title: Hippocrates

text: Hippocrates was reluctant to administer drugs and engage in specialized treatment that might prove to be wrongly chosen; generalized therapy followed a generalized diagnosis. Generalized treatments he prescribed include fasting and the consumption of a mix of honey and vinegar. Hippocrates once said that "to eat when you are sick, is to feed your sickness". However, potent drugs were used on certain occasions. This passive approach was very successful in treating relatively simple ailments such as broken bones which required traction to stretch the skeletal system and relieve pressure on the injured area. The Hippocratic bench and other devices were used to this end.


title: Hippocrates

text: One of the strengths of Hippocratic medicine was its emphasis on prognosis. At Hippocrates' time, medicinal therapy was quite immature, and often the best thing that physicians could do was to evaluate an illness and predict its likely progression based upon data collected in detailed case histories.


title: Hippocrates

text: Hippocratic medicine was notable for its strict professionalism, discipline, and rigorous practice. The Hippocratic work "On the Physician" recommends that physicians always be well-kempt, honest, calm, understanding, and serious. The Hippocratic physician paid careful attention to all aspects of his practice: he followed detailed specifications for, "lighting, personnel, instruments, positioning of the patient, and techniques of bandaging and splinting" in the ancient operating room. He even kept his fingernails to a precise length.


title: Hippocrates

text: The Hippocratic School gave importance to the clinical doctrines of observation and documentation. These doctrines dictate that physicians record their findings and their medicinal methods in a very clear and objective manner, so that these records may be passed down and employed by other physicians. Hippocrates made careful, regular note of many symptoms including complexion, pulse, fever, pains, movement, and excretions. He is said to have measured a patient's pulse when taking a case history to discover whether the patient was lying. Hippocrates extended clinical observations into family history and environment. "To him medicine owes the art of clinical inspection and observation."


title: Hippocrates

text: Hippocrates and his followers were first to describe many diseases and medical conditions. He is given credit for the first description of clubbing of the fingers, an important diagnostic sign in chronic lung disease, lung cancer and cyanotic heart disease. For this reason, clubbed fingers are sometimes referred to as "Hippocratic fingers". Hippocrates was also the first physician to describe Hippocratic face in "Prognosis". Shakespeare famously alludes to this description when writing of Falstaff's death in Act II, Scene iii. of "Henry V".


title: Hippocrates

text: Hippocrates began to categorize illnesses as acute, chronic, endemic and epidemic, and use terms such as, "exacerbation, relapse, resolution, crisis, paroxysm, peak, and convalescence." Another of Hippocrates' major contributions may be found in his descriptions of the symptomatology, physical findings, surgical treatment and prognosis of thoracic empyema, i.e. suppuration of the lining of the chest cavity. His teachings remain relevant to present-day students of pulmonary medicine and surgery. Hippocrates was the first documented chest surgeon and his findings and techniques, while crude, such as the use of lead pipes to drain chest wall abscess, are still valid.


title: Hippocrates

text: The Hippocratic school of medicine described well the ailments of the human rectum and the treatment thereof, despite the school's poor theory of medicine. Hemorrhoids, for instance, though believed to be caused by an excess of bile and phlegm, were treated by Hippocratic physicians in relatively advanced ways. Cautery and excision are described in the Hippocratic Corpus, in addition to the preferred methods: ligating the hemorrhoids and drying them with a hot iron. Other treatments such as applying various salves are suggested as well. Today, "treatment [for hemorrhoids] still includes burning, strangling, and excising." Also, some of the fundamental concepts of proctoscopy outlined in the Corpus are still in use. For example, the uses of the rectal speculum, a common medical device, are discussed in the Hippocratic Corpus. This constitutes the earliest recorded reference to endoscopy. Hippocrates often used lifestyle modifications such as diet and exercise to treat diseases such as diabetes, what is today called lifestyle medicine.


title: Hippocrates

text: Two popular but likely misquoted attributions to Hippocrates are "Let food be your medicine, and medicine be your food" and "Walking is man's best medicine". Both appear to be misquotations, and their exact origins remain unknown.


title: Hippocrates

text: In 2017, researchers claimed that, while conducting restorations on the Saint Catherine's Monastery in South Sinai, they found a manuscript which contains a medical recipe of Hippocrates. The manuscript also contains three recipes with pictures of herbs that were created by an anonymous scribe.


title: Hippocrates

text: The Hippocratic Corpus (Latin: "Corpus Hippocraticum") is a collection of around seventy early medical works collected in Alexandrian Greece. It is written in Ionic Greek. The question of whether Hippocrates himself was the author of any of the treatises in the corpus has not been conclusively answered, but current debate revolves around only a few of the treatises seen as potentially authored by him. Because of the variety of subjects, writing styles and apparent date of construction, the Hippocratic Corpus could not have been written by one person (Ermerins numbers the authors at nineteen). The corpus came to be known by his name because of his fame, possibly all medical works were classified under 'Hippocrates' by a librarian in Alexandria. The volumes were probably produced by his students and followers.


title: Hippocrates

text: The Hippocratic Corpus contains textbooks, lectures, research, notes and philosophical essays on various subjects in medicine, in no particular order. These works were written for different audiences, both specialists and laymen, and were sometimes written from opposing viewpoints; significant contradictions can be found between works in the Corpus. Notable among the treatises of the Corpus are "The Hippocratic Oath"; "The Book of Prognostics"; "On Regimen in Acute Diseases"; ""; "On Airs, Waters and Places"; "Instruments of Reduction"; "On The Sacred Disease"; etc.


title: Hippocrates

text: The Hippocratic Oath, a seminal document on the ethics of medical practice, was attributed to Hippocrates in antiquity although new information shows it may have been written after his death. This is probably the most famous document of the Hippocratic Corpus. Recently the authenticity of the document's author has come under scrutiny. While the Oath is rarely used in its original form today, it serves as a foundation for other, similar oaths and laws that define good medical practice and morals. Such derivatives are regularly taken today by medical graduates about to enter medical practice.


title: Hippocrates

text: Although Hippocrates neither founded the school of medicine named after him, nor wrote most of the treatises attributed to him, he is traditionally regarded as the "Father of Medicine". His contributions revolutionized the practice of medicine; but after his death the advancement stalled. So revered was Hippocrates that his teachings were largely taken as too great to be improved upon and no significant advancements of his methods were made for a long time. The centuries after Hippocrates' death were marked as much by retrograde movement as by further advancement. For instance, "after the Hippocratic period, the practice of taking clinical case-histories died out," according to Fielding Garrison.


title: Hippocrates

text: After Hippocrates, another significant physician was Galen, a Greek who lived from AD 129 to AD 200. Galen perpetuated the tradition of Hippocratic medicine, making some advancements, but also some regressions. In the Middle Ages, the Islamic world adopted Hippocratic methods and developed new medical technologies. After the European Renaissance, Hippocratic methods were revived in western Europe and even further expanded in the 19th century. Notable among those who employed Hippocrates' rigorous clinical techniques were Thomas Sydenham, William Heberden, Jean-Martin Charcot and William Osler. Henri Huchard, a French physician, said that these revivals make up "the whole history of internal medicine."


title: Hippocrates

text: According to Aristotle's testimony, Hippocrates was known as "The Great Hippocrates". Concerning his disposition, Hippocrates was first portrayed as a "kind, dignified, old country doctor" and later as "stern and forbidding". He is certainly considered wise, of very great intellect and especially as very practical. Francis Adams describes him as "strictly the physician of experience and common sense."


title: Hippocrates

text: His image as the wise, old doctor is reinforced by busts of him, which wear large beards on a wrinkled face. Many physicians of the time wore their hair in the style of Jove and Asklepius. Accordingly, the busts of Hippocrates that have been found could be only altered versions of portraits of these deities. Hippocrates and the beliefs that he embodied are considered medical ideals. Fielding Garrison, an authority on medical history, stated, "He is, above all, the exemplar of that flexible, critical, well-poised attitude of mind, ever on the lookout for sources of error, which is the very essence of the scientific spirit." "His figure... stands for all time as that of the ideal physician," according to "A Short History of Medicine", inspiring the medical profession since his death.


title: Hippocrates

text: "The Travels of Sir John Mandeville" reports (incorrectly) that Hippocrates was the ruler of the islands of "Kos and Lango" [sic], and recounts a legend about Hippocrates' daughter. She was transformed into a hundred-foot long dragon by the goddess Diana, and is the "lady of the manor" of an old castle. She emerges three times a year, and will be turned back into a woman if a knight kisses her, making the knight into her consort and ruler of the islands. Various knights try, but flee when they see the hideous dragon; they die soon thereafter. This is a version of the legend of Melusine.


title: Hippocrates

text: Some clinical symptoms and signs have been named after Hippocrates as he is believed to be the first person to describe those. Hippocratic face is the change produced in the countenance by death, or long sickness, excessive evacuations, excessive hunger, and the like. Clubbing, a deformity of the fingers and fingernails, is also known as Hippocratic fingers. Hippocratic succussion is the internal splashing noise of hydropneumothorax or pyopneumothorax. Hippocratic bench (a device which uses tension to aid in setting bones) and Hippocratic cap-shaped bandage are two devices named after Hippocrates. Hippocratic Corpus and Hippocratic Oath are also his namesakes. Risus sardonicus, a sustained spasming of the face muscles may also be termed the Hippocratic Smile. The most severe form of hair loss and baldness is called the Hippocratic form.


title: Hippocrates

text: In the modern age, a lunar crater has been named Hippocrates. The Hippocratic Museum, a museum on the Greek island of Kos is dedicated to him. The Hippocrates Project is a program of the New York University Medical Center to enhance education through use of technology. Project Hippocrates (an acronym of "HIgh PerfOrmance Computing for Robot-AssisTEd Surgery") is an effort of the Carnegie Mellon School of Computer Science and Shadyside Medical Center, "to develop advanced planning, simulation, and execution technologies for the next generation of computer-assisted surgical robots." Both the Canadian Hippocratic Registry and American Hippocratic Registry are organizations of physicians who uphold the principles of the original Hippocratic Oath as inviolable through changing social times.


title: Hippocrates

text: Hippocrates' legendary genealogy traces his paternal heritage directly to Asklepius and his maternal ancestry to Heracles. According to Tzetzes's "Chiliades", the ahnentafel of Hippocrates II is:


title: Al Roker

text: Albert Lincoln Roker Jr. (born August 20, 1954) is an American weather presenter, journalist, television personality, and author. He is the current weather anchor on NBC's "Today", and occasionally co-hosts "3rd Hour Today". He has an inactive American Meteorological Society Television Seal #238.


