title: Stonewall Jackson

text: As Jackson and his staff were returning to camp on May 2, sentries of the 18th North Carolina Infantry Regiment mistook the group for a Union cavalry force. The sentries shouted "Halt, who goes there?", but fired before evaluating the reply. Frantic shouts by Jackson's staff identifying the party were replied to by Major John D. Barry with the retort, "It's a damned Yankee trick! Fire!" A second volley was fired in response. Jackson was hit by three bullets: two in the left arm and one in the right hand. Several of Jackson's men and many horses were killed in the attack. Incoming artillery rounds and darkness led to confusion, and Jackson was dropped from his stretcher while being evacuated. Hunter McGuire amputated Jackson's left arm, and Jackson was moved to Fairfield plantation at Guinea Station. Thomas Chandler, the owner, offered the use of his home for Jackson's treatment, but Jackson suggested using Chandler's plantation office building instead.


title: Stonewall Jackson

text: Lee wrote to Jackson after learning of his injuries, stating: "Could I have directed events, I would have chosen for the good of the country to be disabled in your stead." Jackson died of complications from pneumonia on May 10, 1863, eight days after he was shot.


title: Stonewall Jackson

text: Jackson's fatal bullet was withdrawn, examined, and found to be 67 caliber (0.67 inches, 17 mm), a type in service with the Confederate forces. Union troops in the area were using 58 caliber balls. This was one of the first instances of forensic ballistics identification derived from a firearm projectile.


title: Stonewall Jackson

text: His body was moved to the Governor's Mansion in Richmond for the public to mourn, and he was then moved to be buried in Oak Grove Cemetery, Lexington, Virginia. The arm that was amputated on May 2 was buried separately by Jackson's chaplain (Beverly Tucker Lacy), at the J. Horace Lacy house, "Ellwood", (now preserved at the Fredericksburg National Battlefield) in the Wilderness of Orange County, near the field hospital.


title: Stonewall Jackson

text: Upon hearing of Jackson's death, Robert E. Lee mourned the loss of both a friend and a trusted commander. As Jackson lay dying, Lee sent a message through Chaplain Lacy, saying: "Give General Jackson my affectionate regards, and say to him: he has lost his left arm but I my right." The night Lee learned of Jackson's death, he told his cook: "William, I have lost my right arm", and, "I'm bleeding at the heart."


title: Stonewall Jackson

text: Jackson's sometimes unusual command style and personality traits, combined with his frequent success in battle, contribute to his legacy as one of the greatest generals of the Civil War. He was martial and stern in attitude and profoundly religious, a deacon in the Presbyterian Church. One of his many nicknames was "Old Blue Lights," a term applied to a military man whose evangelical zeal burned with the intensity of the blue light used for night-time display.


title: Stonewall Jackson

text: Jackson held a lifelong belief that one of his arms was longer than the other, and thus usually held the "longer" arm up to equalize his circulation. He was described as a "champion sleeper", and occasionally even fell asleep with food in his mouth. Jackson suffered a number of ailments, for which he sought relief via contemporary practices of his day including hydrotherapy, popular in America at that time, visiting establishments at Oswego, New York (1850) and Round Hill, Massachusetts (1860) although with little evidence of success. Jackson also suffered a significant hearing loss in both of his ears as a result of his prior service in the U.S. Army as an artillery officer.


title: Stonewall Jackson

text: A recurring story concerns Jackson's love of lemons, which he allegedly gnawed whole to alleviate symptoms of dyspepsia (indigestion). General Richard Taylor, son of President Zachary Taylor, wrote a passage in his war memoirs about Jackson eating lemons: "Where Jackson got his lemons 'no fellow could find out,' but he was rarely without one." However, recent research by his biographer, James I. Robertson, Jr., has found that none of Jackson's contemporaries, including members of his staff, his friends, or his wife, recorded any unusual obsessions with lemons. Jackson thought of a lemon as a "rare treat ... enjoyed greatly whenever it could be obtained from the enemy's camp". Jackson was fond of all fruits, particularly peaches, "but he enjoyed with relish lemons, oranges, watermelons, apples, grapes, berries, or whatever was available".


title: Stonewall Jackson

text: Jackson's religion has often been discussed. His biographer, Robert Lewis Dabney, suggested that "It was the fear of God which made him so fearless of all else." Jackson himself had said, "My religious belief teaches me to feel as safe in battle as in bed."


title: Stonewall Jackson

text: Stephen W. Sears states that "Jackson was fanatical in his Presbyterian faith, and it energized his military thought and character. Theology was the only subject he genuinely enjoyed discussing. His dispatches invariably credited an ever-kind Providence." According to Sears, "this fanatical religiosity had drawbacks. It warped Jackson's judgment of men, leading to poor appointments; it was said he preferred good Presbyterians to good soldiers." James I. Robertson, Jr. suggests that Jackson was "a Christian soldier in every sense of the word". According to Robertson, Jackson "thought of the war as a religious crusade", and "viewed himself as an Old Testament warrior—like David or Joshua—who went into battle to slay the Philistines".


title: Stonewall Jackson

text: Jackson encouraged the Confederate States Army revival that occurred in 1863, although it was probably more of a grass-roots movement than a top-down revival. Jackson strictly observed the Sunday Sabbath. James I. Robertson, Jr. notes that "no place existed in his Sunday schedule for labor, newspapers, or secular conversation".


title: Stonewall Jackson

text: In command, Jackson was extremely secretive about his plans and extremely meticulous about military discipline. This secretive nature did not stand him in good stead with his subordinates, who were often not aware of his overall operational intentions until the last minute, and who complained of being left out of key decisions.


title: Stonewall Jackson

text: Robert E. Lee could trust Jackson with deliberately undetailed orders that conveyed Lee's overall objectives, what modern doctrine calls the "end state". This was because Jackson had a talent for understanding Lee's sometimes unstated goals, and Lee trusted Jackson with the ability to take whatever actions were necessary to implement his end state requirements. Few of Lee's subsequent corps commanders had this ability. At Gettysburg, this resulted in lost opportunities. With a defeated and disorganized Union Army trying to regroup on high ground near town and vulnerable, Lee sent one of his new corps commanders, Richard S. Ewell, discretionary orders that the heights (Cemetery Hill and Culp's Hill) be taken "if practicable". Without Jackson's intuitive grasp of Lee's orders or the instinct to take advantage of sudden tactical opportunities, Ewell chose not to attempt the assault, and this failure is considered by historians to be the greatest missed opportunity of the battle.


title: Stonewall Jackson

text: Jackson had a poor reputation as a horseman. One of his soldiers, Georgia volunteer William Andrews, wrote that Jackson was "a very ordinary looking man of medium size, his uniform badly soiled as though it had seen hard service. He wore a cap pulled down nearly to his nose and was riding a rawboned horse that did not look much like a charger, unless it would be on hay or clover. He certainly made a poor figure on a horseback, with his stirrup leather six inches too short, putting his knees nearly level with his horse's back, and his heels turned out with his toes sticking behind his horse's foreshoulder. A sorry description of our most famous general, but a correct one." His horse was named "Little Sorrel" (also known as "Old Sorrel"), a small chestnut gelding which was a captured Union horse from a Connecticut farm. He rode Little Sorrel throughout the war, and was riding him when he was shot at Chancellorsville. Little Sorrel died at age 36 and is buried near a statue of Jackson on the parade grounds of VMI. (His mounted hide is on display in the VMI Museum.)


title: Stonewall Jackson

text: After the war, Jackson's wife and young daughter Julia moved from Lexington to North Carolina. Mary Anna Jackson wrote two books about her husband's life, including some of his letters. She never remarried, and was known as the "Widow of the Confederacy", living until 1915. His daughter Julia married, and bore children, but she died of typhoid fever at the age of 26 years.


title: Stonewall Jackson

text: Many theorists through the years have postulated that if Jackson had lived, Lee might have prevailed at Gettysburg. Certainly Jackson's discipline and tactical sense were sorely missed.


title: Stonewall Jackson

text: As a boy, General George Patton (of World War II fame) prayed next to two portraits of Robert E. Lee and Stonewall Jackson, whom he assumed were God and Jesus. He once told Dwight D. Eisenhower "I will be your Jackson." General Douglas MacArthur called Robert L. Eichelberger his Stonewall Jackson. Chesty Puller idolized Jackson, and carried George Henderson's biography of Jackson with him on campaigns. Alexander Vandegrift also idolized Jackson.


title: Stonewall Jackson

text: Jackson's grandson and great-grandson, both namesakes, Thomas Jonathan Jackson Christian (1888–1952) and Thomas Jonathan Jackson Christian Jr. (1915–1944), both graduated from West Point. The elder Christian was a career US Army officer who served during both World Wars and rose to the rank of brigadier general. Thomas Jonathan Jackson Christian's parents were William Edmund Christian and Julia Laura Christian. Julia was the daughter of Stonewall Jackson and his bride Mary Anna Morrison. The younger Christian was a colonel in command of the 361st Fighter Group flying P-51 Mustangs in the European Theater of Operations in World War II when he was killed in action in August 1944; his personal aircraft, "Lou IV", was one of the most photographed P-51s in the war.


title: Stonewall Jackson

text: As an important element of the ideology of the "Lost Cause", Jackson has been commemorated in numerous ways, including with statues, currency, and postage. A poem penned during the war soon became a popular song, "Stonewall Jackson's Way". The Stonewall Brigade Band is still active today.


title: Stonewall Jackson

text: West Virginia's Stonewall Jackson State Park is named in his honor. Nearby, at Stonewall Jackson's historical childhood home, his uncle's grist mill is the centerpiece of a historical site at the Jackson's Mill Center for Lifelong Learning and State 4-H Camp. The facility, located near Weston, serves as a special campus for West Virginia University and the WVU Extension Service.


title: Stonewall Jackson

text: During a training exercise in Virginia by U.S. Marines in 1921, the Marine commander, General Smedley Butler was told by a local farmer that Stonewall Jackson's arm was buried nearby under a granite marker, to which Butler replied, "Bosh! I will take a squad of Marines and dig up that spot to prove you wrong!" Butler found the arm in a box under the marker. He later replaced the wooden box with a metal one, and reburied the arm. He left a plaque on the granite monument marking the burial place of Jackson's arm; the plaque is no longer on the marker but can be viewed at the Chancellorsville Battlefield visitor's center.


title: Stonewall Jackson

text: Beginning in 1904 the Commonwealth of Virginia celebrated Jackson's birthday as a state holiday; the observance was eliminated, with Election Day as a replacement holiday, effective July 2020.


title: Stonewall Jackson

text: A Stonewall Jackson Monument was unveiled on October 11, 1919, in Richmond, Virginia. It was removed on July 1, 2020, during the 2020–2021 United States racial unrest. The removal was live-streamed by news outlets and onlookers.


title: Etika

text: Desmond Daniel Amofah (May 12, 1990 – June 19, 2019), better known as Etika, was an American YouTuber and online streamer. He was best known for his highly energetic reactions to "Super Smash Bros." character reveals and Nintendo Direct presentations, and for playing and reacting to various games. He was a son of Ghanaian politician Owuraku Amofah, and a resident of Brooklyn, New York, for most of his life.


