title: Compact disc

text: A CD is read by focusing a 780 nm wavelength (near infrared) semiconductor laser through the bottom of the polycarbonate layer. The change in height between pits and lands results in a difference in the way the light is reflected. Because the pits are indented into the top layer of the disc and are read through the transparent polycarbonate base, the pits form bumps when read. The laser hits the disc, casting a circle of light wider than the modulated spiral track reflecting partially from the lands and partially from the top of any bumps where they are present. As the laser passes over a pit (bump), its height means that the part of the light reflected from its peak is 1/2 wavelength out of phase with the light reflected from the land around it. This causes partial cancellation of the laser's reflection from the surface. By measuring the reflected intensity change with a photodiode, a modulated signal is read back from the disc.


title: Compact disc

text: To accommodate the spiral pattern of data, the laser is placed on a mobile mechanism within the disc tray of any CD player. This mechanism typically takes the form of a sled that moves along a rail. The sled can be driven by a worm gear or linear motor. Where a worm gear is used, a second shorter-throw linear motor, in the form of a coil and magnet, makes fine position adjustments to track eccentricities in the disk at high speed. Some CD drives (particularly those manufactured by Philips during the 1980s and early 1990s) use a swing arm similar to that seen on a gramophone. This mechanism allows the laser to read information from the center to the edge of a disc without having to interrupt the spinning of the disc itself.


title: Compact disc

text: The pits and lands do "not" directly represent the 0s and 1s of binary data. Instead, non-return-to-zero, inverted encoding is used: a change from either pit to land or land to pit indicates a 1, while no change indicates a series of 0s. There must be at least two, and no more than ten 0s between each 1, which is defined by the length of the pit. This, in turn, is decoded by reversing the eight-to-fourteen modulation used in mastering the disc, and then reversing the cross-interleaved Reed–Solomon coding, finally revealing the raw data stored on the disc. These encoding techniques (defined in the "Red Book") were originally designed for CD Digital Audio, but they later became a standard for almost all CD formats (such as CD-ROM).


title: Compact disc

text: CDs are susceptible to damage during handling and from environmental exposure. Pits are much closer to the label side of a disc, enabling defects and contaminants on the clear side to be out of focus during playback. Consequently, CDs are more likely to suffer damage on the label side of the disc. Scratches on the clear side can be repaired by refilling them with similar refractive plastic or by careful polishing. The edges of CDs are sometimes incompletely sealed, allowing gases and liquids to enter the CD and corrode the metal reflective layer and/or interfere with the focus of the laser on the pits, a condition known as disc rot. The fungus "Geotrichum candidum" has been found—under conditions of high heat and humidity—to consume the polycarbonate plastic and aluminium found in CDs.


title: Compact disc

text: The data integrity of compact discs can be measured using surface error scanning, which is able to measure the rates of different types of data errors, known as "C1", "C2", "CU" and extended (finer-grain) error measurements known as "E11", "E12", "E21", "E22", "E31" and "E32", of which higher rates indicate a possibly damaged or unclean data surface, low media quality, deteriorating media and recordable media written to by a malfunctioning CD writer.


title: Compact disc

text: Error scanning can reliably predict data losses caused by media deteriorating. Support of error scanning differs between vendors and models of optical disc drives, and "extended" error scanning (known as ""advanced error scanning"" in Nero DiscSpeed) has only been available on Plextor and some BenQ optical drives so far, as of 2020.


title: Compact disc

text: The digital data on a CD begins at the center of the disc and proceeds toward the edge, which allows adaptation to the different sizes available. Standard CDs are available in two sizes. By far, the most common is in diameter, with a 74- or 80-minute audio capacity and a 650 or 700 MiB (737,280,000-byte) data capacity. Discs are thick, with a center hole. The size of the hole was chosen by Joop Sinjou and based on a Dutch 10-cent coin: a dubbeltje. Philips/Sony patented the physical dimensions.


title: Compact disc

text: The official Philips history says the capacity was specified by Sony executive Norio Ohga to be able to contain the entirety of Beethoven's Ninth Symphony on one disc.


title: Compact disc

text: The logical format of an audio CD (officially Compact Disc Digital Audio or CD-DA) is described in a document produced in 1980 by the format's joint creators, Sony and Philips. The document is known colloquially as the "Red Book" CD-DA after the color of its cover. The format is a two-channel 16-bit PCM encoding at a 44.1 kHz sampling rate per channel. Four-channel sound was to be an allowable option within the "Red Book" format, but has never been implemented. Monaural audio has no existing standard on a "Red Book" CD; thus, the mono source material is usually presented as two identical channels in a standard "Red Book" stereo track (i.e., mirrored mono); an MP3 CD, however, can have audio file formats with mono sound.


title: Compact disc

text: CD-Text is an extension of the "Red Book" specification for an audio CD that allows for the storage of additional text information (e.g., album name, song name, artist) on a standards-compliant audio CD. The information is stored either in the lead-in area of the CD, where there are roughly five kilobytes of space available, or in the subcode channels R to W on the disc, which can store about 31 megabytes.


title: Compact disc

text: Compact Disc + Graphics is a special audio compact disc that contains graphics data in addition to the audio data on the disc. The disc can be played on a regular audio CD player, but when played on a special CD+G player, it can output a graphics signal (typically, the CD+G player is hooked up to a television set or a computer monitor); these graphics are almost exclusively used to display lyrics on a television set for karaoke performers to sing along with. The CD+G format takes advantage of the channels R through W. These six bits store the graphics information.


title: Compact disc

text: CD + Extended Graphics (CD+EG, also known as CD+XG) is an improved variant of the Compact Disc + Graphics (CD+G) format. Like CD+G, CD+EG uses basic CD-ROM features to display text and video information in addition to the music being played. This extra data is stored in subcode channels R-W. Very few, if any, CD+EG discs have been published.


title: Compact disc

text: Super Audio CD (SACD) is a high-resolution, read-only optical audio disc format that was designed to provide higher-fidelity digital audio reproduction than the "Red Book". Introduced in 1999, it was developed by Sony and Philips, the same companies that created the "Red Book". SACD was in a format war with DVD-Audio, but neither has replaced audio CDs. The SACD standard is referred to as the "Scarlet Book" standard.


title: Compact disc

text: Titles in the SACD format can be issued as hybrid discs; these discs contain the SACD audio stream as well as a standard audio CD layer which is playable in standard CD players, thus making them backward compatible.


title: Compact disc

text: CD-MIDI is a format used to store music-performance data, which upon playback is performed by electronic instruments that synthesize the audio. Hence, unlike the original "Red Book" CD-DA, these recordings are not digitally sampled audio recordings. The CD-MIDI format is defined as an extension of the original "Red Book".


title: Compact disc

text: For the first few years of its existence, the CD was a medium used purely for audio. However, in 1988, the "Yellow Book" CD-ROM standard was established by Sony and Philips, which defined a non-volatile optical data computer data storage medium using the same physical format as audio compact discs, readable by a computer with a CD-ROM drive.


title: Compact disc

text: Video CD (VCD, View CD, and Compact Disc digital video) is a standard digital format for storing video media on a CD. VCDs are playable in dedicated VCD players, most modern DVD-Video players, personal computers, and some video game consoles. The VCD standard was created in 1993 by Sony, Philips, Matsushita, and JVC and is referred to as the "White Book" standard.


title: Compact disc

text: Overall picture quality is intended to be comparable to VHS video. Poorly compressed VCD video can sometimes be of lower quality than VHS video, but VCD exhibits block artifacts rather than analog noise and does not deteriorate further with each use. 352×240 (or SIF) resolution was chosen because it is half the vertical and half the horizontal resolution of the NTSC video. 352×288 is similarly one-quarter PAL/SECAM resolution. This approximates the (overall) resolution of an analog VHS tape, which, although it has double the number of (vertical) scan lines, has a much lower horizontal resolution.


title: Compact disc

text: Super Video CD (Super Video Compact Disc or SVCD) is a format used for storing video media on standard compact discs. SVCD was intended as a successor to VCD and an alternative to DVD-Video and falls somewhere between both in terms of technical capability and picture quality.


title: Compact disc

text: SVCD has two-thirds the resolution of DVD, and over 2.7 times the resolution of VCD. One CD-R disc can hold up to 60 minutes of standard-quality SVCD-format video. While no specific limit on SVCD video length is mandated by the specification, one must lower the video bit rate, and therefore quality, to accommodate very long videos. It is usually difficult to fit much more than 100 minutes of video onto one SVCD without incurring a significant quality loss, and many hardware players are unable to play video with an instantaneous bit rate lower than 300 to 600 kilobits per second.


title: Compact disc

text: Photo CD is a system designed by Kodak for digitizing and storing photos on a CD. Launched in 1992, the discs were designed to hold nearly 100 high-quality images, scanned prints, and slides using special proprietary encoding. Photo CDs are defined in the "Beige Book" and conform to the CD-ROM XA and CD-i Bridge specifications as well. They are intended to play on CD-i players, Photo CD players, and any computer with suitable software (irrespective of operating system). The images can also be printed out on photographic paper with a special Kodak machine. This format is not to be confused with Kodak Picture CD, which is a consumer product in CD-ROM format.


title: Compact disc

text: The Philips "Green Book" specifies a standard for interactive multimedia compact discs designed for CD-i players (1993). CD-i discs can contain audio tracks that can be played on regular CD players, but CD-i discs are not compatible with most CD-ROM drives and software. The CD-i Ready specification was later created to improve compatibility with audio CD players, and the CD-i Bridge specification was added to create CD-i compatible discs that can be accessed by regular CD-ROM drives.


title: Compact disc

text: Philips defined a format similar to CD-i called CD-i Ready, which puts CD-i software and data into the pregap of track 1. This format was supposed to be more compatible with older audio CD players.


title: Compact disc

text: Enhanced Music CD, also known as CD Extra or CD Plus, is a format which combines audio tracks and data tracks on the same disc by putting audio tracks in a first session and data in a second session. It was developed by Philips and Sony, and it is defined in the "Blue Book".


title: Compact disc

text: VinylDisc is the hybrid of a standard audio CD and the vinyl record. The vinyl layer on the disc's label side can hold approximately three minutes of music.


