title: Nazca Lines

text: After flooding and mudslides in the area in mid-February 2007, Mario Olaechea Aquije, archaeological resident from Peru's National Institute of Culture, and a team of specialists surveyed the area. He said, "[T]he mudslides and heavy rains did not appear to have caused any significant damage to the Nazca Lines". He noted that the nearby Southern Pan-American Highway did suffer damage, and "the damage done to the roads should serve as a reminder to just how fragile these figures are."


title: Nazca Lines

text: In 2012, squatters occupied land in the area, damaging a Nazca-era cemetery and allowing their pigs to have access to some of the land.


title: Nazca Lines

text: In 2013, machinery used in a limestone quarry was reported to have destroyed a small section of a line, and caused damage to another.


title: Nazca Lines

text: In December 2014, a controversy arose involving Greenpeace activity on the site, as Greenpeace activists set up a banner within the lines of one of the geoglyphs, damaging the site. Greenpeace issued an apology following the incident, though one of the activists was convicted and fined for their part in causing damage.


title: Nazca Lines

text: The Greenpeace incident also directed attention to other damage to geoglyphs outside of the World Heritage area caused in 2012 and 2013 by off-road vehicles of the Dakar Rally, which is visible from satellite imagery.


title: Nazca Lines

text: In January 2018, an errant truck driver was arrested but later released for lack of evidence indicating any intent other than a simple error. He had damaged three of the geoglyphs by leaving substantial tire marks across an area of approximately 46 m by 107 m (150 by 350 feet).


title: Nazca Lines

text: The Paracas culture is considered by some historians to be the possible precursor that influenced the development of the Nazca Lines. In 2018, drones used by archaeologists revealed 25 geoglyphs in the Palpa province that are being assigned to the Paracas culture. Many predate the associated Nazca lines by a thousand years. Some demonstrate a significant difference in the subjects and locations, such as some being on hillsides. Their co-discoverer, Peruvian archaeologist Luis Jaime Castillo Butters, indicates that many of these newly discovered geoglyphs represent warriors. The Paracas is the same group that some believe created the well-known geoglyph known as the Paracas Candelabra.


title: Nazca Lines

text: Farther north from the Nazca, Palpas region and along the Peruvian coast are other glyphs from the Chincha culture that have also been discovered.


title: Frank Langella

text: Frank A. Langella Jr. (; born January 1, 1938) is an American stage and film actor. He has won four Tony Awards: two for Best Leading Actor in a Play for his performance as Richard Nixon in Peter Morgan's "Frost/Nixon" and as André in Florian Zeller's "The Father", and two for Best Featured Actor in a Play for his performances in Edward Albee's "Seascape" and Ivan Turgenev's "Fortune's Fool". His reprisal of the Nixon role in the film production of "Frost/Nixon" earned him an Academy Award nomination for Best Actor.


title: Frank Langella

text: Langella has starred in films such as "Diary of a Mad Housewife" (1970), Mel Brooks' "The Twelve Chairs" (1970), "Dracula" (1979), "Masters of the Universe" (1987), "Dave" (1993), "Good Night, and Good Luck" (2005), "Starting Out in the Evening" (2007), "Robot & Frank" (2012), "Captain Fantastic" (2016), and "The Trial of the Chicago 7" (2020). He is also known for his performances in the HBO television movies "Muhammad Ali's Greatest Fight" (2013) and "All the Way" (2016). He had a recurring role as Gabriel, the KGB handler for the lead characters in the FX series "The Americans" (2013–2017) and played Sebastian Piccirillo in the Showtime series "Kidding" (2018–2020).


title: Frank Langella

text: Langella, an Italian American, was born January 1, 1938, in Bayonne, New Jersey, the son of Angelina and Frank A. Langella Sr. (d. 1991), a business executive who was president of the Bayonne Barrel and Drum Company. Langella attended Washington Elementary School and Bayonne High School in Bayonne. After the family moved to South Orange, New Jersey, he graduated from Columbia High School in the South Orange-Maplewood School District in 1955 and later graduated from Syracuse University in 1959 with a Bachelor of Arts degree in drama.


title: Frank Langella

text: Langella appeared off-Broadway (in "The Immoralist" at the Bouwerie Lane Theatre in 1963 and Robert Lowell's "The Old Glory" in 1965 among other shows) before he made his first foray onto a Broadway stage in New York in Federico García Lorca's "Yerma" at the Vivian Beaumont Theater, Lincoln Center, on December 8, 1966. He followed this role by appearing in William Gibson's "A Cry of Players", playing a young, highly fictionalized William Shakespeare opposite Anne Bancroft in 1968.


title: Frank Langella

text: Bancroft suggested Langella to her husband Mel Brooks, who cast him in a leading role in "The Twelve Chairs" (1970). The same year, he also appeared in Frank Perry's "Diary of a Mad Housewife", being nominated for a Golden Globe Award for Most Promising Newcomer. Langella won his first Tony Award for his performance in Edward Albee's "Seascape" in 1975 and was nominated again for what may have been the performance for which he was best known in the early part of his career: the title role of the 1977 Broadway production of "Dracula". Despite his initial misgivings about continuing to play the role, he was persuaded to star opposite Laurence Olivier in the subsequent film version directed by John Badham. He eschewed the career of a traditional film star by always making the stage the focal point of his career, appearing on Broadway in such plays as Strindberg's "The Father" (winning a Drama Desk Award), "Match" (Tony Award nomination), and "Fortune's Fool," for which he won a second Tony Award.


title: Frank Langella

text: Langella continued to juggle film and television with his stage work, playing Sherlock Holmes in a 1981 adaptation of William Gillette's play "Sherlock Holmes". He repeated the role on Broadway in 1987 in Charles Marowitz's play "Sherlock's Last Case". That same year, he portrayed the villain Skeletor in "Masters of the Universe", one of his favorite parts. In 1988, he co-starred in the film "And God Created Woman".


title: Frank Langella

text: In 1993, he made a three-episode appearance on "" as the devious Bajoran Minister Jaro Essa. That same year, he also starred in the political comedy "Dave" starring Kevin Kline and Sigourney Weaver. He also played a supporting role in the Ivan Reitman comedy "Junior" alongside Arnold Schwarzenegger, Danny DeVito, and Emma Thompson. In 1994, he narrated the "American Masters" documentary on Tennessee Williams. In 1996, Langella starred in the comedy film "Eddie", starring Whoopi Goldberg, with whom he was involved romantically until 2001. He also played Clare Quilty in the 1997 film adaptation of "Lolita", starring Jeremy Irons and Melanie Griffith. In 1999, he starred opposite Johnny Depp in Roman Polanski's film "The Ninth Gate".


title: Frank Langella

text: In 2000, Langella played Ebenezer Scrooge in a musical version of "A Christmas Carol" at Madison Square Garden. He has also appeared in notable off-Broadway productions, including in the title role of Robert Kalfin's Chelsea Theater Center production of "The Prince of Homburg", which was filmed by PBS for the Theatre in America series. He starred as Sir Thomas More in the 2008 Broadway revival of "A Man for All Seasons".


title: Frank Langella

text: Langella also appeared as Al Baker in "Dominance", a 2003 episode of "" and had a recurring role as Pino in the 2005 short-lived sitcom "Kitchen Confidential".


title: Frank Langella

text: He was cast as Richard Nixon opposite Michael Sheen in Peter Morgan's play "Frost/Nixon", which received enthusiastic reviews during a run at the Donmar Warehouse and Gielgud Theatre in London before moving to Broadway in New York's Bernard B. Jacobs Theater in April 2007. Langella won his third Tony Award for the role. He reprised the role of Nixon in the 2008 Oscar-nominated film of the play directed by Ron Howard. Langella also earned Golden Globe, Screen Actors Guild, and BAFTA nominations for Best Actor for the same performance. He was also nominated for an Academy Award in the Best Actor category for the role, losing to Sean Penn's performance in "Milk".


title: Frank Langella

text: Langella's film work also includes roles in George Clooney's "Good Night, and Good Luck" (2005) as former CBS chief executive William S. Paley, for which he was nominated for the Screen Actors Guild Award for Ensemble Cast. He also appeared in Bryan Singer's "Superman Returns" (2006) as "Daily Planet" editor Perry White. Langella received critical acclaim as well as the Boston Society of Film Critics Award in 2007 for his sensitive portrayal of an elderly novelist in "Starting Out in the Evening". In late 2009, he starred in the Richard Kelly film "The Box" with Cameron Diaz and James Marsden.


title: Frank Langella

text: In 2010, he played Louis Zabel in Oliver Stone's "", alongside Michael Douglas, Shia LaBeouf, and Carey Mulligan. That same year, he played a supporting role in "All Good Things", with Ryan Gosling and Kirsten Dunst. In 2011, Langella starred in the drama thriller "Unknown", opposite Liam Neeson and Diane Kruger. In 2012, he earned critical praise for his role in the independent film "Robot & Frank", with Peter Travers of Rolling Stone magazine calling his performance "a masterclass in acting".


title: Frank Langella

text: In 2013, Langella starred as Chief Justice Warren E. Burger in the Stephen Frears' HBO film "Muhammad Ali's Greatest Fight", with Christopher Plummer playing Justice John Marshall Harlan. In October and November 2013, Langella played King Lear at the Minerva, Chichester Festival Theatre in Chichester, UK. The play travelled to the Harvey Theater at the Brooklyn Academy of Music in New York in 2014. Langella also played Cleveland Browns owner Anthony Molina in the movie "Draft Day", which also starred Kevin Costner, Jennifer Garner, and Dennis Leary.


title: Frank Langella

text: In 2015, Langella joined the cast of FX's critically praised drama "The Americans" with Keri Russell and Matthew Rhys. He appeared in seasons 3 through 5.


title: Frank Langella

text: In 2016, he played the title role in Doug Hughes' production of the US premiere of Florian Zeller's play "The Father" at the Samuel J. Friedman Theatre on Broadway. He won his fourth Tony Award for that performance. That same year, he appeared in "Captain Fantastic" with Viggo Mortensen and was again nominated with the ensemble cast for the Screen Actors Guild Award. He also starred in the HBO television movie "All the Way" (2016) as Senator Richard Russell Jr., with Bryan Cranston as Lyndon B. Johnson. Langella received a Critics' Choice Television Award for Best Supporting Actor in a Movie/Miniseries nomination for his performance.


title: Frank Langella

text: From 2018 to 2020, Langella appeared as Sebestian in Showtime's "Kidding", starring Jim Carrey. The show's executive producer was Michel Gondry, and it received positive reviews.


title: Frank Langella

text: In 2020, he played Judge Julius Hoffman in Aaron Sorkin's "The Trial of the Chicago 7". The film follows the Chicago Seven, a group of anti-Vietnam War protesters charged with conspiracy and crossing state lines with the intention of inciting riots at the 1968 Democratic National Convention in Chicago. It was released in September, by Netflix.