title: Al Roker

text: Roker was born in the borough of Queens, New York City, the son of Isabel, of Jamaican descent, and Albert Lincoln Roker Sr., a bus driver of Bahamian descent. He initially wanted to be a cartoonist. He was raised Catholic, his mother's faith, and graduated from Xavier High School in Manhattan. He attended the State University of New York at Oswego where he received a B.A. in communications in 1976.


title: Al Roker

text: Roker worked as a weather anchor for CBS affiliate WHEN-TV (now WTVH) in Syracuse, New York from 1974 until 1976, while he was enrolled at SUNY Oswego. During his time in Oswego, he also DJ'd at the campus radio station, WNYO. Following the completion of his studies, Roker moved to Washington, D.C. and took a weathercasting position at independent station WTTG, then owned by Metromedia, remaining there for much of the next two years.


title: Al Roker

text: Roker's career with NBC began in 1978 when he was hired at WKYC in Cleveland, then an NBC owned-and-operated station. After five years in Cleveland, Roker was promoted to the network's flagship outlet, WNBC-TV in his hometown. Roker returned to New York City in late 1983 as a weekend weathercaster, and within eight months became the station's regular weeknight weathercaster. Roker replaced 27-year WNBC-TV veteran Dr. Frank Field, who left the network over a contract dispute. From 1983 to 1996, Roker was the regular substitute for forecaster Joe Witte on the NBC News program "NBC News at Sunrise", and from 1990 to 1995 filled in for Willard Scott, Bryant Gumbel and 1997 through 2000's for Matt Lauer on the "Today Show". In 1995, he became the host of "The Al Roker Show", a weekend talk show on CNBC.


title: Al Roker

text: Roker received wider exposure when David Letterman asked him to join in an elevator race on an episode of the talk show "Late Night with David Letterman", which taped across the hall from the WNBC news studio in the GE Building. This led to Roker becoming the forecaster for "Weekend Today". He also substituted on the weekday edition of "Today" when Willard Scott was ill or away.


title: Al Roker

text: In early 1996, Scott announced his semi-retirement from "Today". On January 26, 1996, Roker received the regular weekday weather slot. Roker's studio remote forecasts, interviewing visitors outside and giving them some camera time, became a staple. Roker conducted more interviews and segments on the show over time. He continues the daily tradition of birthday wishes to centenarians that began with Scott.


title: Al Roker

text: In 2005, Roker reported from inside Hurricane Wilma. A popular viral video shows him swept off his feet by the fierce wind and clinging to the cameraman.


title: Al Roker

text: In addition to his role as "Today Show" weather man and anchor, Roker co-hosted the third hour of "Today" called "Today's Take", beginning November 12, 2012. "Today's Take" was cancelled in February 2017 for "Megyn Kelly Today" and aired its final episode on September 22, 2017. After "Megyn Kelly Today" was cancelled in 2018, Roker returned to co-host "3rd Hour Today".


title: Al Roker

text: During the 2013 inauguration of Barack Obama, Roker received a handshake from Joe Biden. Years later, as an NBC News reporter at Biden's own 2021 inauguration, Roker received a fist bump from the newly inaugurated president moments before Biden entered the White House.


title: Al Roker

text: In November 2014, Roker embarked on a "Rokerthon", in which he did a non-stop, 34-hour weather forecast on NBC, from 10:05 p.m. on November 12, 2014, until about 8:00 a.m. on November 14, 2014. The record-setting event was a fundraiser for the Crowdrise Campaign to benefit the military and USO. He held a "Rokerthon 2", this time reporting weather from all 50 states and Washington, D.C. during the week from November 6 to November 13, 2015, in support of Feeding America. From March 27 until March 31, 2017, he embarked on "Rokerthon 3", visiting colleges and setting a Guinness World Record at each one, such as the longest conga line on ice and largest human letter.


title: Al Roker

text: Roker has hosted NBC's coverage of the Macy's Thanksgiving Day Parade since 1995 (with the exception of 2022), where he provides commentary along with some of his "Today Show" colleagues. He is known as the "uptown" host, whose main roles include cutting the ribbon during the ribbon cutting ceremony at the start of the parade, and interviewing celebrities who are watching the parade from its start at 77th Street. Roker was unable to host the coverage of the parade in 2022 after recovering from blood clots that had lead to being hospitalized.


title: Al Roker

text: Roker is a game show fan. From 1996 to 1997, he hosted a game show on MSNBC called "Remember This?". He substituted for Meredith Vieira for a week of "Who Wants to Be a Millionaire" shows from March 5–9, 2007.


title: Al Roker

text: He hosted a week-long feature on "Today" profiling five game shows and their hosts in July 2016 titled "Game On Today". He has appeared as a celebrity player on both Merv Griffin game shows "Jeopardy!" and "Wheel of Fortune".


title: Al Roker

text: Roker has hosted programs on Food Network, namely, "Roker on the Road", and "Tricked-Out Tailgating". He is also an avid barbecue enthusiast.


title: Al Roker

text: Roker provided forecasts for several radio stations, including the New York smooth jazz radio station WQCD (101.9 FM) and for Cleveland smooth jazz station WNWV (107.3 FM), through a service called the "Al Roker Radio Weather Network", distributed by United Stations Radio Networks. It has since been replaced by Accuweather.


title: Al Roker

text: He also had a one and a half hour weekday morning stint live from 5:00–7:00 a.m. on The Weather Channel under the name "Wake Up with Al" which aired from 2009 until 2015.


title: Al Roker

text: It was announced on September 5, 2018, that Roker would portray Joe in the Broadway musical "Waitress" for a six-week run from October 5 to November 11. He later returned to the show for a limited run from November 1 to 24, 2019.


title: Al Roker

text: Writing with Dick Lochte, Roker co-authored a series of murder mysteries beginning in 2009 that feature Billy Blessing, a celebrity chef turned amateur detective. The second book in the series, "The Midnight Show Murders" (2010), was nominated for


title: Al Roker

text: a 2011 Nero Award. "The Morning Show Murders", also published in 2010, was made into the 2018 movie on Hallmark Movies and Mysteries with Holly Robinson Peete in the lead role.


title: Al Roker

text: In 2016, the non-fiction book "Been There, Done That: Family Wisdom for Modern Times", written by Roker and his wife Deborah Roberts, was published.


title: Al Roker

text: Following an early marriage and divorce, Roker married WNBC producer Alice Bell in December 1984. He and Bell adopted daughter Courtney as an infant in 1987. Roker and Bell later divorced. Roker married TV journalist Deborah Roberts on September 16, 1995. They are the parents of daughter Leila (born November 17, 1998) and son Nicholas (born July 18, 2002).


title: Al Roker

text: On May 10, 2021, Roker returned to his former stomping grounds in Cleveland to report on the city's reopening efforts following the COVID-19 pandemic, and while live on the "Today Show", WKYC chief meteorologist Betsy Kling announced that the station had named the radar tower on top of the WKYC building the "Roker Tower" in his honor, and presented Roker a plaque to commemorate the occasion.


title: Al Roker

text: On Thursday, June 7, 2001, Roker underwent a total knee arthoplasty (replacement, or "TKA") on his left knee.


title: Al Roker

text: In 2002, Roker underwent gastric bypass surgery to lose weight, which he said he did after failing at numerous diets. Eight months after the surgery, the New York "Daily News" reported he had dropped from his figure. Roker wrote about his battle with weight loss in "Never Goin' Back: Winning the Weight Loss Battle For Good", published in 2013.


title: Al Roker

text: In November 2020, he revealed he was diagnosed with prostate cancer in September 2020. He had a successful operation on November 9, and by November 17 he was at home recovering.


title: Al Roker

text: In November 2022, after being absent from "Today" for a few days, Roker revealed he was in the hospital being treated for blood clots in his lungs.


title: Al Roker

text: In 2007, Roker became an official supporter of Ronald McDonald House Charities and is a member of their celebrity board, called the Friends of RMHC. He also served as the official spokesperson for Amtrak's National Train Day, which took place on May 10, 2008.


title: Al Roker

text: The following day Roker stated, "I started joking about [the logo]. I want to make this clear—I was not joking about epilepsy or anyone who suffers from epilepsy. We understand and know that this is a serious affliction and would never joke about that. We were joking about the logo—not about epilepsy. If anybody was offended, I heartily and really humbly apologize."


title: Al Roker

text: On November 23, 2015, Roker alleged racial discrimination and filed a complaint after he and his son attempted to hail a cab. The cab driver reportedly had passed them in order to pick up a white man on the next block. Roker stated on Twitter that a "cabbie picked up a white guy a block away. Wonder why Uber wins?" According to the New York City Taxi and Limousine Commission, the driver would either have to pay a $500 fine or possibly have his license suspended.


title: Salicylic acid

text: Salicylic acid is an organic compound with the formula HOCHCOH. A colorless, bitter-tasting solid, it is a precursor to and a metabolite of aspirin (acetylsalicylic acid). It is a plant hormone, and has been listed by the EPA Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA) Chemical Substance Inventory as an experimental teratogen. The name is from Latin "salix" for willow tree. It is an ingredient in some anti-acne products. Salts and esters of salicylic acid are known as salicylates.


title: Salicylic acid

text: Salicylic acid as a medication is commonly used to remove the outer layer of the skin. As such, it is used to treat warts, psoriasis, acne vulgaris, ringworm, dandruff, and ichthyosis.


title: Salicylic acid

text: Similar to other hydroxy acids, salicylic acid is an ingredient in many skincare products for the treatment of seborrhoeic dermatitis, acne, psoriasis, calluses, corns, keratosis pilaris, acanthosis nigricans, ichthyosis, and warts.


title: Salicylic acid

text: Salicylic acid is used in the production of other pharmaceuticals, including 4-aminosalicylic acid, sandulpiride, and landetimide (via salethamide).


title: Salicylic acid

text: Salicylic acid has long been a key starting material for making acetylsalicylic acid (aspirin). Aspirin (acetylsalicylic acid or ASA) is prepared by the esterification of the phenolic hydroxyl group of salicylic acid with the acetyl group from acetic anhydride or acetyl chloride. ASA is the standard to which all the other non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are compared. In veterinary medicine, this group of drugs is mainly used for treatment of inflammatory musculoskeletal disorders.


title: Salicylic acid

text: Bismuth subsalicylate, a salt of bismuth and salicylic acid, is the active ingredient in stomach-relief aids such as Pepto-Bismol, is the main ingredient of Kaopectate, and "displays anti-inflammatory action (due to salicylic acid) and also acts as an antacid and mild antibiotic".


title: Salicylic acid

text: Other derivatives include methyl salicylate used as a liniment to soothe joint and muscle pain and choline salicylate used topically to relieve the pain of mouth ulcers. Aminosalicylic acid is used to induce remission in ulcerative colitis, and has been used as an antitubercular agent often administered in association with isoniazid.


