed significant competition to the Brooklyn Bridge rail services. With the opening of the Independent Subway System in 1932 and the subsequent unification of all three companies into a single entity in 1940, the elevated services started to decline, and the Park Row and Sands Street stations were greatly reduced in size. The Fifth Avenue and Fulton Street services across the Brooklyn Bridge were discontinued in 1940 and 1941 respectively, and the elevated tracks were abandoned permanently with the withdrawal of Myrtle Avenue services in 1944.


title: Brooklyn Bridge

text: A plan for trolley service across the Brooklyn Bridge was presented in 1895. Two years later, the Brooklyn Bridge trustees agreed to a plan where trolleys could run across the bridge under ten-year contracts. Trolley service, which began in 1898, ran on what are now the two middle lanes of each roadway (shared with other traffic). When cable service was withdrawn in 1908, the trolley tracks on the Brooklyn side were rebuilt to alleviate congestion. Trolley service on the middle lanes continued until the elevated lines stopped using the bridge in 1944, when they moved to the protected center tracks. On March 5, 1950, the streetcars also stopped running, and the bridge was redesigned exclusively for automobile traffic.


title: Brooklyn Bridge

text: The Brooklyn Bridge has an elevated promenade open to pedestrians in the center of the bridge, located above the automobile lanes. The promenade is usually located below the height of the girders, except at the approach ramps leading to each tower's balcony. The path is generally wide, though this is constrained by obstacles such as protruding cables, benches, and stairways, which create "pinch points" at certain locations. The path narrows to at the locations where the main cables descend to the level of the promenade. Further exacerbating the situation, these "pinch points" are some of the most popular places to take pictures. As a result, in 2016, the NYCDOT announced that it planned to double the promenade's width.


title: Brooklyn Bridge

text: A center line was painted to separate cyclists from pedestrians in 1971, creating one of the city's first dedicated bike lanes. Initially, the northern side of the promenade was used by pedestrians and the southern side by cyclists. In 2000, these were swapped, with cyclists taking the northern side and pedestrians taking the southern side. On September 14, 2021 the DOT closed off the inner-most car lane on the Manhattan-bound side with protective barriers and fencing to create a new bike path. Cyclists are now prohibited from the upper pedestrian lane.


title: Brooklyn Bridge

text: Pedestrian access to the bridge from the Brooklyn side is from either the median of Adams Street at its intersection with Tillary Street or a staircase near Prospect Street between Cadman Plaza East and West. In Manhattan, the pedestrian walkway is accessible from crosswalks at the intersection of the bridge and Centre Street, or through a staircase leading to Park Row.


title: Brooklyn Bridge

text: While the bridge has always permitted the passage of pedestrians, the promenade facilitates movement when other means of crossing the East River have become unavailable. During transit strikes by the Transport Workers Union in 1980 and 2005, people commuting to work used the bridge; they were joined by Mayors Ed Koch and Michael Bloomberg, who crossed as a gesture to the affected public. Pedestrians also walked across the bridge as an alternative to suspended subway services following the 1965, 1977, and 2003 blackouts, and after the September 11 attacks on the World Trade Center.


title: Brooklyn Bridge

text: During the 2003 blackouts, many crossing the bridge reported a swaying motion. The higher-than-usual pedestrian load caused this swaying, which was amplified by the tendency of pedestrians to synchronize their footfalls with a sway. Several engineers expressed concern about how this would affect the bridge, although others noted that the bridge did withstand the event and that the redundancies in its design—the inclusion of the three support systems (suspension system, diagonal stay system, and stiffening truss)—make it "probably the best secured bridge against such movements going out of control". In designing the bridge, John Roebling had stated that the bridge would sag but not fall, even if one of these structural systems were to fail altogether.


title: Brooklyn Bridge

text: There have been several notable jumpers from the Brooklyn Bridge. The first person was Robert Emmet Odlum, brother of women's rights activist Charlotte Odlum Smith, on May 19, 1885. He struck the water at an angle and died shortly afterwards from internal injuries. Steve Brodie supposedly dropped from underneath the bridge in July 1886 and was briefly arrested for it, though there is some doubt about whether he actually jumped. Larry Donovan made a slightly higher jump from the railing a month afterward. The first person to jump from the bridge with the intention of suicide was Francis McCarey in 1892. A lesser known early jumper was James Duffy of County Cavan, Ireland, who on April 15, 1895, asked several men to watch him jump from the bridge. Duffy jumped and was not seen again. Additionally, the cartoonist Otto Eppers jumped and survived in 1910, and was then tried and acquitted for attempted suicide. The Brooklyn Bridge has since developed a reputation as a suicide bridge due to the number of jumpers who do so intending to kill themselves, though exact statistics are difficult to find.


title: Brooklyn Bridge

text: Other notable feats have taken place on or near the bridge. In 1919, Giorgio Pessi piloted what was then one of the world's largest airplanes, the Caproni Ca.5, under the bridge. In 1993, bridge jumper Thierry Devaux illegally performed eight acrobatic bungee jumps above the East River close to the Brooklyn tower.


title: Brooklyn Bridge

text: On March 1, 1994, Lebanese-born Rashid Baz opened fire on a van carrying members of the Chabad-Lubavitch Orthodox Jewish Movement, striking 16-year-old student Ari Halberstam and three others traveling on the bridge. Halberstam died five days later from his wounds, and Baz was later convicted of murder. He was apparently acting out of revenge for the Hebron massacre of Palestinian Muslims a few days prior to the incident. After initially classifying the killing as one committed out of road rage, the Justice Department reclassified the case in 2000 as a terrorist attack. The entrance ramp to the bridge on the Manhattan side was subsequently dedicated as the Ari Halberstam Memorial Ramp.


title: Brooklyn Bridge

text: Several potential attacks or disasters have also been averted. In 1979, police disarmed a stick of dynamite placed under the Brooklyn approach, and an artist in Manhattan was later arrested for the act. In 2003, truck driver Iyman Faris was sentenced to about 20 years in prison for providing material support to Al-Qaeda, after an earlier plot to destroy the bridge by cutting through its support wires with blowtorches was thwarted.


title: Brooklyn Bridge

text: At 9:00 a.m. on May 19, 1977, artist Jack Bashkow climbed one of the towers for "Bridging", a "media sculpture" by the performance group Art Corporation of America Inc. Seven artists climbed the largest bridges connected to Manhattan "to replace violence and fear in mass media for one day". When each of the artists had reached the tops of the bridges, they ignited bright-yellow flares at the same moment, resulting in rush hour traffic disruption, media attention, and the arrest of the climbers, though the charges were later dropped. Called "the first social-sculpture to use mass-media as art” by conceptual artist Joseph Beuys, the event was on the cover of the "New York Post", received international attention, and received ABC Eyewitness News' "1977 Best News of the Year" award. John Halpern documented the incident in the film "Bridging, 1977". Halpern attempted another "bridging" "social sculpture" in 1979, when he planted a radio receiver, gunpowder and fireworks in a bucket atop one of the towers. The piece was later discovered by police, leading to his arrest for possessing a bomb.


title: Brooklyn Bridge

text: On October 1, 2011, more than 700 protesters with the Occupy Wall Street movement were arrested while attempting to march across the bridge on the roadway. Protesters disputed the police account of the events and claimed that the arrests were the result of being trapped on the bridge by the NYPD. The majority of the arrests were subsequently dismissed.


title: Brooklyn Bridge

text: On July 22, 2014, the two American flags on the flagpoles atop each tower were found to have been replaced by bleached-white American flags. Initially, cannabis activism was suspected as a motive, but on August 12, 2014, two Berlin artists claimed responsibility for hoisting the two white flags, having switched out the original flags with their replicas. The artists said that the flags were meant to celebrate "the beauty of public space" and the anniversary of the death of German-born John Roebling, and they denied that it was an "anti-American statement".


title: Brooklyn Bridge

text: The 50th-anniversary celebrations on May 24, 1933, included a ceremony featuring an airplane show, ships, and fireworks, as well as a banquet. During the centennial celebrations on May 24, 1983, President Ronald Reagan led a cavalcade of cars across the bridge. A flotilla of ships visited the harbor, officials held parades, and Grucci Fireworks held a fireworks display that evening. For the centennial, the Brooklyn Museum exhibited a selection of the original drawings made for the bridge's construction, including those by Washington Roebling. Media coverage of the centennial was declared "the public relations triumph of 1983" by "Inc."