title: Frank Langella

text: In 2022, Langella was fired from his role in "The Fall of the House of Usher" following investigations into misconduct claims on set. In a guest column for "Deadline", reacting to his firing, Langella claimed to have been "canceled," refuting allegations of unacceptable behavior and telling his version of events.


title: Frank Langella

text: Langella was married to Ruth Weil from June 14, 1977 to their divorce in 1996. They have two children, Frank III and Sara. He also lived with actress/comedian Whoopi Goldberg, whom he had met on the set of "Eddie", from 1996 until they separated in March 2001.


title: Frank Langella

text: In a review in the "New York Times Book Review", Ada Calhoun wrote that "Langella's book celebrated sluttiness as a worthy—even noble—way of life. There was so much happy sexuality in this book that reading it was like being flirted with for a whole party by the hottest person in the room. It was no wonder Langella was invited everywhere."


title: Hyaluronic acid

text: Hyaluronic acid (; abbreviated HA; conjugate base hyaluronate), also called hyaluronan, is an anionic, nonsulfated glycosaminoglycan distributed widely throughout connective, epithelial, and neural tissues. It is unique among glycosaminoglycans as it is non-sulfated, forms in the plasma membrane instead of the Golgi apparatus, and can be very large: human synovial HA averages about 7 million Da per molecule, or about 20,000 disaccharide monomers, while other sources mention 3–4 million Da.


title: Hyaluronic acid

text: The average 70 kg (150 lb) person has roughly 15 grams of hyaluronan in the body, one-third of which is turned over (i.e., degraded and synthesized) per day.


title: Hyaluronic acid

text: As one of the chief components of the extracellular matrix, it contributes significantly to cell proliferation and migration, and is involved in the progression of many malignant tumors. Hyaluronic acid is also a component of the group A streptococcal extracellular capsule, and is believed to play a role in virulence.


title: Hyaluronic acid

text: Until the late 1970s, hyaluronic acid was described as a "goo" molecule, a ubiquitous carbohydrate polymer that is part of the extracellular matrix. For example, hyaluronic acid is a major component of the synovial fluid and was found to increase the viscosity of the fluid. Along with lubricin, it is one of the fluid's main lubricating components.


title: Hyaluronic acid

text: Hyaluronic acid is an important component of articular cartilage, where it is present as a coat around each cell (chondrocyte). When aggrecan monomers bind to hyaluronan in the presence of HAPLN1 (hyaluronic acid and proteoglycan link protein 1), large, highly negatively charged aggregates form. These aggregates imbibe water and are responsible for the resilience of cartilage (its resistance to compression). The molecular weight (size) of hyaluronan in cartilage decreases with age, but the amount increases.


title: Hyaluronic acid

text: A lubricating role of hyaluronan in muscular connective tissues to enhance the sliding between adjacent tissue layers has been suggested. A particular type of fibroblasts, embedded in dense fascial tissues, has been proposed as being cells specialized for the biosynthesis of the hyaluronan-rich matrix. Their related activity could be involved in regulating the sliding ability between adjacent muscular connective tissues.


title: Hyaluronic acid

text: Hyaluronic acid is also a major component of skin, where it is involved in repairing tissue. When skin is exposed to excessive UVB rays, it becomes inflamed (sunburn), and the cells in the dermis stop producing as much hyaluronan and increase the rate of its degradation. Hyaluronan degradation products then accumulate in the skin after UV exposure.


title: Hyaluronic acid

text: While it is abundant in extracellular matrices, hyaluronan also contributes to tissue hydrodynamics, movement, and proliferation of cells and participates in a number of cell surface receptor interactions, notably those including its primary receptors, CD44 and RHAMM. Upregulation of CD44 itself is widely accepted as a marker of cell activation in lymphocytes. Hyaluronan's contribution to tumor growth may be due to its interaction with CD44. Receptor CD44 participates in cell adhesion interactions required by tumor cells.


title: Hyaluronic acid

text: Although hyaluronan binds to receptor CD44, there is evidence hyaluronan degradation products transduce their inflammatory signal through toll-like receptor 2 (TLR2), TLR4, or both TLR2 and TLR4 in macrophages and dendritic cells. TLR and hyaluronan play a role in innate immunity.


title: Hyaluronic acid

text: As a major component of the extracellular matrix, hyaluronic acid has a key role in tissue regeneration, inflammation response, and angiogenesis, which are phases of wound repair. As of 2016, however, reviews of its effect on wound healing in burns, diabetic foot ulcers or surgical skin repairs show only limited positive clinical research evidence. Hyaluronic acid combines with water and swells to form a gel, making it useful in skin treatments as a dermal filler for facial wrinkles; its effect lasts for about 6 to 12 months, and treatment has regulatory approval from the US Food and Drug Administration.


title: Hyaluronic acid

text: Granulation tissue is the perfused, fibrous connective tissue that replaces a fibrin clot in healing wounds. It typically grows from the base of a wound and is able to fill wounds of almost any size it heals. HA is abundant in granulation tissue matrix. A variety of cell functions that are essential for tissue repair may attribute to this HA-rich network. These functions include facilitation of cell migration into the provisional wound matrix, cell proliferation, and organization of the granulation tissue matrix. Initiation of inflammation is crucial for the formation of granulation tissue; therefore, the pro-inflammatory role of HA as discussed above also contributes to this stage of wound healing.


title: Hyaluronic acid

text: Cell migration is essential for the formation of granulation tissue. The early stage of granulation tissue is dominated by a HA-rich extracellular matrix, which is regarded as a conducive environment for the migration of cells into this temporary wound matrix. HA provides an open hydrated matrix that facilitates cell migration, whereas, in the latter scenario, directed migration and control of related cell mechanisms are mediated via the specific cell interaction between HA and cell surface HA receptors. It forms links with several protein kinases associated with cell locomotion, for example, extracellular signal-regulated kinase, focal adhesion kinase, and other non-receptor tyrosine kinases. During fetal development, the migration path through which neural crest cells migrate is rich in HA. HA is closely associated with the cell migration process in granulation tissue matrix, and studies show that cell movement can be inhibited, at least partially, by HA degradation or blocking HA receptor occupancy.


title: Hyaluronic acid

text: By providing the dynamic force to the cell, HA synthesis has also been shown to associate with cell migration. Basically, HA is synthesized at the plasma membrane and released directly into the extracellular environment. This may contribute to the hydrated microenvironment at sites of synthesis, and is essential for cell migration by facilitating cell detachment.


title: Hyaluronic acid

text: HA plays an important role in the normal epidermis. HA also has crucial functions in the reepithelization process due to several of its properties. These include being an integral part of the extracellular matrix of basal keratinocytes, which are major constituents of the epidermis; its free-radical scavenging function, and its role in keratinocyte proliferation and migration.


title: Hyaluronic acid

text: In normal skin, HA is found in relatively high concentrations in the basal layer of the epidermis where proliferating keratinocytes are found. CD44 is collocated with HA in the basal layer of epidermis where additionally it has been shown to be preferentially expressed on plasma membrane facing the HA-rich matrix pouches. Maintaining the extracellular space and providing an open, as well as hydrated, structure for the passage of nutrients are the main functions of HA in epidermis. A report found HA content increases in the presence of retinoic acid (vitamin A). The proposed effects of retinoic acid against skin photo-damage and photoaging may be correlated, at least in part, with an increase of skin HA content, giving rise to increased tissue hydration. It has been suggested that the free-radical scavenging property of HA contributes to protection against solar radiation, supporting the role of CD44 acting as a HA receptor in the epidermis.


title: Hyaluronic acid

text: Epidermal HA also functions as a manipulator in the process of keratinocyte proliferation, which is essential in normal epidermal function, as well as during reepithelization in tissue repair. In the wound healing process, HA is expressed in the wound margin, in the connective tissue matrix, and collocating with CD44 expression in migrating keratinocytes.


title: Hyaluronic acid

text: Hyaluronic acid has been FDA-approved to treat osteoarthritis of the knee via intra-articular injection. A 2012 review showed that the quality of studies supporting this use was mostly poor, with a general absence of significant benefits, and that intra-articular injection of HA could possibly cause adverse effects. A 2020 meta-analysis found that intra-articular injection of high molecular weight HA improved both pain and function in people with knee osteoarthritis.


title: Hyaluronic acid

text: Hyaluronic acid is a common ingredient in skin care products. Hyaluronic acid is used as a dermal filler in cosmetic surgery. It is typically injected using either a classic sharp hypodermic needle or a micro-cannula. Some studies have suggested that the use of micro-cannulas can significantly reduce vessel embolisms during injections. Currently, hyaluronic acid is used frequently as a soft tissue filler due to its bio-compatibility and reversibility. Complications include the severing of nerves and microvessels, pain, and bruising. Some side effects can also appear by way of erythema, itching, and vascular occlusion; vascular occlusion is the most worrisome side effect due to the possibility of skin necrosis, or even blindness in a patient. In some cases, hyaluronic acid fillers can result in a granulomatous foreign body reaction.


title: Hyaluronic acid

text: Hyaluronic acid is a polymer of disaccharides, which are composed of -glucuronic acid and "N"-acetyl--glucosamine, linked via alternating β-(1→4) and β-(1→3) glycosidic bonds. Hyaluronic acid can be 25,000 disaccharide repeats in length. Polymers of hyaluronic acid can range in size from 5,000 to 20,000,000 Da "in vivo". The average molecular weight in human synovial fluid is 3–4 million Da, and hyaluronic acid purified from human umbilical cord is 3,140,000 Da; other sources mention average molecular weight of 7 million Da for synovial fluid. Hyaluronic acid also contains silicon, ranging 350–1,900μg/g depending on location in the organism.


title: Hyaluronic acid

text: Hyaluronic acid is energetically stable, in part because of the stereochemistry of its component disaccharides. Bulky groups on each sugar molecule are in sterically favored positions, whereas the smaller hydrogens assume the less-favorable axial positions.


title: Hyaluronic acid

text: Hyaluronic acid is synthesized by a class of integral membrane proteins called hyaluronan synthases, of which vertebrates have three types: HAS1, HAS2, and HAS3. These enzymes lengthen hyaluronan by repeatedly adding -glucuronic acid and "N"-acetyl--glucosamine to the nascent polysaccharide as it is extruded via ABC-transporter through the cell membrane into the extracellular space. The term fasciacyte was coined to describe fibroblast-like cells that synthesize HA.


title: Hyaluronic acid

text: Hyaluronic acid synthesis has been shown to be inhibited by 4-methylumbelliferone (hymecromone), a 7-hydroxy-4-methylcoumarin derivative.


