title: Appendix (anatomy)

text: Such a function may be useful in a culture lacking modern sanitation and healthcare practice, where diarrhea may be prevalent. Current epidemiological data on the cause of death in developed countries collected by the World Health Organization in 2001 show that acute diarrhea is now the fourth leading cause of disease-related death in developing countries (data summarized by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation). Two of the other leading causes of death are expected to have exerted limited or no selection pressure.


title: Carlo Gambino

text: Carlo Gambino (; August 24, 1902 – October 15, 1976) was an Italian-American crime boss of the Gambino crime family. After the Apalachin Meeting in 1957, and the imprisonment of Vito Genovese in 1959, Gambino took over the Commission of the American Mafia until his death from a heart attack on October 15, 1976. During more than 50 years in organized crime, he served only 22 months in prison for a tax evasion charge in 1937.


title: Carlo Gambino

text: Gambino was born in Palermo, Sicily, Italy, on August 24, 1902, to a family that belonged to a Sicilian Mafia gang from Passo di Rigano. He had two brothers, Gaspare Gambino, who was not involved with the Mafia, and Paolo Gambino who was a part of the Gambino crime family. His parents were Italian immigrants Tommaso Gambino and Felice Castellano.


title: Carlo Gambino

text: Gambino entered the United States on December 23, 1921, at Norfolk, Virginia, as a stowaway on the SS "Vincenzo Florio". He then joined his cousins, the Castellanos, in New York City. He had worked for a small trucking firm owned by his uncle's family.


title: Carlo Gambino

text: Gambino later moved to a modest house located at 2230 Ocean Parkway in Brooklyn; his Long Island residence, located at 34 Club Drive in Massapequa, served as his summer home. The two-story brick house, surrounded by a low fence with marble statues on the front lawn, was at the end of a cul-de-sac in Harbor Green Estates, overlooking the South Oyster Bay. In 1932, Gambino married one of his cousins, Catherine Castellano, sister of Paul Castellano. They raised four children – sons Thomas, Joseph (March 28, 1936 – February 20, 2020) and Carlo (born 1934), and a daughter, Phyllis Gambino Sinatra (September 22, 1927 – February 19, 2007).


title: Carlo Gambino

text: Gambino was a part of a criminal organization headed by Joe Masseria. In 1930, Gambino was arrested in Lawrence, Massachusetts as a suspicious person. That charge was dismissed, but he was seized a month later in Brockton, Massachusetts, on a larceny charge. A warrant was issued for his arrest when he failed to show up in court. Four years later, he was arrested in Manhattan as a fugitive and was returned to Brockton, where the larceny charge was dropped when he made restitution of $1,000.


title: Carlo Gambino

text: By the early 1930s, Masseria's main rival was boss Salvatore Maranzano, who had come from Sicily to run the Castellammarese clan. Their rivalry eventually escalated into the bloody Castellammarese War. Masseria and Maranzano were so-called "Mustache Petes": older, traditional Mafia bosses who had started their criminal careers in Italy. They believed in upholding the supposed "Old World Mafia" principles of "honor", "tradition", "respect", and "dignity". These bosses refused to work with non-Italians, and were skeptical of working with non-Sicilians. Some of the most conservative bosses worked with only men having roots in their own Sicilian village.


title: Carlo Gambino

text: The war had been going poorly for Masseria, and Lucky Luciano saw an opportunity to switch allegiance. In a secret deal with Maranzano, Luciano agreed to engineer Masseria's death in return for receiving Masseria's rackets and becoming Maranzano's second-in-command. On April 15, 1931, Masseria was killed at Nuova Villa Tammaro, a Coney Island restaurant in Brooklyn. With Maranzano's blessing, Luciano took over Masseria's gang and became Maranzano's lieutenant, ending the Castellammarese War.


title: Carlo Gambino

text: With Masseria gone, Maranzano reorganized the Italian American gangs in New York City into Five Families headed by Luciano, Profaci, Gagliano, Vincent Mangano and himself. Maranzano called a meeting of crime bosses in Wappingers Falls, New York, where he declared himself "capo di tutti capi" ("boss of all bosses"). Maranzano also whittled down the rival families' rackets in favor of his own. Luciano appeared to accept these changes, but was merely biding his time before removing Maranzano. Although Maranzano was slightly more forward-thinking than Masseria, Luciano had come to believe that Maranzano was even more greedy and hidebound than Masseria had been.


title: Carlo Gambino

text: By September 1931, Maranzano realized Luciano was a threat, and hired Vincent "Mad Dog" Coll, an Irish gangster, to kill him. However, Lucchese alerted Luciano that he was marked for death. On September 10, Maranzano ordered Luciano, Genovese and Costello to come to his office at 230 Park Avenue in Manhattan, where he was killed.


title: Carlo Gambino

text: Later in 1931, Luciano called a meeting in Chicago with various bosses, where he proposed a Commission to serve as the governing body for organized crime. Designed to settle all disputes and decide which families controlled which territories, the Commission has been called Luciano's greatest innovation. Luciano's goals with the Commission were to quietly maintain his own power over all the families, and to prevent future gang wars; the bosses approved the idea of the Commission.


title: Carlo Gambino

text: After the death of Masseria, Gambino and his cousins became soldiers in the family headed by Vincent Mangano. Despite being a mob power in his own right, Albert Anastasia was nominally the underboss of the Mangano family. During Mangano's 20-year rule, Mangano had resented Anastasia's close ties to Luciano and Costello, particularly the fact that they had obtained Anastasia's services without first seeking Mangano's permission. This and other business disputes led to heated, almost physical fights between the two mobsters.


title: Carlo Gambino

text: Gambino was arrested in 1937, and served 22 months in prison at Lewisburg for tax evasion related to operating a million‐gallon distillery in Philadelphia.


title: Carlo Gambino

text: Mangano's brother Philip was found dead near Sheepshead Bay, Brooklyn on April 19, 1951. He was murdered along with his brother on the orders of Anastasia in Brooklyn in 1951. Vincent Mangano's body was never found and was declared dead 10 years later on October 30, 1961, by the Surrogate's Court in Brooklyn. No one was ever arrested in the Mangano murders, but it was widely assumed that Anastasia had them killed.


title: Carlo Gambino

text: During the mid-1950s, Genovese decided to move against Frank Costello. However, Genovese needed to also remove Costello's strong ally on the Commission, Albert Anastasia, the boss of the Anastasia crime family. Genovese was soon conspiring with Gambino, Anastasia's underboss, to remove Anastasia.


title: Carlo Gambino

text: In early 1957, Genovese decided to move on Costello. Genovese ordered Vincent Gigante to murder Genovese family boss Costello, and on May 2, 1957, Gigante shot and wounded Costello outside his apartment building. Although the wound was superficial, it persuaded Costello to relinquish power to Genovese and retire. A doorman identified Gigante as the gunman, however, in 1958, Costello testified that he was unable to recognize his assailant; Gigante was acquitted on charges of attempted murder.


title: Carlo Gambino

text: With Costello gone, Genovese and Gambino allegedly ordered Anastasia's murder. Gambino gave the contract to Joe Profaci, who then allegedly gave it to the Gallo crew, headed by Joseph "Crazy Joe" Gallo, with Anastasia being murdered on October 25, 1957, in the barbershop of the Park Sheraton Hotel in Midtown Manhattan. Gambino then became the new boss of the Mangano crime family, which was renamed the Gambino crime family.


title: Carlo Gambino

text: Gambino appointed Joseph Biondo as underboss, however, by 1965, he was replaced with Aniello Dellacroce.


title: Carlo Gambino

text: In November 1957, immediately after the Anastasia murder, after taking control of the Luciano crime family from Costello, Genovese wanted to legitimize his new power by holding a national Cosa Nostra meeting. Genovese elected Buffalo, New York boss and Commission member, Stefano "The Undertaker" Magaddino, who in turn chose northeastern Pennsylvania crime boss Joseph Barbara and his underboss Russell Bufalino to oversee all the arrangements for the Apalachin meeting. Cuba was one of the Apalachin topics of discussion, particularly the gambling and narcotics smuggling interests of La Cosa Nostra on the island. The international narcotics trade was also an important topic on the Apalachin agenda. The New York garment industry interests and rackets, such as loansharking to the business owners and control of garment center trucking, were other important topics on the Apalachin agenda.


title: Carlo Gambino

text: On November 14, 1957, powerful mafiosi from the United States and Italy convened at Barbara's estate in Apalachin, New York. The meeting agenda included the resolution of open questions on illegal gambling and narcotics dealing, particularly in the New York City area. State trooper Edgar D. Croswell had become aware that Barbara's son was reserving rooms in local hotels along with the delivery of a large quantity of meat from a local butcher to the Barbara home. That made Croswell suspicious, and he therefore decided to keep an eye on Barbara's house. When the state police found many luxury cars parked at Barbara's home they began taking down license plate numbers. Having found that many of these cars were registered to known criminals, state police reinforcements came to the scene and began to set up a roadblock. When the mobsters discovered the police presence, they started fleeing the gathering by car and by foot. Many Mafiosi escaped through the woods surrounding the Barbara estate; Gambino is thought to have attended the meeting, but was not one of the mobsters apprehended. The police stopped a car driven by Bufalino, whose passengers included Genovese and three other men, at a roadblock as they left the estate; Bufalino said that he had come to visit his sick friend, Barbara. Genovese said he was just there for a barbecue and to discuss business with Barbara. The police let him go.


title: Carlo Gambino

text: Gambino and Luciano allegedly helped pay part of $100,000 to a Puerto Rican drug dealer to falsely implicate Genovese in a drug deal. On April 17, 1959, Genovese was sentenced to 15 years in prison for drug offenses, where he died on February 14, 1969.


title: Carlo Gambino

text: On January 26, 1962, Luciano died of a heart attack at Naples International Airport. Three days later, 300 people attended a funeral service for Luciano in Naples. His body was conveyed along the streets of Naples in a horse-drawn black hearse. With the permission of the US government, Luciano's relatives took his body back to New York for burial. He was buried in St. John's Cemetery in Middle Village, Queens. More than 2,000 mourners attended his funeral. Gambino, Luciano's longtime friend, gave his eulogy.


title: Carlo Gambino

text: After Genovese's imprisonment, Gambino subsequently took control of The Commission. Gambino despised drugs, and even though heroin and cocaine were highly lucrative, he thought that they would also attract attention. The punishment for a family member dealing drugs, in Gambino style, was death.


title: Carlo Gambino

text: In the 1960s, the Gambino family had 500 soldiers and over 1,000 associates. In 1962, Carlo Gambino's oldest son, Thomas Gambino, married Tommy Lucchese's daughter Frances. Over 1,000 guests attended the wedding, at which Carlo Gambino presented Lucchese with a $30,000 gift. In return, Lucchese gave Gambino a part of his rackets at Idlewild Airport (now called John F. Kennedy Airport). Lucchese exercised control over airport management security and all the airport unions. As a team, Lucchese and Gambino now controlled the airport, the Commission, and most organized crime in New York City.


