title: Lynching

text: Mob violence arose as a means of enforcing White supremacy and it frequently verged on systematic political terrorism. After the American Civil War, secret white supremacist terrorist groups such as the Ku Klux Klan instigated extrajudicial assaults and killings due to a perceived loss of white power in America. Mobs usually alleged crimes for which they lynched Black people in order to instil fear. In the late 19th century, however, journalist Ida B. Wells showed that many presumed crimes were either exaggerated or had not even occurred. The magnitude of the extralegal violence which occurred during election campaigns, to prevent blacks from voting, reached epidemic proportions. The ideology behind lynching, directly connected to the denial of political and social equality, was stated forthrightly in 1900 by United States Senator Benjamin Tillman, who was previously governor of South Carolina:


title: Lynching

text: Members of mobs that participated in lynchings often took photographs of what they had done to their victims. Souvenir taking, such as the taking of pieces of rope, clothing, branches and sometimes body parts was not uncommon. Some of those photographs were published and sold as postcards.


title: Lynching

text: The Dyer Anti-Lynching Bill was first introduced to the United States Congress in 1918 by Republican Congressman Leonidas C. Dyer of St. Louis, Missouri. The bill was passed by the United States House of Representatives in 1922, and in the same year it was given a favorable report by the United States Senate Committee. Its passage was blocked by White Democratic senators from the Solid South, the only representatives elected since the southern states had disenfranchised African Americans around the start of the 20th century. The Dyer Bill influenced later anti-lynching legislation, including the Costigan-Wagner Bill, which was also defeated in the US Senate.


title: Lynching

text: The song "Strange Fruit" was composed by Abel Meeropol in 1937, inspired by the photograph of a lynching in Marion, Indiana. Meeropol said that the photograph "haunted me for days". It was published as a poem in the "New York Teacher" and later in the magazine "New Masses", in both cases under the pseudonym Lewis Allan. The poem was set to music, also by Meeropol, and the song was performed and popularized by Billie Holiday. The song reached 16th place on the charts in July 1939. The song has been performed by many other singers, including Nina Simone.


title: Lynching

text: By the 1950s, the Civil rights movement was gaining new momentum. It was spurred by the lynching of Emmett Till, a 14-year-old youth from Chicago who was killed while visiting an uncle in Mississippi. His mother insisted on having an open-casket funeral so that people could see how badly her son had been beaten. The Black community throughout the U.S. became mobilized. Vann R. Newkirk wrote "the trial of his killers became a pageant illuminating the tyranny of white supremacy". The state of Mississippi tried two defendants, but they were acquitted by an all-White jury. David Jackson writes that it was the photograph of the "child's ravaged body, that forced the world to reckon with the brutality of American racism."


title: Lynching

text: Most lynchings ceased by the 1960s, but even in 2021 there were claims that racist lynchings still happen in the United States, being covered up as suicides.


title: Lynching

text: In 2018, The National Memorial for Peace and Justice was opened in Montgomery, Alabama, a memorial that commemorates the victims of lynchings in the United States.


title: Lynching

text: On March 29, 2022, President Joe Biden signed the Emmett Till Antilynching Act of 2022 into law, which classified lynching as a federal hate crime.


title: Lynching

text: In Liverpool, a series of race riots between White and Black sailors broke out in 1919 after the end of the First World War, many of whom had been demobilized. After a Black sailor had been stabbed by two White sailors in a pub for refusing to give them a cigarette, his friends attacked them the next day in revenge, wounding a policeman in the process. The police responded by launching raids on lodging houses in primarily Black neighborhoods, with casualties on both sides. A White lynch mob gathered outside the houses during the raids and chased a Black sailor, Charles Wootton, into the Mersey River where he drowned. The Charles Wootton College in Liverpool has been named in his memory.


title: Lynching

text: In 1944, Wolfgang Rosterg, a German prisoner of war known to be unsympathetic to the Nazi regime, was lynched by other German prisoners of war in Cultybraggan Camp, a prisoner-of-war camp in Comrie, Scotland. At the end of the Second World War, five of the perpetrators were hanged at Pentonville Prison – the largest multiple execution in 20th-century Britain.


title: Lynching

text: The situation is less clear with regards to reported "lynchings" in Germany. Nazi propaganda sometimes tried to depict state-sponsored violence as spontaneous lynchings. The most notorious instance of this was "Kristallnacht", which the government portrayed as the result of "popular wrath" against Jews, but it was carried out in an organised and planned manner, mainly by SS men. Similarly, the approximately 150 confirmed murders of surviving crew members of crashed Allied aircraft in revenge for what Nazi propaganda called "Anglo-American bombing terror" were chiefly conducted by German officials and members of the police or the Gestapo, although civilians sometimes took part in them. The execution of enemy aircrew without trial in some cases had been ordered by Hitler personally in May 1944. It was publicly announced that enemy pilots would no longer be protected from "public wrath". There were secret orders issued that prohibited policemen and soldiers from interfering in favor of the enemy in conflicts between civilians and Allied forces, or prosecuting civilians who engaged in such acts. In summary,


title: Lynching

text: On March 19, 1988, two plain-clothes British soldiers drove straight towards a Provisional IRA funeral procession near Milltown Cemetery in Andersonstown, Belfast. The men were mistaken for Special Air Service members, surrounded by the crowd, dragged out, beaten, kicked, stabbed and eventually shot dead at a waste ground.


title: Lynching

text: Lynching of members of the Turkish Armed Forces occurred in the aftermath of the 2016 Turkish "coup d'état" attempt.


title: Lynching

text: Lynchings are a persistent form of extralegal violence in post-Revolutionary Mexico. A number of them have involved religious motivations.


title: Lynching

text: On September 14, 1968, five employees from the Autonomous University of Puebla were lynched in the village of San Miguel Canoa, in the state of Puebla, after Enrique Meza Pérez, the local priest, incited the villagers to murder the employees, who he believed were communists. The five victims intended to enjoy their holiday climbing La Malinche, a nearby mountain, but they had to stay in the village due to adverse weather conditions. Two of the employees, and the owner of the house where they were staying for the night, were killed; the three survivors sustained serious injuries, including finger amputations.


title: Lynching

text: The alleged main instigators were not prosecuted. The few arrested were released after no evidence was found against them.


title: Lynching

text: On November 23, 2004, in the Tláhuac lynching, three Mexican undercover federal agents investigating a narcotics-related crime were lynched in the town of San Juan Ixtayopan (Mexico City) by an angry crowd who saw them taking photographs and suspected that they were trying to abduct children from a primary school. The agents immediately identified themselves but they were held and beaten for several hours before two of them were killed and set on fire. The incident was covered by the media almost from the beginning, including their pleas for help and their murder.


title: Lynching

text: By the time police rescue units arrived, two of the agents were reduced to charred corpses and the third was seriously injured. Authorities suspect that the lynching was provoked by the persons who were being investigated.


title: Lynching

text: Both local and federal authorities had abandoned the agents, saying that the town was too far away for them to try to intervene. Some officials said they would provoke a massacre if the authorities tried to rescue the men from the mob.


title: Lynching

text: According to "The Wall Street Journal", "Over the past 60 years, as many as 1.5 million Brazilians have taken part in lynchings...In Brazil, mobs now kill—or try to kill—more than one suspected lawbreaker a day, according to University of São Paulo sociologist José de Souza Martins, Brazil's leading expert on lynchings."


title: Lynching

text: On July 21, 1946, a rioting mob of striking students, teachers, and miners in the Bolivian capital of La Paz lynched various government officials including President Gualberto Villarroel himself. After storming the government palace, members of the mob shot the president and threw his body out of a window. In the Plaza Murillo outside the government palace, Villarroel's body was lynched, his clothes torn, and his almost naked corpse hung on a lamp post. Other victims of the lynching included Director General of Transit Max Toledo, Captain Waldo Ballivián, Luis Uría de la Oliva, the president's secretary, and the journalist Roberto Hinojosa.


title: Lynching

text: Extrajudicial punishment, including lynching, of alleged criminals who committed various crimes, ranging from theft to murder, has some endorsement in Dominican society. According to a 2014 Latinobarómetro survey, the Dominican Republic had the highest rate of acceptance in Latin America of such unlawful measures. These issues are particularly evident in the Northern Region.


title: Lynching

text: After the 2010 earthquake the slow distribution of relief supplies and the large number of affected people created concerns about civil unrest, marked by looting and mob justice against suspected looters. In a 2010 news story, CNN reported, "At least 45 people, most of them Vodou priests, have been lynched in Haiti since the beginning of the cholera epidemic by angry mobs blaming them for the spread of the disease, officials said.


title: Lynching

text: The practice of whipping and necklacing offenders and political opponents evolved in the 1980s during the apartheid era in South Africa. Residents of Black townships formed "people's courts" and used whip lashings and deaths by necklacing in order to terrorize fellow Blacks who were seen as collaborators with the government. Necklacing is the torture and execution of a victim by igniting a kerosene-filled rubber tire that has been forced around the victim's chest and arms. Necklacing was used to punish victims who were alleged to be traitors to the Black liberation movement along with their relatives and associates. Sometimes the "people's courts" made mistakes, or they used the system to punish those whom the anti-Apartheid movement's leaders opposed. A tremendous controversy arose when the practice was endorsed by Winnie Mandela, then the wife of the then-imprisoned Nelson Mandela and a senior member of the African National Congress.


title: Lynching

text: More recently, drug dealers and other gang members have been lynched by People Against Gangsterism and Drugs, a vigilante organization.


title: Lynching

text: The practice of extrajudicial punishments, including lynching, is referred to as 'jungle justice' in Nigeria. The practice is widespread and "an established part of Nigerian society", predating the existence of the police. Exacted punishments vary between a "muddy treatment", that is, being made to roll in the mud for hours and severe beatings followed by necklacing. The case of the "Aluu four" sparked national outrage. The absence of a functioning judicial system and law enforcement, coupled with corruption are blamed for the continuing existence of the practice.


title: Lynching

text: There are frequent lynchings in Kenya, often as a mob executes a person they feel is guilty. McKee (2021) is written largely with reference to a Kenya Lynchings Database that includes reports of over 2,900 lynched persons for Kenya for the years ca. 1980-2021. That number, however, is just a fraction of the total for that period, which may well exceed 10,000.