title: Hyaluronic acid

text: This selective inhibition (without inhibiting other glycosaminoglycans) may prove useful in preventing metastasis of malignant tumor cells. There is feedback inhibition of hyaluronan synthesis by low-molecular-weight hyaluronan (<500 kDa) at high concentrations, but stimulation by high-molecular-weight hyaluronan (>500 kDa), when tested in cultured human synovial fibroblasts.


title: Hyaluronic acid

text: "Bacillus subtilis" recently has been genetically modified to culture a proprietary formula to yield hyaluronans, in a patented process producing human-grade product.


title: Hyaluronic acid

text: A fasciacyte is a type of biological cell that produces hyaluronan-rich extracellular matrix and modulates the gliding of muscle fasciae.


title: Hyaluronic acid

text: Fasciacytes are fibroblast-like cells found in fasciae. They are round-shaped with rounder nuclei and have less elongated cellular processes when compared with fibroblasts. Fasciacytes are clustered along the upper and lower surfaces of a fascial layer.


title: Hyaluronic acid

text: Hyaluronic acid (HA) is a linear glycosaminoglycan (GAG), an anionic, gel-like, polymer, found in the extracellular matrix of epithelial and connective tissues of vertebrates. It is part of a family of structurally complex, linear, anionic polysaccharides. The carboxylate groups present in the molecule make it negatively charged, therefore allowing for successful binding to water, and making it valuable to cosmetic and pharmaceutical products.


title: Hyaluronic acid

text: HA consists of repeating β4-glucuronic acid (GlcUA)-β3-"N"-acetylglucosamine (GlcNAc) disaccharides, and is synthesized by hyaluronan synthases (HAS), a class of integral membrane proteins that produce the well-defined, uniform chain lengths characteristic to HA. There are three existing types of HASs in vertebrates: HAS1, HAS2, HAS3; each of these contribute to elongation of the HA polymer. For an HA capsule to be created, this enzyme must be present because it polymerizes UDP-sugar precursors into HA. HA precursors are synthesized by first phosphorylating glucose by hexokinase, yielding glucose-6-phosphate, which is the main HA precursor. Then, two routes are taken to synthesize UDP-n-acetylglucosamine and UDP-glucuronic acid which both react to form HA. Glucose-6-phosphate gets converted to either fructose-6-phosphate with "hasE" (phosphoglucoisomerase), or glucose-1-phosphate using "pgm" (α -phosphoglucomutase), where those both undergo different sets of reactions.


title: Hyaluronic acid

text: UDP-glucuronic acid and UDP-n-acetylglucosamine get bound together to form HA via "hasA" (HA synthase).


title: Hyaluronic acid

text: UDP-glucuronic acid is formed from "hasC" (UDP-glucose pyrophosphorylase) converting glucose-1-P into UDP-glucose, which then reacts with "hasB" (UDP-glucose dehydrogenase) to form UDP-glucuronic acid.


title: Hyaluronic acid

text: The path forward from fructose-6-P utilizes "glmS" (amidotransferase) to form glucosamine-6-P. Then, "glmM" (Mutase) reacts with this product to form glucosamine-1-P. "hasD" (acetyltransferase) converts this into n-acetylglucosamine-1-P, and finally, "hasD" (pyrophosphorylase) converts this product into UDP-n-acetylglucosamine.


title: Hyaluronic acid

text: Hyaluronic acid can be degraded by a family of enzymes called hyaluronidases. In humans, there are at least seven types of hyaluronidase-like enzymes, several of which are tumor suppressors. The degradation products of hyaluronan, the oligosaccharides and very low-molecular-weight hyaluronan, exhibit pro-angiogenic properties. In addition, recent studies showed hyaluronan fragments, not the native high-molecular weight molecule, can induce inflammatory responses in macrophages and dendritic cells in tissue injury and in skin transplant.


title: Hyaluronic acid

text: Hyaluronan can also be degraded via non-enzymatic reactions. These include acidic and alkaline hydrolysis, ultrasonic disintegration, thermal decomposition, and degradation by oxidants.


title: Hyaluronic acid

text: Hyaluronic acid is derived from "hyalos" (Greek for vitreous, meaning ‘glass-like’) and uronic acid because it was first isolated from the vitreous humour and possesses a high uronic acid content. The term "hyaluronate" refers to the conjugate base of hyaluronic acid. Since the molecule typically exists "in vivo" in its polyanionic form, it is most commonly referred to as "hyaluronan".


title: Hyaluronic acid

text: Hyaluronic acid was first obtained by Karl Meyer and John Palmer in 1934 from the vitreous body in a cow's eye. The first hyaluronan biomedical product, Healon, was developed in the 1970s and 1980s by Pharmacia, and approved for use in eye surgery (i.e., corneal transplantation, cataract surgery, glaucoma surgery, and surgery to repair retinal detachment). Other biomedical companies also produce brands of hyaluronan for ophthalmic surgery.


title: Hyaluronic acid

text: Native hyaluronic acid has a relatively short half-life (shown in rabbits) so various manufacturing techniques have been deployed to extend the length of the chain and stabilise the molecule for its use in medical applications. The introduction of protein-based cross-links, the introduction of free-radical scavenging molecules such as sorbitol, and minimal stabilisation of the HA chains through chemical agents such as NASHA (non-animal stabilised hyaluronic acid) are all techniques that have been used to preserve its shelf life.


title: Hyaluronic acid

text: In the late 1970s, intraocular lens implantation was often followed by severe corneal edema, due to endothelial cell damage during the surgery. It was evident that a viscous, clear, physiologic lubricant to prevent such scraping of the endothelial cells was needed.


title: Hyaluronic acid

text: Hyaluronan is used in treatment of articular disorders in horses, in particular those in competition or heavy work. It is indicated for carpal and fetlock joint dysfunctions, but not when joint sepsis or fracture are suspected. It is especially used for synovitis associated with equine osteoarthritis. It can be injected directly into an affected joint, or intravenously for less localized disorders. It may cause mild heating of the joint if directly injected, but this does not affect the clinical outcome. Intra-articularly administered medicine is fully metabolized in less than a week.


title: Hyaluronic acid

text: Note that, according to Canadian regulation, hyaluronan in HY-50 preparation should not be administered to animals to be slaughtered for horse meat. In Europe, however, the same preparation is not considered to have any such effect, and edibility of the horse meat is not affected.


title: Hyaluronic acid

text: Naked mole rats have very high molecular weight hyaluronan (6–12 MDa) that has been shown to give them resistance to cancer. This large HA is due to both differently sequenced HAS2 and lower HA degradation mechanisms.


title: Hyaluronic acid

text: Due to its high biocompatibility and its common presence in the extracellular matrix of tissues, hyaluronan is gaining popularity as a biomaterial scaffold in tissue engineering research. In particular, a number of research groups have found hyaluronan's properties for tissue engineering and regenerative medicine are significantly improved with cross-linking, producing a hydrogel. The pioneering work on crosslinked hyaluronan derivatives was initiated by a small research group headed by Prof. Aurelio Romeo in the late 1980s. Crosslinking allows a researcher to form a desired shape, as well as to deliver therapeutic molecules, into a host. Hyaluronan can be crosslinked by attaching thiols (trade names: Extracel, HyStem), methacrylates, hexadecylamides (trade name: Hymovis), and tyramines (trade name: Corgel). Hyaluronan can also be crosslinked directly with formaldehyde (trade name: Hylan-A) or with divinylsulfone (trade name: Hylan-B).


title: Hyaluronic acid

text: Due to its ability to regulate angiogenesis by stimulating endothelial cells to proliferate, hyaluronan can be used to create hydrogels to study vascular morphogenesis. These hydrogels have properties similar to human soft tissue, but are also easily controlled and modified, making HA very suitable for tissue-engineering studies. For example, HA hydrogels are appealing for engineering vasculature from endothelial progenitor cells by using appropriate growth factors such as VEGF and Ang-1 to promote proliferation and vascular network formation. Vacuole and lumen formation have been observed in these gels, followed by branching and sprouting through degradation of the hydrogel and finally complex network formation. The ability to generate vascular networks using HA hydrogels leads to opportunities for "in vivo" and clinical applications. One "in vivo" study, where HA hydrogels with endothelial colony forming cells were implanted into mice three days after hydrogel formation, saw evidence that the host and engineered vessels joined within 2 weeks of implantation, indicating viability and functionality of the engineered vasculature.


title: Hyaluronic acid

text: Hyaluronic acid-mediated drug delivery system was deemed useful for targeting inflammatory skin diseases condition.


title: UFC 273

text: UFC 273: Volkanovski vs. The Korean Zombie was a mixed martial arts event produced by the Ultimate Fighting Championship that took place on April 9, 2022, at VyStar Veterans Memorial Arena in Jacksonville, Florida, United States.


title: UFC 273

text: This event was initially linked to the Barclays Center in Brooklyn, New York. However, the promotion opted to move it to VyStar Veterans Memorial Arena in Jacksonville, Florida.


title: UFC 273

text: A UFC Featherweight Championship bout between current champion Alexander Volkanovski and former title challenger Chan Sung Jung headlined the event.


title: UFC 273

text: A UFC Bantamweight Championship title unification rematch between current champion Aljamain Sterling and former champion/current interim title holder Petr Yan took place at this event. The pairing previously met at UFC 259, with Sterling winning the title by disqualification (intentional illegal knee strike) in the fourth round, becoming the first fighter to win a UFC title by disqualification. The rematch was initially expected to take place at UFC 267, however Sterling withdrew from the contest due to lingering neck issues and an interim title bout between Yan and Cory Sandhagen was set. The bout was then scheduled for UFC 272 before being moved to this event.


title: UFC 273

text: A heavyweight bout between Jairzinho Rozenstruik and Marcin Tybura was initially scheduled for . However, in mid January it was announced the bout was moved to this card. In turn, the bout was pulled from the card after Tybura withdrew due to an undisclosed illness.


title: UFC 273

text: 2016 Olympic silver medalist in wrestling Mark Madsen and Vinc Pichel were expected to meet in a lightweight bout at UFC 271, but they were pushed back to this event due to undisclosed reasons.


title: UFC 273

text: A trio of middleweight bouts featuring former interim UFC Middleweight Championship challenger and middleweight winner Kelvin Gastelum vs. Nassourdine Imavov, Dricus du Plessis vs. Chris Curtis, and Anthony Hernandez vs. Albert Duraev were expected to take place at the event. Initially, du Plessis and Hernandez were instead matched up after Curtis and Duraev withdrew due to a wrist and rib injury, respectively. However, the bouts were yet again shuffled after Imavov pulled out of the fight vs. Gastelum due to alleged visa issues which restricted his travel. Gastelum vs. du Plessis and Hernandez vs. Josh Fremd were then set. However, Gastelum withdrew a week before the event due to an undisclosed injury and his bout with du Plessis was cancelled.