title: Etika

text: Amofah began his YouTube career in 2006, later creating his main YouTube channel, "EWNetwork" (meaning "Etika World Network"), in July 2012. His fanbase was dubbed the "JOYCONBOYZ", named after the Nintendo Switch controller, the Joy-Con. He became popular after the release of "Super Smash Bros. 4", through his videos where he often discussed elements and new developments regarding the game. His channel consisted largely of stream material, namely playthroughs of recently released games and reactions to trailers, alongside additional edited videos.


title: Etika

text: In October 2018, Amofah's channel was terminated after he had a mental breakdown and uploaded pornography. After apologizing on his subreddit, r/EtikaRedditNetwork, Amofah created his second channel, "EtikaFRFX" (meaning "for real facts"), which would also be terminated in April 2019 after Amofah had another breakdown and uploaded pornography to that channel as well. He then had a series of breakdowns and was detained by police, the latter of which was streamed live to his Instagram followers. Following the termination of his second channel, Amofah uploaded content using his personal account he created in 2006, "TR1Iceman", and streamed through a separate channel, "E Live", with both channels currently still available to view on YouTube.


title: Etika

text: During the last few months of his life, Amofah showed signs of mental illness and threatened to commit suicide on multiple occasions, and was hospitalised multiple times under police restraint. Amofah disappeared on the evening of June 19, 2019. Later that night, an apologetic video was uploaded on his "TR1Iceman" channel in which he admitted to being mentally ill and suicidal. Following the discovery of his belongings on the pedestrian walkway of the Manhattan Bridge, Amofah's body was discovered in the East River on June 24, by the New York City Police Department, who confirmed online the next day that Amofah had died. On June 26, the Office of Chief Medical Examiner concluded that Amofah had drowned after jumping off the Manhattan Bridge.


title: Etika

text: His death was met with expressions of shock and grief by fans, other YouTubers, and the media, with many calling for the public to take mental health more seriously, as the signs of Amofah's mental deterioration were downplayed or ignored. Several memorials and murals were set up around the New York City area for Amofah shortly following his death.


title: Etika

text: Desmond Daniel Amofah was born on May 12, 1990, in Brooklyn, New York, to father Owuraku Amofah, a Ghanaian politician and lawyer from Kibi, and Haitian mother Sabrina Amofah. His great-uncle was Nana Akufo-Addo, who has served as President of Ghana since January 2017. Amofah had several siblings, including an older brother, Randy Amofah (1982–2010), who died from an asthma attack. He also had a half-brother, Cardinal Valery, who has a YouTube account dubbed "IAM9INE".


title: Etika

text: Amofah attended the public school Shell Bank Junior High School for one year, and was pulled out of the school by his mother after Amofah got in several fights with other students. In a 2018 livestream, Amofah stated that his craziest fight took place at Shell Bank, in which he and another student had an intense fight over a girl. They became friends afterwards.


title: Etika

text: Amofah attended Urban Assembly School for Law and Justice (SLJ), a small law-themed college preparatory public high school, and graduated from there in 2008. While he attended the school, Amofah made several DVDs in a series called "SLJ FAM." He was also in a club known as the Free Food Mafia. Amofah attended the SLJ reunion 10 years after graduation.


title: Etika

text: Prior to his YouTube career, Amofah was active in modeling and rapping, having released an independently produced mixtape titled "Written in Ice" in 2007 under his pseudonym "Iceman". In 2008, Amofah participated in two Grind Time Now rap battles. Amofah started modeling in 2011 and continued until 2015. He owned an account on the website Model Mayhem, where he stated he was "quite tall" and that his last measurement of height was "six feet, six inches."


title: Etika

text: Amofah stated in a tweet that the pseudonym "Etika" came from the 2003 video game "Sonic Battle", as he was a fan of the "Sonic the Hedgehog" series in his youth. In the game, players could input a cheat code titled "EkiTa", and when Amofah was 12, he simply switched the T and the K to create his username as he "liked that result better". He grew a high top fade after playing "".


title: Etika

text: Having previously used the YouTube account "TR1Iceman" since 2006, Amofah created a new YouTube account in 2012 to broadcast his gaming and reaction streams, under his original username "EWNetwork". It was originally planned for the channel's content to be produced collaboratively by a variety of users including Amofah himself, but such plans never materialized. Prior to the closure of his main channel on YouTube in 2018, he had more than 800,000 subscribers between his YouTube and Twitch channels, and within months after creating a second YouTube channel, known as "EtikaFRFX", he had gained more than 130,000 subscribers.


title: Etika

text: Amofah's content was typically Nintendo-focused. He frequently streamed reactions, often over-the-top, to Nintendo Direct presentations, which usually involved him screaming and falling out of his chair in elated shock, and tossing objects in his room around. One of Amofah's most famous reactions was his reaction to Mewtwo being revealed as a fighter in "Super Smash Bros. 4", during which Amofah excitedly screams "Mewtwo!" several times. The video was Amofah's most viewed video on his "EWNetwork" channel, and the reaction was retweeted by the creator of the game; Masahiro Sakurai. Amofah's last Smash Bros. reaction was his reaction to the reveal of Banjo & Kazooie in "Super Smash Bros. Ultimate", 8 days before his disappearance. He was given the "Best Reaction" award at Super Smash Con's 2018 and 2019 iterations.


title: Etika

text: Amofah dubbed his fans the "JOYCONBOYZ", after the Nintendo Switch controllers known as the Joy-Con, and would frequently end his videos with his signature catchphrase "Take care of yourselves, and of course, as usual, please have yourself a damn good one." Despite focusing on Nintendo-related content, Amofah also did playthroughs of indie games (e.g., "Undertale," "Deltarune" and "Doki Doki Literature Club!"), and he also played on the "Minecraft" anarchy server 2b2t. Amofah was also a fan of the anime and manga series "JoJo's Bizarre Adventure", and did several livestreams of him watching episodes of "Phantom Blood" and "Battle Tendency" while giving commentary.


title: Etika

text: Amofah briefly changed his channel name to "Young Ramsay" in 2015 after cooking scallops, having been inspired by the celebrity chef Gordon Ramsay. Soon afterwards, Ramsay himself followed Amofah on Twitter. In June 2017, Amofah did a livestream of him browsing the deep web, and received an unexpected phone call on his personal phone number after ending the stream, which made Amofah feel uncomfortable and not want to go on the deep web anymore. On December 24, 2018, Amofah did a Christmas livestream which featured himself dressed as Santa Claus.


title: Etika

text: In November 2016, two videos of Amofah's where he purported to have a Nintendo Switch console before its 2017 release gained notoriety and were scrutinized by fans. It was later revealed that the model Amofah was using was 3D-printed by fellow YouTuber "Sandqvist" at his request.


title: Etika

text: In June 2017, Amofah revealed himself to be the victim of multiple "chargebacks", or "fake donations" of large amounts of money sent to his PayPal account via stream donations, which would jostle Amofah with hundreds of dollars in processing fees.


title: Etika

text: On October 23, 2018, Amofah was temporarily suspended from Twitter for using the n-word in a tweet. He responded to the suspension by uploading a video of himself frequently saying the word and defending himself for using it. Amofah stated that the word had been adopted by black people "from a tool of hatred into a form of love" and should no longer be treated as a racial slur. During the video, Amofah name-checked rappers Travis Scott and Drake, who use the word in their songs. Two days later, Amofah uploaded pornography to his YouTube channel "EWNetwork" (then titled Etika), which violated YouTube's policies and consequently led to the channel's termination. He later had his second channel "EtikaFRFX" terminated in April 2019 for the same reason. He was also banned from Twitch that year for using a homophobic slur during a stream. Following the termination of his "EWNetwork" channel, Amofah posted cryptic messages to social media, including the statement "it's my turn to die", coupled with a screenshot of his terminated account. Several of his followers felt that the messages and posts were suicidal in nature, which quickly created a panic within his following. Amofah took to social media that evening to confirm his well-being, along with other streamers who professed to having seen him safe and sound in person, so as to allay his followers' fears. He later apologized on his subreddit r/EtikaRedditNetwork. On October 29, 2018, Amofah confirmed on his Twitch stream that he purposefully deleted his channel due to the fact that he did not receive ad revenue from the channel.


title: Etika

text: On April 16, 2019, following the termination of his second channel "EtikaFRFX", Amofah posted several tweets about ending his life, the first one stating "Savonarola! I'm going to kill myself! You lot certainly have already. Shame on you all, silly humans." He then tweeted he would kill himself by shooting himself in the head. This tweet subsequently led to his detainment and hospitalization. Christine Cardona, who had dated Amofah from 2011 to 2017, confirmed his well-being, and that she had been "observing him all day". Days later, Amofah posted a photoshopped picture of himself holding a gun, which Cardona later confirmed was fake.


title: Etika

text: On April 29, after tweeting a vast quantity of cryptic messages, including homophobic and ethnic slurs (that were promptly deleted), he blocked close friends of his and other YouTubers. Later that day, he live-streamed himself being detained by police to over 19,000 viewers on Instagram Live, after a concerned fan notified police about his alarmingly erratic nature during a livestream. Before being detained, Amofah shouted phrases and quotes from his apartment window, including the quote "The revolution will not be televised, only felt," which he also posted to Twitter on several occasions. Later that day, Amofah also did a livestream titled "hi" on his channel "TR1Iceman", during which he played songs from the Playboi Carti album "Die Lit" for a couple of minutes without saying anything.


title: Etika

text: On April 30, Amofah was interviewed by Keemstar on his YouTube channel "DramaAlert", in which Amofah stated he was the "antichrist" and that he wanted to "purge all life". Amofah was detained again later that same week for assaulting a police officer. Later that day, Amofah did a livestream titled "Stupid Monkey", during which he ate a carton of raw eggs and made several monkey noises without saying anything.


title: Etika

text: Amofah's erratic behavior around this time led some of his followers to take the events preceding his suicide as a humorous performance by Amofah, rather than signs of him struggling with his mental health. The video where Amofah assaulted a police officer was posted online with the caption "LMFAOOOOOOOO", and people who witnessed the event were laughing. During the majority of Amofah's livestreams in 2019, most of the viewers in the chat spammed clown emojis.


title: Etika

text: At midnight on June 20, 2019, a video titled "I'm sorry" was uploaded to Amofah's personal YouTube channel "TR1Iceman". In the video, Amofah admitted to having mental health issues, struggling with the attention he had gained from streaming and apologized for pushing people away from him. YouTube soon removed the video for violating its Community Guidelines, though Amofah's fans reposted the video to other outlets. Amofah was last heard from at 8:36 PM Eastern Time (ET) on June 19, commenting "Dope..." on a YouTube video for the Travis Scott song "90210" in 432hz. After leaving some of his personal belongings on the pedestrian walkway, Amofah jumped from the Manhattan Bridge and drowned. According to Amofah's ex-girlfriend, Christine Cardona, he allegedly died on June 22.


