title: Desert

text: People have been living in deserts for millennia. Many, such as the Bushmen in the Kalahari, the Aborigines in Australia and various tribes of North American Indians, were originally hunter-gatherers. They developed skills in the manufacture and use of weapons, animal tracking, finding water, foraging for edible plants and using the things they found in their natural environment to supply their everyday needs. Their self-sufficient skills and knowledge were passed down through the generations by word of mouth. Other cultures developed a nomadic way of life as herders of sheep, goats, cattle, camels, yaks, llamas or reindeer. They travelled over large areas with their herds, moving to new pastures as seasonal and erratic rainfall encouraged new plant growth. They took with them their tents made of cloth or skins draped over poles and their diet included milk, blood and sometimes meat.


title: Desert

text: The desert nomads were also traders. The Sahara is a very large expanse of land stretching from the Atlantic rim to Egypt. Trade routes were developed linking the Sahel in the south with the fertile Mediterranean region to the north and large numbers of camels were used to carry valuable goods across the desert interior. The Tuareg were traders and the transported goods traditionally included slaves, ivory and gold going northwards and salt going southwards. Berbers with knowledge of the region were employed to guide the caravans between the various oases and wells. Several million slaves may have been taken northwards across the Sahara between the 8th and 18th centuries. Traditional means of overland transport declined with the advent of motor vehicles, shipping and air freight, but caravans still travel along routes between Agadez and Bilma and between Timbuktu and Taoudenni carrying salt from the interior to desert-edge communities.


title: Desert

text: Round the rims of deserts, where more precipitation occurred and conditions were more suitable, some groups took to cultivating crops. This may have happened when drought caused the death of herd animals, forcing herdsmen to turn to cultivation. With few inputs, they were at the mercy of the weather and may have lived at bare subsistence level. The land they cultivated reduced the area available to nomadic herders, causing disputes over land. The semi-arid fringes of the desert have fragile soils which are at risk of erosion when exposed, as happened in the American Dust Bowl in the 1930s. The grasses that held the soil in place were ploughed under, and a series of dry years caused crop failures, while enormous dust storms blew the topsoil away. Half a million Americans were forced to leave their land in this catastrophe.


title: Desert

text: Similar damage is being done today to the semi-arid areas that rim deserts and about twelve million hectares of land are being turned to desert each year. Desertification is caused by such factors as drought, climatic shifts, tillage for agriculture, overgrazing and deforestation. Vegetation plays a major role in determining the composition of the soil. In many environments, the rate of erosion and run off increases dramatically with reduced vegetation cover.


title: Desert

text: Deserts contain substantial mineral resources, sometimes over their entire surface, giving them their characteristic colors. For example, the red of many sand deserts comes from laterite minerals. Geological processes in a desert climate can concentrate minerals into valuable deposits. Leaching by ground water can extract ore minerals and redeposit them, according to the water table, in concentrated form. Similarly, evaporation tends to concentrate minerals in desert lakes, creating dry lake beds or playas rich in minerals. Evaporation can concentrate minerals as a variety of evaporite deposits, including gypsum, sodium nitrate, sodium chloride and borates. Evaporites are found in the USA's Great Basin Desert, historically exploited by the "20-mule teams" pulling carts of borax from Death Valley to the nearest railway. A desert especially rich in mineral salts is the Atacama Desert, Chile, where sodium nitrate has been mined for explosives and fertilizer since around 1850. Other desert minerals are copper from Chile, Peru, and Iran, and iron and uranium in Australia. Many other metals, salts and commercially valuable types of rock such as pumice are extracted from deserts around the world.


title: Desert

text: Oil and gas form on the bottom of shallow seas when micro-organisms decompose under anoxic conditions and later become covered with sediment. Many deserts were at one time the sites of shallow seas and others have had underlying hydrocarbon deposits transported to them by the movement of tectonic plates.