title: Lynching

text: Palestinian lynch mobs have murdered Palestinians suspected of collaborating with Israel. According to a Human Rights Watch report from 2001:


title: Lynching

text: On October 12, 2000, the Ramallah lynching took place. This happened at the el-Bireh police station, where a Palestinian crowd killed and mutilated the bodies of two Israel Defense Forces reservists, Vadim Norzhich (Nurzhitz) and Yosef "Yossi" Avrahami, who had accidentally entered the Palestinian Authority-controlled city of Ramallah in the West Bank and were taken into custody by Palestinian Authority policemen. The Israeli reservists were beaten and stabbed. At this point, a Palestinian (later identified as Aziz Salha), appeared at the window, displaying his blood-soaked hands to the crowd, which erupted into cheers. The crowd clapped and cheered as one of the soldier's bodies was then thrown out the window and stamped and beaten by the frenzied crowd. One of the two was shot, set on fire, and his head beaten to a pulp. Soon after, the crowd dragged the two mutilated bodies to Al-Manara Square in the city center and began an impromptu victory celebration. Police officers proceeded to try and confiscate footage from reporters.


title: Lynching

text: On October 18, 2015, an Eritrean asylum seeker, Haftom Zarhum, was lynched by a mob of vengeful Israeli soldiers in Be'er Sheva's central bus station. Israeli security forces misidentified Haftom as the person who shot an Israeli police bus and shot him. Moments after, other security forces joined shooting Haftom when he was bleeding on the ground. Then, a soldier hit him with a bench nearby when two other soldiers approached the victim then forcefully kicked his head and upper body. Another soldier threw a bench over him to prevent his movement. At that moment a bystander pushed the bench away but the security forces put back the chair and kicked the victim again and pushed the stopper away. Israeli medical forces did not evacuate the victim until eighteen minutes after the first shooting although the victim received 8 shots. In January 2016 four security forces were charged in connection with the lynching. The Israeli civilian who was involved in lynching the Eritrean civilian was sentenced to 100 days community service and 2,000 shekels.


title: Lynching

text: In August 2012, seven Israeli youths were arrested in Jerusalem for what several witnesses described as an attempted lynching of several Palestinian teenagers. The Palestinians received medical treatment and judicial support from Israeli facilities.


title: Lynching

text: In India, lynchings may reflect internal tensions between ethnic communities. Communities sometimes lynch individuals who are accused or suspected of committing crimes. Sociologists and social scientists reject attributing racial discrimination to the caste system and attributed such events to intra-racial ethno-cultural conflicts.


title: Lynching

text: There have been numerous lynchings in relation to cow vigilante violence in India since 2014, mainly involving Hindu mobs lynching Indian Muslims and Dalits. Some notable examples of such attacks include the 2015 Dadri mob lynching, the 2016 Jharkhand mob lynching, 2017 Alwar mob lynching. and the 2019 Jharkhand mob lynching. Mob lynching was reported for the third time in Alwar in July 2018, when a group of cow vigilantes killed a 31 year old Muslim man named Rakbar Khan.


title: Lynching

text: In 2006, four members of a Dalit family were slaughtered by Kunbi caste members in khairlanji, a village in the Bhandara district of Maharashtra.


title: Lynching

text: In the 2015 Dimapur mob lynching, a mob in Dimapur, Nagaland, broke into a jail and lynched an accused rapist on March 5, 2015 while he was awaiting trial.


title: Lynching

text: Since May 2017, when seven people were lynched in Jharkhand, India has experienced another spate of mob-related violence and killings known as the Indian WhatsApp lynchings following the spread of fake news, primarily relating to child-abduction and organ harvesting, via the Whatsapp message service.


title: Lynching

text: In 2018 Junior civil aviation minister of India had garlanded and honoured eight men who had been convicted in the lynching of trader Alimuddin Ansari in Ramgarh in June 2017 in a case of alleged cow vigilantism.


title: Lynching

text: In June 2019, the Jharkhand mob lynching triggered widespread protests. The victim was a Muslim man named Tabrez Ansari and was allegedly forced to chant Hindu slogans, including ""Jai Shri Ram"".


title: Lynching

text: In July 2019, three men were beaten to death and lynched by mobs in Chhapra district of Bihar, on a minor case of theft of cattle.


title: Lynching

text: Also in 2019, villagers in Jharkhand lynched four people on witchcraft suspicion, after panchayat decided that they were practicing black magic.


title: Lynching

text: On March 19, 2015 in Kabul, Afghanistan a large crowd beat a young woman, Farkhunda, after she was accused by a local mullah of burning a copy of the Quran, Islam's holy book. Shortly afterwards, a crowd attacked her and beat her to death. They set the young woman's body on fire on the shore of the Kabul River. Although it was unclear whether the woman had burned the Quran, police officials and the clerics in the city defended the lynching, saying that the crowd had a right to defend their faith at all costs. They warned the government against taking action against those who had participated in the lynching. The event was filmed and shared on social media. The day after the incident six men were arrested on accusations of lynching, and Afghanistan's government promised to continue the investigation. On March 22, 2015, Farkhunda's burial was attended by a large crowd of Kabul residents; many demanded that she receive justice. A group of Afghan women carried her coffin, chanted slogans and demanded justice.


title: Hampshire

text: Hampshire (, ; abbreviated to Hants) is a ceremonial and non-metropolitan county in western South East England on the coast of the English Channel. Home to two major English cities on its south coast, Southampton and Portsmouth, Hampshire is the 9th-most populous county in England. The county town of Hampshire is Winchester, located in the north of the county. The county is bordered by Dorset to the south-west, Wiltshire to the north-west, Berkshire to the north, Surrey to the north-east, and West Sussex to the south east. The county is geographically diverse, with upland rising to and mostly south-flowing rivers. There are areas of downland and marsh, and two national parks: the New Forest and part of the South Downs, which together cover 45 per cent of Hampshire.


title: Hampshire

text: Settled about 14,000 years ago, Hampshire's recorded history dates to Roman Britain, when its chief town was Venta Belgarum (now Winchester). The county was recorded in Domesday Book as divided into 44 hundreds. From the 12th century, the ports settlements grew due to increasing trade with the European mainland resulting from the wool and cloth, fishing, and shipbuilding industries. This meant by the 16th century, Southampton had become more populous than Winchester. In 20th century conflicts, including World War One and Two, Hampshire played a crucial military role due to its ports.


title: Hampshire

text: At present, the county is divided into 13 non-metropolitan districts. Southampton and Portsmouth are unitary authorities and 7 hold borough status. This means that with the exceptions of Southampton and Portsmouth, the county is locally governed by a combination of the County Council and non-metropolitan district councils. In 1974, The Isle of Wight was made a separate ceremonial county from Hampshire and the towns of Bournemouth and Christchurch were transferred to Dorset.


title: Hampshire

text: Hampshire is the home of Jane Austen, Charles Dickens, and Florence Nightingale, and the birthplace of Isambard Kingdom Brunel.


title: Hampshire

text: The Saxon settlement at Southampton was known as , while the surrounding area or was called . The old name was recorded in the Domesday book as , and it is from this spelling that the modern abbreviation "Hants" derives. From 1889 until 1959, the administrative county was named the County of Southampton. It has also been called Southamptonshire.


title: Hampshire

text: Hampshire was a departure point for several groups of colonists who left England to settle on the east coast of North America during the 17th century, and many inhabitants of Hampshire settled there, naming the land New Hampshire in honour of their original homeland.


title: Hampshire

text: The region is believed to have been continuously occupied since the end of the last Ice Age about 12,000 BCE. At that time sea levels were lower and Britain was still attached by a land bridge to the European continent and predominantly covered with deciduous woodland. The first inhabitants were Mesolithic hunter-gatherers. The majority of the population would have been concentrated around the river valleys. Over several thousand years the climate became progressively warmer and sea levels rose; the English Channel, which started out as a river, was a major inlet by 8000 BCE, although Britain was still connected to Europe by a land bridge across the North Sea until 6500 BCE. Notable sites from this period include Bouldnor Cliff.


title: Hampshire

text: Agriculture was being practised in southern Britain by 4000 BCE and with it a neolithic culture. Some deforestation took place at that time, although during the Bronze Age, beginning in 2200 BCE, it became more widespread and systematic. Hampshire has few monuments to show from those early periods, although nearby Stonehenge was built in several phases at some time between 3100 and 2200 BCE. In the very late Bronze Age fortified hilltop settlements known as hillforts began to appear in large numbers in many parts of Britain including Hampshire, and they became more and more important in the early and middle Iron Age; many of them are still visible in the landscape today and can be visited, notably Danebury Rings, the subject of a major study by archaeologist Barry Cunliffe. By that period the people of Britain predominantly spoke a Celtic language, and their culture shared much in common with the Celts described by classical writers. The town of Bitterne ("Byterne" in a reference from the late 11th century.) shares the same root as the River Erne, suggesting the name refers to the Iverni.


title: Hampshire

text: Hillforts largely declined in importance in the second half of the second century BCE, with many being abandoned. Probably around that period the first recorded invasion of Britain took place, as southern Britain was largely conquered by warrior-elites from Belgic tribes of northeastern Gaul, but whether those two events were linked to the decline of hillforts is unknown. By the time of the Roman conquest the "oppidum" at Venta Belgarum, modern-day Winchester, was the "de facto" regional administrative centre; Winchester was, however, of secondary importance to the Roman-style town of Calleva Atrebatum, modern Silchester, built further north by a dominant Belgic polity known as the Atrebates in the 50s BCE. Julius Caesar invaded south-eastern England briefly in 55 and again in 54 BCE, but he never reached Hampshire. Notable sites from this period include Hengistbury Head (now in Dorset), which was a major port.


title: Hampshire

text: The Romans invaded Britain again in 43 CE and Hampshire was incorporated into the Roman province of Britannia very quickly. It is generally believed their political leaders allowed themselves to be incorporated peacefully. Venta became the capital of the administrative polity of the Belgae, which included most of Hampshire and Wiltshire and reached as far as Bath. Whether the people of Hampshire played any role in Boudicca's rebellion of 60–61 is not recorded, but evidence of burning is seen in Winchester dated to around that period. For most of the next three centuries southern Britain enjoyed relative peace. During the later part of the Roman period most towns built defensive walls; a pottery industry based in the New Forest exported items widely across southern Britain. A fortification near Southampton was called Clausentum, part of the Saxon Shore forts, traditionally seen as defences against maritime raids by Germanic tribes. The Romans withdrew from Britain in 410.


title: Hampshire

text: Two major Roman roads, Ermin Way and Port Way, cross the north of the county connecting Calleva Atrebatum with Corinium Dobunnorum, modern Cirencester, and Old Sarum respectively. Other roads connected Venta Belgarum with Old Sarum, Wickham and Clausentum. A road presumed to diverge from the Chichester to Silchester Way at Wickham connected Noviomagus Reginorum, modern Chichester, with Clausentum.