title: Brooklyn Bridge

text: The 125th anniversary of the bridge's opening was celebrated by a five-day event on May 22–26, 2008, which included a live performance by the Brooklyn Philharmonic, a special lighting of the bridge's towers, and a fireworks display. Other events included a film series, historical walking tours, information tents, a series of lectures and readings, a bicycle tour of Brooklyn, a miniature golf course featuring Brooklyn icons, and other musical and dance performances. Just before the anniversary celebrations, artist Paul St George installed the Telectroscope, a video link on the Brooklyn side of the bridge that connected to a matching device on London's Tower Bridge. A renovated pedestrian connection to Dumbo, Brooklyn, was also reopened before the anniversary celebrations.


title: Brooklyn Bridge

text: At the time of construction, contemporaries marveled at what technology was capable of, and the bridge became a symbol of the era's optimism. John Perry Barlow wrote in the late 20th century of the "literal and genuinely religious leap of faith" embodied in the bridge's construction, saying that the "Brooklyn Bridge required of its builders faith in their ability to control technology".


title: Brooklyn Bridge

text: The Brooklyn Bridge has been listed as a National Historic Landmark since January 29, 1964, and was subsequently added to the National Register of Historic Places on October 15, 1966. The bridge has also been a New York City designated landmark since August 24, 1967, and was designated a National Historic Civil Engineering Landmark in 1972. In addition, it was placed on UNESCO's list of tentative World Heritage Sites in 2017.


title: Brooklyn Bridge

text: A bronze plaque is attached to the Manhattan anchorage, which was constructed on the site of the Samuel Osgood House at 1 Cherry Street in Manhattan. Named after Samuel Osgood, a Massachusetts politician and lawyer, it was built in 1770 and served as the first U.S. presidential mansion. The Osgood House was demolished in 1856.


title: Brooklyn Bridge

text: Another plaque on the Manhattan side of the pedestrian promenade, installed by the city in 1975, indicates the bridge's status as a city landmark.


title: Brooklyn Bridge

text: The Brooklyn Bridge has had an impact on idiomatic American English. For example, references to "selling the Brooklyn Bridge" abound in American culture, sometimes as examples of rural gullibility but more often in connection with an idea that strains credulity. George C. Parker and William McCloundy were two early 20th-century con men who may have perpetrated this scam successfully on unwitting tourists, although the author of "The Brooklyn Bridge: A Cultural History" wrote, "No evidence exists that the bridge has ever been sold to a 'gullible outlander'".


title: Brooklyn Bridge

text: As a tourist attraction, the Brooklyn Bridge is a popular site for clusters of love locks, wherein a couple inscribes a date and their initials onto a lock, attach it to the bridge, and throw the key into the water as a sign of their love. The practice is officially illegal in New York City and the NYPD can give violators a $100 fine. NYCDOT workers periodically remove the love locks from the bridge at a cost of $100,000 per year.


title: Brooklyn Bridge

text: To highlight the Brooklyn Bridge's cultural status, the city proposed building a Brooklyn Bridge museum near the bridge's Brooklyn end in the 1970s. Though the museum was ultimately not constructed, the plans had been established after numerous original planning documents were found in Williamsburg. These documents were given to the New York City Municipal Archives, where they are normally located, though the documents were briefly displayed at the Whitney Museum of American Art in 1976.


title: Brooklyn Bridge

text: The bridge is often featured in wide shots of the New York City skyline in television and film and has been depicted in numerous works of art. Fictional works have used the Brooklyn Bridge as a setting; for instance, the dedication of a portion of the bridge, and the bridge itself, were key components in the 2001 film "Kate & Leopold". Furthermore, the Brooklyn Bridge has also served as an icon of America, with mentions in numerous songs, books, and poems. Among the most notable of these works is that of American Modernist poet Hart Crane, who used the Brooklyn Bridge as a central metaphor and organizing structure for his second book of poetry, "The Bridge" (1930).


title: Brooklyn Bridge

text: The Brooklyn Bridge has also been lauded for its architecture. One of the first positive reviews was "The Bridge As A Monument", a "Harper's Weekly" piece written by architecture critic Montgomery Schuyler and published a week after the bridge's opening. In the piece, Schuyler wrote: "It so happens that the work which is likely to be our most durable monument, and to convey some knowledge of us to the most remote posterity, is a work of bare utility; not a shrine, not a fortress, not a palace, but a bridge." Architecture critic Lewis Mumford cited the piece as the impetus for serious architectural criticism in the U.S. He wrote that in the 1920s the bridge was a source of "joy and inspiration" in his childhood, and that it was a profound influence in his adolescence. Later critics would regard the Brooklyn Bridge as a work of art, as opposed to an engineering feat or a means of transport. Not all critics appreciated the bridge, however. Henry James, writing in the early 20th century, cited the bridge as an ominous symbol of the city's transformation into a "steel-souled machine room".


title: Brooklyn Bridge

text: The construction of the Brooklyn Bridge is detailed in numerous media sources, including David McCullough's 1972 book "The Great Bridge" and Ken Burns's 1981 documentary "Brooklyn Bridge". It is also described in "Seven Wonders of the Industrial World", a BBC docudrama series with an accompanying book, as well as "Chief Engineer: Washington Roebling, The Man Who Built the Brooklyn Bridge", a biography published in 2017.


title: Linda Evangelista

text: Linda Evangelista (; born May 10, 1965) is a Canadian fashion model. She is regarded as one of the most accomplished and influential models of all time, and has been featured on over 700 magazine covers. Evangelista is primarily known for being the longtime "muse" of photographer Steven Meisel, as well as for the phrase: "We don't wake up for less than $10,000 a day."


title: Linda Evangelista

text: Evangelista's modelling career began in 1984 when she signed with Elite Model Management after having moved from her native Canada to New York City. Upon the suggestion of photographer Peter Lindbergh, Evangelista had her hair cut short in 1988. The haircut, nicknamed "The Linda", not only sparked many copies worldwide, but it also benefited Evangelista's career and helped usher in the era of the supermodel.


title: Linda Evangelista

text: Described as the "chameleon" of the fashion industry, and as a key figure among the five supermodels, Evangelista was one of the most famous women in the world during the late 1980s and throughout the 1990s.


title: Linda Evangelista

text: Unlike her colleagues, Evangelista chose not to diversify into other ventures outside of modelling. She retired from her career in 1998 and made a comeback three years later, this time working only sporadically. Her achievements as a model led to her being voted as "The Greatest Supermodel of All Time" by the viewers of the television show "Fashion File" in 2008.


title: Linda Evangelista

text: Evangelista was born on May 10, 1965, in St. Catharines, to a working-class Roman Catholic family. She is the second of three children of Marisa and Tomaso "Tom" Evangelista (1940–2014), who were Italian emigrants from Pignataro Interamna. Her father, who immigrated to Canada in 1957, worked for General Motors, and her mother was a bookkeeper. Evangelista has an older brother, Jim, and a younger brother, Danny. She attended a self-improvement course in a modelling school at the age of 12, where she was taught things such as poise and etiquette, and she was advised to attend a modelling course. She attended Denis Morris Catholic High School.


title: Linda Evangelista

text: As a teenager, Evangelista started modelling locally in her hometown. In 1981, she took part in the Miss Teen Niagara beauty pageant. While she did not win the pageant, she caught the eye of a representative from Elite Model Management.


title: Linda Evangelista

text: At the age of 16, she flew to Japan to model there, but an unpleasant experience involving nudity during an assignment made her want to stop modelling altogether. She returned to Canada, and two years went by before she decided to try her hand at modelling again.


title: Linda Evangelista

text: Evangelista moved to New York City in 1984 upon signing with Elite, where she met the prominent modelling agent John Casablancas, who compared her likeness to the model Joan Severance. Elite then moved Evangelista to Paris, where she launched her international high-fashion career at the age of 19. Her first major fashion magazine cover was for the November 1984 issue of "L'Officiel". Subsequently she appeared on the covers and in the pages of a variety of international publications, including "Vogue", "Harper's Bazaar", "Cosmopolitan", "Glamour", "Mademoiselle", "Elle", "W", "Marie Claire", "Allure", "Time", "Interview", "Newsweek", "Rolling Stone", "Cigar Aficionado", and "i-D". She appeared on a total of more than 700 covers worldwide.