title: Desert

text: Some major oilfields such as Ghawar are found under the sands of Saudi Arabia. Geologists believe that other oil deposits were formed by aeolian processes in ancient deserts as may be the case with some of the major American oil fields.


title: Desert

text: Traditional desert farming systems have long been established in North Africa, irrigation being the key to success in an area where water stress is a limiting factor to growth. Techniques that can be used include drip irrigation, the use of organic residues or animal manures as fertilisers and other traditional agricultural management practices. Once fertility has been built up, further crop production preserves the soil from destruction by wind and other forms of erosion. It has been found that plant growth-promoting bacteria play a role in increasing the resistance of plants to stress conditions and these rhizobacterial suspensions could be inoculated into the soil in the vicinity of the plants. A study of these microbes found that desert farming hampers desertification by establishing islands of fertility allowing farmers to achieve increased yields despite the adverse environmental conditions. A field trial in the Sonoran Desert which exposed the roots of different species of tree to rhizobacteria and the nitrogen fixing bacterium "Azospirillum brasilense" with the aim of restoring degraded lands was only partially successful.


title: Desert

text: The Judean Desert was farmed in the 7th century BC during the Iron Age to supply food for desert forts. Native Americans in the south western United States became agriculturalists around 600 AD when seeds and technologies became available from Mexico. They used terracing techniques and grew gardens beside seeps, in moist areas at the foot of dunes, near streams providing flood irrigation and in areas irrigated by extensive specially built canals. The Hohokam tribe constructed over of large canals and maintained them for centuries, an impressive feat of engineering. They grew maize, beans, squash and peppers.


title: Desert

text: A modern example of desert farming is the Imperial Valley in California, which has high temperatures and average rainfall of just per year. The economy is heavily based on agriculture and the land is irrigated through a network of canals and pipelines sourced entirely from the Colorado River via the All-American Canal. The soil is deep and fertile, being part of the river's flood plains, and what would otherwise have been desert has been transformed into one of the most productive farming regions in California. Other water from the river is piped to urban communities but all this has been at the expense of the river, which below the extraction sites no longer has any above-ground flow during most of the year. Another problem of growing crops in this way is the build-up of salinity in the soil caused by the evaporation of river water. The greening of the desert remains an aspiration and was at one time viewed as a future means for increasing food production for the world's growing population. This prospect has proved false as it disregarded the environmental damage caused elsewhere by the diversion of water for desert project irrigation.


title: Desert

text: Deserts are increasingly seen as sources for solar energy, partly due to low amounts of cloud cover. Many solar power plants have been built in the Mojave Desert such as the Solar Energy Generating Systems and Ivanpah Solar Power Facility. Large swaths of this desert are covered in mirrors.


title: Desert

text: The potential for generating solar energy from the Sahara Desert is huge, the highest found on the globe. Professor David Faiman of Ben-Gurion University has stated that the technology now exists to supply all of the world's electricity needs from 10% of the Sahara Desert. Desertec Industrial Initiative was a consortium seeking $560 billion to invest in North African solar and wind installations over the next forty years to supply electricity to Europe via cable lines running under the Mediterranean Sea. European interest in the Sahara Desert stems from its two aspects: the almost continual daytime sunshine and plenty of unused land. The Sahara receives more sunshine per acre than any part of Europe. The Sahara Desert also has the empty space totalling hundreds of square miles required to house fields of mirrors for solar plants.


title: Desert

text: The Negev Desert, Israel, and the surrounding area, including the Arava Valley, receive plenty of sunshine and are generally not arable. This has resulted in the construction of many solar plants. David Faiman has proposed that "giant" solar plants in the Negev could supply all of Israel's needs for electricity.


title: Desert

text: The Arabs were probably the first organized force to conduct successful battles in the desert. By knowing back routes and the locations of oases and by utilizing camels, Muslim Arab forces were able to successfully overcome both Roman and Persian forces in the period 600 to 700 AD during the expansion of the Islamic caliphate.