title: Hampshire

text: Records are sparse for the next 300 years, but later chroniclers speak of an influx of Jutes – an amalgam of Cimbri, Teutons, Gutones and Charudes called "Eudoses", "Eotenas", "Iutae" or "Euthiones" in other sources - and recorded by Bede in his Ecclesiastical History of the English People in the early eighth century:


title: Hampshire

text: They initially settled Hampshire under Visigothic authority sometime after 476 AD, forming several distinct folklands organized around a central geographical feature. Various place-names identify locations as Jutish, including Bishopstoke ("Ytingstoc"), the River Itchen ("Ytene") and the Meon Valley ("Ytedene"). There in fact appear to be at least two Jutish folklands in Hampshire: one established along the River Itchen and one along the River Meon. Evidence of an early Germanic settlement has been found at Clausentum, dated to the fifth century and likely the Visigothic center of power in the area, either independently or in conjunction with powerful Romano-British trading ports. Nevertheless, Visigothic authority waned after 517 A.D and the settlements were gradually encroached upon by South Saxons.


title: Hampshire

text: The West Saxons moved south in the late seventh century and incorporated Hampshire into their kingdom. Around this period, the administrative region of "Hampshire" seems to appear - the name is attested as Hamwic and "Hamtunscir" in 755 AD - and suggests that control over the Solent was the motivating factor for establishment of the settlement.


title: Hampshire

text: Wessex, with its capital at Winchester, gradually expanded westwards into Brythonic Dorset and Somerset. A statue in Winchester celebrates the powerful King Alfred, who repulsed the Vikings and stabilised the region in the 9th century. A scholar as well as a soldier, the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, a powerful tool in the development of the English identity, was commissioned in his reign. King Alfred proclaimed himself "King of England" in 886 AD; but Athelstan of Wessex did not officially control the whole of England until 927 AD.


title: Hampshire

text: By the Norman conquest, London had overtaken Winchester as the largest city in England and after the Norman Conquest, King William I made London his capital. While the centre of political power moved away from Hampshire, Winchester remained an important city; the proximity of the New Forest to Winchester made it a prized royal hunting forest; King William Rufus was killed while hunting there in 1100. There were 44 hundreds, covering 483 named places, recorded in the Domesday Book of 1086 which are in present-day Hampshire and part of Sussex. From the 12th century, the ports grew in importance, fuelled by trade with the continent, wool and cloth manufacture in the county, and the fishing industry, and a shipbuilding industry was established. By 1523 at the latest, the population of Southampton had outstripped that of Winchester.


title: Hampshire

text: Over several centuries, a series of castles and forts was constructed along the coast of the Solent to defend the harbours at Southampton and Portsmouth. These include the Roman Portchester Castle which overlooks Portsmouth Harbour, and a series of forts built by Henry VIII including Hurst Castle, situated on a sand spit at the mouth of the Solent, Calshot Castle on another spit at the mouth of Southampton Water, and Netley Castle. Southampton and Portsmouth remained important harbours when rivals, such as Poole and Bristol, declined, as they are amongst the few locations that combine shelter with deep water. "Mayflower" and "Speedwell" set sail for America from Southampton in 1620.


title: Hampshire

text: During the English Civil War (1642–1651) there were several skirmishes in Hampshire between the Royalist and Parliamentarian forces. Principal engagements were the Siege of Basing House between 1643 and 1645, and the Battle of Cheriton in 1644; both were significant Parliamentarian victories. Other clashes included the Battle of Alton in 1643, where the commander of the Royalist forces was killed in the pulpit of the parish church, and the Siege of Portsmouth in 1642.


title: Hampshire

text: By the mid-19th century, with the county's population at 219,210 (double that at the beginning of the century) in more than 86,000 dwellings, agriculture was the principal industry (10 per cent of the county was still forest) with cereals, peas, hops, honey, sheep and hogs important. Due to Hampshire's long association with pigs and boars, natives of the county have been known as "Hampshire hogs" since the 18th century. In the eastern part of the county the principal port was Portsmouth (with its naval base, population 95,000), while several ports (including Southampton, with its steam docks, population 47,000) in the western part were significant. In 1868, the number of people employed in manufacture exceeded those in agriculture, engaged in silk, paper, sugar and lace industries, ship building and salt works. Coastal towns engaged in fishing and exporting agricultural produce. Several places were popular for seasonal sea bathing. The ports employed large numbers of workers, both land-based and seagoing; "Titanic", lost on her maiden voyage in 1912, was crewed largely by residents of Southampton.


title: Hampshire

text: On 16 October 1908, Samuel Franklin Cody made the first powered flight of in the United Kingdom at Farnborough, then home to the Army Balloon Factory.


title: Hampshire

text: Hampshire played a crucial role in both World Wars due to the large Royal Navy naval base at Portsmouth, the army camp at Aldershot, and the military Netley Hospital on Southampton Water, as well as its proximity to the army training ranges on Salisbury Plain and the Isle of Purbeck. Supermarine, the designers of the Spitfire and other military aircraft, were based in Southampton, which led to severe bombing of the city in World War II. Aldershot remains one of the British Army's main permanent camps. Farnborough is a major centre for the aviation industry.


title: Hampshire

text: During World War II, the Beaulieu estate of Lord Montagu in the New Forest was the site of several group B finishing schools for agents operated by the Special Operations Executive (SOE) between 1941 and 1945. (One of the trainers was Kim Philby who was later found to be part of a spy ring passing information to the Soviets.) In 2005, a special exhibition was established at the Estate, with a video showing photographs from that era as well as voice recordings of former SOE trainers and agents.


title: Hampshire

text: Although the Isle of Wight has at times been part of Hampshire, it has been administratively independent for over a century, obtaining a county council of its own in 1890. The Isle of Wight became a full ceremonial county in 1974. Apart from a shared police force, no formal administrative links now exist between the Isle of Wight and Hampshire, though many organisations still combine Hampshire and the Isle of Wight.


title: Hampshire

text: In the 1970s, local government reorganisation led to a reduction in Hampshire's size; in 1974, the towns of Bournemouth and Christchurch were transferred to Dorset.


title: Hampshire

text: Hampshire is bordered by Dorset to the west, Wiltshire to the north-west, Berkshire to the north, Surrey to the north-east, and West Sussex to the east. The southern boundary is the coastline of the English Channel and the Solent, facing the Isle of Wight. It is the largest county in South East England and remains the third largest shire county in the United Kingdom despite losing more land than any other English county in all contemporary boundary changes. At its greatest size in 1890, Hampshire was the fifth-largest county in England. It now has an overall area of , and measures about east–west and north–south.


title: Hampshire

text: Hampshire's geology falls into two categories. In the south, along the coast is the "Hampshire Basin", an area of relatively non-resistant Eocene and Oligocene clays and gravels which are protected from sea erosion by the Isle of Purbeck, Dorset, and the Isle of Wight. These low, flat lands support heathland and woodland habitats, a large area of which forms part of the New Forest. The New Forest has a mosaic of heathland, grassland,coniferous and deciduous woodland habitats that host diverse wildlife. The forest is protected as a national park, limiting development and agricultural use to protect the landscape and wildlife. Large areas of the New Forest are open common lands kept as a grassland plagioclimax by grazing animals, including domesticated cattle, pigs and horses, and several wild deer species. Erosion of the weak rock and sea level change flooding the low land has carved several large estuaries and rias, notably the long Southampton Water and the large convoluted Portsmouth Harbour. The Isle of Wight lies off the coast of Hampshire where the non-resistant rock has been eroded away, forming the Solent.


title: Hampshire

text: A 2014 study found that Hampshire shares significant reserves of shale oil with other neighbouring counties, totalling 4.4 billion barrels of oil, which then Business and Energy Minister Michael Fallon said "will bring jobs and business opportunities" and significantly help with UK energy self-sufficiency. Fracking in the area is required to achieve these objectives, which has been opposed by environmental groups.


title: Hampshire

text: Natural England identifies a number of national character areas that lie wholly or partially in Hampshire: the Hampshire Downs, New Forest, South Hampshire Lowlands, South Coast Plain, South Downs, Low Weald and Thames Basin Heaths


title: Hampshire

text: Hampshire contains all its green belt in the New Forest district, in the southwest of the county, from the boundary with Dorset along the coastline to Lymington and northwards to Ringwood. Its boundary is contiguous with the New Forest National Park. The Hampshire portion was first created in 1958. Its function is to control expansion in the South East Dorset conurbation and outlying towns and villages.


title: Hampshire

text: The highest point in Hampshire is Pilot Hill at , in the northwest corner of the county, bordering Berkshire, and there are some 20 other hills exceeding . Butser Hill, at , where the A3 crosses the South Downs, is probably the best known. In the north and centre of the county the substrate is the rocks of the Chalk Group, which form the Hampshire Downs and the South Downs. These are high hills with steep slopes where they border the clays to the south. The hills dip steeply forming a scarp onto the Thames valley to the north, and dip gently to the south. The highest village in Hampshire at about above sea level is Ashmansworth, located between Andover and Newbury.


title: Hampshire

text: The Itchen and Test are trout rivers that flow from the chalk through wooded valleys into Southampton Water. Other important watercourses are the Hamble, Meon, Beaulieu and Lymington rivers. The Hampshire Avon, which links Stonehenge to the sea, passes through Fordingbridge and Ringwood and then forms the modern border between Hampshire and Dorset. The northern branch of the River Wey has its source near Alton and flows east past Bentley. The River Loddon rises at West Ham Farm and flows north through Basingstoke.


title: Hampshire

text: Hampshire's downland supports a calcareous grassland habitat, important for wild flowers and insects. A large area of the downs is now protected from further agricultural damage by the East Hampshire Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty. The River Test has a growing number of otters as, increasingly, does the Itchen, although other areas of the county have quite low numbers. There are wild boar kept for meat in the New Forest, which is known for its ponies and herds of fallow deer, red deer, roe deer, and sika deer as well as a small number of muntjac deer. The deer had been hunted for some 900 years until 1997. An unwelcome relative newcomer is the mink population, descended from animals that escaped or were deliberately released from fur farms since the 1950s, which cause havoc amongst native wildlife.


title: Hampshire

text: Farlington Marshes, of flower-rich grazing marsh and saline lagoon at the north end of Langstone Harbour, is a nature reserve and an internationally important over-wintering site for wildfowl. In a valley on the downs is Selborne; the countryside surrounding the village was the location of Gilbert White's pioneering observations on natural history. Hampshire's county flower is the Dog Rose.