title: Linda Evangelista

text: In 1985, she began working with Karl Lagerfeld, the head designer of the fashion house Chanel, to whom she would become a muse. On the subject of Evangelista, Lagerfeld once uttered, "There is not another model in the world as professional as she is." Evangelista became one of the first editorial models to successfully cross over into the realm of runway modelling, with her agent Piero Piazzi successfully booking her to walk for fashion designer Gianni Versace, for whom she became a muse. She first appeared in a Versace ad campaign in 1987. In addition to her work for Versace and Lagerfeld, Evangelista also modeled for various other fashion brands such as Valentino, Dolce & Gabbana, Gianfranco Ferré, Ralph Lauren, Yves Saint Laurent, Azzedine Alaïa, Oscar de la Renta, Giorgio Armani, Thierry Mugler, Claude Montana, Donna Karan, Jil Sander, Jean Paul Gaultier, Alberta Ferretti, Isaac Mizrahi, Escada, Calvin Klein, Salvatore Ferragamo, Max Mara, Perry Ellis, Chloé, Comme des Garçons, Bill Blass, and Herve Leger. She has represented a diverse array of other companies and non-fashion brands like Visa, American Express, Pizza Hut, De Beers, and Elizabeth Arden.


title: Linda Evangelista

text: In 1986, Evangelista met the photographer Steven Meisel, with whom she forged a friendship. From that point on, they began working together on many professional collaborations, and Evangelista became Meisel's muse in the process. Starting in 1987, Evangelista began to appear in advertisements and commercials for Revlon's "The Most Unforgettable Women in the World" campaign, which was photographed by Richard Avedon. She has also been photographed by Peter Lindbergh, Irving Penn, Francesco Scavullo, Herb Ritts, Bruce Weber, Gian Paolo Barbieri, Patrick Demarchelier, Paolo Roversi, Norman Parkinson, Arthur Elgort, Gilles Bensimon, Ellen von Unwerth, Sante D'Orazio, and Nick Knight among others.


title: Linda Evangelista

text: It was Lindbergh who, in the fall of 1988, suggested to Evangelista that she cut her hair short after seeing her try on a short wig for a photoshoot. Consequently, she got a short gamine haircut from the French hairstylist Julien d'Ys. The following day, she was photographed by Lindbergh, which resulted in a now-famous photograph known as "the white shirt picture". Initially, the haircut was not well received by the fashion industry, and Evangelista was cancelled from 16 fashion shows. However, by the spring of 1989, Evangelista's haircut was the look of the season. The haircut was referred to as "The Linda", and it inspired the creation of a wig called "The Evangelista".


title: Linda Evangelista

text: Evangelista became known as one of the five supermodels, a group of star models who reached the pinnacle of success during the late 1980s and early 1990s. The supermodels were considered more famous than most actresses and singers of that time. In addition, Evangelista, along with Christy Turlington and Naomi Campbell comprised a triumvirate that was dubbed "The Trinity". They were joined by Cindy Crawford and Tatjana Patitz for the cover of the January 1990 issue of "British Vogue", which was photographed by Lindbergh. The cover itself was said to have "defined the supermodel era". Upon seeing the cover, singer George Michael chose to cast them in the music video for his song "Freedom! '90". In May of that year, Evangelista was chosen as one of the "50 Most Beautiful People in the World" by "People". She also appeared on the "Oprah Winfrey Show" where she served as a judge for an Elite model search competition, and chose Leslie Bibb as the winner, who later became an actress.


title: Linda Evangelista

text: In an interview printed in the October 1990 issue of "Vogue", Evangelista said, "We don't wake up for less than $10,000 a day." That statement is now thought of as the most famous quote in modelling history, and it has been described as "the 'Let them eat cake' of the 20th century". Also in October 1990, Evangelista stunned the fashion world by having the hairstylist Oribe dye her naturally-brown hair platinum blonde. Months later, she had her hair dyed a shocking shade of red known as "technicolor red". Throughout most of her modelling career, Evangelista was referred to as the fashion industry's "chameleon" for the way that she constantly reinvented herself with various hairstyles and ever-changing hair colours that inspired hair trends. In terms of her looks, she was likened to Sophia Loren, Elizabeth Taylor, Ava Gardner, and Gina Lollobrigida.


title: Linda Evangelista

text: In 1991, it was rumored that the fashion house Lanvin paid Evangelista $20,000 to walk in their haute couture show for the spring/summer season, an amount that was considered excessive. Model Tyson Beckford recounted in an interview that Evangelista was instrumental in getting higher rates for models. That April, Evangelista waived her runway fee as an act of support for fashion designer Anna Sui's debut collection, and instead accepted clothing as payment. Two months later, she attended Valentino's 30th Anniversary Gala in Rome, Italy with Meisel. In September 1991, "Time" featured a cover story on the supermodels. The following month, in an article for "Vogue", fashion journalist Suzy Menkes described Evangelista as "the world's star model". Evangelista then starred in the 1991 documentary "Models: The Film", directed by Lindbergh. And, an episode of the MTV show "House of Style" devoted a segment to Evangelista, which was filmed in Paris.


title: Linda Evangelista

text: During the latter part of 1991 and throughout 1992, Evangelista was seen on several different billboards for the fashion brand Kenar, in the center of Times Square. The billboards were done in conjunction with Ads Against AIDS, which was a campaign created by the advertising industry to raise awareness about tackling the disease. The most talked about and most controversial of those billboards was one that showed Evangelista seated among seven older Sicilian women. It was said that the image, which got dubbed "Beauty and the Seven Beasts" by Richard Johnson in the "New York Post", promoted a negative depiction of Italian women. Nonetheless, limited edition prints of the image were sold for $1,000 a piece, to benefit Ads Against AIDS. Also, the image was chosen as one of the "20 most important fashion photographs ever" by the International Center of Photography. Kenneth Zimmerman, president of Kenar, said of Evangelista, "She has increased our sales dramatically." He further added, "Linda was our Michael Jordan. We chose her because we wanted a star, and of the four or five star models, she is number one."


title: Linda Evangelista

text: In April 1992, Evangelista and several other supermodels appeared on the cover of the 100th anniversary issue of "Vogue", which remains to this day as the magazine's highest-selling issue. She then appeared in the music video for George Michael's "Too Funky" song, in which she parodied her modelling persona. In July 1992, she was on the cover of Canadian fashion magazine "Flare", which was an issue honouring Canada's 125 years as a nation. She was also said to have started the trend for thin eyebrows, which later coincided with the arrival of the Neo-Hippie fashion trend in the fall of 1992. Her cover for the September 1992 issue of "Harper's Bazaar" is now seen as "iconic", and it was ranked #9 on the American Society of Magazine Editors' list of the "Top 40 Magazine Covers of the Last 40 Years" in 2005. Toward the end of 1992, her name was immortalized in RuPaul's song, "Supermodel (You Better Work)".


title: Linda Evangelista

text: Evangelista made headlines in 1993 when she traveled to Australia with Claudia Schiffer for a 5-day tour, which included a news conference and a televised fashion show, as part of the grand opening of a department store.


title: Linda Evangelista

text: In October 1994, Evangelista was one of several models on the cover of "Vogue Italia"′s 30th anniversary issue. She then appeared in the feature film "Prêt-à-Porter". In 1995, the hairstylist Garren of New York changed Evangelista's look by giving her an asymmetrical bob similar to mod hairstyles of the 1960s. That same year, she took part in Thierry Mugler's 20th anniversary fashion show. Evangelista later landed an endorsement deal with Clairol worth over $5 million. She also starred in the fashion documentary "Unzipped". Additionally, she was a presenter at the Miss World 1995 competition.


title: Linda Evangelista

text: In 1996, Evangelista was one of the ten subjects of Lindbergh's book "10 Women", on whose cover she appeared. She was also seen in the fashion documentary "Catwalk". She was also the cover model for the inaugural issues of "Vogue Taiwan" and "Vogue Korea". And, she landed a $7.75 million contract with Yardley of London. Eventually, she made the choice to retire from modelling in 1998, and settled on the French Riviera, where she spent the next two years.