title: Compact disc

text: In 1995, material costs were 30 cents for the jewel case and 10 to 15 cents for the CD. Wholesale cost of CDs was $0.75 to $1.15, while the typical retail price of a prerecorded music CD was $16.98. On average, the store received 35 percent of the retail price, the record company 27 percent, the artist 16 percent, the manufacturer 13 percent, and the distributor 9 percent. When 8-track cartridges, compact cassettes, and CDs were introduced, each was marketed at a higher price than the format they succeeded, even though the cost to produce the media was reduced. This was done because the perceived value increased. This continued from phonograph records to CDs, but was broken when Apple marketed MP3s for $0.99, and albums for $9.99. The incremental cost, though, to produce an MP3 is negligible.


title: Compact disc

text: Recordable Compact Discs, CD-Rs, are injection-molded with a "blank" data spiral. A photosensitive dye is then applied, after which the discs are metalized and lacquer-coated. The write laser of the CD recorder changes the color of the dye to allow the read laser of a standard CD player to see the data, just as it would with a standard stamped disc. The resulting discs can be read by most CD-ROM drives and played in most audio CD players. CD-Rs follow the "Orange Book" standard.


title: Compact disc

text: CD-R recordings are designed to be permanent. Over time, the dye's physical characteristics may change causing read errors and data loss until the reading device cannot recover with error correction methods. Errors can be predicted using surface error scanning. The design life is from 20 to 100 years, depending on the quality of the discs, the quality of the writing drive, and storage conditions. However, testing has demonstrated such degradation of some discs in as little as 18 months under normal storage conditions. This failure is known as disc rot, for which there are several, mostly environmental, reasons.


title: Compact disc

text: The recordable audio CD is designed to be used in a consumer audio CD recorder. These consumer audio CD recorders use SCMS (Serial Copy Management System), an early form of digital rights management (DRM), to conform to the AHRA (Audio Home Recording Act). The Recordable Audio CD is typically somewhat more expensive than CD-R due to lower production volume and a 3 percent AHRA royalty used to compensate the music industry for the making of a copy.


title: Compact disc

text: High-capacity recordable CD is a higher-density recording format that can hold 20% more data than conventional discs. The higher capacity is incompatible with some recorders and recording software.


title: Compact disc

text: CD-RW is a re-recordable medium that uses a metallic alloy instead of a dye. The write laser, in this case, is used to heat and alter the properties (amorphous vs. crystalline) of the alloy, and hence change its reflectivity. A CD-RW does not have as great a difference in reflectivity as a pressed CD or a CD-R, and so many earlier CD audio players cannot read CD-RW discs, although most later CD audio players and stand-alone DVD players can. CD-RWs follow the "Orange Book" standard.


title: Compact disc

text: The ReWritable Audio CD is designed to be used in a consumer audio CD recorder, which will not (without modification) accept standard CD-RW discs. These consumer audio CD recorders use the Serial Copy Management System (SCMS), an early form of digital rights management (DRM), to conform to the United States' Audio Home Recording Act (AHRA). The ReWritable Audio CD is typically somewhat more expensive than CD-R due to (a) lower volume and (b) a 3 percent AHRA royalty used to compensate the music industry for the making of a copy.


title: Compact disc

text: The "Red Book" audio specification, except for a simple "anti-copy" statement in the subcode, does not include any copy protection mechanism. Known at least as early as 2001, attempts were made by record companies to market "copy-protected" non-standard compact discs, which cannot be ripped, or copied, to hard drives or easily converted to other formats (like FLAC, MP3 or Vorbis). One major drawback to these copy-protected discs is that most will not play on either computer CD-ROM drives or some standalone CD players that use CD-ROM mechanisms. Philips has stated that such discs are not permitted to bear the trademarked "Compact Disc Digital Audio" logo because they violate the "Red Book" specifications. Numerous copy-protection systems have been countered by readily available, often free, software, or even by simply turning off automatic AutoPlay to prevent the running of the DRM executable program.


title: Prabhu Deva

text: Prabhu Deva (born 3 April 1973) is an Indian dance choreographer, film director, producer and actor who has worked predominantly in Tamil, Hindi, Telugu, and Kannada language films. In a career spanning 32 years, he has performed and designed a wide range of dancing styles and has garnered two National Film Awards for Best Choreography. In 2019, he was awarded the Padma Shri for his contributions to dance.


title: Prabhu Deva

text: Beginning with a series of acting roles in the 1990s and early 2000s, Prabhu Deva featured in several commercially successful films including "Kadhalan" (1994), "Love Birds" (1996), "Minsara Kanavu" (1997) and "VIP" (1997). After further critically acclaimed performances in "Kaathala Kaathala" (1998), "Vanathai Pola" (2000), "Pennin Manathai Thottu" (2000), "Alli Thandha Vaanam" (2001) and "Engal Anna" (2004). Deva then failed to recreate the success of his earlier films and his box office value began to decline and he subsequently made appearances in supporting roles in Tamil. He then successfully ventured into direction with the 2005 Telugu film "Nuvvostanante Nenoddantana", and the success of the project prompted further offers for Deva as a director. He then went on to make highly profitable films in Tamil, Telugu and Hindi languages such as "Pokkiri" (2007), "Shankar Dada Zindabad" (2007), "Wanted" (2009), "Rowdy Rathore" (2012), "R... Rajkumar" (2013) and "Singh is Bliing" (2015).


title: Prabhu Deva

text: Prabhu Deva was born in Mysore of present-day Karnataka state on 3 April 1973 to Mugur Sundar and Mahadevamma Sundar. Inspired by his father Mugur Sundar, a choreographer for South Indian movies, he took up dancing, learning Indian classical dance forms such as Bharatanatyam from Dharmaraj and Udupi Lakshminarayanan as well as Western styles. Raju Sundaram and Nagendra Prasad are his brothers.


title: Prabhu Deva

text: Deva first appeared as a boy playing a flute in the song "Panivizhum Iravu", from the Tamil film "Mouna Ragam" (1986). He later appeared as a background dancer for a song in the 1988 Tamil film "Agni Natchathiram". Deva's first venture as a choreographer was the Kamal Haasan starrer "Vetri Vizha" (1989). He has since then choreographed for over 100 movies. From choreography, he went into acting. In 1999, Deva, Shobhana and A. R. Rahman performed with a Tamil cinema dancing troupe at the "MJ & Friends" Michael Jackson tribute concert in Munich, Germany. As of 2010, he serves as chairman and director of the Prabhu Deva's Dance Academy in Singapore. He planned to release his first video album called "It is boring" in 2013.


title: Prabhu Deva

text: After a series of cameo appearances in songs from Tamil films, Prabhu Deva was given his first lead role by director Pavithran in the romantic drama film "Indhu" (1994). Appearing alongside actress Roja and Sarathkumar, Deva's ability to dance was fully utilised in the song sequences, with gaana and disco music thereafter being regularly featured in his films. He made his breakthrough as an actor with Shankar's sophomore film, the romantic drama "Kadhalan" (1994), where he portrayed a young student who first stands up against his lover's father and then an international terrorist. The film was highly lauded for its technical prowess and went on to win four National Film Awards, while A. R. Rahman's songs and Deva's choreography, especially in the songs "Mukkabla" and "Urvasi Urvasi", became very popular across India. Despite starring relative newcomers, the film went on to become the highest grossing Tamil film of 1994 and the commercial success made Deva a bankable actor. The film also saw success through its dubbed Telugu and Hindi versions, creating a market for Deva in other Indian regional industries.


title: Prabhu Deva

text: While his next project "Raasaiyya" (1995) garnered poor reviews and collections, he continued to attract big-budget films and worked in two further films with music by Rahman in 1996, "Love Birds" and "Mr. Romeo". Shot extensively in London, "Love Birds" received a wide theatrical release in overseas destinations and won Deva positive reviews for his portrayal. Meanwhile, for "Mr. Romeo", Deva charged a comparatively high ₹60 lakhs for his remuneration and appeared in a double role alongside Shilpa Shetty and Madhoo. The music and dance portions of both films were praised by critics, though both endured middling performances at the box office.


title: Prabhu Deva

text: Deva won critical acclaim for his role in Rajiv Menon's romantic drama "Minsara Kanavu" (1997), where he portrayed a streetwise hairstylist who inadvertently attracts the attention of a young woman, who he tries to help set up with another man. Featuring Deva alongside Arvind Swamy and Kajol, the film went on to win four National Film Awards, three Tamil Nadu State Film Awards and a Filmfare Award mostly for the film's soundtrack by Rahman. Meanwhile, Deva also won the National Film Award for Best Choreography for his work in the song "Vennilave". A critic from Indolink.com wrote: "it is easy to become a fan of Prabhu Deva after this movie if you are not one yet", while Rediff.com referred to his performance as "graceful". "Minsara Kanavu" performed well at the box office and also had a wide release in Hindi, under the title "Sapnay". His following release, the romantic comedy "V. I. P." (1997), featuring an ensemble cast of Abbas, Simran and Rambha also did well commercially. Indolink.com described the film as "probably the feel-good movie of 1997", adding that "this movie is important as its probably the coming of age for Prabhu Deva" and that "he has definitely matured since his "Kadhalan" days and shows a lot more restraint and a little flair for comedy". During the period, Deva also signed a big-budget bilingual Hindi and Tamil production titled "Mazhai Vara Poguthey" opposite Juhi Chawla. Despite beginning production, the film was later cancelled.


title: Prabhu Deva

text: Deva continued to win critical acclaim and commercial success with his roles in the comedy film "Kaathala Kaathala" (1998), co-starring Kamal Haasan and the drama film "Ninaivirukkum Varai" (1999). Regarding his performance in the latter film, a reviewer from Indolink.com cited that "Prabhu Deva gets a wonderful script and character that he's comfortable in". He subsequently went on to feature in the Guinness World Record-setting film "Suyamvaram" (1999) and Vikraman's successful family drama film "Vaanathaippola" (2000), where critics praised his "histrionic abilities". In 2002, Deva appeared in the Trilingual romantic comedy film directed by K. Subash, "One Two Three, The Winners", along with Jyothika and real-life brothers, Raju Sundaram and Nagendra Prasad.