title: Hampshire

text: Hampshire contains two national parks; the New Forest is wholly within the county, and the South Downs National Park embraces parts of Hampshire, West Sussex and East Sussex; they are each overseen by a national park authority.


title: Hampshire

text: Hampshire has a milder climate than most areas of the British Isles, being in the far south with the climate stabilising effect of the sea, but protected against the more extreme weather of the Atlantic coast. Hampshire has a higher average annual temperature than the UK average at , average rainfall at per year, and holds higher than average sunshine totals of around 1,750 hours of sunshine per year.


title: Hampshire

text: "For the complete list of settlements see List of places in Hampshire and List of settlements in Hampshire by population."


title: Hampshire

text: Hampshire's county town is Winchester, a historic city that was once the capital of the ancient kingdom of Wessex and of England until the Norman conquest of England. The port cities of Southampton and Portsmouth were split off as independent unitary authorities in 1997, although they are still included in Hampshire for ceremonial purposes. Fareham, Gosport and Havant have grown into a conurbation that stretches along the coast between the two main cities. The three cities are all university cities, Southampton being home to the University of Southampton and Southampton Solent University (formerly Southampton Institute), Portsmouth to the University of Portsmouth, and Winchester to the University of Winchester (formerly known as University College Winchester; King Alfred's College). The northeast of the county houses the Blackwater Valley conurbation, which includes the towns of Farnborough, Aldershot, Blackwater and Yateley and borders both Berkshire and Surrey.


title: Hampshire

text: Hampshire lies outside the green belt area of restricted development around London, but has good railway and motorway links to the capital, and in common with the rest of the south-east has seen the growth of dormitory towns since the 1960s. Basingstoke, in the northern part of the county, has grown from a country town into a business and financial centre. Aldershot, Portsmouth, and Farnborough have strong military associations with the Army, Royal Navy, and Royal Air Force respectively. The county also includes several market towns: Alresford, Alton, Andover, Bishop's Waltham, Lymington, New Milton, Petersfield, Ringwood, Romsey and Whitchurch.


title: Hampshire

text: At the 2001 census the ceremonial county recorded a population of 1,644,249, of which 1,240,103 were in the administrative county, 217,445 were in the unitary authority of Southampton, and 186,701 were in Portsmouth. The population of the administrative county grew 5.6 per cent from the 1991 census and Southampton grew 6.2 per cent (Portsmouth remained unchanged), compared with 2.6 per cent for England and Wales as a whole. Eastleigh and Winchester grew fastest at 9 per cent each.


title: Hampshire

text: Southampton and Portsmouth are the main settlements within the South Hampshire conurbation, which is home to about half of the ceremonial county's population. The larger South Hampshire metropolitan area has a population of 1,547,000.


title: Hampshire

text: The table below shows the population change up to the 2011 census, contrasting the previous census. It also shows the proportion of residents in each district reliant upon lowest income and/or joblessness benefits, the national average proportion of which was 4.5 per cent (August 2012). The most populous district of Hampshire is New Forest District.


title: Hampshire

text: At the 2011 census, about 89 per cent of residents were white British, falling to 85.87 per cent in Southampton. The significant ethnic minorities were Asian at 2.6 per cent and mixed race at 1.4 per cent; 10 per cent of residents were born outside the UK. 59.7 per cent stated their religion as Christian and 29.5 per cent as not religious. Significant minority religions were Islam (1.46 per cent) and Hinduism (0.73 per cent).


title: Hampshire

text: The Church of England Diocese of Winchester was founded in 676AD and covers about two thirds of Hampshire and extends into Dorset. Smaller parts of Hampshire are covered by the dioceses of Portsmouth, Guildford and Oxford.


title: Hampshire

text: The Roman Catholic Diocese of Portsmouth covers Hampshire as well as the Isle of Wight and the Channel Islands.


title: Hampshire

text: With the exceptions of the unitary authorities of Portsmouth and Southampton, Hampshire is governed by Hampshire County Council based at Castle Hill in Winchester, with eleven non-metropolitan districts beneath it and, for the majority of the county, parish councils or town councils at the local level.


title: Hampshire

text: In the 2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum, nearly 55% of Hampshire (including the Isle of Wight) voted in favour of Brexit. Gosport was the area that voted to Leave with the highest majority (64%), while Winchester was the area that voted to Remain with the highest majority (59%). Hart and East Hampshire also voted to Remain.


title: Hampshire

text: Hampshire elects eighteen Members of Parliament. As of the 2019 General Election, sixteen MPs are Conservative and two MPs are Labour.


title: Hampshire

text: In the 2019 General Election there were no seat changes, with the 16 Conservative constituencies and 2 Labour constituencies holding on to the same seats won or held in 2017. This is despite the Liberal Democrats gaining 57,876 more votes (an increase of 50.4%) compared to 2017, and Labour losing 72,278 votes (29.9%) compared to 2017.


title: Hampshire

text: At the 2017 General Election, the Conservatives won 16 seats, continuing their dominance in the county. Labour took two seats, Southampton Test and Portsmouth South.


title: Hampshire

text: In the 2015 general election, every Hampshire seat except Southampton Test (Labour) was won by the Conservatives.


title: Hampshire

text: In 2010, 14 constituencies were represented by Conservative Members of Parliament (MPs), two by the Liberal Democrats, and two by Labour. Labour represented the largest urban centre, holding both Southampton constituencies (Test and Itchen). The Liberal Democrats held Portsmouth South and Eastleigh.


title: Hampshire

text: The Conservatives represent a mix of rural and urban areas: Aldershot, Basingstoke, East Hampshire, Fareham, Gosport, Havant, Meon Valley, North East Hampshire, North West Hampshire, New Forest East, New Forest West, Portsmouth North, Romsey and Southampton North and Winchester.


title: Hampshire

text: At the 2013 local elections for Hampshire County Council, the Conservative Party had a 37.51 per cent share of the votes, the Liberal Democrats 21.71 per cent, the UK Independence Party 24.61 per cent and Labour 10 per cent. As a result, 45 Conservatives, 17 Liberal Democrats, 10 UKIP, four Labour and one Community Campaign councillor sit on the County Council. Southampton City Council, which is a separate Unitary Authority, has 28 Labour, 16 Conservative, 2 Councillors Against the Cuts and 2 Liberal Democrat councillors. Portsmouth City Council, also a UA, has 25 Liberal Democrat, 12 Conservative and 5 Labour councillors.


title: Hampshire

text: Hampshire has its own County Youth Council (HCYC) and is an independent youth-run organisation. It meets once a month around Hampshire and aims to give the young people of Hampshire a voice. It also has numerous district and borough youth councils including Basingstoke's "Basingstoke & Deane Youth Council".


title: Hampshire

text: Hampshire is one of the most affluent counties in the country, with a gross domestic product (GDP) of £29 billion, excluding Southampton and Portsmouth. In 2018, Hampshire had a GDP per capita of £22,100, comparable with the UK as a whole.


title: Hampshire

text: Portsmouth and Winchester have the highest job densities in the county; 38 per cent of workplace workers in Portsmouth commuted into the city in 2011. Southampton has the highest number of total jobs and commuting both into and out of the city is high. The county has a lower level of unemployment than the national average, at 1.3 per cent when the national rate is 2.1 per cent, as of February 2018. About one third are employed by large firms. Hampshire has a considerably higher than national average employment in high-tech industries, but average levels in knowledge-based industry. About 25 per cent of the population work in the public sector. Tourism accounts for some 60,000 jobs in the county, around 9 per cent of the total.


title: Hampshire

text: One of the principal companies in the high tech sector is IBM which has its research and development laboratories at Hursley and its UK headquarters at Cosham.


title: Hampshire

text: Many rural areas of Hampshire have traditionally been reliant on agriculture, particularly dairy farming, although the significance of agriculture as a rural employer and rural wealth creator has declined since the first half of the 20th century and agriculture currently employs 1.32 per cent of the rural population.


title: Hampshire

text: The extractive industries deal principally with sand, gravel, clay and hydrocarbons. There are three active oilfields in Hampshire with one being also used as a natural gas store. These are in the west of the county in the "Wessex Basin". The "Weald Basin" to the east has potential as a source of shale oil but is not currently exploited.


title: Hampshire

text: The New Forest area is a national park, and tourism is a significant economic segment in this area, with 7.5 million visitors in 1992. The South Downs and the cities of Portsmouth, Southampton, and Winchester also attract tourists to the county. Southampton Boat Show is one of the biggest annual events held in the county, and attracts visitors from throughout the country. In 2003, the county had a total of 31 million day visits, and 4.2 million longer stays.


title: Hampshire

text: The cities of Southampton and Portsmouth are both significant ports, with Southampton Docks handling a large proportion of the national container freight traffic as well as being a major base for cruise liners, and Portsmouth Harbour accommodating one of the Royal Navy's main bases and a terminal for cross-channel ferries to France and Spain. The docks have traditionally been large employers in these cities, though mechanisation of cargo handling has led to a reduction in manpower needed.


title: Hampshire

text: The Marine Accident Investigation Branch has its principal offices in Southampton, while the Air Accidents Investigation Branch has its head office in Farnborough in Rushmoor District . The Rail Accident Investigation Branch has one of its two offices at Farnborough.


title: Hampshire

text: Southampton Airport, with an accompanying main line railway station, is an international airport situated in the Borough of Eastleigh, close to Swaythling in the city of Southampton. The Farnborough International Airshow is a week-long event that combines a major trade exhibition for the aerospace and defence industries with a public airshow. The event is held in mid-July in even-numbered years at Farnborough Airport. The first five days (Monday to Friday) are dedicated to trade, with the final two days open to the public.


title: Hampshire

text: Cross-channel and cross-Solent ferries from Southampton, Portsmouth and Lymington link the county to the Isle of Wight, the Channel Islands and continental Europe.


title: Hampshire

text: The South West Main Line (operated by South Western Railway) from London to Weymouth runs through Winchester and Southampton, and the Wessex Main Line from Bristol to Portsmouth also runs through the county, as does the Portsmouth Direct Line.


title: Hampshire

text: The M3 motorway bisects the county from the southwest, at the edge of the New Forest near Southampton, to the northeast, on its way to connect with the M25 London orbital motorway. At its southern end it links with the M27 south coast motorway. The construction of the Twyford Down cutting near Winchester caused major controversy by cutting through a series of ancient trackways and other features of archaeological significance. The M27 serves as a bypass for the major conurbations and as a link to other settlements on the south coast. Other important roads include the A27, A3, A31, A34, A36 and A303.