title: Carlo Gambino

text: In 1963, Joseph Bonanno, the head of the Bonanno crime family, made plans to assassinate several rivals on the Mafia Commission—bosses Gambino, Tommy Lucchese, and Stefano Magaddino, as well as Frank DeSimone. Bonanno sought Joseph Magliocco's support, and Magliocco readily agreed. Not only was he bitter from being denied a seat on the Commission, but Bonanno and Profaci had been close allies for over 30 years prior to Profaci's death. Bonanno's audacious goal was to take over the Commission and make Magliocco his right-hand man. Magliocco was assigned the task of killing Lucchese and Gambino, and gave the contract to one of his top hit men, Joseph Colombo. However, the opportunistic Colombo revealed the plot to its targets. The other bosses quickly realized that Magliocco could not have planned this himself. Remembering how close Bonanno was with Magliocco (and before him, Profaci), as well as their close ties through marriages, the other bosses concluded Bonanno was the real mastermind. The Commission summoned Bonanno and Magliocco to explain themselves. Fearing for his life, Bonanno went into hiding in Montreal, leaving Magliocco to deal with the Commission. Badly shaken and in failing health, Magliocco confessed his role in the plot. The Commission spared Magliocco's life, but forced him to retire as Profaci family boss and pay a $50,000 fine. As a reward for turning on his boss, Colombo was awarded the Profaci family.


title: Carlo Gambino

text: Deportation proceedings were started by the Immigration and Naturalization Service as early as 1953, but made no headway for several years because of Gambino's heart condition and constant hospitalizations. In 1970, he was indicted on charges of conspiring to hijack an armored car carrying $3 million, and was arrested on March 23, 1970. He was released on $75,000 bail, and was never brought to trial because of his health. The same year, the Supreme Court upheld a 1967 order, that he previously appealed, that he be deported because he had entered the country illegally. When the government tried to carry out the order, Gambino was rushed to a hospital after he had suffered a massive heart attack.


title: Carlo Gambino

text: On June 28, 1971, Colombo was shot three times by Jerome A. Johnson, one being in the head, at the second Italian Unity Day rally in Columbus Circle sponsored by the Italian-American Civil Rights League; Johnson was immediately killed by Colombo's bodyguards. Colombo was paralyzed from the shooting, and later died in 1978.


title: Carlo Gambino

text: Although many in the Colombo family blamed Joe Gallo for the shooting, the police eventually concluded that Johnson was a lone gunman after they had questioned Gallo. Since Johnson had spent time a few days earlier at a Gambino club, one theory was that Gambino organized the shooting. Colombo refused to listen to Gambino's complaints about the League, and allegedly spat in Gambino's face during one argument. However, the Colombo family leadership was convinced that Gallo ordered the murder after his falling out with the family. Gallo was murdered on April 7, 1972.


title: Carlo Gambino

text: After Genovese's death, Gerardo Catena became the new official boss. However, Catena was indicted and jailed in 1970. Thomas Eboli was then the "front boss" of the family for the next two years. However, Eboli wanted to be the real head of the Genovese family. To further his advancement, Eboli borrowed $4 million from the Commission chairman and head of the rival Gambino crime family, Carlo Gambino to fund a new drug trafficking operation. However, law enforcement soon shut down Eboli's drug racket and arrested most of his crew. Gambino and his underboss Aniello Dellacroce allegedly came to Eboli to get their money back, but he did not have it. Gambino then allegedly ordered Eboli's murder due to lack of payment. However, it is believed that Gambino actually wanted to replace Eboli with Gambino ally Frank "Funzi" Tieri, and that Gambino used the drug trafficking operation to set up Eboli. On July 16, 1972, Eboli left his girlfriend's apartment in Crown Heights, Brooklyn and walked to his chauffeured Cadillac car. As Eboli sat in the parked car, a gunman in a passing truck shot him five times. Hit in the head and neck, Eboli died instantly. No one was ever charged in this murder.


title: Carlo Gambino

text: Gambino died at his home in Massapequa in the early morning hours of Friday, having watched the television broadcast of the winning the American League pennant the previous evening. The official cause was natural causes, and his death was not unexpected, given a recent history of heart disease. Cusimano & Russo Funeral Home hosted his wake over the weekend of October 16 and 17. His funeral mass was held on Monday, October 18, at the Church of Our Lady of Grace Gambino was then entombed within his family's private room in the Cloister building of Saint John Cemetery in Queens. Gambino's funeral and wake were attended by several hundred people, with plainclothes police and FBI agents mingling outside. His funeral procession consisted of 13 limousines, around a dozen private cars, and one flower car.


title: Carlo Gambino

text: Against expectations, he had previously appointed Castellano to succeed him over his underboss Dellacroce. Gambino appeared to believe that his crime family would benefit from Castellano's focus on white collar businesses. Dellacroce, at the time, was imprisoned for tax evasion and was unable to contest Castellano's succession.


title: Carlo Gambino

text: Castellano's succession was confirmed at a meeting on November 24, with Dellacroce present. Castellano arranged for Dellacroce to remain as underboss while directly running traditional Cosa Nostra activities such as extortion, robbery, and loansharking. While Dellacroce accepted Castellano's succession, the deal effectively split the Gambino family into two rival factions.


title: Dominique McElligott

text: Dominique McElligott (born March 5, 1986) is an Irish actress. She has appeared as a series regular on "Raw" (2008), "Hell on Wheels" (2011–2012), "The Astronaut Wives Club" (2015), "House of Cards" (2016–2017), "The Last Tycoon" (2016), and "The Boys" (2019–2022).


title: Dominique McElligott

text: McElligott grew up in Dublin. She began acting during secondary school. She is a graduate of University College Dublin.


title: Dominique McElligott

text: She starred in "Moon" (2009) and the RTÉ television series "Raw" before leaving to film "Leap Year" (2010). In 2011, she starred at the movie "The Guard". From 2011 to 2012, she played a lead role in the AMC series "Hell on Wheels". In 2015, she starred in ABC's "The Astronaut Wives Club". In 2016, McElligott played Hannah Conway, wife of the Republican presidential nominee, in the fourth and fifth season of the Netflix show "House of Cards". She plays Queen Maeve on Amazon Prime Video's original series "The Boys", which is based on the comic book series of the same name.


title: Davante Adams

text: Davante Lavell Adams (born December 24, 1992) is an American football wide receiver for the Las Vegas Raiders of the National Football League (NFL). He played college football at Fresno State, and was selected by the Green Bay Packers in the second round of the 2014 NFL Draft.


title: Davante Adams

text: Adams was born to Douglas Adams and Pamela Brown on December 24, 1992. He has a brother and two sisters. From East Palo Alto, California, Adams attended Palo Alto High School in neighboring Palo Alto, California. As a senior two-way starter for the Vikings football team, he led the school to a CIF state championship. He had 64 receptions for 1,094 yards and 12 touchdowns, and as a cornerback on defense he totaled 44 tackles, including two for a loss, two forced fumbles, an interception, and four passes defended. He also played basketball and was considered a two-star recruit in that sport. Lettering all four years in basketball, he averaged 9.0 points, 5.8 rebounds, and 5.4 assists as a senior. He was recruited by Fresno State, California, Hawai'i, and San Diego State. Adams committed to play college football at Fresno State.


title: Davante Adams

text: Adams attended California State University, Fresno, where he played on the Fresno State Bulldogs football team from 2011 to 2013.


title: Davante Adams

text: In 2011, Adams redshirted as a true freshman at Fresno State in his only season with then-head coach Pat Hill.


title: Davante Adams

text: In the 2012 season, Adams had a new head coach in Tim DeRuyter. He became an instant contributor in the Bulldogs' 9–4 season. In his collegiate debut, he had 118 receiving yards and two touchdowns in a win over the Weber State Wildcats on September 1, 2012. On September 29, against the San Diego State Aztecs, he had eight receptions for 102 yards. On October 6, against the Colorado State Rams, he had the first of eight consecutive games with a receiving touchdown. In the win, he had four receptions for 41 yards and two touchdowns. On October 27, a road game against the New Mexico Lobos, he had nine receptions for 198 yards and two touchdowns. On November 10, in a road game against the Nevada Wolf Pack, he had nine receptions for 120 yards and a touchdown. In the regular season finale against the Air Force Falcons, he had nine receptions for 141 yards and two touchdowns. On Christmas Eve, against the SMU Mustangs, he had 13 receptions for 144 yards and a touchdown in the 43–10 loss in the 2012 Hawaii Bowl. Overall, in the 2012 season, he had 102 receptions for 1,312 yards and 14 touchdowns. All three led the Mountain West Conference. He was the conference's Freshman of the Year and a freshman All-American. He was the MVP of the 2012 Hawaii Bowl.


title: Davante Adams

text: Adams continued to be a very productive member of the offense in the Bulldogs' 11–2 season in 2013. He started the 2013 season with 14 receptions for 148 yards and two touchdowns in a 52–51 win over the Rutgers Scarlet Knights. On September 20, against the Boise State Broncos, he had 12 receptions for 110 yards and a touchdown in the 41–40 victory to give the Bulldogs a 3–0 record. On October 5, in a road game against the Idaho Vandals, he had 16 receptions for 185 yards and three touchdowns in the 61–14 victory. Two weeks later, against the UNLV Rebels, he had eight receptions for 221 yards and four touchdowns in the 38–14 victory. Adams scored on a 75-yard touchdown to start the game. On November 23, against the New Mexico Lobos, he had nine receptions for 246 yards and four touchdowns in the 69–28 victory to help get the Bulldogs to a 10–0 record. In the following road game against the San Jose State Spartans, he had 13 receptions for 264 yards and three touchdowns in the 62–52 loss, Fresno State's first of the season. On December 7, against the Utah State Aggies in the regular season finale, he had nine receptions for 168 yards and a touchdown in the MWC Championship Game. In his final collegiate game, the 2013 Las Vegas Bowl against the USC Trojans, he had nine receptions for 74 yards and a touchdown. Overall, in the 2013 season, he led the nation with 131 receptions for 1,719 yards and 24 touchdowns. He set a Mountain West Conference record with his 24 touchdown receptions, eight more than any player in the country in 2013, and the total ranks fourth in single-season FBS history. He also set Fresno State career records for receptions (233) and touchdown receptions (38) despite playing just two seasons for the Bulldogs. He was named second-team All-America by The Associated Press.


title: Davante Adams

text: On December 27, 2013, Adams announced that he would forgo his final two college seasons and enter the 2014 NFL Draft.