title: Salicylic acid

text: Sodium salicylate is a useful phosphor in the vacuum ultraviolet spectral range, with nearly flat quantum efficiency for wavelengths between 10 and 100 nm. It fluoresces in the blue at 420 nm. It is easily prepared on a clean surface by spraying a saturated solution of the salt in methanol followed by evaporation.


title: Salicylic acid

text: Salicylic acid modulates COX-1 enzymatic activity to decrease the formation of pro-inflammatory prostaglandins. Salicylate may competitively inhibit prostaglandin formation. Salicylate's antirheumatic (nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory) actions are a result of its analgesic and anti-inflammatory mechanisms.


title: Salicylic acid

text: Salicylic acid, when applied to the skin surface, works by causing the cells of the epidermis to slough off more readily, preventing pores from clogging up, and allowing room for new cell growth. Salicylic acid inhibits the oxidation of uridine-5-diphosphoglucose (UDPG) competitively with nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide and noncompetitively with UDPG. It also competitively inhibits the transferring of glucuronyl group of uridine-5-phosphoglucuronic acid to the phenolic acceptor.


title: Salicylic acid

text: The wound-healing retardation action of salicylates is probably due mainly to its inhibitory action on mucopolysaccharide synthesis.


title: Salicylic acid

text: If high concentrations of salicylic ointment are applied to a large percentage of body surface, high levels of salicylic acid can enter the blood, requiring hemodialysis to avoid further complications.


title: Salicylic acid

text: Salicylic acid is biosynthesized from the amino acid phenylalanine. In "Arabidopsis thaliana", it can be synthesized via a phenylalanine-independent pathway.


title: Salicylic acid

text: Sodium salicylate is commercially prepared by treating sodium phenolate (the sodium salt of phenol) with carbon dioxide at high pressure (100atm) and high temperature (115°C) – a method known as the Kolbe-Schmitt reaction. Acidification of the product with sulfuric acid gives salicylic acid:


title: Salicylic acid

text: It can also be prepared by the hydrolysis of aspirin (acetylsalicylic acid) or methyl salicylate (oil of wintergreen) with a strong acid or base.


title: Salicylic acid

text: Willow has long been used for medicinal purposes. Dioscorides, whose writings were highly influential for more than 1,500 years, used 'Itea' (which was possibly a species of willow) as a treatment for 'painful intestinal obstructions,' birth control, for 'those who spit blood,' to remove calluses and corns and, externally, as a 'warm pack for gout.' William Turner, in 1597, repeated this, saying that willow bark, 'being burnt to ashes, and steeped in vinegar, takes away corns and other like risings in the feet and toes.' Some of these cures may describe the action of salicylic acid, which can be derived from the salicin present in willow. It is, however, a modern myth that Hippocrates used willow as a painkiller.


title: Salicylic acid

text: Hippocrates, Galen, Pliny the Elder, and others knew that decoctions containing salicylate could ease pain and reduce fevers.


title: Salicylic acid

text: It was used in Europe and China to treat these conditions. This remedy is mentioned in texts from Ancient Egypt, Sumer, and Assyria.


title: Salicylic acid

text: The Cherokee and other Native Americans use an infusion of the bark for fever and other medicinal purposes. In 2014, archaeologists identified traces of salicylic acid on seventh-century pottery fragments found in east-central Colorado.


title: Salicylic acid

text: The Reverend Edward Stone, a vicar from Chipping Norton, Oxfordshire, England, reported in 1763 that the bark of the willow was effective in reducing a fever.


title: Salicylic acid

text: An extract of willow bark, called salicin, after the Latin name for the white willow ("Salix alba"), was isolated and named by German chemist Johann Andreas Buchner in 1828. A larger amount of the substance was isolated in 1829 by Henri Leroux, a French pharmacist. Raffaele Piria, an Italian chemist, was able to convert the substance into a sugar and a second component, which on oxidation becomes salicylic acid.


title: Salicylic acid

text: Salicylic acid was also isolated from the herb meadowsweet ("Filipendula ulmaria", formerly classified as "Spiraea ulmaria") by German researchers in 1839. Their extract caused digestive problems such as gastric irritation, bleeding, diarrhea, and even death when consumed in high doses.


title: Salicylic acid

text: In 1874 the Scottish physician Thomas MacLagan experimented with salicin as a treatment for acute rheumatism, with considerable success, as he reported in The Lancet in 1876. Meanwhile, German scientists tried sodium salicylate with less success and more severe side effects.


title: Salicylic acid

text: In 1979, salicylates were found to be involved in induced defenses of tobacco against tobacco mosaic virus. In 1987, salicylic acid was identified as the long-sought signal that causes thermogenic plants, such as the voodoo lily, "Sauromatum guttatum", to produce heat.


title: Salicylic acid

text: Salicylic acid occurs in plants as free salicylic acid and its carboxylated esters and phenolic glycosides. Several studies suggest that humans metabolize salicylic acid in measurable quantities from these plants. High-salicylate beverages and foods include beer, coffee, tea, numerous fruits and vegetables, sweet potato, nuts, and olive oil. Meat, poultry, fish, eggs, dairy products, sugar, breads and cereals have low salicylate content.


title: Salicylic acid

text: Some people with sensitivity to dietary salicylates may have symptoms of allergic reaction, such as bronchial asthma, rhinitis, gastrointestinal disorders, or diarrhea, so may need to adopt a low-salicylate diet.


title: Salicylic acid

text: Salicylic acid is a phenolic phytohormone, and is found in plants with roles in plant growth and development, photosynthesis, transpiration, and ion uptake and transport. Salicylic acid is involved in endogenous signaling, mediating plant defense against pathogens. It plays a role in the resistance to pathogens (i.e. systemic acquired resistance) by inducing the production of pathogenesis-related proteins and other defensive metabolites. SA's defense signaling role is most clearly demonstrated by experiments which do away with it: Delaney et al. 1994, Gaffney et al. 1993, Lawton et al. 1995, and Vernooij et al. 1994 each use "Nicotiana tabacum" or "Arabidopsis" expressing "nahG", for salicylate hydroxylase. Pathogen inoculation did not produce the customarily high SA levels, SAR was not produced, and no PR genes were expressed in systemic leaves. Indeed, the subjects were more susceptible to virulent and even normally avirulent pathogens.


title: Salicylic acid

text: Exogenously, salicylic acid can aid plant development via enhanced seed germination, bud flowering, and fruit ripening, though too high of a concentration of salicylic acid can negatively regulate these developmental processes.


title: Salicylic acid

text: The volatile methyl ester of salicylic acid, methyl salicylate, can also diffuse through the air, facilitating plant-plant communication. Methyl salicylate is taken up by the stomata of the nearby plant, where it can induce an immune response after being converted back to salicylic acid.


title: Salicylic acid

text: A number of proteins have been identified that interact with SA in plants, especially salicylic acid binding proteins (SABPs) and the NPR genes (Nonexpressor of pathogenesis related genes), which are putative receptors.


title: Cyanobacteria

text: Cyanobacteria (), also known as Cyanophyta, are a phylum of gram-negative bacteria that obtain energy via photosynthesis. The name "cyanobacteria" refers to their color (), which similarly forms the basis of cyanobacteria's common name, blue-green algae, although they are not usually scientifically classified as algae. They appear to have originated in a freshwater or terrestrial environment. Sericytochromatia, the proposed name of the paraphyletic and most basal group, is the ancestor of both the non-photosynthetic group Melainabacteria and the photosynthetic cyanobacteria, also called Oxyphotobacteria.


title: Cyanobacteria

text: Cyanobacteria use photosynthetic pigments, such as carotenoids, phycobilins, and various forms of chlorophyll, which absorb energy from light. Unlike heterotrophic prokaryotes, cyanobacteria have internal membranes. These are flattened sacs called thylakoids where photosynthesis is performed. Phototrophic eukaryotes such as green plants perform photosynthesis in plastids that are thought to have their ancestry in cyanobacteria, acquired long ago via a process called endosymbiosis. These endosymbiotic cyanobacteria in eukaryotes then evolved and differentiated into specialized organelles such as chloroplasts, chromoplasts, etioplasts, and leucoplasts, collectively known as plastids.


title: Cyanobacteria

text: Cyanobacteria are the first organisms known to have produced oxygen. By producing and releasing oxygen as a byproduct of photosynthesis, cyanobacteria are thought to have converted the early oxygen-poor, reducing atmosphere into an oxidizing one, causing the Great Oxidation Event and the "rusting of the Earth", which dramatically changed the composition of the Earth's life forms.


title: Cyanobacteria

text: The cyanobacteria "Synechocystis" and "Cyanothece" are important model organisms with potential applications in biotechnology for bioethanol production, food colorings, as a source of human and animal food, dietary supplements and raw materials. Cyanobacteria produce a range of toxins known as cyanotoxins that can pose a danger to humans and animals.


title: Cyanobacteria

text: Cyanobacteria are a very large and diverse phylum of photoautotrophic prokaryotes. They are defined by their unique combination of pigments and their ability to perform oxygenic photosynthesis. They often live in colonial aggregates that can take on a multitude of forms. Of particular interest are the filamentous species, which often dominate the upper layers of microbial mats found in extreme environments such as hot springs, hypersaline water, deserts and the polar regions, but are also widely distributed in more mundane environments as well.


title: Cyanobacteria

text: Cyanobacteria are a group of photosynthetic bacteria evolutionarily optimized for environmental conditions of low oxygen. Some species are nitrogen-fixing and live in a wide variety of moist soils and water, either freely or in a symbiotic relationship with plants or lichen-forming fungi (as in the lichen genus "Peltigera"). They range from unicellular to filamentous and include colonial species. Colonies may form filaments, sheets, or even hollow spheres.


title: Cyanobacteria

text: Cyanobacteria are globally widespread photosynthetic prokaryotes and are major contributors to global biogeochemical cycles. They are the only oxygenic photosynthetic prokaryotes, and prosper in diverse and extreme habitats. They are among the oldest organisms on Earth with fossil records dating back 3.5 billion years. Since then, cyanobacteria have been essential players in the Earth's ecosystems. Planktonic cyanobacteria are a fundamental component of marine food webs and are major contributors to global carbon and nitrogen fluxes. Some cyanobacteria form harmful algal blooms causing the disruption of aquatic ecosystem services and intoxication of wildlife and humans by the production of powerful toxins (cyanotoxins) such as microcystins, saxitoxin, and cylindrospermopsin. Nowadays, cyanobacterial blooms pose a serious threat to aquatic environments and public health, and are increasing in frequency and magnitude globally.


