title: 20th century

text: Film as an artistic medium was created in the 20th century. The first modern movie theatre was established in Pittsburgh in 1905. Hollywood developed as the center of American film production. While the first films were in black and white, technicolor was developed in the 1920s to allow for color films. Sound films were developed, with the first full-length feature film, "The Jazz Singer", released in 1927. The Academy Awards were established in 1929. Animation was also developed in the 1920s, with the first full-length cel animated feature film "Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs", released in 1937. Computer-generated imagery was developed in the 1980s, with the first full-length CGI-animated film "Toy Story" released in 1995.


title: 20th century

text: Video games—due to the great technological steps forward in computing since the second post-war period—are one of the new forms of entertainment that emerged in the 20th century alongside films.


title: 20th century

text: Multiple new fields of mathematics were developed in the 20th century. In the first part of the 20th century, measure theory, functional analysis, and topology were established, and significant developments were made in fields such as abstract algebra and probability. The development of set theory and formal logic led to Gödel's incompleteness theorems.


title: 20th century

text: Later in the 20th century, the development of computers led to the establishment of a theory of computation. Computationally-intense results include the study of fractals and a proof of the four color theorem in 1976.


title: 20th century

text: One of the prominent traits of the 20th century was the dramatic growth of technology. Organized research and practice of science led to advancement in the fields of communication, electronics, engineering, travel, medicine, and war.


title: Atalanta B.C.

text: Atalanta Bergamasca Calcio, commonly referred to as Atalanta, is a professional football club based in Bergamo, Lombardy, Italy. The club plays in Serie A, having gained promotion from Serie B in 2010–11.


title: Atalanta B.C.

text: Atalanta was founded in 1907 by Liceo Classico Paolo Sarpi students and is nicknamed "La Dea", the "Nerazzurri" and the "Orobici". The club plays in blue-and-black vertically striped shirts, black shorts and black socks. The club plays its home matches at the 21,747-seater Gewiss Stadium. In Italy, Atalanta is sometimes called "Regina delle provinciali" (queen of the provincial clubs) to mark the fact that the club is the most consistent among Italian clubs not based in a regional capital, having played 62 in Serie A, 28 seasons in Serie B, and only one in Serie C. Atalanta has a long-standing rivalry with nearby club Brescia.


title: Atalanta B.C.

text: The club is also famed for its youth academy, which has produced several notable talents who have played in the top leagues of Europe.


title: Atalanta B.C.

text: The club won the Coppa Italia in 1963 and reached the semi-finals of the Cup Winners' Cup in 1988, when it was competing in Serie B. This is still the best-ever performance by a non-first division club in a major UEFA competition (together with Cardiff City). Atalanta also participated in five seasons of the UEFA Europa League (previously known as the UEFA Cup), reaching the quarter-finals in 1991 and in 2022. Atalanta additionally qualified for the UEFA Champions League three times, reaching the quarter-finals in 2020.


title: Atalanta B.C.

text: Atalanta was founded on 17 October 1907 by students of the Liceo Classico Paolo Sarpi and was named after the female athlete of the same name from Greek mythology. Though it immediately established a football sector, it was not the first football association based in Bergamo: "Football Club Bergamo" was founded by Swiss emigrants in 1904, and was absorbed into another club, "Bergamasca", in 1911. The Italian Football Federation did not recognize Atalanta until 1914, and in 1919 announced that it would only allow one club from Bergamo to compete in the highest national league (then called the Prima Categoria). As Atalanta and Bergamasca were rivals and did not come to an agreement, admission to the Prima Categoria was decided by a playoff match; Atalanta won this match 2–0. A merger between the two clubs nevertheless occurred in 1920, forming the new club "Atalanta Bergamasca di Ginnastica e Scherma 1907" (shortened to "Atalanta Bergamasca Calcio") and establishing its black and blue ("nerazzurri") colors.


title: Atalanta B.C.

text: Atalanta competed in the Seconda Divisione, the second tier, during the early 1920s. In the 1927–28 season, the club won its group and subsequently defeated Pistoiese in the playoffs to win promotion and its first second division league triumph. The club inaugurated its current home stadium in the Borgo Santa Caterina neighborhood in 1928, and was admitted to Serie B, the second tier of the restructured Italian league, in 1929. After almost a decade in Serie B, Atalanta achieved its first promotion to Serie A in 1937 under coach Ottavio Barbieri, though was relegated at the end of the season. The club returned to Serie A in 1940 as champion of Serie B.


title: Atalanta B.C.

text: During the 1940s, Atalanta performed consistently in the top flight, though the national league was halted between 1943 and 1945 due to World War II. Atalanta achieved a fifth-place finish in the 1947–48 Serie A under coach Ivo Fiorentini, its highest league finish until 2017. The club earned a reputation as the "provinciale terribile" (terrible provincial team) during this time as a result of its successes against well-known metropolitan teams such as the "Grande Torino", who won Serie A five times during the 1940s. Atalanta achieved mid-table finishes during much of the 1950s and remained in Serie A until 1958, when it was relegated due to accusations of match fixing. These accusations were found to be false a year later, after the club returned to Serie A by winning its second Serie B title.


title: Atalanta B.C.

text: Atalanta won the Coppa Italia in 1963, defeating Torino 3–1 in the final thanks to a hat-trick by striker Angelo Domenghini. This was the senior team's first (and so far only) major trophy. During the early 1960s, the club made its debut in European competitions, among them the 1961–62 Mitropa Cup, the Coppa dell'Amicizia, and the Coppa delle Alpi. As domestic cup winners, the club qualified for the 1963–64 European Cup Winners' Cup, its first major UEFA competition, though was eliminated by Portuguese club Sporting CP in the first round. The club made a few more appearances in international (though not UEFA) cups during the 1960s, though was relegated in 1969 after a decade in the top flight.


title: Atalanta B.C.

text: During the 1970s, Atalanta experienced several movements between Serie A and Serie B, and was in the second tier for four consecutive seasons between 1973 and 1977. Despite playing in Serie B at the time, the club developed several young players who moved on to historically bigger clubs and won the 1982 FIFA World Cup with Italy. Several difficult seasons then saw Atalanta fall into Serie B in 1980 and Serie C1 in 1981, when for the first time in its history, the club would play outside the top two tiers. This was a blow that revitalized the club, from which many changes in management followed.


title: Atalanta B.C.

text: Under new management, Atalanta comfortably won Group A of Serie C1 in 1982, returning to Serie B the next season and then to Serie A in 1984, where it would remain until 1987. Atalanta reached its second Coppa Italia final in 1987, though lost 4–0 to Napoli over two legs. As Napoli also won Serie A that season and therefore qualified for the European Cup, Atalanta qualified for its second European Cup Winners' Cup. This was a turning point for the club; Emiliano Mondonico was appointed as coach and the club would achieve promotion after only one season in Serie B. In the Cup Winners' Cup, Atalanta lost its first match against Welsh club Merthyr Tydfil, but won the return fixture and went on to reach the semi-finals, where it would be eliminated 4–2 on aggregate by Belgian club K.V. Mechelen, who would eventually win the tournament. In doing so, Atalanta achieved the best finish in a UEFA competition of a club playing outside its country's top flight league. With a sixth-place finish in the 1988–89 Serie A, Atalanta qualified for its first UEFA Cup, though was eliminated by Russian club Spartak Moscow in the first round. Atalanta then finished seventh in the 1989–90 Serie A and reached the quarterfinals of the 1990–91 UEFA Cup, losing to local rival and eventual winner Internazionale.


title: Atalanta B.C.

text: After several upper mid-table finishes and a narrowly missed UEFA cup qualification in 1993, the club was relegated in 1994 after several investments to raise the club's goals failed, though would return to Serie A in 1995. In the 1995–96 season, Atalanta reached the Coppa Italia final again, losing against Fiorentina. In 1996–97 season, striker Filippo Inzaghi scored 24 league goals and became the first (and so far only) Atalanta player to be named "capocannoniere" (Serie A top scorer). The club then sold several key players, causing it to struggle and return to Serie B in 1998; it would remain there until 2000, when coach Giovanni Vavassori revitalized the team with youth academy players in a successful promotion campaign.


title: Atalanta B.C.

text: In the 2000s, Atalanta experienced more divisional movements: it was relegated in 2002–03 (despite finishing seventh two years prior) and 2004–05, but achieved promotion to Serie A after only one season in Serie B both times, winning the 2005–06 edition. After a tumultuous 2009–10 season, which saw the club change coach three times, the club was once again relegated; after this relegation, entrepreneur Antonio Percassi became the club's new president. and Stefano Colantuono returned as coach. The club won Serie B in 2011 and thus immediately returned to Serie A. Despite this success, club captain Cristiano Doni was named among the suspects in a match-fixing scandal (also known as "Calcioscommesse"); Doni was handed a three-and-a-half-year ban from football and the club was docked six points in the 2011–12 league table and two points in the 2012–13 league table. Throughout the early and mid-2010s, Atalanta generally lingered in lower-midtable in Serie A.


title: Atalanta B.C.

text: Former Genoa coach Gian Piero Gasperini was appointed before the 2016–17 season. Despite initial difficulties, the club's results steadily improved throughout the season. Gasperini integrated players from the club's youth sector and led the club to a fourth-place league finish with 72 points, besting its previous records and qualifying for the 2017–18 UEFA Europa League after a 26-year absence from UEFA competitions. In the Europa League, the club reached the round of 32, losing 4–3 on aggregate to Borussia Dortmund. In 2017–18, Atalanta finished seventh in the league, entering the qualifying rounds for 2018–19 UEFA Europa League, though was eliminated in a penalty shootout by Danish club Copenhagen. Despite a difficult start to the 2018–19 season, Atalanta achieved many positive results and finished third in Serie A, its best ever league finish; with this result, the club qualified for the UEFA Champions League group stage for the first time in its history. Atalanta also reached the Coppa Italia final, though lost 2–0 to Lazio.


title: Atalanta B.C.