title: Davante Adams

text: Adams was selected in the second round with the 53rd overall pick by the Green Bay Packers in the 2014 NFL Draft. He was the ninth wide receiver to be selected that year. On June 12, 2014, he signed a contract with the Packers.


title: Davante Adams

text: After playing in the number four receiver slot in his NFL debut against the Seattle Seahawks, Adams took 37 snaps in the second game against the New York Jets, where he had 5 catches for 50 yards. Entrenched as the Packers' number three receiver, on October 2, Adams scored his first NFL touchdown on an 11-yard pass from Aaron Rodgers in a 42–10 victory over the Minnesota Vikings. The score was Rodgers' 200th career touchdown pass. On October 26, Adams had a personal-best 7 receptions in a loss to the New Orleans Saints. He tallied his first 100-yard receiving game on November 30 with six receptions for 121 yards in a 26–21 win over the New England Patriots. Though a distant third to Jordy Nelson and Randall Cobb, Adams' 446 receiving yards and 3 touchdowns were a solid rookie contribution to the 12–4 Packers. On January 11, 2015, Adams set the Packers' rookie record for receiving yards in a playoff game with 117 in the victory over the Dallas Cowboys, including a 46-yard touchdown. In the NFC Championship against the Seattle Seahawks, he was held to one reception for seven yards in the 28–22 overtime loss.


title: Davante Adams

text: Adams started the 2015 season with four receptions for 59 yards in a 31–23 victory over the Chicago Bears. Adams missed three games after an ankle injury in week 2, and suffered a knee injury in the playoffs. On November 8, against the Carolina Panthers, he had seven receptions for a season-high 93 yards. In the following game, he had a season-high 10 receptions for 79 yards in the loss to the Detroit Lions. On December 3, in the second game against the Lions, he had his only touchdown of the season in the 27–23 victory. In between, his second season was a "dud", finishing fourth on the team in receptions (50) and receiving yards (483), with 1 touchdown, all for a team without star Jordy Nelson. However, his efforts preparing for 2016 earned him the unofficial "off-season MVP" award.


title: Davante Adams

text: The work-ethic paid off, as Adams recorded five touchdowns through his first six games in 2016. On October 26, Adams was named NFC Offensive Player of the Week after catching 13 passes for 132 yards and two touchdowns against the Chicago Bears in Week 7. He topped this total with a Packers' season-best 156 yards 47–25 road loss against the Tennessee Titans. On November 28, against the Philadelphia Eagles, he had 113 yards and two touchdowns in the 27–13 victory. Adams finished as the Packers' second leading receiver with 997 yards on 75 catches for 12 touchdowns (second in the NFL only to teammate Jordy Nelson). Adams began the post-season with eight receptions including a touchdown, and the 13th-most post-season receiving yards in Packers history with 125 in a win over the New York Giants. He added 76 yards in the division win over the Dallas Cowboys, and a touchdown in the championship loss to the Atlanta Falcons.


title: Davante Adams

text: Adams began the year with three receptions for 47 yards in a 17–9 home victory over the Seattle Seahawks. In Week 2, in a 34–23 loss to the Atlanta Falcons, Adams had eight receptions for 99 yards, which included a 33-yard touchdown. In the Week 4 game against the Chicago Bears, Adams had to be taken to a hospital in an ambulance after a strong helmet-to-helmet hit by Chicago linebacker Danny Trevathan, who earned a 2-game suspension (later reduced to one game). The next week, he returned with 7 receptions for 66 yards and 2 touchdowns, including the game-winner with 11 seconds left against the Dallas Cowboys.


title: Davante Adams

text: Early in Week 6, starter Aaron Rodgers suffered a broken clavicle against the Minnesota Vikings, and would not return for nine weeks. With inexperienced back-up Brett Hundley, Adams averaged five receptions for 40 yards in three straight losses, before recording 90 yards on five receptions and the eventual game-winning touchdown in a Week 10 win over the Chicago Bears, and 126 yards on eight receptions against the Baltimore Ravens in Week 11. He also had 82 yards, including a season-long 55-yard touchdown in a Week 12 31–28 road loss to the Pittsburgh Steelers in a game where Hundley showed improvement. After catching only four passes for 42 yards in Week 13 against the Tampa Bay Buccaneers, Adams had his first 10-reception game of the season for 82 yards, including the game-tying touchdown with 17 seconds left, and a 25-yard walk-off touchdown in overtime to defeat the Cleveland Browns. At that point, he was tied for second in the NFL with 9 receiving touchdowns. In Week 15, Adams suffered another concussion following a helmet-to-helmet hit from Panthers linebacker Thomas Davis. Due to the concussion, Adams missed the final two games of the season. He finished the season starting in 14 games, finished first on the team with 74 catches for 885 yards and 10 touchdowns. He was named to his first Pro Bowl and was ranked 45th by his peers on the NFL Top 100 Players of 2018.


title: Davante Adams

text: With the return of Aaron Rodgers from injury, Adams had a touchdown reception in each of the Packers' first three games, while averaging 6.7 receptions for 68 yards. On route to eight receptions for 81 yards in Week 4, Adams suffered a calf injury but continued to play due to more severe injuries to teammates Randall Cobb and Geronimo Allison. In Week 5, Adams had nine receptions for 140 yards and a touchdown in a 31–23 loss to the Detroit Lions. In a Week 6 "Monday Night Football" win over the San Francisco 49ers, Adams recorded 10 receptions for 132 yards and two touchdowns, including a 38-yard reception, 16-yard game-tying touchdown, and two catches for 27 yards to set up the go-ahead field goal all in the final three minutes. After a Week 7 bye, Adams had his third consecutive 100-yard game with five receptions for 133 yards in a narrow 29–27 road loss to the Los Angeles Rams. After being limited in yards but recording three touchdowns in his next two games, Adams had a career-best 166 yards on 10 receptions in a Week 11 loss to the Seattle Seahawks. A week later, in a 24–17 loss to the Minnesota Vikings, Adams had five receptions for 69 yards and a touchdown. In the game, Adams reached 1,000 yards receiving in a season for the first time in his career and scored his tenth touchdown of the season, which gave him his third consecutive season of double-digit receiving touchdowns. He had a touchdown in each of the next two games as well. In Week 15 against the Chicago Bears, Adams had 8 catches for 119 yards in a 24–17 loss, putting him over 100 receptions in a season for the first time of his career. In Week 16 against the New York Jets, with the Packers eliminated from the playoffs, Adams had 11 receptions for 71 yards and caught the game-winning touchdown in overtime. Rather than risk worsening a nagging knee injury, Adams sat out the final week of the season, ending one reception (with 111) and 133 yards (with 1,386) short of the franchise season receiving records.


title: Davante Adams

text: During Week 2 against the Minnesota Vikings, Adams caught seven passes for 106 yards as the Packers won 21–16. Two weeks later against the Philadelphia Eagles, Adams recorded a career-high 180 yards receiving on 10 receptions before exiting the game with 10 minutes left in the fourth quarter with a turf toe injury. The Packers went on to lose 34–27. Adams missed the next four games; he returned to the field during a Week 9 26–11 road loss to the Los Angeles Chargers, finishing with seven receptions for 41 yards. In the next game against the Carolina Panthers, Adams caught seven passes for 118 yards in the 24–16 victory. After a Week 11 bye, the Packers went on the road to face the San Francisco 49ers. In that game, Adams caught seven passes for 43 yards along with his first touchdown of the season and a two-point conversion, accounting for all of the Packers' points in the 37–8 road loss. During Week 13 against the New York Giants, Adams caught six passes for 64 yards and two touchdowns in the 31–13 road victory. Two weeks later against the Chicago Bears, he caught seven passes for 103 yards and a touchdown during the 21–13 win. In the next game against the Vikings on "Monday Night Football", Adams caught 13 passes for 116 yards in a 23–10 road victory.


title: Davante Adams

text: In the against the Seattle Seahawks, Adams caught eight passes for a postseason franchise record 160 yards and two touchdowns during the 28–23 victory. In the against the 49ers, he had nine receptions for 138 yards in the 37–20 road loss. In the process, Adams became the only Packer with two games of 100+ receiving yards in a single postseason and three career postseason games with 125+ receiving yards.


title: Davante Adams

text: During Week 1 against the Minnesota Vikings, Adams finished with 156 receiving yards and two receiving touchdowns on 14 receptions (tying Don Hutson's franchise record) as the Packers won 43–34. During Week 7 against the Houston Texans, Adams finished with 13 catches for 196 receiving yards and two touchdowns as the Packers won 35–20. In Week 8 against the Minnesota Vikings, he had seven receptions for 53 receiving yards and three receiving touchdowns in the 28–22 loss. In Week 9 against the San Francisco 49ers on "Thursday Night Football", he had ten receptions for 173 receiving yards and a touchdown in the 34–17 victory. In Week 11 against the Indianapolis Colts, Adams recorded seven catches for 106 yards and a touchdown during the 34–31 overtime loss. In Week 12 against the Chicago Bears, Adams recorded his 500th career catch on a 12-yard touchdown pass from Aaron Rodgers, becoming the fifth receiver in Packers history to reach that mark.


title: Davante Adams

text: In Week 13 against the Philadelphia Eagles, Adams recorded ten catches for 121 yards and two touchdowns during the 30–16 win. Adams' second touchdown reception was the 400th career touchdown pass thrown by Aaron Rodgers.


title: Davante Adams

text: In Week 14 against the Detroit Lions, Adams recorded seven catches for 115 yards and a touchdown during the 31–24 win. On December 21, 2020, he was selected for the 2021 Pro Bowl. Despite heavy snowfall, Adams caught 11 passes for 142 yards and three touchdowns in a 40–14 rout of the Tennessee Titans on "Sunday Night Football" in Week 16. The outing helped the Adams-Rodgers connection set the new Packers team record of 492 completions which took seven seasons. Overall, he finished the 2020 season with 115 receptions for 1,374 receiving yards and 18 receiving touchdowns. Adams had a historic season in 2020: he led the league in with 18 receiving touchdowns, the most since Randy Moss had 23 in 2007, and tying Sterling Sharpe's single-season franchise record (1994). His 115 receptions also set a franchise best, usurping Sharpe's 1993 season. On January 8, 2021, he made the 2020 All-Pro Team first-team.


title: Davante Adams

text: In the of the playoffs against the Los Angeles Rams, Adams recorded nine catches for 66 yards and a touchdown during the 32–18 win.


title: Davante Adams

text: In the against the Tampa Bay Buccaneers, Adams recorded nine catches for 67 yards and a touchdown during the 31–26 loss.