title: Cyanobacteria

text: Cyanobacteria are ubiquitous in marine environments and play important roles as primary producers. Marine phytoplankton today contribute almost half of the Earth's total primary production. Within the cyanobacteria, only a few lineages colonized the open-ocean (i.e., "Crocosphaera" and relatives, cyanobacterium UCYN-A, "Trichodesmium", as well as "Prochlorococcus" and "Synechococcus"). From these lineages, nitrogen fixing cyanobacteria are particularly important because they exert a control on primary productivity and the export of organic carbon to the deep ocean, by converting nitrogen gas into ammonium, which is later used to make amino acids and proteins. Marine picocyanobacteria (i.e., "Prochlorococcus" and "Synechococcus") numerically dominate most phytoplankton assemblages in modern oceans contributing importantly to primary productivity. While some planktonic cyanobacteria are unicellular and free living cells (e.g., "Crocosphaera", "Prochlorococcus", "Synechococcus"), others have established symbiotic relationships with haptophyte algae, such as coccolithophores. Amongst the filamentous forms, "Trichodesmium" are free-living and form aggregates. However, filamentous heterocyst-forming cyanobacteria (e.g., "Richelia", "Calothrix") are found in association with diatoms such as "Hemiaulus", "Rhizosolenia" and "Chaetoceros".


title: Cyanobacteria

text: Marine cyanobacteria include the smallest known photosynthetic organisms. The smallest of all, "Prochlorococcus", is just 0.5 to 0.8 micrometres across. In terms of individual numbers, "Prochlorococcus" is possibly the most plentiful species on Earth: a single millilitre of surface seawater can contain 100,000 cells or more. Worldwide there are estimated to be several octillion (10) individuals. "Prochlorococcus" is ubiquitous between 40°N and 40°S and dominates in the oligotrophic (nutrient poor) regions of the oceans. The bacterium accounts for about 20% of the oxygen in the Earth's atmosphere.


title: Cyanobacteria

text: Cyanobacteria are variable in morphology, ranging from unicellular and filamentous to colonial forms. Filamentous forms exhibit functional cell differentiation such as heterocysts (for nitrogen fixation), akinetes (resting stage cells), and hormogonia (reproductive, motile filaments). These, together with the intercellular connections they possess, are considered the first signs of multicellularity.


title: Cyanobacteria

text: Many cyanobacteria form motile filaments of cells, called hormogonia, that travel away from the main biomass to bud and form new colonies elsewhere. The cells in a hormogonium are often thinner than in the vegetative state, and the cells on either end of the motile chain may be tapered. To break away from the parent colony, a hormogonium often must tear apart a weaker cell in a filament, called a necridium.


title: Cyanobacteria

text: Each individual cell (each single cyanobacterium) typically has a thick, gelatinous cell wall. They lack flagella, but hormogonia of some species can move about by gliding along surfaces. Many of the multicellular filamentous forms of "Oscillatoria" are capable of a waving motion; the filament oscillates back and forth. In water columns, some cyanobacteria float by forming gas vesicles, as in archaea. These vesicles are not organelles as such. They are not bounded by lipid membranes, but by a protein sheath.


title: Cyanobacteria

text: Some cyanobacteria can fix atmospheric nitrogen in anaerobic conditions by means of specialized cells called heterocysts. Heterocysts may also form under the appropriate environmental conditions (anoxic) when fixed nitrogen is scarce. Heterocyst-forming species are specialized for nitrogen fixation and are able to fix nitrogen gas into ammonia (), nitrites () or nitrates (), which can be absorbed by plants and converted to protein and nucleic acids (atmospheric nitrogen is not bioavailable to plants, except for those having endosymbiotic nitrogen-fixing bacteria, especially the family Fabaceae, among


title: Cyanobacteria

text: Free-living cyanobacteria are present in the water of rice paddies, and cyanobacteria can be found growing as epiphytes on the surfaces of the green alga, "Chara", where they may fix nitrogen. Cyanobacteria such as "Anabaena" (a symbiont of the aquatic fern "Azolla") can provide rice plantations with biofertilizer.


title: Cyanobacteria

text: Cyanobacteria use the energy of sunlight to drive photosynthesis, a process where the energy of light is used to synthesize organic compounds from carbon dioxide. Because they are aquatic organisms, they typically employ several strategies which are collectively known as a " concentrating mechanism" to aid in the acquisition of inorganic carbon ( or bicarbonate). Among the more specific strategies is the widespread prevalence of the bacterial microcompartments known as carboxysomes, which co-operate with active transporters of CO and bicarbonate, in order to accumulate bicarbonate into the cytoplasm of the cell. Carboxysomes are icosahedral structures composed of hexameric shell proteins that assemble into cage-like structures that can be several hundreds of nanometres in diameter. It is believed that these structures tether the -fixing enzyme, RuBisCO, to the interior of the shell, as well as the enzyme carbonic anhydrase, using metabolic channeling to enhance the local concentrations and thus increase the efficiency of the RuBisCO enzyme.


title: Cyanobacteria

text: In contrast to purple bacteria and other bacteria performing anoxygenic photosynthesis, thylakoid membranes of cyanobacteria are not continuous with the plasma membrane but are separate compartments. The photosynthetic machinery is embedded in the thylakoid membranes, with phycobilisomes acting as light-harvesting antennae attached to the membrane, giving the green pigmentation observed (with wavelengths from 450 nm to 660 nm) in most cyanobacteria.


title: Cyanobacteria

text: While most of the high-energy electrons derived from water are used by the cyanobacterial cells for their own needs, a fraction of these electrons may be donated to the external environment via electrogenic activity.


title: Cyanobacteria

text: Respiration in cyanobacteria can occur in the thylakoid membrane alongside photosynthesis, with their photosynthetic electron transport sharing the same compartment as the components of respiratory electron transport. While the goal of photosynthesis is to store energy by building carbohydrates from CO, respiration is the reverse of this, with carbohydrates turned back into CO accompanying energy release.


title: Cyanobacteria

text: Cyanobacteria appear to separate these two processes with their plasma membrane containing only components of the respiratory chain, while the thylakoid membrane hosts an interlinked respiratory and photosynthetic electron transport chain. Cyanobacteria use electrons from succinate dehydrogenase rather than from NADPH for respiration.


title: Cyanobacteria

text: Cyanobacteria only respire during the night (or in the dark) because the facilities used for electron transport are used in reverse for photosynthesis while in the light.


title: Cyanobacteria

text: Many cyanobacteria are able to reduce nitrogen and carbon dioxide under aerobic conditions, a fact that may be responsible for their evolutionary and ecological success. The water-oxidizing photosynthesis is accomplished by coupling the activity of photosystem (PS) II and I (Z-scheme). In contrast to green sulfur bacteria which only use one photosystem, the use of water as an electron donor is energetically demanding, requiring two photosystems.


title: Cyanobacteria

text: Attached to the thylakoid membrane, phycobilisomes act as light-harvesting antennae for the photosystems. The phycobilisome components (phycobiliproteins) are responsible for the blue-green pigmentation of most cyanobacteria. The variations on this theme are due mainly to carotenoids and phycoerythrins that give the cells their red-brownish coloration. In some cyanobacteria, the color of light influences the composition of the phycobilisomes. In green light, the cells accumulate more phycoerythrin, which absorbs green light, whereas in red light they produce more phycocyanin which absorbs red. Thus, these bacteria can change from brick-red to bright blue-green depending on whether they are exposed to green light or to red light. This process of "complementary chromatic adaptation" is a way for the cells to maximize the use of available light for photosynthesis.


title: Cyanobacteria

text: A few genera lack phycobilisomes and have chlorophyll b instead ("Prochloron", "Prochlorococcus", "Prochlorothrix"). These were originally grouped together as the prochlorophytes or chloroxybacteria, but appear to have developed in several different lines of cyanobacteria. For this reason, they are now considered as part of the cyanobacterial group.


title: Cyanobacteria

text: In general, photosynthesis in cyanobacteria uses water as an electron donor and produces oxygen as a byproduct, though some may also use hydrogen sulfide a process which occurs among other photosynthetic bacteria such as the purple sulfur bacteria.


title: Cyanobacteria

text: Carbon dioxide is reduced to form carbohydrates via the Calvin cycle. The large amounts of oxygen in the atmosphere are considered to have been first created by the activities of ancient cyanobacteria. They are often found as symbionts with a number of other groups of organisms such as fungi (lichens), corals, pteridophytes ("Azolla"), angiosperms ("Gunnera"), etc.


title: Cyanobacteria

text: There are some groups capable of heterotrophic growth, while others are parasitic, causing diseases in invertebrates or algae (e.g., the black band disease).


title: Cyanobacteria

text: Cyanobacteria can be found in almost every terrestrial and aquatic habitat – oceans, fresh water, damp soil, temporarily moistened rocks in deserts, bare rock and soil, and even Antarctic rocks. They can occur as planktonic cells or form phototrophic biofilms. They are found inside stones and shells (in endolithic ecosystems). A few are endosymbionts in lichens, plants, various protists, or sponges and provide energy for the host. Some live in the fur of sloths, providing a form of camouflage.


title: Cyanobacteria

text: Aquatic cyanobacteria are known for their extensive and highly visible blooms that can form in both freshwater and marine environments. The blooms can have the appearance of blue-green paint or scum. These blooms can be toxic, and frequently lead to the closure of recreational waters when spotted. Marine bacteriophages are significant parasites of unicellular marine cyanobacteria.


title: Cyanobacteria

text: Cyanobacterial growth is favoured in ponds and lakes where waters are calm and have little turbulent mixing. Their lifecycles are disrupted when the water naturally or artificially mixes from churning currents caused by the flowing water of streams or the churning water of fountains. For this reason blooms of cyanobacteria seldom occur in rivers unless the water is flowing slowly. Growth is also favoured at higher temperatures which enable "Microcystis" species to outcompete diatoms and green algae, and potentially allow development of toxins.


title: Cyanobacteria

text: Based on environmental trends, models and observations suggest cyanobacteria will likely increase their dominance in aquatic environments. This can lead to serious consequences, particularly the contamination of sources of drinking water. Researchers including Linda Lawton at Robert Gordon University, have developed techniques to study these. Cyanobacteria can interfere with water treatment in various ways, primarily by plugging filters (often large beds of sand and similar media) and by producing cyanotoxins, which have the potential to cause serious illness if consumed. Consequences may also lie within fisheries and waste management practices. Anthropogenic eutrophication, rising temperatures, vertical stratification and increased atmospheric carbon dioxide are contributors to cyanobacteria increasing dominance of aquatic ecosystems.


title: Cyanobacteria

text: Cyanobacteria have been found to play an important role in terrestrial habitats. It has been widely reported that cyanobacteria soil crusts help to stabilize soil to prevent erosion and retain water. An example of a cyanobacterial species that does so is "Microcoleus vaginatus". "M. vaginatus" stabilizes soil using a polysaccharide sheath that binds to sand particles and absorbs water.