title: Prabhu Deva

text: In the early 2000s, Deva actively began to work on more smaller-budget comedy films as his appeal at the box office began to decline. Despite winning critical acclaim for his performance as a bus conductor in "Eazhaiyin Sirippil" (2000) and commercial success with his work in Sundar C's "Ullam Kollai Poguthae" (2001), "Manadhai Thirudivittai" (2001) and "Charlie Chaplin" (2002), many of his other Tamil films during the period did not perform well financially. In this period, he also notably worked on the trilingual film "One Two Three" (2002) alongside his brothers in Tamil, Kannada and Telugu as well as Siddique's successful hit "Engal Anna" (2004), with Vijayakanth. Subsequently, Deva moved on to prioritise acting roles in different industries, notably starring in off-beat roles in the Kannada film "HO" (2002), alongside Upendra and the Hindi film "Agni Varsha" (2002), with Amitabh Bachchan. He also worked extensively in the Telugu film industry, appearing in multi-starrer films or as the second lead actor, in projects including "Santosham" (2002), "Kalyana Ramudu" (2003) and "Andaru Dongale Dorikite" (2004).


title: Prabhu Deva

text: Following the success of his directorial ventures, Deva actively began to appear in fewer acting roles. He portrayed leading roles in the dance film "Style" (2006). Deva also portrayed a supporting role in Santosh Sivan's Malayalam historical drama film "Urumi" (2011), featuring in an ensemble cast including Prithviraj, Arya and Genelia D'Souza. The film opened to critical acclaim, while Deva was highly appreciated for his performance with a critic from The Hindu noting: Deva "excels with his standout comic repartee". He continued to make occasional appearances and portrayed leading roles in the dance films "Style" (2006), "" (2013) and its sequel "ABCD 2" (2015). The films all performed well commercially, with a critic writing: "regarded as the dance legend by many, Prabhu is, expectedly, incomparable in dances, but the good news is that he handles the dramatic scenes well too" for his performance in "ABCD".


title: Prabhu Deva

text: Deva returned to Tamil cinema as an actor after a gap of 11 years with the 2016 film "Devi", joining hands with director A. L. Vijay. The film was also simultaneously shot in Hindi and Telugu, titled "Abhinetri" and "Tutak Tutak Tutiya". In 2017, Deva acted in Thangar Bachan's film "Kalavaadiya Pozhuthugal". In 2017, he released a comedy driven heist film "Gulaebaghavali" (2018) in Pongal festival. Followed by silent film, "Mercury" (2018) and musical dance "Lakshmi" (2018). In 2019, "Charlie Chaplin 2" was released, which is a sequel to 2002 film "Charlie Chaplin". He also debuted as a lyricist in the film. After that Deva appeared in "Devi 2", which is a sequel of "Devi". The film was simultaneously shot in Telugu as "Abhinetri 2" and "Khamoshi" directed by Chakri Toleti, both co-starring Tamannaah.


title: Prabhu Deva

text: In 2021, Deva directed Salman Khan in "Radhe", a remake of the 2017 South Korean film, "The Outlaws".


title: Prabhu Deva

text: Prabhu Deva married Ramlath, who later changed her name to Latha. They had three children, but their eldest son died of cancer in 2008, aged 13. In 2010, Ramlath filed a petition at the family court, seeking directions against Deva from live-in relationship with the actress Nayanthara and requesting a reunion with him. Furthermore, Ramlath threatened to go on a hunger strike if Prabhu Deva married Nayanthara. Several women's organisations conducted protests against Nayanthara for bringing disrepute to Tamil culture, burning an effigy of her. Ramlath and Deva divorced in 2011. In 2012, Nayanthara confirmed that she had ended her relationship with Prabhu Deva.


title: Prabhu Deva

text: Deva has moved to Mumbai and is residing at Boney Kapoor's old place called Green Acres. Prabhu Deva's mother Mahadevamma is from the village of Doora, about from Mysore. He owns property in Doora, and has developed a farm there.


title: Prabhu Deva

text: In May 2020, amid the COVID-19 lockdown in India, Deva married Himani, a Mumbai based physiotherapist.


title: Prabhu Deva

text: Deva made brief appearances in solo items such as "April Mayile" in "Idhayam" (1991), "Lallaku Doldapi Ma" in "Suriyan" (1992), "Chinna Rasave" in "Walter Vetrivel" (1993), "Chikku Bukku Rayile" in "Gentleman" (1993), after appearing as junior artist in songs such as "Rajathi Raja" in "Agni Natchathiram" (1988). He performed with Madhuri Dixit in the song "Ke Sera Sera" for the movie "Pukar". He acted along with Lawrence Raghavendra in the 2006 Telugu film "Style". He performed with Apache Indian in the song "No Problem" for his film "Love Birds".


title: Prabhu Deva

text: He performed in the film "Aabra Ka Daabra", for the song "Om Sh". He performed in the Nana Patekar and Karisma Kapoor-starrer film "" (2002) for a song. He performed with Upendra in the Kannada film "HO". He made a special appearance in "Pokkiri" (which was directed by himself), with Vijay in the song "Aadungada". He performed again with Vijay in his own directional "Villu" for the song "Hey Rama" as a guest appearance. He performed with Bollywood actors Salman Khan and Govinda for a song in his 2009 directorial "Wanted".


title: Prabhu Deva

text: He performed at the opening ceremony of the 2012 Indian Premier League on 3 April in Chennai along with Amitabh Bachchan, Salman Khan, Kareena Kapoor, Priyanka Chopra and American artist Katy Perry. The event was special to Prabhu Deva as he shared his 39th birthday on the same day.


title: Megan Is Missing

text: Megan Is Missing is a 2011 American found footage psychological horror film written, directed, edited, and co-produced by Michael Goi. The film revolves around the days leading up to the disappearance of Megan Stewart (Rachel Quinn), a popular high school student in North Hollywood who decided to meet up with a boy she was interacting with online, and the subsequent investigation launched by her best friend Amy Herman (Amber Perkins). Goi based the film on a series of real-life cases of child abduction. Marc Klaas, the founder of KlaasKids Foundation, notably endorsed the film.


title: Megan Is Missing

text: Originally developed as a low-budget independent feature in 2006, the film was shot for $30,000–35,000. It did not find distribution until Anchor Bay Films gave it a limited theatrical release in 2011. The film was very controversial upon its release. Marketed as an educational film, "Megan Is Missing" was banned in New Zealand and has been heavily criticized by critics for its depiction of sexual violence and brutal imagery. Goi wrote the script in 10 days and shot the film over a week. Because of the graphic content, he requested that the parents of the young cast be on set during filming so that they were fully aware of their involvement in the project.


title: Megan Is Missing

text: It is one of the first computer screen films. The film experienced renewed popularity in 2020 after clips of the film were shared on TikTok. Goi later issued public warnings to prospective viewers after many users began calling the film "traumatizing." "Entertainment Weekly" called it "2011's scariest horror film." The film placed sixth in the DEG Watched at Home Top 20 Chart for Week Ending November 21, 2020.


title: Megan Is Missing

text: Megan Stewart and Amy Herman are 14-year-old best friends who vanished in January 2007. Investigators assembled web-chat videos, home movies, and news reports chronicling their disappearances to bring awareness to the importance of online safety for children. Megan is a high school honors student who is popular amongst her peers. However, as seen in web footage on January 2, she has a dysfunctional relationship with her mother and drug addiction. Amy is reluctant to let go of her childhood (as seen through her adoration of stuffed toys) and has a healthy relationship with her parents. Despite her close friendship with Megan, Amy is a target of bullying.


title: Megan Is Missing

text: To help her fit in, Megan invites her to a rave party she's attending to celebrate Amy's upcoming birthday. From footage found the night of the party, Amy is visibly uncomfortable and gets assaulted when she refuses to have sex with one of the men attending. Amy walks in on Megan performing oral sex on the party's host in exchange for drugs, leaving her shocked. While video chatting, Megan apologizes for the bad experience. On Amy's birthday, she records a video diary on her new camera of her and Megan. Megan relates her life story to Amy and reveals that her stepfather is in prison for raping her at the age of nine. She explains that her hostile relationship with her mother is due to her never forgiving Megan for reporting him to authorities. Before she can cry, Amy quickly hugs and comforts her.


title: Megan Is Missing

text: Lexie, one of Megan's party friends, gives her a social media handle to Josh, someone they think is a 17-year-old boy from a nearby school. He remains anonymous on video chat, claiming that he has a broken webcam. Despite several red flags and contradictions, Megan finds herself infatuated with him. They agree to meet at a party, but he fails to reveal himself. She confronts him online but forgives him when he accurately describes what she was wearing and insists he is shy.


title: Megan Is Missing

text: Amy begins to feel left out, and while at Megan's house, Megan introduces her to him. Josh convinces Megan to meet him behind a diner (rather than public this time). On January 17, news reports reveal that Megan vanished and the last footage of her is from the diner's grainy security camera, showing her being grabbed by the wrist by an indistinct man. Amy launches an investigation into Megan's disappearance and talks online with Josh. After realizing Amy suspects him, he threatens her. Subsequently, graphic images of a tortured Megan's mouth, nostrils, and eyes forced open while immobilized in a contraption begin surfacing on fetish forums.


title: Megan Is Missing

text: While recording a video diary underneath an old bridge where she'd share secrets with Megan, Amy is grabbed by a man. Investigators find her video camera in a garbage can. In unedited footage, Josh unlocks the door to a BDSM chamber with Amy chained to the wall. She begs for her teddy bear and he responds by making her eat food from a dog bowl without her hands. Josh later brutally rapes her, then tells her that he will let her go if she gets into a large plastic barrel to conceal his whereabouts. Amy opens the barrel and attempts to flee when she sees Megan's decaying corpse inside. She is forced inside alongside Megan's body and begs to live while Josh digs a large hole in a forest. He pushes the barrel in and fills it up before picking up his flashlight and walking away.


title: Megan Is Missing

text: "Megan is Missing" was made with a low budget, which is part of the reason for the found footage format. Goi self-financed the film as he believed that investors wouldn't fund it due to the violent script. It was shot over a week in 2008 with a small crew of only five people and a budget of $35,000. It had "no motion picture lighting equipment, no grip equipment, no professional sound recording equipment" to have a "raw" and realistic feel to it. The vast majority of the cast were adolescents, and Goi required that their parents be on the set during filming due to the graphic nature of the film.


title: Megan Is Missing

text: The majority of the cast were inexperienced or first-time actors. The casting was intentional, as Goi wanted the characters to be portrayed by non-recognizable actors for the film to have an "air of reality." Rachel Quinn, a seventeen-year-old aspiring actress, and dancer got cast in the eponymous role of Megan Stewart. Amber Perkins, who had previously only done background work for television shows and commercials, was cast in the lead role of Amy Herman. This role marked her feature film debut. The role of the villain, Josh, was given to Australian actor Dean Waite.