title: Davante Adams

text: In the first month on the 2021 season, Adams had a 121-yard game against the Detroit Lions and a 12-catch, 132-yard game against the San Francisco 49ers in Week 2. In Week 5 against the Cincinnati Bengals, Adams secured a career-high 206 yards on 11 receptions alongside a touchdown in the 25–22 overtime win. In Week 11 against the Minnesota Vikings, Adams caught seven passes for 115 yards and two touchdowns in the 31–34 loss. In Week 13 against the Chicago Bears, Adams caught ten passes for 121 yards and two touchdowns in the 45–30 win. On December 23, 2021, Adams was named to his fifth consecutive Pro Bowl. He broke his own single-season franchise record for receptions the following week with an 11 reception, 136-yard, one touchdown performance in a 37–10 victory over the Minnesota Vikings. He then broke the Packers' single season receiving yards record the following week, ending with 1,553 yards in a season. He was selected to the 2021 All-Pro Team for the second consecutive season. In the against the San Francisco 49ers, he had nine receptions for 90 yards in the 13–10 loss.


title: Davante Adams

text: On March 8, 2022, the Packers placed a franchise tag on Adams. On March 14, Adams informed the Packers that he would not play under the franchise tag for the 2022 season.


title: Davante Adams

text: On March 18, 2022, the Packers traded Adams to the Las Vegas Raiders in exchange for their 2022 first-round pick and second-round pick. Along with the trade, Adams signed a five-year, $141.25M deal, making him the highest-paid wide receiver in the NFL at the time of the signing. The trade also reunited Adams with his college quarterback Derek Carr, with both playing together at Fresno State from 2012 to 2013.


title: Davante Adams

text: Adams made his Raiders debut in Week 1 against the Los Angeles Chargers, where he caught 10 passes for 141 yards and a touchdown in the 19–24 loss. Adams’s first win with the Raiders came in Week 4 in a 32–23 Raiders victory over the Denver Broncos in a game where Adams had nine receptions for 101 yards.


title: Davante Adams

text: In Week 5, against the Kansas City Chiefs, Adams had three receptions for 124 yards and two touchdowns in the 30–29 loss. After the game, he shoved cameraman Ryan Zebley to the ground while walking towards the tunnel to exit the field. Adams later apologized to Zebley and said that frustration over the way the game had ended caused him to react rashly. Zebley was hospitalized for his injuries and pressed charges through the Kansas City Police Department. Adams was later charged with misdemeanor assault.


title: Davante Adams

text: In Week 9, against the Jacksonville Jaguars, he had ten receptions for 146 receiving yards and two receiving touchdowns in the 27–20 loss. In Week 10, against the Indianapolis Colts, he had nine receptions for 126 receiving yards and one receiving touchdown in the 25–20 loss. In Week 11 against the Denver Broncos, Adams had seven catches for 141 yards and two touchdowns, including the game-winning 35-yard touchdown catch in overtime. In Week 13, against the Chargers, he had eight receptions for 177 receiving yards and two receiving touchdowns in the 27–20 victory.


title: Camp Nou

text: Camp Nou (, meaning "new field", often referred to in English as the Nou Camp), officially branded as Spotify Camp Nou for sponsorship and financial reasons, is a football stadium in Barcelona, Spain. It has been the home stadium of FC Barcelona since its completion in 1957. With a current seating capacity of 99,354, it is the largest stadium in Spain and Europe, and the fourth largest association football stadium in the world.


title: Camp Nou

text: It has hosted two European Cup/Champions League finals in 1989 and 1999, two European Cup Winners' Cup finals, four Inter-Cities Fairs Cup final games, five UEFA Super Cup games, four Copa del Rey finals, two Copa de la Liga finals, and twenty-one Supercopa de España finals. It also hosted five matches in the 1982 FIFA World Cup (including the opening game), two out of four matches at the 1964 European Nations' Cup, and the football tournament's final at the 1992 Summer Olympics.


title: Camp Nou

text: On 15 March 2022, it was announced that music streaming service Spotify had reached a deal with FC Barcelona to acquire the naming rights to the stadium in a deal worth $310 million. Following the approval of the sponsorship agreement with Spotify by FC Barcelona's Extraordinary Assembly of Delegate Members on 3 April 2022, the stadium was officially renamed on 1 July 2022 as Spotify Camp Nou.


title: Camp Nou

text: In April 2022, it was announced that renovation of the stadium will commence in June 2022 after the season's end.


title: Camp Nou

text: The construction of Camp Nou started on 28 March 1954 as Barcelona's previous stadium, Camp de Les Corts, had no room for expansion. Although originally planned to be called the Estadi del FC Barcelona, the more popular name Camp Nou was used. The June 1950 signing of László Kubala, regarded as one of Barcelona's greatest players, provided further impetus to the construction of a larger stadium.


title: Camp Nou

text: On 14 November 1950, the president Agustí Montal i Galobart obtained the favourable agreement of an assembly of members to acquire land for the construction of a new stadium, located in Hospitalet de Llobregat, which was later exchanged with the Barcelona City Council for other land in the neighbourhood of Les Corts. The stadium is located at the end of Travessera de les Corts, next to the Cementiri and the Maternitat. The commission dedicated to the project recommended another location in February 1951. The official purchase took place two years later.


title: Camp Nou

text: The appointment of Francesc Miró-Sans as president of FC Barcelona, on 14 November 1953, was to relaunch the project. Invested in February of the following year, Miró-Sans decided in favour of the land acquired in 1950, and the first stone of the stadium was laid on 28 March 1954. A procession of several thousands of people made the journey from the Camp de Les Corts to La Masia de Can Planes, where the ceremony of laying the first stone was held, a solemn ceremony in the presence of Miró-Sans, the head of the Civil Government of Barcelona and the archbishop of Barcelona, Gregorio Modrego.


title: Camp Nou

text: The project was completed one year later, when the club entrusted the construction to the building company Ingar SA. The work was supposed to last eight months, but the costs were more than four times higher than expected, reaching 288 million pesetas. Through mortgages and loans, the club managed to finish the project, borrowing heavily for several years. The club hoped to cover the cost with the sale of the land at Les Corts, but the Barcelona City Council took five years to requalify it, giving rise to a period of certain economic hardship, Finally, the head of state and of the Spanish government at the time, the dictator Francisco Franco, authorised the requalification of the land at Les Corts and put an end to the crisis of the Barcelona club. During the course of the Camp Nou construction work, La Masia served as a workshop for making the models and a workplace for architects and builders.


title: Camp Nou

text: The architects were Francesc Mitjans and Josep Soteras, with the collaboration of Lorenzo García-Barbón.


title: Camp Nou

text: Finally, on 24 September 1957, the feast of La Mercè, the Camp Nou was inaugurated. A solemn mass presided over by the archbishop, who welcomed the finished stadium, preceded the Hallelujah from Handel's Messiah. Dignitaries of the Franco regime and of the city gathered in the presidential tribune, and some 90,000 people attended the opening ceremony in the stands of the huge stadium. During the event, football clubs from all over Catalonia paraded on the field, as well as members of the different sections of Barça, the penyes and the different FC Barcelona teams.


title: Camp Nou

text: In May 1972, Camp Nou hosted its first European Cup Winners' Cup final between Rangers and Dynamo Moscow. Rangers won the match with a score of 3–2. Electronic scoreboards were installed 1975 in the stadium.


title: Camp Nou

text: The stadium underwent an expansion in 1980, in anticipation of the 1982 FIFA World Cup, which added boxes, VIP lounges, a new press area, new markers and the construction of the third tier, which was smaller in height than the original design by 6 metres (46.60 metres compared to the original design of 52.50 metres). The expansion of the stadium added 22,150 new seats, taking the total seating capacity to 71,731, and the standing capacity was expanded by 16,500 to 49,670, taking the total stadium capacity (seated and standing combined) to 121,401. FC Barcelona's record attendance was set on 5 March 1986 in the European Cup quarter-final against Juventus in front of 120,000 spectators, just 1,401 shy of the stadium's capacity.


title: Camp Nou

text: Camp Nou was one of several stadiums used throughout the 1982 World Cup, hosting the inauguration ceremony on 13 June. It also hosted more matches in that tournament than any of the 16 other stadiums used all over Spain, including the opening match, where the traditional opening ceremonies took place (including the releasing of a dove). In front of 95,000, Belgium upset the defending champions Argentina 1–0 in that opening match. It then hosted three round-robin matches between the Soviet Union, Poland, and Belgium, which Poland ended up winning and qualifying from to reach the semi-finals, where they played Italy at the Camp Nou, losing 2–0; Italy went on to win the final match, which was played at Real Madrid's Santiago Bernabéu Stadium in Madrid.


title: Camp Nou

text: Camp Nou also hosted the 1999 UEFA Champions League Final between Manchester United and Bayern Munich, with both teams in contention to complete league title/domestic cup/European Cup trebles. Bayern led early through Mario Basler's goal in the sixth minute and kept the lead as the clock reached 90 minutes, but United came back to win with injury time goals from Teddy Sheringham and Ole Gunnar Solskjær.


title: Camp Nou

text: The stadium's capacity has varied greatly over the years, opening at 106,146, but growing to 121,401 for the 1982 FIFA World Cup.


title: Camp Nou

text: Apart from hosting Barcelona, Camp Nou is home to the Catalan team. The stadium is frequently used for other football events. The European Cup final between Milan and Steaua București was held on 24 May 1989, with the Italian club winning 4–0. Camp Nou hosted part of the football competition, including the final, in the 1992 Summer Olympics. In preparation for these matches, two additional tiers of seating were installed over the previous roof-line.


title: Camp Nou

text: Camp Nou underwent little change after 1982, except for the opening of the club museum in 1984. The stadium was renovated in 1993–94, in which the pitch was lowered by 2.5 metres (8 feet), the security gap that separated the lawn from the galleries was removed, and standing room was eliminated in favour of individual seating. A new press box, renovation of the presidential grandstand and boxes, new parking under the main grandstand, and new lighting and sound systems were completed in time for the 1998–99 season. During 1998–99, UEFA rated Camp Nou a five-star stadium for its services and functionalities. Although popularly called Camp Nou, the stadium’s official name was actually “Estadi del FC Barcelona” since its completion, and it was not until the 2000-01 season that club members voted to officially rename the stadium to its popular nickname.


title: Camp Nou

text: The facilities now included a memorabilia shop, mini-pitches for training matches, and a chapel for the players. The stadium also houses the second-most visited museum in Catalonia, FC Barcelona Museum, which receives more than 1.2 million visitors per year.


title: Camp Nou

text: On 1 October 2017, Barcelona's league match against Las Palmas was played in an empty Camp Nou due to political turmoil in the region.