title: Cyanobacteria

text: Some of these organisms contribute significantly to global ecology and the oxygen cycle. The tiny marine cyanobacterium "Prochlorococcus" was discovered in 1986 and accounts for more than half of the photosynthesis of the open ocean. Circadian rhythms were once thought to only exist in eukaryotic cells but many cyanobacteria display a bacterial circadian rhythm.


title: Cyanobacteria

text: "Cyanobacteria are arguably the most successful group of microorganisms on earth. They are the most genetically diverse; they occupy a broad range of habitats across all latitudes, widespread in freshwater, marine, and terrestrial ecosystems, and they are found in the most extreme niches such as hot springs, salt works, and hypersaline bays. Photoautotrophic, oxygen-producing cyanobacteria created the conditions in the planet's early atmosphere that directed the evolution of aerobic metabolism and eukaryotic photosynthesis. Cyanobacteria fulfill vital ecological functions in the world's oceans, being important contributors to global carbon and nitrogen budgets." – Stewart and Falconer


title: Cyanobacteria

text: Some cyanobacteria, the so-called cyanobionts (cyanobacterial symbionts), have a symbiotic relationship with other organisms, both unicellular and multicellular. As illustrated on the right, there are many examples of cyanobacteria interacting symbiotically with land plants. Cyanobacteria can enter the plant through the stomata and colonize the intercellular space, forming loops and intracellular coils. "Anabaena" spp. colonize the roots of wheat and cotton plants. "Calothrix" sp. has also been found on the root system of wheat. Monocots, such as wheat and rice, have been colonised by "Nostoc" spp., In 1991, Ganther and others isolated diverse heterocystous nitrogen-fixing cyanobacteria, including "Nostoc", "Anabaena" and "Cylindrospermum", from plant root and soil. Assessment of wheat seedling roots revealed two types of association patterns: loose colonization of root hair by "Anabaena" and tight colonization of the root surface within a restricted zone by "Nostoc".


title: Cyanobacteria

text: The relationships between cyanobionts (cyanobacterial symbionts) and protistan hosts are particularly noteworthy, as some nitrogen-fixing cyanobacteria (diazotrophs) play an important role in primary production, especially in nitrogen-limited oligotrophic oceans. Cyanobacteria, mostly pico-sized "Synechococcus" and "Prochlorococcus", are ubiquitously distributed and are the most abundant photosynthetic organisms on Earth, accounting for a quarter of all carbon fixed in marine ecosystems. In contrast to free-living marine cyanobacteria, some cyanobionts are known to be responsible for nitrogen fixation rather than carbon fixation in the host. However, the physiological functions of most cyanobionts remain unknown. Cyanobionts have been found in numerous protist groups, including dinoflagellates, tintinnids, radiolarians, amoebae, diatoms, and haptophytes. Among these cyanobionts, little is known regarding the nature (e.g., genetic diversity, host or cyanobiont specificity, and cyanobiont seasonality) of the symbiosis involved, particularly in relation to dinoflagellate host.


title: Cyanobacteria

text: Some cyanobacteria – even single-celled ones – show striking collective behaviours and form colonies (or blooms) that can float on water and have important ecological roles. For instance, billions of years ago, communities of marine Paleoproterozoic cyanobacteria could have helped create the biosphere as we know it by burying carbon compounds and allowing the initial build-up of oxygen in the atmosphere. On the other hand, toxic cyanobacterial blooms are an increasing issue for society, as their toxins can be harmful to animals. Extreme blooms can also deplete water of oxygen and reduce the penetration of sunlight and visibility, thereby compromising the feeding and mating behaviour of light-reliant species.


title: Cyanobacteria

text: As shown in the diagram on the right, bacteria can stay in suspension as individual cells, adhere collectively to surfaces to form biofilms, passively sediment, or flocculate to form suspended aggregates. Cyanobacteria are able to produce sulphated polysaccharides (yellow haze surrounding clumps of cells) that enable them to form floating aggregates. In 2021, Maeda et al. discovered that oxygen produced by cyanobacteria becomes trapped in the network of polysaccharides and cells, enabling the microorganisms to form buoyant blooms. It is thought that specific protein fibres known as pili (represented as lines radiating from the cells) may act as an additional way to link cells to each other or onto surfaces. Some cyanobacteria also use sophisticated intracellular gas vesicles as floatation aids.


title: Cyanobacteria

text: The diagram on the left above shows a proposed model of microbial distribution, spatial organization, carbon and O cycling in clumps and adjacent areas. (a) Clumps contain denser cyanobacterial filaments and heterotrophic microbes. The initial differences in density depend on cyanobacterial motility and can be established over short timescales. Darker blue color outside of the clump indicates higher oxygen concentrations in areas adjacent to clumps. Oxic media increase the reversal frequencies of any filaments that begin to leave the clumps, thereby reducing the net migration away from the clump. This enables the persistence of the initial clumps over short timescales; (b) Spatial coupling between photosynthesis and respiration in clumps. Oxygen produced by cyanobacteria diffuses into the overlying medium or is used for aerobic respiration. Dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) diffuses into the clump from the overlying medium and is also produced within the clump by respiration. In oxic solutions, high O concentrations reduce the efficiency of CO fixation and result in the excretion of glycolate. Under these conditions, clumping can be beneficial to cyanobacteria if it stimulates the retention of carbon and the assimilation of inorganic carbon by cyanobacteria within clumps. This effect appears to promote the accumulation of particulate organic carbon (cells, sheaths and heterotrophic organisms) in clumps.


title: Cyanobacteria

text: It has been unclear why and how cyanobacteria form communities. Aggregation must divert resources away from the core business of making more cyanobacteria, as it generally involves the production of copious quantities of extracellular material. In addition, cells in the centre of dense aggregates can also suffer from both shading and shortage of nutrients. So, what advantage does this communal life bring for cyanobacteria?


title: Cyanobacteria

text: New insights into how cyanobacteria form blooms have come from a 2021 study on the cyanobacterium "Synechocystis". These use a set of genes that regulate the production and export of sulphated polysaccharides, chains of sugar molecules modified with sulphate groups that can often be found in marine algae and animal tissue. Many bacteria generate extracellular polysaccharides, but sulphated ones have only been seen in cyanobacteria. In "Synechocystis" these sulphated polysaccharide help the cyanobacterium form buoyant aggregates by trapping oxygen bubbles in the slimy web of cells and polysaccharides.


title: Cyanobacteria

text: Previous studies on "Synechocystis" have shown type IV pili, which decorate the surface of cyanobacteria, also play a role in forming blooms. These retractable and adhesive protein fibres are important for motility, adhesion to substrates and DNA uptake. The formation of blooms may require both type IV pili and Synechan – for example, the pili may help to export the polysaccharide outside the cell. Indeed, the activity of these protein fibres may be connected to the production of extracellular polysaccharides in filamentous cyanobacteria. A more obvious answer would be that pili help to build the aggregates by binding the cells with each other or with the extracellular polysaccharide. As with other kinds of bacteria, certain components of the pili may allow cyanobacteria from the same species to recognise each other and make initial contacts, which are then stabilised by building a mass of extracellular polysaccharide.


title: Cyanobacteria

text: The bubble flotation mechanism identified by Maeda et al. joins a range of known strategies that enable cyanobacteria to control their buoyancy, such as using gas vesicles or accumulating carbohydrate ballasts. Type IV pili on their own could also control the position of marine cyanobacteria in the water column by regulating viscous drag. Extracellular polysaccharide appears to be a multipurpose asset for cyanobacteria, from floatation device to food storage, defence mechanism and mobility aid.


title: Cyanobacteria

text: One of the most critical processes determining cyanobacterial eco-physiology is cellular death. Evidence supports the existence of controlled cellular demise in cyanobacteria, and various forms of cell death have been described as a response to biotic and abiotic stresses. However, cell death research in cyanobacteria is a relatively young field and understanding of the underlying mechanisms and molecular machinery underpinning this fundamental process remains largely elusive. However, reports on cell death of marine and freshwater cyanobacteria indicate this process has major implications for the ecology of microbial communities/ Different forms of cell demise have been observed in cyanobacteria under several stressful conditions, and cell death has been suggested to play a key role in developmental processes, such as akinete and heterocyst differentiation.


title: Cyanobacteria

text: Cyanophages are viruses that infect cyanobacteria. Cyanophages can be found in both freshwater and marine environments. Marine and freshwater cyanophages have icosahedral heads, which contain double-stranded DNA, attached to a tail by connector proteins. The size of the head and tail vary among species of cyanophages.


title: Cyanobacteria

text: Cyanophages like other bacteriophages rely on Brownian motion to collide with bacteria, and then use receptor binding proteins to recognize cell surface proteins, which leads to adherence. Viruses with contractile tails then rely on receptors found on their tails to recognize highly conserved proteins on the surface of the host cell.


title: Cyanobacteria

text: Cyanophages infect a wide range of cyanobacteria and are key regulators of the cyanobacterial populations in aquatic environments, and may aid in the prevention of cyanobacterial blooms in freshwater and marine ecosystems. These blooms can pose a danger to humans and other animals, particularly in eutrophic freshwater lakes. Infection by these viruses is highly prevalent in cells belonging to "Synechococcus" spp. in marine environments, where up to 5% of cells belonging to marine cyanobacterial cells have been reported to contain mature phage particles.


title: Cyanobacteria

text: The first cyanophage, LPP-1, was discovered in 1963. Cyanophages are classified within the bacteriophage families "Myoviridae" (e.g. AS-1, N-1), "Podoviridae" (e.g. LPP-1) and "Siphoviridae" (e.g. S-1).


title: Cyanobacteria

text: It has long been known that filamentous cyanobacteria perform surface motions, and that these movements result from type IV pili. Additionally, "Synechococcus", a marine cyanobacteria, is known to swim at a speed of 25 μm/s by a mechanism different to that of bacterial flagella. Formation of waves on the cyanobacteria surface is thought to push surrounding water backwards. Cells are known to be motile by a gliding method and a novel uncharacterized, nonphototactic swimming method that does not involve flagellar motion.


title: Cyanobacteria

text: Many species of cyanobacteria are capable of gliding. Gliding is a form of cell movement that differs from crawling or swimming in that it does not rely on any obvious external organ or change in cell shape and it occurs only in the presence of a substrate. Gliding in filamentous cyanobacteria appears to be powered by a "slime jet" mechanism, in which the cells extrude a gel that expands quickly as it hydrates providing a propulsion force, although some unicellular cyanobacteria use type IV pili for gliding.