title: Linda Evangelista

text: In 2001, Evangelista made a noteworthy return to the modelling world, and appeared on the cover of the September issue of "Vogue". Also in 2001, she helped to revive the "What Becomes a Legend Most?" ad campaign for Blackglama furs, which hadn't been seen in six years. Rocco Laspata, the photographer of the campaign, described Evangelista as "the Maria Callas of modeling". Then, in 2002, she was in the ad campaign for Versace's fall/winter collection. The next year, she was back on the high-fashion runways, walking for Versace and Dolce & Gabbana. Furthermore, she closed Chanel's fall/winter 2003 haute couture show wearing a white wedding gown. In 2004, she appeared in the spring/summer ad campaigns for both NARS Cosmetics and Fendi. She also walked the runway for Jean Paul Gaultier's debut collection at Hermès. That summer, she was featured in Ann Taylor's 50th anniversary ad campaign, photographed by Annie Leibovitz.


title: Linda Evangelista

text: In 2006, Evangelista appeared on the cover of the book "In Vogue: The Illustrated History of the World's Most Famous Fashion Magazine" along with model Kristen McMenamy, photographed by Meisel. In August of that year, Evangelista made the cover of "Vogue", becoming the first model to appear on that magazine's cover in more than a year. Her final runway appearance was in 2007, when she participated in the 60th anniversary fashion show for the Christian Dior brand. That year, she signed a multiple-year exclusive contract as the brand ambassador for the cosmetics giant L'Oreal Paris.


title: Linda Evangelista

text: In May 2008, she made an appearance at the Cannes film festival where she posed for photographers on the red carpet along with fellow beauty Aishwarya Rai. Evangelista was then photographed by Meisel for the Prada fall/winter 2008 campaign. She also appeared in the September 2008 issue of "Vanity Fair" for a feature story on the supermodels titled "A League of Their Own". In 2009, the Metropolitan Museum of Art held an exhibition called "" which paid tribute to several fashion models including Evangelista, and she was on the cover of the exhibition's accompanying book. In 2010, she was chosen to star in the ad campaign for the revamped Talbots brand.


title: Linda Evangelista

text: In May 2012, Evangelista was on the cover of "Vogue Italia" after a three-year hiatus from the magazine. She was then featured in the book "Vogue: The Editor's Eye" as one fashion's model-muses. That November, she was on the cover of the 35th anniversary issue of "Fashion" magazine. A few months later, the Spanish fashion brand Loewe chose her to represent its newest fragrance Aura.


title: Linda Evangelista

text: In June 2013, she attended the Council of Fashion Designers of America awards show, where she presented fashion journalist Tim Blanks with the Media Award. She was photographed by Lagerfeld for the July 2013 cover of "Vogue Germany", where she was styled to look like vintage actress Anna Magnani, and posed with Lagerfeld's pet cat Choupette. Also that month, she was on the cover of "Vogue Italia" for an issue that celebrated the 25th anniversary of Franca Sozzani's tenure as the magazine's editor-in-chief.


title: Linda Evangelista

text: In 2014, Evangelista was present at the White House Correspondents' Dinner. She appeared in the fall/winter 2014 ad campaign for the fashion brand Moschino, photographed by Meisel. She was also one of several models on the cover of "Vogue Japan"'s September 2014 issue, which marked the magazine's 15th anniversary. And, she was on the cover of the September 2014 issue of "Harper's Bazaar", which has been described as "Harper's biggest ever". Moreover, she was one of 50 models on the September 2014 cover of "Vogue Italia", the magazine's 50th anniversary issue. Evangelista has remained the recordholder for the most "Vogue Italia" covers. She was also chosen to represent Dolce & Gabbana's new line of makeup. In October 2014, it was announced that Evangelista had signed on to be a guest judge on the ninth season of the reality television series "Australia's Next Top Model".


title: Linda Evangelista

text: Evangelista was chosen by Canadian department store Hudson's Bay as the face of the spring 2015 campaign for its luxury clothing section called The Room. The campaign was photographed by Pamela Hanson. In June 2015, Evangelista was a chairwoman for the FiFi Awards, where she presented the awards for both men's and women's prestige fragrance of the year. In October 2015, Evangelista appeared on the cover of a book showcasing the work of hat designer Philip Treacy titled "Philip Treacy: Hat Designer". The cover photograph of Evangelista was mentioned by Treacy as being "the most precious thing I own". Also in October, Evangelista starred in the campaign for Moschino's newest fragrance Fresh, photographed by Meisel.


title: Linda Evangelista

text: In celebration of the 100th anniversary of "British Vogue", a photograph of Evangelista originally taken in 1991 was chosen as the cover image for the book "Vogue 100: A Century of Style", released in February 2016. In April 2016, Evangelista appeared on the cover of "Zoo Magazine"'s 50th issue, photographed by singer and friend Bryan Adams. Also that month, Evangelista appeared on the cover of the book "Age of the Supermodel", which features photographs taken by photographer Donna DeMari during the haute couture collections in Paris in 1991. Evangelista worked as fashion stylist for a photo spread titled "A Model Journey" in the September 2016 issue of "Harper's Bazaar", which was based on her early years as a model. In September 2016, Evangelista reunited with Turlington and Campbell to appear in a campaign for the Elephant Crisis Fund. In November 2016, Evangelista was named Creative Director and Vice President of the Erasa Skin Care brand.


title: Linda Evangelista

text: Decades after uttering the comment about working for no less than $10,000 a day, the quote continued to be referenced in the media, being mentioned as late as July 2017. Evangelista herself has said, "I saw a movie, "Mr. & Mrs. Smith", and there's a line in it where Brad Pitt says he won't get out of bed for less than half a million dollars. That's my line! Only now it's a half million and it's a man saying it." Over the years, various different T-shirts emblazoned with the $10,000 a day quote have been sold, and there is even an embroidered pillow containing the quote. The G Hotel in Galway, Ireland, includes a presidential suite that was named in honour of Evangelista, with its interiors designed by Treacy. The September 1991 issue of "Vogue" had a photo spread titled "Wild At Heart" that featured Evangelista, photographed by Lindbergh. One of the images from that spread is known as "The Wild Ones", and a platinum-palladium print of the image was sold at a Sotheby's auction for over $30,000. In October 2012, a picture of Evangelista and McMenamy that was photographed by Meisel for "Vogue"'s October 1992 issue was sold at a Phillips auction for $86,500. In May 2016, a 1988 picture of Evangelista and five other models that was photographed by Lindbergh sold at a Sotheby's auction for $118,462. A 1996 photograph of Evangelista, titled "Linda Kissing Linda", which was originally featured in a Kenar advertisement, was selected by the Guggenheim Museum as "an example of the epitome of androgyny".


title: Linda Evangelista

text: Evangelista influenced a number of female celebrities as either an inspiration or as a beauty icon. Among them are Victoria Beckham, Martha Stewart, models Candice Swanepoel, Kylie Bax, Kendall Jenner and Elsa Benítez, model-turned-actress Angie Harmon, and singer Rihanna.


title: Linda Evangelista

text: Evangelista has drawn praise and accolades from many of the fashion industry's elite. Philip Treacy said, "Linda is the ultimate model of the past 50 years". Karl Lagerfeld once described Evangelista as "the most famous of all", and "the best model in the world", explaining, "Because she's a true model, pure and simple. She doesn't pretend or aspire to do anything else. She's just brilliant at what she does." Designer Stefano Gabbana said of Evangelista, "Linda is "the" model. If you talk about models of the sixties and seventies, the first name is Veruschka. In the eighties and nineties, it's Linda." David Bonnouvrier, one of the founders of DNA Model Management said, "Linda is the model of all time, to its strictest definition. She could be out of a Cecil Beaton picture, she could be out of a Guy Bourdin picture." Sozzani, the editor-in-chief of "Vogue Italia", recounted that she would receive letters from readers concerned about "what would happen to the magazine if Linda got sick. Because it was all about Linda Evangelista. Her face had the most possibilities." Sozzani additionally stated, "For me, she is the model, not only for her beauty, but her attitude, her intelligence."


title: Linda Evangelista

text: Meisel, to whom Evangelista is his "muse", considers her "extraordinarily photogenic". Fashion designer John Galliano has said that "inspiration hasn't been the same without her. She is an enormous influence on all the photographers and stylists." In his book "Face Forward", the late makeup artist Kevyn Aucoin said of Evangelista, "I first worked with Linda in the early eighties and have yet to meet another model who was more involved in every aspect of her work. Her specialties were knowing what was best for her hair, makeup, styling, and lighting -- and Linda was always right. It was mind-boggling. Many of the unforgettable images of this haunting beauty were, in great degree, due to her involvement." This sentiment was echoed by fashion stylist Paul Cavaco, who described Evangelista as "the greatest collaborator of all time."


