title: Women's suffrage

text: Wilson ignored the protests for six months, but on June 20, 1917, as a Russian delegation drove up to the White House, suffragists unfurled a banner which stated: "We women of America tell you that America is not a democracy. Twenty million women are denied the right to vote. President Wilson is the chief opponent of their national enfranchisement". Another banner on August 14, 1917, referred to "Kaiser Wilson" and compared the plight of the German people with that of American women. With this manner of protest, the women were subject to arrests and many were jailed. Another ongoing tactic of the National Woman's Party was watchfires, which involved burning copies of President Wilson's speeches, often outside the White House or in the nearby Lafayette Park. The Party continued to hold watchfires even as the war began, drawing criticism from the public and even other suffrage groups for being unpatriotic. On October 17, Alice Paul was sentenced to seven months and on October 30 began a hunger strike, but after a few days prison authorities began to force feed her. After years of opposition, Wilson changed his position in 1918 to advocate women's suffrage as a war measure.


title: Women's suffrage

text: The key vote came on June 4, 1919, when the Senate approved the amendment by 56 to 25 after four hours of debate, during which Democratic Senators opposed to the amendment filibustered to prevent a roll call until their absent Senators could be protected by pairs. The Ayes included 36 (82%) Republicans and 20 (54%) Democrats. The Nays comprised 8 (18%) Republicans and 17 (46%) Democrats. The Nineteenth Amendment, which prohibited state or federal sex-based restrictions on voting, was ratified by sufficient states in 1920. According to the article, "Nineteenth Amendment", by Leslie Goldstein from the Encyclopedia of the Supreme Court of the United States, "by the end it also included jail sentences, and hunger strikes in jail accompanied by brutal force feedings; mob violence; and legislative votes so close that partisans were carried in on stretchers" (Goldstein, 2008). Even after the Nineteenth Amendment was ratified, women were still facing problems. For instance, when women had registered to vote in Maryland, "residents sued to have the women's names removed from the registry on the grounds that the amendment itself was unconstitutional" (Goldstein, 2008).


title: Women's suffrage

text: Before 1965, women of color, such as African Americans and Native Americans, were disenfranchised, especially in the South. The Voting Rights Act of 1965 prohibited racial discrimination in voting, and secured voting rights for racial minorities throughout the U.S.


title: Women's suffrage

text: Women's suffrage was announced as a principle in the Constitution of Uruguay of 1917, and declared as law in a decree of 1932. The first national election in which women voted was the 1938 Uruguayan general election.


title: Women's suffrage

text: After the 1928 Student Protests, women started participating more actively in politics. In 1935, women's rights supporters founded the Feminine Cultural Group (known as 'ACF' from its initials in Spanish), with the goal of tackling women's problems. The group supported women's political and social rights, and believed it was necessary to involve and inform women about these issues to ensure their personal development. It went on to give seminars, as well as founding night schools and the House of Laboring Women.


title: Women's suffrage

text: Groups looking to reform the 1936 Civil Code of Conduct in conjunction with the Venezuelan representation to the Union of American Women called the First Feminine Venezuelan Congress in 1940. In this congress, delegates discussed the situation of women in Venezuela and their demands. Key goals were women's suffrage and a reform to the Civil Code of Conduct. Around twelve thousand signatures were collected and handed to the Venezuelan Congress, which reformed the Civil Code of Conduct in 1942.


title: Women's suffrage

text: In 1944, groups supporting women's suffrage, the most important being Feminine Action, organized around the country. During 1945, women attained the right to vote at a municipal level. This was followed by a stronger call of action. Feminine Action began editing a newspaper called the Correo Cívico Femenino, to connect, inform and orientate Venezuelan women in their struggle. Finally, after the 1945 Venezuelan coup d'état and the call for a new Constitution, to which women were elected, women's suffrage became a constitutional right in the country.


title: Women's suffrage

text: The right of women to vote has sometimes been denied in non-religious organizations; for example, it was not until 1964 that women in the National Association of the Deaf in the United States were first allowed to vote.


title: Women's suffrage

text: The Pope is elected by cardinals. Women are not appointed as cardinals; and therefore, women cannot vote for the Pope.


title: Women's suffrage

text: The female Catholic office of Abbess is elective, the choice being made by the secret votes of nuns belonging to the community. The high rank ascribed to abbesses within the Catholic Church formerly permitted some abbesses the right to sit and vote at national assemblies – as with various high-ranking abbesses in Medieval Germany, who were ranked among the independent princes of the empire. Their Protestant successors enjoyed the same privilege almost into modern times.


title: Women's suffrage

text: On 6 February 2021, Pope Francis appointed Nathalie Becquart an undersecretary of the Synod of Bishops, making her the first woman to have the right to vote in the Synod of Bishops.


title: Women's suffrage

text: In Conservative Judaism, Reform Judaism, and most Orthodox Jewish movements women have the right to vote. Since the 1970s, more and more Modern Orthodox synagogues and religious organizations have been granting women the right to vote and to be elected to their governing bodies. In a few Ultra-Orthodox Jewish communities, women are denied the vote or the ability to be elected to positions of authority.


title: Toyota 86

text: The Toyota 86 and the Subaru BRZ are 2+2 sports cars jointly developed by Toyota and Subaru, manufactured at Subaru's Gunma assembly plant.


title: Toyota 86

text: The 2+2 fastback coupé has a naturally-aspirated boxer engine, front-engined, rear-wheel-drive configuration, 53/47 front/rear weight balance and low centre of gravity; it was inspired by Toyota's earlier AE86, a small, light, front-engine/rear-drive Corolla variant widely popular for Showroom Stock, Group A, Group N, Rally, Club and drift racing.


title: Toyota 86

text: For the first-generation model, Toyota marketed the sports car as the 86 in Asia, Australia, North America (from August 2016), South Africa, and South America; as the Toyota GT86 in Europe; as the 86 and GT86 in New Zealand; as the Toyota FT86 in Brunei, Nicaragua and Jamaica and as the Scion FR-S (2012–2016) in the United States and Canada.


title: Toyota 86

text: The development code of the 2+2 was "086A" and the eight six (Hachi-Roku in Japanese), references the historic Toyota 2000GT, 1983 to 1987 AE86 and Sports 800.


title: Toyota 86

text: Initial layout and design elements for the 86 were presented by Toyota using its "FT" (Future Toyota) concept car nomenclature. The first was the Toyota FT-HS, which was presented at the North American International Auto Show in 2007. It had a front engine, rear-wheel drive layout and 2+2 seating and was powered by a V6 engine with hybrid electric assistance. In 2008, Toyota bought 16.5% of Fuji Heavy Industries, which includes the Subaru automotive brand. Toyota, led by project leader Tetsuya Tada, then invited Subaru to partner in the project, by co-developing the new D-4S boxer engine. The offer, which conflicted with Subaru's reputation for high performance all-wheel drive (AWD) cars, was rejected. The project came to a six-month halt before Toyota invited journalists and Subaru engineers to test a developmental prototype. Following the test, Subaru agreed to become further involved in development.


title: Toyota 86

text: The collaboration produced a concept car, the FT-86 Concept, which debuted at the Tokyo Motor Show in October 2009. Smaller than the FT-HS, the design of the FT-86 was further refined by Toyota's ED design studio while the hybrid V6 powerplant was replaced by the new D-4S boxer. Subaru provided the chassis, modifying it from their Impreza. The custom red paint was based on the backside of a Japanese macaque.


title: Toyota 86

text: At the 2010 Tokyo Motor Show, Toyota launched its G Sports line of aftermarket accessories, along with the FT-86 G Sports concept car. It featured G Sports carbon fibre panels, a vented bonnet, rear wing, wheels, Recaro race seats, and an interior rollcage. The D-4S engine also added a turbocharger.


title: Toyota 86

text: In 2011, Toyota and Subaru unveiled five near-production concept cars to show their progress with the project. The first, known as the FT-86 II Concept, was unveiled at the Geneva Motor Show in March 2011. ED refined the design of the initial FT-86, by developing new front and rear fascias, and marginally increasing the dimensions of the concept. At the same show, Subaru unveiled a transparent silhouette of the car showing the new D-4S boxer engine and displayed the "Boxer Sports Car Architecture".


title: Toyota 86

text: Scion followed in April 2011 at the New York International Auto Show with the FR-S Sports Coupé Concept, co-developed with aftermarket tuner Five Axis. Another semi-transparent Subaru concept, known as the BRZ Prologue, was shown at the Frankfurt Motor Show that September, followed in November at the Los Angeles Auto Show by the BRZ Concept STi, the first full mock-up of Subaru's version of the 86 with input from Subaru Tecnica International (STI).


title: Toyota 86

text: The production Toyota 86 debuted at the December 2011 Tokyo Motor Show. Its development was led by chief engineer Testuya Tada. All variants are built at Subaru's Gunma Main Plant, with the first cars assembled on 2 February 2012 before sales began in March and deliveries in April. 7,000 orders were placed for the Toyota 86 in the first month of production, while Subaru took in 3,500 orders.


title: Toyota 86

text: In the United States, Scion were allocated 10,000 units of the 2013 model year (MY13) production, while Subaru was limited to only 6,000 units.


title: Toyota 86

text: The 86's low-weight design uses an aluminium hood, a fixed roof, and a trunk as opposed to a hatchback. To improve driving dynamics, the boxer engine is mounted low in a front engine / rear drive layout, yielding a weight distribution of 53% in front and 47% in the rear and a low centre of mass height.


title: Toyota 86

text: The 86's engine, known by the Toyota code 4U-GSE and Subaru code FA20, is a naturally aspirated engine that uses Subaru's flat-four engine design, with the addition of Toyota's D-4S injection system, which uses Gasoline direct injection (GDI). With its front-engine, rear-wheel-drive layout, its engine runs on 98 RON (premium unleaded) fuel and features a compression ratio of 12.5:1 with a bore and stroke of for a total displacement of that results in at 7,000 rpm and of torque at 6,400 rpm.


title: Toyota 86

text: The 86, BRZ and FR-S are offered with two 6-speed transmissions: an in-house developed Toyota TL70 manual gearbox (based on Aisin AI's AZ6) and an Aisin-Warner A960E automatic transmission, which is modified from that used on the Lexus IS 250. The latter uses a traditional wet torque converter design, but its software has been engineered to mimic the response of a dual-clutch transmission. The automatic transmission uses three different modes: Sport, Snow, and Normal. A torsen style limited slip differential is standard on most models.