title: Cyanobacteria

text: Cyanobacteria have strict light requirements. Too little light can result in insufficient energy production, and in some species may cause the cells to resort to heterotrophic respiration. Too much light can inhibit the cells, decrease photosynthesis efficiency and cause damage by bleaching. UV radiation is especially deadly for cyanobacteria, with normal solar levels being significantly detrimental for these microorganisms in some cases.


title: Cyanobacteria

text: Filamentous cyanobacteria that live in microbial mats often migrate vertically and horizontally within the mat in order to find an optimal niche that balances their light requirements for photosynthesis against their sensitivity to photodamage. For example, the filamentous cyanobacteria "Oscillatoria" sp. and "Spirulina subsalsa" found in the hypersaline benthic mats of Guerrero Negro, Mexico migrate downwards into the lower layers during the day in order to escape the intense sunlight and then rise to the surface at dusk. In contrast, the population of "Microcoleus chthonoplastes" found in hypersaline mats in Camargue, France migrate to the upper layer of the mat during the day and are spread homogenously through the mat at night. An in vitro experiment using P. uncinatum also demonstrated this species' tendency to migrate in order to avoid damaging radiation. These migrations are usually the result of some sort of photomovement, although other forms of taxis can also play a role.


title: Cyanobacteria

text: Photomovement – the modulation of cell movement as a function of the incident light – is employed by the cyanoabacteria as a means to find optimal light conditions in their environment. There are three types of photomovement: photokinesis, phototaxis and photophobic responses.


title: Cyanobacteria

text: Photokinetic microorganisms modulate their gliding speed according to the incident light intensity. For example, the speed with which Phormidium autumnale glides increases linearly with the incident light intensity.


title: Cyanobacteria

text: Phototactic microorganisms move according to the direction of the light within the environment, such that positively phototactic species will tend to move roughly parallel to the light and towards the light source. Species such as "Phormidium uncinatum" cannot steer directly towards the light, but rely on random collisions to orient themselves in the right direction, after which they tend to move more towards the light source. Others, such as "Anabaena variabilis", can steer by bending the trichome.


title: Cyanobacteria

text: Finally, photophobic microorganisms respond to spatial and temporal light gradients. A step-up photophobic reaction occurs when an organism enters a brighter area field from a darker one and then reverses direction, thus avoiding the bright light. The opposite reaction, called a step-down reaction, occurs when an organism enters a dark area from a bright area and then reverses direction, thus remaining in the light.


title: Cyanobacteria

text: Stromatolites are layered biochemical accretionary structures formed in shallow water by the trapping, binding, and cementation of sedimentary grains by biofilms (microbial mats) of microorganisms, especially cyanobacteria.


title: Cyanobacteria

text: During the Precambrian, stromatolite communities of microorganisms grew in most marine and non-marine environments in the photic zone. After the Cambrian explosion of marine animals, grazing on the stromatolite mats by herbivores greatly reduced the occurrence of the stromatolites in marine environments. Since then, they are found mostly in hypersaline conditions where grazing invertebrates cannot live (e.g. Shark Bay, Western Australia). Stromatolites provide ancient records of life on Earth by fossil remains which date from 3.5 Ga ago. the oldest undisputed evidence of cyanobacteria is from 2.1 Ga ago, but there is some evidence for them as far back as 2.7 Ga ago. Oxygen concentrations in the atmosphere remained around or below 1% of today's level until 2.4 Ga ago (the Great Oxygenation Event). The rise in oxygen may have caused a fall in the concentration of atmospheric methane, and triggered the Huronian glaciation from around 2.4 to 2.1 Ga ago. In this way, cyanobacteria may have killed off much of the other bacteria of the time.


title: Cyanobacteria

text: Oncolites are sedimentary structures composed of oncoids, which are layered structures formed by cyanobacterial growth. Oncolites are similar to stromatolites, but instead of forming columns, they form approximately spherical structures that were not attached to the underlying substrate as they formed. The oncoids often form around a central nucleus, such as a shell fragment, and a calcium carbonate structure is deposited by encrusting microbes. Oncolites are indicators of warm waters in the photic zone, but are also known in contemporary freshwater environments. These structures rarely exceed 10 cm in diameter.


title: Cyanobacteria

text: One former classification scheme of cyanobacterial fossils divided them into the porostromata and the spongiostromata. These are now recognized as form taxa and considered taxonomically obsolete; however, some authors have advocated for the terms remaining informally to describe form and structure of bacterial fossils.


title: Cyanobacteria

text: As far as we can tell, oxygenic photosynthesis only evolved once (in prokaryotic cyanobacteria), and all photosynthetic eukaryotes (including all plants and algae) have acquired this ability from them. In other words, all the oxygen that makes the atmosphere breathable for aerobic organisms originally comes from cyanobacteria or their later descendants.


title: Cyanobacteria

text: Cyanobacteria remained principal primary producers throughout the Proterozoic Eon (2500–543 Ma), in part because the redox structure of the oceans favored photoautotrophs capable of nitrogen fixation. Green algae joined blue-greens as major primary producers on continental shelves near the end of the Proterozoic, but only with the Mesozoic (251–65 Ma) radiations of dinoflagellates, coccolithophorids, and diatoms did primary production in marine shelf waters take modern form. Cyanobacteria remain critical to marine ecosystems as primary producers in oceanic gyres, as agents of biological nitrogen fixation, and, in modified form, as the plastids of marine eukaryotic algae.


title: Cyanobacteria

text: Primary chloroplasts are cell organelles found in some eukaryotic lineages, where they are specialized in performing photosynthesis. They are considered to have evolved from endosymbiotic cyanobacteria. After some years of debate, it is now generally accepted that the three major groups of primary endosymbiotic eukaryotes (i.e. green plants, red algae and glaucophytes) form one large monophyletic group called Archaeplastida, which evolved after one unique endosymbiotic event.


title: Cyanobacteria

text: The morphological similarity between chloroplasts and cyanobacteria was first reported by German botanist Andreas Franz Wilhelm Schimper in the 19th century Chloroplasts are only found in plants and algae, thus paving the way for Russian biologist Konstantin Mereschkowski to suggest in 1905 the symbiogenic origin of the plastid. Lynn Margulis brought this hypothesis back to attention more than 60 years later but the idea did not become fully accepted until supplementary data started to accumulate. The cyanobacterial origin of plastids is now supported by various pieces of phylogenetic, genomic, biochemical and structural evidence. The description of another independent and more recent primary endosymbiosis event between a cyanobacterium and a separate eukaryote lineage (the rhizarian "Paulinella chromatophora") also gives credibility to the endosymbiotic origin of the plastids.


title: Cyanobacteria

text: In addition to this primary endosymbiosis, many eukaryotic lineages have been subject to secondary or even tertiary endosymbiotic events, that is the "Matryoshka-like" engulfment by a eukaryote of another plastid-bearing eukaryote.


title: Cyanobacteria

text: Chloroplasts have many similarities with cyanobacteria, including a circular chromosome, prokaryotic-type ribosomes, and similar proteins in the photosynthetic reaction center. The endosymbiotic theory suggests that photosynthetic bacteria were acquired (by endocytosis) by early eukaryotic cells to form the first plant cells. Therefore, chloroplasts may be photosynthetic bacteria that adapted to life inside plant cells. Like mitochondria, chloroplasts still possess their own DNA, separate from the nuclear DNA of their plant host cells and the genes in this chloroplast DNA resemble those in cyanobacteria. DNA in chloroplasts codes for redox proteins such as photosynthetic reaction centers. The CoRR hypothesis proposes this co-location is required for redox regulation.


title: Cyanobacteria

text: Cyanobacteria have fundamentally transformed the geochemistry of the planet. Multiple lines of geochemical evidence support the occurrence of intervals of profound global environmental change at the beginning and end of the Proterozoic (2,500–542 Mya).


title: Cyanobacteria

text: Understanding the evolution of planktonic cyanobacteria is important because their origin fundamentally transformed the nitrogen and carbon cycles towards the end of the Pre-Cambrian. It remains unclear, however, what evolutionary events led to the emergence of open-ocean planktonic forms within cyanobacteria and how these events relate to geochemical evidence during the Pre-Cambrian. So far, it seems that ocean geochemistry (e.g., euxinic conditions during the early- to mid-Proterozoic) and nutrient availability likely contributed to the apparent delay in diversification and widespread colonization of open ocean environments by planktonic cyanobacteria during the Neoproterozoic.


title: Cyanobacteria

text: Cyanobacteria are capable of natural genetic transformation. Natural genetic transformation is the genetic alteration of a cell resulting from the direct uptake and incorporation of exogenous DNA from its surroundings. For bacterial transformation to take place, the recipient bacteria must be in a state of competence, which may occur in nature as a response to conditions such as starvation, high cell density or exposure to DNA damaging agents. In chromosomal transformation, homologous transforming DNA can be integrated into the recipient genome by homologous recombination, and this process appears to be an adaptation for repairing DNA damage.


title: Cyanobacteria

text: Cyanobacteria are challenged by environmental stresses and internally generated reactive oxygen species that cause DNA damage. Cyanobacteria possess numerous "E. coli"-like DNA repair genes. Several DNA repair genes are highly conserved in cyanobacteria, even in small genomes, suggesting that core DNA repair processes such as recombinational repair, nucleotide excision repair and methyl-directed DNA mismatch repair are common among cyanobacteria.


title: Cyanobacteria

text: Historically, bacteria were first classified as plants constituting the class Schizomycetes, which along with the Schizophyceae (blue-green algae/Cyanobacteria) formed the phylum Schizophyta, then in the phylum Monera in the kingdom Protista by Haeckel in 1866, comprising "Protogens, Protamaeba, Vampyrella, Protomonae", and "Vibrio", but not "Nostoc" and other cyanobacteria, which were classified with algae, later reclassified as the "Prokaryotes" by Chatton.


title: Cyanobacteria

text: The cyanobacteria were traditionally classified by morphology into five sections, referred to by the numerals I–V. The first three – Chroococcales, Pleurocapsales, and Oscillatoriales – are not supported by phylogenetic studies. The latter two – Nostocales and Stigonematales – are monophyletic, and make up the heterocystous cyanobacteria.


title: Cyanobacteria

text: The members of Chroococales are unicellular and usually aggregate in colonies. The classic taxonomic criterion has been the cell morphology and the plane of cell division. In Pleurocapsales, the cells have the ability to form internal spores (baeocytes). The rest of the sections include filamentous species. In Oscillatoriales, the cells are uniseriately arranged and do not form specialized cells (akinetes and heterocysts). In Nostocales and Stigonematales, the cells have the ability to develop heterocysts in certain conditions. Stigonematales, unlike Nostocales, include species with truly branched trichomes.