text: In the 2019–20 season, Atalanta lost its first three Champions League matches, but went on to qualify for the round of 16. Atalanta then defeated Spanish club Valencia in both legs of the round of 16, reaching the quarterfinals, where it would be eliminated by French champions Paris Saint-Germain. The club also repeated its third-place finish in Serie A and achieved a second consecutive Champions League qualification, breaking several club records. In the 2020–21 season, Atalanta reached the round of 16 in the Champions League for the second time, following an away victory over Ajax, and later secured Champions League qualification and third place in Serie A for the third consecutive time.


title: Atalanta B.C.

text: On 19 February 2022, a U.S. based consortium led by Stephen Pagliuca acquired a 55% stake of La Dea srl, the controlling company of Atalanta, previously wholly owned by the Percassi family. Under the new agreement, Pagliuca was named co-chairman, with Antonio Percassi staying on as chairman.


title: Atalanta B.C.

text: The first kits adopted by Atalanta after its founding featured thin black and white vertical stripes. These were Atalanta's colors until 1920, when the club merged with local rival Bergamasca (which had blue and white kits) in order to compete in the Italian league. Following the merger, the common color white was eliminated, leaving black and blue ("nerazzurri") as the colors of the newly-formed Atalanta Bergamasca Calcio. In the first years following this merger, the club's kits featured black and blue quarters. Atalanta adopted its classic black and blue vertical stripes several years later.


title: Atalanta B.C.

text: Atalanta's home kits have characteristically had black and blue vertical stripes since their adoption in the 1920s. Slight variations in thickness of the stripes have existed over the years, though the club never strayed far from the classic design for its home kits. Atalanta's away kits have traditionally been mostly white, with various touches of black and blue and other details. The club's third kits and goalkeeper kits have not historically adhered to any strict pattern; many colors (among them green, red, light blue, and black) have been used for these over the years.


title: Atalanta B.C.

text: Since 2010, Atalanta plays its final home match of the calendar year, a "Christmas Match", in specially designed kits. The kits are then auctioned to raise money for charity.


title: Atalanta B.C.

text: Atalanta has had five crests since its foundation, all of which depict some combination of the team's name (except between 1984 and 1993), colors, and (since 1963) the Greek mythological athlete Atalanta, from whom the club derives its name as well as its nickname "La Dea".


title: Atalanta B.C.

text: The club's first three crests were shields featuring the name Atalanta on top, colored stripes on the left, and another symbolic representation on the right. The original crest dates back to 1907 and had the club's original black and white stripes alongside a blue patch. In 1963, after the club won the Coppa Italia, the crest was redesigned to feature black and blue stripes alongside a running girl representing Atalanta. The crest's colors and representation of Atalanta changed again in the 1970s, though followed the same basic shape as the 1963 version.


title: Atalanta B.C.

text: In 1984, the crest underwent a major redesign: the club's name and the running girl's body were removed from the crest and its shape was changed from a shield to a circle. This "classic" crest featured a white silhouette of Atalanta's head on a black and blue background, enclosed in three concentric white, black, and golden yellow circles. Black, blue, and white were retained—as the club's colors—while yellow was added to represent the golden apples, which according to mythology, Hippomenes tossed to Atalanta to distract her and defeat her in a footrace.


title: Atalanta B.C.

text: The club's modern crest was designed in 1993. It incorporates the 1984 crest into its design, though tilts Atalanta's head and lacks the yellow circle. The name Atalanta and founding year 1907 were added respectively above and below the circle, which is enclosed in an ellipse featuring the same split black and blue background as the 1984 design.


title: Atalanta B.C.

text: Atalanta has played at its current stadium, the 21,747-seater Gewiss Stadium in the Borgo Santa Caterina neighborhood of Bergamo, since 1928. Prior to its opening, Atalanta played at several other grounds in Bergamo. Between its founding in 1907 and recognition by the FIGC in 1914, the club did not have a dedicated playing field and only played friendly matches in public spaces—the Piazza d'Armi and the Campo di Marte in Bergamo. In 1914, Atalanta's first playing field was established on the Via Maglio del Lotto, near the Bergamo–Milan railway. It measured and had a seated capacity of 1,000 spectators. Due to financial hardship during World War I, though, Atalanta was forced to sell the land containing its field, leaving it without a home ground. As a solution, entrepreneur and philanthropist Betty Ambiveri sold the Clementina field, an older venue in Seriate that hosted sporting events such as cycling, to the club. The new field was inaugurated as the "Atalanta Stadium" and it hosted 14,000 spectators in its first match against "La Dominante" of Genoa.


title: Atalanta B.C.

text: With the growth of football in the 1920s, Atalanta needed a new stadium. The new stadium was constructed on Viale Margherita (now Viale Giulio Cesare), replacing a hippodrome that once occupied the site. Construction of the new stadium took one year; it opened in 1928 and cost 3.5 million lire. The stadium was named after fascist Mario Brumana; this was common naming practice in fascist Italy. The Brumana stadium was much larger than the Clementina field, having a seated capacity of 12,000 spectators in two "tribune" (side stands) and a larger field measuring ; it also featured a running track, as it was planned to form part of a larger complex. On 1 November 1928, Atalanta played its first unofficial match at the stadium (a 4–2 victory against Triestina); the stadium was then officially inaugurated on 23 December 1928, when Atalanta defeated "La Dominante Genova" 2–0 in front of over 14,000 spectators.


title: Atalanta B.C.

text: After World War II, the stadium was renamed the "Stadio Comunale" ("Municipal Stadium"), as fascism no longer existed in Italy. Expansion of the stadium began in the years following the war: the construction of a south stand (the "Curva Sud") began in 1949, and a second stand at the north end (the "Curva Nord") followed during the 1960s, opening in 1971. Later, in 1984, the running track was removed in order to expand the stadium's capacity upon Atalanta's return to Serie A after five years. The club's first match in the 1984–85 Serie A, a 1–1 draw against Inter, had an attendance of over 43,000 spectators, a record attendance for the Stadio Comunale.


title: Atalanta B.C.

text: The "Tribuna Giulio Cesare" underwent modernization during the early 1990s, and the stadium was renamed the "Stadio Atleti Azzurri d'Italia" ("Blue Athletes of Italy") in 1994. In 1997, following the death of 22-year-old forward Federico Pisani in a car accident, the "Curva Nord" was nicknamed the "Curva Pisani" in his honor. Similarly, the "Curva Sud" was nicknamed the "Curva Morosini" in 2012 to posthumously honor 25-year-old youth academy player Piermario Morosini, who died following collapse on the field during a Serie B match between Pescara and Livorno. In 2015, the stadium also expanded its side stands to offer pitchside views only several meters (feet) from the benches, a revolutionary feature of Italian stadiums at the time.


title: Atalanta B.C.

text: On 10 May 2017, Atalanta announced the acquisition of the stadium from the "comune" for 8.6 million euros, becoming one of only four Serie A clubs to own its home stadium. This acquisition allowed the club to authorize a renovation project for the stadium, for like many Italian stadiums, much of its structure and facilities were considered outdated. This renovation project was also necessary to upgrade the stadium to meet UEFA standards for hosting matches in UEFA competitions. Because the stadium was not ready at the time, Atalanta had to play its Europa League home matches at the Mapei Stadium in Reggio Emilia and its Champions League home matches in its debut season at San Siro in Milan. Despite not playing in Bergamo, though thanks to the additional capacity of San Siro, Atalanta recorded its record home attendance of 44,236 during a Champions League knockout stage match against Valencia on 19 February 2020.


title: Atalanta B.C.

text: Following a sponsorship agreement with electronics company Gewiss lasting at least until 2025, the stadium was renamed the Gewiss Stadium on 1 July 2019. On 6 October 2019, the renovated "Curva Nord" was inaugurated for Atalanta's home match against Lecce; it has covered seating for over 9,000 spectators. A year later, both side stands underwent modernization and the "Curva Sud" had temporary seats installed on the concrete. These upgrades allowed Atalanta to play its Champions League matches in Bergamo starting in the 2020–21 season. The final phase will feature a rebuilt "Curva Sud" (mirroring the rebuilt "Curva Nord"), which will increase the stadium's capacity to about 25,000, as well as construction of a new underground parking garage and other improvements to the stadium's surroundings. It was originally expected to be completed in 2021, though was delayed until February or March 2022; the start of construction was then further delayed to spring 2024, with expected completion in August of that year. Atalanta will still be able to play its home matches at the Gewiss Stadium during construction.


title: Atalanta B.C.

text: The stadium in Bergamo has also been used as a home ground by local Serie C club AlbinoLeffe from 2003 to 2019 (when it moved to Gorgonzola), a period during which AlbinoLeffe spent nine years in Serie B and met Atalanta on several occasions. On occasion, Atalanta's youth team also plays competitive matches at the Gewiss Stadium, most recently the Supercoppa Primavera in 2021.


title: Atalanta B.C.

text: Atalanta trains at the Centro Sportivo Bortolotti in , a complex first constructed during the community's development in the 1960s, before being acquired for Atalanta by president Achille Bortolotti and inaugurated in 1977. The complex is used by the senior team for training and some friendlies, and the youth teams for training and home matches in youth competitions such as the Campionato Primavera 1. Atalanta's renowned youth academy ("Scuola di Calcio"; see below) is also based in Zingonia, and has been a continuous point of investment for the club since its establishment.


title: Atalanta B.C.

text: , Atalanta is the 9th-most supported club in Italy, with an estimated 314,000 supporters. Although Atalanta supporters are vastly outnumbered in Italy by fans of more titled clubs, the club's performances in recent years have drawn additional support, especially among younger generations. An increase of 43% was reported since 2019, peaking at about 350,000 in 2021, and decreasing by 10% after the club failed to qualify for European competition in 2022. The club has also worked to grow its fanbase with the "Neonati Atalantini" initiative, implemented in 2010 by president Percassi, which gifts a free Atalanta replica shirt to all newborns born within the city limits of Bergamo. , over 36,000 shirts have been distributed; similar programs have been more recently adopted by other Italian clubs as well.


title: Atalanta B.C.