title: Toyota 86

text: The vehicles are offered with 16" steel and alloy wheels shod with Yokohama dB Decibel E70 tyres in 205/55 size or 17" alloy wheels shod with Michelin Primacy HP tyres in 215/45 size, depending on sales market. The limited editions Toyota Racing Development (TRD) GT86 models are instead offered with 18" forged aluminium wheels, which are shod with either Yokohama Advan Sport tyres or Michelin Pilot Sport 3 tyres in 225/40 size, also depending on market. The braking systems vary between models and countries:


title: Toyota 86

text: In 2016, for the 2017 model year, the 86 was upgraded to and . The final drive ratio was lowered from 4.1 to 4.3.


title: Toyota 86

text: The 86's rear-wheel drive configuration and front-mounted flat boxer engine allow a low centre of gravity for strong handling characteristics. The bodywork has a .


title: Toyota 86

text: According to the 86's designers, "The goal was to create an authentic rear-wheel drive sports car with compelling style, exceptionally balanced performance and handling, flexible utility and surprising MPG." When asked about the TRD version of the car, the lead engineer Mr. Tada said "There is definitely going to be a more TRD oriented variant down the line. However any of the parts that would be standard on the TRD model will fit on your current Toyota 86 so there is no need to wait."


title: Toyota 86

text: The 86 "boxer" side badge appears on all Toyota and Scion versions of the car, but not the Subaru BRZ. Aside from badging, the main differences between the 86/GT86 and the BRZ are the front grilles and bumper bars.


title: Toyota 86

text: The interior uses low mounted front seats and fold down rear enabling increased storage space. The FR-S and base 86 models have cloth seats with all black interior trim with a black patterned dash trim, and shift boot red stitching. The BRZ has two available interiors, one identical to the FR-S but with silver dash trim, a red stitched parking brake boot, black gauge faces (instead of the white tachometer of the 86 GTS models) and a touch-screen navigation head unit; the second interior to leather and Alcantara heated seats, automatic HVAC controls, and a push-button start. The top-of-the-range 86 models are fitted like the BRZ except as noted above, and the Japanese interior can be had in black/red leather and Alcantara or full black leather and Alcantara.


title: Toyota 86

text: The Toyota 86 is available in Japan from Toyota's "Netz Store" and "Corolla Store" line of dealerships; the 1980s Corolla Levin and Sprinter Trueno were sold at the same networks. Four trim levels are offered, with the RC model being the base aimed at people wishing to modify or race their vehicles. This model is available with only a 6-speed manual transmission and comes with unpainted bumpers and mirrors, 16 inch steel wheels, simpler interior trim components, analogue speedometer and no stereo or air conditioning. Outside Japan, the RC model is only available in New Zealand. The G model adds all the interior components missing from the RC, plus a fully painted exterior and 16 inch alloy wheels and the availability of an automatic transmission. The GT86 model adds high intensity discharge headlights with LED daytime running lights, fog lamps, automatic climate control, keyless start with engine start button, 17 inch alloy wheels, chrome exhaust tips, white tachometer face with analogue and digital speedometer, silver accents on the centre dash and steering wheel, aluminium pedals. The top-of-the-range GT Limited adds leather and Alcantara seating and a rear spoiler.


title: Toyota 86

text: In Europe, GT86 models are generally the same as the Japanese 86 GT with a red/black leather/Alcantara interior with red stitching. In the United Kingdom, the Japanese G model is sold as the GT86 Primo and the car has also been available as a limited edition Toyota Racing Development "TRD GT86", which features: 18 inch forged aluminium wheels with Yokohama Advan Sport tyres; full bodykit with front and side skirts, rear spoiler and new diffuser; quad-exhaust system; TRD-branded detailing on the filler cap, radiator cap and gear knob. In New Zealand, the TRD 86 is sold with the above features except for Michelin Pilot Sport 3 tyres instead plus upgraded TRD braking system. Options not available to all markets include a Bose sound system upgrade.


title: Toyota 86

text: In Australia, the GT is the equivalent of the Japanese G model but with only an all black interior trim and standard radio head unit, whereas the top-of-the-range GTS model is the equivalent of the Japanese GT Limited except for an all black leather/Alcantara and red-stitch interior trim only and touchscreen multimedia head unit. Upon Australian launch in June 2012, all models for Australia featured a full-size spare wheel, the GTS lacked a rear spoiler, and a limited slip differential or LSD was standard on all models except automatic GT's. The full-size spare wheel was phased out after the first shipments to Australia, replaced with a repair kit. This model also benefited from a remapping of its Electronic Control Unit (ECU) to address initial reports of rough idling and stalling. The range of models and main options had the following retail prices: GT manual ; GT automatic ; GTS manual ; GTS automatic ; metallic paint for all models; "Aero pack" bodykit for GTS only.


title: Toyota 86

text: As of the August 2013 production update (which carried the formal year designation MY14), the automatic GT also gained LSD as standard (but with a price increase of ; manual price unchanged in Australia) and the GTS gained the same rear spoiler fitted to the Japanese GTS Limited and the Subaru BRZ (with a price increase of for both the manual and automatic model in Australia). Other distinguishing features on the MY14 models include the removal of the lettered "TOYOTA" badge from the rear bonnet of the GTS and optional availability of rear parking sonar sensors on GT and GTS.


title: Toyota 86

text: In July 2014, an updated version of the Australian Toyota 86 range was launched with year designation MY15. The key highlights include: revised suspension settings; "shark-fin" roof antenna; GTS instrument cluster on GT; carbon-fibre look dash insert and reverse-view camera on GTS; new white and silver exterior paints. The price of the GT remained unchanged while the GTS was the subject of a price increase of and for the manual and automatic version, respectively.


title: Toyota 86

text: In late 2014, as part of its MY15 range, Toyota offered in the UK two new models: the GT86 Aero, featuring a full bodykit and 18 inch OZ Ultraleggera alloy wheels in anthracite grey finish; and the GT86 "Giallo" (meaning yellow in Italian), limited to only 86 units. Similar to the latter, Toyota also offered in Italy a total of 50 "Limited Edition" models. Externally, the key distinguishing feature of these limited editions is the new "Sunrise Yellow" metallic paint and black side stripes (bonnet, roof and bonnet stripes are available in the UK at no extra cost and standard in Italy). The interior is distinguished by a limited edition badge and heated quilt leather seats with yellow 86 logo. The retail price of the Limited Edition in Italy is , which translates to more than the standard base model.


title: Toyota 86

text: At the same time in Japan, Toyota released the 14R-60 model limited to 100 units, inspired by the GT86 TRD Griffon Project of 2013. Its engine power remains the same as the standard models despite featuring various drivetrain changes such as twin central exhausts, a TRD mechanical LSD, a short-shifter, and revised gearing for the six-speed manual transmission. Other changes include extra body reinforcement, a variable-height coil-over spring suspension setup and more rigid suspension bushings. A TRD bodykit with carbon fibre components is complemented by 18 inch magnesium wheels and, overall, 14R-60 model results lighter than the base model. Inside there are race-style bucket seats with four-point belts, an Alcantara-clad steering wheel, carbon fibre dashboard trim and yellow piping and highlights. Price-wise, this Japan-only model is listed for , which is significantly higher than the for the base RC model or for the top-of-the-range GT Limited.


title: Toyota 86

text: In 2015, the 86xstyle Cb was officially launched after its presentations at the 2013 and 2014 Tokyo Auto Salon. It is characterised by a drastically different front end design with revised lights and bumper bar but standard bonnet. Available in 6-speed manual or automatic transmission, it has revised interior trimmings including a red Cb logo embroidered leather steering wheel, white (instead of red) backlit instruments and a dark woodgrain-style panel across the dashboard. The most peculiar features are the replacement of the front side gills with a set of LED-illuminated fins and optional contrasting colour for the car's upper body section. Another option is different alloy wheels than those fitted as standard on the GT86. On sale from April, this Japan-only model is listed for , which is a premium over the regular 86 GT on which this variant is based.


title: Toyota 86

text: To celebrate Australia's 86 2016 Pro-Am racing series, the following November Toyota launched 450 "Blackline" units (250 of which with manual transmission). Based on the standard GTS model, this limited edition carries a premium because of its cosmetic upgrade with TRD parts and special livery.


title: Toyota 86

text: In Indonesia, the 86 was launched in 2012. The facelifted version was launched in August 2016. Toyota Indonesia sells the 86 in the TRD package with only an automatic transmission and the non-TRD package with both manual and automatic transmission.


title: Toyota 86

text: In 2018, Toyota sold a special edition 86 called Apollo Blue to celebrate that the 86 had passed 20,000 units sold in Australia. It features a unique Apollo Blue body colour, black rear spoiler and mirror caps, and is only available with the optional Dynamic Performance Package. It was only sold in Australia and United Kingdom with both manual and automatic transmission options.


title: Toyota 86

text: Peculiarly, in Jamaica and Nicaragua, the 86 is marketed and sold using one of its pre-launch concept car badges, the "FT-86".


title: Toyota 86

text: Although BRZ production ended in July 2020, 86 production was to continue at least until the third quarter of 2020.


title: Toyota 86

text: The BRZ's name comes from three elements: Boxer engine, rear-wheel drive, and Z standing for Zenith. The Subaru BRZ differs from the 86's design in the front fascia, with a different grille and headlight assembly, as well as a different front fender vent. The BRZ's grill is hexagonal in shape, compared to the Toyota's trapezoid. The BRZ features a wraparound of LED parking lights in the headlight assembly, while daytime running lights are integrated into the bumper. The suspension setup of the Subaru is different from the Toyota. Like the Japanese Toyota 86, Subaru offers an RA base model lacking most interior comforts and using 16 inch steel wheels, with the only difference from the 86 RC being that the BRZ RA's bumpers are painted the same colour as the body. Two main trim levels are offered: R trim, known as Premium in North America, and S trim, known as Limited in North America. The most notable differences between the trims being the S trim (Limited) received leather seats with Alcantara inserts that were heated rather than the cloth seats in the R trim (Premium). In Europe and Australia BRZs offer a Toyota stereo unit, while Japanese and North American vehicles use a Subaru unit. Australian BRZs were originally available for sale only online.