title: UFC 273

text: A women's bantamweight bout between Aspen Ladd and Irene Aldana was expected to take place at the event. However, Aldana withdrew in late March for undisclosed reasons and was replaced by former UFC Women's Bantamweight Championship challenger Raquel Pennington.


title: UFC 273

text: A heavyweight bout between Aleksei Oleinik and Ilir Latifi was expected to take place at the event. They were originally scheduled to meet 2 weeks prior at but Latifi withdrew the day of the event due to illness. In turn, Latifi withdrew again for undisclosed reasons and was replaced by Jared Vanderaa.


title: UFC 273

text: At the weigh-ins, Kay Hansen and Julio Arce missed weight for their bouts. Hansen weighed in at 118.5 pounds, 2.5 pounds over the strawweight non-title fight limit. Arce weighed in at 136.5 pounds, half a pound over the bantamweight non-title fight limit. Both of their bouts proceeded at a catchweight and they forfeited 20% of their individual purses which went to their opponents Piera Rodríguez and Daniel Santos.


title: UFC 273

text: While the UFC usually gives out four bonus awards for each event, three "Fan Bonus of the Night" will be awarded by Crypto.com, as part of their UFC sponsorship incentive fight kits deal, for every pay-per-view event starting with UFC 273. Viewers could vote up to three times per pay-per-view on Crypto.com/FanBonus, starting from the opening of the PPV preliminary card and ending an hour after the conclusion of the main card. The bonuses are paid in bitcoin in US dollars ranging from US$30,000 for first place, US$20,000 for second place, and US$10,000 for third place. The winners of the inaugural awards were:


title: Byford Dolphin

text: Byford Dolphin was a semi-submersible, column-stabilised drilling rig operated by Dolphin Drilling, a Fred Olsen Energy subsidiary. It drilled seasonally for various companies in the United Kingdom, Danish and Norwegian sectors of the North Sea. It was registered in Hamilton, Bermuda.


title: Byford Dolphin

text: The rig suffered some serious accidents, most notably an explosive decompression in 1983 that killed four divers and one dive tender, as well as badly injured another dive tender.


title: Byford Dolphin

text: Built as "Deep Sea Driller", it was the "first-of-class" in the highly successful Aker H-3 series, designed by Aker Group completed at the Aker Verdal shipyard in 1974.


title: Byford Dolphin

text: "Byford Dolphin" had a length overall of , breadth of and depth of . It had a maximum drilling depth of , and it could operate at a water depth of . As a drilling rig, "Byford Dolphin" was equipped with advanced drilling equipment and originally met strict levels of certification under Norwegian law, though in later years, banned from Norwegian waters. "Byford Dolphin" was able to maneuver with its own engines (to counter drift and ocean currents), but for long-distance relocation, it must be moved by specialist tugboats.


title: Byford Dolphin

text: On 1 March 1976, the rig ran aground during transit from a block in the North Sea to Bergen. All crew were evacuated, but six people died when they fell out of their boats.


title: Byford Dolphin

text: On Saturday, 5 November 1983, at 4:00 a.m., while drilling in the Frigg gas field in the Norwegian sector of the North Sea, four divers were in a diving chamber system on the rig's deck that was connected by a trunk (a short passage) to a diving bell. The divers were Edwin Arthur Coward (British, 35 years old), Roy P. Lucas (British, 38), Bjørn Giæver Bergersen (Norwegian, 29) and Truls Hellevik (Norwegian, 34). They were assisted by two dive tenders, William Crammond (British, 32) and Martin Saunders.


title: Byford Dolphin

text: Just prior to the event, decompression chambers 1 and 2 (along with a third chamber which was not in use at the time) were connected via a trunk to a diving bell. The connection made by the trunk was kept sealed by a clamp operated by Crammond and Saunders, who were experienced divers. Coward and Lucas were resting in chamber 2 at a pressure of 9 atm. The diving bell with Bergersen and Hellevik had just been winched up after a dive and joined to the trunk. Leaving their wet equipment in the trunk, the two divers climbed through the trunk into chamber 1.


title: Byford Dolphin

text: The first two steps had been completed when, for an unknown reason, Crammond opened the clamp that was keeping the trunk sealed before Diver 4 (Hellevik) could close the door to the chamber. This resulted in the chamber being explosively decompressed from a pressure of nine atmospheres to the one atmosphere of the unsealed chamber system. Air rushed out of the chamber system with tremendous force, jamming the interior trunk door and pushing the bell away, striking the two tenders. All four divers were killed; one of the tenders, Crammond, was killed, while Saunders was severely injured.


title: Byford Dolphin

text: Medical investigations were carried out on the remains of the four divers. The most notable finding was the presence of large amounts of fat in large arteries and veins and in the cardiac chambers, as well as intravascular fat in organs, especially the liver. This fat was unlikely to be embolic, but must have precipitated from the blood "in situ". The autopsy suggested that rapid bubble formation in the blood denatured the lipoprotein complexes, rendering the lipids insoluble. The blood of the three divers left intact inside the chambers likely boiled instantly, stopping their circulation. The fourth diver was dismembered and mutilated by the blast forcing him out through the partially blocked doorway and would have died instantly.


title: Byford Dolphin

text: Coward, Lucas, and Bergersen were exposed to the effects of explosive decompression and died in the positions indicated by the diagram. Investigation by forensic pathologists determined that Hellevik, being exposed to the highest pressure gradient and in the process of moving to secure the inner door, was forced through the crescent-shaped opening measuring long created by the jammed interior trunk door. With the escaping air and pressure, it included bisection of his thoracoabdominal cavity, which resulted in fragmentation of his body, followed by expulsion of all of the internal organs of his chest and abdomen, except the trachea and a section of small intestine, and of the thoracic spine. These were projected some distance, one section being found vertically above the exterior pressure door.


title: Byford Dolphin

text: The committee investigating the accident concluded that it was caused by human error on the part of the dive tender who opened the clamp. The trunk door had a center hinge design, similar to a butterfly valve disc, and the door was rotated too far to the left, causing the rim of the interior hatch to lodge on the door opening. This left a crescent shaped opening, similar to a manhole cover left ajar but held in place. This created an opening that was 24 inches across horizontally. It is not clear whether the tender who opened the clamp before the trunk was depressurized did so by order of his supervisor, on his own initiative, or because of miscommunication. At the time, the only communication the tenders on the outside of the chamber system had was through a bullhorn attached to the wall surface; with heavy noise from the rig and sea, it was hard to listen in on what was going on. Fatigue from many hard hours of work also took its toll among the divers, who often worked 16-hour shifts.


title: Byford Dolphin

text: This incident was also attributed to engineering failure. The obsolete "Byford Dolphin" diving system, dating from 1975, was not equipped with fail-safe hatches, outboard pressure gauges, and an interlocking mechanism, which would have prevented the trunk from being opened while the system was under pressure. Prior to the accident, Norske Veritas had issued the following rule for certification: "Connecting mechanisms between bell and chambers are to be so arranged that they cannot be operated when the trunk is pressurized", therefore requiring such systems to have fail-safe seals and interlocking mechanisms. One month after the accident, Norske Veritas and the Norwegian oil directorate made the rule final for all bell systems.


title: Byford Dolphin

text: Among others, former crew members of "Byford Dolphin" and NOPEF (a Norwegian oil and petro-chemical union) have come forward and claimed the investigation was a cover-up. They claimed that the commission investigating the accident did not mention in their report the irresponsible dispensations on vital equipment requested by Comex and authorized by the diving section to the Norwegian Petroleum Directorate, which played a vital role in the accident's occurrence. They also alleged the accident was due to a lack of proper equipment, including clamping mechanisms equipped with interlocking mechanisms (which would be impossible to open while the chamber system was still under pressure), outboard pressure gauges, and a safe communication system, all of which had been held back because of dispensations by the Norwegian Petroleum Directorate.


title: Byford Dolphin

text: The North Sea Divers Alliance, formed by early North Sea divers and the relatives of those killed, continued to press for further investigation and, in February 2008, obtained a report that indicated the real cause was faulty equipment. Clare Lucas, daughter of Roy Lucas, said: "I would go so far as to say that the Norwegian Government murdered my father because they knew that they were diving with an unsafe decompression chamber." The families of the divers eventually received compensation for the damages from the Norwegian government 26 years after the incident.


title: Byford Dolphin

text: On 17 April 2002, a 44-year-old Norwegian worker on the rig was struck on the head and killed in an industrial accident. The accident resulted in "Byford Dolphin" losing an exploration contract with Statoil, which expressed concerns with the rig's operating procedures. The incident cost the company millions of dollars in lost income.


title: Wolfgang Van Halen

text: Wolfgang William Van Halen (, born March 16, 1991) is an American musician. The son of guitarist Eddie Van Halen, he performed alongside his father as the bassist for the rock band Van Halen from 2006 to 2020. He also performed with the heavy metal band Tremonti from 2012 to 2016. After his father's death in 2020 led to the disbandment of Van Halen, he began to focus on his solo project Mammoth WVH, in which he performs all instruments and vocals. His project's self-titled debut was released in 2021.


title: Wolfgang Van Halen

text: The Van Halen instrumental "316" (from the album "For Unlawful Carnal Knowledge") refers to his birthday. For a 13-year period ending in 2004, Eddie Van Halen collaborated with Peavey on a line of guitars, the Wolfgang series, named after his son. In 2008, his father named a custom guitar after him, the Fender EVH Wolfgang.


title: Wolfgang Van Halen

text: Wolfgang started his musical career as a drummer. He often watched his father rehearse, and at times would try to play his uncle Alex's drum kit, whereupon the latter would give him a few lessons. Wolfgang started playing drums at the age of nine, mostly self-taught with only few lessons from his uncle, and got his first drum set from his father as a present for his tenth birthday. Some time later he moved on to guitar and bass. He can also play keyboards and "figure things out by ear". Wolfgang later began actively participating in Van Halen, the band. He also made guest appearances during some dates of Van Halen's 2004 tour, appearing during his father's extended guitar solo spot and playing "316" with him.


title: Wolfgang Van Halen

text: In late 2006, in an interview with "Guitar World", Eddie Van Halen confirmed that his son would replace Michael Anthony as Van Halen's bassist. Wolfgang first toured with Van Halen in his new capacity in 2007. In August 2010, Van Halen announced that they would record a new album, with Wolfgang playing bass.


title: Wolfgang Van Halen

text: In early 2008, Van Halen appeared on the cover of the April issue of "Guitar World" with his father, in the magazine's first father-son issue.


title: Wolfgang Van Halen

text: He recorded his only studio album with Van Halen, "A Different Kind of Truth", in 2011. The album was released on February 7, 2012.