text: Most of the club's fans reside within the Province of Bergamo; conversely, there are very strong ties between Atalanta and Bergamo's residents, who often gather together in close-knit groups in support of the club. Atalanta supporters ("tifosi") are considered to be among the most passionate and loyal fans in Italy. Atalanta's Ultras gather mostly in the "Curva Nord" as the unified group Curva Nord 1907, formed from members of various Ultras groups under the leadership of Claudio "Il Bocia" Galimberti during the early 2000s. The "Curva Nord" Ultras were historically leftist but are now apolitical. A separate Ultras group, Forever Atalanta, gathers in the "Curva Sud", and is believed to still be leftist. Atalanta Ultras have a reputation as one of the most violent Ultras groups in Italy, self-describing as "we hate everybody", and indeed having few friends and many strong rivalries. The club and its Ultras have been punished on multiple occasions by the Italian Football League for violent or racist conduct.


title: Atalanta B.C.

text: On match days, the "Curva Nord" often features flares, fireworks, and choreography, and sometimes is covered by a large black-and-blue striped flag (see image). During the 2018–19 season, Atalanta matches had an average home attendance of 18,248, of whom an estimated 15,676 were season ticket holders.


title: Atalanta B.C.

text: Since 2002, Atalanta supporters have organized "La Festa della Dea" (the Festival of the Goddess), a multi-day festival to celebrate the club, almost every summer. The celebration features music, local cuisine, and reverence for the club's history, management, and players (both former and current players). Some contemporary players and coaches also have appeared at the celebration, most recently in 2018.


title: Atalanta B.C.

text: Atalanta supporters have a long-standing friendship ("gemellaggio"; twinning) with supporters of Ternana. The friendship between the two clubs' supporters is one of the oldest and strongest in Italy, persevering since the 1980s. Historically, both clubs' Ultras were brought together by shared political views, and they frequently visit the other club's "Curva". Supporters of the club also have a historical twinning with supporters of German club Eintracht Frankfurt, a friendship similarly rooted in shared political views. There are also friendly relations between fans of Atalanta and fans of Spezia (since Atalanta's run in the European Cup Winners' Cup in 1988), Cosenza, Cavese, and Austrian club Wacker Innsbruck.


title: Atalanta B.C.

text: Atalanta supporters share their most intense with supporters of nearby club Brescia. Meetings between the two clubs are sometimes known as the "Derby Lombardo" (Lombard Derby). This rivalry has its roots in a historical feud between Bergamo and Brescia dating back to the Middle Ages, beginning in 1126 when Bergamo expanded its territory by acquiring land put up for sale by Brescia; this led to a series of territorial disputes and armed conflicts between the two cities, among them the Battle of Cortenuova in 1237. Although armed conflict eventually ended and both cities were unified under the Kingdom of Italy in 1861, the cities' historical rivalry has defined the atmosphere of matches between Atalanta and Brescia for the entirety of the clubs' history. In 1993, tension between the clubs' supporters escalated further following a match (won 2–0 by Brescia) that was suspended three times due to violence in the stands, which resulted in over 20 spectators being hospitalized.


title: Atalanta B.C.

text: Since at least 1977, a heartfelt rivalry has existed between fans of Atalanta and Torino. There have been various altercations between the clubs' Ultras during matches between the clubs, though some fans share a mutual respect or consider each other "respected enemies". The Atalanta–Torino rivalry also gave rise to a short-lived friendship (lasting until the early 1980s) between supporters of Atalanta and Juventus—Torino's city rival—though Atalanta supporters now also consider Juventus a hated rival. In addition to Juventus, there are also strong rivalries between Atalanta and Italy's other well-supported clubs: Roma, Milan, Inter, Napoli, and Lazio, and Fiorentina. The rivalry between Atalanta and Roma emerged in 1984 after once-friendly relations between the two clubs' Ultras deteriorated. Milan and Atalanta have had a long-standing rivalry fueled by the friendship between fans of Brescia and Milan as well as a controversial episode during a Coppa Italia match in 1990 that infuriated the Atalanta fans. Matches between Inter and Atalanta have seen violence among Ultras since the early 1970s, fueled by political differences as well as the clubs' shared black and blue colors. Atalanta's rivalry with Lazio has been historically characterized by opposing political views—respectively far left against far right—though has greatly intensified following Lazio's Coppa Italia triumph over Atalanta in 2019. The rivalry between Atalanta and Fiorentina has intensified during Gian Piero Gasperini's tenure as Atalanta manager (also corresponding to Atalanta's qualification to European competitions); multiple tense episodes have occurred during and after matches between the two clubs. There are also strong rivalries between supporters of Atalanta and supporters of Bologna, Como (a regional rivalry since the 1980s), Genoa, Hellas Verona, Pisa, and Vicenza, as well as Croatian club Dinamo Zagreb.


title: Atalanta B.C.

text: Atalanta's current manager (head coach) is Gian Piero Gasperini, who assumed the role on 14 June 2016. The club has had a total of 59 managers (including player-managers, assistants acting as head coach, and caretaker managers) since the club hired its first professional coach, Cesare Lovati, in 1925. The club's longest-serving manager is Emiliano Mondonico, who oversaw 299 matches in all competitions—including a European Cup Winners' Cup and a UEFA Cup—in two spells (1987–90 and 1994–98). Current manager Gasperini, who led the club to its highest league finishes and UEFA Champions League qualification between 2019 and 2021, has the second-most appearances as manager in the club's history (291 ) and the longest uninterrupted tenure as Atalanta manager (six consecutive seasons). Stefano Colantuono, who was also manager on two occasions (2005–07 and 2010–15), is the manager with the most appearances in league matches (261, compared to 246 for Mondonico) and third-most appearances in total (281).


title: Atalanta B.C.

text: Atalanta have had several presidents (chairmen) ( or ) over the course of their history. Some of them have been the main shareholder of the club. The longest-serving chairman is Ivan Ruggeri, who was relieved of his duties after he suffered a stroke in January 2008, being replaced by his son Alessandro who was named chairman of Atalanta in September 2008. Alessandro's father was unable to manage the team due to the consequences of the stroke.


title: Atalanta B.C.

text: In June 2010, after another relegation to Serie B, Alessandro Ruggeri sold his share of the club to Antonio Percassi, who became the new chairman of Atalanta.


title: Atalanta B.C.

text: The Atalanta youth system consists of four men's teams that participate in separate national leagues (Primavera, Allievi Nazionali A and B, and Giovanissimi Nazionali) and two that participate at a regional level (Giovanissimi Regionali A and B).


title: Atalanta B.C.

text: The first person who was committed to set up the Atalanta youth teams was Giuseppe Ciatto. Every organisational aspect was dealt with and resolved by him, and he also took care to train the various teams. In 1949 Atalanta won the "Campionato Ragazzi".


title: Atalanta B.C.

text: In the late 1950s former Atalanta player Luigi Tentorio (then Special Commissioner of the club) felt the need to start investing more systematically in youth: he decided to create a real youth sector, with its own independent structure from the first team. The youth sector was entrusted to Giuseppe Brolis, who created a partnership with various clubs in the Veneto and Friuli regions, building a network of scouts and young coaches.


title: Atalanta B.C.

text: A crucial step in the history of the Bergamo youth sector took place in the early 1990s when the president Antonio Percassi implemented a new investment policy, especially at the youth level. He managed to convince Fermo Favini to leave Como and entrusted him with the responsibility of the youth sector.


title: Atalanta B.C.

text: The Atalanta youth system not only continued to increase the production of players for the first team, but began to win several honours in the most important national leagues. From 1991 to 2014, the various youth teams have won 17 national titles.


title: Atalanta B.C.

text: Apart from successes at youth level, the Atalanta youth system is also one of the most highly regarded in Europe: according to a ranking by the study centre in Coverciano, Atalanta have the top youth system in Italy and the sixth in Europe, behind Real Madrid, Barcelona and three French teams. The parameters used were the number of first division players produced by the club. In the 2007–08 season, 22 players from Atalanta's youth played in Serie A, 32 in Serie B and 3 abroad.


title: Atalanta B.C.

text: In 2014, a global study of the "CIES Football Observatory", placed the Atalanta youth system eighth place in the world, with 25 former youth players who play in the top 5 European leagues.


title: Booker T. Washington

text: Booker Taliaferro Washington (April 5, 1856November 14, 1915) was an American educator, author, orator, and adviser to several presidents of the United States. Between 1890 and 1915, Washington was the dominant leader in the African-American community and of the contemporary black elite. Washington was from the last generation of black American leaders born into slavery and became the leading voice of the former slaves and their descendants. They were newly oppressed in the South by disenfranchisement and the Jim Crow discriminatory laws enacted in the post-Reconstruction Southern states in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.


title: Booker T. Washington

text: Washington was a key proponent of African-American businesses and one of the founders of the National Negro Business League. His base was the Tuskegee Institute, a normal school, later a historically black college in Tuskegee, Alabama at which he served as principal. As lynchings in the South reached a peak in 1895, Washington gave a speech, known as the "Atlanta compromise", which brought him national fame. He called for black progress through education and entrepreneurship, rather than trying to challenge directly the Jim Crow segregation and the disenfranchisement of black voters in the South.


title: Booker T. Washington

text: Washington mobilized a nationwide coalition of middle-class blacks, church leaders, and white philanthropists and politicians, with a long-term goal of building the community's economic strength and pride by a focus on self-help and schooling. With his own contributions to the Black community, Washington was a supporter of racial uplift, but secretly he also supported court challenges to segregation and to restrictions on voter registration.


title: Booker T. Washington

text: Washington had the ear of the powerful in the America of his day, including presidents. His mastery of the American political system in the later 19th century allowed him to manipulate the media, raise money, develop strategy, network, distribute funds, and reward a cadre of supporters. Because of his influential leadership, the timespan of his activity, from 1880 to 1915, has been called the Age of Booker T. Washington. Nevertheless, opposition to Washington grew, as it became clear that his Atlanta compromise did not produce the promised improvement for most Black Americans in the South. William Monroe Trotter and W. E. B. Du Bois, whom Bookerites perceived in an antebellum way as "northern Blacks", found Washington too accommodationist and his industrial ("agricultural and mechanical") education inadequate. Washington fought vigorously against them and succeeded in his opposition to the Niagara Movement they tried to found but could not prevent their formation of the NAACP, whose views became mainstream.