title: Toyota 86

text: In 2013, Subaru unveiled a BRZ tS model for the Japanese market, tuned by STI. The tS model features an improved suspension setup, 18 inch silver BBS wheels, STI bodykit and front spoiler, a larger drive shaft, and Brembo brakes, along with interior changes including a new steering wheel, front seat, gauges, and Alcantara accents. A further tS GT Package includes Recaro seats, black BBS wheels, and an adjustable carbon fibre rear wing. The tS is limited to 500 units in total, with a maximum of 250 of them being the GT package. In 2015, a similar release of 300 units was sold again only in Japan.


title: Toyota 86

text: In 2014, as part of running changes consistent with those of the MY15 Toyota 86 GTS, the Subaru BRZ also featured a new key fob and two new colours, including ‘WR Blue Pearl’ metallic finish. In addition, Subaru also launched special editions both for the United States and Australia markets. For the former, one thousand BRZ Series. Blue editions were marketed at additional cost, half painted in "Blue Pearl" and the other half in "Crystal Pearl White". This model featured STI body kit parts, 17-inch STI black alloy wheels and red brake calipers. For Australia, Subaru launched a similar variant known as the Special Edition, also at additional cost. It featured stripes across the bonnet, boot and roof; 17-inch STI black alloy wheels; STI boot spoiler plus front, side and rear-side under spoilers; a rear diffuser and a push-button starter switch. It was available in every existing BRZ paint hue.


title: Toyota 86

text: In 2015, for the 2016 model year, Subaru released the limited edition "Hyper Blue" range across its WRX, WRX STI and BRZ models. In Australia, the BRZ was limited to 50 units with manual transmission only. This limited edition is characterised by the said blue paint and a host of other cosmetic upgrades.


title: Toyota 86

text: For the 2017 model year Subaru released another new special edition for the newly redesigned BRZ. This edition is called the Series.Yellow in America which was limited to 500 units but known as the Inazuma Edition in Canada which was limited to between 200-250 cars. This special edition is based on the Limited trim level for the BRZ and features the optional Performance package as standard, which includes 4 piston Brembo brakes in the front, 2 piston Brembo brakes in the rear, and Sachs dampers, a special yellow body colour called Charlesite Yellow with black trim, a yellow embroidered BRZ logo on the seats, and yellow accents and stitching throughout the interior.


title: Toyota 86

text: In February 2018, Subaru of America released a limited edition SOA 50th Anniversary edition BRZ based on the Limited trim level featuring Heritage Blue exterior colour, satin chrome exterior trim and badging; and SOA 50th anniversary emblem. The interior features black upholstery with contrasting silver stitching; silver seatbelts; and the 50th Anniversary logo embroidered on the front seats and carpeted floor mats. Only 250 were made.


title: Toyota 86

text: In late July 2020, Subaru ended production of the first-generation BRZ, and no more orders were accepted.


title: Toyota 86

text: In the United States and Canada, the GT86 was initially sold under Toyota's youth-oriented Scion brand, with its name derived from a description of the platform: Front-engine, Rear-wheel drive, Sport. Scion used a simplified "pure price" sales model that eschewed traditional factory options in favor of fixed base-vehicle pricing and buyer customization via dealer-installed accessories; hence, the FR-S was offered in a single standard trim, with exterior colours and the choice of transmission typically being the only factory options. However, Scion offered some limited-production special editions with added factory equipment and exclusive colours.


title: Toyota 86

text: As part of the 10th anniversary of the Scion marque, 2,500 units of "10 Series" FR-S models were released by Scion in June 2013 for the 2013 model year. They were painted in "Silver Ignition" and fitted with extra equipment, including HID headlights, automatic climate control, push button start, illuminated exterior badges plus shifter knob.


title: Toyota 86

text: In January 2014, Scion released the "Monogram Series" limited to 2000 units. Of these, only 25% came equipped with a manual transmission making the rarest examples those delivered in Asphalt (61K) or Hot Lava (H8R) with a manual transmission.


title: Toyota 86

text: This FR-S closely matched the equipment offered on Toyota's GTS-variant including: heated leather and Alcantara seats; keyless entry with push button start; rear seat centre armrest; frameless rear view mirror; heated side mirrors; automatic high-intensity discharge headlamps with LED daytime running lights; dual-zone climate control; colour-keyed rear spoiler; BeSpoke audio and navigation.


title: Toyota 86

text: Presented at the April 2014 New York Auto Show and mirroring the European "Giallo" and "Limited Edition" yellow-painted special editions, Scion released 1500 units of the “Release Series 1.0” in similar "Yuzu Yellow" paint. It features TRD bodykit and quad-tip exhaust system, along with TRD lowered suspension, TRD steering wheel and shift knob and the highest specification (dual A/C, HID headlamps with LED daytime running lamps, push-button start-stop) plus a numbered commemorative plaque near the gearshift lever.


title: Toyota 86

text: Due to the discontinuation of the Scion marque, in August 2016 the FR-S was re-branded as the Toyota 86 in North America for the 2017 model year and onward.


title: Toyota 86

text: There are 3 versions of 2013 Scion FR-S built with a $15,000 build budget, created as part of the eighth annual Scion Tuner Challenge. The FR-S Tuner Challenge vehicles are the: "Carbon Stealth FR-S" by John Toca of Chicago, Illinois; "FR-S GT" by Daniel Song of Orange County, California; "Minty FReSh" by Chris Basselgia of Lebanon, Pennsylvania.


title: Toyota 86

text: At the January 2013 Tokyo Auto Salon, Subaru unveiled a "BRZ Premium Sport Package" concept featuring various STI parts as well as 19 inch BBS wheels and a carbon fiber roof.


title: Toyota 86

text: The "86xStyle Cb" (model ZN6-A2E7) is a re-presentation of the concept seen at the 2013 Tokyo Auto Salon. Its listed features are a 6-speed automatic transmission, style Cb TB sport seats, leather-wrapped steering wheel, original meter and lighting, style Cb original floor mats, Toyota NHZD-W62G navigation system, dark smoke plated inner panel register RL, centre cluster garnish, door panel; metallic steering wheel door switch base, shift bezel; Zack suspension absorber, BBS style Cb original colour wheels (18x7J front, 18x7.5J rear) and Bridgestone POTENZA S001 86 exclusive spec tires (215/40R18 85W front, 225/40R18 88W rear).


title: Toyota 86

text: "The Toyota GT86 Modellista" is a version of the Toyota 86 with new side skirts, rear bumper and diffuser, a special lip spoiler, 18 inch matte chrome “Wing Dancer II” wheels with 225/40 Toyo tires and a two-tone black and red interior with the instrument cluster and interior panels in a red metal finish.


title: Toyota 86

text: The TOM'S "N086V" is a version of the Toyota 86 with a GR 3.5 litre V6 engine originally found under the hood of the Lexus IS and GS rated at .


title: Toyota 86

text: The "TRD Griffon Concept" is a version of the GT86 designed specifically for track driving, created by Toyota Racing Development. Changes include bonnet, roof, doors, boot lid and rear wings made from lightweight carbon fibre; carbon fibre reinforced plastic bumpers, wider front wings and rear diffuser; windows made from polycarbonate material, TRD driver's bucket seat, gear shift knob, ignition button and oil pressure and water temperature gauges; MOMO steering wheel, Takata seatbelts, a TRD mechanical LSD replacing the standard Torsen limited-slip differential, coil over suspension kit, final gear ratio shortened to 4.8:1, an oil cooler for the engine, a TRD monoblock brake calliper kit with racing spec brake pads and TWS 18-inch wheels with Yokohama Advan tyres. The engine is a stock Toyota GT86 engine. The vehicle is lighter than the stock Toyota GT86.


title: Toyota 86

text: The TRD Griffon Concept was unveiled at the 2013 Tokyo Auto Salon followed by the 2013 Goodwood Festival of Speed.


title: Toyota 86

text: The FT-86 Open concept is a convertible concept vehicle based on the Toyota 86. It includes an electrically operated multi-layered fabric roof with glass, high-contrast white and navy blue interior and exterior designed by Toyota Boshoku Milan Design (TBMD) to capture the spirit and atmosphere of Milan, a white body colour and yellow-gold stitching in the floor mats and seats. It was first shown at the Geneva Motor Show in March 2013, followed by the 2013 Tokyo Motor Show (with Flash Red body colour and electrically operated soft top).


title: Toyota 86

text: Nonetheless, Subaru brand chief Yasuyuki Yoshinaga has said that a convertible 86 would need a complete redesign to meet safety standards and that it is unlikely to happen.


title: Toyota 86

text: Also seen at the Tokyo Motor Show, this vehicle was presented as a combination of 'sport' and 'utility', adopting a heavily BRZ-inspired shooting-brake body shape. Its compact body measured an overall length of and was described as what Subaru perceives to be the next trend in urban SUVs. The total height of the Cross Sport concept is taller than the standard BRZ.


title: Toyota 86

text: The Toyota Gazoo 86 GRMN Sports FR Concept Platinum is a Toyota 86/Scion FR-S modified by Toyota Gazoo Racing and equipped with a GRMN exclusive turbocharger and scroll supercharger, 6-speed manual transmission, GRMN suspension tuning, GRMN brake calipers and brake rotors; GRMN dual exhaust, GRMN alloy wheels and tires; different front and rear fender panels and bumper bars; rear wing; rear garnish; bucket seats; 4-point seat belts; roll cage; back skin tone interior and extra instrumentation (boost, water temperature and oil temperature gauges).


title: Toyota 86

text: Just like the year before, the 2014 Tokyo Auto Salon saw the presentation of various Toyota 86-based custom models and concepts.


title: Toyota 86

text: The "GRMN 86 Concept" is a version of the Toyota 86 that incorporates the technical expertise gained through the 24 Hours Nürburgring endurance race, achieving optimal vehicle weight reduction, a lower centre of gravity, an enhanced powertrain and improved body rigidity. It includes an FA20 engine, 6-speed manual transmission, 215/40R17 tires, carbon fiber engine cover, roof, rear hatch, diffuser, side skirt, tail wing, seats; polycarbonate windows, reinforced engine parts, oil cooler, rewritten ECU, mechanical limited slip differential.


title: Toyota 86

text: The "86xStyle Cb Spider" (model ZN6-A2B8) is a convertible version of the 86 built by Toyota Original Accessory. It features a 6-speed automatic transmission, fender garnish with side lamp, trunk spoiler and licence garnish, rear combination lamp (in dark smoke plated), backup lamp rear bumper, spider aero bulge, rear diffuser integrated into rear bumper, one-off style Cb sport seat, leather-wrapped steering wheel, style Cb original meter panel/new decorative panel with lighting, Style Cb original floor mat, Brembo brakes with front 4-piston and rear 2-piston calipers and Goodyear Eagle LS Premium tires (215/40R18 89W front, 225/45R18 91W rear).