title: Linda Evangelista

text: Evangelista was referred to as "the supermodel’s supermodel" by Marcus Chang of "". According to Shane Watson of "The Evening Standard", "Of all the supermodels, Linda was most responsible for elevating the job into an art form, pushing up the fees, piling on the expectations and generally ensuring that by the end of the Eighties the world of the top model had become as lucrative, glamorous and shrouded in enigma as that of the Hollywood star".


title: Linda Evangelista

text: Evangelista is an activist for HIV/AIDS research and awareness, as well as for breast cancer research and awareness. She was one of the icons in the Viva Glam campaign for the Mac AIDS Fund. In October 2013, she was the host of amfAR's Inaugural Inspiration Gala in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Evangelista also supports the Elton John AIDS Foundation and is an advocate for LGBT concerns.


title: Linda Evangelista

text: In 1996, she was the recipient of VH1's Fashion Awards Lifetime Achievement Award, which was presented to her by Anna Wintour, editor-in-chief of "Vogue". In June 2003, she received a star on Canada's Walk of Fame in Toronto. In 2005, she was named as a World Fashion Icon by the Women's World Awards in Leipzig, Germany. In March 2008, she was chosen as "The Greatest Supermodel of All Time" by a viewer poll for the CBC Television show "Fashion File".


title: Linda Evangelista

text: In 1987, Evangelista married Gérald Marie, who was the head of Elite Model Management's Paris office. They were divorced in 1993. She also dated actor Kyle MacLachlan, whom she first met on a photoshoot for Barneys New York in 1992. The couple became engaged in 1995 but broke up in 1998. Afterwards, she dated French football player Fabien Barthez. She became pregnant but miscarried, six months into the pregnancy. The couple broke up in 2000, reunited in 2001, and then officially ended their relationship in 2002.


title: Linda Evangelista

text: In October 2006, Evangelista gave birth to a son, Augustin James, refusing to name his father, sparking rumours. While pregnant, she appeared on the August 2006 cover of "Vogue". In late June 2011, Evangelista filed court papers that revealed her son was fathered by billionaire Frenchman François-Henri Pinault, whom Evangelista had dated for four months in late 2005 and early 2006. Pinault later married actress Salma Hayek. After several court appearances aimed at establishing a child-support agreement, on August 1, 2011, Evangelista formally filed for a child support order in Manhattan Family Court, seeking $46,000 in monthly child support from Pinault. It was reported that if granted, this amount "would probably be the largest support order in the history of the family court". A heavily publicized child support trial began on May 3, 2012, and included testimony from both Pinault and Evangelista, with Evangelista's attorney claiming that Pinault had never supported the child. Several days into the trial, on May 7, 2012, Evangelista and Pinault reached an out-of-court settlement.


title: Linda Evangelista

text: In a 1997 interview, Evangelista said that she was a practicing Roman Catholic and that her favorite book was the Bible.


title: Linda Evangelista

text: In September 2021 Evangelista explained why she had not been working, withdrawing from public life. She stated that five years previously she had had undergone cryolipolysis, a cosmetic fat removal procedure, under the brand name CoolSculpting to reduce fat under her skin, but that this had done the opposite, with the complication paradoxical adipose hyperplasia (PAH). Evangelista said that she had initiated legal action against CoolSculpting's owner, Zeltiq Aesthetics, which itself is a subsidiary of Allergan. She sought $50million in damages for emotional distress and lost income.


title: Oz (TV series)

text: Oz is an American drama television series set at a fictional men's prison created and principally written by Tom Fontana. It was the first one-hour dramatic television series to be produced by the premium cable network HBO. "Oz" premiered on July 12, 1997, and ran for six seasons. The series finale aired February 23, 2003.


title: Oz (TV series)

text: "Oz" is the nickname for the Oswald State Correctional Facility, formerly Oswald State Penitentiary, a fictional level 4 maximum-security state prison in New York.


title: Oz (TV series)

text: The nickname "Oz" is also a reference to the classic film "The Wizard of Oz" (1939), which popularized the phrase, "There's no place like home." In contrast, a poster for the series uses the tagline: "It's no place like home". Moreover, most of the series' story arcs are set in "Emerald City", a wing named after a setting from the fictional Land of Oz in L. Frank Baum's "Oz" books, first described in "The Wonderful Wizard of Oz" (1900).


title: Oz (TV series)

text: In this experimental unit of the prison, unit manager Tim McManus emphasizes rehabilitation and learning responsibility during incarceration, rather than carrying out purely punitive measures. Emerald City is an extremely controlled environment, with a carefully managed balance of members from each racial and social group, intended to ease tensions among these various factions. However, almost all of these factions are constantly at war with one another which often results in many prisoners being beaten, raped, or murdered.


title: Oz (TV series)

text: Under McManus and Warden Leo Glynn, all inmates in "Em City" struggle to fulfill their own needs. Some fight for power – either over the drug trade or over other inmate factions and individuals. Others, corrections officers and inmates alike, simply want to survive, some long enough to make parole and others just to see the next day. The show's narrator, inmate Augustus Hill, explains the show, and provides context, thematic analysis, and a sense of humor.


title: Oz (TV series)

text: "Oz" chronicles McManus' attempts to keep control over the inmates of Em City. There are many groups of inmates throughout the show, and not everyone within each group survives the show's events. There are the African-American Homeboys (Wangler, Redding, Poet, Keane, Adebisi) and Muslims (Said, Arif, Khan), the Wiseguys (Pancamo, Nappa, Schibetta, Zanghi, Urbano), the Aryan Brotherhood (Schillinger, Robson, Mack), the Latinos of El Norte (Alvarez, Morales, Guerra, Hernandez), the Irish (The O'Reilly brothers, Kirk, Keenan), the Gays (Hanlon, Cramer, Ginzburg), the Bikers (Hoyt, Sands, Burns), the Christians (Cloutier, Coushaine, Cudney) and many other individuals not completely affiliated with one particular group (Rebadow, Busmalis, Keller, Stanislofsky). In contrast to the dangerous criminals, central character Tobias Beecher gives a look at a usually law-abiding man who made one fatal drunk-driving mistake.


title: Oz (TV series)

text: Main actors are credited as "starring" in the opening title sequence, while supporting actors are listed under "also starring". Guest actors are listed in the show's end credits.


title: Oz (TV series)

text: "Oz" took advantage of the freedoms of premium cable to show elements of coarse language, drug use, violence, frontal nudity, homosexuality, and rape of males, as well as ethnic and religious conflicts that would have been unacceptable to traditional advertiser-supported American broadcast television.


title: Oz (TV series)

text: On an episode of "Saturday Night Live" that Jerry Seinfeld hosted on October 2, 1999, a sketch was produced that showed what life was like for his character of the same name behind bars after being transferred to the Oswald State Correctional Facility sometime after the events of "Seinfeld" (1989–1998). The roughly four-minute sketch shows the opening credits for the HBO series with clips of Jerry mixed in doing various activities around the prison. The sketch continues and mixes in different story lines from both "Oz" and "Seinfeld" and has Jerry interacting with various characters from the show in his typical quick-witted, sarcastic way. Seinfeld's second cousin, Evan Seinfeld, plays Jaz Hoyt in Oz.


title: Oz (TV series)

text: On April 21, 2009, "Variety" announced that starting May 31, DirecTV will broadcast all 56 episodes in their original form without commercials and in up-scaled "high definition" on The 101 Network available to all subscribers. The episodes will also be available through DirecTV's On Demand service.


title: Oz (TV series)

text: In Australia, "Oz" was screened uncensored on Channel "OH" on Optus TV, then free-to-air channel, SBS. This was also the case in Brazil, where it was aired by the SBT Network Corporation, late at night; in Ireland, where the series aired on free-to-air channel TG4 at 11 p.m.; in Israel, where "Oz" was displayed on the free-to-air commercial Channel 2; in Italy, where it was aired on the free-to-air Italia 1; and in the United Kingdom, where Channel 4 aired the show in a late-night time slot.


title: Oz (TV series)

text: In Croatia, Estonia, and Slovenia, the show was aired late at night on public, non-commercial, state-owned channels HRT, ETV, and RTV SLO, respectively.