title: Booker T. Washington

text: Black activists in the North, led by Du Bois, at first supported the Atlanta compromise, but later disagreed and opted to set up the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) to work for political change. They tried with limited success to challenge Washington's political machine for leadership in the Black community, but built wider networks among white allies in the North. Decades after Washington's death in 1915, the civil rights movement of the 1950s took a more active and progressive approach, which was also based on new grassroots organizations based in the South, such as Congress of Racial Equality (CORE), the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) and Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC).


title: Booker T. Washington

text: Washington's legacy has been controversial in the civil rights community. After his death in 1915, he came under heavy criticism for accommodationism to white supremacy, despite his claims that his long-term goal was to end the disenfranchisement of African Americans, the vast majority of whom still lived in the South. However, a more neutral view has appeared since the late 20th century. As of 2010, most recent studies "defend and celebrate his accomplishments, legacy, and leadership".


title: Booker T. Washington

text: In 1856, Washington was born into slavery in Virginia as the son of Jane, an African-American slave. After emancipation, she moved the family to West Virginia to join her husband Washington Ferguson. West Virginia had seceded from Virginia and joined the Union as a free state during the Civil War. As a young man, Booker T. Washington worked his way through Hampton Normal and Agricultural Institute (a historically black college, now Hampton University) and attended college at Wayland Seminary (now Virginia Union University).


title: Booker T. Washington

text: In 1881, the young Washington was named as the first leader of the new Tuskegee Institute in Alabama, founded for the higher education of blacks. He developed the college from the ground up, enlisting students in construction of buildings, from classrooms to dormitories. Work at the college was considered fundamental to students' larger education. They maintained a large farm to be essentially self-supporting, rearing animals and cultivating needed produce. Washington continued to expand the school. He attained national prominence for his Atlanta Address of 1895, which attracted the attention of politicians and the public. He became a popular spokesperson for African-American citizens. He built a nationwide network of supporters in many black communities, with black ministers, educators, and businessmen composing his core supporters. Washington played a dominant role in black politics, winning wide support in the black community of the South and among more liberal whites (especially rich Northern whites). He gained access to top national leaders in politics, philanthropy and education. Washington's efforts included cooperating with white people and enlisting the support of wealthy philanthropists. Washington had asserted that the surest way for blacks to gain equal social rights was to demonstrate "industry, thrift, intelligence and property".


title: Booker T. Washington

text: Beginning in 1912, he developed a relationship with philanthropist Julius Rosenwald, the owner of Sears Roebuck, who served on the board of trustees for the rest of his life and made substantial donations to Tuskegee. In addition, they collaborated on a pilot program for Tuskegee architects to design six model schools for African-American students in rural areas of the South. Such schools were historically underfunded by the state and local governments. Given their success in 1913 and 1914, Rosenwald established the Rosenwald Foundation in 1917 to aid schools. It provided matching funds to communities that committed to operate the schools and for the construction and maintenance of schools, with cooperation of white public school boards required. Nearly 5,000 new, small rural schools were built for black students throughout the South, most after Washington's death in 1915.


title: Booker T. Washington

text: Northern critics called Washington's widespread and powerful organization the "Tuskegee Machine". After 1909, Washington was criticized by the leaders of the new NAACP, especially W. E. B. Du Bois, who demanded a stronger tone of protest in order to advance the civil rights agenda. Washington replied that confrontation would lead to disaster for the outnumbered blacks in society, and that cooperation with supportive whites was the only way to overcome pervasive racism in the long run. At the same time, he secretly funded litigation for civil rights cases, such as challenges to Southern constitutions and laws that had disenfranchised blacks across the South since the turn of the century. African Americans were still strongly affiliated with the Republican Party, and Washington was on close terms with national Republican Party leaders. He was often asked for political advice by presidents Theodore Roosevelt and William Howard Taft.


title: Booker T. Washington

text: In addition to his contributions to education, Washington wrote 14 books; his autobiography, "Up from Slavery," first published in 1901, is still widely read today. During a difficult period of transition, he did much to improve the working relationship between the races. His work greatly helped blacks to achieve education, financial power, and understanding of the U.S. legal system. This contributed to blacks' attaining the skills to create and support the civil rights movement, leading to the passage in the later 20th century of important federal civil rights laws.


title: Booker T. Washington

text: Booker was born into slavery to Jane, an enslaved African-American woman on the plantation of James Burroughs in southwest Virginia, near Hale's Ford in Franklin County. He never knew the day, month, and year of his birth (although evidence emerged after his death that he was born on April 5, 1856). Nor did he ever know his father, said to be a white man who resided on a neighboring plantation. The man played no financial or emotional role in Washington's life.


title: Booker T. Washington

text: From his earliest years, Washington was known simply as "Booker", with no middle or surname, in the practice of the time. His mother, her relatives and his siblings struggled with the demands of slavery. He later wrote:


title: Booker T. Washington

text: I cannot remember a single instance during my childhood or early boyhood when our entire family sat down to the table together, and God's blessing was asked, and the family ate a meal in a civilized manner. On the plantation in Virginia, and even later, meals were gotten to the children very much as dumb animals get theirs. It was a piece of bread here and a scrap of meat there. It was a cup of milk at one time and some potatoes at another.


title: Booker T. Washington

text: When he was nine, Booker and his family in Virginia gained freedom under the Emancipation Proclamation as U.S. troops occupied their region. Booker was thrilled by the formal day of their emancipation in early 1865:


title: Booker T. Washington

text: As the great day drew nearer, there was more singing in the slave quarters than usual. It was bolder, had more ring, and lasted later into the night. Most of the verses of the plantation songs had some reference to freedom... [S]ome man who seemed to be a stranger (a United States officer, I presume) made a little speech and then read a rather long paper—the Emancipation Proclamation, I think. After the reading we were told that we were all free, and could go when and where we pleased. My mother, who was standing by my side, leaned over and kissed her children, while tears of joy ran down her cheeks. She explained to us what it all meant, that this was the day for which she had been so long praying, but fearing that she would never live to see.


title: Booker T. Washington

text: After emancipation Jane took her family to the free state of West Virginia to join her husband Washington Ferguson, who had escaped from slavery during the war and settled there. The illiterate boy Booker began to painstakingly teach himself to read and attended school for the first time.


title: Booker T. Washington

text: At school, Booker was asked for a surname for registration. He took the family name of Washington, after his stepfather. Still later he learned from his mother that she had originally given him the name "Booker Taliaferro" at the time of his birth, but his second name was not used by the master. Upon learning of his original name, Washington immediately readopted it as his own, and became known as Booker Taliaferro Washington for the rest of his life.


title: Booker T. Washington

text: Washington worked in salt furnaces and coal mines in West Virginia for several years to earn money. He made his way east to Hampton Institute, a school established in Virginia to educate freedmen and their descendants, where he also worked to pay for his studies. He later attended Wayland Seminary in Washington, D.C. in 1878.


title: Booker T. Washington

text: In 1881, the Hampton Institute president Samuel C. Armstrong recommended Washington, then age 25, to become the first leader of Tuskegee Normal and Industrial Institute (later Tuskegee Institute, now Tuskegee University), the new normal school (teachers' college) in Alabama. The new school opened on July 4, 1881, initially using a room donated by Butler Chapel A.M.E. Zion Church.


title: Booker T. Washington

text: The next year, Washington purchased a former plantation to be developed as the permanent site of the campus. Under his direction, his students literally built their own school: making bricks, constructing classrooms, barns and outbuildings; and growing their own crops and raising livestock; both for learning and to provide for most of the basic necessities. Both men and women had to learn trades as well as academics. The Tuskegee faculty used all the activities to teach the students basic skills to take back to their mostly rural black communities throughout the South. The main goal was not to produce farmers and tradesmen, but teachers of farming and trades who could teach in the new lower schools and colleges for blacks across the South. The school expanded over the decades, adding programs and departments, to become the present-day Tuskegee University.


title: Booker T. Washington

text: The Oaks, "a large comfortable home," was built on campus for Washington and his family. They moved into the house in 1900. Washington lived there until his death in 1915. His widow, Margaret, lived at The Oaks until her death in 1925.


title: Booker T. Washington

text: Washington led Tuskegee for more than 30 years after becoming its leader. As he developed it, adding to both the curriculum and the facilities on the campus, he became a prominent national leader among African Americans, with considerable influence with wealthy white philanthropists and politicians.


title: Booker T. Washington

text: Washington expressed his vision for his race through the school. He believed that by providing needed skills to society, African Americans would play their part, leading to acceptance by white Americans. He believed that blacks would eventually gain full participation in society by acting as responsible, reliable American citizens. Shortly after the Spanish–American War, President William McKinley and most of his cabinet visited Booker Washington. By his death in 1915, Tuskegee had grown to encompass more than 100 well-equipped buildings, roughly 1,500 students, 200 faculty members teaching 38 trades and professions, and an endowment of approximately $2 million.


title: Booker T. Washington

text: Washington helped develop other schools and colleges. In 1891 he lobbied the West Virginia legislature to locate the newly authorized West Virginia Colored Institute (today West Virginia State University) in the Kanawha Valley of West Virginia near Charleston. He visited the campus often and spoke at its first commencement exercise.


title: Booker T. Washington

text: Washington was a dominant figure of the African-American community, then still overwhelmingly based in the South, from 1890 to his death in 1915. His Atlanta Address of 1895 received national attention. He was considered as a popular spokesman for African-American citizens. Representing the last generation of black leaders born into slavery, Washington was generally perceived as a supporter of education for freedmen and their descendants in the post-Reconstruction, Jim Crow-era South. He stressed basic education and training in manual and domestic labor trades because he thought these represented the skills needed in what was still a rural economy.


title: Booker T. Washington

text: Throughout the final twenty years of his life, he maintained his standing through a nationwide network of supporters including black educators, ministers, editors, and businessmen, especially those who supported his views on social and educational issues for blacks. He also gained access to top national white leaders in politics, philanthropy and education, raised large sums, was consulted on race issues, and was awarded honorary degrees from Harvard University in 1896 and Dartmouth College in 1901.