title: Megan Is Missing

text: In the controversial photographs used in the film, Quinn is legitimately wearing the torture device. Quinn describes wearing the headgear as her worst memory of filming. She attests this is because it was physically uncomfortable and mentally traumatizing when she realized what she was portraying. As the photographs are reality-based, Quinn asked Goi to show her the inspiration behind them. Upon seeing the real-life photographs she was reenacting, she began crying on the set. Quinn spent several hours having the special effects for Megan's corpse reveal applied to her and had to wear oversized white contact lenses that essentially blinded her when shooting in the barrel. Goi was very particular about the makeup direction for Megan's corpse. He wanted the audience to be able to tell that it's her, that she looked realistically dead, and to show that she suffered tremendously in the process of dying.


title: Megan Is Missing

text: The basement scenes were challenging for Perkins. Quinn agreed to stay on the set, making it a more comfortable environment for her. Goi has stated that Waite's scenes were difficult to film for the actor. In particular, the rape scene of the Amy character was difficult for him, which required several reshoots. Goi recollects Waite becoming frustrated and cursing upon being told they had to refilm it. The burial scene of Waite digging the large hole in the forest was filmed in real time. Perkins ad libbed most of her dialogue in the barrel.


title: Megan Is Missing

text: The film was controversial upon its limited release due to its graphic and exploitative depiction of violence and rape and the overt sexualization of the fourteen-year-old titular protagonist. Although, some critics have emphasized that Goi succeeds with the film having an impact.


title: Megan Is Missing

text: Film critic Alexandra Heller-Nicholas deemed the purposeful amateur cinematography as aiding in the film's authentic feel. She notes the graphic photographs of Megan's torture mark the film's tonal shift and that the camera's gaze, belonging to the heroines at the beginning of the film, being turned against them "adds to the horrific revelations."


title: Megan Is Missing

text: In a positive review for "The Leaf-Chronicle" (Tennessee), film critic Jamie Dexter compared the film to the "Paranormal Activity" franchise and "The Blair Witch Project" (1999) and praised the storyline. Stating, "It took days for me to shake the horrible feeling this movie left in me, but that just means it was effective in what it set out to do — show this real and plausible scenario of how internet predators work."


title: Megan Is Missing

text: In a negative review for the "Oklahoma Gazette", Rod Lott criticized Goi's characterization and handling of Megan and the acting from the rest of the cast.


title: Megan Is Missing

text: "Beyond Hollywood" and DVD Verdict also panned the film, with "Beyond Hollywood" calling it "majorly disappointing" and DVD Verdict stating that they "[wished] this disc had been missing from the box". "HorrorNews.net" gave a more positive review, saying that the first portion of the film "really works", although they felt that the final twenty-two minutes "went a little overboard".


title: Megan Is Missing

text: Monique Jones of Common Sense Media gave the film a one star out of five. Jones wrote that Goi's intended lesson within the film isn't successful by grisly imagery (as the ending is difficult to watch for some viewers) but by the film's early exploration of different characters' struggles. Beyond the violent conclusion, Jones emphasizes the film's early scenes succeed in pushing for conversations regarding online safety, healthy communication between parents or trusted adult figures and children, and reaching out for help. Jones wrote that it explores character issues in great detail, such as secrecy, a child's (Megan's) disregarded struggles with domestic abuse and trauma stemming from sexual abuse, peer pressure, and careless internet interactions with strangers.


title: Megan Is Missing

text: In October 2011, New Zealand's Office of Film and Literature Classification banned Anchor Bay's release of this film by classifying it as "objectionable". They claimed that it contained sexual violence and sexual conduct involving young people to such an extent and degree, and in such a manner that if it was released it would be 'injurious to the public good'. They went on to say that it relished in the spectacle of one girl's ordeal, including a three-minute rape scene. They also stated that it sexualized the lives of young teenage girls to a "highly exploitative degree".


title: Megan Is Missing

text: In November 2020, the film became a pop culture sensation after it went viral on the video-sharing app TikTok. The platform is where the film has its largest audience since its release. Users began posting their reactions as the film progresses, with many calling it "traumatizing". The hashtag for the film has over 83 million views. After being informed by Perkins that the film had gone viral, Goi later issued a trigger warning for prospective viewers: "Do not watch the movie in the middle of the night. Do not watch the movie alone. And if you see the words 'photo number one' pop up on your screen, you have about four seconds to shut off the movie if you're already kind of freaking out before you start seeing things that maybe you don't want to see". Goi stated that he made the film with the purpose of it being a "wake-up call" to parents but instead it is children who discover the film and make it resurface sporadically. The film later began trending on Twitter.


title: Megan Is Missing

text: The film was released on Blu-ray on October 26, 2021 via Lionsgate (current owners of the Anchor Bay library).


title: Megan Is Missing

text: A few years after its release, a production company in Mexico approached Goi to make a Spanish language remake of the film with a Mexican cast. Goi declined the offer as he did not want to revisit the grim subject matter. However, he stated that he has theorized making a sequel but no progress has been made due to there being "no angle" for him to take the story.


title: Nardwuar

text: John Ruskin (born July 5, 1968), better known as Nardwuar, or Nardwuar the Human Serviette, is a Canadian interviewer and musician from Vancouver, British Columbia. He is the lead singer and keyboardist for the Evaporators.


title: Nardwuar

text: Nardwuar got his start in media at the University of British Columbia radio station CITR 101.9 FM in Vancouver. His show has been running every Friday afternoon since October 1987. The program features a mix of eclectic music, along with interviews and commentary. Nardwuar's interviews have frequently been shown on MuchMusic's "Going Coastal", or printed in "Chart". Although Nardwuar's favourite targets are music artists, he has stated that he will interview any celebrity. He also sometimes appears as a guest host and interviewer on CBC Radio 3 and started his own weekly program on freeform radio station WFMU which ran from 2009 to 2013.


title: Nardwuar

text: Noted for his excitable persona, a typical Nardwuar interview will begin with "Who are you?", followed by "From?" if the subject doesn't volunteer their affiliations. "Each interview ends with "Keep on rockin' in the free world", and the "doot doola doot doo ..." of "Shave and a Haircut", to which the interviewee is expected to reply with the final "doot doo!" before Nardwuar freezes with a wide smile until the camera cuts off. Interviews also often end with Nardwuar asking the interviewee "Why should people care about [interviewee's name]?". When asked to explain his name, Nardwuar has said it is "a dumb, stupid name like Sting or Sinbad"; that "Human" came from the song "Human Fly" by the Cramps; and that "Serviette" came from the fact that "in the U.S.A. they don't have serviettes, they have napkins".


title: Nardwuar

text: Nardwuar was born John Ruskin in Vancouver, British Columbia, in 1968. His father, Vernon, was an engineer and his mother Olga Ruskin (née Bruchovsky) was a local journalist, high school history teacher and historian. She published a history of Vancouver historical figure "Gassy Jack" John Deighton. His mother exposed him to local history by bringing him to historical society meetups. In elementary school, Nardwuar won a public speaking competition and was a long-distance runner.


title: Nardwuar

text: Nardwuar attended Hillside Secondary School in West Vancouver, where he was a member of the student council. It was through the student council that he began booking bands for school events, and conducted his first interview, with Art Bergmann of Poisoned. He was accepted into the University of British Columbia (UBC) in 1986, the same year he changed his name to Nardwuar. He began volunteering at the campus radio station, CITR. While studying history at UBC, Nardwuar wrote papers on Vancouver's Lions Gate Bridge and the assassination of John F. Kennedy. He graduated in 1990 with a bachelor's degree in history.


title: Nardwuar

text: Due to his absurd and eccentric style, he has been attacked verbally, physically threatened, and intimidated by people such as Sebastian Bach of Skid Row (who stole Nardwuar's favorite toque). Alice Cooper, Henry Rollins, Travis Barker, Lydia Lunch, Harlan Ellison, Beck, Nas, and others have hung up on him or been verbally combative in interviews. Dave Rowntree of Blur apologized to Nardwuar in 2011 for his behavior during a 2003 interview, calling it "one of the things I'm ashamed of" and classified his actions as "bullying". Nardwuar accepted the apology via Twitter.


title: Nardwuar

text: Nardwuar has also been known to be a "guerrilla journalist," often sneaking into press conferences under the guise of an orthodox reporter to confront political leaders or other non-musical celebrities with surreal or confusing questions. His non-Canadian political targets have included former President of the Soviet Union Mikhail Gorbachev, former U.S. President Gerald Ford and former U.S. Vice President Dan Quayle. Nardwuar has also targeted actor Crispin Glover and faith healer Ernest Angley, asking the latter if there was a cure for "the Summertime Blues", to which Angley angrily replied, "Oh I wish you would shut up, man. You know you're not even funny. You're lucky God don't strike you dead."


title: Nardwuar

text: In November 1997, he cut off all his hair and was able to sneak into an APEC conference to ask Jean Chrétien if he supported the pepper spraying of protesters outside. Chrétien, apparently unaware of the incident and not knowing what the English terms "mace" and "pepper spray" referred to, responded with a line that has become well known in Canada: "For me, pepper, I put it on my plate."


title: Nardwuar

text: In June 2004, Nardwuar convinced an amused Paul Martin, former Prime Minister of Canada, to play a quick game of the Hasbro game "Hip Flip" while he was on the campaign trail. After Martin won the election, Nardwuar commented on the great predictive power of the "Hip Flip," because neither of the other two candidates had performed the act. On a campaign trip to Vancouver in December 2005, Nardwuar concluded an interview with the late New Democratic Party leader Jack Layton—who, in their first encounter, had taken the instructions to the game and said he would practice for their next encounter—with a successful, coordinated, swinging of their hips. The 22nd Prime Minister Stephen Harper is the only major candidate from the 2004 election who has never performed a successful "Hip Flip" with Nardwuar. Nardwuar was escorted out by Harper's security while trying to initiate the game. In the 2015 Canadian federal election, the first federal leader to complete the Hip Flip game was Justin Trudeau, who did so on September 10 after a press conference in Vancouver.


title: Nardwuar

text: Premier Christy Clark (Liberal), Premier John Horgan (NDP) and Andrew Weaver (Green) all did the Hip Flip during the 2017 British Columbia general election.


title: Nardwuar

text: The music video for the 2005 Korn song "Twisted Transistor" is a mockumentary that includes a fictional documentary filmmaker named "Rob Piner", whose behavior and appearance are based on Nardwuar.