title: Wolfgang Van Halen

text: On September 10, 2012, Alter Bridge and Creed guitarist Mark Tremonti announced that Van Halen would be filling in for Brian Marshall as bassist for the first tour of Tremonti's eponymous band. Tremonti's first album, "All I Was", was released on July 17 of that year. Van Halen became an official member of Tremonti in 2013, replacing previous bassist Brian Marshall. He appears on the band's 2015 studio album "Cauterize" and its 2016 follow-up "Dust".


title: Wolfgang Van Halen

text: Sevendust guitarist Clint Lowery revealed in a June 2019 tweet on Twitter that Wolfgang would play on his solo debut. "[Wolfgang] will be playing drums, maybe some bass," he says. "I'll do the rest. Just not good enough on the kit myself to pull it off in [the] studio."


title: Wolfgang Van Halen

text: In 2021, Wolfgang released his debut album "Mammoth WVH" under the same name. The LP showcased his talents as a songwriter and musician with the artist writing every song and playing every instrument on the studio album. After the album's release, Mammoth WVH began touring, with Frank Sidoris, Jon Jourdan, Ronnie Ficarro, and Garrett Whitlock rounding out the touring lineup.


title: Wolfgang Van Halen

text: Wolfgang was nominated for a 2022 Grammy Award in the category of Best Rock Song for his song "Distance", from his album "Mammoth WVH". He wrote the song when his father was dealing with complications from cancer. "[Eddie] cried when he first heard it. It was a really special moment that I'll never forget." Both "Distance" and his second single, "Don't Back Down", debuted at #1 on the Billboard's Mainstream Rock Airplay Chart. "The Wolfgang Van Halen-led band is the first act to send its first two songs to No. 1 on the chart since The Glorious Sons in 2019."


title: Wolfgang Van Halen

text: Van Halen started playing the bass as his father started asking if he wanted to play with him. Van Halen first viewed bass as "an easier version of guitar, but as soon as I started playing it I realized how wrong that was", but stated that his experience with a guitar made it easier for him to deal with the instrument. His style was described by Eddie as a "rhythm bassist, like I'm a rhythm guitarist and a bassist put together." When he first began playing bass, his inspirations were Les Claypool of Primus and Justin Chancellor of Tool. He also enjoys Chris Wolstenholme of Muse, John Entwistle of The Who, Jack Bruce of Cream "and all of the classic players".


title: Wolfgang Van Halen

text: Wolfgang's musical style mainly consists of the hard rock, alternative rock, and heavy metal genres. However, he has also released a few pop songs under the Mammoth WVH name, namely "Think It Over" and "Distance".


title: Wolfgang Van Halen

text: Named in homage to the classical composer Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, he is the only child of Dutch-American guitarist Eddie Van Halen and Italian-American actress Valerie Bertinelli. He is also the nephew of drummer Alex Van Halen. Wolfgang has said that he did not know his father was a famous musician until he "started picking up CDs and saw his father's picture on them".


title: Wolfgang Van Halen

text: Following the completion of the 2007–2008 Van Halen tour, Wolfgang returned to school. Planning to graduate by the summer of 2009, he would graduate in 2010. Wolfgang Van Halen appears as the bassist for Van Halen in "", even replacing Michael Anthony in the band's past incarnation. Wolfgang remained in Van Halen until 2020 when the band disbanded following his father's death.


title: Polyvinyl chloride

text: Polyvinyl chloride (alternatively: poly(vinyl chloride), colloquial: polyvinyl, or simply vinyl; abbreviated: PVC) is the world's third-most widely produced synthetic polymer of plastic (after polyethylene and polypropylene). About 40 million tons of PVC are produced each year.


title: Polyvinyl chloride

text: PVC comes in two basic forms: rigid (sometimes abbreviated as RPVC) and flexible. The rigid form of PVC is used in construction for pipe and in profile applications such as doors and windows. It is also used in making plastic bottles, non-food packaging, food-covering sheets and plastic cards (such as bank or membership cards). It can be made softer and more flexible by the addition of plasticizers, the most widely used being phthalates. In this form, it is also used in plumbing, electrical cable insulation, imitation leather, flooring, signage, phonograph records, inflatable products, and many applications where it replaces rubber. With cotton or linen, it is used in the production of canvas.


title: Polyvinyl chloride

text: Pure polyvinyl chloride is a white, brittle solid. It is insoluble in alcohol but slightly soluble in tetrahydrofuran.


title: Polyvinyl chloride

text: PVC was synthesized in 1872 by German chemist Eugen Baumann after extended investigation and experimentation. The polymer appeared as a white solid inside a flask of vinyl chloride that had been left on a shelf sheltered from sunlight for four weeks. In the early 20th century, the Russian chemist Ivan Ostromislensky and Fritz Klatte of the German chemical company Griesheim-Elektron both attempted to use PVC in commercial products, but difficulties in processing the rigid, sometimes brittle polymer thwarted their efforts. Waldo Semon and the B.F. Goodrich Company developed a method in 1926 to plasticize PVC by blending it with various additives, including the use of dibutyl phthalate by 1933.


title: Polyvinyl chloride

text: About 80% of production involves suspension polymerization. Emulsion polymerization accounts for about 12%, and bulk polymerization accounts for 8%. Suspension polymerization affords particles with average diameters of 100–180 μm, whereas emulsion polymerization gives much smaller particles of average size around 0.2 μm. VCM and water are introduced into the reactor along with a polymerization initiator and other additives. The contents of the reaction vessel are pressurized and continually mixed to maintain the suspension and ensure a uniform particle size of the PVC resin. The reaction is exothermic and thus requires cooling. As the volume is reduced during the reaction (PVC is denser than VCM), water is continually added to the mixture to maintain the suspension.


title: Polyvinyl chloride

text: The polymers are linear and are strong. The monomers are mainly arranged head-to-tail, meaning that there are chlorides on alternating carbon centres. PVC has mainly an atactic stereochemistry, which means that the relative stereochemistry of the chloride centres are random. Some degree of syndiotacticity of the chain gives a few percent crystallinity that is influential on the properties of the material. About 57% of the mass of PVC is chlorine. The presence of chloride groups gives the polymer very different properties from the structurally related material polyethylene. The density is also higher than for these structurally related plastics.


title: Polyvinyl chloride

text: About half of the world's PVC production capacity is in China, despite the closure of many Chinese PVC plants due to issues complying with environmental regulations and poor capacities of scale. The largest single producer of PVC as of 2018 is Shin-Etsu Chemical of Japan, with a global share of around 30%.


title: Polyvinyl chloride

text: The product of the polymerization process is unmodified PVC. Before PVC can be made into finished products, it always requires conversion into a compound by the incorporation of additives (but not necessarily all of the following) such as heat stabilizers, UV stabilizers, plasticizers, processing aids, impact modifiers, thermal modifiers, fillers, flame retardants, biocides, blowing agents and smoke suppressors, and, optionally, pigments. The choice of additives used for the PVC finished product is controlled by the cost performance requirements of the end use specification (underground pipe, window frames, intravenous tubing and flooring all have very different ingredients to suit their performance requirements). Previously, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) were added to certain PVC products as flame retardants and stabilizers.


title: Polyvinyl chloride

text: A wide variety of substances can be used as plasticizers including phthalates, adipates, trimellitates, polymeric plasticizers and epoxidized vegetable oils. PVC compounds can be created with a very wide range of physical and chemical properties based on the types and amounts of plasticizers and other additives used. Additional selection criteria include their compatibility with the polymer, volatility levels, cost, chemical resistance, flammability and processing characteristics. These materials are usually oily colourless substances that mix well with the PVC particles. About 90% of the total plasticizer market is dedicated to PVC.


title: Polyvinyl chloride

text: The most common class of plasticizers used in PVC is phthalates, which are diesters of phthalic acid. Phthalates can be categorized as high and low, depending on their molecular weight. Low phthalates such as DEHP and DBP have increased health risks and are generally being phased out. High-molecular-weight phthalates such as DINP, DIDP are generally considered safer


title: Polyvinyl chloride

text: While di-2-ethylhexylphthalate (DEHP) has been medically approved for many years for use in medical devices, it was permanently banned for use in children's products in the US in 2008 by US Congress; the PVC-DEHP combination had proved to be very suitable for making blood bags because DEHP stabilizes red blood cells, minimizing hemolysis (red blood cell rupture). However, DEHP is coming under increasing pressure in Europe. The assessment of potential risks related to phthalates, and in particular the use of DEHP in PVC medical devices, was subject to scientific and policy review by the European Union authorities, and on 21 March 2010, a specific labeling requirement was introduced across the EU for all devices containing phthalates that are classified as CMR (carcinogenic, mutagenic or toxic to reproduction). The label aims to enable healthcare professionals to use this equipment safely, and, where needed, take appropriate precautionary measures for patients at risk of over-exposure


title: Polyvinyl chloride

text: BaZn stabilisers have successfully replaced cadmium-based stabilisers in Europe in many PVC semi-rigid and flexible applications.


title: Polyvinyl chloride

text: In Europe, particularly Belgium, there has been a commitment to eliminate the use of cadmium (previously used as a part component of heat stabilizers in window profiles) and phase out lead-based heat stabilizers (as used in pipe and profile areas) such as liquid autodiachromate and calcium polyhydrocummate by 2015. According to the final report of "Vinyl 2010", cadmium was eliminated across Europe by 2007. The progressive substitution of lead-based stabilizers is also confirmed in the same document showing a reduction of 75% since 2000 and ongoing. This is confirmed by the corresponding growth in calcium-based stabilizers, used as an alternative to lead-based stabilizers, more and more, also outside Europe.


title: Polyvinyl chloride

text: One of the most crucial additives are heat stabilizers. These agents minimize loss of HCl, a degradation process that starts above 70 °C (158 °F). Once dehydrochlorination starts, it is autocatalytic. Many diverse agents have been used including, traditionally, derivatives of heavy metals (lead, cadmium). Metallic soaps (metal "salts" of fatty acids) are common in flexible PVC applications, species such as calcium stearate.


title: Polyvinyl chloride

text: PVC is a thermoplastic polymer. Its properties are usually categorized based on rigid and flexible PVCs.


title: Polyvinyl chloride

text: The heat stability of raw PVC is very poor, so the addition of a heat stabilizer during the process is necessary in order to ensure the product's properties. Traditional product PVC has a maximum operating temperature around 60 °C (140 °F) when heat distortion begins to occur.


title: Polyvinyl chloride

text: As a thermoplastic, PVC has an inherent insulation that aids in reducing condensation formation and resisting internal temperature changes for hot and cold liquids.


title: Polyvinyl chloride

text: Roughly half of the world's PVC resin manufactured annually is used for producing pipes for municipal and industrial applications. In the private homeowner market, it accounts for 66% of the household market in the US, and in household sanitary sewer pipe applications, it accounts for 75%. Buried PVC pipes in both water and sanitary sewer applications that are 100 mm (4 in) in diameter and larger are typically joined by means of a gasket-sealed joint. The most common type of gasket utilized in North America is a metal-reinforced elastomer, commonly referred to as a Rieber sealing system.