title: Toyota 86

text: The "GAZOO Racing TRD 86" is a race car version of the Toyota 86 for the TRD Rally Challenge. It is built by GAZOO Racing and includes a 6-speed manual transmission.


title: Toyota 86

text: The "GAZOO Racing LUCK 86" is a race car version of the Toyota 86 for the JN3 class of the Japanese Rally Championship. It is built by GAZOO Racing and includes a 6-speed manual transmission.


title: Toyota 86

text: The "GAZOO Racing SPIRIT 86" is a race car version of the Toyota 86 for the Super Taikyu Series. It is built by GAZOO Racing and includes a 6-speed manual transmission.


title: Toyota 86

text: The "86 Supercharger" produced by Team Netz with TOM'S is a version of the Toyota 86 built for the online community Area 86. It includes a 6-speed manual transmission, Roots-type supercharger, exclusive ECU, water-cooled intercooler, exclusive muffler, original aero kit, Satin white pearl 37J body panel, TEAM NETZ original front bumper (made by ABS), TOM'S side step, TOM'S rear under spoiler, TOM'S ADVOX suspension kit with exclusive setting, TOM'S brake pads and brake line, 8.0J INSET44-inch TWS T66F wheel in original gun metal colour and 225/40R18 Michelin Pilot Sport 3 tires.


title: Toyota 86

text: The "TRD Griffon Concept 014" is based on the 2013 TRD Griffon Concept. In turn, the "86 TRD Customize Concept 014" is based on the 86 TRD Griffon Concept 014, and features a roof fin, rear diffuser, HID bulb kit, winker bulb, full bucket driver seat, passenger sports seat, shoulder pad set, interior panel set (carbon), steering wheel and interior boot set, sport meter set (water temperature, oil temperature, oil pressure), leather shift knob (for manual transmission car), knee pad, battery clamp, fuel cap cover, full length adjustable suspension set, pillow upper set, stabilizer set (front, rear), front strut tower bar, member brace set, door stabilizer set, sports air filter, high response muffler Ver.R, sound changer, circuit brake kit, clutch cover, clutch disc (sport phasing), flywheel, quick shift set (18-inch cast aluminium TRD TF6 18x7.5J-inch wheels, Goodyear EAGLE RS Sport 86spec 225/40R18 tires), lug nut set (M12×P1.25), oil filler cap, sport oil filter, radiator cap.


title: Toyota 86

text: The "Toyota Autobacs G7 86 Potenza (No. 557)" (model ZN6-VPNT8A) is a race car version of the Toyota 86 Racing built for the GAZOO Racing 86/BRZ Race.


title: Toyota 86

text: The "Subaru Manatura Kota-R BRZ" (No. 61) (DBA-ZC6) is a race car version of the Subaru BRZ RA Racing built for the GAZOO Racing 86/BRZ Race.


title: Toyota 86

text: The "Toyota N1 Tech Potenza Win 86" (No. 100) (ZN6-VPNT8A) is another race car version of the Toyota 86 Racing built for the GAZOO Racing 86/BRZ Race.


title: Toyota 86

text: The "Toyota NETZ Gunma FK Massimo µ86" (No. 62) (ZN6-VPNT8A) is yet another version of the Toyota 86 Racing built for the GAZOO Racing 86/BRZ Race.


title: Toyota 86

text: Built by Los Angeles metal shop, Cartel Customs, and displayed at the 2014 SEMA Show, the Scion FR-S T1 is the first targa top version of any 86-based model. Apart from the Porsche 911-style removable roof, it features upgraded and lowered coil-over suspension, 19-in forged chrome wheels, upgrade braking system and a turbocharged engine with a centre exhaust tip. Inside it has an upgraded sound system and two-tone beige/black leather interior (including over the dashboard). The exterior is characterised by enlarged wheel arches and an integrated "duck tail" rear spoiler, and is painted in two-tone "Azzurro California Blue" with a contrasting black sill line up to the roof and rear louvre window.


title: Toyota 86

text: Subaru unveiled the BRZ-based "STI Performance Concept" at the 2015 New York Auto Show. It stated that this concept car does not preview a production model but rather a visualization of the future application of the STI program to the BRZ. The concept car uses the same turbocharged 2.0-litre engine employed in the BRZ GT300 race car, producing an estimated and . Even so, Subaru also stated that a turbocharger will not find its way into the BRZ production. Mechanically, the concept car has chassis, suspension and brake upgrades from the Japan-only BRZ tS. Externally, it is distinguished by LED headlights and taillights, new-style alloy wheels and a full bodykit featuring new-design front fascia, rear diffuser and rear wing.


title: Toyota 86

text: The "Toyota 86 Shooting Brake Concept" was displayed in Sydney, Australia in 2016. Toyota's global chief engineer Tetsuya Tada saw a quarter scale clay model of the car during a trip to the Australian branch in 2014 and arranged for a full scale, fully function version to be built in Japan by Toyota's Takumi ("artisan") craftsmen. Tada said, “while we never say never, and I would love this concept to become a production reality, it is very much a concept that demonstrates the passion within Toyota for cars that are fun to drive". Commenting on the new car, Toyota's Australian Divisional Manager National Marketing Brad Cramb said: ”The Toyota 86 lends itself perfectly to a concept that expands its appeal with added versatility while retaining its sleek and sporty coupe styling and sharp, responsive driving character”.


title: Toyota 86

text: In 2016, Toyota UK created a "Fujiwara Tofu Shop" version of the car as a homage to the manga "Initial D" and the car the protagonist drives, an AE86 Sprinter Trueno.


title: Toyota 86

text: At the Subaru BRZ's market launch, a 2-part film documented the car's development. In Canada, a TV commercial titled "Scorched" was shot at Queen and McCaul St. in Toronto.


title: Toyota 86

text: In Australia, Subaru BRZ was the first new car ever to be sold on that market exclusively online, with orders opening on 16 July 2012. It was also marketed with free servicing for 3 years or 60,000 km. According to Subaru this sale concept was a success, after the entire 2012 Australian allocation of 201 cars was sold in under 3 hours. The first buyer was able to secure their car in less than 20 minutes from the site going live. This sale process was implemented as a consequence of the demand for the Toyota 86 far outstripping supply (resulting in long delivery times) and a low BRZ supplies for Australia. As of 1 January 2014, the vehicle became available both online and at dealerships, with free servicing no longer included in the purchase.


title: Toyota 86

text: Scion made a similar decision in the United States, creating the 'First 86' program to allow 86 buyers to take delivery of their cars before the general public sales. On 12 January 2012 users had eight hours and six minutes to submit their requests to a program website. Winners were required to take their confirmation number and $500 to a dealer within 96 hours to claim their cars. Scion produced a commercial called "Close Call" featuring Ken Gushi avoiding a collision with a deer while driving Scion FR-S in Mt. Diablo State Park in Northern California.


title: Toyota 86

text: A British Toyota GT86 commercial titled "The Real Deal" was banned for encouraging motorists to drive irresponsibly.


title: Toyota 86

text: The second-generation BRZ debuted on 18 November 2020 and went on sale in the US in late 2021. The badge-engineered Toyota version was introduced later on 5 April 2021, briefly named the "GR 86". It was later renamed "GR86", without the space, for digital marketing reasons.


title: Toyota 86

text: The roof, hood and front fenders are made from aluminium to lower the vehicle's centre of gravity and reduce the weight gain from the engine and safety features. The second-generation BRZ and GR86 architecture adopts elements from the Subaru Global Platform (SGP), claiming 50 percent more torsional rigidity than its predecessor.


title: Toyota 86

text: Subaru use the "FA24D" designation for the new engine. It has a displacement of using a bore and stroke, with a power output of at 7,000 RPM and a torque output of at 3,700 RPM. According to Subaru, a naturally aspirated engine was chosen to meet the goal of developing "the ultimate pure sports car". Compared to the previous gen "FA20" it retains a free-revving character, with a larger bore increasing peak torque at a lower rpm.


title: Toyota 86

text: Vehicles equipped with an automatic transmission include Subaru's advanced driver-assistance system, using Eyesight-branded stereoscopic cameras; however, the BRZ/GR86 deletes the assisted steering feature to suit the sporty nature of the car.


title: Toyota 86

text: In 2022, for the 2023 model year, a new Special Edition ("SE") 86 is available in North America. Celebrating ten years since the release of the Scion FR-S in North America, and based on the top-tier Premium trim level, the 86 Special Edition is finished in a unique "Solar Shift" (Orange) exterior paint color, with unique Matte Black-finished eighteen-inch forged aluminum-alloy wheels, black exterior side mirror caps, a black "Duck-Bill" rear spoiler and rear deck (trunk) lid accent bar, and black "C"-pillar stripe decals. A Gazoo Racing (GR)-tuned performance exhaust system with black chrome-finished exhaust tips is also included with the Special Edition 86. Production will be limited to 860 units.


title: Toyota 86

text: In 2011 Subaru unveiled the Super BRZ Concept STi and their latest entry in the Super GT series GT300-category. R&D Sport developed the BRZ GT300 to replace their Legacy for the 2012 season using the EJ20 engine.


title: Toyota 86

text: The Toyota 86 MC also competes in the GT300, but unlike the BRZ GT300 it is based on a standard Super GT Dome-produced "mother chassis" and GT Association-branded Nissan V8 engine. Only the name and body style are shared with the production car. In 2016 VivaC team Tsuchiya's 86 MC won the GT300 driver and team championships, with Takeshi Tsuchiya and Takamitsu Matsui at the wheel.


title: Toyota 86

text: In 2021, Subaru unveiled the new BRZ GT300 based on the second-generation BRZ, followed by Toyota unveiling the new GR86 GT300 in 2022. They were built around the road car instead of a predefined mother chassis, with advanced aerodynamics and a lightweight body. The BRZ GT300 is powered by an updated version of the same EJ20 turbocharged flat-four racing engine as its predecessor. The GR86 GT300 is powered by a naturally-aspirated TRD 5.4 litre 2UR-GSE racing engine and features a Hewland six-speed sequential transmission. The Toyota GR86 GT300 is 50 kg lighter, with a shorter wheelbase and overall length compared to the Subaru BRZ GT300.


title: Toyota 86

text: In its first year of competition, the new second-generation BRZ GT300 won the GT300 class of the 2021 Super GT Championship, driven by Takuto Iguchi and Hideki Yamauchi for R&D Sport.