title: Nardwuar

text: In January 2013, Brother Ali released a song called "Nardwuar", to commemorate his interview with Nardwuar; the song features a beat taken from one of the records that Nardwuar gave Ali as a gift.


title: Nardwuar

text: At the 2013 South by Southwest Festival film director Brent Hodge and producer Chris Kelly did a retrospective of Nardwuar's career for "Time". Pharrell Williams playfully turned the tables and interviewed Nardwuar immediately after his own interview, imitating Nardwuar's signature style.


title: Nardwuar

text: In his 2013 mixtape "Innanetape", Vic Mensa referenced Nardwuar in the song "Tweakin' (feat. Chance the Rapper)" with the lyric "Thumbs up to the camera like Nardwuar."


title: Nardwuar

text: While Nardwuar was recovering from heart surgery, Kyle Mooney produced a mock Nardwuar interview with Matt Mondanile.


title: Nardwuar

text: On his 2016 album "Top of the Line", in the song of the same name, Rittz references Nardwuar with the lyric "shit I can't recall the last 15 years wishing I could do an interview with Nardwuar".


title: Nardwuar

text: The track "Night Song" from the 2017 EP "Brothers of Destruction" by The Lemon Twigs has the line "we saw the highway patrol taking selfies with Nardwuar."


title: Nardwuar

text: September 29, 2019, was declared "Nardwuar Day" in Vancouver by Kennedy Stewart, the Mayor of Vancouver.


title: Nardwuar

text: In 2019, Nardwuar was inducted into the BC Entertainment Hall of Fame and included in their starwalk on Granville Street in Downtown Vancouver.


title: Nardwuar

text: The track "Merlin's Staff" off the 2021 mixtape, "Sin City The Mixtape", by Ski Mask the Slump God has the line "They all about ya, know about ya, no Nardwuar".


title: Nardwuar

text: Logic's 2022 album, "Vinyl Days", features a track called "Nardwuar" in which an audio from Nardwuar himself is sampled.


title: Nardwuar

text: On July 10, 1999, Nardwuar suffered seizures and temporary paralysis resulting from a cerebral hemorrhage (aborting his planned ambush interview of Courtney Love), but quickly recovered. On December 6, 2015, he suffered a stroke and was released from hospital six days later. On January 25, 2016, Nardwuar underwent surgical repair of a patent foramen ovale, a hole between two chambers of the heart, which was the likely cause of his stroke.


title: Initial public offering

text: An initial public offering (IPO) or stock launch is a public offering in which shares of a company are sold to institutional investors and usually also to retail (individual) investors. An IPO is typically underwritten by one or more investment banks, who also arrange for the shares to be listed on one or more stock exchanges. Through this process, colloquially known as "floating", or "going public", a privately held company is transformed into a public company. Initial public offerings can be used to raise new equity capital for companies, to monetize the investments of private shareholders such as company founders or private equity investors, and to enable easy trading of existing holdings or future capital raising by becoming publicly traded.


title: Initial public offering

text: After the IPO, shares are traded freely in the open market at what is known as the free float. Stock exchanges stipulate a minimum free float both in absolute terms (the total value as determined by the share price multiplied by the number of shares sold to the public) and as a proportion of the total share capital (i.e., the number of shares sold to the public divided by the total shares outstanding). Although IPO offers many benefits, there are also significant costs involved, chiefly those associated with the process such as banking and legal fees, and the ongoing requirement to disclose important and sometimes sensitive information.


title: Initial public offering

text: Details of the proposed offering are disclosed to potential purchasers in the form of a lengthy document known as a prospectus. Most companies undertake an IPO with the assistance of an investment banking firm acting in the capacity of an underwriter. Underwriters provide several services, including help with correctly assessing the value of shares (share price) and establishing a public market for shares (initial sale). Alternative methods such as the Dutch auction have also been explored and applied for several IPOs.


title: Initial public offering

text: The earliest form of a company which issued "public shares" was the case of the "publicani" during the Roman Republic, although this claim is not shared by all modern scholars. Like modern joint-stock companies, the "publicani" were legal bodies independent of their members whose ownership was divided into shares, or "partes". There is evidence that these shares were sold to public investors and traded in a type of over-the-counter market in the Forum, near the Temple of Castor and Pollux. The shares fluctuated in value, encouraging the activity of speculators, or "quaestors". Mere evidence remains of the prices for which "partes" were sold, the nature of initial public offerings, or a description of stock market behavior. "Publicani" lost favor with the fall of the Republic and the rise of the Empire.


title: Initial public offering

text: When a company lists its securities on a public exchange, the money paid by the investing public for the newly issued shares goes directly to the company (primary offering) as well as to any early private investors who opt to sell all or a portion of their holdings (secondary offerings) as part of the larger IPO. An IPO, therefore, allows a company to tap into a wide pool of potential investors to provide itself with capital for future growth, repayment of the debt, or working capital. A company selling common shares is never required to repay the capital to its public investors. Those investors must endure the unpredictable nature of the open market to price and trade their shares. After the IPO, when shares are traded in the market, money passes between public investors. For early private investors who choose to sell shares as part of the IPO process, the IPO represents an opportunity to monetize their investment. After the IPO, once shares are traded in the open market, investors holding large blocks of shares can either sell those shares piecemeal in the open market or sell a large block of shares directly to the public, at a fixed price, through a secondary market offering. This type of offering is not dilutive since no new shares are being created. Stock prices can change dramatically during a company's first days in the public market.


title: Initial public offering

text: Once a company is listed, it is able to issue additional common shares in a number of different ways, one of which is the follow-on offering. This method provides capital for various corporate purposes through the issuance of equity (see stock dilution) without incurring any debt. This ability to quickly raise potentially large amounts of capital from the marketplace is a key reason many companies seek to go public.


title: Initial public offering

text: IPO procedures are governed by different laws in different countries. In the United States, IPOs are regulated by the United States Securities and Exchange Commission under the Securities Act of 1933. In the United Kingdom, the UK Listing Authority reviews and approves prospectuses and operates the listing regime.


title: Initial public offering

text: IPOs generally involve one or more investment banks known as "underwriters". The company offering its shares, called the "issuer", enters into a contract with a lead underwriter to sell its shares to the public. The underwriter then approaches investors with offers to sell those shares.


title: Initial public offering

text: A large IPO is usually underwritten by a "syndicate" of investment banks, the largest of which take the position of "lead underwriter". Upon selling the shares, the underwriters retain a portion of the proceeds as their fee. This fee is called an underwriting spread. The spread is calculated as a discount from the price of the shares sold (called the gross spread). Components of an underwriting spread in an initial public offering (IPO) typically include the following (on a per-share basis): Manager's fee, Underwriting fee—earned by members of the syndicate, and the Concession—earned by the broker-dealer selling the shares. The Manager would be entitled to the entire underwriting spread. A member of the syndicate is entitled to the underwriting fee and the concession. A broker-dealer who is not a member of the syndicate but sells shares would receive only the concession, while the member of the syndicate who provided the shares to that broker-dealer would retain the underwriting fee. Usually, the managing/lead underwriter, also known as the bookrunner, typically the underwriter selling the largest proportions of the IPO, takes the highest portion of the gross spread, up to 8% in some cases.


title: Initial public offering

text: Multinational IPOs may have many syndicates to deal with differing legal requirements in both the issuer's domestic market and other regions. For example, an issuer based in the E.U. may be represented by the major selling syndicate in its domestic market, Europe, in addition to separate group corporations or selling them for US/Canada and Asia. Usually, the lead underwriter in the head selling group is also the lead bank in the other selling groups.


title: Initial public offering

text: Because of the wide array of legal requirements and because it is an expensive process, IPOs also typically involve one or more law firms with major practices in securities law, such as the Magic Circle firms of London and the white-shoe firms of New York City.


title: Initial public offering

text: Financial historians Richard Sylla and Robert E. Wright have shown that before 1860 most early U.S. corporations sold shares in themselves directly to the public without the aid of intermediaries like investment banks. The direct public offering (DPO), as they term it, was not done by auction but rather at a share price set by the issuing corporation. In this sense, it is the same as the fixed price public offers that were the traditional IPO method in most non-US countries in the early 1990s. The DPO eliminated the agency problem associated with offerings intermediated by investment banks.


title: Initial public offering

text: The sale (allocation and pricing) of shares in an IPO may take several forms. Common methods include:


title: Initial public offering

text: Public offerings are sold to both institutional investors and retail clients of the underwriters. A licensed securities salesperson (Registered Representative in the US and Canada) selling shares of a public offering to his clients is paid a portion of the selling concession (the fee paid by the issuer to the underwriter) rather than by his client. In some situations, when the IPO is not a "hot" issue (undersubscribed), and where the salesperson is the client's advisor, it is possible that the financial incentives of the advisor and client may not be aligned.


title: Initial public offering

text: The issuer usually allows the underwriters an option to increase the size of the offering by up to 15% under a specific circumstance known as the greenshoe or overallotment option. This option is always exercised when the offering is considered a "hot" issue, by virtue of being oversubscribed.


title: Initial public offering

text: In the US, clients are given a preliminary prospectus, known as a red herring prospectus, during the initial quiet period. The red herring prospectus is so named because of a bold red warning statement printed on its front cover. The warning states that the offering information is incomplete, and may be changed. The actual wording can vary, although most roughly follow the format exhibited on the Facebook IPO red herring. During the quiet period, the shares cannot be offered for sale. Brokers can, however, take indications of interest from their clients. At the time of the stock launch, after the Registration Statement has become effective, indications of interest can be converted to buy orders, at the discretion of the buyer. Sales can only be made through a final prospectus cleared by the Securities and Exchange Commission.


title: Initial public offering

text: The final step in preparing and filing the final IPO prospectus is for the issuer to retain one of the major financial "printers", who print (and today, also electronically file with the SEC) the registration statement on Form S-1. Typically, preparation of the final prospectus is actually performed at the printer, wherein one of their multiple conference rooms the issuer, issuer's counsel (attorneys), underwriter's counsel (attorneys), the lead underwriter(s), and the issuer's accountants/auditors make final edits and proofreading, concluding with the filing of the final prospectus by the financial printer with the Securities and Exchange Commission.