title: Cyanobacteria

text: Most taxa included in the phylum or division Cyanobacteria have not yet been validly published under "The International Code of Nomenclature of Prokaryotes" (ICNP) except:


title: Cyanobacteria

text: The remainder are validly published under the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants.


title: Cyanobacteria

text: The currently accepted taxonomy is based on the List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature (LPSN) and National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI).


title: Cyanobacteria

text: The unicellular cyanobacterium "Synechocystis" sp. PCC6803 was the third prokaryote and first photosynthetic organism whose genome was completely sequenced. It continues to be an important model organism. "Cyanothece" ATCC 51142 is an important diazotrophic model organism. The smallest genomes have been found in "Prochlorococcus" spp. (1.7 Mb) and the largest in "Nostoc punctiforme" (9 Mb). Those of "Calothrix" spp. are estimated at 12–15 Mb, as large as yeast.


title: Cyanobacteria

text: Recent research has suggested the potential application of cyanobacteria to the generation of renewable energy by directly converting sunlight into electricity. Internal photosynthetic pathways can be coupled to chemical mediators that transfer electrons to external electrodes. In the shorter term, efforts are underway to commercialize algae-based fuels such as diesel, gasoline, and jet fuel. Cyanobacteria have been also engineered to produce ethanol and experiments have shown that when one or two CBB genes are being over expressed, the yield can be even higher.


title: Cyanobacteria

text: Cyanobacteria may possess the ability to produce substances that could one day serve as anti-inflammatory agents and combat bacterial infections in humans. Cyanobacteria's photosynthetic output of sugar and oxygen has been demonstrated to have therapeutic value in rats with heart attacks. While cyanobacteria can naturally produce various secondary metabolites, they can serve as advantageous hosts for plant-derived metabolites production owing to biotechnological advances in systems biology and synthetic biology.


title: Cyanobacteria

text: Researchers from several space agencies argue that cyanobacteria could be used for producing goods for human consumption in future crewed outposts on Mars, by transforming materials available on this planet.


title: Cyanobacteria

text: Some cyanobacteria are sold as food, notably "Arthrospira platensis (Spirulina) and others" ("Aphanizomenon flos-aquae").


title: Cyanobacteria

text: Some microalgae contain substances of high biological value, such as polyunsaturated fatty acids, amino acids, proteins, pigments, antioxidants, vitamins, and minerals. Edible blue-green algae reduce the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines by inhibiting NF-κB pathway in macrophages and splenocytes. Sulfate polysaccharides exhibit immunomodulatory, antitumor, antithrombotic, anticoagulant, anti-mutagenic, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and even antiviral activity against HIV, herpes, and hepatitis.


title: Cyanobacteria

text: Some cyanobacteria can produce neurotoxins, cytotoxins, endotoxins, and hepatotoxins (e.g., the microcystin-producing bacteria genus microcystis), which are collectively known as cyanotoxins.


title: Cyanobacteria

text: Specific toxins include anatoxin-a, guanitoxin, aplysiatoxin, cyanopeptolin, cylindrospermopsin, domoic acid, nodularin R (from "Nodularia"), neosaxitoxin, and saxitoxin. Cyanobacteria reproduce explosively under certain conditions. This results in algal blooms which can become harmful to other species and pose a danger to humans and animals if the cyanobacteria involved produce toxins. Several cases of human poisoning have been documented, but a lack of knowledge prevents an accurate assessment of the risks, and research by Linda Lawton, FRSE at Robert Gordon University, Aberdeen and collaborators has 30 years of examining the phenomenon and methods of improving water safety.


title: Cyanobacteria

text: Recent studies suggest that significant exposure to high levels of cyanobacteria producing toxins such as BMAA can cause amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). People living within half a mile of cyanobacterially contaminated lakes have had a 2.3 times greater risk of developing ALS than the rest of the population; people around New Hampshire's Lake Mascoma had an up to 25 times greater risk of ALS than the expected incidence. BMAA from desert crusts found throughout Qatar might have contributed to higher rates of ALS in Gulf War veterans.


title: Cyanobacteria

text: Several chemicals can eliminate cyanobacterial blooms from smaller water-based systems such as swimming pools. They include calcium hypochlorite, copper sulphate, cupricide, and simazine. The calcium hypochlorite amount needed varies depending on the cyanobacteria bloom, and treatment is needed periodically. According to the Department of Agriculture Australia, a rate of 12 g of 70% material in 1000 L of water is often effective to treat a bloom. Copper sulfate is also used commonly, but no longer recommended by the Australian Department of Agriculture, as it kills livestock, crustaceans, and fish. Cupricide is a chelated copper product that eliminates blooms with lower toxicity risks than copper sulfate. Dosage recommendations vary from 190 mL to 4.8 L per 1000 m. Ferric alum treatments at the rate of 50 mg/L will reduce algae blooms. Simazine, which is also a herbicide, will continue to kill blooms for several days after an application. Simazine is marketed at different strengths (25, 50, and 90%), the recommended amount needed for one cubic meter of water per product is 25% product 8 mL; 50% product 4 mL; or 90% product 2.2 mL.


title: Cyanobacteria

text: Climate change is likely to increase the frequency, intensity and duration of cyanobacterial blooms in many eutrophic lakes, reservoirs and estuaries. Bloom-forming cyanobacteria produce a variety of neurotoxins, hepatotoxins and dermatoxins, which can be fatal to birds and mammals (including waterfowl, cattle and dogs) and threaten the use of waters for recreation, drinking water production, agricultural irrigation and fisheries. Toxic cyanobacteria have caused major water quality problems, for example in Lake Taihu (China), Lake Erie (USA), Lake Okeechobee (USA), Lake Victoria (Africa) and the Baltic Sea.


title: Cyanobacteria

text: Climate change favours cyanobacterial blooms both directly and indirectly. Many bloom-forming cyanobacteria can grow at relatively high temperatures. Increased thermal stratification of lakes and reservoirs enables buoyant cyanobacteria to float upwards and form dense surface blooms, which gives them better access to light and hence a selective advantage over nonbuoyant phytoplankton organisms. Protracted droughts during summer increase water residence times in reservoirs, rivers and estuaries, and these stagnant warm waters can provide ideal conditions for cyanobacterial bloom development.


title: Cyanobacteria

text: The capacity of the harmful cyanobacterial genus "Microcystis" to adapt to elevated CO levels was demonstrated in both laboratory and field experiments. "Microcystis" spp. take up CO and HCO− and accumulate inorganic carbon in carboxysomes, and strain competitiveness was found to depend on the concentration of inorganic carbon. As a result, climate change and increased CO levels are expected to affect the strain composition of cyanobacterial blooms.


title: Shane Dawson

text: Shane Lee Yaw (born July 19, 1988), known professionally as Shane Dawson, is an American YouTuber. He became one of the first people to rise to fame on the video-sharing platform YouTube.


title: Shane Dawson

text: In 2008, at age 19, Dawson began making videos on YouTube and garnered over half a billion views by 2010. Most of his early work consisted of sketch comedy videos, where he would play original characters, impersonate celebrities and make light of popular culture. Some of these impressions later drew criticism for their offensive content, including racial stereotypes.


title: Shane Dawson

text: During this time, Dawson also had a short-lived music career, releasing six original songs such as "Superluv!" and numerous parodies of popular music videos. In 2013, he launched his podcast, "Shane and Friends", which ran for four years and produced 140 episodes. The following year, Dawson released his first and only feature film, "Not Cool", and appeared on an accompanying 10 episode docu-series "The Chair". He has also appeared in the films "Smiley" (2012) and "Internet Famous" (2016).


title: Shane Dawson

text: In 2015, Dawson began his show on YouTube about conspiracy theories, which includes his 2019 web series "Conspiracy Series with Shane Dawson." In late 2017, he released his first docu-series on YouTube, in which he reconciled with his absent father. From 2019 to 2020, Dawson created and appeared in "The Beautiful World of Jeffree Star", a docu-series that follows the life of Jeffree Star, which garnered over 130 million views. His most viewed docu-series are about Jake Paul, Jeffree Star, and TanaCon.


title: Shane Dawson

text: As of 2018, Dawson has released two "New York Times" best-selling books, "I Hate Myselfie" (2015) and "" (2016), and his three YouTube channels have accumulated over 4.5 billion views. Since 2017, he maintains one active channel, "shane", with 20 million subscribers and over 4 billion views. On June 30, 2020, YouTube indefinitely suspended monetization on all three of Dawson's channels following a public backlash over his past controversial comments. He returned to YouTube on October 7, 2021.


title: Shane Dawson

text: Dawson grew up in Long Beach, California, and he graduated from Lakewood High School in 2006. As a teenager, Dawson was bullied for his weight in school. He has two older brothers, Jacob Yaw (born 1980) and Jerid Yaw (born 1985). The siblings had a close relationship, and helped Dawson during these times. He has since lost . He first became interested in making videos when he would turn in videos as school projects with his friends in high school. Dawson grew up in a low income household to a single mother, Teresa Yaw.


title: Shane Dawson

text: On March 10, 2008, Dawson made his YouTube channel, called "ShaneDawsonTV". The earliest video that remains on the channel, "Kermit the Frog and Me" was uploaded about 4 months later. When he first began making videos, he worked at Jenny Craig along with his mother and brother, but was fired in August 2008 after he uploaded a video of himself pole dancing in the building he worked in and, while showing before-and-after photos of clients, saying that "all these people gain their weight back." The video also included clips of his co-workers reading inappropriate passages of a book by Jenny Craig spokesperson Valerie Bertinelli. His mother, brother and about six other coworkers who appeared in the video also were fired after the company saw the video. In September, he uploaded a video called "Fred is Dead!", which has since received over 25 million views. During this time, Shane performed as a number of "drug-addled, often drunk, cultural stereotype characters" in his skits, including: "ghetto girl" Shanaynay, Ned the Nerd, gangster S-Deezy, Barb the Lesbian, Guadalupe/Fruit Lupe (a Mexican with stereotyped "chola" accent).


title: Shane Dawson

text: Dawson occasionally posts new videos on his channel "ShaneDawsonTV" (mainly short web films, music video parodies, film trailer parodies, and original music) and formerly posted other videos on his second channel "ShaneDawsonTV2", now called "Human Emoji" however the use of this channel has mostly been discontinued as of 2012. His third and main YouTube channel, Shane, is where he previously posted vlogs, and now posts original content Mondays through Fridays. He began using this channel in May 2010. Shane often collaborates with other YouTubers or appears in their videos, such as Joey Graceffa, BrittaniLouiseTaylor, TheFineBros, Trisha Paytas, iJustine (real name Justine Ezarik), Tyler Oakley, Miranda Sings (a character created by YouTuber, comedian, singer and actress Colleen Ballinger), Sawyer Hartman, Drew Monson and others. In November 2009, Dawson was featured on "Attack of the Show!". In 2010, "Forbes" magazine named him their 25th most famous web celebrity.