title: Etika

text: Amofah was reported missing to the New York Police Department (NYPD) the day after the "I'm sorry" video was uploaded. While the NYPD began its own search, fellow Internet personalities and his fans tried to reach out to him to offer their help and show their appreciation for his work over the years. On the night of June 19, the same day of Amofah's disappearance, his belongings were discovered on the pedestrian walkway of the Manhattan Bridge. They included a backpack, wallet, laptop bag, cell phone, a change of clothes and a Nintendo Switch.


title: Etika

text: On the evening of June 24, a body was observed near Pier 16, approximately half a mile (0.8 km) down the East River from where Amofah's belongings were recovered, and reported to the NYPD. By the morning of June 25, the NYPD and emergency medical services had recovered the body, confirmed it was Amofah, and stated that he was dead at the point of recovery. The following day, the Office of Chief Medical Examiner confirmed the cause of death was suicide by drowning.


title: Etika

text: Amofah's death highlighted social media platforms' handling of posts by users who appear at risk with mental illness or who are contemplating suicide. YouTube, in removing Amofah's final video, stated that removal of such videos is standard practice in order to "reduce the potential for copycat acts of self-harm, videos that express suicidal ideation", and as part of this, sent information to Amofah's account related to national suicide hotlines in order to provide help.


title: Etika

text: Following his death, several YouTubers posted tributes to Amofah on Twitter and YouTube. PewDiePie was one of the first YouTubers to post a tribute to Amofah, stating in a tweet: "Hard to grasp that he’s actually gone, left us way too soon. You will continue to live on in our hearts. Rest in peace Etika." James Charles also took to Twitter, stating: "RIP Etika. My heart is so so heavy hearing this news. I hope that the community FINALLY realizes that creators are human beings with real, valid feelings." Minecraft YouTuber FitMC, who collaborated with Amofah during his 2b2t playthrough, stated in a tweet that Amofah "changed streaming forever" and "showed how a streamer could affect people's lives." The official "YouTube Creators" Twitter account also posted a tribute to Amofah, stating: “We mourn the loss of Etika, a beloved member of our gaming creator community." Rapper Lil Nas X posted a tribute to Amofah, stating that he "didn’t know Amofah very well" but did know that he "inspired many and made a lot of people very happy."


title: Etika

text: Mental health researchers found several videos Amofah had posted that showed evidence of his troubled state but were taken as jokes by some of his viewers, rather than as genuine signs of mental illness. As a result, some took Amofah's final video as another joke and disregarded any concern over his well-being; YouTuber Keemstar initially thought Amofah's final video was a premeditated publicity stunt, stating after Amofah's death, "I was never fully convinced that he was mentally ill or in trouble because of our private convos." The aforementioned mental health researchers stressed the need to inform more people on social media about the signs of mental illness, depression and suicidal thoughts, so that they are able to better recognize when people in a mindset similar to Amofah's are in danger and need support. Keemstar briefly became a target of some of Amofah's fans, who blamed him for Amofah's suicide due to the "DramaAlert" interview and statements made in tweets prior to and following the interview. Keemstar later posted screenshots of a series of texts allegedly sent to him by Amofah's mother Sabrina, which stated that "Etika loved Keemstar's show" and had only wanted to make a memorable appearance on it. Despite Sabrina's alleged defense of Keemstar, he was later accused of influencing Amofah's death in May 2020 by Internet personality Ethan Klein. In response to this accusation, he stated: "I said some stuff that was completely stupid and wrong... but I did not kill this man." Keemstar also claimed that Amofah's friends and family had told Klein to stop using Amofah's suicide to attack him.


title: Etika

text: Shortly after Amofah's death, YouTuber ImJayStation posted a video where he attempted to contact Amofah from beyond the grave, which was widely criticized for being disrespectful.


title: Etika

text: Following Amofah's suicide, fans through both Twitter and email asked for YouTube to re-upload Amofah's final video to help memorialize him. A Change.org petition was started and initially garnered more than 380,000 signatures, but later dropped to 197,000 signatures after many fraudulent signatures from Internet bots were removed. It asked for Amofah's original channel to be restored to preserve his legacy. Another Change.org petition with over a million signatures, which later dropped to over 200,000 for similar reasons, called for Amofah to be buried at YouTube headquarters, which he stated was his wish during an earlier livestream.


title: Etika

text: Fans erected a memorial on Amofah's behalf on the pedestrian walkway of the Manhattan Bridge, leaving letters, fan art, Twizzlers, Nintendo-related products and other memorabilia.


title: Etika

text: On June 25, 2019, YouTuber Abe Hunter announced he was the owner and operator of Amofah's website, and subsequently converted it into a fundraiser site where 100% of the profits were to be donated to the National Alliance on Mental Illness (NAMI) in Amofah's name. On July 15, 2019, on behalf of the Joy-Con Boyz community, Abe Hunter donated the $11,315.25 raised in memory of Amofah.


title: Etika

text: Following Amofah's death, his half-brother Cardinal Valery began the #Etikaforever Movement in Amofah's memory.


title: Etika

text: On July 21, 2019, fellow YouTuber PewDiePie and American actor Jack Black started a fundraiser on the crowdfunding website GoFundMe for the NAMI. PewDiePie and Black streamed themselves playing "Minecraft" together to raise money for their fundraiser. PewDiePie himself donated $10,000, and raised over $30,000.


title: Etika

text: YouTubers Abe Hunter and Double-A worked with mural artist BK Foxx and graffiti artists Kestaadm and JMZWalls to create a 40-feet-long mural completed by November 2019 dedicated to Amofah in Bushwick, Brooklyn. The mural was created to celebrate Amofah's life and to help bring awareness to mental health issues. The mural's location was added as a virtual "PokéStop" in the augmented reality game "Pokémon Go" in February 2020 after over 350,000 people requested Niantic to add it in memory of Amofah.


title: Etika

text: In August 2019, an Indiegogo campaign was started on Amofah's behalf. The charity campaign was created to earn donations for The Jed Foundation. Contributors to the campaign received a custom-made pair of Etika-themed Joy-Con shells dubbed "Etikons". The campaign had raised over $10,000 by the end of 2019. Additional Etikons had been made and sold online after the campaign, but according to the individual selling the shells, Nintendo had sent them a cease and desist letter around September 2020 demanding they halt all further sales of the remaining stock due to the use of trademarked terms on the shells. Nintendo subsequently received criticism for this decision.


title: Etika

text: Amofah's Twitter account was hacked on August 24, 2019, which resulted in the account being suspended. The hacker wrote a series of offensive and disrespectful tweets, which gained mass backlash from Amofah's fans and friends. In response to the hacking, Twitter temporarily suspended Amofah's account, and reinstated it after the hacker's tweets were deleted. On February 14, 2020, Amofah's Twitter account was suspended a second time, but it was reinstated following requests from Amofah's fans.


title: Etika

text: Amofah was honored on the popular Minecraft multiplayer server 2b2t in August 2019 with their likeness recreated with in-game materials and displayed using map items.


title: Etika

text: On August 21, 2020, YouTuber and Amofah fan JoyConJames worked with clothing company Top Gun to bring back a discontinued purple bomber jacket, famously worn by Amofah. A portion of all proceeds from sales raised went to the National Alliance on Mental Illness (NAMI) in memory of Amofah.


title: Etika

text: In February 2021, fans of Amofah pointed out that the second DLC Fighter Pass for "Super Smash Bros. Ultimate" contains several characters Amofah had expressed a strong liking towards, including Pyra and Mythra from "Xenoblade Chronicles 2" and Min Min from "Arms".


title: Etika

text: In January 2022, a group named "EtikaPunks" produced a non-fungible token (NFT) collection of the same name, featuring pixelated drawings of Amofah in a style similar to CryptoPunks, one of which featured a bridge in the background (alluding to his suicide). The collection was condemned by Amofah's fans who considered it disrespectful and an attempt to "monetize Etika's passing".


title: Dianne Wiest

text: Dianne Evelyn Wiest (; born March 28, 1948) is an American actress. She has won two Academy Awards for Best Supporting Actress for 1986’s "Hannah and Her Sisters" and 1994’s "Bullets over Broadway" (both of which were directed by Woody Allen), one Golden Globe Award for "Bullets over Broadway", the 1997 Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Drama Series for "Road to Avonlea", and the 2008 Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series for "In Treatment". In addition, she was nominated for an Academy Award for 1989’s "Parenthood".


title: Dianne Wiest

text: Other film appearances by Wiest include "Footloose" (1984); Woody Allen's "The Purple Rose of Cairo" (1985), "Radio Days" (1987), and "September" (1987); "The Lost Boys" (1987), "Bright Lights, Big City" (1988), "Edward Scissorhands" (1990), "Little Man Tate" (1991), "The Birdcage" (1996), "Practical Magic" (1998), "Dan in Real Life" (2007), "Synecdoche, New York" (2008), "Rabbit Hole" (2010), "Sisters" (2015), "Let Them All Talk" (2020) and "I Care a Lot" (2020). She also appeared in the television series "Law & Order" (2000–02), and the CBS comedy "Life in Pieces" (2015–2019).


title: Dianne Wiest

text: Wiest was born in Kansas City, Missouri. Her mother, Anne Stewart ("née" Keddie), was a nurse. Her father, Bernard John Wiest, was a college dean and former psychiatric social worker for the U.S. Army. Her mother was Scottish, from Auchtermuchty, while her father was an American of Croatian and German descent. They met in Algiers. Wiest has two brothers, Greg and Don. Her ambition was to be a ballet dancer, but she switched her goal to theater in her senior year at Nurnberg American High School. Wiest graduated from the University of Maryland in 1969 with a degree in Arts and Sciences.


title: Dianne Wiest

text: Wiest studied theater at the University of Maryland, leaving after her third term to tour with a Shakespearean troupe. Later, she had a supporting role in a New York Shakespeare Festival production of "Ashes". She also acted at the Yale Repertory Theatre in New Haven, Connecticut, playing the title role in Henrik Ibsen's "Hedda Gabler". She was an understudy both off-Broadway and on Broadway, in Kurt Vonnegut's "Happy Birthday, Wanda June" in 1970.


title: Dianne Wiest

text: She made her Broadway debut in Robert Anderson's "Solitaire/Double Solitaire", taking over in the role of the daughter in 1971. She landed a four-year job as a member of the Arena Stage in Washington, D.C., in such roles as Emily in "Our Town", Honey in "Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf?", and leading roles in S. Ansky's "The Dybbuk", Maxim Gorky's "The Lower Depths" and George Bernard Shaw's "Heartbreak House". She toured the USSR with the Arena Stage.


title: Dianne Wiest

text: In 1976, Wiest attended the Eugene O'Neill National Playwrights Conference and starred in leading roles in Amlin Gray's "Pirates" and Christopher Durang's "A History of the American Film". At Joe Papp's Public Theater she took over the lead in "Ashes", and played Cassandra in "Agamemnon", directed by Andrei Șerban. In 1979, she originated the role of Agnes in "Agnes of God" in its first production in Waterford, Connecticut.