title: Booker T. Washington

text: Late in his career, Washington was criticized by civil rights leader and NAACP founder W. E. B. Du Bois. Du Bois and his supporters opposed the Atlanta Address as the "Atlanta Compromise", because it suggested that African Americans should work for, and submit to, white political rule. Du Bois insisted on full civil rights, due process of law, and increased political representation for African Americans which, he believed, could only be achieved through activism and higher education for African-Americans. He believed that "the talented Tenth" would lead the race. Du Bois labeled Washington, "the Great Accommodator." Washington responded that confrontation could lead to disaster for the outnumbered blacks, and that cooperation with supportive whites was the only way to overcome racism in the long run.


title: Booker T. Washington

text: While promoting moderation, Washington contributed secretly and substantially to mounting legal challenges activist African Americans launched against segregation and disenfranchisement of blacks. In his public role, he believed he could achieve more by skillful accommodation to the social realities of the age of segregation.


title: Booker T. Washington

text: Washington's work on education helped him enlist both the moral and substantial financial support of many major white philanthropists. He became a friend of such self-made men as Standard Oil magnate Henry Huttleston Rogers; Sears, Roebuck and Company President Julius Rosenwald; and George Eastman, inventor of roll film, founder of Eastman Kodak, and developer of a major part of the photography industry. These individuals and many other wealthy men and women funded his causes, including Hampton and Tuskegee institutes.


title: Booker T. Washington

text: He also gave lectures to raise money for the school. On January 23, 1906, he lectured at Carnegie Hall in New York in the Tuskegee Institute Silver Anniversary Lecture. He spoke along with great orators of the day, including Mark Twain, Joseph Hodges Choate, and Robert Curtis Ogden; it was the start of a capital campaign to raise $1,800,000 for the school.


title: Booker T. Washington

text: The schools which Washington supported were founded primarily to produce teachers, as education was critical for the black community following emancipation. Freedmen strongly supported literacy and education as the keys to their future. When graduates returned to their largely impoverished rural southern communities, they still found few schools and educational resources, as the white-dominated state legislatures consistently underfunded black schools in their segregated system.


title: Booker T. Washington

text: To address those needs, in the 20th century Washington enlisted his philanthropic network to create matching funds programs to stimulate construction of numerous rural public schools for black children in the South. Working especially with Julius Rosenwald from Chicago, Washington had Tuskegee architects develop model school designs. The Rosenwald Fund helped support the construction and operation of more than 5,000 schools and related resources for the education of blacks throughout the South in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The local schools were a source of communal pride; African-American families gave labor, land and money to them, to give their children more chances in an environment of poverty and segregation. A major part of Washington's legacy, the model rural schools continued to be constructed into the 1930s, with matching funds for communities from the Rosenwald Fund.


title: Booker T. Washington

text: Washington also contributed to the Progressive Era by forming the National Negro Business League. It encouraged entrepreneurship among black businessmen, establishing a national network.


title: Booker T. Washington

text: His autobiography, "Up from Slavery," first published in 1901, is still widely read in the early 21st century.


title: Booker T. Washington

text: Washington was married three times. In his autobiography "Up from Slavery", he gave all three of his wives credit for their contributions at Tuskegee. His first wife Fannie N. Smith was from Malden, West Virginia, the same Kanawha River Valley town where Washington had lived from age nine to sixteen. He maintained ties there all his life, and Smith was a student of his when he taught in Malden. He helped her gain entrance into the Hampton Institute. Washington and Smith were married in the summer of 1882, a year after he became principal there. They had one child, Portia M. Washington, born in 1883. Fannie died in May 1884.


title: Booker T. Washington

text: In 1885 the widower Washington married again, to Olivia A. Davidson (1854–1889). Born free in Virginia to a free woman of color and a father who had been freed from slavery, she moved with her family to the free state of Ohio, where she attended common schools. Davidson later studied at Hampton Institute and went North to study at the Massachusetts State Normal School at Framingham. She taught in Mississippi and Tennessee before going to Tuskegee to work as a teacher. Washington recruited Davidson to Tuskegee, and promoted her to vice-principal. They had two sons, Booker T. Washington Jr. and Ernest Davidson Washington, before she died in 1889.


title: Booker T. Washington

text: In 1893 Washington married Margaret James Murray. She was from Mississippi and had graduated from Fisk University, a historically black college. They had no children together, but she helped rear Washington's three children. Murray outlived Washington and died in 1925.


title: Booker T. Washington

text: Washington's 1895 Atlanta Exposition address was viewed as a "revolutionary moment" by both African Americans and whites across the country. At the time W. E. B. Du Bois supported him, but they grew apart as Du Bois sought more action to remedy disfranchisement and improve educational opportunities for blacks. After their falling out, Du Bois and his supporters referred to Washington's speech as the "Atlanta Compromise" to express their criticism that Washington was too accommodating to white interests.


title: Booker T. Washington

text: Washington advocated a "go slow" approach to avoid a harsh white backlash. He has been criticized for encouraging many youths in the South to accept sacrifices of potential political power, civil rights, and higher education. Washington believed that African Americans should "concentrate all their energies on industrial education, and accumulation of wealth, and the conciliation of the South". He valued the "industrial" education, as it provided critical skills for the jobs then available to the majority of African Americans at the time, as most lived in the South, which was overwhelmingly rural and agricultural. He thought these skills would lay the foundation for the creation of stability that the African-American community required in order to move forward. He believed that in the long term, "blacks would eventually gain full participation in society by showing themselves to be responsible, reliable American citizens". His approach advocated for an initial step toward equal rights, rather than full equality under the law, gaining economic power to back up black demands for political equality in the future. He believed that such achievements would prove to the deeply prejudiced white America that African Americans were not "'naturally' stupid and incompetent".


title: Booker T. Washington

text: Well-educated blacks in the North lived in a different society and advocated a different approach, in part due to their perception of wider opportunities. Du Bois wanted blacks to have the same "classical" liberal arts education as upper-class whites did, along with voting rights and civic equality. The latter two had been ostensibly granted since 1870 by constitutional amendments after the Civil War. He believed that an elite, which he called the Talented Tenth, would advance to lead the race to a wider variety of occupations. Du Bois and Washington were divided in part by differences in treatment of African Americans in the North versus the South; although both groups suffered discrimination, the mass of blacks in the South were far more constrained by legal segregation and disenfranchisement, which totally excluded most from the political process and system. Many in the North objected to being 'led', and authoritatively spoken for, by a Southern accommodationist strategy which they considered to have been "imposed on them [Southern blacks] primarily by Southern whites".


title: Booker T. Washington

text: Free black people were 'matter out of place'. Their emancipation was an affront to southern white freedom. Booker T. Washington did not understand that his program was perceived as subversive of a natural order in which black people were to remain forever subordinate or unfree.


title: Booker T. Washington

text: Both Washington and Du Bois sought to define the best means post-Civil War to improve the conditions of the African-American community through education.


title: Booker T. Washington

text: Blacks were solidly Republican in this period, having gained emancipation and suffrage with President Lincoln and his party. Fellow Republican President Ulysses S. Grant defended African Americans' newly won freedom and civil rights in the South by passing laws and using federal force to suppress the Ku Klux Klan, which had committed violence against blacks for years to suppress voting and discourage education. After Federal troops left in 1877 at the end of the Reconstruction era, many paramilitary groups worked to suppress black voting by violence. From 1890 to 1908 Southern states disenfranchised most blacks and many poor whites through constitutional amendments and statutes that created barriers to voter registration and voting. Such devices as poll taxes and subjective literacy tests sharply reduced the number of blacks in voting rolls. By the late nineteenth century, Southern white Democrats defeated some biracial Populist-Republican coalitions and regained power in the state legislatures of the former Confederacy; they passed laws establishing racial segregation and Jim Crow. In the border states and North, blacks continued to exercise the vote; the well-established Maryland African-American community defeated attempts there to disfranchise them.


title: Booker T. Washington

text: Washington worked and socialized with many national white politicians and industry leaders. He developed the ability to persuade wealthy whites, many of them self-made men, to donate money to black causes by appealing to their values. He argued that the surest way for blacks to gain equal social rights was to demonstrate "industry, thrift, intelligence and property". He believed these were key to improved conditions for African Americans in the United States. Because African Americans had recently been emancipated and most lived in a hostile environment, Washington believed they could not expect too much at once. He said, "I have learned that success is to be measured not so much by the position that one has reached in life as by the obstacles which he has had to overcome while trying to succeed."


title: Booker T. Washington

text: Along with Du Bois, Washington partly organized the "Negro exhibition" at the 1900 Exposition Universelle in Paris, where photos of Hampton Institute's black students were displayed. These were taken by his friend Frances Benjamin Johnston. The exhibition demonstrated African Americans' positive contributions to United States' society.


title: Booker T. Washington

text: Washington privately contributed substantial funds for legal challenges to segregation and disfranchisement, such as the case of "Giles v. Harris", which was heard before the United States Supreme Court in 1903. Even when such challenges were won at the Supreme Court, southern states quickly responded with new laws to accomplish the same ends, for instance, adding "grandfather clauses" that covered whites and not blacks in order to prevent blacks from voting.


title: Booker T. Washington

text: State and local governments historically underfunded black schools, although they were ostensibly providing "separate but equal" segregated facilities. White philanthropists strongly supported education financially. Washington encouraged them and directed millions of their money to projects all across the South that Washington thought best reflected his self-help philosophy. Washington associated with the richest and most powerful businessmen and politicians of the era. He was seen as a spokesperson for African Americans and became a conduit for funding educational programs.


title: Booker T. Washington

text: His contacts included such diverse and well-known entrepreneurs and philanthropists as Andrew Carnegie, William Howard Taft, John D. Rockefeller, Henry Huttleston Rogers, George Eastman, Julius Rosenwald, Robert Curtis Ogden, Collis Potter Huntington, and William Henry Baldwin Jr. The latter donated large sums of money to agencies such as the Jeanes and Slater Funds. As a result, countless small rural schools were established through Washington's efforts, under programs that continued many years after his death. Along with rich white men, the black communities helped their communities directly by donating time, money, and labor to schools to match the funds required.