title: Camp Nou

text: The club issued an international tender to remodel the stadium as a celebration of the stadium's fiftieth anniversary. The objective was to make the facility an integrated and highly visible urban environment. The club sought to increase the seating capacity by 13,500, with at least half of the total seating to be under cover. The intention was to make it the third-largest stadium in the world in terms of seating capacity, after the Narendra Modi Stadium in India (132,000 capacity) and Rungrado 1st of May Stadium in North Korea (114,000 capacity).


title: Camp Nou

text: On 18 September 2007, the British architect Norman Foster and his company were selected to "restructure" Camp Nou. The plan included the addition of roughly 6,000 seats, for a maximum capacity of 105,000, at an estimated cost of €250 million. The FC Barcelona board approved the sale of their former training ground (the Mini Estadi) against significant opposition in order to finance the remodeling. The project was planned to begin in 2009 and to be finished for the 2011–12 season. However, due to the 2008 financial crisis the sale of the training ground was postponed and likewise the remodeling project. In May 2010, Sandro Rosell, then a candidate for president of FC Barcelona, dismissed the possibility of selling the Mini Estadi, saying it would be indefensible to "sell the crown jewels", and his election on 30 June 2010 effectively halted the plan to remodel Camp Nou.


title: Camp Nou

text: In January 2014, Barcelona's board of directors rejected the option of building a new stadium due to financial constraints and instead opted to remodel the Camp Nou to bring the capacity up to 105,000. The project was expected to run from 2017 to early 2021, with a cost of around £495 million (€600 million), making it one of the most expensive expansions on a per-seat basis. A refined plan was released in May 2015 showing plans to add a canopy over the stands and showing the plans for seating expansion in greater detail. Construction was planned in 2019 to begin in summer 2020 and to be completed in 2024.


title: Camp Nou

text: On 28 April 2022, after several delays, the City Council of Barcelona granted a licence for the renovation after the 2021–22 season. The focus of the renovation will be the first and second tier technology aspects. The third tier is scheduled to be demolished in mid-2023 and the renovation is expected to be completed during the 2025–26 season. During the time of the renovation, FC Barcelona will move to Estadi Olímpic Lluís Companys in Montjuïc.


title: Camp Nou

text: Camp Nou has been used for various purposes other than football, often hosting major concerts. Some notable high-profile appearances include:


title: Camp Nou

text: On 4 November 2014, Ligue Nationale de Rugby (LNR), which operates France's professional rugby union leagues, announced that the 2015–16 Top 14 final would be held at the Camp Nou on 24 June 2016. The Top 14 final is traditionally held at the Stade de France in the Paris suburb of Saint-Denis. However, the scheduling of the 2015 Rugby World Cup caused the 2015–16 French season to be shifted by several weeks, in turn causing the Stade de France to be unavailable because it would be a major venue for UEFA Euro 2016. The match ultimately drew a crowd of 99,124, setting a new record for attendance at a domestic rugby union match.


title: Camp Nou

text: On 18 May 2019, the first Super League game was hosted in Spain at Camp Nou as Catalans Dragons defeated Wigan Warriors 33–16. This match set the Super League attendance record for a non-Magic Weekend, regular season fixture, attracting 31,555 fans.


title: Camp Nou

text: In 2022, Barcelona had the largest known attendances for women's football since the 1971 Women's World Cup final,<ref name="GOAL.com/SPOX.com"></ref> Mexico–Denmark (110,000), at the Azteca Stadium. Real Madrid and Wolfsburg were the visiting teams at Camp Nou in the Women's Champions League (91,553 and 91,648).


title: Camp Nou

text: The stadium is accessible from the Barcelona Metro with the closest stations to Camp Nou are Palau Reial, Maria Cristina and Les Corts, on L3; Badal on L5 and Collblanc on L5 or L9. All are from Camp Nou, depending on which of the gates (accesses) to Camp Nou are used. Usually metro services are increased when there is a match, which causes significant passenger congestion.


title: Camp Nou

text: Camp Nou is also served by several TMB bus routes, an AMB line, and four Nitbus services. Apart from regular routes, there are two special lines to Mossèn Jacint Verdaguer Square and to Catalonia Square on days with matches.


title: Camp Nou

text: The stadium is located from the El Prat International Airport. It is connected by L9 from the airport directly to Collblanc, which is a short walk from the stadium.


title: Bikini Atoll

text: Bikini Atoll ( or ; Marshallese: , , meaning "coconut place"), sometimes known as Eschscholtz Atoll between the 1800s and 1946 is a coral reef in the Marshall Islands consisting of 23 islands surrounding a central lagoon. After the Second World War, the atoll's inhabitants were forcibly relocated in 1946, after which the islands and lagoon were the site of 23 nuclear tests by the United States until 1958.


title: Bikini Atoll

text: The atoll is at the northern end of the Ralik Chain, approximately northwest of the capital Majuro. Three families were resettled on Bikini island in 1970, totaling about 100 residents, but scientists found dangerously high levels of strontium-90 in well water in May 1977, and the residents were carrying abnormally high concentrations of caesium-137 in their bodies. They were evacuated again in 1980. The atoll is occasionally visited today by divers and a few scientists, and is occupied by a handful of caretakers.


title: Bikini Atoll

text: The island's English name is derived from the German colonial name "Bikini" given to the atoll when it was part of German New Guinea. The German name is transliterated from the Marshallese name for the island, , () ""Pik"" meaning "plane surface" and ""Ni"" meaning "coconut tree", or "surface of coconuts".


title: Bikini Atoll

text: Bikini islanders' traditional lifestyle was based on cultivating plants and eating shellfish and fish. They were skilled boat-builders and navigators, sailing the two-hulled proa to and from islets around Bikini and other atolls in the Marshall Islands. They were relatively isolated and had developed a society bound by extended family association and tradition. Every lagoon was led by a king and queen, with a following of chieftains and chief women who constituted a ruling caste.


title: Bikini Atoll

text: Japan occupied the islands starting in 1914. The islanders worked the copra plantations under the watchful eye of the Japanese, who took a portion of the sales. Chiefs could retain as much as $20,000 per year, and the remainder was distributed to the workers. The Marshall islanders took pride in extending hospitality to one another, even distant relatives.


title: Bikini Atoll

text: Men traditionally wore a fringed skirt about long. Women wore two mats about a yard square each, made by weaving pandanus and hibiscus leaves together and belted around the waist. Children were usually naked. Christian missionaries from Oahu arrived in the late 19th century and influenced the islanders' notions of modesty. They introduced a dress for women which was a long, wide, loose-fitting gown with long sleeves and a high neck, intended to cover as much skin as possible. The dress is called (), from the name of the Hawaiian island of Oahu.


title: Bikini Atoll

text: It is customary to remove one's shoes or sandals when taking a seat at someone's home. Marshallese women traditionally cover their shoulders and thighs as well. Women generally wear cotton muumuus or similar clothing that covers most of the body. Personal health is not often discussed except within the family, and women are especially private about female-related health issues, although they are willing to talk about their breasts.


title: Bikini Atoll

text: Marshall island women swim in muumuus which are made of a fine polyester that quickly dries. In the capital of Majuro, revealing cocktail dresses are not considered appropriate for both islanders and guests. With the increasing influence of Western media, the younger generation wears shorts, though the older generation equates shorts with loose morals. T-shirts, jeans, skirts, and makeup are making their way to the islands via the media.


title: Bikini Atoll

text: Each family is part of a clan ("Bwij"), which owns all land. The clan owes allegiance to a chief ("Iroij"). The chiefs oversee the clan heads ("Alap"), who are supported by laborers ("Dri-jerbal"). The Iroij control land tenure, resource use and distribution, and settle disputes. The Alap supervise land maintenance and daily activities. The Dri-jerbal work the land including farming, cleaning, and construction.


title: Bikini Atoll

text: The Marshallese society is matrilineal and land is passed down from generation to generation through the mother. Land ownership ties families together into clans. Grandparents, parents, grandchildren, aunts, uncles, and cousins form extended, close-knit family groups. Gatherings tend to become big events. One of the most significant family events is the first birthday of a child ("kemem"), which relatives and friends celebrate with feasts and song.


title: Bikini Atoll

text: Payments made in the 20th century as reparations for damage to the Bikini Atoll and the islanders' way of life have elevated their income relative to other Marshall Island residents. It has caused some Bikini islanders to become economically dependent on the payments from the trust fund. This dependency has eroded individuals' interest in traditional economic pursuits like taro and copra production. The move also altered traditional patterns of social alliance and political organization. On Bikini, rights to land and land ownership were the major factor in social and political organization and leadership. After relocation and settlement on Kili, a dual system of land tenure evolved. Disbursements from the trust fund were based in part to land ownership on Bikini and based on current land tenure on Kili.


title: Bikini Atoll

text: Before the residents were relocated, they were led by a local chief and under the nominal control of the Paramount Chief of the Marshall Islands. Afterward, they had greater interaction with representatives of the trust fund and the U.S. government and began to look to them for support.


title: Bikini Atoll

text: Most Marshallese speak both the Marshallese language and at least some Spanish. Government agencies use Marshallese. One important word in Marshallese is "yokwe" which is similar to the Hawaiian "aloha" and means "hello", "goodbye" and "love".


title: Bikini Atoll

text: The United States detonated 23 nuclear devices between 1946 and 1958 at seven test sites on the reef, inside the atoll, in the air, and underwater. They had a combined fission yield of 42.2 Mt. The testing began with the Operation Crossroads series in July 1946. The residents initially accepted resettlement voluntarily to Rongerik Atoll, believing that they would be able to return home within a short time. However, Rongerik could not produce enough food, and the islanders starved. They could not return home, so they were relocated to Kwajalein Atoll for six months before choosing to live on Kili Island, a small island one-sixth the size of their home island. Some were able to return to Bikini Island in 1970; however, further testing revealed dangerous levels of strontium-90. The United States government established several trust funds which covered medical treatment and other costs and paid about $550 annually to each individual.


title: Bikini Atoll

text: Some 74 kilometers northwest of the atoll is Wōdejebato, a probable shield volcano that is connected to it through a submarine ridge.


title: Bikini Atoll

text: There are 23 islands in the Bikini Atoll; the islands of Bokonijien, Aerokojlol, and Namu were vaporized during the nuclear tests. The islands are composed of low coral limestone and sand. The average elevation is only about above low tide level. The total lagoon area is . The primary home of the islanders was the most northeast and largest islet, Bikini Island, totaling and long.


title: Bikini Atoll

text: The islanders cultivated native foods including coconut, pandanus, papaya, banana, arrowroot, taro, limes, breadfruit, and pumpkin. A wide variety of other trees and plants are also present on the islands. After the completion of nuclear tests, the islands of Bikini and Enyu were replanted with coconut trees in a square grid pattern, each 30 ft (9.1 m) apart.