title: Dianne Wiest

text: She appeared in two plays by Tina Howe: "Museum" and "The Art of Dining". In the latter, Wiest's performance as the shy and awkward author Elizabeth Barrow Colt won three off-Broadway theater awards: an Obie Award (1980), a Theatre World Award (1979–1980), and the Clarence Derwent Award (1980), given yearly for the most promising performance in New York theatre.


title: Dianne Wiest

text: On Broadway she appeared in "Frankenstein" (1981), directed by Tom Moore, portrayed Desdemona in "Othello" (1982) opposite James Earl Jones and Christopher Plummer and co-starred with John Lithgow in Christopher Durang's romantic screwball comedy "Beyond Therapy" (1982), directed by John Madden. (She played opposite Lithgow again in the Herbert Ross film "Footloose"). During the 1980s, she also performed in "Hedda Gabler", directed by Lloyd Richards at Yale Repertory Theatre, and in Harold Pinter's "A Kind of Alaska" (1984, Manhattan Theatre Club), Lanford Wilson's "Serenading Louie" (1984), and Janusz Glowacki's "Hunting Cockroaches" (1987, Manhattan Theater Club).


title: Dianne Wiest

text: As Wiest became established as a film actress through her work in Woody Allen's films, she was less frequently available for stage roles. However, she did appear onstage during the 1990s, in "In the Summer House", "Square One", Cynthia Ozick's "The Shawl", and Naomi Wallace's "One Flea Spare". In 2003, she appeared with Al Pacino and Marisa Tomei in Oscar Wilde's "Salome". In 2005, she starred in Kathleen Tolan's "Memory House". She also starred in a production of Wendy Wasserstein's final play "Third" (directed by Daniel Sullivan) at Lincoln Center.


title: Dianne Wiest

text: Later New York theater roles include performances as Arkadina in an off-Broadway revival of "The Seagull" (opposite Alan Cumming's Trigorin) and as Kate Keller in a Broadway revival of Arthur Miller's "All My Sons", opposite John Lithgow, Patrick Wilson, and Katie Holmes. In 2009, Wiest appeared in the National Memorial Day Concert on the Mall in Washington, D.C. in a dialogue with Katie Holmes celebrating the life of an American veteran seriously wounded in Iraq, José Pequeño.


title: Dianne Wiest

text: Wiest spent September 2010 as a visiting teacher at Columbia University's Graduate Acting Program, working with a group of 18 first-year MFA Acting students on selected plays by Anton Chekhov and Arthur Miller.


title: Dianne Wiest

text: In 2016 she took on the role of "Winnie" in The Yale Repertory Theatre's production of Samuel Beckett's, "Happy Days". She reprised the role for Theatre for a New Audience in downtown Brooklyn, New York, in the spring of 2017 and the Mark Taper Forum in Los Angeles in 2019.


title: Dianne Wiest

text: Her early screen roles include small roles in "It's My Turn" (credited onscreen as Diane Wiest) and "I'm Dancing as Fast as I Can", both starring Jill Clayburgh in the lead roles. In 1984, she starred in "Footloose", as the reverend's wife and Ariel's mother.


title: Dianne Wiest

text: Under Woody Allen's direction, Wiest won an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress for "Hannah and Her Sisters" in 1987 and "Bullets over Broadway" in 1995. She also appeared in three other Woody Allen films: "The Purple Rose of Cairo" (1985), "Radio Days" (1987) and "September" (1987).


title: Dianne Wiest

text: She followed her first Oscar success with performances in "The Lost Boys" (1987) and "Bright Lights, Big City" (1988). She also starred with Steve Martin, Mary Steenburgen, Jason Robards, Keanu Reeves and Martha Plimpton in Ron Howard's "Parenthood", for which she received her second Oscar nomination.


title: Dianne Wiest

text: Other major film roles include Tim Burton's "Edward Scissorhands" (1990), Jodie Foster's "Little Man Tate" (1991) and "The Birdcage" (1996), Mike Nichols' remake of "La Cage aux Folles".


title: Dianne Wiest

text: On television, her performance on the series "Road to Avonlea" in 1989 brought her her first Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Dramatic Series. She received another nomination for her performance in the 1999 telefilm "The Simple Life of Noah Dearborn", co-starring Sidney Poitier. She starred in the television mini-series "The 10th Kingdom" in 2000.


title: Dianne Wiest

text: From 2000 to 2002, Wiest portrayed interim District Attorney Nora Lewin in the long-running NBC crime drama "Law & Order". She also played the character in two episodes of "" and the of "".


title: Dianne Wiest

text: Wiest starred alongside Steve Carell and Juliette Binoche in "Dan in Real Life" (2007) and had a key supporting role in Charlie Kaufman's 2008 film "Synecdoche, New York".


title: Dianne Wiest

text: In 2008, she appeared as Gabriel Byrne's therapist, Gina Toll, on the HBO television series "In Treatment", for which she received her second Emmy Award, for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series. She received another nomination (in the same category) for the second season, in 2009, but did not win.


title: Dianne Wiest

text: She starred alongside Nicole Kidman in "Rabbit Hole" (2010), which debuted at the Toronto International Film Festival. Wiest also co-starred in Lawrence Kasdan's 2012 comedy "Darling Companion", alongside Kevin Kline and Diane Keaton. In 2020, Wiest starred in Steven Soderbergh's drama "Let Them All Talk" alongside Meryl Streep, and Candice Bergen. That same year she also starred opposite Rosamund Pike in the action thriller "I Care a Lot".


title: Dianne Wiest

text: Wiest was in a relationship with her talent agent Sam Cohn for three years in the mid-1980s. She adopted two daughters: Emily and Lily.


title: Dianne Wiest

text: Wiest has received three Academy Award nominations for Best Supporting Actress receiving two wins for her performances in the Woody Allen films "Hannah and Her Sisters" (1986) and "Bullets over Broadway" (1994). She also received four Primetime Emmy Award nominations for her work on television, winning two awards for "Road to Avonlea" (1996) and "In Treatment" (2008). She also received two Golden Globe Award nominations and two Screen Actors Guild Award nominations.


title: Laila Ali

text: Laila Amaria Ali (born December 30, 1977) is an American television personality and retired professional boxer who competed from 1999 to 2007. During her career, from which she retired undefeated, she held the WBC, WIBA, IWBF and IBA female super middleweight titles, and the IWBF light heavyweight title. Ali is widely regarded by many within the sport as one of the greatest female boxers of all time. She is the daughter of iconic boxer Muhammad Ali.


title: Laila Ali

text: Laila Amaria Ali was born December 30, 1977, in Miami Beach, Florida, the daughter of boxer Muhammad Ali and his third wife, Veronica Porché. Ali was a manicurist at age 16. She graduated from California's Santa Monica College with a business degree. She owned her own nail salon before she began boxing.


title: Laila Ali

text: Ali began boxing when she was 18 years old, after having first noticed women's boxing when watching a Christy Martin fight. She first publicized her decision to become a professional boxer in a "Good Morning America" interview with Diane Sawyer. When she first told her father, Muhammad Ali that she was planning to box professionally, he was unhappy about her entering such a dangerous profession. In her first match, on October 8, 1999, the 5'10", 166 lbs, 21-year-old Ali boxed April Fowler of Michigan City, Indiana. They fought at the Turning Stone Resort & Casino on the Oneida Indian Nation in Verona, New York. Although this was Ali's first match, many journalists and fans attended, largely because she was Muhammad Ali's daughter.


title: Laila Ali

text: Attention to Ali's ring debut was further boosted because it occurred on the eve of what was supposed to be the first male-female professional bout ever to be sanctioned by a US state boxing commission – later ruled an exhibition. As WomenBoxing.com explains: "The near-alignment of the two events focused more attention on female professional boxing than there had been since Christy Martin's 1996 pay-per-view fight with Deirdre Gogarty." Ali knocked out Fowler – described by WomenBoxing.com as an "out-of-shape novice" – in the first round. Ali also won her second match by a TKO with only 3 seconds left on the clock. In that match her opponent was 5'4" Shadina Pennybaker, from Pittsburgh, who was making a pro debut after earning a 2–1 record as an amateur. They fought at the Mountaineer Casino, Racetrack and Resort in Chester, West Virginia.


title: Laila Ali

text: Ali captured nine wins in a row and many boxing fans expressed a desire to see her square off in a boxing ring with George Foreman's daughter, Freeda Foreman or Joe Frazier's daughter, Jacqui Frazier-Lyde. On the evening of June 8, 2001, Ali and Frazier finally met. The fight was nicknamed "Ali/Frazier IV" in allusion to their fathers' famous fight trilogy. Ali won by a majority judges' decision in eight rounds (79–73, 77–75, 76–76). Frazier-Lyde ended the fight with a swollen eye while Ali had a fractured left collarbone and a bloodied nose. This match by Ali and Frazier was the first main-event pay-per-view match between two women. After a year's hiatus, on June 7, 2002, Ali beat Shirvelle Williams in a six-round decision.


title: Laila Ali

text: She won the IBA title with a second-round knockout of Suzette Taylor on August 17, 2002, in Las Vegas. On November 8, she retained that title and unified the crown by adding the WIBA and IWBF belts with an eight-round TKO win over her division's other world champion, Valerie Mahfood, in Las Vegas. Ali stopped a bloodied Mahfood in eight rounds. On June 21, 2003, Mahfood and Ali fought a rematch, this time in Los Angeles. Once again bloodied by Ali, Mahfood lost by TKO in six rounds while trying to recover her world title. Nevertheless, Ali suffered a bad cut on her right eyelid for the first time in her career, inflicted by Mahfood. Ali also suffered a bloodied nose for the second time in her career during this fight, the first being in Ali's fight with Frazier-Lyde two years previously. On August 23, 2003, Ali fought her original inspiration, Christy Martin, beating Martin by a knockout in four rounds. On July 17, 2004, Ali retained her world title, knocking out Nikki Eplion in four rounds.


title: Laila Ali

text: On July 30, 2004, she stopped Monica Nunez in nine rounds, in her father's native city of Louisville, Kentucky. This fight was part of the undercard for the fight in which Mike Tyson was surprisingly knocked out by fringe contender Danny Williams. On September 24, 2004, Ali added the IWBF Light Heavyweight title to her resume by beating Gwendolyn O'Neil (whom she had earlier canceled a fight against) by a knockout in three rounds, at Atlanta, Georgia. On February 1, 2005, in Atlanta, Ali scored a commanding and decisive eighth-round technical knockout over Cassandra Geiggar in a ten-round fight.


title: Laila Ali

text: On June 11, 2005, on the undercard to the Tyson-Kevin McBride fight, Ali defeated Erin Toughill in round three to remain undefeated and won the World Boxing Council title in addition to defending her WIBA crown. She was the second woman to win a WBC title (Jackie Nava was the first). Toughill and Ali disliked each other, and prior to the fight Toughill joked about Ali. Ali promised she would punish Toughill, much like her father did with Ernie Terrell back in 1967. On December 17, 2005, in Berlin, Ali fought and defeated Åsa Sandell by TKO in the fifth round. Following Ali's hard right to Sandell's face with 17 seconds remaining in Round 5, Sandell was struck by numerous undefended shots to her head. The referee stopped the bout with 12 seconds remaining. Muhammad Ali was in attendance and kissed his daughter.