title: Desert

text: Many centuries later, both world wars saw fighting in the desert. In the First World War, the Ottoman Turks were engaged with the British regular army in a campaign that spanned the Arabian peninsula. The Turks were defeated by the British, who had the backing of irregular Arab forces that were seeking to revolt against the Turks in the Hejaz, made famous in T.E. Lawrence's book "Seven Pillars of Wisdom".


title: Desert

text: In the Second World War, the Western Desert Campaign began in Italian Libya. Warfare in the desert offered great scope for tacticians to use the large open spaces without the distractions of casualties among civilian populations. Tanks and armoured vehicles were able to travel large distances unimpeded and land mines were laid in large numbers. However, the size and harshness of the terrain meant that all supplies needed to be brought in from great distances. The victors in a battle would advance and their supply chain would necessarily become longer, while the defeated army could retreat, regroup and resupply. For these reasons, the front line moved back and forth through hundreds of kilometers as each side lost and regained momentum. Its most easterly point was at El Alamein in Egypt, where the Allies decisively defeated the Axis forces in 1942.


title: Desert

text: The desert is generally thought of as a barren and empty landscape. It has been portrayed by writers, film-makers, philosophers, artists and critics as a place of extremes, a metaphor for anything from death, war or religion to the primitive past or the desolate future.


title: Desert

text: There is an extensive literature on the subject of deserts. An early historical account is that of Marco Polo (c. 1254–1324), who travelled through Central Asia to China, crossing a number of deserts in his twenty four year trek. Some accounts give vivid descriptions of desert conditions, though often accounts of journeys across deserts are interwoven with reflection, as is the case in Charles Montagu Doughty's major work, "Travels in Arabia Deserta" (1888). Antoine de Saint-Exupéry described both his flying and the desert in "Wind, Sand and Stars" and Gertrude Bell travelled extensively in the Arabian desert in the early part of the 20th century, becoming an expert on the subject, writing books and advising the British government on dealing with the Arabs. Another woman explorer was Freya Stark, who travelled alone in the Middle East, visiting Turkey, Arabia, Yemen, Syria, Persia and Afghanistan, writing over twenty books on her experiences. The German naturalist Uwe George spent several years living in deserts, recording his experiences and research in his book, "In the Deserts of this Earth".


title: Desert

text: The American poet Robert Frost expressed his bleak thoughts in his poem, "Desert Places", which ends with the stanza "They cannot scare me with their empty spaces / Between stars – on stars where no human race is. / I have it in me so much nearer home / To scare myself with my own desert places."


title: Desert

text: Mars is the only other planet in the Solar System besides Earth on which deserts have been identified. Despite its low surface atmospheric pressure (only 1/100 of that of Earth), the patterns of atmospheric circulation on Mars have formed a sea of circumpolar sand more than 5 million km (1.9 million sq mi) in the area, larger than most deserts on Earth. The Martian deserts principally consist of dunes in the form of half-moons in flat areas near the permanent polar ice caps in the north of the planet. The smaller dune fields occupy the bottom of many of the craters situated in the Martian polar regions. Examination of the surface of rocks by laser beamed from the Mars Exploration Rover have shown a surface film that resembles the desert varnish found on Earth although it might just be surface dust. The surface of Titan, a moon of Saturn, also has a desert-like surface with dune seas.


title: Patrick Duffy

text: Patrick Duffy (born March 17, 1949) is an American actor and director widely known for his role on the CBS primetime soap opera "Dallas", where he played Bobby Ewing, the youngest son of Miss Ellie, and the nicest brother of J.R. Ewing (played by Barbara Bel Geddes and Larry Hagman respectively) from 1978 to 1985 and from 1986 to 1991. Duffy returned to reprise his role as Bobby in a continuation of "Dallas", which aired on TNT from 2012 to 2014. He is also well known for his role on the ABC sitcom "Step by Step" as Frank Lambert from 1991 to 1998, and for his role as Stephen Logan on the CBS daytime soap opera "The Bold and the Beautiful" (2006–2011). Duffy played the lead character's father in the 2014 NBC sitcom "Welcome to Sweden".