title: Hampshire

text: The county has a high level of car ownership, with only 15.7 per cent having no access to a private car compared with 26.8 per cent for England and Wales. The county has a lower than average use of trains (3.2 compared with 4.1 per cent for commuting) and buses (3.2 to 7.4 per cent), but a higher than average use of bicycles (3.5 to 2.7 per cent) and cars (63.5 to 55.3 per cent).


title: Hampshire

text: Hampshire formerly had several canals, but most of these have been abandoned and their routes built over. The Basingstoke Canal has been extensively restored, and is now navigable for most of its route, but the Salisbury and Southampton Canal, Andover Canal and Portsmouth and Arundel Canal have all disappeared. Restoration of the Itchen Navigation, linking Southampton and Winchester, primarily as a wildlife corridor, began in 2008.


title: Hampshire

text: The school system in Hampshire (including Southampton and Portsmouth) is comprehensive. Geographically inside the Hampshire LEA are 24 independent schools, Southampton has three and Portsmouth has four. Few Hampshire schools have sixth forms, which varies by district council. There are 14 further education colleges within the Hampshire LEA, including six graded as 'outstanding' by Ofsted: Alton College, Barton Peveril Sixth Form College, Brockenhurst College, Farnborough College of Technology, Farnborough Sixth Form College, Peter Symonds College, Queen Mary's College, and South Downs College.


title: Hampshire

text: Notable independent schools in the county include Winchester College, allegedly England's oldest public school, founded in 1382, and the pioneering co-educational Bedales School, founded in 1893.


title: Hampshire

text: The four universities are the University of Southampton, Solent University, the University of Portsmouth, and the University of Winchester (which also had a small campus in Basingstoke until 2011). Farnborough College of Technology awards University of Surrey-accredited degrees.


title: Hampshire

text: There are major NHS hospitals in each of the cities, and smaller hospitals in several towns, as well as a number of private hospitals. Southern Health NHS Foundation Trust coordinates public health services, while Hampshire Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust coordinates hospital services.


title: Hampshire

text: The Flag of Hampshire was officially added to the Flag Institute's registry of flags on 12 March 2019 after receiving support from Hampshire County Council, the Lord Lieutenant of Hampshire, and many local organisations. The county day and flag day is 15 July, St Swithun's Day; St Swithun was an Anglo-Saxon bishop of Winchester.


title: Hampshire

text: Hampshire is the home of many orchestras, bands, and groups. Musician Laura Marling hails originally from Hampshire. The Hampshire County Youth Choir is based in Winchester, and has had successful tours of Canada and Italy in recent years. The Hampshire County Youth Orchestra (with its associated chamber orchestra and string orchestra) is based at Thornden Hall.


title: Hampshire

text: There are a number of local museums, such as the City Museum in Winchester, which covers the Iron Age and Roman periods, the Middle Ages, and the Victorian period over three floors. A "Museum of the Iron Age" is in Andover. Solent Sky Museum depicts the story of aviation in Hampshire and the Solent region, with more than 20 airframes from the golden age. Southampton's Sea City Museum is primarily focused on the city's links with the "Titanic". Basingstoke's Milestones Museum records the county's industrial heritage. There are also a number of national museums in Hampshire. The National Motor Museum is located in the New Forest at Beaulieu. The Royal Navy Museum is part of Portsmouth Historic Dockyard. Other military museums include The Submarine Museum at Gosport, the Royal Marines Museum, originally in Southsea but was due to transfer to the Dockyard in 2019, the Aldershot Military Museum, the D-Day Story by Southsea Castle and the Museum of Army Flying at Middle Wallop. Several museums and historic buildings in Hampshire are the responsibility of the Hampshire Cultural Trust. Specialist museums include the Gilbert White museum in his old home in Selborne, which also includes The Oates Collection, dedicated to the explorer Lawrence Oates.


title: Hampshire

text: The New Forest and Hampshire County Show takes place annually at the end of July; 2020 will mark its centenary. The largest gathering of Muslims in Western Europe, Jalsa Salana, takes place near Alton, with 37,000 visitors in 2017. The ancient festival of Beltain takes place at Butser Ancient Farm in the spring.


title: Hampshire

text: There are 187 Grade I listed buildings in the county, ranging from statues to farm buildings and churches to castles, 511 buildings listed Grade II*, and many more listed in the Grade II category. National Heritage's figures include the Isle of Wight, listing 208 Grade I buildings, 578 Grade II*and 10,372 Grade II, 731 scheduled monuments, two wrecks, 91 parks and gardens, and a battlefield: the Battle of Cheriton, which took place in 1644, near Winchester.


title: Hampshire

text: The game of cricket was largely developed in south-east England, with one of the first teams forming at Hambledon in 1750, with the Hambledon Club creating many of cricket's early laws. Hampshire County Cricket Club is a first-class team. The main county ground is the Ageas Bowl in West End, which has hosted one day internationals and which, following redevelopment, hosted its first test match in 2011.


title: Hampshire

text: The world's oldest surviving bowling green is the Southampton Old Bowling Green, which was first used in 1299.


title: Hampshire

text: Hampshire's relatively safe waters have allowed the county to develop as one of the busiest sailing areas in the country, with many yacht clubs and several manufacturers on the Solent. The Hamble, Beaulieu and Lymington rivers are major centres for both competitive and recreational sailing, along with Hythe and Ocean Village marinas. The sport of windsurfing was invented at Hayling Island in the south east of the county.


title: Hampshire

text: Hampshire has several association football teams, including Premier league side Southampton F.C., EFL League One side Portsmouth F.C. and National league sides Aldershot Town F.C., Eastleigh F.C. and Havant & Waterlooville F.C. Portsmouth F.C. and Southampton F.C. have traditionally been fierce rivals. Portsmouth won the FA Cup in 1939 and 2008 and the Football League title in 1949 and 1950. Southampton won the FA Cup in 1976 and reached the finals in 1900, 1902, and 2003. Aldershot F.C. were members of the Football League from 1932 to 1992. They were succeeded by Aldershot Town F.C. who in 2008 were crowned the Conference Premier champions and promoted to the Football League, but lost their Football League status after the 2012–13 season. Hampshire has a number of Non League football teams. Bashley, Gosport borough and AFC Totton play in the Southern Football League Premier Division and Sholing F.C. and Winchester City F.C. play in the Southern Football League Division One South and West.


title: Hampshire

text: Thruxton Circuit, in the north of the county, is Hampshire's premier motor racing circuit, with a karting circuit; there are other karting circuits at Southampton and Gosport. The other main circuit is the Ringwood Raceway at Matchams.


title: Hampshire

text: Lasham Airfield, near Alton, is a major centre for gliding, hosting both regional and national annual competitions.


title: Hampshire

text: The county's television news is covered by BBC South Today from its studios in Southampton and ITV Meridian from a studio in Whiteley, though both BBC London and ITV London can be received in northern and eastern parts of the county. A local independent television station, "That's Hampshire", started transmitting in May 2017.


title: Hampshire

text: Around 25 commercial radio stations cover the area, and BBC Radio Solent looks after the majority of the county, while BBC Surrey can be heard in the north east. University journalism students also "broadcast" bulletins on line for local areas, such as the University of Winchester's WINOL (Winchester News Online), run by students on its BA (Hons) Journalism course.


title: Hampshire

text: Southampton and Portsmouth support daily newspapers; the "Southern Daily Echo" and "The News" respectively. The "Basingstoke Gazette" is published three times a week, and there are a number of other papers that publish on a weekly basis, notably the "Hampshire Chronicle", one of the oldest newspapers in the country.


title: Hampshire

text: Possibly the most notable resident was the Duke of Wellington, who lived at Stratfield Saye House in the north of the county from 1817. An eminent Victorian, who made her mark and "came home" to Hampshire for burial at East Wellow was Florence Nightingale.


title: Hampshire

text: Hampshire's literary connections include the birthplace of authors Jane Austen, Wilbert Awdry and Charles Dickens, and the residence of others, such as Charles Kingsley and Mrs Gaskell. Austen lived most of her life in Hampshire, where her father was rector of Steventon, and wrote all of her novels in the county. Alice Liddell, also known as Alice Hargreaves, the inspiration for Alice in Lewis Carroll's "Alice's Adventures in Wonderland", lived in and around Lyndhurst, Hampshire after her marriage to Reginald Hargreaves, and is buried in the graveyard of St Michael and All Angels Church in the town. Hampshire also has many visual art connections, claiming the painter John Everett Millais as a native, and the cities and countryside have been the subject of paintings by L. S. Lowry and J. M. W. Turner. Selborne was the home of Gilbert White. Journalist and social critic Christopher Hitchens was born into a naval family in Portsmouth. Broadcasters Philippa Forrester, Amanda Lamb and Scott Mills also are from the county. American actor and gameshow host, Richard Dawson, was born and raised here. Richard St. Barbe Baker Founder of the International Tree Foundation and responsible for planting over two billion trees was born in West End.


title: Mortal Kombat 11

text: Mortal Kombat 11 is a 2019 fighting video game developed by NetherRealm Studios and published by Warner Bros. Interactive Entertainment. It is the eleventh main installment in the "Mortal Kombat" franchise and a sequel to 2015's "Mortal Kombat X". The game was announced at The Game Awards 2018 and was released in North America and Europe on April 23, 2019, for Microsoft Windows, Nintendo Switch, PlayStation 4, and Xbox One—with the exception of Europe's Switch version which was released on May 10, 2019. It was released on Stadia on November 19, 2019. The game runs on a heavily modified version of Unreal Engine 3.


title: Mortal Kombat 11

text: Upon release, the console versions of "Mortal Kombat 11" received generally favorable reviews, which praised the gameplay, story, graphics, and improved netcode, but it received criticism for the presence of microtransactions and over-reliance on grinding. An expansion for the game was released on May 26, 2020, entitled Mortal Kombat 11: Aftermath. This expansion includes an additional story mode, three new characters, new stages, and the return of stage fatalities and the friendship finishing move. An enhanced version of the game containing all downloadable content up to that point, titled Mortal Kombat 11: Ultimate, was released for the Nintendo Switch, PlayStation 4, PlayStation 5, Xbox One, and Xbox Series X/S on November 17, 2020.