title: Toyota 86

text: In the United States Ken Gushi used a GPP Scion Racing FR-S built by GReddy Racing for the US Formula Drift championship. The FR-S features a turbocharged EJ25 boxer engine from a Subaru WRX STI producing more than . Ryan Tuerck drove a Scion FR-S powered by a stroked 2JZ-GTE producing more than for Retaks Backpacks and Maxxis Tires in the 2013 US Formula Drift championship.


title: Toyota 86

text: In Japan HKS, Droo-P and Max Orido debut their car for 2012 competition followed by Blitz in round 3 and OTG Motorsport in 2014. the first win for the chassis came at the 2013 season with Tetsuya Hibino behind the wheel of the Droo-p built 86. Manabu Orido also tasted victory with his car at 2015 seaason after facing Yoichi Imamura also in 86 making it the only all GT86 final in D1GPIn 2022, Team Toyo Tires debut the new GR86 built by Wisteria. On its debut season the car win the overall round twice with Masato Kawabata behind the wheel on both occasions, Kawabata finished the season as runner-up and taking the Solo run championship making the GR86 one of the most successful seasons for a new chassis.


title: Toyota 86

text: In October 2012 Toyota Racing Development and Gazoo Racing introduced a production racing model based on the 86. The 86 Racing adds brake and oil cooler modifications, as well as a 4-point racing harness and rollcage. The stock alloy wheels are replaced by steel wheels, while the exterior colour was only available in white. Subaru followed in early 2013 with the BRZ RA Racing, featuring similar modifications. Both cars are only available in the Japanese market, and are eligible for a one-make racing series run by Gazoo Racing. Unlike the Toyota a BRZ is available in any of the production car's colours.


title: Toyota 86

text: In 2013, the FR-S replaced the Scion tC for the Toyota Pro/Celebrity Race at the Grand Prix of Long Beach.<ref name="Toyota Pro/Celebrity"></ref>


title: Toyota 86

text: From 2022, Toyota Gazoo Racing organized an 86/BRZ-Spec championship across Japan called the "TOYOTA GAZOO Racing GR86/BRZ Cup". The series was based on (and succeed) the TGR 86/BRZ Racing, that consisted of races on single circuits instead of a National Series, akin to the "NASCAR Weekly Series".


title: Toyota 86

text: The Toyota 86 Racing Series has been contested in Australia annually since 2016. It was initially announced as the 86 Pro-Am Series.


title: Toyota 86

text: For 2018 and beyond the Sports Car Club of America (SCCA) created the "Solo Spec Coupe" (SSC) class for autocross competitions using the 2013-2016 Subaru BRZ or Scion FR-S, competing on Falken Azenis RT615+ tires. The choice of vehicle was because of its popularity with enthusiasts, modest price, rear-wheel drive, and its ability to be used as a daily driver. Vehicles may compete with original equipment or install specified performance parts including factory-sealed KONI Sport Shocks, Eibach Pro-Plus springs, anti-roll bars, and an SPC Front Alignment Kit.


title: Toyota 86

text: Since 2015 Toyota has competed in the Tire Rack One Lap of America with a modified Scion FR-S, prepared by engineers from their Production Engineering Division in Erlanger, Kentucky.


title: Toyota 86

text: In the US the 86CUP one-chassis time attack series was created in 2013. The 2017 series saw more than 100 drivers compete in the Southern California, Northern California and North East divisions.


title: Toyota 86

text: Nobuhiro Tajima entered a 86 to compete at the 2013 Pikes Peak Hill Climb, but only used the production car silhouette.


title: Toyota 86

text: Toyota worked in partnership with Gazoo Racing to develop the 86 for motorsports, with both supporting private teams in the Super Taikyu Endurance Series and All-Japan Rally Championship. Gazoo Racing entered cars in the 24 Hours Nürburgring, winning the SP3 class in 2012. Privateers Toyota Swiss Racing also claimed the V3 category in the same year. UK-based GPRM developed a turbocharged version for classification in the European SRO Group GT4 category, without formal factory backing but "with the blessing of Toyota Great Britain." Race engine development work on the 2.0l boxer unit was carried out by Nicholson McLaren Engines. The car ran practice sessions at 2013 British GT round 3 at Silverstone but withdrew during FP2 when the car dropped oil. In 2014 the car ran four rounds in the Invitational category; starting 2015 in the same category but running as a full entry from R3 onwards.


title: International recognition of Kosovo

text: International recognition of Kosovo, since its declaration of independence from Serbia enacted on 17 February 2008, has been mixed, and international governments are divided on the issue.


title: International recognition of Kosovo

text: , - out of () United Nations member states, 22 out of 27 () European Union member states, 26 out of 30 () NATO member states, and 33 out of 57 () Organisation of Islamic Cooperation member states have recognised Kosovo on both Serbian and Kosovan side. Conflicts have arisen regarding the number of countries recognizing Kosovo. The government of Serbia does not recognise it as a sovereign state.


title: International recognition of Kosovo

text: In 2013, the two sides began to normalise relations in accordance with the Brussels Agreement. In September 2020, Serbia and Kosovo agreed to normalise economic ties. Serbia also agreed to suspend its efforts to encourage other states to either not recognise Kosovo or to revoke recognition for one year, while Kosovo agreed to not apply for new membership of international organisations for the same period.


title: International recognition of Kosovo

text: Among the G20 countries, eleven have recognised Kosovo as an independent state: Australia, Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, South Korea, Saudi Arabia, Turkey, the United Kingdom and the United States. Eight, however, have not: Argentina, Brazil, China, India, Indonesia, Mexico, Russia and South Africa.


title: International recognition of Kosovo

text: A number of states expressed concern over the unilateral character of Kosovo's declaration, or explicitly announced that they would not recognise an independent Kosovo. The United Nations Security Council (UNSC) remains divided on this issue: of its five members with veto power, three (the United States, the United Kingdom, and France) have recognised the declaration of independence, while the People's Republic of China has expressed concern, urging the continuation of the previous negotiation framework. The Russian Federation has rejected the declaration and considers it illegal. In May 2008, Russia, China, and India released a joint statement calling for new negotiations between Belgrade and Pristina.


title: International recognition of Kosovo

text: Although EU member states individually decide whether to recognise Kosovo, by consensus the EU has commissioned the European Union Rule of Law Mission in Kosovo (EULEX) to ensure peace and continued external oversight. Due to the dispute in the United Nations Security Council (UNSC), the reconfiguration of the United Nations Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo (UNMIK) and partial handover to the EULEX mission met with difficulties. In spite of Russian and Serbian protests, the UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon proceeded with the reconfiguration plan. On 15 July 2008, he stated: "In the light of the fact that the Security Council is unable to provide guidance, I have instructed my Special Representative to move forward with the reconfiguration of UNMIK ... in order to adapt UNMIK to a changed reality." According to the Secretary-General, the "United Nations has maintained a position of strict neutrality on the question of Kosovo's status". On 26 November 2008, the UNSC gave the green light to the deployment of the EULEX mission in Kosovo. The EU mission is to assume police, justice, and customs duties from the UN, while operating under the United Nations Security Council Resolution 1244 (UNSCR 1244) that first placed Kosovo under UN administration in 1999.


title: International recognition of Kosovo

text: A United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) resolution adopted on 8 October 2008 backed the request of Serbia to seek an International Court of Justice advisory opinion on Kosovo's declaration of independence. On 22 July 2010, the ICJ ruled that the declaration of independence of Kosovo did not violate international law "because international law contains no prohibition on declarations of independence", and that its authors were not bound by the Constitutional Framework (promulgated by UNMIK) or by UNSCR 1244, that is addressed only to United Nations Member States and organs of the United Nations.


title: International recognition of Kosovo

text: Within the EU, key supporters of Kosovo's statehood include France and Germany. The strongest opponents to Kosovo's statehood within the EU include Spain and Greece. The Spanish non-recognition of Kosovo is linked to the Spanish government's opposition to the Basque and Catalan independence movements, while the Greek non-recognition of Kosovo is linked to the Cyprus dispute and Greece's historic relationship to Serbia.


title: International recognition of Kosovo

text: Due to Serbian claims that Kosovo is part of its sovereign territory, its initial reactions included recalling ambassadors from countries that recognised Kosovo for several months, indicting Kosovar leaders on charges of high treason, and litigating the case at the International Court of Justice (ICJ). Serbia also expelled ambassadors from countries that recognised Kosovo after the UNGA vote adopting Serbia's initiative to seek an ICJ advisory opinion.


title: International recognition of Kosovo

text: In December 2012, as a result of European Union mediated negotiations on Kosovo's status, Serbian Prime Minister Ivica Dačić agreed to appoint a liaison officer to Kosovo. In March 2013, Dačić said that while his government would never recognise Kosovo's independence, "the Serbian president cannot go to Kosovo, nor the prime minister, nor ministers, nor the police or army. Serbs can only leave Kosovo. That's how much Kosovo is ours and what our constitution and laws mean there".


title: International recognition of Kosovo

text: In April 2013, Kosovo and Serbia reached an agreement to normalise relations, and thereby allow both nations to eventually join the European Union. On 17 June 2013 Kosovo and Serbia exchanged liaison officers.


title: International recognition of Kosovo

text: However, the process of normalisation stalled in November 2018, after which Kosovo imposed a 100 percent tax on importing Serbian goods. On 1 April 2020, Kosovo withdrew the tax.


title: International recognition of Kosovo

text: In September 2020, under an agreement brokered by the United States, Serbia and Kosovo agreed to normalise economic ties. Serbia also agreed to suspend its efforts to encourage other states to either not recognise Kosovo or to revoke recognition for one year, while Kosovo agreed to not apply for new membership of international organisations for the same period.


title: International recognition of Kosovo

text: On 27 March 2008 Serbian Foreign Minister Vuk Jeremić said Serbia would request the International Court of Justice to review the legality of Kosovo's declaration of independence. On 8 October 2008 the UN General Assembly adopted Serbia's resolution requesting the International Court of Justice to assess the legality of Kosovo's declaration of independence. The United Nations General Assembly adopted this proposal on 8 October 2008 with 77 votes in favor, 6 votes against and 74 abstentions. The court delivered its opinion on 22 July 2010; by a vote of 10 to 4, it declared that "the adoption of the declaration of independence of 17 February 2008 did not violate general international law because international law contains no 'prohibition on declarations of independence', nor did the adoption of the declaration of independence violate UN Security Council Resolution 1244, since this did not describe Kosovo's final status, nor had the Security Council reserved for itself the decision on final status.