title: Patrick Duffy

text: Duffy was born in Townsend, Montana, in 1949, the son of tavern owners Marie and Terence Duffy. Duffy is of Irish ancestry. During high school, Duffy was living in Everett, Washington, and attended Cascade High School. At Cascade, he participated in the Drama Club and the Pep Club, for which he was a Yell King. Academically, Duffy graduated from the University of Washington in 1971 with a degree in drama. He ruptured both his vocal cords during his senior year of college, but was hired as actor-in-residence, where he worked as an interpreter for ballet, opera, and orchestra companies in Washington. He also taught mime and movement classes during this period. In a 2021 interview with David A. Weiner, Duffy credits his sister, an international champion diver, with teaching him the necessary swimming techniques for his first career break. She became a police officer in Seattle.


title: Patrick Duffy

text: Duffy appeared in a Taco Bell commercial in the early 1970s playing an employee describing an Enchirito. In 1977, he landed the role of Mark Harris in the short-lived television series "Man from Atlantis". Following the series' cancellation in early 1978, he got his big break in the role of Bobby Ewing, opposite Barbara Bel Geddes and Larry Hagman, on the prime-time soap opera "Dallas". The show became a worldwide success. Despite its success, Duffy opted to leave the series in 1985 with his character being killed off onscreen. However, with both the show and his career on the decline, he returned in 1986 in the infamous shower scene that rendered the entire 1985–1986 season "just a dream." Duffy then remained with the series until its cancellation in 1991. He also appeared in several episodes of the spin-off series "Knots Landing" between 1979 and 1982. Throughout the 13-year run of "Dallas", Duffy directed several episodes of the series.


title: Patrick Duffy

text: Along with "Dallas" fame, Duffy has also tried his hand at singing, and in 1983, he had a hit in Europe with "Together We're Strong", a duet with French female singer Mireille Mathieu. The single reached No. 5 in the Netherlands in April 1983.


title: Patrick Duffy

text: At the end of "Dallas"' run in 1991, Duffy began another television role, as Frank Lambert on the family sitcom, "Step by Step" in which he co-starred with Suzanne Somers. The series ran until 1998, and Duffy also directed numerous episodes. Also in the 1990s, he appeared in two "Dallas" reunion television movies; "" (1996) and "" (1998), both of which he also co-produced. He has reunited on several occasions with many of his "Dallas" co-stars both onscreen and off, most notably for the non-fiction television special "" in 2004. Duffy later continued to act in the occasional guest or voice acting appearance, including the series "Family Guy" (in which he appeared in a live action scene with Victoria Principal as they spoofed the "Dallas" shower scene), as well as "Justice League" and "Touched by an Angel". Duffy starred in the television movies "Falling in Love With the Girl Next Door" and "Desolation Canyon". In 2006, he began a recurring role on the daytime soap opera "The Bold and the Beautiful" as Stephen Logan. From April to July 2008, he hosted "Bingo America", a partially interactive game show on GSN.


title: Patrick Duffy

text: Duffy reprised his role as Bobby Ewing in TNT's continuation series of "Dallas". The series aired from 2012 to 2014.


title: Patrick Duffy

text: Duffy played a surreal double of Bobby Ewing in the experimental documentary "Hotel Dallas", directed by artist duo Ungur & Huang. The film premiered at the 2016 Berlin International Film Festival.