title: Booker T. Washington

text: A representative case of an exceptional relationship was Washington's friendship with millionaire industrialist and financier Henry H. Rogers (1840–1909). Henry Rogers was a self-made man, who had risen from a modest working-class family to become a principal officer of Standard Oil, and one of the richest men in the United States. Around 1894 Rogers heard Washington speak at Madison Square Garden. The next day he contacted Washington and requested a meeting, during which Washington later recounted that he was told that Rogers "was surprised that no one had 'passed the hat' after the speech". The meeting began a close relationship that extended over a period of 15 years. Although Washington and the very-private Rogers were seen as friends, the true depth and scope of their relationship was not publicly revealed until after Rogers' sudden death of a stroke in May 1909. Washington was a frequent guest at Rogers' New York office, his Fairhaven, Massachusetts summer home, and aboard his steam yacht "Kanawha".


title: Booker T. Washington

text: A few weeks later Washington went on a previously planned speaking tour along the newly completed Virginian Railway, a $40-million enterprise that had been built almost entirely from Rogers' personal fortune. As Washington rode in the late financier's private railroad car, "Dixie", he stopped and made speeches at many locations. His companions later recounted that he had been warmly welcomed by both black and white citizens at each stop.


title: Booker T. Washington

text: Washington revealed that Rogers had been quietly funding operations of 65 small country schools for African Americans, and had given substantial sums of money to support Tuskegee and Hampton institutes. He also noted that Rogers had encouraged programs with matching funds requirements so the recipients had a stake in the outcome.


title: Booker T. Washington

text: In 1907 Philadelphia Quaker Anna T. Jeanes (1822–1907) donated one million dollars to Washington for elementary schools for black children in the South. Her contributions and those of Henry Rogers and others funded schools in many poor communities.


title: Booker T. Washington

text: Julius Rosenwald (1862–1932) was a Jewish American self-made wealthy man with whom Washington found common ground. By 1908 Rosenwald, son of an immigrant clothier, had become part-owner and president of Sears, Roebuck and Company in Chicago. Rosenwald was a philanthropist who was deeply concerned about the poor state of African-American education, especially in the segregated Southern states, where their schools were underfunded.


title: Booker T. Washington

text: In 1912 Rosenwald was asked to serve on the Board of Directors of Tuskegee Institute, a position he held for the remainder of his life. Rosenwald endowed Tuskegee so that Washington could spend less time fundraising and more managing the school. Later in 1912 Rosenwald provided funds to Tuskegee for a pilot program to build six new small schools in rural Alabama. They were designed, constructed and opened in 1913 and 1914, and overseen by Tuskegee architects and staff; the model proved successful.


title: Booker T. Washington

text: After Washington died in 1915, Rosenwald established the Rosenwald Fund in 1917, primarily to serve African-American students in rural areas throughout the South. The school building program was one of its largest programs. Using the architectural model plans developed by professors at Tuskegee Institute, the Rosenwald Fund spent over $4 million to help build 4,977 schools, 217 teachers' homes, and 163 shop buildings in 883 counties in 15 states, from Maryland to Texas. The Rosenwald Fund made matching grants, requiring community support, cooperation from the white school boards, and local fundraising. Black communities raised more than $4.7 million to aid the construction and sometimes donated land and labor; essentially they taxed themselves twice to do so. These schools became informally known as Rosenwald Schools. But the philanthropist did not want them to be named for him, as they belonged to their communities. By his death in 1932, these newer facilities could accommodate one third of all African-American children in Southern U.S. schools.


title: Booker T. Washington

text: Washington's long-term adviser, Timothy Thomas Fortune (1856–1928), was a respected African-American economist and editor of "The New York Age", the most widely read newspaper in the black community within the United States. He was the ghost-writer and editor of Washington's first autobiography, "The Story of My Life and Work". Washington published five books during his lifetime with the aid of ghost-writers Timothy Fortune, Max Bennett Thrasher and Robert E. Park.


title: Booker T. Washington

text: In an effort to inspire the "commercial, agricultural, educational, and industrial advancement" of African Americans, Washington founded the National Negro Business League (NNBL) in 1900.


title: Booker T. Washington

text: When Washington's second autobiography, "Up from Slavery", was published in 1901, it became a bestseller—remaining the best-selling autobiography of an African American for over sixty years—and had a major effect on the African-American community and its friends and allies.


title: Booker T. Washington

text: In October 1901, President Theodore Roosevelt invited Washington to dine with him and his family at the White House.Although Republican presidents had met privately with black leaders, this was the first highly publicized social occasion when an African American was invited there on equal terms by the president. Democratic Party politicians from the South, including future governor of Mississippi James K. Vardaman and Senator Benjamin Tillman of South Carolina, indulged in racist personal attacks when they learned of the invitation. Both used the derogatory term for African Americans in their statements.


title: Booker T. Washington

text: Vardaman described the White House as "so saturated with the odor of the nigger that the rats have taken refuge in the stable," and declared, "I am just as much opposed to Booker T. Washington as a voter as I am to the cocoanut-headed, chocolate-colored typical little coon who blacks my shoes every morning. Neither is fit to perform the supreme function of citizenship." Tillman said, "The action of President Roosevelt in entertaining that nigger will necessitate our killing a thousand niggers in the South before they will learn their place again."


title: Booker T. Washington

text: Ladislaus Hengelmüller von Hengervár, the Austro-Hungarian ambassador to the United States, who was visiting the White House on the same day, said he found a rabbit's foot in Washington's coat pocket when he mistakenly put on the coat. "The Washington Post" described it as "the left hind foot of a graveyard rabbit, killed in the dark of the moon". The "Detroit Journal" quipped the next day, "The Austrian ambassador may have made off with Booker T. Washington's coat at the White House, but he'd have a bad time trying to fill his shoes."


title: Booker T. Washington

text: Despite his extensive travels and widespread work, Washington continued as principal of Tuskegee. Washington's health was deteriorating rapidly in 1915; he collapsed in New York City and was diagnosed by two different doctors as having Bright's disease, an inflammation of the kidneys, today called nephritis. Told he had only a few days left to live, Washington expressed a desire to die at Tuskegee. He boarded a train and arrived in Tuskegee shortly after midnight on November 14, 1915. He died a few hours later at the age of 59. His funeral was held on November 17, 1915, in the Tuskegee Institute Chapel. It was attended by nearly 8,000 people. He was buried nearby in the Tuskegee University Campus Cemetery.


title: Booker T. Washington

text: At the time he was thought to have died of congestive heart failure, aggravated by overwork. In March 2006, his descendants permitted examination of medical records: these showed he had hypertension, with a blood pressure more than twice normal, and that he died of kidney failure brought on by high blood pressure.


title: Booker T. Washington

text: At Washington's death, Tuskegee's endowment was close to $2,000,000 (). Washington's greatest life's work, the education of blacks in the South, was well underway and expanding.


title: Booker T. Washington

text: For his contributions to American society, Washington was granted an honorary master's degree from Harvard University in 1896, followed by an honorary doctorate from Dartmouth College.


title: Booker T. Washington

text: At the center of Tuskegee University, the Booker T. Washington Monument was dedicated in 1922. Called "Lifting the Veil", the monument has an inscription reading:


title: Booker T. Washington

text: In 1934 Robert Russa Moton, Washington's successor as president of Tuskegee University, arranged an air tour for two African-American aviators. Afterward the plane was renamed as the "Booker T. Washington".


title: Booker T. Washington

text: On April 7, 1940, Washington became the first African American to be depicted on a United States postage stamp.


title: Booker T. Washington

text: In 1942, the liberty ship "Booker T. Washington" was named in his honor, the first major oceangoing vessel to be named after an African American. The ship was christened by noted singer Marian Anderson.


title: Booker T. Washington

text: In 1946, he was honored on the first coin to feature an African American, the Booker T. Washington Memorial half dollar, which was minted by the United States until 1951.


title: Booker T. Washington

text: On April 5, 1956, the hundredth anniversary of Washington's birth, the house where he was born in Franklin County, Virginia, was designated as the Booker T. Washington National Monument.


title: Booker T. Washington

text: A state park in Chattanooga, Tennessee, was named in his honor, as was a bridge spanning the Hampton River adjacent to his "alma mater", Hampton University.


title: Booker T. Washington

text: In 1984 Hampton University dedicated a Booker T. Washington Memorial on campus near the historic Emancipation Oak, establishing, in the words of the university, "a relationship between one of America's great educators and social activists, and the symbol of Black achievement in education".


title: Booker T. Washington

text: Numerous high schools, middle schools and elementary schools across the United States have been named after Booker T. Washington.


title: Booker T. Washington

text: In 2000, West Virginia State University (WVSU; then West Va. State College), in cooperation with other organizations including the Booker T. Washington Association, established the Booker T. Washington Institute, to honor Washington's boyhood home, the old town of Malden, and Washington's ideals.


title: Booker T. Washington

text: On October 19, 2009, WVSU dedicated a monument to Booker T. Washington. The event took place at WVSU's Booker T. Washington Park in Malden, West Virginia. The monument also honors the families of African ancestry who lived in Old Malden in the early 20th century and who knew and encouraged Washington. Special guest speakers at the event included West Virginia Governor Joe Manchin III, Malden attorney Larry L. Rowe, and the president of WVSU. Musical selections were provided by the WVSU "Marching Swarm".


title: Booker T. Washington

text: At the end of the 2008 presidential election, the defeated Republican candidate Senator John McCain recalled the stir caused a century before when President Theodore Roosevelt invited Booker T. Washington to the White House. McCain noted the evident progress in the country with the election of Democratic Senator Barack Obama as the first African-American President of the United States.


title: Booker T. Washington

text: Booker T. Washington was so acclaimed as a public leader that the period of his activity, from 1880 to 1915, has been called the Age of Booker T. Washington. Historiography on Washington, his character, and the value of that leadership has varied dramatically. After his death, he came under heavy criticism in the civil rights community for accommodationism to white supremacy. However, since the late 20th century, a more balanced view of his very wide range of activities has appeared. As of 2010, the most recent studies, "defend and celebrate his accomplishments, legacy, and leadership".