title: Initial public offering

text: Before legal actions initiated by New York Attorney General Eliot Spitzer, which later became known as the Global Settlement enforcement agreement, some large investment firms had initiated favorable research coverage of companies in an effort to aid corporate finance departments and retail divisions engaged in the marketing of new issues. The central issue in that enforcement agreement had been judged in court previously. It involved the conflict of interest between the investment banking and analysis departments of ten of the largest investment firms in the United States. The investment firms involved in the settlement had all engaged in actions and practices that had allowed the inappropriate influence of their research analysts by their investment bankers seeking lucrative fees. A typical violation addressed by the settlement was the case of CSFB and Salomon Smith Barney, which were alleged to have engaged in the inappropriate spinning of "hot" IPOs and issued fraudulent research reports in violation of various sections within the Securities Exchange Act of 1934.


title: Initial public offering

text: A company planning an IPO typically appoints a lead manager, known as a bookrunner, to help it arrive at an appropriate price at which the shares should be issued. There are two primary ways in which the price of an IPO can be determined. Either the company, with the help of its lead managers, fixes a price ("fixed price method"), or the price can be determined through analysis of confidential investor demand data compiled by the bookrunner ("book building").


title: Initial public offering

text: Historically, many IPOs have been underpriced. The effect of underpricing an IPO is to generate additional interest in the stock when it first becomes publicly traded. Flipping, or quickly selling shares for a profit, can lead to significant gains for investors who were allocated shares of the IPO at the offering price. However, underpricing an IPO results in lost potential capital for the issuer. One extreme example is theglobe.com IPO which helped fuel the IPO "mania" of the late 1990s internet era. Underwritten by Bear Stearns on 13 November 1998, the IPO was priced at $9 per share. The share price quickly increased 1,000% on the opening day of trading, to a high of $97. Selling pressure from institutional flipping eventually drove the stock back down, and it closed the day at $63. Although the company did raise about $30  million from the offering, it is estimated that with the level of demand for the offering and the volume of trading that took place they might have left upwards of $200 million on the table.


title: Initial public offering

text: The danger of overpricing is also an important consideration. If a stock is offered to the public at a higher price than the market will pay, the underwriters may have trouble meeting their commitments to sell shares. Even if they sell all of the issued shares, the stock may fall in value on the first day of trading. If so, the stock may lose its marketability and hence even more of its value. This could result in losses for investors, many of whom being the most favored clients of the underwriters. Perhaps the best-known example of this is the Facebook IPO in 2012.


title: Initial public offering

text: Underwriters, therefore, take many factors into consideration when pricing an IPO, and attempt to reach an offering price that is low enough to stimulate interest in the stock but high enough to raise an adequate amount of capital for the company. When pricing an IPO, underwriters use a variety of key performance indicators and non-GAAP measures. The process of determining an optimal price usually involves the underwriters ("syndicate") arranging share purchase commitments from leading institutional investors.


title: Initial public offering

text: Some researchers (Friesen & Swift, 2009) believe that the underpricing of IPOs is less a deliberate act on the part of issuers and/or underwriters, and more the result of an over-reaction on the part of investors (Friesen & Swift, 2009). One potential method for determining to underprice is through the use of IPO underpricing algorithms.


title: Initial public offering

text: A Dutch auction allows shares of an initial public offering to be allocated based only on price aggressiveness, with all successful bidders paying the same price per share. One version of the Dutch auction is OpenIPO, which is based on an auction system designed by economist William Vickrey. This auction method ranks bids from highest to lowest, then accepts the highest bids that allow all shares to be sold, with all winning bidders paying the same price. It is similar to the model used to auction Treasury bills, notes, and bonds since the 1990s. Before this, Treasury bills were auctioned through a discriminatory or pay-what-you-bid auction, in which the various winning bidders each paid the price (or yield) they bid, and thus the various winning bidders did not all pay the same price. Both discriminatory and uniform price or "Dutch" auctions have been used for IPOs in many countries, although only uniform price auctions have been used so far in the US. Large IPO auctions include Japan Tobacco, Singapore Telecom, BAA Plc and Google (ordered by size of proceeds).


title: Initial public offering

text: A variation of the Dutch auction has been used to take a number of U.S. companies public including Morningstar, Interactive Brokers Group, Overstock.com, Ravenswood Winery, Clean Energy Fuels, and Boston Beer Company. In 2004, Google used the Dutch auction system for its initial public offering. Traditional U.S. investment banks have shown resistance to the idea of using an auction process to engage in public securities offerings. The auction method allows for equal access to the allocation of shares and eliminates the favorable treatment accorded important clients by the underwriters in conventional IPOs. In the face of this resistance, the Dutch auction is still a little used method in U.S. public offerings, although there have been hundreds of auction IPOs in other countries.


title: Initial public offering

text: In determining the success or failure of a Dutch auction, one must consider competing objectives. If the objective is to reduce risk, a traditional IPO may be more effective because the underwriter manages the process, rather than leaving the outcome in part to random chance in terms of who chooses to bid or what strategy each bidder chooses to follow. From the viewpoint of the investor, the Dutch auction allows everyone equal access. Moreover, some forms of the Dutch auction allow the underwriter to be more active in coordinating bids and even communicating general auction trends to some bidders during the bidding period. Some have also argued that a uniform price auction is more effective at price discovery, although the theory behind this is based on the assumption of independent private values (that the value of IPO shares to each bidder is entirely independent of their value to others, even though the shares will shortly be traded on the aftermarket). Theory that incorporates assumptions more appropriate to IPOs does not find that sealed bid auctions are an effective form of price discovery, although possibly some modified form of auction might give a better result.


title: Initial public offering

text: In addition to the extensive international evidence that auctions have not been popular for IPOs, there is no U.S. evidence to indicate that the Dutch auction fares any better than the traditional IPO in an unwelcoming market environment. A Dutch auction IPO by WhiteGlove Health, Inc., announced in May 2011 was postponed in September of that year, after several failed attempts to price. An article in "the Wall Street Journal" cited the reasons as "broader stock-market volatility and uncertainty about the global economy have made investors wary of investing in new stocks".


title: Initial public offering

text: Under American securities law, there are two-time windows commonly referred to as "quiet periods" during an IPO's history. The first and the one linked above is the period of time following the filing of the company's S-1 but before SEC staff declare the registration statement effective. During this time, issuers, company insiders, analysts, and other parties are legally restricted in their ability to discuss or promote the upcoming IPO (U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, 2005).


title: Initial public offering

text: The other "quiet period" refers to a period of 10 calendar days following an IPO's first day of public trading. During this time, insiders and any underwriters involved in the IPO are restricted from issuing any earnings forecasts or research reports for the company. When the quiet period is over, generally the underwriters will initiate research coverage on the firm. A three-day waiting period exists for any member that has acted as a manager or co-manager in a secondary offering.


title: Initial public offering

text: Not all IPOs are eligible for delivery settlement through the DTC system, which would then either require the physical delivery of the stock certificates to the clearing agent bank's custodian or a delivery versus payment (DVP) arrangement with the selling group firm.


title: Initial public offering

text: "Stag profit" is a situation in the stock market before and immediately after a company's initial public offering (or any new issue of shares). A "stag" is a party or individual who subscribes to the new issue expecting the price of the stock to rise immediately upon the start of trading. Thus, stag profit is the financial gain accumulated by the party or individual resulting from the value of the shares rising. This term is more popular in the United Kingdom than in the United States. In the US, such investors are usually called flippers, because they get shares in the offering and then immediately turn around "flipping" or selling them on the first day of trading.


title: Initial public offering

text: Prior to 2009, the United States was the leading issuer of IPOs in terms of total value. Since that time, however, China (Shanghai, Shenzhen and Hong Kong) has been the leading issuer, raising $73 billion (almost double the amount of money raised on the New York Stock Exchange and NASDAQ combined) up to the end of November 2011.


title: Cod

text: Cod is the common name for the demersal fish genus "Gadus", belonging to the family Gadidae. Cod is also used as part of the common name for a number of other fish species, and one species that belongs to genus "Gadus" is commonly not called cod (Alaska pollock, "Gadus chalcogrammus").


title: Cod

text: The two most common species of cod are the Atlantic cod ("Gadus morhua"), which lives in the colder waters and deeper sea regions throughout the North Atlantic, and the Pacific cod ("Gadus macrocephalus"), found in both eastern and western regions of the northern Pacific. "Gadus morhua" was named by Linnaeus in 1758. (However, "G. morhua callarias", a low-salinity, nonmigratory race restricted to parts of the Baltic, was originally described as "Gadus callarias" by Linnaeus.)


title: Cod

text: Cod is popular as a food with a mild flavour and a dense, flaky, white flesh. Cod livers are processed to make cod liver oil, a common source of vitamin A, vitamin D, vitamin E, and omega-3 fatty acids (EPA and DHA). Young Atlantic cod or haddock prepared in strips for cooking is called scrod. In the United Kingdom, Atlantic cod is one of the most common ingredients in fish and chips, along with haddock and plaice.


title: Cod

text: At various times in the past, taxonomists included many species in the genus "Gadus". Most of these are now either classified in other genera, or have been recognized as forms of one of three species. All these species have a number of common names, most of them ending with the word "cod", whereas other species, as closely related, have other common names (such as pollock and haddock). However, many other, unrelated species also have common names ending with cod. The usage often changes with different localities and at different times.


title: Cod

text: The fourth species of genus Gadus, "Gadus chalcogrammus", is commonly called "Alaska pollock" or "walleye pollock". But there are also less widespread alternative trade names highlighting the fish's belonging to the cod genus, like "snow cod" or "bigeye cod".


title: Cod

text: "Cod" forms part of the common name of many other fish no longer classified in the genus "Gadus". Many are members of the family Gadidae; others are members of three related families within the order Gadiformes whose names include the word "cod": the morid cods, Moridae (100 or so species); the eel cods, Muraenolepididae (four species); and the Eucla cod, Euclichthyidae (one species). The tadpole cod family (Ranicipitidae) has now been placed in Gadidae.


title: Cod

text: Some fish have common names derived from "cod", such as codling, codlet, or tomcod. ("Codling" is also used as a name for a young cod.)


title: Cod

text: Some fish commonly known as cod are unrelated to "Gadus". Part of this name confusion is market-driven. Severely shrunken Atlantic cod stocks have led to the marketing of cod replacements using culinary names of the form ""x" cod", according to culinary rather than phyletic similarity. The common names for the following species have become well established; note that all inhabit the Southern Hemisphere.