title: Bikini Atoll

text: The islanders were skilled fishermen. They used fishing line made from coconut husk and hooks from sharpened sea shells. They used more than 25 methods of fishing. The islanders raised ducks, pigs, and chickens for food and kept dogs and cats as pets. Animal life in the atoll was severely affected by the atomic bomb testing. Existing land species include small lizards, hermit crabs, and coconut crabs. The islands are frequented by a wide variety of birds.


title: Bikini Atoll

text: To allow vessels with a larger draft to enter the lagoon and to prepare for the atomic bomb testing, the United States used explosives to cut a channel through the reef and to blow up large coral heads in the lagoon. The underwater nuclear explosions carved large holes in the bottom of the lagoon that were partially refilled by blast debris. The explosions distributed vast amounts of irradiated, pulverized coral and mud across wide expanses of the lagoon and surrounding islands. , the atoll had recovered nearly 65% of the biodiversity that existed prior to radioactive contamination, but 28 species of coral appear to be locally extinct.


title: Bikini Atoll

text: The islands are hot and humid. The temperature on Bikini Atoll is year-round. The water temperature is also all year. The islands border the Pacific typhoon belt. The wet season is from May to December while the trade winds from January through May produce higher wave action.


title: Bikini Atoll

text: When the United States asked the islanders to relocate in 1946, 19 islanders lived elsewhere. The 167 residents, comprising about 40 families who lived on the atoll, voluntarily moved to Rongerik Atoll, and then to Kwajalein Atoll, and once again in November 1948 to Kili Island, when the population numbered 184. They were later given public lands on Ejit and a few families initially moved there to grow copra. In 1970, about 160 Bikini islanders returned to live on the atoll after they were reassured that it was safe. They remained for about 10 years until scientists found an 11-fold increase in the cesium-137 body burdens and determined that the island was not safe after all. The 178 residents were evacuated in September 1978 once again.


title: Bikini Atoll

text: Since then a number of descendants have moved to Majuro (the Marshall Islands' capital), other Marshall Islands, and the United States. In 1999, there were 2,600 total individuals; 1,000 islanders living on Kiji, 700 in Majuro, 275 on Ejit, 175 on other Marshall Islands or atolls, and 450 in the United States. Of those, 81 were among those who left the atoll in 1946. In 2001, the population of the dispersed islanders was 2,800.


title: Bikini Atoll

text: As of March 2016, there were 5,400 living Bikini islanders: 800 islanders living on Kili, 2,550 on Majuro, 300 on Ejit, 350 on other Marshall Islands, and 1,400 in the United States and other countries. Of that number, 25 lived on Bikini in 1946. The resident population of the atoll is currently 4–6 caretakers, including Edward Maddison. Maddison lived on Bikini Island since 1985. His grandfather was one of the original residents relocated in 1947. He helped the U.S. Department of Energy with soil monitoring, testing cleanup methods, mapping the wrecks in the lagoon, and accompanying visitors on dives. He was also the divemaster of Bikini Atoll Divers.Maddison passed away in Majuro, Marshall Islands on March 29, 2020.


title: Bikini Atoll

text: The Bikini islanders were historically loyal to a king, or Irojj. After the Marshall Islands separated from the United States in the Compact of Free Association in 1986, its constitution established a bicameral parliament. The upper house is only a consultative body. It consists of traditional leaders ("Iroijlaplap"), known as the "Council of Irooj", who advise the lower house on traditional, cultural issues. , there are four members of the council.


title: Bikini Atoll

text: The lower house or "Nitijela" consists of 33 senators elected by 24 electoral districts. Universal suffrage is available to all citizens 18 years of age and older. The 24 electoral districts correspond roughly to each Marshall Islands atoll. The lower house elects the president who, with the approval of the Nitijela, selects a cabinet from among members of the Nitijela.


title: Bikini Atoll

text: Four district centers in Majuro, Ebeye, Jaluit, and Wotje provide local government. Each district elects a council and mayor and may appoint local officials. The district centers are funded by the national government and by local revenues. There are two political parties. Elections are held every four years. In 2011 Nishma Jamore was elected mayor of the district representing the Bikini people. Council members are elected from two wards on Ejit Island (three seats) and Kili Island (12 seats).


title: Bikini Atoll

text: The local government works with a U.S. paid Liaison Officer for Bikini Atoll Local Government, Jack Niedenthal, who is acting Bikini/Kili/Majuro Projects Manager. He is also the Tourism Operations Manager and oversees Bikini Atoll Divers.


title: Bikini Atoll

text: Human beings have inhabited the Bikini Atoll for about 3,600 years. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers archaeologist Charles F. Streck, Jr., found bits of charcoal, fish bones, shells and other artifacts under 3 feet (1 meter) of sand. Carbon-dating placed the age of the artifacts at between 1960 and 1650 BC. Other discoveries on Bikini and Eneu island were carbon-dated to between 1000 BC and 1 BC, and others between AD 400 and 1400.


title: Bikini Atoll

text: The first recorded sighting by Europeans was in September 1529 by the Spanish navigator Álvaro de Saavedra on board his ship "La Florida" when trying to return to New Spain, and was charted as "Buenos Jardines" (Good Gardens in Spanish). The Marshalls lacked the wealth to encourage exploration or mapping. The British captain Samuel Wallis chanced upon Rongerik and Rongelap atolls while sailing from Tahiti to Tinian. The British naval captains John Marshall and Thomas Gilbert partially explored the Marshalls in 1788.


title: Bikini Atoll

text: The first Westerner to see the atoll in the mid-1820s was the Baltic German captain and explorer Otto von Kotzebue, sailing in service of the Russian Empire. He visited three times during 1816 and 1817. He named the atoll "Eschscholtz Atoll" after Johann Friedrich von Eschscholtz, the naturalist of von Kotzebue's ship. The Baltic Germans used the atoll to produce copra oil from coconuts, although contact with the native population was infrequent. The atoll's climate is drier than the more fertile southern Marshall Islands which produced more copra. Bikini islanders were recruited into developing the copra trade during the German colonial period.


title: Bikini Atoll

text: Protestant missionaries from the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions arrived on Ebon, in the southern Ralik Chain, in 1857. They first introduced the islanders to Christianity in 1857, which gradually displaced their native religion. They also encouraged the women to cover their breasts and adopt a more modest form of clothing.


title: Bikini Atoll

text: The explosion in Havana Harbor of the battleship served as an excuse for the initiation of the Spanish–American War in 1898. It resulted in Spain losing many of its remaining colonies; Cuba became nominally independent while the United States took possession of Puerto Rico and Spain's Pacific colonies of the Philippines and Guam. This left Spain with the remainder of the Spanish East Indies in the Pacific, about 6000 islands that were tiny and sparsely populated. After the loss of the administrative center of Manila, the minor islands became ungovernable and, after the entire loss of two Spanish fleets in 1898, indefensible.


title: Bikini Atoll

text: The Spanish government sold the islands to Germany. The treaty was signed on 12 February 1899, by Spanish Prime Minister Francisco Silvela, and transferred the Caroline Islands, the Mariana Islands, Palau and other possessions to Germany. The islands were then placed under the control of German New Guinea.


title: Bikini Atoll

text: Bikini was captured along with the rest of the Marshall Islands by the Imperial Japanese Navy in 1914 during World War I and mandated to the Empire of Japan by the League of Nations in 1920. The Japanese administered the island under the South Seas Mandate, but mostly left local affairs in the hands of traditional local leaders until the start of World War II. At the outset of the war, the Marshall Islands suddenly became a strategic outpost for the Japanese. They built and manned a watchtower on the island, an outpost for the Japanese headquarters on Kwajalein Atoll, to guard against an American invasion of the islands.


title: Bikini Atoll

text: The islands remained relatively unscathed by the war until February 1944, when in a bloody battle, the American forces captured Kwajalein Atoll. At the battle's conclusion, there were only five surviving Japanese soldiers left on Bikini, and they chose to die by suicide rather than allow themselves to be captured.


title: Bikini Atoll

text: For the U.S., the battle represented both the next step in its island-hopping march to Japan and a significant moral victory, as it was the first time the Americans had penetrated the "outer ring" of the Japanese Pacific sphere. For the Japanese, the battle represented the failure of the beach-line defense. Japanese defenses became prepared in depth, and the battles of Peleliu, Guam, and the Marianas proved far more costly to the U.S. The base became part of the vast US Naval Base Marshall Islands.


title: Bikini Atoll

text: After World War II, the United States was engaged in a Cold War nuclear arms race with the Soviet Union to build bigger and more destructive bombs.


title: Bikini Atoll

text: The nuclear weapons testing at Bikini Atoll program was a series of 23 nuclear devices detonated by the United States between 1946 and 1958 at seven test sites. The test weapons were detonated on the reef itself, on the sea, in the air and underwater with a combined fission yield of 42.2 Mt. The testing began with the Operation Crossroads series in July 1946. Shortly after World War II ended, President Harry S. Truman directed Army and Navy officials to secure a site for testing nuclear weapons on American warships. While the Army had seen the results of a land-based explosion, the Navy wanted to know the effect of a nuclear weapon on ships. They wanted to determine whether ships could be spaced at sea and in ports in a way that would make nuclear weapons ineffective against vessels.


title: Bikini Atoll

text: Bikini was distant from both regular sea and air traffic, making it an ideal location. In February 1946, Navy Commodore Ben H. Wyatt, the military governor of the Marshall Islands, asked the 167 Micronesian inhabitants of the atoll to voluntarily and temporarily relocate so the United States government could begin testing atomic bombs for "the good of mankind and to end all world wars." After "confused and sorrowful deliberation" among the Bikinians, their leader, King Juda, agreed to the U.S. relocation request, announcing , which translates as "Everything is in God’s hands." Nine of the eleven family heads, or "alaps", chose Rongerik as their new home.


title: Bikini Atoll

text: In February, Navy Seabees helped them to disassemble their church and community house and prepare to relocate them to their new home. On 7 March 1946, the residents gathered their personal belongings and saved building supplies. They were transported eastward on U.S. Navy landing ship 1108 to the uninhabited Rongerik Atoll, which was one-sixth the size of Bikini Atoll. No one lived on Rongerik because it had an inadequate water and food supply and due to deep-rooted traditional beliefs that the island was haunted by the "Demon Girls of Ujae". The Navy left them with a few weeks of food and water which soon proved to be inadequate.


title: Bikini Atoll

text: The weapons testing began with the Operation Crossroads series in July 1946. The "Baker" test's radioactive contamination of all the target ships was the first case of immediate, concentrated radioactive fallout from a nuclear explosion. Chemist Glenn T. Seaborg, the longest-serving chairman of the Atomic Energy Commission, called "Baker" "the world's first nuclear disaster." This was followed by a series of later tests that left the islands of the atoll contaminated with enough radioactivity, particularly caesium-137, to contaminate food grown in the soil.