title: Laila Ali

text: While a guest on "Quite Frankly with Stephen A. Smith" on June 7, 2006, Ali announced that she would be making a world tour, and said that she was looking forward to fighting Ann Wolfe in October 2006. However, the fight with Wolfe never materialized. Instead, on November 11, 2006, Ali fought and defeated Shelley Burton by TKO in the fourth round. Ali was rescheduled to fight O'Neil in Cape Town, on August 5, 2006, but Ali pulled out amid allegations of fraud. The match eventually took place in South Africa on February 2, 2007. Ali defeated O'Neil in the first-round by technical knockout. It was Ali's last professional fight.


title: Laila Ali

text: In 2000, Ali played herself in an episode of "The Jersey" called "Bat Girl" in which Morgan Hudson (played by Courtnee Draper) turns to her in order to get a little more of a perspective as she learns the true meaning of girl power. In 2002, she appeared as herself on the UPN sitcoms "One on One" and "Girlfriends". In early 2002, Ali appeared in a boxing role for the music video "Deny" by Canadian hard rock band Default. The video gained airplay on music channels including MTV2 and MMUSA. In 2004, Ali appeared on the "George Lopez" show, where she owned a gym, as well as on "Real Husbands of Hollywood".


title: Laila Ali

text: In mid-2007, Ali was a participant in season four of the American version of the television show "Dancing with the Stars"; she had no previous dancing experience. She and her professional dancing partner, Maksim Chmerkovskiy, were widely praised by the judges, receiving the first "10" from judge Len Goodman for their rumba. They came in third place in the competition, losing to Apolo Anton Ohno (with Julianne Hough) and Joey Fatone (with Kym Johnson).


title: Laila Ali

text: Ali hosted the revival of "American Gladiators" alongside Hulk Hogan. The show premiered in January 2008. Ali and the cast of "American Gladiators" appeared on the NBC show "Celebrity Family Feud" (Roker) in an episode that aired on July 8, 2008. Ali joined the CBS team as a contributing correspondent on "The Early Show" with her first appearance in early January 2008.


title: Laila Ali

text: She hosted "The N's Student Body", a reality show on The N. Ali also appeared in a 2007 episode of "Yo Gabba Gabba!", titled "Train", in a brief dance number, and on "Love That Girl", episode 3.4, "Fighting Shape".


title: Laila Ali

text: In 2012, Ali was picked to co-host "Everyday Health" with Ethan Zohn and Jenna Morasca. The show aired on ABC Saturday mornings and profiled everyday people living with health issues, who aspired to not let their issues keep them from helping others or doing extraordinary things. The show lasted for one season. Also in 2012, Ali appeared in a Kohl's commercial with a tag line, "I box to win; I shop to win.". Ali was a contestant on the NBC celebrity reality competition series called "Stars Earn Stripes" from August 2012 to September 2012.


title: Laila Ali

text: On February 4, 2013, Ali appeared on the NBC reality series, "The Biggest Loser" in the episode "Lead By Example". In the episode, she boxed alongside Dolvett Quince's team, consisting of Jackson Carter, Joe Ostaszewski and Francelina Morillo. In March 2013, Ali started appearing as a co-host on multiple episodes of the E! talk show series "Fashion Police" filling in for Giuliana Rancic ,who was on maternity leave. In May 2013, Ali once again filled in for Rancic, who had other commitments and was unable to attend the show.


title: Laila Ali

text: In May 2014, Ali participated in an episode of "Celebrity Wife Swap". She swapped places with singer Angie Stone and tried to instill healthier habits on the family. In April 2013, Ali participated in two episodes of "Chopped: All Stars", making it to the final round, competing for a favorite charity. In September 2013, Ali began hosting "All In with Laila Ali", a new show in the CBS Saturday morning lineup "CBS Dream Team". The following year, she began hosting "Late Night Chef Fight" on the cable network FYI. In 2014, she appeared in the film "Falcon Rising". She was a participant of "The New Celebrity Apprentice" (also known as "The Apprentice 15" and "The Celebrity Apprentice 8") but terminated after 11th task.


title: Laila Ali

text: In 2019, Ali participated in the second season of "The Masked Singer" as "Panda". She was eliminated at the end of her episode.


title: Laila Ali

text: In 2002, Ali wrote (with co-author David Ritz) the book "Reach! Finding Strength, Spirit, and Personal Power." In this book, she confides that she felt isolated at times because of her father's fame. Ali has also spent some time in jail, and describes her arrests and the physical abuse she experienced in jail. Ali married Johnny "Yahya" McClain on August 27, 2000. McClain became Ali's manager and helped guide her career. In late 2005, Ali and McClain divorced and McClain quit managing Ali.


title: Laila Ali

text: On July 23, 2007, Ali married former NFL player Curtis Conway in Los Angeles. They have two children together: a son born in August 2008, and a daughter born in April 2011. Ali is the stepmother of Conway's three children. Professional wrestling legend Hulk Hogan credits Ali with saving his life by telephoning him when he was depressed and suicidal. Ali is the sister-in-law of professional mixed martial artist Kevin Casey, who is married to her sister Hana. In 2007, Ali retired from professional boxing.


title: Secondary school

text: A secondary school describes an institution that provides secondary education and also usually includes the building where this takes place. Some secondary schools provide both " lower secondary education" (ages 11 to 14) and "upper secondary education" (ages 14 to 18), i.e., both levels 2 and 3 of the ISCED scale, but these can also be provided in separate schools.


title: Secondary school

text: In the US, the secondary education system has separate middle schools and high schools. In the UK, most state schools and privately-funded schools accommodate pupils between the ages of 11–16 or 11–18; some UK private schools, i.e. public schools, admit pupils between the ages of 13 and 18.


title: Secondary school

text: Secondary schools follow on from primary schools and prepare for vocational or tertiary education. Attendance is usually compulsory for students until age 16. The organisations, buildings, and terminology are more or less unique in each country.


title: Secondary school

text: In the ISCED 2011 education scale levels 2 and 3 correspond to secondary education which are as follows:


title: Secondary school

text: Within the English-speaking world, there are three widely used systems to describe the age of the child. The first is the 'equivalent ages'; then countries that base their education systems on the 'English model' use one of two methods to identify the year group, while countries that base their systems on the 'American K–12 model' refer to their year groups as 'grades'. The Irish model is structured similarly to the English model, but differs significantly in terms of labels. This terminology extends into the research literature. Below is a comparison of some countries:


title: Secondary school

text: Schools exist within a strict legal framework, where they may be answerable to the church, the state through local authorities and their stakeholders. In England (but necessarily in other parts of the United Kingdom) there are six general types of state funded schools running in parallel to the private sector. The state takes an interest in safeguarding issues in all schools. All state-funded schools in England are legally required to have a website where they must publish details of their governance, finance, curriculum intent and staff and pupil protection policies to comply with ' "The School Information (England) (Amendment) Regulations 2012 and 2016" '. Ofsted monitors these.


title: Secondary school

text: School building design does not happen in isolation. The building (or school campus) needs to accommodate:


title: Secondary school

text: Each country will have a different education system and priorities. Schools need to accommodate students, staff, storage, mechanical and electrical systems, support staff, ancillary staff and administration. The number of rooms required can be determined from the predicted roll of the school and the area needed.


title: Secondary school

text: According to standards used in the United Kingdom, a general classroom for 30 students needs to be 55 m, or more generously 62 m. A general art room for 30 students needs to be 83 m, but 104 m for 3D textile work. A drama studio or a specialist science laboratory for 30 needs to be 90 m. Examples are given on how this can be configured for a 1,200 place secondary (practical specialism). and 1,850 place secondary school.


title: Secondary school

text: The building providing the education has to fulfill the needs of: The students, the teachers, the non-teaching support staff, the administrators and the community. It has to meet general government building guidelines, health requirements, minimal functional requirements for classrooms, toilets and showers, electricity and services, preparation and storage of textbooks and basic teaching aids. An optimum secondary school will meet the minimum conditions and will have:


title: Secondary school

text: Government accountants having read the advice then publish minimum guidelines on schools. These enable environmental modelling and establishing building costs. Future design plans are audited to ensure that these standards are met but not exceeded. Government ministries continue to press for the 'minimum' space and cost standards to be reduced.


title: Secondary school

text: The UK government published this downwardly revised space formula in 2014. It said the floor area should be 1050 m (+ 350 m if there is a sixth form) + 6.3 m/pupil place for 11- to 16-year-old's + 7 m/pupil place for post-16s. The external finishes were to be downgraded to meet a build cost of £1113/m.


title: Secondary school

text: A secondary school locally may be called a high school (abbreviated as HS or H.S.), can also be called senior high school. In some countries there are two phases to secondary education (ISCED 2) and (ISCED 3), here the junior high school, intermediate school, lower secondary school, or middle school occurs between the primary school (ISCED 1) and high school.


title: Blu-ray

text: The Blu-ray Disc (BD), often known simply as Blu-ray, is a digital optical disc data storage format. It was invented and developed in 2005 and released on June 20, 2006 worldwide. It is designed to supersede the DVD format, and capable of storing several hours of high-definition video (HDTV 720p and 1080p). The main application of Blu-ray is as a medium for video material such as feature films and for the physical distribution of video games for the PlayStation 3, PlayStation 4, PlayStation 5, Xbox One, and Xbox Series X. The name "Blu-ray" refers to the blue laser (which is actually a violet laser) used to read the disc, which allows information to be stored at a greater density than is possible with the longer-wavelength red laser used for DVDs.


title: Blu-ray

text: The polycarbonate disc is in diameter and thick, the same size as DVDs and CDs. Conventional or pre-BD-XL Blu-ray Discs contain 25 GB per layer, with dual-layer discs (50 GB) being the industry standard for feature-length video discs. Triple-layer discs (100 GB) and quadruple-layer discs (128 GB) are available for "BD-XL" re-writer drives.


title: Blu-ray

text: High-definition (HD) video may be stored on Blu-ray Discs with up to 1920×1080 pixel resolution, at 24& 50/60 progressive or 50/60 interlaced frames per second. DVD-Video discs were limited to a maximum resolution of 480 (NTSC, 720×480 pixels) or 576 lines (CCIR 625/50, 720×576 pixels, commonly used with PAL). Besides these hardware specifications, Blu-ray is associated with a set of multimedia formats.