title: Cod

text: Almost all coral cod, reef cod or rock cod are also in order Perciformes. Most are better known as groupers, and belong to the family Serranidae. Others belong to the Nototheniidae. Two exceptions are the Australasian red rock cod, which belongs to a different order (see below), and the fish known simply as the rock cod and as soft cod in New Zealand, "Lotella rhacina", which as noted above actually is related to the true cod (it is a morid cod).


title: Cod

text: The tadpole cod family, Ranicipitidae, and the Eucla cod family, Euclichthyidae, were formerly classified in the order Ophidiiformes, but are now grouped with the Gadiformes.


title: Cod

text: Some fish that do not have "cod" in their names are sometimes sold as cod. Haddock and whiting belong to the same family, the Gadidae, as cod.


title: Cod

text: Cods of the genus "Gadus" have three rounded dorsal and two anal fins. The pelvic fins are small, with the first ray extended, and are set under the gill cover (i.e. the throat region), in front of the pectoral fins. The upper jaw extends over the lower jaw, which has a well-developed chin barbel. The eyes are medium-sized, approximately the same as the length of the chin barbel. Cod have a distinct white lateral line running from the gill slit above the pectoral fin, to the base of the caudal or tail fin. The back tends to be a greenish to sandy brown, and shows extensive mottling, especially towards the lighter sides and white belly. Dark brown colouration of the back and sides is not uncommon, especially for individuals that have resided in rocky inshore regions.


title: Cod

text: The Atlantic cod can change colour at certain water depths. It has two distinct colour phases: gray-green and reddish brown. Its average weight is , but specimens weighing up to have been recorded. Pacific cod are smaller than Atlantic cod and are darker in colour.


title: Cod

text: Atlantic cod ("Gadus morhua") live in the colder waters and deeper sea regions throughout the North Atlantic. Pacific cod ("Gadus macrocephalus") is found in both eastern and western regions of the Pacific.


title: Cod

text: Atlantic cod divide into several stocks, including the Arcto-Norwegian, North Sea, Baltic Sea, Faroe, Iceland, East Greenland, West Greenland, Newfoundland, and Labrador stocks. There seems to be little interchange between the stocks, although migrations to their individual breeding grounds may involve distances of or more. For instance, eastern Baltic cod shows specific reproductive adaptations to low salinity compared to Western Baltic and Atlantic cod.


title: Cod

text: Atlantic cod occupy varied habitat, favouring rough ground, especially inshore, and are demersal in depths between , on average, although not uncommonly to depths of . Off the Norwegian and New England coasts and on the Grand Banks of Newfoundland, cod congregate at certain seasons in water of depth. Cod are gregarious and form schools, although shoaling tends to be a feature of the spawning season.


title: Cod

text: Spawning of northeastern Atlantic cod occurs between January and April (March and April are the peak months), at a depth of in specific spawning grounds at water temperatures between . Around the UK, the major spawning grounds are in the middle to southern North Sea, the start of the Bristol Channel (north of Newquay), the Irish Channel (both east and west of the Isle of Man), around Stornoway, and east of Helmsdale.


title: Cod

text: Prespawning courtship involves fin displays and male grunting, which leads to pairing. The male inverts himself beneath the female, and the pair swim in circles while spawning. The eggs are planktonic and hatch between eight and 23 days, with larva reaching in length. This planktonic phase lasts some ten weeks, enabling the young cod to increase its body weight by 40-fold, and growing to about . The young cod then move to the seabed and change their diet to small benthic crustaceans, such as isopods and small crabs. They increase in size to in the first six months, by the end of their first year, and to by the end of the second. Growth tends to be less at higher latitudes. Cod reach maturity at about at about 3 to 4 years of age. Changes in growth rate over decades of particular stocks have been reported, current eastern Baltic cod shows the lowest growth observed since 1955.


title: Cod

text: Adult cod are active hunters, feeding on sand eels, whiting, haddock, small cod, squid, crabs, lobsters, mussels, worms, mackerel, and molluscs.


title: Cod

text: In the Baltic Sea the most important prey species are herring and sprat. Many studies that analyze the stomach contents of these fish indicate that cod is the top predator, preying on the herring and sprat. Sprat form particularly high concentrations in the Bornholm Basin in the southern Baltic Sea. Although cod feed primarily on adult sprat, sprat tend to prey on the cod eggs and larvae.


title: Cod

text: Cod and related species are plagued by parasites. For example, the cod worm, "Lernaeocera branchialis", starts life as a copepod-like larva, a small free-swimming crustacean. The first host used by the larva is a flatfish or lumpsucker, which it captures with grasping hooks at the front of its body. It penetrates the fish with a thin filament, which it uses to suck the fish's blood. The nourished larvae then mate on the fish. The female larva, with her now fertilized eggs, then finds a cod, or a cod-like fish such as a haddock or whiting. There the larva clings to the gills while it metamorphoses into a plump sinusoidal wormlike body with a coiled mass of egg strings at the rear. The front part of the worm's body penetrates the body of the cod until it enters the rear bulb of the host's heart. There, firmly rooted in the cod's circulatory system, the front part of the parasite develops like the branches of a tree, reaching into the main artery. In this way, the worm extracts nutrients from the cod's blood, remaining safely tucked beneath the cod's gill cover until it releases a new generation of offspring into the water.


title: Cod

text: The 2006 northwest Atlantic cod quota is 23,000 tons, representing half the available stocks, while the northeast Atlantic quota is 473,000 tons. Pacific cod is currently enjoying strong global demand. The 2006 total allowable catch (TAC) for the Gulf of Alaska and Aleutian Islands was 260,000 tons.


title: Cod

text: Farming of Atlantic cod has received a significant amount of interest due to the overall trend of increasing cod prices alongside reduced wild catches. However, progress in creating large scale farming of cod has been slow, mainly due to bottlenecks in the larval production stage, where survival and growth are often unpredictable. It has been suggested that this bottleneck may be overcome by ensuring cod larvae are fed diets with similar nutritional content as the copepods they feed on in the wild Recent examples have shown that increasing dietary levels of minerals such as selenium, iodine and zinc may improve survival and/or biomarkers for health in aquaculture reared cod larvae.


title: Cod

text: Cod is popular as a food with a mild flavor and a dense, flaky white flesh. Cod livers are processed to make cod liver oil, an important source of vitamin A, vitamin D, vitamin E and omega-3 fatty acids (EPA and DHA).


title: Cod

text: Young Atlantic cod or haddock prepared in strips for cooking is called scrod. In the United Kingdom, Atlantic cod is one of the most common ingredients in fish and chips, along with haddock and plaice. Cod's soft liver can be tinned (canned) and eaten.


title: Cod

text: Cod has been an important economic commodity in international markets since the Viking period (around 800 AD). Norwegians travelled with dried cod and soon a dried cod market developed in southern Europe. This market has lasted for more than 1,000 years, enduring the Black Death, wars and other crises, and is still an important Norwegian fish trade. The Portuguese began fishing cod in the 15th century. Clipfish is widely enjoyed in Portugal. The Basques played an important role in the cod trade, and allegedly found the Canadian fishing banks before Columbus' discovery of America. The North American east coast developed in part due to the vast cod stocks. Many cities in the New England area are located near cod fishing grounds. The fish was so important to the history and development of Massachusetts, the state's House of Representatives hung a wood carving of a codfish, known as the Sacred Cod of Massachusetts, in its chambers.


title: Cod

text: Apart from the long history, cod differ from most fish because the fishing grounds are far from population centers. The large cod fisheries along the coast of North Norway (and in particular close to the Lofoten islands) have been developed almost uniquely for export, depending on sea transport of stockfish over large distances. Since the introduction of salt, dried and salted cod (clipfish or 'klippfisk' in Norwegian) has also been exported. By the end of the 14th century, the Hanseatic League dominated trade operations and sea transport, with Bergen as the most important port.


title: Cod

text: William Pitt the Elder, criticizing the Treaty of Paris in Parliament, claimed cod was "British gold"; and that it was folly to restore Newfoundland fishing rights to the French.


title: Cod

text: In the 17th and 18th centuries in the New World, especially in Massachusetts and Newfoundland, cod became a major commodity, creating trade networks and cross-cultural exchanges. In 1733, Britain tried to gain control over trade between New England and the British Caribbean by imposing the Molasses Act, which they believed would eliminate the trade by making it unprofitable. The cod trade grew instead, because the "French were eager to work with the New Englanders in a lucrative contraband arrangement". In addition to increasing trade, the New England settlers organized into a "codfish aristocracy". The colonists rose up against Britain's "tariff on an import".


title: Cod

text: In the 20th century, Iceland re-emerged as a fishing power and entered the Cod Wars. In the late 20th and early 21st centuries, fishing off the European and American coasts severely depleted stocks and become a major political issue. The necessity of restricting catches to allow stocks to recover upset the fishing industry and politicians who are reluctant to hurt employment.


title: Cod

text: In 1992 the Canadian Federal Minister of Fisheries and Oceans, John Crosbie, declared a moratorium on the Northern Cod fishery, which for the preceding 500 years had largely shaped the lives and communities of Canada's eastern coast. Fishing societies interplay with the resources which they depend on: fisheries transform the ecosystem, which pushes the fishery and society to adapt. In the summer of 1992, when the Northern Cod biomass fell to 1% of earlier levels, Canada's federal government saw that this relationship had been pushed to the breaking point, and declared a moratorium, ending the region's 500-year run with the Northern Cod.


title: Cod

text: Observations on the reduced number and size of cod, and concerns of fishermen and marine biologists was offered, but generally ignored in favour of the uncertain science and harmful federal policies of Canada's Department of Fisheries and Oceans until the undeniable complete collapse of the fishery. According to any reasonable analysis, the collapse was first due to massive overfishing. Second, the dependence for maintenance of the fishery itself on the nutrient cycle that was being disrupted by removal of megatons of biomass from a closed system resulted in the starvation of the residual fish.


title: Narcolepsy

text: Narcolepsy is a long-term neurological disorder that involves a decreased ability to regulate sleep–wake cycles. Symptoms often include periods of excessive daytime sleepiness and brief involuntary sleep episodes. About 70% of those affected also experience episodes of sudden loss of muscle strength, known as cataplexy. Narcolepsy paired with cataplexy is evidenced to be an autoimmune disorder. These experiences of cataplexy can be brought on by strong emotions. Less commonly, there may be vivid hallucinations or an inability to move (sleep paralysis) while falling asleep or waking up. People with narcolepsy tend to sleep about the same number of hours per day as people without, but the quality of sleep tends to be lessened.