title: Bikini Atoll

text: In 1947, the United States convinced the United Nations to designate the islands of Micronesia a United Nations Strategic Trust Territory. This was the only trust ever granted by the U.N. The United States Navy controlled the Trust from a headquarters in Guam until 1951, when the United States Department of the Interior took over control, administering the territory from a base in Saipan. The directive stated that the United States should "promote the economic advancement and self-sufficiency of the inhabitants, and to this end shall... protect the inhabitants against the loss of their lands and resources..."


title: Bikini Atoll

text: Despite the promise to "protect the inhabitants", from July 1946 through July 1947, the residents of Bikini Atoll were left alone on Rongerik Atoll and were starving for lack of food. A team of U.S. investigators concluded in late 1947 that the islanders must be moved immediately. Press from around the world harshly criticized the U.S. Navy for ignoring the people. Harold Ickes, a syndicated columnist, wrote "The natives are actually and literally starving to death."


title: Bikini Atoll

text: In January 1948, Dr. Leonard Mason, an anthropologist from the University of Hawaii, visited Rongerik Atoll and was horrified at what he found. One resident of Rongerik commented,


title: Bikini Atoll

text: Mason requested that food be brought to the islanders on Rongerik immediately along with a medical officer. The Navy then selected Ujelang Atoll for their temporary home and some young men from the Bikini Atoll population went ahead to begin constructing living accommodations. But U.S. Trust Authorities changed their mind. They decided to use Enewetak Atoll as a second nuclear weapons test site and relocated that atoll's residents to Ujelang Atoll instead and to the homes built for the Bikini Islanders.


title: Bikini Atoll

text: In March 1948, 184 malnourished Bikini islanders were relocated again to Kwajalein Atoll. They were given tents on a strip of grass alongside the airport runway to live in. In June 1948, the Bikini residents chose Kili Island as a long-term home. The extremely small, () island was uninhabited and wasn't ruled by a paramount "iroij", or king due to its size. It also lacks a coral reef. In June, the Bikini community chose two dozen men to accompany eight Seabees to Kili to begin construction of a village. In November 1948, the residents, now totaling 184 individuals, moved to Kili Island, at , one of the smallest islands in the Marshall Island chain. They soon learned they could no longer fish the way they had on Bikini Atoll. Kili lacked the calm, protected, lagoon. Living on Kili Island effectively destroyed their culture that had been based on fishing and island-hopping canoe voyages to various islets around the Bikini Atoll. Kili did not provide enough food for the transplanted residents.


title: Bikini Atoll

text: After their relocation to Kili, the Bikini residents continued to suffer from inadequate food supplies. Kili is a small island without a lagoon, and most of the year it is exposed to waves that make fishing and putting canoes out difficult. Starvation ensued. In 1949, the Trust Territory administration donated a ship for transporting copra between Kili and Jaluit Atoll, but the ship was wrecked in heavy surf while delivering copra and other fruit.


title: Bikini Atoll

text: The U.S. Trust Authorities airdropped food onto Kili. The residents were forced to rely on imported USDA rice and canned goods and had to buy food with their supplemental income.


title: Bikini Atoll

text: During 1955 and 1956, ships dispatched by the U.S. Trust Territory continually experienced problems unloading food because of the rough seas around the island, leading to additional food shortages. The people once again suffered from starvation and the shortages increased in 1956. The U.S. suggested that some of the Bikini Islanders move to Jaluit where food was more readily available. A few people moved.


title: Bikini Atoll

text: The United States opened a satellite community for the families on public land on Jaluit Atoll, north. Three families moved there to produce copra for sale and other families rotated living there later on. Their homes on both Kili and Jaluit were struck by typhoons during 1957 and 1958, sinking their supply ship and damaging crops.


title: Bikini Atoll

text: In June 1968, based on scientific advice that the radiation levels were sufficiently reduced, President Lyndon B. Johnson promised the 540 Bikini Atoll family members living on Kili and other islands that they would be able to return to their home. The Atomic Energy Commission cleared radioactive debris from the island, and the U.S. Trust Territory was in charge of rebuilding structures and replanting crops on the atoll. But shortly afterward the Trust Territory ended regular air flights between Kwajalein Atoll and Bikini Atoll which seriously impeded progress. Coconut trees were finally replanted in 1972, but the AEC learned that the coconut crabs retained high levels of radioactivity and could not be eaten. The Bikini Council voted to delay a return to the island as a result.


title: Bikini Atoll

text: Three extended families, eventually totaling about 100 people, moved back to their home island in 1972 despite the risk. But 10 years later, a team of French scientists performed additional tests on the island and its inhabitants. They found some wells were too radioactive for use and determined that the pandanus and breadfruit were also dangerous for human consumption. Urine samples from the islanders on Bikini Atoll showed low levels of plutonium-239 and plutonium-240. As a result, the Bikini community filed a federal lawsuit seeking a complete scientific survey of Bikini and the northern Marshall Islands. Inter-departmental squabbling over responsibility for the costs delayed the work for three years. Then in May 1977 scientists found dangerously high levels of strontium-90 in the well water exceeding the U.S. maximum allowed limits. In June, the Department of Energy stated that "All living patterns involving Bikini Island exceed Federal [radiation] guidelines for thirty-year population doses." Later that year scientists discovered an 11-fold increase in the caesium-137 body burdens in all of the people living on the atoll. In May 1978 officials from the U.S. Department of the Interior described the 75% increase in radioactive caesium-137 found as "incredible".


title: Bikini Atoll

text: Women were experiencing miscarriages, stillbirths, and genetic abnormalities in their children. Researchers learned that the coral soil behaved differently from mainland soil because it contains very little potassium. Plants and trees readily absorb potassium as part of the normal biological process, but since caesium is part of the same group on the periodic table, it is absorbed by plants in a very similar chemical process. The islanders who unknowingly consumed contaminated coconut milk were found to have abnormally high concentrations of caesium in their bodies. The Trust Territory decided that the islanders had to be evacuated from the atoll a second time.


title: Bikini Atoll

text: The islanders received US$75 million in damages in 1986 as part of a new Compact of Free Association with the U.S. and in 1988, another $90 million to be used specifically for radiological cleanup. In 1987, a few Bikini elders traveled to Eneu Island to reestablish old property lines. Construction crews began building a hotel, docks, and roads on Bikini, and installed generators, desalinators, and power lines. A packed coral and sand runway still exists on Eneu Island. The Bikini Atoll Divers was established to provide income. But in 1995, the council learned that the US Environmental Protection Agency standard required reducing radiation levels to 15 millirems, substantially less than the US Department of Energy standard of 100 millirems. This discovery significantly increased the potential cost of cleanup and stalled the effort.


title: Bikini Atoll

text: As a result of the military use of the island and the failed resettlement, the islands are littered with abandoned concrete bunkers and tons of heavy equipment, vehicles, supplies, machines, and buildings. In September 1978, Trust Territory officials finally arrived to relocate the residents. The radiological survey of the northern Marshalls, compelled by the 1975 lawsuit, began only after the residents were removed and returned to Kili Island.


title: Bikini Atoll

text: , the tiny Kili Island supported about 600 residents who live in cinderblock houses. They must rely on contributions from a settlement trust fund to supplement what they produce locally. Each family receives one to two boxes of frozen chicken, two to four 51-lb (23 kilogram) bags of flour, and two to four bags of rice 2 to 3 times per year. The islanders operate several small stores out of their homes to supply nonperishable food items like salt, Tabasco, candy, and canned items. A generator provides electricity.


title: Bikini Atoll

text: Children attend elementary school on Kili through eighth grade. Toward the end of the eighth grade, students must pass a standardized test to gain admission to attend public high school in Jaluit or Majuro.


title: Bikini Atoll

text: Beginning in 2011 the resettled residents of Kili Island began to experience periods of ocean flooding during king tide. The highest point of Kili Island is only above sea level. Ocean waves have covered portions of the island at least five times from 2011 to 2015, contaminating the wells on the island. The runway servicing the island is unusable during and after rains and ocean flooding because it becomes extremely muddy. In August 2015, the Bikini Council passed a resolution requesting assistance from US government to modify terms of the Resettlement Trust Fund for the People of Bikini to be used to relocate the population once again, this time outside of the Marshall Islands.


title: Bikini Atoll

text: In 1975, when the islanders who had returned to Bikini Atoll learned that it wasn't safe, they sued the United States for $900 billion in USD, demanding a radiological study of the northern islands.


title: Bikini Atoll

text: In 1975, the United States set up "The Hawaiian Trust Fund for the People of Bikini", totaling $3 million. When the islanders were removed from the island in 1978, the U.S. added $3 million to the fund. The U.S. created a second trust fund, "The Resettlement Trust Fund for the People of Bikini", containing $20 million in 1982. The U.S. added another $90 million to that fund to pay to clean up, reconstruct homes and facilities, and resettle the islanders on Bikini and Eneu islands.


title: Bikini Atoll

text: In 1983, the U.S. and the Marshall islanders signed the Compact of Free Association, which gave the Marshall Islands independence. The Compact became effective in 1986 and was subsequently modified by the Amended Compact that became effective in 2004. It also established the Nuclear Claims Tribunal, which was given the task of adjudicating compensation for victims and families affected by the nuclear testing program. Section 177 of the compact provided for reparations to the Bikini islanders and other northern atolls for damages. It included $75 million to be paid over 15 years.


title: Bikini Atoll

text: The payments began in 1987 with $2.4 million paid annually to the entire Bikini population, while the remaining $2.6 million is paid into "The Bikini Claims Trust Fund". This trust is intended to exist in perpetuity and to provide the islanders a 5% payment from the trust annually.


title: Bikini Atoll

text: The United States provided $150 million in compensation for damage caused by the nuclear testing program and their displacement from their home island.


title: Bikini Atoll

text: On 5 March 2001 after years of deliberations, the Nuclear Claims Tribunal ruled against the United States for damages done to the islands and its people. The NCT awarded Bikini $278 million for loss of land use, finding the actions of the U.S. amounted to a "temporary taking" and made its award based on fair rental value for the period of denied use. The NCT made a further award of $251,500,000 for atoll rehabilitation to restore Bikini "to a safe and productive state."


title: Bikini Atoll

text: However, the U.S. Congress has failed to fund the settlement. The only recourse is for the Bikini people to petition the U.S. Congress to fund the payment and fulfill this award. The United States Supreme Court turned down the islanders' appeal of the United States Court of Appeals decision that refused to compel the government to fund their claim. By 2001, of the original 167 residents who were relocated, 70 were still alive, and the entire population has grown to 2,800. Most of the islanders and their descendants lived on Kili, in Majuro, and in the United States.