title: International recognition of Kosovo

text: According to a 2020 study, states which have strong ties to the United States are more likely to recognise Kosovo, whereas states with stronger ties to Russia are less likely to recognise Kosovo.


title: International recognition of Kosovo

text: Accoring to international law, a country can not revoke its recognition. A recognition is only invalidated when a state ceases to exist. It is possible to revoke the recognition of a government, such as by severing diplomatic relations, but it is not possible to revoke the recognition of a state itself..


title: International recognition of Kosovo

text: The Serbian Foreign Ministry claimed in March 2020 that there are eighteen nations that have withdrawn their recognition: Burundi, the Central African Republic, the Comoros, Dominica, Ghana, Grenada, Guinea-Bissau, Lesotho, Liberia, Madagascar, Nauru, Palau, Papua New Guinea, São Tomé and Príncipe, Sierra Leone, Solomon Islands, Suriname, and Togo. In many of those cases, Kosovo's foreign ministry has called it "fake news" and "Serbian propaganda".


title: International recognition of Kosovo

text: On 13 May 2022, Serbian Foreign Minister Nikola Selaković claimed that four new countries withdrew their recognition of Kosovo without mentioning their names. He further said that President of Serbia Aleksandar Vučić will inform the public which these four states are once he deems it necessary. Director of the Serbian government Office for Kosovo and Metohija Petar Petković stated that 22 countries in total have withdrawn their recognition of Kosovo. Next day, Serbian daily Večernje novosti reported that these four states are from the Caribbean and Africa. However, Serbia's view has to be seen with caution, since Serbia doesn't mention any names and Kosovo's Foreign Minister Donika Gërvalla-Schwarz says that Kosovo hasn't received any new diplomatic notes regarding recognition withdrawal. On August 27, Serbia's President claimed during a press conference that number of withdrawals of recognition has grown to 7 countries, and that the names of those countries will be published "when the time comes".


title: International recognition of Kosovo

text: Diplomatic recognition is an explicit, official, unilateral act in the foreign policy of states in regards to another party. Not having issued such a statement does not necessarily mean the state has objections to the existence, independence, sovereignty or government of the other party. Some states, by custom or policy, do not extend formal recognitions, on the grounds that a vote for membership in the UN or another organisation whose membership is limited to states is itself an act of recognition.


title: International recognition of Kosovo

text: Intergovernmental organisations do not themselves diplomatically recognise any state; their member states do so individually. However, depending on the intergovernmental organisation's rules of internal governance and the positions of their member states, they may express positive or negative opinions as to declarations of independence, or choose to offer or withhold membership to a partially recognised state.


title: Free content

text: Free content, libre content, libre information, or free information, is any kind of functional work, work of art, or other creative content that meets the definition of a free cultural work.


title: Free content

text: A "free cultural work" is, according to the definition of Free Cultural Works, one that has no significant legal restriction on people's freedom to:


title: Free content

text: Free content encompasses all works in the public domain and also those copyrighted works whose licenses honor and uphold the freedoms mentioned above. Because the Berne Convention in most countries by default grants copyright holders monopolistic control over their creations, copyright content must be explicitly declared free, usually by the referencing or inclusion of licensing statements from within the work.


title: Free content

text: Although there are a great many different definitions in regular everyday use, free content is legally very similar, if not like an identical twin, to "open content". An analogy is a use of the rival terms free software and open-source, which describe ideological differences rather than legal ones. For instance, the Open Knowledge Foundation's "Open Definition" describes "open" as synonymous to the definition of "free" in the "Definition of Free Cultural Works" (as also in the Open Source Definition and Free Software Definition). For such free/open content both movements recommend the same three Creative Commons licenses, the CC BY, CC BY-SA, and CC0.


title: Free content

text: Copyright is a legal concept, which gives the author or creator of a work legal control over the duplication and public performance of their work. In many jurisdictions, this is limited by a time period after which the works then enter the public domain. Copyright laws are a balance between the rights of creators of intellectual and artistic works and the rights of others to build upon those works. During the time period of copyright the author's work may only be copied, modified, or publicly performed with the consent of the author, unless the use is a fair use. Traditional copyright control limits the use of the work of the author to those who either pay royalties to the author for usage of the author's content or limit their use to fair use. Secondly, it limits the use of content whose author cannot be found. Finally, it creates a perceived barrier between authors by limiting derivative works, such as mashups and collaborative content.


title: Free content

text: The public domain is a range of creative works whose copyright has expired or was never established, as well as ideas and facts which are ineligible for copyright. A public domain work is a work whose author has either relinquished to the public or no longer can claim control over, the distribution and usage of the work. As such, any person may manipulate, distribute, or otherwise use the work, without legal ramifications. A work in the public domain or released under a permissive license may be referred to as "copycenter".


title: Free content

text: Copyleft is a play on the word copyright and describes the practice of using copyright law to remove restrictions on distributing copies and modified versions of a work. The aim of copyleft is to use the legal framework of copyright to enable non-author parties to be able to reuse and, in many licensing schemes, modify content that is created by an author. Unlike works in the public domain, the author still maintains copyright over the material, however, the author has granted a non-exclusive license to any person to distribute, and often modify, the work. Copyleft licenses require that any derivative works be distributed under the same terms and that the original copyright notices be maintained. A symbol commonly associated with copyleft is a reversal of the copyright symbol, facing the other way; the opening of the C points left rather than right. Unlike the copyright symbol, the copyleft symbol does not have a codified meaning.


title: Free content

text: Projects that provide free content exist in several areas of interest, such as software, academic literature, general literature, music, images, video, and engineering. Technology has reduced the cost of publication and reduced the entry barrier sufficiently to allow for the production of widely disseminated materials by individuals or small groups. Projects to provide free literature and multimedia content have become increasingly prominent owing to the ease of dissemination of materials that are associated with the development of computer technology. Such dissemination may have been too costly prior to these technological developments.


title: Free content

text: In media, which includes textual, audio, and visual content, free licensing schemes such as some of the licenses made by Creative Commons have allowed for the dissemination of works under a clear set of legal permissions. Not all Creative Commons licenses are entirely free; their permissions may range from very liberal general redistribution and modification of the work to a more restrictive redistribution-only licensing. Since February 2008, Creative Commons licenses which are entirely free carry a badge indicating that they are "approved for free cultural works". Repositories exist which exclusively feature free material and provide content such as photographs, clip art, music, and literature. While extensive reuse of free content from one website in another website is legal, it is usually not sensible because of the duplicate content problem. Wikipedia is amongst the most well-known databases of user-uploaded free content on the web. While the vast majority of content on Wikipedia is free content, some copyrighted material is hosted under .


title: Free content

text: Free and open-source software, which is also often referred to as open source software and free software, is a maturing technology with major companies using free software to provide both services and technology to both end-users and technical consumers. The ease of dissemination has allowed for increased modularity, which allows for smaller groups to contribute to projects as well as simplifying collaboration. Open source development models have been classified as having a similar peer-recognition and collaborative benefit incentives that are typified by more classical fields such as scientific research, with the social structures that result from this incentive model decreasing production cost. Given sufficient interest in a software component, by using peer-to-peer distribution methods, distribution costs of software may be reduced, removing the burden of infrastructure maintenance from developers. As distribution resources are simultaneously provided by consumers, these software distribution models are scalable, that is the method is feasible regardless of the number of consumers. In some cases, free software vendors may use peer-to-peer technology as a method of dissemination. In general, project hosting and code distribution is not a problem for the most of free projects as a number of providers offer them these services free.


title: Free content

text: Free content principles have been translated into fields such as engineering, where designs and engineering knowledge can be readily shared and duplicated, in order to reduce overheads associated with project development. Open design principles can be applied in engineering and technological applications, with projects in mobile telephony, small-scale manufacture, the automotive industry, and even agricultural areas. Technologies such as distributed manufacturing can allow computer-aided manufacturing and computer-aided design techniques to be able to develop small-scale production of components for the development of new, or repair of existing, devices. Rapid fabrication technologies underpin these developments, which allow end-users of technology to be able to construct devices from pre-existing blueprints, using software and manufacturing hardware to convert information into physical objects.


title: Free content

text: In academic work, the majority of works are not free, although the percentage of works that are open access is growing rapidly. Open access refers to online research outputs that are free of all restrictions on access (e.g. access tolls) and free of many restrictions on use (e.g. certain copyright and license restrictions). Authors may see open access publishing as a method of expanding the audience that is able to access their work to allow for greater impact of the publication, or may support it for ideological reasons. Open access publishers such as PLOS and BioMed Central provide capacity for review and publishing of free works; though such publications are currently more common in science than humanities. Various funding institutions and governing research bodies have mandated that academics must produce their works to be open-access, in order to qualify for funding, such as the US National Institutes of Health, Research Councils UK (effective 2016) and the European Union (effective 2020). At an institutional level some universities, such as the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, have adopted open access publishing by default by introducing their own mandates. Some mandates may permit delayed publication and may charge researchers for open access publishing.


title: Free content

text: Open content publication has been seen as a method of reducing costs associated with information retrieval in research, as universities typically pay to subscribe for access to content that is published through traditional means whilst improving journal quality by discouraging the submission of research articles of reduced quality. Subscriptions for non-free content journals may be expensive for universities to purchase, though the article are written and peer-reviewed by academics themselves at no cost to the publisher. This has led to disputes between publishers and some universities over subscription costs, such as the one which occurred between the University of California and the Nature Publishing Group. For teaching purposes, some universities, including , provide freely available course content, such as lecture notes, video resources and tutorials. This content is distributed via Internet resources to the general public. Publication of such resources may be either by a formal institution-wide program, or alternately via informal content provided by individual academics or departments.


title: Free content

text: Any country has its own law and legal system, sustained by its legislation, a set of law-documents—documents containing statutory obligation rules, usually law and created by legislatures. In a democratic country, each law-document is published as open media content, is in principle free content; but in general, there are no explicit licenses attributed for each law-document, so the license must be interpreted, an "implied license". Only a few countries have explicit licenses in their law-documents, as the UK's Open Government Licence (a compatible license). In the other countries, the "implied license" comes from its proper rules (general laws and rules about copyright in government works). The automatic protection provided by Berne Convention not apply to law-documents: Article 2.4 excludes the official texts from the automatic protection. It is also possible to "inherit" the license from context. The set of country's law-documents is made available through national repositories. Examples of law-document open repositories: LexML Brazil, Legislation.gov.uk, N-Lex. In general, a law-document is offered in more than one (open) official version, but the main one is that published by a government gazette. So, law-documents can eventually inherit license expressed by the repository or by the gazette that contains it.