title: Oz (TV series)

text: In Malaysia, full episodes of "Oz" aired late at night on ntv7, while the censored version aired during the day.


title: Oz (TV series)

text: The series was co-produced by HBO and Rysher Entertainment (who owns the copyright), and the underlying U.S. rights lie with HBO Entertainment and Warner Bros. Entertainment, which has released the entire series on DVD in North America. The international rights were owned originally by Rysher, then Paramount Pictures/Domestic Television after that company acquired Rysher. CBS Studios International currently owns the international TV rights, and Paramount Home Entertainment/CBS DVD owns the international DVD rights.


title: Oz (TV series)

text: Critical reception of "Oz" was mostly positive. The first season of "Oz" has been ranked a 70 based on the rating aggregator website Metacritic, indicating generally favorable reviews by critics. Caryn James from "The New York Times" stated: "Set almost entirely in the prison, a high-tech horror with glass-walled cells, "Oz" can also be unpleasant to watch, it is so gruesome and claustrophobic. Yet... as the series moves beyond its introductory shock value, it becomes more serious, disturbing and gripping... The point of "Oz", with its depiction of guilty men in torturous circumstances, is never subtle, but it is complicated and strong." Steve Johnson of the "Chicago Tribune" wrote: "Engaging, often Brutal."


title: Oz (TV series)

text: Other reviews were more critical of the series. Frederic Biddle of the "Boston Globe" said: "A pretentious exercise in cheap thrills, by great talents allowed to run amok." Howard Rosenberg of the "Los Angeles Times" reported: "Its uniqueness and arresting style don't earn it an unqualified endorsement here, for its first two Fontana-written episodes are absolute downers--there's no light at the end of a tunnel, nor even a tunnel--that offer no central characters to like or pull for...Be forewarned, too, that Oz is flat-out the most violent and graphically sexual series on TV."


title: Oz (TV series)

text: "Oz" has had a successful run at many award associations, including, four wins out of sixteen nominations at the ALMA Awards, three wins out if six nominations at the Artios Awards, three wins out of seven nominations at the CableACE Awards, one win out of twenty-two nominations at the Online Film & Television Association Awards, and two wins out of five nomination at the Satellite Awards. It has also received awards at Il Festival Nazionale del Doppiaggio Voci nell'Ombra and the Edgar Awards.


title: Oz (TV series)

text: Additional nominations consist of the NAACP Image Awards (seven), a GLAAD Media Award, a Producers Guild of America Award, a Writers Guild of America Award, and although the series has not been the recipient of any major awards, it was however nominated for two Primetime Emmy Awards, for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Drama Series (Charles S. Dutton), and Outstanding Casting for a Series (Alexa L. Fogel).


title: Oz (TV series)

text: The first two seasons of "Oz" were released on VHS in box sets. HBO Home Video has released all six seasons of "Oz" on DVD in Region 1 and Region 2. The Region 1 releases contain numerous special features including commentaries, deleted scenes and featurettes. The Region 2 releases do not contain any special features.


title: Oz (TV series)

text: Avatar Records released a soundtrack containing East Coast, West Coast, and Southern hip hop on January 9, 2001. It peaked at #1 on the "Billboard" Soundtrack Charts, #42 on the "Billboard" 200, and #8 on the Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums. The soundtrack featured the song "Behind the Walls" recorded by Kurupt & Nate Dogg.


title: P-value

text: In null-hypothesis significance testing, the "p"-value is the probability of obtaining test results at least as extreme as the result actually observed, under the assumption that the null hypothesis is correct. A very small "p"-value means that such an extreme observed outcome would be very unlikely under the null hypothesis. Reporting "p"-values of statistical tests is common practice in academic publications of many quantitative fields. Since the precise meaning of "p"-value is hard to grasp, misuse is widespread and has been a major topic in metascience.


title: P-value

text: In statistics, every conjecture concerning the unknown probability distribution of a collection of random variables representing the observed data formula_1 in some study is called a "statistical hypothesis". If we state one hypothesis only and the aim of the statistical test is to see whether this hypothesis is tenable, but not to investigate other specific hypotheses, then such a test is called a null hypothesis test.


title: P-value

text: As our statistical hypothesis will, by definition, state some property of the distribution, the null hypothesis is the default hypothesis under which that property does not exist. The null hypothesis is typically that some parameter (such as a correlation or a difference between means) in the populations of interest is zero. Note that our hypothesis might specify the probability distribution of formula_1 precisely, or it might only specify that it belongs to some class of distributions. Often, we reduce the data to a single numerical statistic, e.g., formula_3, whose marginal probability distribution is closely connected to a main question of interest in the study.


title: P-value

text: The "p"-value is used in the context of null hypothesis testing in order to quantify the statistical significance of a result, the result being the observed value of the chosen statistic formula_3. The lower the "p"-value is, the lower the probability of getting that result if the null hypothesis were true. A result is said to be "statistically significant" if it allows us to reject the null hypothesis. All other things being equal, smaller p-values are taken as stronger evidence against the null hypothesis.


title: P-value

text: Loosely speaking, rejection of the null hypothesis implies that there is sufficient evidence against it.


title: P-value

text: As a particular example, if a null hypothesis states that a certain summary statistic formula_3 follows the standard normal distribution N(0,1), then the rejection of this null hypothesis could mean that (i) the mean of formula_3 is not 0, or (ii) the variance of formula_3 is not 1, or (iii) formula_3 is not normally distributed. Different tests of the same null hypothesis would be more or less sensitive to different alternatives. However, even if we do manage to reject the null hypothesis for all 3 alternatives, and even if we know the distribution is normal and variance is 1, the null hypothesis test does not tell us which non-zero values of the mean are now most plausible. The more independent observations from the same probability distribution one has, the more accurate the test will be, and the higher the precision with which one will be able to determine the mean value and show that it is not equal to zero; but this will also increase the importance of evaluating the real-world or scientific relevance of this deviation.


title: P-value

text: Consider an observed test-statistic formula_9 from unknown distribution formula_3. Then the "p"-value formula_11 is what the prior probability would be of observing a test-statistic value at least as "extreme" as formula_9 if null hypothesis formula_13 were true. That is:


title: P-value

text: In a significance test, the null hypothesis formula_13 is rejected if the "p"-value is less than or equal to a predefined threshold value formula_20, which is referred to as the alpha level or significance level. formula_20 is not derived from the data, but rather is set by the researcher before examining the data. formula_20 is commonly set to 0.05, though lower alpha levels are sometimes used.


title: P-value

text: The "p"-value is a function of the chosen test statistic formula_3 and is therefore a random variable. If the null hypothesis fixes the probability distribution of formula_3 precisely, and if that distribution is continuous, then when the null-hypothesis is true, the p-value is uniformly distributed between 0 and 1. Thus, the "p"-value is not fixed. If the same test is repeated independently with fresh data, one will typically obtain a different "p"-value in each iteration. If the null-hypothesis is composite, or the distribution of the statistic is discrete, the probability of obtaining a "p"-value less than or equal to any number between 0 and 1 is less than or equal to that number, if the null-hypothesis is true. It remains the case that very small values are relatively unlikely if the null-hypothesis is true, and that a significance test at level formula_20 is obtained by rejecting the null-hypothesis if the significance level is less than or equal to formula_20.


title: P-value

text: Different "p"-values based on independent sets of data can be combined, for instance using Fisher's combined probability test.


title: P-value

text: When the null hypothesis is true, if it takes the form formula_27, and the underlying random variable is continuous, then the probability distribution of the "p"-value is uniform on the interval [0,1]. By contrast, if the alternative hypothesis is true, the distribution is dependent on sample size and the true value of the parameter being studied.


title: P-value

text: The distribution of "p"-values for a group of studies is sometimes called a "p"-curve. A "p"-curve can be used to assess the reliability of scientific literature, such as by detecting publication bias or "p"-hacking.


title: P-value

text: In parametric hypothesis testing problems, a "simple or point hypothesis" refers to a hypothesis where the parameter's value is assumed to be a single number. In contrast, in a "composite hypothesis" the parameter's value is given by a set of numbers. For example, when testing the null hypothesis that a distribution is normal with a mean less than or equal to zero against the alternative that the mean is greater than zero (variance known), the null hypothesis does not specify the probability distribution of the appropriate test statistic. In the just mentioned example that would be the "Z"-statistic belonging to the one-sided one-sample "Z"-test. For each possible value of the theoretical mean, the "Z"-test statistic has a different probability distribution. In these circumstances (the case of a so-called composite null hypothesis) the "p"-value is defined by taking the least favourable null-hypothesis case, which is typically on the border between null and alternative.