title: Polyvinyl chloride

text: In a fire, PVC-coated wires can form hydrogen chloride fumes; the chlorine serves to scavenge free radicals and is the source of the material's fire retardancy. While hydrogen chloride fumes can also pose a health hazard in their own right, it dissolves in moisture and breaks down onto surfaces, particularly in areas where the air is cool enough to breathe, and is not available for inhalation.


title: Polyvinyl chloride

text: Unplasticised PVC (uPVC, almost synonymous with rigid PVC) is extensively used in the building industry as a low-maintenance material, particularly in Ireland, the United Kingdom, the United States, and Canada. In the US and Canada, it is known as vinyl or vinyl siding. The material comes in a range of colors and finishes, including a photo-effect wood finish, and is used as a substitute for painted wood, mostly for window frames and sills when installing insulated glazing in new buildings; or to replace older single-glazed windows, as it does not decompose and is weather-resistant. Other uses include fascia, and siding or weatherboarding. This material has almost entirely replaced the use of cast iron for plumbing and drainage, being used for waste pipes, drainpipes, gutters and downspouts. uPVC is known as having strong resistance against chemicals, sunlight, and oxidation from water.


title: Polyvinyl chloride

text: Polyvinyl chloride is formed in flat sheets in a variety of thicknesses and colors. As flat sheets, PVC is often expanded to create voids in the interior of the material, providing additional thickness without additional weight and minimal extra cost (see closed-cell PVC foamboard). Sheets are cut using saws and rotary cutting equipment. Plasticized PVC is also used to produce thin, colored, or clear, adhesive-backed films referred to simply as vinyl. These films are typically cut on a computer-controlled plotter (see vinyl cutter) or printed in a wide-format printer. These sheets and films are used to produce a wide variety of commercial signage products, including car body stripes and stickers.


title: Polyvinyl chloride

text: PVC fabric is water-resistant, used for its weather-resistant qualities in coats, skiing equipment, shoes, jackets, aprons, and patches.


title: Polyvinyl chloride

text: The two main application areas for single-use medically approved PVC compounds are flexible containers and tubing: containers used for blood and blood components, for urine collection or for ostomy products and tubing used for blood taking and blood giving sets, catheters, heart-lung bypass sets, hemodialysis sets etc. In Europe the consumption of PVC for medical devices is approximately 85,000 tons each year. Almost one third of plastic-based medical devices are made from PVC.


title: Polyvinyl chloride

text: PVC may be extruded under pressure to encase wire rope and aircraft cable used for general purpose applications. PVC coated wire rope is easier to handle, resists corrosion and abrasion, and may be color-coded for increased visibility. It is found in a variety of industries and environments both indoor and out.


title: Polyvinyl chloride

text: PVC piping is cheaper than metals used in musical instrument making; it is therefore a common alternative when making instruments, often for leisure or for rarer instruments such as the contrabass flute. An instrument that is almost exclusively built from PVC tube is the thongophone, a percussion instrument that is played by slapping the open tubes with a flip-flop or similar.


title: Polyvinyl chloride

text: PVC can be usefully modified by chlorination, which increases its chlorine content to or above 67%. Chlorinated polyvinyl chloride, (CPVC), as it is called, is produced by chlorination of aqueous solution of suspension PVC particles followed by exposure to UV light which initiates the free-radical chlorination.


title: Polyvinyl chloride

text: The fungus "Aspergillus fumigatus" degrades plasticized PVC. "Phanerochaete chrysosporium" was grown on PVC in a mineral salt agar. "Phanerochaete chrysosporium", "Lentinus tigrinus", "Aspergillus niger", and "Aspergillus sydowii" can effectively degrade PVC.


title: Polyvinyl chloride

text: Phthalates, which are incorporated into plastics as plasticizers, comprise approximately 70% of the US plasticizer market; phthalates are by design not covalently bound to the polymer matrix, which makes them highly susceptible to leaching. Phthalates are contained in plastics at high percentages. For example, they can contribute up to 40% by weight to intravenous medical bags and up to 80% by weight in medical tubing. Vinyl products are pervasive—including toys, car interiors, shower curtains, and flooring—and initially release chemical gases into the air. Some studies indicate that this outgassing of additives may contribute to health complications, and have resulted in a call for banning the use of DEHP on shower curtains, among other uses.


title: Polyvinyl chloride

text: In 2004 a joint Swedish-Danish research team found a statistical association between allergies in children and indoor air levels of DEHP and BBzP (butyl benzyl phthalate), which is used in vinyl flooring. In December 2006, the European Chemicals Bureau of the European Commission released a final draft risk assessment of BBzP which found "no concern" for consumer exposure including exposure to children.


title: Polyvinyl chloride

text: Lead had previously been frequently added to PVC to improve workability and stability. Lead has been shown to leach into drinking water from PVC pipes.


title: Polyvinyl chloride

text: In Europe the use of lead-based stabilizers was gradually replaced. The VinylPlus voluntary commitment which began in 2000, saw European Stabiliser Producers Association (ESPA) members complete the replacement of Pb-based stabilisers in 2015.


title: Polyvinyl chloride

text: In the early 1970s, the carcinogenicity of vinyl chloride (usually called vinyl chloride monomer or VCM) was linked to cancers in workers in the polyvinyl chloride industry. Specifically workers in polymerization section of a B.F. Goodrich plant near Louisville, Kentucky, were diagnosed with liver angiosarcoma also known as hemangiosarcoma, a rare disease. Since that time, studies of PVC workers in Australia, Italy, Germany, and the UK have all associated certain types of occupational cancers with exposure to vinyl chloride, and it has become accepted that VCM is a carcinogen.


title: Polyvinyl chloride

text: PVC produces HCl upon combustion almost quantitatively related to its chlorine content. Extensive studies in Europe indicate that the chlorine found in emitted dioxins is not derived from HCl in the flue gases. Instead, most dioxins arise in the condensed solid phase by the reaction of inorganic chlorides with graphitic structures in char-containing ash particles. Copper acts as a catalyst for these reactions.


title: Polyvinyl chloride

text: Studies of household waste burning indicate consistent increases in dioxin generation with increasing PVC concentrations. According to the EPA dioxin inventory, landfill fires are likely to represent an even larger source of dioxin to the environment. A survey of international studies consistently identifies high dioxin concentrations in areas affected by open waste burning and a study that looked at the homologue pattern found the sample with the highest dioxin concentration was "typical for the pyrolysis of PVC". Other EU studies indicate that PVC likely "accounts for the overwhelming majority of chlorine that is available for dioxin formation during landfill fires."


title: Polyvinyl chloride

text: The next largest sources of dioxin in the EPA inventory are medical and municipal waste incinerators. Various studies have been conducted that reach contradictory results. For instance a study of commercial-scale incinerators showed no relationship between the PVC content of the waste and dioxin emissions. Other studies have shown a clear correlation between dioxin formation and chloride content and indicate that PVC is a significant contributor to the formation of both dioxin and PCB in incinerators.


title: Polyvinyl chloride

text: In February 2007, the Technical and Scientific Advisory Committee of the US Green Building Council (USGBC) released its report on a PVC avoidance related materials credit for the LEED Green Building Rating system. The report concludes that "no single material shows up as the best across all the human health and environmental impact categories, nor as the worst" but that the "risk of dioxin emissions puts PVC consistently among the worst materials for human health impacts."


title: Polyvinyl chloride

text: In Europe the overwhelming importance of combustion conditions on dioxin formation has been established by numerous researchers. The single most important factor in forming dioxin-like compounds is the temperature of the combustion gases. Oxygen concentration also plays a major role on dioxin formation, but not the chlorine content.


title: Polyvinyl chloride

text: Several studies have also shown that removing PVC from waste would not significantly reduce the quantity of dioxins emitted. The EU Commission published in July 2000 a Green Paper on the Environmental Issues of PVC"


title: Polyvinyl chloride

text: A study commissioned by the European Commission on "Life Cycle Assessment of PVC and of principal competing materials" states that "Recent studies show that the presence of PVC has no significant effect on the amount of dioxins released through incineration of plastic waste."


title: Polyvinyl chloride

text: The European waste hierarchy refers to the five steps included in the article 4 of the Waste Framework Directive:


title: Polyvinyl chloride

text: In Europe, developments in PVC waste management have been monitored by Vinyl 2010, established in 2000. Vinyl 2010's objective was to recycle 200,000 tonnes of post-consumer PVC waste per year in Europe by the end of 2010, excluding waste streams already subject to other or more specific legislation (such as the European Directives on End-of-Life Vehicles, Packaging and Waste Electric and Electronic Equipment).


title: Polyvinyl chloride

text: Since June 2011, it is followed by VinylPlus, a new set of targets for sustainable development. Its main target is to recycle 800,000 tonnes per year of PVC by 2020 including 100,000 tonnes of "difficult to recycle" waste. One facilitator for collection and recycling of PVC waste is Recovinyl. The reported and audited mechanically recycled PVC tonnage in 2016 was 568,695 tonnes which in 2018 had increased to 739,525 tonnes.


title: Polyvinyl chloride

text: One approach to address the problem of waste PVC is also through the process called Vinyloop. It is a mechanical recycling process using a solvent to separate PVC from other materials. This solvent turns in a closed loop process in which the solvent is recycled. Recycled PVC is used in place of virgin PVC in various applications: coatings for swimming pools, shoe soles, hoses, diaphragms tunnel, coated fabrics, PVC sheets. This recycled PVC's primary energy demand is 46 percent lower than conventional produced PVC. So the use of recycled material leads to a significant better ecological footprint. The global warming potential is 39 percent lower.


title: Polyvinyl chloride

text: In November 2005 one of the largest hospital networks in the US, Catholic Healthcare West, signed a contract with B. Braun Melsungen for vinyl-free intravenous bags and tubing.


title: Polyvinyl chloride

text: In January 2012 a major US West Coast healthcare provider, Kaiser Permanente, announced that it will no longer buy intravenous (IV) medical equipment made with PVC and DEHP-type plasticizers.


title: Polyvinyl chloride

text: In 1998, the US Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC) arrived at a voluntary agreement with manufacturers to remove phthalates from PVC rattles, teethers, baby bottle nipples and pacifiers.


title: Polyvinyl chloride

text: Plasticized PVC is a common material for medical gloves. Due to vinyl gloves having less flexibility and elasticity, several guidelines recommend either latex or nitrile gloves for clinical care and procedures that require manual dexterity and/or that involve patient contact for more than a brief period. Vinyl gloves show poor resistance to many chemicals, including glutaraldehyde-based products and alcohols used in formulation of disinfectants for swabbing down work surfaces or in hand rubs. The additives in PVC are also known to cause skin reactions such as allergic contact dermatitis. These are for example the antioxidant bisphenol A, the biocide benzisothiazolinone, propylene glycol/adipate polyester and ethylhexylmaleate.