title: Free content

text: Open content describes any work that others can copy or modify freely by attributing to the original creator, but without needing to ask for permission. This has been applied to a range of formats, including textbooks, academic journals, films and music. The term was an expansion of the related concept of open-source software. Such content is said to be under an open license.


title: Free content

text: The concept of applying free software licenses to content was introduced by Michael Stutz, who in 1997 wrote the paper "Applying Copyleft to Non-Software Information" for the GNU Project. The term "open content" was coined by David A. Wiley in 1998 and evangelized via the Open Content Project, describing works licensed under the Open Content License (a non-free share-alike license, see 'Free content' below) and other works licensed under similar terms.


title: Free content

text: It has since come to describe a broader class of content without conventional copyright restrictions. The openness of content can be assessed under the '5Rs Framework' based on the extent to which it can be reused, revised, remixed and redistributed by members of the public without violating copyright law. Unlike free content and content under open-source licenses, there is no clear threshold that a work must reach to qualify as 'open content'.


title: Free content

text: Although open content has been described as a counterbalance to copyright, open content licenses rely on a copyright holder's power to license their work, as copyleft which also utilizes copyright for such a purpose.


title: Free content

text: In 2003 Wiley announced that the Open Content Project has been succeeded by Creative Commons and their licenses, where he joined as "Director of Educational Licenses".


title: Free content

text: In 2005, the Open Icecat project was launched, in which product information for e-commerce applications was created and published under the Open Content License. It was embraced by the tech sector, which was already quite open source minded.


title: Free content

text: In 2006 the Creative Commons' successor project was the "Definition of Free Cultural Works" for free content, put forth by Erik Möller, Richard Stallman, Lawrence Lessig, Benjamin Mako Hill, Angela Beesley, and others. The "Definition of Free Cultural Works" is used by the Wikimedia Foundation. In 2008, the Attribution and Attribution-ShareAlike Creative Commons licenses were marked as "Approved for Free Cultural Works" among other licenses.


title: Free content

text: Another successor project is the Open Knowledge Foundation, founded by Rufus Pollock in Cambridge, in 2004 as a global non-profit network to promote and share open content and data. In 2007 the gave an "Open Knowledge Definition" for "content such as music, films, books; data be it scientific, historical, geographic or otherwise; government and other administrative information". In October 2014 with version 2.0 "Open Works" and "Open Licenses" were defined and "open" is described as synonymous to the definitions of open/free in the Open Source Definition, the Free Software Definition and the Definition of Free Cultural Works. A distinct difference is the focus given to the public domain and that it focuses also on the accessibility (open access) and the readability (open formats). Among several conformant licenses, six are recommended, three own (Open Data Commons Public Domain Dedication and Licence, Open Data Commons Attribution License, Open Data Commons Open Database License) and the , , and Creative Commons licenses.


title: Free content

text: The website of the Open Content Project once defined open content as 'freely available for modification, use and redistribution under a license similar to those used by the open-source / free software community'. However, such a definition would exclude the Open Content License because that license forbids charging for content; a right required by free and open-source software licenses.


title: Free content

text: The term since shifted in meaning. Open content is "licensed in a manner that provides users with free and perpetual permission to engage in the 5R activities."


title: Free content

text: The 5Rs are put forward on the Open Content Project website as a framework for assessing the extent to which content is open:


title: Free content

text: This broader definition distinguishes open content from open-source software, since the latter must be available for commercial use by the public. However, it is similar to several definitions for open educational resources, which include resources under noncommercial and verbatim licenses.


title: Free content

text: The later "Open Definition" by the Open Knowledge Foundation define open knowledge with open content and open data as sub-elements and draws heavily on the Open Source Definition; it preserves the limited sense of open content as free content, unifying both.


title: Free content

text: "Open access" refers to toll-free or gratis access to content, mainly published originally peer-reviewed scholarly journals. Some open access works are also licensed for reuse and redistribution (libre open access), which would qualify them as open content.


title: Free content

text: Over the past decade, open content has been used to develop alternative routes towards higher education. Traditional universities are expensive, and their tuition rates are increasing. Open content allows a free way of obtaining higher education that is "focused on collective knowledge and the sharing and reuse of learning and scholarly content." There are multiple projects and organizations that promote learning through open content, including OpenCourseWare, Khan Academy and the Saylor Academy. Some universities, like MIT, Yale, and Tufts are making their courses freely available on the internet.


title: Free content

text: The textbook industry is one of the educational industries in which open content can make the biggest impact. Traditional textbooks, aside from being expensive, can also be inconvenient and out of date, because of publishers' tendency to constantly print new editions. Open textbooks help to eliminate this problem, because they are online and thus easily updatable. Being openly licensed and online can be helpful to teachers, because it allows the textbook to be modified according to the teacher's unique curriculum. There are multiple organizations promoting the creation of openly licensed textbooks. Some of these organizations and projects include the University of Minnesota's Open Textbook Library, Connexions, OpenStax College, the Saylor Academy, Open Textbook Challenge and Wikibooks.


title: Free content

text: According to the current definition of open content on the OpenContent website, any general, royalty-free copyright license would qualify as an open license because it 'provides users with the right to make more kinds of uses than those normally permitted under the law. These permissions are granted to users free of charge.'


title: Free content

text: However, the narrower definition used in the Open Definition effectively limits open content to libre content, any free content license, defined by the Definition of Free Cultural Works, would qualify as an open content license. According to this narrower criteria, the following still-maintained licenses qualify:


title: Metamorphosis (manga)

text: Saki Yoshida (), a first-year high school student with no social life decides to change after graduating from middle school by getting a makeover. On her first day of high school, she makes two friends and spends time with them after school. After parting ways, she goes to a convenience store, when she encounters a man who compliments her appearance and invites her to a karaoke box. In the karaoke box, he gives Saki alcohol and drugs and rapes her, lying to her that he is only doing it because he loves her. After raping her, he puts his cell phone number in her phone. On her way home after regaining consciousness, she receives a message from the man revealing his name to be Hayato. The two start dating, where she quickly gets addicted to having sex while on drugs.


title: Metamorphosis (manga)

text: Back at school while chatting with her peers, when she lets slip that she is not as well off as she appears, a school acquaintance recommends compensated dating, also known as sugaring or sugar dating. Saki accepts, and at the weekend she takes an appointment with an older man named Kumagai. After having dinner with Kumagai, she is driven to a hotel where she is paid cash for sex with him. Ridden with guilt, she comes home late and breaks down, with her mother reassuring her that she will always be on her daughter's side.


title: Metamorphosis (manga)

text: At school, Saki is approached by some male students who show her a photo of her with Kumagai. They then blackmail her for sexual favors. Saki's father is laid off, and afterward drinks heavily and then rapes his daughter in her room. Her mother finds out about the rape from the perspective of the father, who has spun the story to imply that Saki seduced him. Betraying her earlier promise, Saki's mother does not allow her to explain herself and beats her. In response, Saki runs away from home.


title: Metamorphosis (manga)

text: Having lost her home, Saki drops out of high school and pursues a life with Hayato, who has accumulated eight million yen in debt at a local heroin bar. She vows to help pay back the debt to the bar owner, Mr. Obata, who threatens to kill Hayato if he does not repay. She does not have the money to pay upfront, and bar patrons seize the opportunity to pay her for sex work so that she may make up the difference. She is then pierced and tattooed by Hayato.


title: Metamorphosis (manga)

text: Saki, who now has the appearance of a gyaru, becomes pregnant after various sexual encounters. Hayato convinces her to abort the pregnancy and she soon finds herself returning to Kumagai, who, unimpressed with her body modifications, forces her to do increasingly degrading things to make the money she needs.


title: Metamorphosis (manga)

text: Mr. Obata sexually assaults Saki with other workers at the bar and injects heroin into her to make her more compliant. She quickly develops an addiction, and begins to forget about paying off Hayato's debt in favour of buying drugs. When Saki is robbed and Hayato only finds drugs in her wallet, he becomes enraged, abandoning her and leaving her homeless.


title: Metamorphosis (manga)

text: Found by other homeless people in a public park, she is raped while under the influence. The following day, Saki realizes she is pregnant again and decides to carry the baby to term, vowing to quit drugs and change for the better in the process. She continues her prostitution for money, at the expense of her baby's well-being. Now in constant pain, she resumes her heroin use.


title: Metamorphosis (manga)

text: Saki builds up some savings to help with the cost of her unborn child, which she stores in a duffel bag in a public coin locker. She runs into her former classmates, who assume that the money is stolen, not believing that Saki could have earned so much money on her own. They rape her with various objects and beat her stomach, intending to kill the baby, and steal the money. She stumbles into a public bathroom, bleeding profusely, and looks at herself in the mirror. Horrified at the person she's become, she shatters the mirror, and presumably commits suicide by overdosing on her entire remaining volume of heroin. The story ends with a glimpse at what Saki's future life may have looked like had she been able to carry the baby to term, followed by a shot of Saki's glasses laying on the bathroom floor among drops of blood.


title: Metamorphosis (manga)

text: "Henshin" was first serialized in Japan in "Comic X-Eros" from July 26, 2013 to March 26, 2016. It was later published in "tankōbon" format on May 31, 2016, and a paperback version was published on 30 June 2016. It was published in English as "Metamorphosis" by FAKKU digitally on 27 October 2016 and physically in February 2017; a hardbound edition subtitled "Hard Edition" was announced at Anime Expo 2022 for a scheduled release in December 2022.


title: Metamorphosis (manga)

text: Reviewers have described "Metamorphosis" as highly depressing and disturbing to read, albeit while also praising the storyline and editorial quality. One reviewer was more critical, criticizing the sex scenes for seemingly serving no purpose except to be transgressive, and questioned the value of the work, failing to see any underlying message or moral.


title: Metamorphosis (manga)

text: Shindo L claimed he "originally had Kafka in mind" when he thought up the title, inspired by the short story of the same name, drawing comparisons to the dark themes and plots surrounding transformation. He also writes in the manga's afterword that he intended "Metamorphosis" to portray the "charm" of a miserable female main character.