title: Mortal Kombat 11

text: Like the previous three games in the series, including MK Mobile, "Mortal Kombat 11" is a 2.5D fighting game. Alongside the returning Fatalities, Brutalities, Stage Fatalities, Friendships and Quitalities, new gameplay features are introduced, such as Fatal Blows and Krushing Blows. Fatal Blows are special moves similar to the X-ray moves in "Mortal Kombat X". Like X-ray moves, Fatal Blows deal a large amount of damage, but unlike them, they only become available when a player's health drops below 30%, and can only be performed once per match. Krushing Blows are a special cinematic variation of a given special move, triggered when certain requirements are met, like most Brutalities in the previous game. Also new to the series is a Flawless Block mechanic, which allows for a comeback window after blocking an attack with precise timing. Another returning finisher is Mercy, last seen in "Ultimate Mortal Kombat 3", where the winning player can opt to revive their opponent, giving them a small amount of life.


title: Mortal Kombat 11

text: "Mortal Kombat 11" introduces a Custom Variation feature which offers a character customization system similar to the Gear system in NetherRealm Studios' previous DC Comics fighting game "Injustice 2", improving over the Variation system featured in "Mortal Kombat X". Each character has an initial set of outfits, weapons and moves, which can be further customized by the player. However, unlike "Injustice 2", in "Mortal Kombat 11" the characters' appearance does not determine their abilities, allowing the players to create custom move lists independently of their character's appearance.


title: Mortal Kombat 11

text: Following Shinnok's defeat, Dark Raiden plans to protect Earthrealm by destroying all of its enemies and making an example of Shinnok; decapitating him. This latter act inspires Kronika, Shinnok's mother and the keeper of time, to rewrite history in order to undo Raiden's interference and erase him from existence. Two years later, a Special Forces strike team led by Sonya Blade, Cassie Cage, and Jacqui Briggs attack the Netherrealm, with Raiden providing a diversion to aid them. The team succeeds in destroying the Netherrealm castle, though at the cost of Sonya's life. Kronika creates an alliance with revenants Liu Kang and Kitana, now rulers of the Netherrealm, immediately afterwards.


title: Mortal Kombat 11

text: Meanwhile, Kotal Kahn, the current emperor of Outworld, attempts to execute Shao Kahn loyalist Kollector, but is interrupted by a time storm that brings Shao Kahn, Skarlet, Baraka, and younger versions of Kano, Erron Black, Jade, Raiden, Kitana, Liu Kang, Johnny Cage, Sonya Blade, Jax, Scorpion, Kabal, and Kung Lao from the past and erases Dark Raiden from existence. A battle erupts in Kotal's Koliseum until D'Vorah transports Baraka, Skarlet, Shao Kahn, Black, and Kano to her hive, recruiting them into Kronika's fold.


title: Mortal Kombat 11

text: Liu Kang, Kung Lao, and Raiden appear at the Earthrealm's Special Forces HQ after forging an alliance with Kotal Kahn while Jade and Kitana aid Kotal in protecting Outworld from Kronika's forces. Liu Kang and Kung Lao investigate the Wu Shi Academy and encounter Kronika's right-hand man, Geras. Their subsequent battle ends with Geras using his chronokinetic powers to escape with powerful energy capsules containing Earthrealm's life force.


title: Mortal Kombat 11

text: The Special Forces learn that Sektor, backed by Noob Saibot and a cyberized Frost, has reinstated the Cyber Lin Kuei, intending to build an army of cyborgs out of kidnapped Lin Kuei warriors for Kronika. Sub-Zero and Hanzo Hasashi go to the factory to stop them. With Cyrax's aid, they shut down the factory; forcing Geras and both versions of Kano to retreat to Kronika's Keep, where they revive Sektor and rebuild the cybernetic army themselves.


title: Mortal Kombat 11

text: Meanwhile, Raiden tries to consult with the Elder Gods; Cetrion gives him a clue on how to defeat Kronika. During a later attempt, Raiden discovers the Elder Gods were gone, and that Cetrion had betrayed and killed them to serve her mother: Kronika. Kotal and Jade go to a Tarkatan camp in order to get them to fight against Shao Kahn, but Kotal's hatred towards the Tarkatans causes Jade to battle him before Shao Khan appears and captures both of them.


title: Mortal Kombat 11

text: The Special Forces base is destroyed by the Black Dragon and Kronika's cybernetic army, with the younger Johnny and Sonya captured in the process, the elder Johnny wounded, and Sektor killed. Due to the destruction of Sub-Zero's Lin Kuei Temple, Wu Shi Academy's Sky Temple, and the Special Forces base, the Shirai Ryu's Fire Garden becomes the only safe haven left to Earthrealm's heroes. Cassie leads a strike team to save her parents, where Sonya kills the younger Kano to erase his present self from existence. Meanwhile, Kitana, Liu Kang, and Kung Lao battle Baraka in order to secure an alliance between him and Sheeva. With their aid, Kitana successfully defeats and blinds Shao Kahn, uniting the Outworld factions and inheriting the throne from Kotal.


title: Mortal Kombat 11

text: Raiden sends Jax and Jacqui to Shang Tsung's now-abandoned island to retrieve the Crown of Souls, but the pair are thwarted by Cetrion, who eventually gets away with the Crown, and present-day Jax, who had been deceived by Kronika. Hasashi is tasked with convincing Kharon, the ferryman of Netherrealm's souls, to join their side so they can travel to Kronika's fortress. Hasashi fights his past self and persuades him to join his side, only to be mortally wounded by D'Vorah. Scorpion drives her away and returns to the Fire Garden to honor Hasashi's dying wish. However, an enraged Raiden attacks him on sight, attempting to finish him off using Shinnok's amulet. Liu Kang intervenes, causing Raiden to realize how they have fought before in multiple timelines, and that Kronika had orchestrated them all because their combined strength would be the only thing that could stop her. Anticipating this, Kronika kidnaps Liu Kang to weaken the heroes. With Kharon recruited, a joint Earthrealm-Outworld army assaults Kronika's Keep. Geras is dropped in the bottomless Sea of Blood; Frost is shut down, disabling all the cyborgs; and the older Jax defects to the heroes' side.


title: Mortal Kombat 11

text: Once revenant Liu Kang has absorbed his past self's soul, Kronika sends him to attack Raiden. Near the end of the fight between the two, Raiden and Liu Kang merge into Fire God Liu Kang; acquiring the memories and knowledge of Kronika's plan from his revenant self in the process. The heroes breach Kronika's Keep, only for Kronika to turn back time to its beginning. Fire God Liu Kang, however, proves immune due to his god-like status, and subsequently defeats the remaining revenants and Cetrion before battling Kronika.


title: Mortal Kombat 11

text: Following Kronika's defeat, Fire God Liu Kang and Raiden attempt to utilize Kronika's Hourglass to restore history, but are interrupted by Shang Tsung, Fujin, and Nightwolf; all of whom were imprisoned in the Void by Kronika for refusing to join her. Shang Tsung elaborates that, due to the destruction of the Crown of Souls when Liu Kang defeated Kronika, the Hourglass cannot be used to change history without destroying it. He convinces Liu Kang to send him, Fujin, and Nightwolf back in time to retrieve the Crown of Souls before Cetrion does. Though Raiden is suspicious of Shang Tsung's motives, Liu Kang agrees and sends them back, staying behind to protect the Hourglass.


title: Mortal Kombat 11

text: Shang Tsung, Fujin, and Nightwolf are transported to the Koliseum just as Kitana confronted Shao Kahn. They attempt to flee undetected, but news spreads of their arrival, prompting Kronika to retaliate. To face Cetrion on his island, Shang Tsung determines their best option is to resurrect Sindel, so they head to the Netherrealm and capture her revenant. Returning to Outworld, Shang Tsung uses Sheeva's blood debt to Sindel to grant him access to the Soul Chamber and restore Sindel despite fierce resistance from Kitana and her allies.


title: Mortal Kombat 11

text: Sindel joins Shang Tsung and the others to his island, where Fujin defeats Kronika's forces and convinces present-day Jax to change sides early while Sindel defeats Cetrion and helps the group capture the Crown. With the Crown in their possession, Fujin and Shang Tsung travel to the Fire Garden and convince Raiden of Shang Tsung's alliance. When Kronika attempts to intervene, Raiden, Fujin, and Shang Tsung fend her off, though she reveals the sorcerer was the one who designed the Crown.


title: Mortal Kombat 11

text: As the offensive on Kronika's Keep is about to commence, Shang Tsung signals Sindel to heal Shao Kahn and betrays and defeats Sheeva, gaining control of her army. Together, they destroy Geras, imprison the Cage family, defeat Kitana, Liu Kang, and Jade, throw Kung Lao into the Sea of Blood, and kill Kotal. In the process, Sindel reveals she betrayed and killed her previous husband Jerrod as she saw him as weak compared to Shao Kahn. While Fujin spearheads the offensive on Kronika's Keep, Raiden discovers Shang Tsung's plot and Sindel's betrayal while fighting revenant Liu Kang after the latter receives injuries from his past self.


title: Mortal Kombat 11

text: Raiden arrives too late to stop Shang Tsung from tricking Fujin into giving him the Crown. The sorcerer gains Kronika's full power, revealing he had planned everything ever since Kronika imprisoned him in the Void. He overpowers and drains Raiden and Fujin's souls before using Sindel and Shao Kahn to reach the Hourglass. Once Kronika's remaining allies are killed, Shang Tsung eventually betrays Sindel and Shao Kahn and drains their souls as well. He then defeats Kronika and absorbs her. As Shang Tsung starts approaching the Hourglass, Fire God Liu Kang shows up, revealing he was aware of Shang Tsung's intentions all along and that, after observing that only Shang Tsung was strong enough to beat Kronika, he had deliberately allowed Shang Tsung to stay alive so the Crown of Souls would stay intact when Kronika was defeated.


title: Mortal Kombat 11

text: From this point, the player can choose to fight as Shang Tsung or Liu Kang. Depending on the outcome of the battle, the epilogue will show one of the following:


title: Mortal Kombat 11

text: The game's roster consists of a total of 37 playable characters; 25 characters in the base game (2 of which are unlockable) and 12 characters available via DLC (5 of which are guest characters). The characters in bold are new to the series, while the "italicized" ones are guest characters.


title: Mortal Kombat 11

text: Along with series veterans including Kano, Raiden, Scorpion, Sonya Blade and Sub-Zero, and others such as Skarlet, who returns from the 2011 reboot, four new fighters were introduced, three of whom are playable. Firstly, Kronika serves as the series's first-ever female boss character, who has powers over the flow of time, and had been supervising the events of the timelines since the very beginning of the events in the overall "Mortal Kombat" story. She is not among the game's playable characters. New playable fighters include Geras, a construct of Kronika who, like her, has powers that allow him to control the flow of time, and produce sand-based attacks; Cetrion, an Elder Goddess who is Shinnok's sister and Kronika's daughter and has control over elemental forces; and Kollector, a six-armed Naknadan who serves as a tribute collector to the Outworld empire.