title: P-value

text: This definition ensures the complementarity of p-values and alpha-levels. If we set the significance level alpha to 0.05, and only reject the null hypothesis if the p-value is less than or equal to 0.05, then our hypothesis test will indeed have significance level (maximal type 1 error rate) 0.05. As Neyman wrote: “The error that a practising statistician would consider the more important to avoid (which is a subjective judgment) is called the error of the first kind. The first demand of the mathematical theory is to deduce such test criteria as would ensure that the probability of committing an error of the first kind would equal (or approximately equal, or not exceed) a preassigned number α, such as α = 0.05 or 0.01, etc. This number is called the level of significance”; Neyman 1976, p. 161 in "The Emergence of Mathematical Statistics: A Historical Sketch with Particular Reference to the United States","On the History of Statistics and Probability", ed. D.B. Owen, New York: Marcel Dekker, pp. 149-193. See also "Confusion Over Measures of Evidence (p's) Versus Errors (a's) in Classical Statistical Testing", Raymond Hubbard and M. J. Bayarri, The American Statistician, August 2003, Vol. 57, No 3, 171--182 (with discussion). For a concise modern statement see Chapter 10 of "All of Statistics: A Concise Course in Statistical Inference", Springer; 1st Corrected ed. 20 edition (September 17, 2004). Larry Wasserman.


title: P-value

text: The "p"-value is widely used in statistical hypothesis testing, specifically in null hypothesis significance testing. In this method, before conducting the study, one first chooses a model (the null hypothesis) and the alpha level "α" (most commonly .05). After analyzing the data, if the "p"-value is less than "α", that is taken to mean that the observed data is sufficiently inconsistent with the null hypothesis for the null hypothesis to be rejected. However, that does not prove that the null hypothesis is false. The "p"-value does not, in itself, establish probabilities of hypotheses. Rather, it is a tool for deciding whether to reject the null hypothesis.


title: P-value

text: According to the ASA, there is widespread agreement that "p"-values are often misused and misinterpreted. One practice that has been particularly criticized is accepting the alternative hypothesis for any "p"-value nominally less than .05 without other supporting evidence. Although "p"-values are helpful in assessing how incompatible the data are with a specified statistical model, contextual factors must also be considered, such as "the design of a study, the quality of the measurements, the external evidence for the phenomenon under study, and the validity of assumptions that underlie the data analysis". Another concern is that the "p"-value is often misunderstood as being the probability that the null hypothesis is true.


title: P-value

text: Some statisticians have proposed abandoning "p"-values and focusing more on other inferential statistics, such as confidence intervals, likelihood ratios, or Bayes factors, but there is heated debate on the feasibility of these alternatives. Others have suggested to remove fixed significance thresholds and to interpret "p"-values as continuous indices of the strength of evidence against the null hypothesis. Yet others suggested to report alongside p-values the prior probability of a real effect that would be required to obtain a false positive risk (i.e. the probability that there is no real effect) below a pre specified threshold (e.g. 5%).


title: P-value

text: Usually, formula_3 is a test statistic. A test statistic is the output of a scalar function of all the observations. This statistic provides a single number, such as a t-statistic or an F-statistic. As such, the test statistic follows a distribution determined by the function used to define that test statistic and the distribution of the input observational data.


title: P-value

text: For the important case in which the data are hypothesized to be a random sample from a normal distribution, depending on the nature of the test statistic and the hypotheses of interest about its distribution, different null hypothesis tests have been developed. Some such tests are the z-test for hypotheses concerning the mean of a normal distribution with known variance, the t-test based on Student's t-distribution of a suitable statistic for hypotheses concerning the mean of a normal distribution when the variance is unknown, the F-test based on the F-distribution of yet another statistic for hypotheses concerning the variance. For data of other nature, for instance categorical (discrete) data, test statistics might be constructed whose null hypothesis distribution is based on normal approximations to appropriate statistics obtained by invoking the central limit theorem for large samples, as in the case of Pearson's chi-squared test.


title: P-value

text: Thus computing a "p"-value requires a null hypothesis, a test statistic (together with deciding whether the researcher is performing a one-tailed test or a two-tailed test), and data. Even though computing the test statistic on given data may be easy, computing the sampling distribution under the null hypothesis, and then computing its cumulative distribution function (CDF) is often a difficult problem. Today, this computation is done using statistical software, often via numeric methods (rather than exact formulae), but, in the early and mid 20th century, this was instead done via tables of values, and one interpolated or extrapolated "p"-values from these discrete values. Rather than using a table of "p"-values, Fisher instead inverted the CDF, publishing a list of values of the test statistic for given fixed "p"-values; this corresponds to computing the Quantile function (inverse CDF).


title: P-value

text: As an example of a statistical test, an experiment is performed to determine whether a coin flip is fair (equal chance of landing heads or tails) or unfairly biased (one outcome being more likely than the other).


title: P-value

text: Suppose that the experimental results show the coin turning up heads 14 times out of 20 total flips. The full data formula_1 would be a sequence of twenty times the symbol "H" or "T". The statistic on which one might focus could be the total number formula_3 of heads. The null hypothesis is that the coin is fair, and coin tosses are independent of one another. If a right-tailed test is considered, which would be the case if one is actually interested in the possibility that the coin is biased towards falling heads, then the "p"-value of this result is the chance of a fair coin landing on heads "at least" 14 times out of 20 flips. That probability can be computed from binomial coefficients as


title: P-value

text: This probability is the "p"-value, considering only extreme results that favor heads. This is called a one-tailed test. However, one might be interested in deviations in either direction, favoring either heads or tails. The two-tailed "p"-value, which considers deviations favoring either heads or tails, may instead be calculated. As the binomial distribution is symmetrical for a fair coin, the two-sided "p"-value is simply twice the above calculated single-sided "p"-value: the two-sided "p"-value is 0.115.


title: P-value

text: Note that the Pr (no. of heads ≤ 14 heads) = 1 - Pr(no. of heads ≥ 14 heads) + Pr (no. of head = 14) = 1 - 0.058 + 0.036 = 0.978; however, the symmetry of this binomial distribution makes it an unnecessary computation to find the smaller of the two probabilities. Here, the calculated "p"-value exceeds .05, meaning that the data falls within the range of what would happen 95% of the time were the coin in fact fair. Hence, the null hypothesis is not rejected at the .05 level.


title: P-value

text: However, had one more head been obtained, the resulting "p"-value (two-tailed) would have been 0.0414 (4.14%), in which case the null hypothesis would be rejected at the .05 level.


title: P-value

text: The difference between the two meanings of "extreme" appear when we consider a multistage experiment for testing the fairness of the coin. Suppose we design the experiment as follows:


title: P-value

text: This experiment has 7 types of outcomes: 2 heads, 2 tails, 5 heads 1 tail..., 1 head 5 tails. We now calculate the p-value of the "3 heads 3 tails" outcome .


title: P-value

text: If we use the test statistic formula_32, then under the null hypothesis is exactly 1 for two-sided p-value, and exactly formula_33 for one-sided left-tail p-value, and same for one-sided right-tail p-value.


title: P-value

text: If we consider every outcome that has equal or lower probability than "3 heads 3 tails" as "at least as extreme", then the p-value is exactly formula_34.


title: P-value

text: However, suppose we have planned to simply flip the coin 6 times no matter what happens, then the second definition of p-value would mean that the p-value of "3 heads 3 tails" is exactly 1.


title: P-value

text: Thus, the "at least as extreme" definition of p-value is deeply contextual, and depend on what the experimenter "planned" to do even in situations that did not occur.


title: P-value

text: "P"-value computations date back to the 1700s, where they were computed for the human sex ratio at birth, and used to compute statistical significance compared to the null hypothesis of equal probability of male and female births. John Arbuthnot studied this question in 1710, and examined birth records in London for each of the 82 years from 1629 to 1710. In every year, the number of males born in London exceeded the number of females. Considering more male or more female births as equally likely, the probability of the observed outcome is 1/2, or about 1 in 4,836,000,000,000,000,000,000,000; in modern terms, the "p"-value. This is vanishingly small, leading Arbuthnot that this was not due to chance, but to divine providence: "From whence it follows, that it is Art, not Chance, that governs." In modern terms, he rejected the null hypothesis of equally likely male and female births at the "p" = 1/2 significance level. This and other work by Arbuthnot is credited as "… the first use of significance tests …" the first example of reasoning about statistical significance, and "… perhaps the first published report of a nonparametric test …", specifically the sign test; see details at .