title: Jaeden Martell

text: Jaeden Martell (né Lieberher; born January 4, 2003) is an American actor. He played the role of Bill Denbrough in the 2017 film adaptation of Stephen King's novel "It" and reprised the role in the film's 2019 sequel. He also appeared in the mystery film "Knives Out" (2019) and starred in the miniseries "Defending Jacob" (2020).


title: Jaeden Martell

text: Martell was born on January 4, 2003, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, the son of Wes Lieberher, a Los Angeles–based executive chef, and Angela Teresa Martell. His maternal grandmother, Chisun Martell, is Korean. He lived in South Philadelphia until the age of eight, when he moved to Los Angeles.


title: Jaeden Martell

text: In the first six years of his career, Martell was credited almost exclusively under his family name, Lieberher. In 2019, he switched to his mother's maiden name, Martell.


title: Jaeden Martell

text: Martell's first acting role was in a commercial for Hot Wheels. He appeared in several other commercials after that, including Google, Moneysupermarket.com, Liberty Mutual, Hyundai (for the 2013 Super Bowl), Verizon Fios and General Electric. His first major feature film role was in 2014's "St. Vincent", where he starred alongside Bill Murray. Murray later recommended Martell to Cameron Crowe for the director's 2015 film "Aloha". He played the title character in the 2017 film "The Book of Henry". Martell received further recognition for his starring role as Bill Denbrough in the 2017 supernatural horror film "It" and its 2019 follow-up "It Chapter Two".


title: Jaeden Martell

text: In 2019, Martell was also a part of Rian Johnson's ensemble cast in the murder-mystery film "Knives Out". In March 2019, now credited as Martell, he joined the cast of the Apple miniseries "Defending Jacob", based on the William Landay novel of the same name. On April 30, 2020, in an Instagram Live interview with "Teen Vogue", Martell confirmed that he had joined the cast of "Tunnels" in the role of Grayson Mitchell, the younger sibling of a victim of gun violence. The film does not have a set or confirmed release date.


title: Jaeden Martell

text: In September 2021, Martell portrayed Morty Smith in a series of promotional interstitials for the two-part fifth season finale of "Rick and Morty". In February 2021, he joined the cast of Netflix's "Metal Lords". In October 2022, he portrayed Craig in the Netflix film "Mr. Harrigan's Phone" written and directed by John Lee Hancock, based on the short story of the same name from the "If It Bleeds" collection by Stephen King.


title: Travelling salesman problem

text: The travelling salesman problem (also called the travelling salesperson problem or TSP) asks the following question: "Given a list of cities and the distances between each pair of cities, what is the shortest possible route that visits each city exactly once and returns to the origin city?" It is an NP-hard problem in combinatorial optimization, important in theoretical computer science and operations research.


title: Travelling salesman problem

text: In the theory of computational complexity, the decision version of the TSP (where given a length "L", the task is to decide whether the graph has a tour of at most "L") belongs to the class of NP-complete problems. Thus, it is possible that the worst-case running time for any algorithm for the TSP increases superpolynomially (but no more than exponentially) with the number of cities.


title: Travelling salesman problem

text: The problem was first formulated in 1930 and is one of the most intensively studied problems in optimization. It is used as a benchmark for many optimization methods. Even though the problem is computationally difficult, many heuristics and exact algorithms are known, so that some instances with tens of thousands of cities can be solved completely and even problems with millions of cities can be approximated within a small fraction of 1%.


title: Travelling salesman problem

text: The TSP has several applications even in its purest formulation, such as planning, logistics, and the manufacture of microchips. Slightly modified, it appears as a sub-problem in many areas, such as DNA sequencing. In these applications, the concept "city" represents, for example, customers, soldering points, or DNA fragments, and the concept "distance" represents travelling times or cost, or a similarity measure between DNA fragments. The TSP also appears in astronomy, as astronomers observing many sources will want to minimize the time spent moving the telescope between the sources; in such problems, the TSP can be embedded inside an optimal control problem. In many applications, additional constraints such as limited resources or time windows may be imposed.


title: Travelling salesman problem

text: The origins of the travelling salesman problem are unclear. A handbook for travelling salesmen from 1832 mentions the problem and includes example tours through Germany and Switzerland, but contains no mathematical treatment.


title: Travelling salesman problem

text: The TSP was mathematically formulated in the 19th century by the Irish mathematician William Rowan Hamilton and by the British mathematician Thomas Kirkman. Hamilton's icosian game was a recreational puzzle based on finding a Hamiltonian cycle. The general form of the TSP appears to have been first studied by mathematicians during the 1930s in Vienna and at Harvard, notably by Karl Menger, who defines the problem, considers the obvious brute-force algorithm, and observes the non-optimality of the nearest neighbour heuristic:


title: Travelling salesman problem

text: It was first considered mathematically in the 1930s by Merrill M. Flood who was looking to solve a school bus routing problem.


title: Travelling salesman problem

text: Hassler Whitney at Princeton University generated interest in the problem, which he called the "48 states problem". The earliest publication using the phrase "travelling salesman problem" was the 1949 RAND Corporation report by Julia Robinson, "On the Hamiltonian game (a traveling salesman problem)."


title: Travelling salesman problem

text: In the 1950s and 1960s, the problem became increasingly popular in scientific circles in Europe and the United States after the RAND Corporation in Santa Monica offered prizes for steps in solving the problem. Notable contributions were made by George Dantzig, Delbert Ray Fulkerson and Selmer M. Johnson from the RAND Corporation, who expressed the problem as an integer linear program and developed the cutting plane method for its solution. They wrote what is considered the seminal paper on the subject in which with these new methods they solved an instance with 49 cities to optimality by constructing a tour and proving that no other tour could be shorter. Dantzig, Fulkerson and Johnson, however, speculated that given a near optimal solution we may be able to find optimality or prove optimality by adding a small number of extra inequalities (cuts). They used this idea to solve their initial 49 city problem using a string model. They found they only needed 26 cuts to come to a solution for their 49 city problem. While this paper did not give an algorithmic approach to TSP problems, the ideas that lay within it were indispensable to later creating exact solution methods for the TSP, though it would take 15 years to find an algorithmic approach in creating these cuts. As well as cutting plane methods, Dantzig, Fulkerson and Johnson used branch and bound algorithms perhaps for the first time.


title: Travelling salesman problem

text: In 1959, Jillian Beardwood, J.H. Halton and John Hammersley published an article entitled "The Shortest Path Through Many Points" in the journal of the Cambridge Philosophical Society. The Beardwood–Halton–Hammersley theorem provides a practical solution to the travelling salesman problem.  The authors derived an asymptotic formula to determine the length of the shortest route for a salesman who starts at a home or office and visits a fixed number of locations before returning to the start.


title: Travelling salesman problem

text: In the following decades, the problem was studied by many researchers from mathematics, computer science, chemistry, physics, and other sciences. In the 1960s, however, a new approach was created, that instead of seeking optimal solutions would produce a solution whose length is provably bounded by a multiple of the optimal length, and in doing so would create lower bounds for the problem; these lower bounds would then be used with branch and bound approaches. One method of doing this was to create a minimum spanning tree of the graph and then double all its edges, which produces the bound that the length of an optimal tour is at most twice the weight of a minimum spanning tree.


title: Travelling salesman problem

text: In 1976, Christofides and Serdyukov independently of each other made a big advance in this direction: the Christofides-Serdyukov algorithm yields a solution that, in the worst case, is at most 1.5 times longer than the optimal solution. As the algorithm was simple and quick, many hoped it would give way to a near optimal solution method. However, this hope for improvement did not immediately materialize, and Christofides-Serdyukov remained the method with the best worst-case scenario until 2011, when a (very) slightly improved approximation algorithm was developed for the subset of "graphical" TSPs. In 2020 this tiny improvement was extended to the full (metric) TSP.


title: Travelling salesman problem

text: Richard M. Karp showed in 1972 that the Hamiltonian cycle problem was NP-complete, which implies the NP-hardness of TSP. This supplied a mathematical explanation for the apparent computational difficulty of finding optimal tours.


title: Travelling salesman problem

text: Great progress was made in the late 1970s and 1980, when Grötschel, Padberg, Rinaldi and others managed to exactly solve instances with up to 2,392 cities, using cutting planes and branch and bound.


title: Travelling salesman problem

text: In the 1990s, Applegate, Bixby, Chvátal, and Cook developed the program "Concorde" that has been used in many recent record solutions. Gerhard Reinelt published the TSPLIB in 1991, a collection of benchmark instances of varying difficulty, which has been used by many research groups for comparing results. In 2006, Cook and others computed an optimal tour through an 85,900-city instance given by a microchip layout problem, currently the largest solved TSPLIB instance. For many other instances with millions of cities, solutions can be found that are guaranteed to be within 2–3% of an optimal tour.


title: Travelling salesman problem

text: TSP can be modelled as an undirected weighted graph, such that cities are the graph's vertices, paths are the graph's edges, and a path's distance is the edge's weight. It is a minimization problem starting and finishing at a specified vertex after having visited each other vertex exactly once. Often, the model is a complete graph (i.e., each pair of vertices is connected by an edge). If no path exists between two cities, adding a sufficiently long edge will complete the graph without affecting the optimal tour.


title: Travelling salesman problem

text: In the "symmetric TSP", the distance between two cities is the same in each opposite direction, forming an undirected graph. This symmetry halves the number of possible solutions. In the "asymmetric TSP", paths may not exist in both directions or the distances might be different, forming a directed graph. Traffic collisions, one-way streets, and airfares for cities with different departure and arrival fees are examples of how this symmetry could break down.


title: Travelling salesman problem

text: The TSP can be formulated as an integer linear program. Several formulations are known. Two notable formulations are the Miller–Tucker–Zemlin (MTZ) formulation and the Dantzig–Fulkerson–Johnson (DFJ) formulation. The DFJ formulation is stronger, though the MTZ formulation is still useful in certain settings.


title: Travelling salesman problem

text: Common to both these formulations is that one labels the cities with the numbers formula_1 and takes formula_2 to be the distance from city formula_3 to city formula_4. The main variables in the formulations are:


title: Travelling salesman problem

text: It is because these are 0/1 variables that the formulations become integer programs; all other constraints are purely linear. In particular, the objective in the program is to


title: Travelling salesman problem

text: Without further constraints, the formula_7 will however effectively range over all subsets of the set of edges, which is very far from the sets of edges in a tour, and allows for a trivial minimum where all formula_8. Therefore, both formulations also have the constraints that there at each vertex is exactly one incoming edge and one outgoing edge, which may be expressed as the formula_9 linear equations