title: Booker T. Washington

text: Washington was held in high regard by business-oriented conservatives, both white and black. Historian Eric Foner argues that the freedom movement of the late nineteenth century changed directions so as to align with America's new economic and intellectual framework. Black leaders emphasized economic self-help and individual advancement into the middle class as a more fruitful strategy than political agitation. There was emphasis on education and literacy throughout the period after the Civil War. Washington's famous Atlanta speech of 1895 marked this transition, as it called on blacks to develop their farms, their industrial skills, and their entrepreneurship as the next stage in emerging from slavery.


title: Booker T. Washington

text: By this time, Mississippi had passed a new constitution, and other southern states were following suit, or using electoral laws to raise barriers to voter registration; they completed disenfranchisement of blacks at the turn of the 20th century to maintain white supremacy. But at the same time, Washington secretly arranged to fund numerous legal challenges to such voting restrictions and segregation, which he believed was the way they had to be attacked.


title: Booker T. Washington

text: Washington repudiated the historic abolitionist emphasis on unceasing agitation for full equality, advising blacks that it was counterproductive to fight segregation at that point. Foner concludes that Washington's strong support in the black community was rooted in its widespread realization that, given their legal and political realities, frontal assaults on white supremacy were impossible, and the best way forward was to concentrate on building up their economic and social structures inside segregated communities. Historian C. Vann Woodward in 1951 wrote of Washington, "The businessman's gospel of free enterprise, competition, and "laissez faire" never had a more loyal exponent."


title: Booker T. Washington

text: Historians since the late 20th century have been divided in their characterization of Washington: some describe him as a visionary capable of "read[ing] minds with the skill of a master psychologist," who expertly played the political game in 19th-century Washington by its own rules. Others say he was a self-serving, crafty narcissist who threatened and punished those in the way of his personal interests, traveled with an entourage, and spent much time fundraising, signing autographs, and giving flowery patriotic speeches with much flag waving – acts more indicative of an artful political boss than an altruistic civil rights leader.


title: Booker T. Washington

text: People called Washington the "Wizard of Tuskegee" because of his highly developed political skills and his creation of a nationwide political machine based on the black middle class, white philanthropy, and Republican Party support. Opponents called this network the "Tuskegee Machine". Washington maintained control because of his ability to gain support of numerous groups, including influential whites and black business, educational, and religious communities nationwide. He advised as to the use of financial donations from philanthropists and avoided antagonizing white Southerners with his accommodation to the political realities of the age of Jim Crow segregation.


title: Booker T. Washington

text: The Tuskegee machine collapsed rapidly after Washington's death. He was the charismatic leader who held it all together, with the aid of Emmett Jay Scott. But the trustees replaced Scott, and the elaborate system fell apart. Critics in the 1920s to 1960s, especially those connected with the NAACP, ridiculed Tuskegee as a producer of a class of submissive black laborers. Since the late 20th century historians have given much more favorable view, emphasizing the school's illustrious faculty and the progressive black movements, institutions and leaders in education, politics, architecture, medicine and other professions it produced who worked hard in communities across the United States, and indeed worldwide across the African Diaspora. Deborah Morowski points out that Tuskegee's curriculum served to help students achieve a sense of personal and collective efficacy. She concludes:


title: Booker T. Washington

text: At a time when most Black Americans were poor farmers in the South and were ignored by the national Black leadership, Washington's Tuskegee made their needs a high priority. They lobbied for government funds and especially from philanthropies that enabled the institute to provide model farming techniques, advanced training, and organizational skills. These included Annual Negro Conferences, the Tuskegee Experiment Station, the Agricultural Short Course, the Farmers' Institutes, the Farmers' County Fairs, the Movable School, and numerous pamphlets and feature stories sent free to the South's black newspapers.


title: Booker T. Washington

text: Washington took the lead in promoting educational uplift for the African Diaspora, often with funding from the Phelps Stokes Fund or in collaboration with foreign sources, such as the German government.


title: Booker T. Washington

text: Washington's first daughter by Fannie, Portia Marshall Washington (1883–1978), was a trained pianist who married Tuskegee educator and architect William Sidney Pittman in 1900. They had three children. Pittman faced several difficulties in trying to build his practice while his wife built her musical profession. After he assaulted their daughter Fannie in the midst of an argument, Portia took Fannie and left Pittman. She resettled at Tuskegee. She was removed from the faculty in 1939, because she did not have an academic degree, but she opened her own piano teaching practice for a few years. After retiring in 1944 at the age of 61, she dedicated her efforts in the 1940s to memorializing her father. She succeeded in getting her father's bust placed in the Hall of Fame in New York, a 50-cent coin minted with his image, and his Virginia birthplace declared a National Monument. Portia Washington Pittman died on February 26, 1978, in Washington, D.C.


title: Booker T. Washington

text: Booker Jr. (1887–1945) married Nettie Blair Hancock (1887–1972). Their daughter, Nettie Hancock Washington (1917–1982), became a teacher and taught at a high school in Washington, D.C., for twenty years. She married physician Frederick Douglass III (1913–1942), great-grandson of famed abolitionist and orator Frederick Douglass. Nettie and Frederick's daughter, Nettie Washington Douglass, and her son, Kenneth Morris, co-founded the Frederick Douglass Family Initiatives, an anti-sex trafficking organization.


title: Booker T. Washington

text: Washington's last-born great-grandchild, Dr. Sarah Washington O'Neal Rush, is the founder of Booker T. Washington Empowerment Network, an organization created to carry on her great-grandfather's legacy of improving the lives of disadvantaged youth and their families.


title: Yum! Brands

text: Yum! Brands, Inc. (or Yum!), formerly Tricon Global Restaurants, Inc., is an American fast food corporation listed on the Fortune 1000. Yum! operates the brands KFC, Pizza Hut, Taco Bell, and The Habit Burger Grill, except in China, where the brands are operated by a separate company, Yum China. Yum! previously also owned Long John Silver's and A&W Restaurants.


title: Yum! Brands

text: Based in Louisville, Kentucky, Yum! is one of the world's largest fast food restaurant companies in terms of system units. In 2016, Yum! had 43,617 restaurants, including 2,859 that were company-owned and 40,758 that were franchised, in 135 nations and territories worldwide.


title: Yum! Brands

text: The company's history began in 1977, when PepsiCo entered the restaurant business by acquiring Pizza Hut. A year later, PepsiCo purchased Taco Bell. In July 1986, R. J. Reynolds sold KFC to PepsiCo to pay off debt from its recent purchase of Nabisco. In 1990, Hot 'n Now was acquired via Taco Bell, but the company was sold in 1996. In 1992, PepsiCo acquired California Pizza Kitchen. In 1993, it acquired Chevys Fresh Mex, D'Angelo Grilled Sandwiches, and the American division of Canadian chain East Side Mario's. These chains were later sold when PepsiCo exited the restaurant business and spun off KFC, Pizza Hut and Taco Bell (see next paragraph). In 1997, PepsiCo sold PepsiCo Food Systems restaurant-supply unit to Ameriserve Food Distribution Inc.


title: Yum! Brands

text: Yum! was created in 1997 as Tricon Global Restaurants, Inc. from PepsiCo's fast food division as the parent corporation of KFC, Pizza Hut and Taco Bell restaurant companies. The decision was announced in January and the spin off was effected on 6 October. Tricon selected Louisville as its headquarters, near the KFC Restaurant Support Center from the Pepsi HQ in Purchase, New York, by early 1998.


title: Yum! Brands

text: In 2000, Tricon Global tested multi-branded locations with Yorkshire Global Restaurants. By March 2002, the Tricon-Yorkshire multibranding test consisted of 83 KFC/A&Ws, six KFC/Long John Silver's and three Taco Bell/Long John Silver's and was considered successful by the companies.


title: Yum! Brands

text: In 2001, KFC started test restaurants in Austin, Texas, called "Wing Works", a chicken wing line sold with one of a few flavored sauces. KFC also hired a consultant to develop a breakfast menu.


title: Yum! Brands

text: Yorkshire in March 2002 announced it would merge with Tricon Global Restaurants to form Yum! Brands. The merger was finalized on May 8, 2002, and the name change became effective on May 22, 2002 On June 6, 2002, Yum! executed a two-for-one stock split. Shortly afterwards, due to Yum!'s lifetime contract with Pepsi, Long John Silver's and A&W Restaurants (which previously served Coca-Cola products) began switching to Pepsi products, with A&W Restaurants retaining A&W Root Beer from a separate deal with Dr Pepper/Seven Up (now Keurig Dr Pepper).


title: Yum! Brands

text: In 2002, Yum! began testing co-branding locations pairing Pizza Hut with Pasta Bravo, Back Yard Burgers, and A&W. The Pasta Bravo concept was acquired in 2003 from Pasta Bravo, Inc. of Aliso Viejo, California for $5 million to pair with Pizza Hut.


title: Yum! Brands

text: In 2003, Yum! launched WingStreet as a hybrid combo unit with an existing Pizza Hut franchise. In 2007 and 2008, a thousand WingStreet stores a year were opened. On October 19, 2009, Company president Scott Bergren publicized WingStreet's national launch.


title: Yum! Brands

text: An East Dawning test cafeteria-style restaurant was opened in Shanghai in 2004. After initially failing, Yum! Brands chose the KFC business model (KFC is the most successful Western chain in China) and found greater success. As of September 30, 2007, eight East Dawning restaurants were in operation.


title: Yum! Brands

text: In January 2011, Yum! announced its intentions to divest itself of its Long John Silver's and A&W brands to focus on its core brands of KFC, Pizza Hut and Taco Bell. For the decade leading up to the company's announcement, major growth had relied on international expansion. With little presence outside North America, the two chains no longer fit in the company's long-term growth plans. The foreign expansion—particularly that of Taco Bell, KFC and Pizza Hut—was cited in the firm's January 18, 2011 announcement of its intention to sell the A&W and Long John Silver's chains. Both of those chains also suffered from poor sales, and had fewer locations compared to the other chains in the Yum! Brands portfolio. In September 2011, Yum! announced they had found buyers for the A&W and Long John Silver's chains. A Great American Brand will buy A&W, and Long John Silver's will be acquired by LJS Partners LLC.