title: Shane Dawson

text: On August 11, 2010, Dawson announced that he was making a 30-minute pilot called "SD High". Previously, the funding he needed for the pilot was provided by digital media group Take180 after he helped them out with acting in their own videos. The pilot is based on two videos which Dawson uploaded to his main channel in Summer 2010. The story centered around a teenage boy in school and his interactions with the other characters. The pilot's release date was set towards the end of September 2010 on his main YouTube Channel, however Dawson later announced that he had been contacted by a television studio to produce the pilot for their TV channel(s).


title: Shane Dawson

text: According to Dawson, there is some uncertainty involving the pilot, however it may be a TV show in the future. On March 26, 2011, Dawson uploaded a video to YouTube explaining to his audience that he was working with Happy Madison Productions, Sony Pictures, and some other YouTubers including TheFineBros and BrittaniLouiseTaylor to create the television show.


title: Shane Dawson

text: In January 2012, Dawson stated in a video that he was now working on a new television show, which would be semi-based on his life working at a Weight Loss center. He stated that he would be pitching the show soon, and that he was "really excited" for it, and stated the show was "kind of like "Arrested Development", but – not." On May 16, 2012, Dawson revealed in a vlog that he was working on a comedy-horror film, explaining that he wanted to write "something like a teen comedy", however that the film would be "scary and fun". Dawson revealed in November 2012 that he was in negotiations to direct a feature-length film. In 2012, Dawson revealed in a vlog that he was working on a music project. In March 2012, Dawson revealed that his debut mainstream single, "Superluv!" would be released that month. The song was released on March 31, 2012, on iTunes, with an accompanying music video debuting on his YouTube channel on the same day. The song managed to chart at 87 in Ireland, 16 on the UK Indie Chart, 163 on the UK Singles Chart and reached the 28th spot on the US iTunes Pop Chart.


title: Shane Dawson

text: On May 8, 2012, Dawson revealed in a video that he has begun working on his next original song, which is tentatively titled "The Vacation Song". He previewed about 10 seconds of the "rough edit" of the song, and stated that he was going to change the mood of the song, saying, "Right now, it's a little too happy, because it's a break up song. I want it to be more like Kelly Clarkson's 'Since U Been Gone'." He stated that the song would "hopefully" be released by the beginning of June 2012. The song was released on June 23, 2012, with the music video being released a week later.


title: Shane Dawson

text: In October 2012, a film called "Smiley" was released to theaters starring Dawson. In December, Dawson released a new single entitled "Maybe This Christmas". On February 5, 2013, Dawson recorded a single titled "F**K Up". The song was released on YouTube and iTunes on March 30, 2013. On October 18, 2013, Dawson released a song entitled "Wanna Make Love To You", with Liam Horne. Dawson does not actually provide vocals to the song, but iTunes credits him as one of the artists.


title: Shane Dawson

text: In June 2013, Dawson started a podcast entitled "Shane and Friends". As of 2013, Dawson revealed that he was pitching a talk show and was continuing to pitch the series about him working at a weight loss center. On November 12, 2013, Dawson announced that he was developing the weight loss center project with Sony Pictures Television for NBC. The project has been titled "Losin' It" and, if picked up, would be a half-hour single-camera comedy series focusing on a successful former-client at a weight loss center who decides to share his inspiration by becoming a consultant at the center, and subsequently becomes the manager by the end of his first day. Darlene Hunt, Will Gluck, Richie Schwartz, Lauren Schnipper, and Dawson would serve as executive producers for the project.


title: Shane Dawson

text: On April 4, 2014, Dawson announced that he had directed and starred in a comedy film in Pittsburgh earlier that year. The film, which was made on a $800,000 budget, was released September 19, 2014. On June 26, he announced that the film would be titled "Not Cool". It was part of a Starz original series called "The Chair", in which two novice directors are given the same script and must each make their own film from it. People who watched both films then voted online to vote for the films. "Not Cool" competed against Anna Martemucci's "Holidaysburg". Zachary Quinto, producer of "The Chair", called Dawson's film "deeply offensive" and "tasteless", and that Dawson should not be making films at all, removing his name from the film in disgust. Dawson defended his film by saying that "I like the movie. The producers that I trust like the movie. The test audience liked the movie. I know I deserve to make a movie because I've been working my f***ing ass off these last eight years on YouTube." Dawson won the competition, winning the $250,000 prize to work on another film project.


title: Shane Dawson

text: In December 2014, Dawson released a parody of Taylor Swift's song "Blank Space" on YouTube. This video was found to be in poor taste by her labels, Big Machine Records and Sony, who removed it, citing "copyright infringement". Dawson subsequently claimed that the parody was removed because Sony objected to the video's violent content. The video was restored in February 2015.


title: Shane Dawson

text: In early 2015, Dawson released a memoir titled "I Hate Myselfie: A Collection of Essays". The memoir was released by Atria Books/Keywords Press, an imprint of Simon & Schuster.


title: Shane Dawson

text: In 2017, the focus of Dawson's channel has shifted to include a wider variety of video genres such as extended vlogs, conspiracy theory videos and documentary-style series where he collaborates with other YouTubers like fiancé Ryland Adams, Garrett Watts, Morgan Adams, Tana Mongeau, James Charles, Drew Monson, Andrew Siwicki, Trisha Paytas and Bunny Meyer.


title: Shane Dawson

text: In June 2018, Shane uploaded a three-part documentary series titled "The Truth About TanaCon", about the TanaCon convention, the company who organized the event—Good Times, ran by talent manager Michael Weist—and the effects the disastrous event had on fans. The series received tens of millions of views in one week and garnered significant media attention. In August 2018, Shane continued the documentary format and covered makeup artist Jeffree Star in a five-part series titled "The Secret World of Jeffree Star" and also received high amounts of media attention Dawson interviews and experiences a day in the life with Internet celebrity, makeup artist, model, entrepreneur, and singer-songwriter Jeffree Star, learning about his business Jeffree Star Cosmetics. In September 2018, Shane covered YouTuber Jake Paul in an eight-part series titled "The Mind of Jake Paul". The series follows Dawson's investigation on the lifestyle of Paul, including research with licensed therapist Katie Morton on antisocial personality disorder. Later in the series, Dawson is invited into the Team 10 house, and interviews Jake about his controversial career. Dawson was criticized for his documentaries "The Mind of Jake Paul" and "The Secret World of Jeffree Star", with some arguing that Dawson was too sympathetic towards the racism scandals of both subjects.


title: Shane Dawson

text: In January and February 2019, Shane released a two-part series on conspiracy theories titled "Conspiracy Series with Shane Dawson". The first part included theories on the Apple FaceTime glitch, deepfakes, subliminal messages in cartoons, Hollister, Walt Disney, the Woolsey Fire and Camp Fire. The second part featured Dawson investigating further topics, exploring the wider message "don't believe everything you see", including Adobe Voco voice manipulation, and Chuck E. Cheese pizzas. Dawson has been criticized for his conspiracy theory content, as some feel that his videos about the flat Earth, moon landing hoax, and 9/11 hoax conspiracy theories, among others, contribute to YouTube's widespread issues with misinformation. In July 2019, Dawson returned to YouTube for a one-hour long documentary video titled "The Return of Eugenia Cooney" about Internet personality Eugenia Cooney. Earlier in the year, Cooney announced that she would be taking a break from social media to focus on her health.


title: Shane Dawson

text: In October 2019, Dawson released "The Beautiful World of Jeffree Star", which follows Dawson and Star as they plan and design a new makeup and merchandise collection called The Conspiracy Collection.


title: Shane Dawson

text: Dawson formerly lived in Calabasas, California, and currently lives in Colorado since August 2021 with his fiancé, Ryland Adams. The two became engaged on March 19, 2019. Dawson has body dysmorphic disorder (BDD). In July 2015, Dawson came out as bisexual in a video posted on "Shane Dawson TV". This announcement also confirmed his separation with his now ex-girlfriend, Lisa Schwartz.


title: Shane Dawson

text: Dawson has been criticized for his racial comedy, particularly his use of blackface in several past skits, his use of the word "nigga" in multiple videos, and his jokes about "ghetto pranks" at VidCon in 2012. In September 2014, YouTuber Franchesca Ramsey and other bloggers criticized Dawson for his past actions. He later apologized for the jokes in a video, stating that he viewed the controversy as a "learning experience". Many of his past performances relied on caricatures of people of color and other minorities, and he used blackface to portray Wendy Williams and Chris Brown in some skits, leading to allegations of racism.


title: Shane Dawson

text: In 2018, Dawson was the subject of a controversy regarding comments he had made about pedophilia on a 2013 episode of his podcast "Shane and Friends", in which he published an apology video likening his comedic style at the time to that of shock jocks. The same comments were also the subject of a March 2019 controversy, coupled with controversy regarding comments he had made on a 2015 episode of the same podcast about engaging in sexual activity with his cat.


title: Shane Dawson

text: On June 26, 2020, Dawson responded to criticism of his racial comedy by posting a 20-minute video, titled "Taking Accountability", addressing renewed criticism for his use of blackface, the word "nigga", and other offensive comments he made since launching his YouTube channel. Although he had apologized publicly before, Dawson claimed he had only recently realized how "those apologies suck", stating "I don't know who that person is anymore", and further remarking how he "should have been punished for things" and to "finally just own up to all of this and be accountable is worth losing everything to me". Dawson also apologized to James Charles, whom he had described as "egocentric" and "power hungry" just a week before. Dawson concluded his apology video by vowing to better his "actions", but said he understands if people do not want to accept his apology or no longer support him. He also claimed that he dealt with the pain from his childhood by making inappropriate jokes: "It is something I did for shock value or because I thought it was funny. It's all gross and I promise that that is not real; that is not me". Hours after his apology was posted, musician Jaden Smith accused Dawson of sexualizing his sister Willow Smith, expressing how he was "disgusted" after an old video resurfaced of Dawson pretending to touch himself in a sexual manner while looking at a poster of a then 11-year-old Willow Smith. Jaden and Willow's mother Jada Pinkett Smith also responded, tweeting "To Shane Dawson ... I'm done with the excuses."


title: Shane Dawson

text: On June 29, 2020, Target announced that it was "in the process of removing" Dawson's two published books "I Hate Myselfie" and "" from its shelves. On June 30, YouTube indefinitely suspended monetization on all three of Dawson's channels.


title: Golda Meir

text: Golda Meir (born Golda Mabovitch; 3 May 1898 – 8 December 1978) was an Israeli politician, teacher, and "kibbutznikit" who served as the fourth prime minister of Israel from 1969 to 1974. She was the first woman to become head of government in Israel.