title: Mortal Kombat 11

text: Non-playable characters appearing in the game include Shinnok, who appears in the intro to the story mode and in one of the stages (albeit only his head); Sektor and Cyrax, who also appear in the story mode as NPC opponents; Ermac, Reptile and Smoke, who all appear in the gameplay as part of Shang Tsung's moveset, as well as one of Rain's fatalities; Kintaro, who appears in one of Shang Tsung's fatalities.


title: Mortal Kombat 11

text: Using Unreal Engine 3, "Mortal Kombat 11" was developed by NetherRealm Studios and published by Warner Bros. Interactive Entertainment, the two parties also involved with the game's predecessor, "Mortal Kombat X". The game was announced by series co-creator Ed Boon in December 2018, at The Game Awards 2018, with a trailer showcasing Dark Raiden and Scorpion fighting against each other. At the end of the announcement trailer it was announced that pre-order buyers would have Shao Kahn available as a playable character. The trailer featured "Immortal", an original song by artist 21 Savage. On January 17, 2019, a community reveal event was held simultaneously in Los Angeles and London. The reveal event featured, among many others, a filmed interview with Ronda Rousey, the voice actress for Sonya Blade. On March 22, 2019, about a month before the game's release, it was announced at C2E2 that actor Cary-Hiroyuki Tagawa would reprise his role as Shang Tsung from the 1995 film and the second season of "", while coinciding the announcement of the character as downloadable content. A public stress test of the game's online mode took place between March 15 and 17. Also, a closed beta was available between March 27 and April 1, 2019, for PlayStation 4 and Xbox One pre-order buyers. During the 2019 Brasil Game Show, Ed Boon announced that the story mode of "Mortal Kombat 11" served as a conclusion to the saga that started since the first "Mortal Kombat" title and the storyline that was established in the 2011 reboot.


title: Mortal Kombat 11

text: The game was released on April 23, 2019, across Microsoft Windows, Nintendo Switch, PlayStation 4, and Xbox One, with a Stadia port releasing later in the year on November 19, 2019. With the Nintendo Switch release, "Mortal Kombat 11" became the first game in the series to be released on a Nintendo console since "" for the Wii in 2007. On March 22, 2022, almost three years after the game's release, a patch was released for the PC version, removing the Denuvo Anti-Tamper from it, among other minor changes.


title: Mortal Kombat 11

text: At C2E2 on March 22, 2019, Shang Tsung was announced as the first downloadable character, who was returning from the 2011 reboot. The character featured the voice and likeness of Cary-Hiroyuki Tagawa, who portrayed him in the 1995 "Mortal Kombat" film. On May 31, 2019, five additional fighters were announced to be released under the first Kombat Pack with Shang Tsung. Three of the confirmed characters were Nightwolf and Sindel, both returning from the 2011 "Mortal Kombat" game, and Spawn from Image Comics by Todd McFarlane, as a guest character with Keith David reprising the title role from the HBO animated series "Todd McFarlane's Spawn". In February 2015, McFarlane had granted Netherrealm a limited window of permission to use Spawn as a guest character for their titles. However, in April 2015, Ed Boon revealed that Spawn had been discussed as a potential guest character early in development, but that he did not know McFarlane had made the offer until after the release of "Mortal Kombat X". Leading up to a Reddit AMA in December 2018 where McFarlane hinted that Spawn would be in "Mortal Kombat 11". The gameplay trailer featuring Spawn was released on March 8, 2020, during the "Final Kombat" tournament, where David attended the event as a guest alongside the debut of the red band trailer for the animated film "".


title: Mortal Kombat 11

text: On August 21, the remaining two guest characters were revealed as the T-800 model from the "Terminator" franchise and the Joker from DC Comics, marking his return to the series since "Mortal Kombat vs DC Universe" after being a playable character in the "Injustice" series, with voice actor Richard Epcar reprising the role from both. As a tie-in release to "", the Terminator's facial likeness and capture were provided by Arnold Schwarzenegger, with the character voiced by Chris Cox, who was appointed by Schwarzenegger himself. In a December 2015 interview, Ed Boon revealed that like Spawn, the Terminator had been considered as a guest character for "Mortal Kombat X". The reveal for the Joker's design was met with negative reception, generating a wave of online fans comparing it to a poor cosplay. A teaser trailer later debuted on December 12, 2019, revealed that the Joker had a redesign due to the initial backlash back in August. The redesign for the Joker was later well-received, citing improvement on his facial features as opposed to the initial reveal. Ed Boon initially described the presence of the Joker as "Vicious", in contrast to his previous appearances that were toned down in both "Injustice" games and "Mortal Kombat vs. DC Universe" in order to secure the T rating. Another teaser was uploaded on New Year's Day 2020, featuring the character's trademark graffiti and smiling on the walls of Arkham Asylum during fireworks, followed by laughter. Two weeks later, Boon later posted a gameplay image of the Joker covered in blood through his Twitter account, promising a taste of things to come for the character's inclusion. The gameplay trailer was officially released two days later on January 16, 2020, showcasing the Joker's new moveset and gruesome Fatality.


title: Mortal Kombat 11

text: Like "Mortal Kombat X", "Mortal Kombat 11" received skin packs included in the Kombat Pack, normally consisting of three character skins per pack, with a total of eighteen skins all together. A small number of single skins were released for free such as a Harley Quinn-inspired skin for Cassie Cage and a Dimitri Vegas skin for Sub-Zero, featuring Vegas himself providing the voice for the skin as Sub-Zero. During the Summer of 2019, two Klassic skin packs were released in a period of two months, consisting of a Klassic Ninja skin pack in June and a Klassic Arcade Fighter skin pack in August 2019. In October 2019, a Double Feature skin pack was released while a Halloween skin pack was released for free. In November 2019, a Gothic horror skin pack was released. In January 2020, an Elseworlds-themed skin pack was announced to be released with the Joker alongside a Darkseid skin for Geras. In March 2020, a Matinee skin pack was released with Spawn including a "Hellspawn" themed skin for Jacqui Briggs.


title: Mortal Kombat 11

text: On May 5, 2020, a new story mode DLC was teased, to be officially announced the following day. This DLC was revealed to be titled "Aftermath" and together with new story mode content, it consists of Fujin, who was last playable in "Armageddon"; Sheeva, who previously appeared as a non playable character in the game's story mode; and an additional guest character, RoboCop, with actor Peter Weller reprising his role for the first time since "RoboCop 2". Three additional skin packs were announced in July 2020 as part of the post "Aftermath" launch, which were released between August and September 2020.


title: Mortal Kombat 11

text: On October 6, 2020, a teaser trailer for an additional DLC pack was uploaded, promising more information on October 8. This was revealed to be Kombat Pack 2, consisting of three playable characters: Mileena, who was last playable in "Mortal Kombat X"; Rain, who was last playable in the 2011 reboot via DLC; and an additional guest character, John Rambo from the "Rambo" franchise, with original actor Sylvester Stallone providing his voice and likeness. Kombat Pack 2, along with all previous downloadable content, is included as part of the game's enhanced "Ultimate" re-release. To work around the COVID-19 pandemic, Stallone recorded his dialogue at his home, through Zoom conference calls with the Netherrealm staff. Mileena's inclusion in Kombat Pack 2 was due to high demand from fans in the wake of her absence in the game previously. Ed Boon revealed that the motivation for her exclusion from the base game was that the team wanted to "create an appreciation" for the character, after getting constant replies from fans on social media demanding her return. An enhanced version of the game with all downloadable content included, titled "Mortal Kombat 11: Ultimate", was released on November 17, 2020 for the PlayStation 4, PlayStation 5, Xbox One, and Xbox Series X/S. A "Klassic MK Movie" skin pack was released on November 24, 2020, adding new skins for Johnny Cage, Sonya Blade and Raiden using the respective voices and likenesses of Linden Ashby, Bridgette Wilson, and Christopher Lambert, who portrayed them in the 1995 "Mortal Kombat" film.


title: Mortal Kombat 11

text: On July 2, 2021, NetherRealm Studios announced that "Mortal Kombat 11" would no longer receive DLC and update support, and that they would instead be focusing on their next project.


title: Mortal Kombat 11

text: "Mortal Kombat 11" received generally favorable reviews according to the review aggregator website Metacritic. "IGN" praised the more slow-paced combat compared to the previous game in the series, as well as the expanded tutorial, story mode and improved netcode. However, it condemned the game's drawn-out progression and customization unlock system, which was described as "frustratingly gimmicky and grindy". "GameSpot" gave the game a 9, praising the fighting system calling it "accessible, deep and exciting" as well praising the story mode. However, they criticized the "always-online requirement for progression" as well as the randomization of rewards in the Krypt.


title: Mortal Kombat 11

text: The Nintendo Switch version of the game was also well received. "Pure Nintendo" gave the game a 9, praising the game's story mode, customization mode, and the game's tutorials, though stated that the online features are where the Nintendo Switch version "falls short". "Nintendo Life" gave the game an 8 out of 10, praising the game on its features, though it was critical on the game's graphics, stating that "it's a performance-first experience that nails 60fps, and boasts every mode and mechanic from other versions, only with a noticeable downgrade in the aesthetics department".


title: Mortal Kombat 11

text: In North America, "Mortal Kombat 11" was the best-selling video game software for the month of April. This, along with "Fortnite", contributed to digital game sales reaching over $8.8 billion in April. In June 2019, "Mortal Kombat 11" surpassed the sales of "Kingdom Hearts III". "Mortal Kombat 11" proceeded to be the best-selling video game software in North America for the following month of May, for both Xbox One and PlayStation 4, the sales of the game is nearly doubled comparably to previous entries of the series. In May 2019, the game reached number 1 in Australia, and number 2 in New Zealand. It was the 4th most downloaded game on the European PlayStation Store charts in April 2019.


title: Mortal Kombat 11

text: Overall, Mortal Kombat 11 was the fifth best selling game of 2019 and the fourth best selling PS4 game of 2019. By 2021, the game had sold more than 12 million copies worldwide.


title: Mortal Kombat 11

text: Due to its gore, "Mortal Kombat 11" is banned in Indonesia, Japan, China and Ukraine. In Ukraine, it is because of the laws banning Communist symbols. Some of these symbols are present on the "Kollection" images and on the bonus costume of character Skarlet, which was also part of the MK11 Premium Edition.