title: P-value

text: The same question was later addressed by Pierre-Simon Laplace, who instead used a "parametric" test, modeling the number of male births with a binomial distribution:


title: P-value

text: The "p"-value was first formally introduced by Karl Pearson, in his Pearson's chi-squared test, using the chi-squared distribution and notated as capital P. The "p"-values for the chi-squared distribution (for various values of "χ" and degrees of freedom), now notated as "P," were calculated in , collected in .


title: P-value

text: The use of the "p"-value in statistics was popularized by Ronald Fisher, and it plays a central role in his approach to the subject. In his influential book "Statistical Methods for Research Workers" (1925), Fisher proposed the level "p" = 0.05, or a 1 in 20 chance of being exceeded by chance, as a limit for statistical significance, and applied this to a normal distribution (as a two-tailed test), thus yielding the rule of two standard deviations (on a normal distribution) for statistical significance (see 68–95–99.7 rule).


title: P-value

text: He then computed a table of values, similar to Elderton but, importantly, reversed the roles of "χ" and "p." That is, rather than computing "p" for different values of "χ" (and degrees of freedom "n"), he computed values of "χ" that yield specified "p"-values, specifically 0.99, 0.98, 0.95, 0,90, 0.80, 0.70, 0.50, 0.30, 0.20, 0.10, 0.05, 0.02, and 0.01. That allowed computed values of "χ" to be compared against cutoffs and encouraged the use of "p"-values (especially 0.05, 0.02, and 0.01) as cutoffs, instead of computing and reporting "p"-values themselves. The same type of tables were then compiled in , which cemented the approach.


title: P-value

text: As an illustration of the application of "p"-values to the design and interpretation of experiments, in his following book "The Design of Experiments" (1935), Fisher presented the lady tasting tea experiment, which is the archetypal example of the "p"-value.


title: P-value

text: To evaluate a lady's claim that she (Muriel Bristol) could distinguish by taste how tea is prepared (first adding the milk to the cup, then the tea, or first tea, then milk), she was sequentially presented with 8 cups: 4 prepared one way, 4 prepared the other, and asked to determine the preparation of each cup (knowing that there were 4 of each). In that case, the null hypothesis was that she had no special ability, the test was Fisher's exact test, and the "p"-value was formula_35 so Fisher was willing to reject the null hypothesis (consider the outcome highly unlikely to be due to chance) if all were classified correctly. (In the actual experiment, Bristol correctly classified all 8 cups.)


title: P-value

text: He also applies this threshold to the design of experiments, noting that had only 6 cups been presented (3 of each), a perfect classification would have only yielded a "p"-value of formula_36 which would not have met this level of significance. Fisher also underlined the interpretation of "p," as the long-run proportion of values at least as extreme as the data, assuming the null hypothesis is true.


title: P-value

text: In later editions, Fisher explicitly contrasted the use of the "p"-value for statistical inference in science with the Neyman–Pearson method, which he terms "Acceptance Procedures". Fisher emphasizes that while fixed levels such as 5%, 2%, and 1% are convenient, the exact "p"-value can be used, and the strength of evidence can and will be revised with further experimentation. In contrast, decision procedures require a clear-cut decision, yielding an irreversible action, and the procedure is based on costs of error, which, he argues, are inapplicable to scientific research.


title: P-value

text: The "E"-value corresponds to the expected number of times in multiple testing that one expects to obtain a test statistic at least as extreme as the one that was actually observed if one assumes that the null hypothesis is true. The "E"-value is the product of the number of tests and the "p"-value.


title: P-value

text: The "q"-value is the analog of the "p"-value with respect to the positive false discovery rate. It is used in multiple hypothesis testing to maintain statistical power while minimizing the false positive rate.


title: P-value

text: The Probability of Direction ("pd") is the Bayesian numerical equivalent of the "p"-value. It corresponds to the proportion of the posterior distribution that is of the median's sign, typically varying between 50% and 100%, and representing the certainty with which an effect is positive or negative.


title: Once Upon a Time in the West

text: Once Upon a Time in the West (, "Once upon a time (there was) the West") is a 1968 epic Spaghetti Western film directed by Sergio Leone, who co-wrote it with Sergio Donati based on a story by Dario Argento, Bernardo Bertolucci, and Leone. It stars Henry Fonda, cast against type as the villain, Charles Bronson as his nemesis, Jason Robards as a bandit, and Claudia Cardinale as a newly widowed homesteader. The widescreen cinematography was by Tonino Delli Colli, and the acclaimed film score was by Ennio Morricone.


title: Once Upon a Time in the West

text: After directing "The Good, the Bad and the Ugly", Leone decided to retire from Westerns and aimed to produce his film based on the novel "The Hoods", which eventually became "Once Upon a Time in America". However, Leone accepted an offer from Paramount Pictures providing Henry Fonda and a budget to produce another Western. He recruited Bertolucci and Argento to devise the plot of the film in 1966, researching other Western films in the process. After Clint Eastwood turned down an offer to play the movie's protagonist, Bronson was offered the role. During production, Leone recruited Donati to rewrite the script due to concerns over time limitations.


title: Once Upon a Time in the West

text: The original version by the director was 166 minutes when it was first released on 21 December 1968. This version was shown in European cinemas, and was a box-office success. For the US release on 28 May 1969, "Once Upon a Time in the West" was edited down to 145 minutes by Paramount and was a financial flop. The film is the first installment in Leone's "Once Upon a Time" trilogy, followed by "Duck, You Sucker!" and "Once Upon a Time in America", though the films do not share any characters in common.


title: Once Upon a Time in the West

text: In 2009, the film was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant".


title: Once Upon a Time in the West

text: The story develops around two plot lines set in the Old West town of "Flagstone." First, a man dubbed "Harmonica" seeks revenge against the outlaw, Frank. Second, Frank works as a hired gun for railroad tycoon, Morton, who is trying to acquire certain land owned by the Brett McBain family. A second outlaw, Cheyenne, also figures into the story.


title: Once Upon a Time in the West

text: Harmonica kills three men who ambush him on his arrival at the train station. The dusters they wear lead him to believe they are Cheyenne's men. Meanwhile, Frank and his henchmen kill Brett McBain and his three children at their ranch, which they call "Sweetwater." Frank leaves behind evidence to frame Cheyenne for the murders.


title: Once Upon a Time in the West

text: A woman named Jill arrives in Flagstone, en route to Sweetwater, for what is assumed to be her upcoming marriage to McBain. However, Jill, a New Orleans prostitute, actually married McBain when he was there, thus making her the sole heir to Sweetwater. McBain knew the railroad would pass through Sweetwater one day, and he planned to build a watering station on his property, subject to a reverter that McBain would forfeit Sweetwater if the station was not built by the time the railroad reached that point. Morton sent Frank to intimidate McBain, but McBain's murder and Jill's inheritance put Morton and Frank at odds. Morton wants to make a deal with Jill, but Frank wants the land for himself.


title: Once Upon a Time in the West

text: Cheyenne denies his men tried to ambush Harmonica, and the two realize Frank is behind both the ambush and framing Cheyenne for the McBain murders. Harmonica discovers the connection between Frank and Morton, but is captured by Frank's men. When Frank asks Harmonica's identity, he replies with names of men Frank has killed. Cheyenne rescues Harmonica, and the two collaborate to help Jill save Sweetwater.


title: Once Upon a Time in the West

text: Jill decides to auction the land and return to New Orleans; however, Frank's henchmen intimidate the bidders in order to purchase the land at low value. Harmonica appears with Cheyenne in tow and bids $5,000, which is the price on Cheyenne's head as a wanted fugitive. Morton hires Frank's own men to kill him, but Harmonica intervenes to save Frank's demise for himself. Meanwhile, Cheyenne escapes custody, and he and his gang engage Frank's remaining gang in a gunfight at Morton's train. Except for Cheyenne, who heads to Sweetwater, all are killed, including Morton.