title: Narcolepsy

text: Narcolepsy is a clinical syndrome of hypothalamic disorder, however, the exact cause of narcolepsy is unknown, with potentially several causes. In up to 10% of cases, there is a family history of the disorder. Often, those affected have low levels of the neuropeptide "orexin", which may be due to an autoimmune disorder triggered in genetically susceptible individuals by infection with H1N1 influenza. In rare cases, narcolepsy can be caused by traumatic brain injury, tumors, or other diseases affecting the parts of the brain that regulate wakefulness or REM sleep. Diagnosis is typically based on the symptoms and sleep studies, after ruling out other potential causes. Excessive daytime sleepiness can also be caused by other sleep disorders such as sleep apnea, major depressive disorder, anemia, heart failure, drinking alcohol and not getting enough sleep. Cataplexy may be mistaken for seizures.


title: Narcolepsy

text: While there is no cure, a number of lifestyle changes and medications may help. Lifestyle changes include taking regular short naps and sleep hygiene. Medications used include modafinil, sodium oxybate and methylphenidate. While initially effective, tolerance to the benefits may develop over time. Tricyclic antidepressants and selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) may improve cataplexy.


title: Narcolepsy

text: Estimates of frequency range from 0.2 to 600 per 100,000 people in various countries. The condition often begins in childhood, with males and females being affected equally. Untreated narcolepsy increases the risk of motor vehicle collisions and falls.


title: Narcolepsy

text: Narcolepsy can occur anytime between early childhood and 50 years typically, however, there is no upper age limit to getting it, 15 and 36 years of age being the peak time periods of when it occurs.


title: Narcolepsy

text: There are two main characteristics of narcolepsy: excessive daytime sleepiness and abnormal REM sleep. Excessive daytime sleepiness occurs even after adequate night time sleep. A person with narcolepsy is likely to become drowsy or fall asleep, often at inappropriate or undesired times and places, or just be very tired throughout the day. Narcoleptics may not be able to experience the amount of restorative deep sleep that healthy people experience due to abnormal REM regulation – they are not "over-sleeping". Narcoleptics typically have higher REM sleep density than non-narcoleptics, but also experience more REM sleep without atonia. Many narcoleptics have sufficient REM sleep, but do not feel refreshed or alert throughout the day. This can feel like living their entire lives in a constant state of sleep deprivation.


title: Narcolepsy

text: Excessive sleepiness can vary in severity, and it appears most commonly during monotonous situations that don't require much interaction. Daytime naps may occur with little warning and may be physically irresistible. These naps can occur several times a day. They are typically refreshing, but only for a few hours or less. Vivid dreams may be experienced on a regular basis, even during very brief naps. Drowsiness may persist for prolonged periods or remain constant. In addition, night-time sleep may be fragmented, with frequent awakenings. A second prominent symptom of narcolepsy is abnormal REM sleep. Narcoleptics are unique in that they enter into the REM phase of sleep in the beginnings of sleep, even when sleeping during the day.


title: Narcolepsy

text: The classic symptoms of the disorder, often referred to as the "tetrad of narcolepsy," are cataplexy, sleep paralysis, hypnagogic hallucinations, and excessive daytime sleepiness. Other symptoms may include automatic behaviors and night-time wakefulness. These symptoms may not occur in all people with narcolepsy.


title: Narcolepsy

text: In most cases, the first symptom of narcolepsy to appear is excessive and overwhelming daytime sleepiness. The other symptoms may begin alone or in combination months or years after the onset of the daytime naps. There are wide variations in the development, severity, and order of appearance of cataplexy, sleep paralysis, and hypnagogic hallucinations in individuals. Only about 20 to 25 percent of people with narcolepsy experience all four symptoms. The excessive daytime sleepiness generally persists throughout life, but sleep paralysis and hypnagogic hallucinations may not.


title: Narcolepsy

text: Many people with narcolepsy also have insomnia for extended periods of time. The excessive daytime sleepiness and cataplexy often become severe enough to cause serious problems in a person's social, personal, and professional life. Normally, when an individual is awake, brain waves show a regular rhythm. When a person first falls asleep, the brain waves become slower and less regular, which is called non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep. After about an hour and a half of NREM sleep, the brain waves begin to show a more active pattern again, called REM sleep (rapid eye movement sleep), when most remembered dreaming occurs. Associated with the EEG-observed waves during REM sleep, muscle atonia is present called REM atonia.


title: Narcolepsy

text: In narcolepsy, the order and length of NREM and REM sleep periods are disturbed, with REM sleep occurring at sleep onset instead of after a period of NREM sleep. Also, some aspects of REM sleep that normally occur only during sleep, like lack of muscular control, sleep paralysis, and vivid dreams, occur at other times in people with narcolepsy. For example, the lack of muscular control can occur during wakefulness in a cataplexy episode; it is said that there is an intrusion of REM atonia during wakefulness. Sleep paralysis and vivid dreams can occur while falling asleep or waking up. Simply put, the brain does not pass through the normal stages of dozing and deep sleep but goes directly into (and out of) rapid eye movement (REM) sleep.


title: Narcolepsy

text: As a consequence night time sleep does not include as much deep sleep, so the brain tries to "catch up" during the day, hence excessive daytime sleepiness. People with narcolepsy may visibly fall asleep at unpredicted moments (such motions as head bobbing are common). People with narcolepsy fall quickly into what appears to be very deep sleep, and they wake up suddenly and can be disoriented when they do (dizziness is a common occurrence). They have very vivid dreams, which they often remember in great detail. People with narcolepsy may dream even when they only fall asleep for a few seconds. Along with vivid dreaming, people with narcolepsy are known to have audio or visual hallucinations prior to falling asleep.


title: Narcolepsy

text: Narcoleptics can gain excess weight; children can gain 20 to 40 lb (9 to 18 kg) when they first develop narcolepsy; in adults the body-mass index is about 15% above average.


title: Narcolepsy

text: The exact cause of narcolepsy is unknown, and it may be caused by several distinct factors. The mechanism involves the loss of orexin-releasing neurons within the lateral hypothalamus (about 70,000 neurons).


title: Narcolepsy

text: Some researches indicated that people with type 1 narcolepsy (narcolepsy with cataplexy) have a lower level of orexin (hypocretin), which is a chemical contributing to the regulation of wakefulness and REM Sleep. It also acts as a neurotransmitter to enable nerve cells to communicate.


title: Narcolepsy

text: In up to 10% of cases there is a family history of the disorder. Family history is more common in narcolepsy with cataplexy. There is a strong link with certain genetic variants, which may make T-cells susceptible to react to the orexin-releasing neurons (autoimmunity) after being stimulated by infection with H1N1 influenza. In addition to genetic factors, low levels of orexin peptides have been correlated with a history of infection, diet, contact with toxins such as pesticides, and brain injuries due to head trauma, brain tumors or strokes.


title: Narcolepsy

text: The primary genetic factor that has been strongly implicated in the development of narcolepsy involves an area of chromosome 6 known as the human leukocyte antigen (HLA) complex. Specific variations in HLA genes are strongly correlated with the presence of narcolepsy (HLA DQB1*06:02, frequently in combination with HLA DRB1*15:01); however, these variations are not required for the condition to occur and sometimes occur in individuals without narcolepsy. These genetic variations in the HLA complex are thought to increase the risk of an auto-immune response to orexin-releasing neurons in the lateral hypothalamus.


title: Narcolepsy

text: The allele HLA-DQB1*06:02 of the human gene HLA-DQB1 was reported in more than 90% of people with narcolepsy, and alleles of other HLA genes such as HLA-DQA1*01:02 have been linked. A 2009 study found a strong association with polymorphisms in the TRAC gene locus (dbSNP IDs rs1154155, rs12587781, and rs1263646). A 2013 review article reported additional but weaker links to the loci of the genes TNFSF4 (rs7553711), Cathepsin H (rs34593439), and P2RY11-DNMT1 (rs2305795). Another gene locus that has been associated with narcolepsy is EIF3G (rs3826784).


title: Narcolepsy

text: Type 1 narcolepsy is caused by hypocretin/orexin neuronal loss. T-cells have been demonstrated to be cross-reactive to both a particular piece of the hemagglutinin flu protein of the pandemic 2009 H1N1 and the amidated terminal ends of the secreted hypocretin peptides.


title: Narcolepsy

text: Genes associated with narcolepsy mark the particular HLA heterodimer (DQ0602) involved in presentation of these antigens and modulate expression of the specific T cell receptor segments (TRAJ24 and TRBV4-2) involved in T cell receptor recognition of these antigens, suggesting causality.


title: Narcolepsy

text: A link between GlaxoSmithKline's H1N1 flu vaccine Pandemrix and narcolepsy has been found in both children and adults. In 2010, Finland's National Institute of Health and Welfare recommended that Pandemrix vaccinations be suspended pending further investigation into narcolepsy. In 2018, it was demonstrated that T-cells stimulated by Pandemrix were cross-reactive by molecular mimicry with part of the hypocretin peptide, the loss of which is associated with type I narcolepsy.


title: Narcolepsy

text: Orexin, otherwise known as hypocretin, is a neuropeptide that acts within the brain to regulate appetite and wakefulness as well as a number of other cognitive and physiological processes. Loss of these orexin-producing neurons causes narcolepsy and most individuals with narcolepsy have a reduced number of these neurons in their brains. Selective destruction of the HCRT/OX neurons with preservation of proximate structures suggests a highly specific autoimmune pathophysiology. Cerebrospinal fluid HCRT-1/OX-A is undetectable in up to 95% of patients with type 1 narcolepsy.


title: Narcolepsy

text: The system which regulates sleep, arousal, and transitions between these states in humans is composed of three interconnected subsystems: the orexin projections from the lateral hypothalamus, the reticular activating system, and the ventrolateral preoptic nucleus. In narcoleptic individuals, these systems are all associated with impairments due to a greatly reduced number of hypothalamic orexin projection neurons and significantly fewer orexin neuropeptides in cerebrospinal fluid and neural tissue, compared to non-narcoleptic individuals. Those with narcolepsy generally experience the REM stage of sleep within five minutes of falling asleep, while people who do not have narcolepsy (unless they are significantly sleep deprived) do not experience REM until after a period of slow-wave sleep, which lasts for about the first hour or so of a sleep cycle.