title: Mortal Kombat 11

text: "Mortal Kombat 11" also received heavy backlash from members of the Mortal Kombat fanbase for drastically cutting back on the sex appeal of its female characters. Creator Ed Boon, in an interview with "Playboy", claimed it was "unrealistic" for female fighters to be scantily clad and thought that the 2011 "Mortal Kombat" had "gone too far in its sexualization".


title: Mortal Kombat 11

text: In 2019, a "Mortal Kombat 11" developer revealed to "Kotaku" that they had to go to a therapist and were diagnosed with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) because of the realistic graphic violence they had to work on the game. The developers suffered trauma from incessant exposure to violent and gory animations and “real-life” research materials, such as videos and pictures of murder victims and slaughtered animals, to the point of having graphic, violent dreams in their sleep. The studio was also accused of instituting "crunch culture", with employees regularly working 80 to 100 hours a week to meet submission deadlines.


title: Mortal Kombat 11

text: In January 2021, a "Mortal Kombat 11" Pro Kompetition finalist, Titaniumtigerzz, was disqualified for naming his Sheeva variation 'WhyDidNRSdoThis'. The name "was supposed to be a very mild criticism of Sheeva's strengths" according to the player.


title: Mortal Kombat 11

text: At Toy Fair 2019, it was announced that McFarlane Toys would be producing a line of action figures to promote the game.


title: Mortal Kombat 11

text: In February 2019, the mobile game that had originally been launched as "Mortal Kombat X" for iOS and Android, was renamed to "Mortal Kombat Mobile" as it received its 2.0 update, incorporating "Mortal Kombat 11" content in the process. Among these changes, the graphics engine was transitioned from Unreal Engine 3 to Unreal Engine 4. The app is available on App Store and Google Play, with 50 million downloads in the latter.


title: Appendix (anatomy)

text: The appendix (or vermiform appendix; also cecal [or caecal] appendix; vermix; or vermiform process) is a finger-like, blind-ended tube connected to the cecum, from which it develops in the embryo. The cecum is a pouch-like structure of the large intestine, located at the junction of the small and the large intestines. The term "vermiform" comes from Latin and means "worm-shaped". The appendix was once considered a vestigial organ, but this view has changed since the early 2000s. Research suggests that the appendix may serve an important purpose. In particular, it may serve as a reservoir for beneficial gut bacteria.


title: Appendix (anatomy)

text: The human appendix averages in length but can range from . The diameter of the appendix is , and more than is considered a thickened or inflamed appendix. The longest appendix ever removed was long. The appendix is usually located in the lower right quadrant of the abdomen, near the right hip bone. The base of the appendix is located beneath the ileocecal valve that separates the large intestine from the small intestine. Its position within the abdomen corresponds to a point on the surface known as McBurney's point.


title: Appendix (anatomy)

text: The appendix is connected to the mesentery in the lower region of the ileum, by a short region of the mesocolon known as the mesoappendix.


title: Appendix (anatomy)

text: Some identical twins—known as mirror image twins—can have a mirror-imaged anatomy, a congenital condition with the appendix located in the lower left quadrant of the abdomen instead of the lower right. Intestinal malrotation may also cause displacement of the appendix to the left side.


title: Appendix (anatomy)

text: While the base of the appendix is typically located below the ileocecal valve, the tip of the appendix can be variably located—in the pelvis, outside the peritoneum or behind the cecum. The prevalence of the different positions varies amongst populations with the retrocecal position being most common in Ghana and Sudan, with 67.3% and 58.3% occurrence respectively, in comparison to Iran and Bosnia where the pelvic position is most common, with 55.8% and 57.7% occurrence respectively.


title: Appendix (anatomy)

text: In very rare cases, the appendix may not be present at all (laparotomies for suspected appendicitis have given a frequency of 1 in 100,000).


title: Appendix (anatomy)

text: Sometimes there is a semi-circular fold of mucous membrane at the opening of the appendix. This "valve of the vermiform appendix" is also called Gerlach's valve.


title: Appendix (anatomy)

text: Although it has been long accepted that the immune tissue surrounding the appendix and elsewhere in the gut—called gut-associated lymphoid tissue—carries out a number of important functions, explanations were lacking for the distinctive shape of the appendix and its apparent lack of specific importance and function as judged by an absence of side effects following its removal. Therefore, the notion that the appendix is only vestigial became widely held.


title: Appendix (anatomy)

text: William Parker, Randy Bollinger, and colleagues at Duke University proposed in 2007 that the appendix serves as a haven for useful bacteria when illness flushes the bacteria from the rest of the intestines. This proposition is based on an understanding that emerged by the early 2000s of how the immune system supports the growth of beneficial intestinal bacteria, in combination with many well-known features of the appendix, including its architecture, its location just below the normal one-way flow of food and germs in the large intestine, and its association with copious amounts of immune tissue. Research performed at Winthrop–University Hospital showed that individuals without an appendix were four times as likely to have a recurrence of "Clostridium difficile" colitis. The appendix, therefore, may act as a "safe house" for beneficial bacteria. This reservoir of bacteria could then serve to repopulate the gut flora in the digestive system following a bout of dysentery or cholera or to boost it following a milder gastrointestinal illness.


title: Appendix (anatomy)

text: The appendix has been identified as an important component of mammalian mucosal immune function, particularly B cell-mediated immune responses and extrathymically derived T cells. This structure helps in the proper movement and removal of waste matter in the digestive system, contains lymphatic vessels that regulate pathogens, and lastly, might even produce early defences that prevent deadly diseases. Additionally, it is thought that this may provide more immune defences from invading pathogens and getting the lymphatic system's B and T cells to fight the viruses and bacteria that infect that portion of the bowel and training them so that immune responses are targeted and more able to reliably and less dangerously fight off pathogens. In addition, there are different immune cells called innate lymphoid cells that function in the gut in order to help the appendix maintain digestive health. Research also shows a positive correlation between the existence of the appendix and the concentration of cecal lymphoid tissue, which supports the suggestion that not only does the appendix evolve as a complex with the cecum but also has major immune benefits.


title: Appendix (anatomy)

text: Common diseases of the appendix (in humans) are appendicitis and carcinoid tumors (appendiceal carcinoid). Appendix cancer accounts for about 1 in 200 of all gastrointestinal malignancies. In rare cases, adenomas are also present.


title: Appendix (anatomy)

text: Appendicitis is a condition characterized by inflammation of the appendix. Pain often begins in the center of the abdomen, corresponding to the appendix's development as part of the embryonic midgut. This pain is typically a dull, poorly localized, visceral pain.


title: Appendix (anatomy)

text: As the inflammation progresses, the pain begins to localize more clearly to the right lower quadrant, as the peritoneum becomes inflamed. This peritoneal inflammation, or peritonitis, results in rebound tenderness (pain upon removal of pressure rather than application of pressure). In particular, it presents at McBurney's point, 1/3 of the way along a line drawn from the anterior superior iliac spine to the umbilicus. Typically, point (skin) pain is not present until the parietal peritoneum is inflamed, as well. Fever and an immune system response are also characteristic of appendicitis. Other signs and symptoms may include nausea and vomiting, low-grade fever that may get worse, constipation or diarrhea, abdominal bloating, or flatulence.


title: Appendix (anatomy)

text: Appendicitis usually requires the removal of the inflamed appendix, in an appendectomy either by laparotomy or laparoscopy. Untreated, the appendix may rupture, leading to peritonitis, followed by shock, and, if still untreated, death.


title: Appendix (anatomy)

text: The surgical removal of the appendix is called an appendectomy. This removal is normally performed as an emergency procedure when the patient is suffering from acute appendicitis. In the absence of surgical facilities, intravenous antibiotics are used to delay or avoid the onset of sepsis. In some cases, the appendicitis resolves completely; more often, an inflammatory mass forms around the appendix. This is a relative contraindication to surgery.


title: Appendix (anatomy)

text: The appendix is also used for the construction of an efferent urinary conduit, in an operation known as the Mitrofanoff procedure, in people with a neurogenic bladder.


title: Appendix (anatomy)

text: The appendix is also used as a means to access the colon in children with paralysed bowels or major rectal sphincter problems. The appendix is brought out to the skin surface and the child/parent can then attach a catheter and easily wash out the colon (via normal defaecation) using an appropriate solution.


title: Appendix (anatomy)

text: Charles Darwin suggested that the appendix was mainly used by earlier hominids for digesting fibrous vegetation, then evolved to take on a new purpose over time. The very long cecum of some herbivorous animals, such as in the horse or the koala, appears to support this hypothesis. The koala's cecum enables it to host bacteria that specifically help to break down cellulose. Human ancestors may have also relied upon this system when they lived on a diet rich in foliage. As people began to eat more easily digested foods, they may have become less reliant on cellulose-rich plants for energy. As the cecum became less necessary for digestion, mutations that were previously deleterious (and would have hindered evolutionary progress) were no longer important, so the mutations survived. It is suggested that these alleles became more frequent and the cecum continued to shrink. After millions of years, the once-necessary cecum degraded to be the appendix of modern humans.


title: Appendix (anatomy)

text: Recently ... improved understanding of gut immunity has merged with current thinking in biological and medical science, pointing to an apparent function of the mammalian cecal appendix as a safe-house for symbiotic gut microbes, preserving the flora during times of gastrointestinal infection in societies without modern medicine. This function is potentially a selective force for the evolution and maintenance of the appendix.


title: Appendix (anatomy)

text: Three morphotypes of cecal-appendices can be described among mammals based primarily on the shape of the cecum: a distinct appendix branching from a rounded or sac-like cecum (as in many primate species), an appendix located at the apex of a long and voluminous cecum (as in the rabbit, greater glider and Cape dune mole rat), and an appendix in the absence of a pronounced cecum (as in the wombat). In addition, long narrow appendix-like structures are found in mammals that either lack an apparent cecum (as in monotremes) or lack a distinct junction between the cecum and appendix-like structure (as in the koala). A cecal appendix has evolved independently at least twice, and apparently represents yet another example of convergence in morphology between Australian marsupials and placentals in the rest of the world. Although the appendix has apparently been lost by numerous species, it has also been maintained for more than 80 million years in at least one clade.


title: Appendix (anatomy)

text: In a 2013 paper, the appendix was found to have evolved at least 32 times (and perhaps as many as 38 times) and to have been lost no more than six times. A more recent study using similar methods on an updated database yielded similar, though less spectacular results, with at least 29 gains and at the most 12 losses (all of which were ambiguous), and this is still significantly asymmetrical. This suggests that the cecal appendix has a selective advantage in many situations and argues strongly against its vestigial nature. This complex evolutionary history of the appendix, along with a great heterogeneity in its evolutionary rate in various taxa, suggests that it is a recurrent trait.