title: Polyvinyl chloride

text: PVC is made from fossil fuels, including natural gas. The production process also uses sodium chloride which results in a polymer containing 57% chloride content. Recycled PVC is broken down into small chips, impurities removed, and the product refined to make pure PVC.


title: Polyvinyl chloride

text: In Europe, a 2021 VinylPlus Progress Report indicated that 731,461 tonnes PVC were recycled in 2020, a 5% reduction compared to 2019 due to the Covid pandemic. The report also covers all five sustainability challenges that the sector has set for itself covering controlled loop management, organochlorine emissions, sustainable use of additives, sustainable use of energy and raw materials and sustainability awareness.


title: Polyvinyl chloride

text: There is also a continuing focus on the role that the polymer plays in meeting the Circular Economy model and contribution to Sustainable Development Goals. The Olympic Delivery Authority (ODA), for example, after initially rejecting PVC as material for different temporary venues of the London Olympics 2012, has reviewed its decision and developed a policy for its use. This policy highlighted that the functional properties of PVC make it the most appropriate material in certain circumstances while taking into consideration the environmental and social impacts across the whole life cycle, e.g. the rate for recycling or reuse and the percentage of recycled content. Temporary parts, like roofing covers of the Olympic Stadium, the Water Polo Arena, and the Royal Artillery Barracks, would be deconstructed and a part recycled in the VinyLoop process.


title: John Terry

text: John George Terry (born 7 December 1980) is an English professional football coach and former player who played as a centre-back. He was previously captain of Chelsea, the England national team and Aston Villa. He was most recently the assistant head coach at the latter. Regarded as one of the best defenders in the world at his peak, he is considered to be one of the greatest central defenders of his generation, as well as one of the best English and Premier League defenders ever.


title: John Terry

text: Terry was named UEFA Club Defender of the Year in 2005, 2008 and 2009, PFA Players' Player of the Year in 2005, and was included in the FIFPro World XI for five consecutive seasons, from 2005 to 2009. He was also named in the all-star squad for the 2006 FIFA World Cup, the only English player to make the team.


title: John Terry

text: Terry is Chelsea's most successful captain. During his 19 years with the club, he led them to five Premier League titles, four FA Cups, three League Cups, one UEFA Europa League and one UEFA Champions League title. He is one of five players to have made over 500 appearances for Chelsea and is also the club's all-time highest scoring defender. In 2007, he became the first captain to lift the FA Cup at the new Wembley Stadium in Chelsea's 1–0 win over Manchester United, and also the first player to score an international goal there, scoring a header in England's 1–1 draw with Brazil. In his final season at Chelsea in 2017, he became the first ever player to captain a team to the Premier League title on five occasions.


title: John Terry

text: Following his departure from Chelsea, Terry spent one season with Aston Villa in the Championship before retiring, ultimately losing the 2018 Championship play-off final. He returned to Aston Villa a few months later as assistant manager to Dean Smith. The side went on to win the 2019 Championship play-off final to be promoted back to the Premier League. Terry left the role in July 2021. He is currently a coaching consultant at Chelsea's youth academy.


title: John Terry

text: Born in Barking, Greater London, Terry attended Eastbury Comprehensive School and played for local Sunday league team Senrab. As a boy, he initially was part of West Ham United's youth system, joining them as a midfielder in 1991. He moved to Chelsea at 14, playing for the club's youth and reserve teams. It was due to a shortage of central defenders that he was moved to centre-back, the position he played throughout his career. After finishing school, he joined the club on a YTS at age 16 and signed professional terms a year later.


title: John Terry

text: Terry made his Chelsea debut on 28 October 1998 as a late substitute in a League Cup tie with Aston Villa; his first start came later that season in an FA Cup third-round match, a 2–0 win over Oldham Athletic. He spent a brief period on loan with Nottingham Forest in 2000 to build up his first team experience and was the subject of interest from both Forest manager David Platt and Huddersfield Town manager Steve Bruce.


title: John Terry

text: In 2002, Terry was involved in an altercation with a bouncer at a West London nightclub with Chelsea teammate Jody Morris and Wimbledon's Des Byrne, which led to him being charged with assault and affray. In August 2002, Terry was acquitted of the charges in court. During the affair, he was given a temporary ban from the English national team by The Football Association. Previously, along with Chelsea teammates Frank Lampard, Jody Morris, Eiður Guðjohnsen and former teammate Frank Sinclair, in September 2001 Terry was fined two weeks wages by Chelsea after drunkenly harassing grieving American tourists in the immediate aftermath of the September 11 attacks. During his early days at Chelsea, Terry shared a flat with Andrew Crofts.


title: John Terry

text: Terry began to establish himself in the Chelsea first team from the 2000–01 season, making 23 starts and was voted the club's Player of the Year. He continued his progress during 2001–02, becoming a regular in the defence alongside club captain and France international Marcel Desailly. On 5 December 2001, he captained Chelsea for the first time, in a Premier League match against Charlton Athletic. Chelsea reached the FA Cup Final, following wins against London rivals West Ham United and Tottenham Hotspur in the fourth and six rounds respectively, and Fulham in the semi-final – where Terry scored the only goal in a 1–0 victory. A virus denied Terry a place in the starting line-up for the final, although he came on as a second-half substitute while Chelsea lost 2–0 to Arsenal. In 2003–04 season, his performances led to him becoming vice-captain by manager Claudio Ranieri when Desailly was out of the team. He played well in the absence of the French international, forming a strong defensive partnership with William Gallas.


title: John Terry

text: Following Desailly's departure, new Chelsea manager José Mourinho chose Terry as his club captain, a choice which was vindicated throughout the 2004–05 season as Chelsea won the Premier League title in record-breaking fashion with the best defensive record in Football League history with the most clean sheets and the most points accrued. He was voted Player of the Year by his fellow professionals in England and scored eight goals, including a late winner against Barcelona, in the UEFA Champions League. He was voted the best defender in the Champions League for the season. In September 2005, he was selected as a member of the World XI at the FIFPro awards. The team was chosen by a vote of professional footballers based in 40 countries.


title: John Terry

text: Chelsea defended their Premier League title in 2005–06, earning 91 points, and confirming the title with a 3–0 victory against Manchester United.


title: John Terry

text: In a match on 14 October 2006 against Reading, Terry had to take over in goal for Chelsea in the final minutes of the match after goalkeepers Petr Čech and Carlo Cudicini were injured and Chelsea had no substitutes remaining. Terry kept a clean sheet as Chelsea held out to win 1–0. On 5 November 2006, playing against Tottenham Hotspur, Terry was sent off for the first time in his Chelsea career after receiving two yellow cards as the Blues lost at White Hart Lane for the first time since 1987. Terry was charged with misconduct by the FA for questioning the integrity of match referee Graham Poll after the match. On 10 January 2007, Terry was ordered to pay £10,000 for the inappropriate conduct after he changed his mind and pleaded guilty to the FA.


title: John Terry

text: In the 2006–07 season, Terry missed matches for Chelsea due to a recurring back problem. On 26 December 2006, José Mourinho stated that his captain might require surgery to fix the problem. In Terry's absence Chelsea drew 2–2 at home to both Reading and Fulham over Christmas, draws that were to prove crucial in the destiny of the Premier League title for that season. On 28 December, Chelsea released a press statement saying Terry had had back surgery: "The operation to remove a sequestrated lumbar intervertebral disc was successful." Although he was expected to return in the match against Wigan Athletic, which Chelsea won 3–2 thanks to a late goal from winger Arjen Robben, Terry was missing once again, due to the recurring back problem. He made his return in Chelsea's 1–0 victory over Charlton Athletic on 3 February 2007 coming on in the 88th minute for Claude Makelele. Terry played his first 90 minutes of football for nearly three months in Chelsea's 3–0 victory over Middlesbrough and received much applause from the Chelsea faithful. Didier Drogba scored two goals for Chelsea in that match, while the other goal came courtesy of an own goal from Abel Xavier of Middlesbrough.


title: John Terry

text: Playing in the UEFA Champions League round of 16 away against Porto, he suffered another injury, this time to his ankle, and was set to miss the 2007 League Cup Final against Arsenal, but managed to recover from the injury within days and played in the final. During the second half of the match, at an attacking corner, he threw himself at the ball with a diving header; Arsenal's Abou Diaby, in an attempt to clear the ball, kicked Terry in the face. Terry was unconscious for several minutes, at which point he nearly swallowed his tongue. He was carried off the field on a stretcher and immediately transferred to the University Hospital of Wales. Terry discharged himself the same day and returned to the Millennium Stadium to celebrate his team's 2–1 win. The only recollection he had of the second half is walking out onto the pitch and he did not remember the ten minutes he played prior to his injury. He went on to lead Chelsea to the semi-final of the UEFA Champions League, the third time in four years that Chelsea had made it to the final four of the competition. In May 2007, Terry captained Chelsea in the 2007 FA Cup Final, in the first FA Cup final at the new Wembley Stadium.


title: John Terry

text: Despite failing to agree terms to a new contract immediately following 2006–07, Terry stated on several occasions that he had no intention of leaving Chelsea. In late July, he signed a new five-year contract with a base salary of between £131,000 and £135,000 per week, making him the highest-paid player in the Premier League at the time.


title: John Terry

text: On 16 December 2007, whilst playing against Arsenal, while going to clear a ball Terry's foot was stepped on by Emmanuel Eboué and Terry had suffered 3 broken bones in his foot. He was expected to be out for at least three months but made a speedy recovery and managed to captain Chelsea to the 2008 League Cup Final against Tottenham, which Chelsea lost 2–1. On 11 May 2008, whilst playing in the last league match of the season against Bolton, he collided with goalkeeper Petr Čech and suffered a partially dislocated elbow, which was eventually put back into place en route to the hospital. This injury did not prevent him playing in the 2008 UEFA Champions League Final against Manchester United. The match went to penalties, and Terry missed a penalty which would have won Chelsea the match (and the Champions League). His standing leg slipped as he took his kick, and the ball missed the goal. Chelsea lost the shootout 6–5, which Terry reacted to by breaking down in tears. On 28 August 2008, Terry was awarded the Defender of The Year award from UEFA at the Champions League group stage draw in Monaco, together with Frank Lampard and Petr Čech, who received the award for their respective positions.


title: John Terry

text: On 13 September 2008, Terry received the first straight red card of his career against Manchester City for rugby-tackling Jô. However, this was later rescinded on appeal. Despite being a defender, he occasionally scores important goals for Chelsea, such as in the Champions League Group A home match against Roma. However, Chelsea went on to lose the away leg 3–1.