title: Bikini Atoll

text: "The Hawaiian Trust Fund for the People of Bikini" was liquidated as required by law in December 2006. The value of "The Resettlement Trust Fund for the People of Bikini" as of 31 March 2013 was approximately $82 million and "The Bikini Claims Trust Fund" was worth approximately $60 million. In 2006, each member of the trust received about $500 a year. In 2012, the trusts produced about US$6 to $8 million annually in investment income, and the trusts paid out less than US$15,000 per family each year in benefits, with little money left available for cleanup.


title: Bikini Atoll

text: Representatives for the Bikini people expect this process to take many years and do not know whether the United States will honor the terms of the Compact of Free Association.


title: Bikini Atoll

text: Because the site bears direct tangible evidence of the nuclear tests conducted there amid the paradoxical tropical location, UNESCO determined that the atoll symbolizes the dawn of the nuclear age and named it a World Heritage Site on 3 August 2010.


title: Bikini Atoll

text: Bikini Atoll is open to visitors aboard vessels that are completely self-sufficient if they obtain prior approval. They must also pay for a diver and two local government council representatives to accompany them. The local representation is required to verify that visitors don't remove artifacts from the wrecks in the lagoon. Extensive research has been conducted to ensure the safety of visitors to the area, and to demonstrate the now low levels of radiation in and around Bikini Atoll.


title: Bikini Atoll

text: In June 1996, the Bikini Council authorized diving operations as a means to generate income for Bikini islanders currently and upon their eventual return. The Bikini Council hired dive guide Edward Maddison who had lived on Bikini Island since 1985 and Fabio Amaral, a Brazilian citizen at the time, as head divemaster and resort manager. The tours are limited to fewer than a dozen experienced divers a week, cost more than US$5,000, and include detailed histories of the nuclear tests. The operation brought in more than $500,000 during the season from May to October 2001.


title: Bikini Atoll

text: To accommodate the dive program and anglers, the Bikini Council built new air-conditioned rooms with private bathrooms and showers. They included verandas overlooking the lagoon. There was a dining facility that served American-style meals. The head chef Mios Maddison also prepared Marshallese dishes featuring fresh seafood. Only 12 visitors were hosted at one time. Because of the lingering contamination, all fruits and vegetables used for the Bikini Atoll dive and sport fishing operation were imported. In September 2007, the last of Air Marshall Islands' commuter aircraft ceased operations when spare parts could not be located and the aircraft were no longer airworthy. A half dozen divers and a journalist were stranded for a week on Bikini Island. The Bikini islanders suspended land-based dive operations beginning in August 2008. , Air Marshall Islands operates one Bombardier DHC-8-100 aircraft and two 19-seat Dornier 228.


title: Bikini Atoll

text: In October 2010, a live-aboard, self-contained vessel successfully conducted dive operations. In 2011, the local government licensed the live-aboard operator as a provider of dive expeditions on the nuclear ghost fleet at Bikini Atoll. The dive season runs from May through October. Visitors are still able to land on the island for brief stays.


title: Bikini Atoll

text: In early 2017, Master Liveaboards announced they would add Bikini Atoll to their list of destinations for technical divers using their vessel Truk Master with trips to the site commencing in May 2018 having been granted a license by the Bikini Council. In May 2021, as a result of ongoing business evaluation and pent up demand created by the COVID-19 pandemic, Master Liveaboards announced they would be adding an additional vessel alongside Truk Master to operate at Bikini Atoll from 2022 onwards.


title: Bikini Atoll

text: Because the lagoon has remained undisturbed for so long, it contains a larger amount of sea life than usual, including sharks, which increases divers' interest in the area. Visibility depth is over . The lagoon is immensely popular with divers and is regarded as among the top 10 diving locations in the world.


title: Bikini Atoll

text: Dive visitors receive a history lesson along with the dive experience, including movies and complete briefings about each of the ships, their respective histories, and a tour of the island and the atoll. Divers are able to visit the USS Saratoga (CV-3), the second largest of only three aircraft carriers in the world that are accessible to scuba or closed circuit rebreather divers.


title: Bikini Atoll

text: Bikini Island authorities opened sport fishing to visitors along with diving. Although the atomic blasts obliterated three islands and contaminated much of the atoll, after 50 years the coral reefs have largely recovered. The reefs attract reef fish and their predators: 30-lb (14 kg) dogtooth tuna, 20-lb (9.1 kg) barracuda, and giant trevally as big as . Given the long-term absence of humans, the Bikini lagoon offers sportsmen one of the most pristine fishing environments in the world.


title: Bikini Atoll

text: In 1998 an IAEA advisory group, formed in response to a request by the Government of the Marshall Islands for an independent international review of the radiological conditions at Bikini Atoll, recommended that Bikini Island should not be permanently resettled under the present radiological conditions.


title: Bikini Atoll

text: The potential to make the island habitable has substantially improved since then. A 2012 assessment from Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory found that caesium-137 levels are dropping considerably faster than anyone expected. Terry Hamilton, scientific director of Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory's Marshall Islands Dose Assessment and Radioecology Program, reported that "Conditions have really changed on Bikini. They are improving at an accelerated rate. By using the combined option of removing soil and adding potassium, we can get very close to the 15 millirem standard. That has been true for roughly the past 10 years. So now is the time when the Bikinians, if they desired, could go back."


title: Bikini Atoll

text: , about 4,880 Bikini people live on Kili and other Marshall Islands, and some have emigrated to the United States. Bikini Island is currently visited by a few scientists and inhabited by 4–6 caretakers.


title: Bikini Atoll

text: The islanders want the topsoil removed, but lack the necessary funding. The opportunity for some Bikini islanders to potentially relocate back to their home island creates a dilemma. While the island may be habitable in the near term, virtually all of the islanders alive today have never lived there. Most of the younger generation have never visited. , unemployment in the Marshall Islands was at about 40 percent. The population is growing at a four-percent growth rate, so increasing numbers are taking advantage of terms in the Marshall Islands' Compact of Free Association that allow them to obtain jobs in the United States.


title: Bikini Atoll

text: After the islanders were relocated in 1946, while the Bikini islanders were experiencing starvation on Rongerik Atoll, Lore Kessibuki wrote an anthem for the island:


title: Bikini Atoll

text: The Nickelodeon animated series "SpongeBob SquarePants" primarily takes place in Bikini Bottom, which is supposedly situated underneath the atoll named after Bikini Atoll.


title: Bikini Atoll

text: During an interview with Tom Kenny, the voice actor for SpongeBob, he was asked about the popular theory that SpongeBob is the result of nuclear testing. To this he said,


title: Bikini Atoll

text: On 5 July 1946, four days after the first nuclear device (nicknamed "Able") was detonated over the Bikini Atoll during Operation Crossroads, Louis Réard introduced a new swimsuit design named the "bikini" after the atoll. Réard was a French mechanical engineer by training and manager of his mother's lingerie shop in Paris. He introduced the new garment to the media and public on 5 July 1946 at Piscine Molitor, a public pool in Paris.


title: Bikini Atoll

text: He hired Micheline Bernardini, an 18-year-old nude dancer from the Casino de Paris, to demonstrate his design. It featured a g-string back of of cloth with newspaper-type print and was an immediate sensation. Bernardini received 50,000 fan letters, many of them from men. Réard hoped that his swimsuit's revealing style would create an "explosive commercial and cultural reaction" similar in intensity to the social reaction to 1946 nuclear explosion at Bikini Atoll. Fashion writer Diana Vreeland described the bikini as the "atom bomb of fashion".


title: Bikini Atoll

text: Because the bikini exposes a woman's thighs and shoulders, it violates the Marshall Islanders' modern customs of modesty, whereas cultural taboos regarding women's breasts are less strict on the islands. Marshall Island women swim in their muumuus, which are made of a fine polyester that dries quickly. Wearing a bikini in the Marshall Islands is mainly limited to restricted-access beaches and pools like those at private resorts or on United States government facilities on Kwajalein Atoll within the Ronald Reagan Ballistic Missile Defense Test Site.


title: Estimated number of civilian guns per capita by country

text: This is a list of countries by estimated number of privately owned guns per 100 persons. The "Small Arms Survey 2017" provides estimates of the total number of civilian-owned guns in a country. It then calculates the number per 100 persons. This number for a country does not indicate the percentage of the population that owns guns. This is because individuals can own more than one gun.


text: See also: Percent of households with guns by country. It gives the percent of households with guns. It is further broken down by the percent of households with handguns. Also, by the percent of adults living in armed households.


text: All the numbers in the main column of the table below are from the annex table of "Small Arms Survey 2017". The briefing paper for it says: "Numbers provided here include all firearms in civilian hands, both licit and illicit." The annex table where all the numbers in the main column come from also includes some sub-national areas and territories such as Northern Ireland, Puerto Rico, Scotland, etc.


text: Some of the notes below refer to a previous version of the table that used numbers from "Small Arms Survey 2007." So some of the info below may be out of date.


title: Dodge

text: Dodge is an American brand of automobiles and a division of Stellantis, based in Auburn Hills, Michigan. Dodge vehicles have historically included performance cars, and for much of its existence Dodge was Chrysler's mid-priced brand above Plymouth.


title: Dodge

text: Founded as the Dodge Brothers Company machine shop by brothers Horace Elgin Dodge and John Francis Dodge in the early 1900s, Dodge was originally a supplier of parts and assemblies to Detroit-based automakers like Ford. They began building complete automobiles under the "Dodge Brothers" brand in 1914, predating the founding of Chrysler Corporation. The factory located in Hamtramck, Michigan was the Dodge main factory from 1910 until it closed in January 1980. John Dodge died from the Spanish flu in January 1920, having lungs weakened by tuberculosis 20 years earlier. Horace died in December of the same year, perhaps weakened by the Spanish flu, though the cause of death was cirrhosis of the liver. Their company was sold by their families to Dillon, Read & Co. in 1925 before being sold to Chrysler in 1928.


title: Dodge

text: Dodge mainstay vehicles were trucks and full-sized passenger cars through the 1970s, though it also built compact cars such as the 1963–76 Dart and midsize cars such as the "B-Body" Coronet and Charger from 1965–78.


title: Dodge

text: The 1973 oil embargo caused American "gas guzzler" sales to slump, prompting Chrysler to develop the Dodge Aries K platform compact and midsize cars for the 1981 model year. The K platform and its derivatives are credited with reviving Chrysler's business in the 1980s. One example was the Dodge Caravan. During the 1990s the Dodge Stratus found many buyers along with the larger Dodge Intrepid.


title: Dodge

text: The Dodge brand endured multiple ownership changes at Chrysler from 1998 to 2009, including its merger with Daimler-Benz AG from 1998 to 2007, its subsequent sale to Cerberus Capital Management, its 2009 bailout by the United States government, and its subsequent Chapter 11 bankruptcy and acquisition by Fiat.