title: Blu-ray

text: The BD format was developed by the Blu-ray Disc Association, a group representing makers of consumer electronics, computer hardware, and motion pictures. Sony unveiled the first Blu-ray Disc prototypes in October 2000, and the first prototype player was released in Japan in April 2003. Afterward, it continued to be developed until its official worldwide release on June 20, 2006, beginning the high-definition optical disc format war, where Blu-ray Disc competed with the HD DVD format. Toshiba, the main company supporting HD DVD, conceded in February 2008, and later released its own Blu-ray Disc player in late 2009. According to Media Research, high-definition software sales in the United States were slower in the first two years than DVD software sales. Blu-ray faces competition from video on demand (VOD) and the continued sale of DVDs. In January 2016, 44% of U.S. broadband households had a Blu-ray player. For playback of 4K content, the BDA introduced a variant of Blu-ray called Ultra HD Blu-ray.


title: Blu-ray

text: The information density of the DVD format was limited by the wavelength of the laser diodes used. Following protracted development, blue laser diodes operating at 405 nanometers became available on a production basis, allowing for development of a denser storage format that could hold higher-definition media, with prototype discs made with diodes at a slightly longer wavelength of 407 nanometers in October 1998. Sony commmenced two projects in collaboration with Panasonic, Philips, and TDK, applying the new diodes: UDO (Ultra Density Optical), and DVR Blue (together with Pioneer), a format of rewritable discs that would eventually become Blu-ray Disc (more specifically, BD-RE). The core technologies of the formats are similar. The first DVR Blue prototypes were unveiled by Sony at the CEATEC exhibition in October 2000. A trademark for the "Blue Disc" logo was filed on February 9, 2001. On February 19, 2002, the project was officially announced as Blu-ray Disc, and Blu-ray Disc Founders was founded by the nine initial members.


title: Blu-ray

text: The first consumer device arrived in stores on April 10, 2003: the Sony BDZ-S77, a US$3,800 BD-RE recorder that was made available only in Japan. However, there was no standard for pre-recorded video, and no movies were released for this player. Hollywood studios insisted that players be equipped with digital rights management before they would release movies for the new format, and they wanted a new DRM system that would be more secure than the failed Content Scramble System (CSS) used on DVDs. On October 4, 2004, the name "Blu-ray Disc Founders" was officially changed to the Blu-ray Disc Association (BDA), and 20th Century Fox joined the BDA's Board of Directors. The Blu-ray Disc physical specifications were completed in 2004.


title: Blu-ray

text: In January 2005, TDK announced that it had developed an ultra-hard yet very thin polymer coating ("Durabis") for Blu-ray Discs; this was a significant technical advance because a far tougher protection was desired in the consumer market to protect bare discs against scratching and damage compared to DVD, while technically Blu-ray Disc required a much "thinner" layer for the denser and higher-frequency blue laser. Cartridges, originally used for scratch protection, were no longer necessary and were scrapped. The BD-ROM specifications were finalized in early 2006.


title: Blu-ray

text: Advanced Access Content System Licensing Administrator (AACS LA), a consortium founded in 2004, had been developing the DRM platform that could be used to securely distribute movies to consumers. However, the final AACS standard was delayed, and then delayed again when an important member of the Blu-ray Disc group voiced concerns. At the request of the initial hardware manufacturers, including Toshiba, Pioneer, and Samsung, an interim standard was published that did not include some features, such as managed copy.


title: Blu-ray

text: The first BD-ROM players (Samsung BD-P1000) were shipped in mid-June 2006, though HD DVD players beat them to market by a few months. The first Blu-ray Disc titles were released on June 20, 2006: "50 First Dates", "The Fifth Element", "Hitch", "House of Flying Daggers", "", "xXx" (all from Sony), and MGM's "The Terminator". The earliest releases used MPEG-2 video compression, the same method used on standard DVDs. The first releases using the newer VC-1 and AVC formats were introduced in September 2006. The first movies using 50 GB dual-layer discs were introduced in October 2006. The first audio-only albums were released in May 2008.


title: Blu-ray

text: By June 2008, over 2,500 Blu-ray Disc titles were available in Australia and the United Kingdom, with 3,500 in the United States and Canada. In Japan, over 3,300 titles had been released as of July 2010.


title: Blu-ray

text: The DVD Forum, chaired by Toshiba, was split over whether to develop the more expensive blue laser technology. In March 2002 the forum approved a proposal, which was endorsed by Warner Bros. and other motion picture studios. The proposal involved compressing high-definition video onto dual-layer standard DVD-9 discs. In spite of this decision, however, the DVD Forum's Steering Committee announced in April that it was pursuing its own blue-laser high-definition video solution. In August, Toshiba and NEC announced their competing standard, the Advanced Optical Disc. It was finally adopted by the DVD Forum and renamed HD DVD the next year, after being voted down twice by DVD Forum members who were also Blu-ray Disc Association members—a situation that drew preliminary investigations by the U.S. Department of Justice.


title: Blu-ray

text: HD DVD had a head start in the high-definition video market, as Blu-ray Disc sales were slow to gain market share. The first Blu-ray Disc player was perceived as expensive and buggy, and there were few titles available.


title: Blu-ray

text: The Sony PlayStation 3, which contained a Blu-ray Disc player for primary storage, helped support Blu-ray. Sony also ran a more thorough and influential marketing campaign for the format. AVCHD camcorders were also introduced in 2006. These recordings can be played back on many Blu-ray Disc players without re-encoding but are not compatible with HD DVD players. By January 2007, Blu-ray Discs had outsold HD DVDs, and during the first three quarters of 2007, BD outsold HD DVD by about two to one. At CES 2007, Warner proposed Total Hi Def—a hybrid disc containing Blu-ray on one side and HD DVD on the other, but it was never released.


title: Blu-ray

text: On June 28, 2007, 20th Century Fox cited Blu-ray Discs' adoption of the BD+ anticopying system as key to their decision to support the Blu-ray Disc format.


title: Blu-ray

text: On January 4, 2008, a day before CES 2008, Warner Bros., the only major studio still releasing movies in both HD DVD and Blu-ray Disc format, announced that it would release only in Blu-ray after May 2008. This effectively included other studios that came under the Warner umbrella, such as New Line Cinema and HBO—though in Europe, HBO's distribution partner, the BBC, announced it would continue to release product on both formats while keeping an eye on market forces. This led to a chain reaction in the industry, with major American retailers such as Best Buy, Walmart, and Circuit City and Canadian chains such as Future Shop dropping HD DVD in their stores. Woolworths, then a major European retailer, dropped HD DVD from its inventory. Major DVD rental companies Netflix and Blockbuster said they would no longer carry HD DVD.


title: Blu-ray

text: Following these new developments, on February 19, 2008, Toshiba announced it would end production of HD DVD devices, allowing Blu-ray Disc to become the industry standard for high-density optical discs. Universal Studios, the sole major studio to back HD DVD since its inception, said shortly after Toshiba's announcement: "While Universal values the close partnership we have shared with Toshiba, it is time to turn our focus to releasing new and catalog titles on Blu-ray Disc." Paramount Pictures, which started releasing movies only in HD DVD format during late 2007, also said it would start releasing on Blu-ray Disc. Both studios announced initial Blu-ray lineups in May 2008. With this, all major Hollywood studios supported Blu-ray.


title: Blu-ray

text: According to Media Research, high-definition software sales in the United States were slower in the first two years than DVD software sales. 16.3 million DVD software units were sold in the first two years (1997–1998) compared to 8.3 million high-definition software units (2006–2007). One reason given for this difference was the smaller marketplace (26.5 million HDTVs in 2007 compared to 100 million SDTVs in 1998). Former HD DVD supporter Microsoft did not make a Blu-ray Disc drive for the Xbox 360. The 360's successor Xbox One features a Blu-ray drive, as does the PS4, with both supporting 3D Blu-ray after later firmware updates.


title: Blu-ray

text: Shortly after the "format war" ended, Blu-ray Disc sales began to increase. A study by the NPD Group found that awareness of Blu-ray Disc had reached 60% of households in the United States. Nielsen VideoScan sales numbers showed that for some titles, such as 20th Century Fox's "Hitman", up to 14% of total disc sales were from Blu-ray, although the average Blu-ray sales for the first half of the year were only around 5%. In December 2008, the Blu-ray Disc version of Warner Bros.' "The Dark Knight" sold 600,000 copies on the first day of its launch in the United States, Canada, and the United Kingdom. A week after the launch, "The Dark Knight" BD had sold over 1.7 million copies worldwide, making it the first Blu-ray Disc title to sell over a million copies in the first week of release.


title: Blu-ray

text: According to Singulus Technologies AG, Blu-ray was adopted faster than the DVD format was at a similar period in its development. This conclusion was based on the fact that Singulus Technologies received orders for 21 Blu-ray dual-layer replication machines during the first quarter of 2008, while 17 DVD replication machines of this type were made in the same period in 1997. According to GfK Retail and Technology, in the first week of November 2008, sales of Blu-ray recorders surpassed DVD recorders in Japan. According to the Digital Entertainment Group, the number of Blu-ray Disc playback devices (both set-top box and game console) sold in the United States had reached 28.5 million by the end of 2010.


title: Blu-ray

text: Blu-ray faces competition from video on demand and from new technologies that allow access to movies on any format or device, such as Digital Entertainment Content Ecosystem or Disney's Keychest. Some commentators suggested that renting Blu-ray would play a vital part in keeping the technology affordable while allowing it to move forward. In an effort to increase sales, studios began releasing films in combo packs with Blu-ray Discs and DVDs, as well as digital copies that can be played on computers and mobile devices. Some are released on "flipper" discs with Blu-ray on one side and DVD on the other. Other strategies are to release movies with the special features only on Blu-ray Discs and none on DVDs.


title: Blu-ray

text: Blu-ray Discs cost no more to produce than DVD discs. However, reading and writing mechanisms are more complicated, making Blu-ray recorders, drives and players more expensive than their DVD counterparts. Adoption is also limited due to the widespread use of streaming media. Blu-ray Discs are used to distribute PlayStation 3, PlayStation 4, PlayStation 5, Xbox One and Xbox Series X games, and the aforementioned game consoles can play back regular Blu-ray Discs.


title: Blu-ray

text: Ultra HD Blu-ray discs and players became available in the first quarter of 2016, having a storage capacity of up to 100 GB.


title: Blu-ray

text: The Holographic Versatile Disc (HVD), described in the ECMA-377 standard, was in development by the Holography System Development (HSD) Forum using a green writing/reading laser (532 nm) and a red positioning/addressing laser (650 nm). It was to offer MPEG-2, MPEG-4 AVC (H.264), HEVC (H.265), and VC-1 encoding, supporting a maximum storage capacity of 6TB. No systems conforming to the Ecma International HVD standard have been released. The company responsible for HVD went bankrupt in 2010, making any releases unlikely.


title: Blu-ray

text: Although the Blu-ray Disc specification has been finalized, engineers continue to work on advancing the technology. By 2005, quad-layer (100 GB) discs had been demonstrated on a drive with modified optics and standard unaltered optics. Hitachi stated that such a disc could be used to store 7 hours of 32 Mbit/s video (HDTV) or 3 hours and 30 minutes of 64 Mbit/s video (ultra-high-definition television). In April 2006, TDK canceled plans to produce 8-layer 200 GB Blu-ray Discs. In August 2006, TDK announced that it had created a working experimental Blu-ray Disc capable of holding 200 GB of data on a single side, using six 33 GB data layers. In 2007, Hitachi was reported to have plans to produce 200 GB disks by 2009.