title: John Terry

text: In July 2009, Manchester City made a third bid for Terry, but Chelsea coach Carlo Ancelotti insisted Terry would remain at Chelsea. He made his debut for the new season against Premier League team Hull City, a match Chelsea won. On 8 November 2009, Terry scored the decisive goal in Chelsea's match against Manchester United at Stamford Bridge to preserve their perfect home record for the season.


title: John Terry

text: On 9 May 2010, Terry captained Chelsea as they won their fourth Premier League title after an 8–0 win against Wigan Athletic at Stamford Bridge. A week later, on 15 May 2010, Terry captained Chelsea as he won his fourth FA Cup medal, defeating Portsmouth in the final by 1–0 at Wembley Stadium.


title: John Terry

text: On 31 December 2011, in a home match against Aston Villa, Terry captained the Chelsea team for the 400th time of his career, a record for the club.


title: John Terry

text: Terry was the world's third best passer in 2011 for players with over 1,000 passes, with a 91.6% pass accuracy rate. Only Barcelona player Xavi (93.0%) and Swansea City player Leon Britton (93.3%) were better.


title: John Terry

text: On 24 April 2012, Terry was sent off for violent conduct after driving a knee into Barcelona's Alexis Sánchez in an off-the-ball incident in the 2011–12 UEFA Champions League semi-final at the Camp Nou. Chelsea's 3–2 aggregate victory over the holders qualified them for the final against Bayern Munich, for which Terry would be suspended. Terry later apologised for letting his teammates and Chelsea fans down. Terry scored his sixth league goal of the season, seventh in all competitions, in the final match of the season, a 2–1 victory over already-relegated Blackburn. The goal meant that it was Terry's most prolific season and he told the Chelsea website, "I am delighted with seven... It's always good to end a league season with a win."


title: John Terry

text: Even though Terry was suspended for the Champions League Final, along with teammates Ramires, Branislav Ivanović and Raul Meireles, he took part in celebrations at the final whistle after Chelsea triumphed 4–3 on penalty kicks, with striker Didier Drogba netting the decisive penalty.


title: John Terry

text: Terry was snubbed by Queens Park Rangers defender Anton Ferdinand in the pre-match handshake against QPR. Terry was banned for four matches when he was found guilty of racially abusing Ferdinand.


title: John Terry

text: On 11 November 2012, in his first match back from the four-match ban, Terry scored his 50th goal for Chelsea against Liverpool. He went off injured in the 39th minute of the same match and was suspected to have ligament damage on his right knee, but a scan the next day showed that there was "no significant damage". On 7 December 2012, new Chelsea manager Rafael Benítez confirmed Terry would not be back from injury in time to play in the 2012 FIFA Club World Cup. Terry's knee injury kept him out of action for 16 first-team matches in total, including the Club World Cup defeat. He made a 45-minute comeback for Chelsea's under-21 team on 10 January, before returning to the first team in a 2–2 draw away to Brentford in the FA Cup, that was his third match since he last played since November; 3 months prior.


title: John Terry

text: On 17 April 2013, Terry scored twice in the derby match against Fulham that ended 3–0. On 13 May 2014, Terry signed a new one-year deal with the Blues.


title: John Terry

text: On 18 October 2014, Terry captained Chelsea for the 500th time against Crystal Palace. In the next match, on 21 October, Terry scored in Chelsea's record Champions League win against Slovenian team Maribor. Later, he scored Chelsea's fastest-ever goal in the Champions League by heading in a goal after 90 seconds against Schalke 04.


title: John Terry

text: In the League Cup final on 1 March 2015, Terry opened the scoring was named Man of the Match in Chelsea's 2–0 victory over Tottenham. On 26 March, Terry signed one-year extension to his contract. On 26 April, Terry, along with five of his Chelsea teammates, was voted into the PFA Premier League Team of the Year. On 29 April, Terry became the joint highest-scoring defender in the Premier League with 38 goals, having scored the second goal in a 3–1 win over Leicester City. On 10 May, Terry surpassed David Unsworth as the highest-scoring defender in the Premier League after scoring his 39th in the opening five minutes against Liverpool, an eventual 1–1 draw.


title: John Terry

text: On 23 August 2015, Terry received his first league red card for over five years, being dismissed for a foul on Salomón Rondón in a 3–2 win at West Bromwich Albion. On 15 January 2016, Terry scored an own goal in the 50th minute as well as his first goal of the season in the 98th minute, earning a 3–3 draw against Everton. On 1 February 2016, Terry announced that he would leave Chelsea in the summer of 2016, saying "It's not going to be a fairytale ending."


title: John Terry

text: Although Terry announced in February that there were no talks held to discuss a new contract, on 18 May 2016, Terry signed a new one-year contract to remain at Chelsea until the end of the 2016–17 season. Ten days previously, Terry had been sent off in a 3–2 loss to Sunderland at the Stadium of Light in what was widely believed to have been his final appearance for the club.


title: John Terry

text: During Antonio Conte's first press conference as the new Chelsea manager, Conte confirmed that Terry will remain the club captain. On 11 September 2016, during the closing minutes of the match against Swansea City, Terry suffered an ankle injury and required crutches to leave the pitch after the final whistle.


title: John Terry

text: On 8 January 2017, making his first start for Chelsea since an EFL Cup defeat to West Ham United in October 2016, Terry was given a straight red card for a foul on Lee Angol as Chelsea beat Peterborough United 4–1 in the FA Cup third round. On 17 April, he announced that he would be leaving Chelsea at the end of the 2016–17 season. After Chelsea celebrated their Premier League victory, Terry played his 717th and final match for Chelsea on 21 May in a 5–1 home win over Sunderland, coming off in the 28th minute (the substitution board went up in the 26th minute, the same as that of his shirt number), and received a guard of honour from his teammates. In December 2019, Terry was voted in Chelseas' team of the decade as voted for by Chelseas' fans.


title: John Terry

text: On 3 July 2017, Terry signed a one-year contract with Championship club Aston Villa on a free transfer. He was appointed as the captain for the 2017–18 season. He made his debut for Aston Villa on 5 August 2017 in a 1–1 home draw with Hull City in the Championship. Terry scored his only goal for Aston Villa in a 2–1 victory over Fulham in the Championship on 21 October 2017.


title: John Terry

text: On 30 May 2018, Terry left Aston Villa after the club failed to gain promotion to the Premier League as they lost 1–0 against Fulham in the Championship play-off final.


title: John Terry

text: In September 2018, Terry underwent a medical with Spartak Moscow, but declined their offer of a contract, citing family reasons. He announced his retirement from playing on 7 October 2018.


title: John Terry

text: Terry made his England debut in June 2003 against Serbia and Montenegro, and started his first match for England on 20 August 2003 at Portman Road, Ipswich, in a friendly against Croatia. England won 3–1. His main central defensive partner had been Rio Ferdinand. He played for his country at Euro 2004, and England manager Sven-Göran Eriksson stated that Terry was the first-choice centre-back, ahead of Sol Campbell.


title: John Terry

text: In 2005 during a FIFA World Cup qualifying match against Poland, Terry wore England's captain armband, replacing Michael Owen as captain after the latter was substituted.


title: John Terry

text: He has cemented his place in the England squad by being selected for the 2006 FIFA World Cup. In a warm-up match for that tournament against Hungary on 30 May 2006, Terry scored his first goal for England, the team's second in a 3–1 victory. Despite an injury scare in a friendly against Jamaica, he recovered to play in England's opening fixture against Paraguay, a 1–0 victory. In the next match against Trinidad and Tobago, Carlos Edwards beat England's Paul Robinson to a cross and as Stern John bundled a header towards the goal, Terry cleared the ball off the line with an overhead kick. In the quarter-final match against Portugal, Terry played the entire match, but England lost on penalties and he was left in tears with his fellow players. Six days later, he was the only English player to be named in the tournament's all-star squad.


title: John Terry

text: On 10 August 2006, Steve McClaren named John Terry as the England captain, succeeding David Beckham. McClaren said, "Choosing a captain is one of the most important decisions a coach has to make. I'm certain I've got the right man in John Terry. I'm convinced he will prove to be one of the best captains England has ever had." Terry scored a goal on his debut as the England captain, in a friendly international against Greece. This was the first goal of the match and also the first goal during McClaren's reign as manager. However, with Terry as captain, England did not qualify for UEFA Euro 2008 – their first absence from a tournament finals since the 1994 FIFA World Cup. Midway through the qualification campaign, Terry had accepted that he would "bear full responsibility" should England fail to qualify.


title: John Terry

text: On 1 June 2007, Terry became the first player in the senior England team to score an international goal at the new Wembley Stadium when he scored England's goal from a header in the box after a free kick cross by David Beckham in a 1–1 draw with Brazil. Almost a year later, he scored a similar headed goal once again from a free kick cross by David Beckham to put England 1–0 up against the United States on 28 May 2008.


title: John Terry

text: Terry was confirmed as the England captain in August, and captained England in qualifying for the 2010 FIFA World Cup. During his first match after being reinstated as the permanent England captain, a friendly against Czech Republic, he was given a torrid time by Milan Baroš and was turned far too easily when Baros scored the first goal for his team. The match ended 2–2 with Joe Cole scoring a fortunate equaliser for England in the 92nd minute of the match. He scored his first competitive England goal against Ukraine on 1 April 2009, in the qualifiers for the World Cup, grabbing a late winner after earlier giving away a free kick which led to Andriy Shevchenko's equalising goal for Ukraine. England sealed their place in the final tournament in September 2009, following a 5–1 home win against Croatia.


title: John Terry

text: On 5 February 2010, following allegations regarding Terry's private life, England manager Fabio Capello announced that Terry was removed as the captain of the England team. He was replaced by fellow defender Rio Ferdinand.


title: John Terry

text: At the 2010 FIFA World Cup, England started with two draws against the United States and Algeria, which received heavy criticism from the English media.


title: John Terry

text: Two days after the Algeria match in a media interview, Terry hinted at dissatisfaction with Capello's team selection and stated that the players were bored with little to do in the evenings at their training base; he also said that a clear-the-air team meeting would take place that evening. The next day, Capello responded by saying that Terry had made "a very big mistake" in challenging his authority to the media.


title: John Terry

text: On 19 March 2011, Capello reinstated Terry as England captain following a long-term injury to previous captain Rio Ferdinand. On 3 February 2012, with Terry due to stand trial due to allegations that Terry had racially abused QPR's Anton Ferdinand, the FA stripped Terry of the England captaincy for the second time. This led to Capello resigning.


title: John Terry

text: Terry was named in new manager Roy Hodgson's squad for UEFA Euro 2012 while Rio Ferdinand was left out, leading to heavy speculation that this was to avoid potential conflict due to Terry's upcoming trial for racially abusing Ferdinand's brother Anton. Terry played 90 minutes in all four of England's matches at the Euros.