title: Yum! Brands

text: In May 2011, Yum! agreed to purchase Chinese hot pot chain Little Sheep for HK$4.56 billion. The deal spent more than 4 months in antitrust review by the Chinese Ministry of Commerce, to determine whether or not the transaction would result in a monopolistic positioning of Yum! in the country's restaurant industry. The Ministry approved the deal in November 2011, according to Little Sheep representatives.


title: Yum! Brands

text: In 2012, a KFC opened in Ramallah and became the first American fast food restaurant to operate in the West Bank; a Pizza Hut is also planned.


title: Yum! Brands

text: In 2013, a few KFC locations in China supplied chicken found to contain "excess levels of chemical residue". Yum! had lost 6% of sales from publicity in China as of January 25, 2013.


title: Yum! Brands

text: The company opened its first restaurant in Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia, in May 2013. For Mongolia, KFC is the first western fast food to open its doors in the country. The company is planning to open 15 more restaurants in Ulaanbaatar in the next 5 years, including the country's first drive-thru service. Yum! Brands has also opened Taco Bell and Pizza Hut restaurants in newer Target stores.


title: Yum! Brands

text: In 2013, its KFC subsidiary opened a fast casual version, KFC eleven, test location in Louisville on Bardstown Road. The sole KFC Eleven was closed in April 2015. In the third quarter of 2013, Yum! Brands had to book an impairment of the goodwill resulting from the takeover of Little Sheep in 2011 in the amount of $222 million, which reduced profits for 2013.


title: Yum! Brands

text: In 2014, Yum! launched a number of additional restaurant test concepts, Super Chix, U.S. Taco Co. and Banh Shop. Yum! opened Super Chix in Central Arlington, Texas, a restaurant similar in format to Chick-fil-A, on April 9, 2014. In the summer of 2014, Yum!'s Taco Bell subsidiary launched its U.S. Taco Co and Urban Tap Room fast-casual taco concept restaurant in Huntington Beach, California, to take on fast casual restaurants like Chipotle and Panera.


title: Yum! Brands

text: In the first quarter of 2015, Third Point Management and Corvex Management separately acquired an unspecified stake in the company. A second Chix unit opened in May 2015 with additional menu items. Super Chix was sold to founder Nick Ouimet and an investment group in August 2015.


title: Yum! Brands

text: In 2017, Yum! announced plans to open 10 Pizza Hut restaurants in Ethiopia, after signing a franchise with the country's Belayab Foods and Franchise PLC.


title: Yum! Brands

text: In January 2020, Yum! announced they were acquiring Irvine, California-based The Habit Burger Grill, for $375 million; the transaction has completed on March 18, 2020.


title: Yum! Brands

text: In 2020 and 2021, Yum! acquired several technology companies. In March 2020, it acquired Heartstyles, an omnichannel training company. In March 2021, it acquired Tictuk Technologies, an Israeli omnichannel ordering and marketing solutions provider, and announced it was acquiring Kvantum Inc., an artificial intelligence-based consumer insights and marketing technology company. In September 2021, Yum! completed the acquisition of Australian kitchen order management and delivery technology company Dragontail Systems for US$69.1 million in cash.


title: Yum! Brands

text: The current CEO of Yum! Brands is David Gibbs. Former CEOs include Greg Creed and David C. Novak. Novak became CEO of predecessor firm Tricon Global on January 1, 2000, and chairman of the board on January 1, 2001. Greg Creed replaced Novak in his role as CEO on January 1, 2015. At the AGM in May 2016, Robert D. Walter became non-executive chairman. At the end of 2019 Greg Creed will retire as CEO and the current COO (David Gibbs) will be Creed's replacement.


title: Yum! Brands

text: On October 20, 2015, Yum! Brands, Inc., announced that it intended to separate into two independent, publicly traded companies. Yum China was spun off on November 1, 2016.


title: Cyclobenzaprine

text: Cyclobenzaprine (sold under the brand name Flexeril, among others) is a medication used for muscle spasms from musculoskeletal conditions of sudden onset. It is not useful in cerebral palsy. It is taken by mouth. Use is not recommended for more than a few weeks.


title: Cyclobenzaprine

text: Common side effects include headache, feeling tired, dizziness, and dry mouth. Serious side effects may include an irregular heartbeat. There is no evidence of harm in pregnancy, but it has not been well studied in this population. It should not be used with an MAO inhibitor. How it works is unclear.


title: Cyclobenzaprine

text: Cyclobenzaprine was approved for medical use in the United States in 1977. It is available as a generic medication. In 2020, it was the 39th most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than 16million prescriptions. It was not available in the United Kingdom as of 2012.


title: Cyclobenzaprine

text: Cyclobenzaprine is used, in conjunction with physical therapy, to treat muscle spasms that occur because of acute musculoskeletal conditions. After sustaining an injury, muscle spasms occur to stabilize the affected body part, which may increase pain to prevent further damage. Cyclobenzaprine is used to treat such muscle spasms associated with acute, painful musculoskeletal conditions. It decreases pain in the first two weeks, peaking in the first few days, but has no proven benefit after two weeks. Since no benefit is proven beyond that, therapy should not be continued long-term. It is the best-studied muscle relaxer. It is not useful for spasticity due to neurologic conditions such as cerebral palsy.


title: Cyclobenzaprine

text: A 2004 review found benefit for fibromyalgia symptoms, with a reported number needed to treat of 4.8 (meaning that 1 person out of every 4.8 benefits from treatment) for pain reduction, but no change in fatigue or tender points. A 2009 Cochrane review found insufficient evidence to justify its use in myofascial pain syndrome. It may also be used along with other treatments for tetanus.


title: Cyclobenzaprine

text: Cyclobenzaprine results in increased rates of drowsiness (38%), dry mouth (24%), and dizziness (10%). Drowsiness and dry mouth appear to intensify with increasing dose. The sedative effects of cyclobenzaprine are likely due to its antagonistic effect on histamine, serotonin, and muscarinic receptors.


title: Cyclobenzaprine

text: Agitation is a common side effect observed, especially in the elderly. Some experts believe that cyclobenzaprine should be avoided in elderly patients because it can cause confusion, delirium, and cognitive impairment. In general, the National Committee for Quality Assurance recommends avoiding the use of cyclobenzaprine in the elderly because of the potential for more severe side effects.


title: Cyclobenzaprine

text: Dysphagia, a life-threatening side-effect, may rarely occur. Treatment protocols and support should follow the same as for any structurally related tricyclic, such as tricyclic antidepressants.


title: Cyclobenzaprine

text: The most common effects of overdose are drowsiness and tachycardia. Rare but potentially critical complications are cardiac arrest, abnormal heart rhythms, severe low blood pressure, seizures, and neuroleptic malignant syndrome. Life-threatening overdose is rare, however, as the median lethal dose is about 338 milligrams/kilogram in mice and 425 mg/kg in rats. The potential harm is increased when central nervous system depressants and antidepressants are also used; deliberate overdose often includes alcohol among other drugs.


title: Cyclobenzaprine

text: Cyclobenzaprine has major contraindications with monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs). At least one study also found increased risk of serotonin syndrome when cyclobenzaprine was taken with the serotonergic drugs duloxetine or phenelzine.


title: Cyclobenzaprine

text: Cyclobenzaprine may affect the medications used in surgical sedation and some surgeons request that patients temporarily discontinue its use prior to surgery.


title: Cyclobenzaprine

text: Cyclobenzaprine is a centrally acting muscle relaxant. Cyclobenzaprine is a 5-HT receptor antagonist; it relieves muscle spasm through action on the central nervous system at the brain stem, rather than targeting the peripheral nervous system or muscles themselves.


title: Cyclobenzaprine

text: Cyclobenzaprine has an oral bioavailability of about 55% and approximately 93% is bound to proteins in plasma. The half-life of the drug is 18 hours and it has a plasma clearance of 0.7 litres per minute.


title: Cyclobenzaprine

text: Cyclobenzaprine has been found to be not inferior to tizanidine, orphenadrine, and carisoprodol in the treatment of acute lower back pain, although none have been proven to be effective for long-term use (beyond two weeks of treatment). No differences in pain or spasm scores were noted among these agents, nor when compared to benzodiazepines. However, nonbenzodiazepine (including cyclobenzaprine) treatment was found to have a lower risk of medication abuse and continuation of use against medical advice. Side effects such as sedation and ataxia are also less pronounced with nonbenzodiazepine antispasmodics.


title: Cyclobenzaprine

text: In a study on the treatment of musculoskeletal pain treatment with cyclobenzaprine alone or in combination with ibuprofen, no significant differences in pain scores were noted among the three treatment groups. Peak benefit was found to occur on day seven of the treatment for all groups.


title: Cyclobenzaprine

text: By mouth, cyclobenzaprine is marketed as Apo-Cyclobenzaprin, Fexmid, Flexeril and Novo-Cycloprine. It is available in generic form. A once-a-day, extended-release formulation, Amrix, is available. Cyclobenzaprine is also used by compounding pharmacies in topical creams.


title: Knowledge

text: Knowledge can be defined as awareness of facts or as practical skills, and may also refer to familiarity with objects or situations. Knowledge of facts, also called propositional knowledge, is often defined as true belief that is distinct from opinion or guesswork by virtue of justification. While there is wide agreement among philosophers that propositional knowledge is a form of true belief, many controversies in philosophy focus on justification: whether it is needed at all, how to understand it, and whether something else besides it is needed. These controversies intensified due to a series of thought experiments by Edmund Gettier and have provoked various alternative definitions. Some of them deny that justification is necessary and replace it, for example, with reliability or the manifestation of cognitive virtues. Others contend that justification is needed but formulate additional requirements, for example, that no defeaters of the belief are present or that the person would not have the belief if it was false.


title: Knowledge

text: Knowledge can be produced in many different ways. The most important source of empirical knowledge is perception, which refers to the usage of the senses. Many theorists also include introspection as a source of knowledge, not of external physical objects, but of one's own mental states. Other sources often discussed include memory, rational intuition, inference, and testimony. According to foundationalism, some of these sources are basic in the sense that they can justify beliefs without depending on other mental states. This claim is rejected by coherentists, who contend that a sufficient degree of coherence among all the mental states of the believer is necessary for knowledge.