title: Blu-ray

text: Behind closed doors at CES 2007, Ritek revealed that it had successfully developed a high-definition optical disc process that extended the disc capacity to ten layers, increasing the capacity of the discs to 250 GB. However, it noted the major obstacle was that current read/write technology did not allow additional layers. JVC developed a three-layer technology that allows putting both standard-definition DVD data and HD data on a BD/(standard) DVD combination. This would have enabled the consumer to purchase a disc that can be played on DVD players and can also reveal its HD version when played on a BD player. Japanese optical disc manufacturer Infinity announced the first "hybrid" Blu-ray Disc/(standard) DVD combo, to be released February 18, 2009. This disc set of the TV series "Code Blue" featured four hybrid discs containing a single Blu-ray Disc layer (25 GB) and two DVD layers (9 GB) on the same side of the disc.


title: Blu-ray

text: In January 2007, Hitachi showcased a 100 GB Blu-ray Disc, consisting of four layers containing 25 GB each. It claimed that, unlike TDK's and Panasonic's 100 GB discs, this disc would be readable on standard Blu-ray Disc drives that were currently in circulation, and it was believed that a firmware update was the only requirement to make it readable by then-current players and drives. In October 2007 they revealed a 100GB Blu-ray Disc drive. In December 2008, Pioneer Corporation unveiled a 400 GB Blu-ray Disc (containing 16 data layers, 25 GB each) compatible with current players after a firmware update. Its planned launch was in the 2009–10 time frame for ROM and 2010–13 for rewritable discs. Ongoing development was underway to create a 1 TB Blu-ray Disc.


title: Blu-ray

text: At CES 2009, Panasonic unveiled the DMP-B15, the first portable Blu-ray Disc player, and Sharp introduced the LC-BD60U and LC-BD80U series, the first LCD HDTVs with integrated Blu-ray Disc players. Sharp also announced that it would sell HDTVs with integrated Blu-ray Disc recorders in the United States by the end of 2009. Set-top box recorders were not being sold in the U.S. for fear of unauthorized copying. However, personal computers with Blu-ray recorder drives were available. In October 2009, TDK demonstrated a 10-layer 320 GB Blu-ray Disc. On January 1, 2010, Sony, in association with Panasonic, announced plans to increase the storage capacity on their Blu-ray Discs from 25 GB to 33.4 GB via a technology called i-MLSE (Maximum likelihood Sequence Estimation). The higher-capacity discs, according to Sony, would be readable on existing Blu-ray Disc players with a firmware upgrade. This technology was later used on BDXL discs.


title: Blu-ray

text: On July 20, 2010, the research team of Sony and Japanese Tohoku University announced the joint development of a blue-violet laser, to help create Blu-ray Discs with a capacity of 1 TB using only two layers (and potentially more than 1 TB with additional layering). By comparison, the first blue laser was invented in 1996, with the first prototype discs coming four years later.


title: Blu-ray

text: On January 7, 2013, Sony announced that it would release "Mastered in 4K" Blu-ray Disc titles sourced at 4K and encoded at 1080p. "Mastered in 4K" Blu-ray Disc titles can be played on existing Blu-ray Disc players and have a larger color space using xvYCC. On January 14, 2013, Blu-ray Disc Association president Andy Parsons stated that a task force was created three months prior to conduct a study concerning an extension to the Blu-ray Disc specification that would add the ability to contain 4K Ultra HD video.


title: Blu-ray

text: On August 5, 2015, the Blu-ray Disc Association (BDA) announced it would commence licensing the Ultra HD Blu-ray format starting on August 24, 2015. The Ultra HD Blu-ray format delivered high dynamic range content that significantly expanded the range between the brightest and darkest elements, expanded color range, high frame rate (up to 60fps) and up to 3840×2160 resolution, object-based sound formats, and an optional "digital bridge" feature. New players were required to play this format, which were able to play both DVDs, traditional Blu-rays and the new format. New Ultra HD Blu-ray Discs hold up to 66 GB and 100 GB of data on dual- and triple-layer discs, respectively.


title: Blu-ray

text: Blu-ray's physical and file system specifications are publicly available on the Blu-ray Disc association's website.


title: Blu-ray

text: While a DVD uses a 650 nm red laser, Blu-ray Disc uses a 405 nm "blue" laser diode. Although the laser is called "blue", its color is actually in the violet range. The shorter wavelength can be focused to a smaller area, thus enabling it to read information recorded in pits that are less than half the size of those on a DVD, and can consequently be spaced more closely, resulting in a shorter track pitch, enabling a Blu-ray Disc to hold about five times the amount of information that can be stored on a DVD. The lasers are GaN (gallium nitride) laser diodes that produce 405 nm light directly, that is, without frequency doubling or other nonlinear optical mechanisms. CDs use 780 nm near-infrared lasers.


title: Blu-ray

text: The minimum "spot size" on which a laser can be focused is limited by diffraction and depends on the wavelength of the light and the numerical aperture of the lens used to focus it. By decreasing the wavelength, increasing the numerical aperture from 0.60 to 0.85, and making the cover layer thinner to avoid unwanted optical effects, designers can cause the laser beam to focus on a smaller spot, which effectively allows more information to be stored in the same area. For a Blu-ray Disc, the spot size is 580 nm. This allows a reduction of the pit size from 400 nm for DVD to 150 nm for Blu-ray Disc, and of the track pitch from 740 nm to 320 nm. See "compact disc" for information on optical discs' physical structure. In addition to the optical improvements, Blu-ray Discs feature improvements in data encoding that further increase the amount of content that can be stored.


title: Blu-ray

text: Given that the Blu-ray Disc data layer is closer to the surface of the disc compared to the DVD standard, it was found in early designs to be more vulnerable to scratches. The first discs were therefore housed in cartridges for protection, resembling Professional Discs introduced by Sony in 2003. Using a cartridge would increase the price of an already expensive medium, and would increase the size of Blu-ray Disc drives, so designers chose hard-coating of the pickup surface instead. TDK was the first company to develop a working scratch-protection coating for Blu-ray Discs, naming it Durabis. In addition, both Sony's and Panasonic's replication methods include proprietary hard-coat technologies. Sony's rewritable media are spin-coated, using a scratch-resistant acrylic and antistatic coating. Verbatim's recordable and rewritable Blu-ray Discs use their own proprietary technology, called Hard Coat. Colloidal silica-dispersed UV-curable resins are used for the hard coating, given that, according to the Blu-ray Disc Association, they offer the best tradeoff between scratch resistance, optical properties, and productivity.


title: Blu-ray

text: The Blu-ray Disc specification requires the testing of resistance to scratches by mechanical abrasion. In contrast, DVD media are not required to be scratch-resistant, but since development of the technology, some companies, such as Verbatim, implemented hard-coating for more expensive lines of recordable DVDs.


title: Blu-ray

text: The table shows the speeds available. Even the lowest speed (1×) is sufficient to play and record real-time 1080p video; the higher speeds are relevant for general data storage and more sophisticated handling of video. BD discs are designed to cope with at least 5,000 rpm of rotational speed.


title: Blu-ray

text: The usable data rate of a Blu-ray Disc drive can be limited by the capacity of the drive's data interface. With a USB 2.0 interface, the maximum exploitable drive speed is 288 Mbit/s or 36 MB/s (also called 8× speed). A USB 3.0 interface (with proper cabling) does not have this limitation, nor do even the oldest version of Serial ATA (SATA, 150 MB/s) nor the latest Parallel ATA (133 MB/s) standards. Internal Blu-ray drives that are integrated into a computer (as opposed to physically separate and connected via a cable) typically have a SATA interface.


title: Blu-ray

text: More recent half-height Blu-Ray writers have reached writing speeds of up to 16× (constant angular velocity) on single-layer BD-R media, while the highest reading speeds are 12×, presumably to prevent repeated physical stress on the disc. Slim type drives are limited to 6× speeds (constant angular velocity) due to spacial and power limitations.


title: Blu-ray

text: The quality and data integrity of optical media can be determined by measuring the rate of errors, of which higher rates may be an indication for deteriorating media, low-quality media, physical damage such as scratches, dust, and/or media written using a defective optical drive.


title: Blu-ray

text: Errors on Blu-Ray media is measured using the so-called "LDC" ("Long Distance Code"s) and "BIS" ("Burst Indication Subcode"s) error parameters, of which rates below 13 and 15 respectively can be considered healthy.


title: Blu-ray

text: Pre-recorded Blu-ray Disc titles usually ship in packages similar to but slightly smaller (18.5 mm shorter and 2 mm thinner: 135 mm × 171.5 mm × 13 mm), as well as more rounded than a standard DVD keep case, generally with the format prominently displayed in a horizontal stripe across the top of the case (translucent blue for Blu-ray video discs, clear for Blu-ray 3D video releases, red for PlayStation 3 Greatest Hits Games, transparent for regular PlayStation 3 games, transparent dark blue for PlayStation 4 and PlayStation 5 games, transparent green for Xbox One and Xbox Series X games and black for Ultra HD Blu-ray video releases). Warren Osborn and The Seastone Media Group, LLC created the package that was adopted worldwide following the Blu-ray versus HD DVD market adoption choice. Because Blu-ray cases are smaller than DVD cases, more Blu-rays than DVDs can fit on a shelf.


title: Blu-ray

text: The "Mini Blu-ray Disc" (also, "Mini-BD" and "Mini Blu-ray") is a compact variant of the Blu-ray Disc that can store 7.8 GB of data in its single-layer configuration, or 15.6 GB on a dual-layer disc. It is similar in concept to the MiniDVD and Mini CD. Recordable (BD-R) and rewritable (BD-RE) versions of Mini Blu-ray Disc have been developed specifically for compact camcorders and other compact recording devices.


title: Blu-ray

text: "Blu-ray Disc recordable" (BD-R) refers to two optical disc formats that can be recorded with an optical disc recorder. BD-Rs can be written to once, whereas Blu-ray Disc Recordable Erasable (BD-REs) can be erased and re-recorded multiple times. The current practical maximum speed for Blu-ray Discs is about 12× (54 MB/s). Higher speeds of rotation (5,000+ rpm) cause too much wobble for the discs to be written properly, as with the 24× (33.2 MB/s) and 56× (8.2 MB/s, 11,200 rpm) maximum speeds, respectively, of standard DVDs and CDs. Since September 2007, BD-RE is also available in the smaller 8 cm Mini Blu-ray Disc size.


title: Blu-ray

text: On September 18, 2007, Pioneer and Mitsubishi codeveloped BD-R LTH ("Low to High" in groove recording), which features an organic dye recording layer that can be manufactured by modifying existing CD-R and DVD-R production equipment, significantly reducing manufacturing costs. In February 2008, Taiyo Yuden, Mitsubishi, and Maxell released the first BD-R LTH Discs, and in March 2008, Sony's PlayStation 3 officially gained the ability to use BD-R LTH Discs with the 2.20 firmware update. In May 2009 Verbatim/Mitsubishi announced the industry's first 6X BD-R LTH media, which allows recording a 25 GB disc in about 16 minutes. Unlike with the previous releases of 120 mm optical discs (i.e. CDs and standard DVDs), Blu-ray recorders hit the market almost simultaneously with Blu-ray's debut.


title: Blu-ray

text: The BD9 format was proposed to the Blu-ray Disc Association by Warner Home Video as a cost-effective alternative to the 25/50 GB BD-ROM discs. The format was supposed to use the same codecs and program structure as Blu-ray Disc video but recorded onto less expensive 8.5 GB dual-layer DVD. This red-laser media could be manufactured on existing DVD production lines with lower costs of production than the 25/50 GB Blu-ray media.


title: Blu-ray

text: Usage of BD9 for releasing content on "pressed" discs never caught on. With the end of the format war, manufacturers ramped production of Blu-ray Discs and lowered prices to compete with DVDs. On the other hand, the idea of using inexpensive DVD media became popular among individual users. A lower-capacity version of this format that uses single-layer 4.7 GB DVDs has been unofficially called BD5. Both formats are being used by individuals for recording high-definition content in Blu-ray format onto recordable DVD media. Despite the fact that the BD9 format has been adopted as part of the BD-ROM basic format, none of the existing Blu-ray player models explicitly claim to be able to read it. Consequently, the discs recorded in BD9 and BD5 formats are not guaranteed to play on standard Blu-ray Disc players. AVCHD and AVCREC also use inexpensive media like DVDs, but unlike BD9 and BD5 these formats have limited interactivity, codec types, and data rates. As of March 2011, BD9 was removed as an official BD-ROM disc.


title: Blu-ray

text: The BDXL format allows 100 GB and 128 GB write-once discs, and 100 GB rewritable discs for commercial applications. The BDXL specification was finalised in June 2010. BD-R 3.0 Format Specification (BDXL) defined a multi-layered disc recordable in BDAV format with the speed of 2× and 4×, capable of 100/128 GB and usage of UDF2.5/2.6. BD-RE 4.0 Format Specification (BDXL) defined a multi-layered disc rewritable in BDAV with the speed of 2× and 4×, capable of 100 GB and usage of UDF2.5 as file system. Although the 66 GB and 100 GB BD-ROM discs used for Ultra HD Blu-ray use the same linear density as BDXL, the two formats are not compatible with each other, therefore it is not possible to use a triple layer BDXL disc to burn an Ultra HD Blu-ray Disc playable in an Ultra HD Blu-ray player, although standard 50GB BD-R DL discs can be burned in the Ultra HD format.


title: Blu-ray

text: The IH-BD (Intra-Hybrid Blu-ray) format includes a 25 GB rewritable layer (BD-RE) and a 25 GB write-once layer (BD-ROM), designed to work with existing Blu-ray Discs.


title: Blu-ray

text: Blu-ray Disc specifies the use of Universal Disk Format (UDF) 2.50 as a convergent-friendly format for both PC and consumer electronics environments. It is used in the latest specifications of BD-ROM, BD-RE, and BD-R. In the first BD-RE specification (defined in 2002), the BDFS (Blu-ray Disc File System) was used. The BD-RE 1.0 specification was defined mainly for the digital recording of high-definition television (HDTV) broadcast television. The BDFS was replaced by UDF 2.50 in the second BD-RE specification in 2005, in order to enable interoperability among consumer electronics Blu-ray recorders and personal computer systems. These optical disc recording technologies enabled PC recording and playback of BD-RE. BD-R can use UDF 2.50/2.60.


title: Blu-ray

text: The Blu-ray Disc application for recording of digital broadcasting has been developed as "System Description Blu-ray Rewritable Disc Format part 3 Audio Visual Basic Specifications" (BDAV). The requirements related with computer file system have been specified in "System Description Blu-ray Rewritable Disc Format part 2 File System Specifications version 1.0" (BDFS). Initially, the BD-RE version 1.0 (BDFS) was specifically developed for recording of digital broadcasts using the Blu-ray Disc application (BDAV application). But these requirements are superseded by the "Blu-ray Rewritable Disc File System Specifications version 2.0" (UDF) (a.k.a. "RE 2.0") and "Blu-ray Recordable Disc File System Specifications version 1.0" (UDF) (a.k.a. "R 1.0"). Additionally, a new application format, BDMV ("System Description Blu-ray Disc Prerecorded Format part 3 Audio Visual Basic Specifications") for High Definition Content Distribution was developed for BD-ROM. The only file system developed for BDMV is the "System Description Blu-ray Read-Only Disc Format part 2 File System Specifications version 1.0" (UDF) which defines the requirements for UDF 2.50.


title: Blu-ray

text: Audio, video, and other streams are multiplexed and stored on Blu-ray Discs in a container format based on the MPEG transport stream. It is also known as BDAV MPEG-2 transport stream and can use filename extension .m2ts. Blu-ray Disc titles authored with menus are in the BDMV (Blu-ray Disc Movie) format and contain audio, video, and other streams in BDAV container. There is also the BDAV (Blu-ray Disc Audio/Visual) format, the consumer oriented alternative to the BDMV format used for movie releases. The BDAV format is used on BD-REs and BD-Rs for audio/video recording. BDMV format was later defined also for BD-RE and BD-R (in September 2006, in the third revision of BD-RE specification and second revision of BD-R specification).


title: Blu-ray

text: Blu-ray Disc employs the MPEG transport stream recording method. That enables transport streams of digital broadcasts to be recorded as they are broadcast, without altering the format. It also enables flexible editing of a digital broadcast that is recorded as is and where the data can be edited just by rewriting the playback stream. Although it is quite natural, a function for high-speed and easy-to-use retrieval is built in. Blu-ray Disc Video use MPEG transport streams, compared to DVD's MPEG program streams. An MPEG transport stream contains one or more MPEG program streams, so this allows multiple video programs to be stored in the same file so they can be played back simultaneously (e.g. with "picture-in-picture" effect).


title: Blu-ray

text: The BD-ROM specification mandates certain codec compatibilities for both hardware decoders (players) and movie software (content). Windows Media Player does not come with the codecs required to play Blu-ray Discs.


title: Blu-ray

text: Originally, BD-ROMs stored video up to 1920×1080 pixel resolution at up to 60 (59.94) fields per second. Currently, with UHD BD-ROM, videos can be stored at a maximum of 3840×2160 pixel resolution at up to 60 (59.94) frames per second, progressively scanned. While most current Blu-ray players and recorders can read and write 1920×1080 video at the full 59.94p and 50p progressive format, new players for the UHD specifications will be able to read at 3840×2160 video at either 59.94p and 50p formats.


title: Blu-ray

text: b MPEG-2 at 1440×1080 was previously not included in a draft version of the specification from March 2005.


title: Blu-ray

text: c These resolutions are stored anamorphically, i.e. they are stretched to the display aspect ratio by the player or display.


title: Blu-ray

text: For video, all players are required to process H.262/MPEG-2 Part 2, H.264/MPEG-4 Part 10: AVC, and SMPTE VC-1. BD-ROM titles with video must store video using one of the three mandatory formats; multiple formats on a single title are allowed. Blu-ray Disc allows video with a bit depth of 8-bits per color YCbCr with 4:2:0 chroma subsampling. The choice of formats affects the producer's licensing/royalty costs as well as the title's maximum run time, due to differences in compression efficiency. Discs encoded in MPEG-2 video typically limit content producers to around two hours of high-definition content on a single-layer (25 GB) BD-ROM. The more-advanced video formats (VC-1 and MPEG-4 AVC) typically achieve a video run time twice that of MPEG-2, with comparable quality. MPEG-2, however, does have the advantage that it is available without licensing costs, as all MPEG-2 patents have expired.


title: Blu-ray

text: MPEG-2 was used by many studios (including Paramount Pictures, which initially used the VC-1 format for HD DVD releases) for the first series of Blu-ray Discs, which were launched throughout 2006. Modern releases are now often encoded in either MPEG-4 AVC or VC-1, allowing film studios to place all content on one disc, reducing costs and improving ease of use. Using these formats also frees a lot of space for storage of bonus content in HD (1080i/p), as opposed to the SD (480i/p) typically used for most titles. Some studios, such as Warner Bros., have released bonus content on discs encoded in a different format than the main feature title. For example, the Blu-ray Disc release of "Superman Returns" uses VC-1 for the feature film and MPEG-2 for some of its bonus content. Today, Warner and other studios typically provide bonus content in the video format that matches the feature.


title: Blu-ray

text: For audio, BD-ROM players are required to implement Dolby Digital (AC-3), DTS, and linear PCM. Players may optionally implement Dolby Digital Plus and DTS-HD High Resolution Audio as well as lossless formats Dolby TrueHD and DTS-HD Master Audio. BD-ROM titles must use one of the mandatory schemes for the primary soundtrack. A secondary audiotrack, if present, may use any of the mandatory or optional codecs.


title: Blu-ray

text: For users recording digital television programming, the recordable Blu-ray Disc standard's initial data rate of 36 Mbit/s is more than adequate to record high-definition broadcasts from any source (IPTV, cable/satellite, or terrestrial). BD Video movies have a maximum data transfer rate of 54 Mbit/s, a maximum AV bitrate of 48 Mbit/s (for both audio and video data), and a maximum video bit rate of 40 Mbit/s. This compares to HD DVD movies, which have a maximum data transfer rate of 36 Mbit/s, a maximum AV bitrate of 30.24 Mbit/s, and a maximum video bitrate of 29.4 Mbit/s.


title: Blu-ray

text: At the 2005 JavaOne trade show, it was announced that Sun Microsystems' Java cross-platform software environment would be included in all Blu-ray Disc players as a mandatory part of the standard. Java is used to implement interactive menus on Blu-ray Discs, as opposed to the method used on DVD-video discs. DVDs use pre-rendered MPEG segments and selectable subtitle pictures, which are considerably more primitive and rarely seamless. At the conference, Java creator James Gosling suggested that the inclusion of a Java virtual machine, as well as network connectivity in some BD devices, will allow updates to Blu-ray Discs via the Internet, adding content such as additional subtitle languages and promotional features not included on the disc at pressing time. This Java Version is called BD-J and is built on a profile of the Globally Executable MHP (GEM) standard; GEM is the worldwide version of the Multimedia Home Platform standard.


title: Blu-ray

text: The BD-ROM specification defines four Blu-ray Disc player profiles, including an audio-only player profile (BD-Audio) that does not require video decoding or BD-J. All of the video-based player profiles (BD-Video) are required to have a full implementation of BD-J.


title: Blu-ray

text: On November 2, 2007, the Grace Period Profile was superseded by Bonus View as the minimum profile for new BD-Video players released to the market. When Blu-ray Disc software not authored with interactive features dependent on Bonus View or BD-Live hardware capabilities is played on Profile 1.0 players, it is able to play the main feature of the disc, but some extra features may not be available or will have limited capability.