title: Patrick Duffy

text: On August 8, 2005, Barbara Bel Geddes died of lung cancer. Duffy had met Bel Geddes through his future father-in-law when he was a boy. At the time of his TV mother's death, he said: When Barbara joined the cast of "Dallas," as Miss Ellie, I considered her to be like Helen Hayes, Katherine Cornell, and Ethel Barrymore — a real "name" in American theater. But you'd never have known it. She exhibited no large ego because of her history. She'd schlepp in and drop your jaw with every performance — whether it was drinking a cup of coffee, having a mastectomy, or losing Jock Ewing. It was remarkable, her ordinariness despite that pedigree. We called Barbara "BBG" on the set. She was the mama figure. Larry Hagman was obviously the prow of the boat, but he couldn't have functioned without a strong mother, and I don't think there's been a mother like her on dramatic television since then. People related to her because she was the epitome of compassion despite her own pain. Off screen, she was a pistol. She cussed like a mule skinner, and she really liked to have her drinks. But she also had an endless capacity to include everybody that she loved, and that was the entire cast. Then, 7 years after his TV mother’s death, at the revival of "Dallas", he said: “Barbara is a big piece of our history, and it's important to me to honor her. To come back with Linda Gray as Sue Ellen and Larry Hagman in his J.R. hat, and then see the words Ellie Southworth Ewing Farlow on the gravestone made me think, "Oh, that's right -- she's gone." “ The last thing he said about the revived series, without Bel Geddes as one of the stars: "Through the whole first season, I don't think an episode goes by that Mama is not mentioned in reference to Southfork and the land."


title: Patrick Duffy

text: Duffy married Carlyn Rosser, a professional ballerina 10 years his senior, in 1974. She danced with the First Chamber Dance Company of New York. Her nephew is former Major League Baseball pitcher Barry Zito. The Duffys lived near Eagle Point, Oregon, with their sons Padraic (b. 1974) and Conor (born c. 1980).


title: Patrick Duffy

text: Introduced to Buddhism by his wife, Duffy converted to Nichiren Buddhism and began chanting Nam Myōhō Renge Kyō. He and his family are longtime members of the Buddhist organization Soka Gakkai International.


title: Patrick Duffy

text: On November 18, 1986, Duffy's parents were murdered by two young men, Kenneth Miller and Sean Wentz, during an armed robbery of the Boulder, Montana, tavern that his parents owned. Wentz and Miller, who were teenagers at the time, were convicted of the murders and sentenced to 75 years in prison. In 2001, Miller appeared before the Montana Parole board after Sean Wentz recanted his original story and admitted that he, Wentz, was the sole gunman. Miller was denied clemency in 2001 but was released on parole in December 2007. Sean Wentz was granted parole in 2015.


title: Patrick Duffy

text: Duffy's wife Carlyn Rosser died in 2017. In 2020, he entered into a relationship with the actress Linda Purl.


title: Felina (Breaking Bad)

text: "Felina" is the series finale of the American crime drama television series "Breaking Bad". It is the sixteenth episode of the fifth season and the 62nd overall episode of the series. Written and directed by series creator Vince Gilligan, the finale first aired on AMC in the United States and Canada on September 29, 2013. It was followed by a sequel film, "", which was made available on Netflix on October 11, 2019.


title: Felina (Breaking Bad)

text: The plot involves Walt evading a nationwide manhunt for him in order to return to New Mexico and deliver the remaining profits from his illegal methamphetamine empire to his family. He also takes revenge on the Aryan Brotherhood gang who took his money, killed his brother-in-law Hank, took Jesse captive, and presented a threat to his family. Knowing his lung cancer will soon kill him, Walt revisits his former acquaintances to settle his affairs and prepare himself for the conflict and—ultimately—his death.


title: Felina (Breaking Bad)

text: Upon airing, "Felina" was met with acclaim from critics. Several critics have called it one of the greatest series finales of all time.


title: Felina (Breaking Bad)

text: Walter White steals a car, returns to New Mexico, and surprises the Schwartzes. He claims he hired hitmen, and Badger and Skinny Pete scare them with laser pointers that spoof rifle sights. Walt coerces them to place his remaining $9.72 million in a trust for Walter Jr. He pays Badger and Pete, obtains confirmation that blue meth is still distributed, and deduces that Jesse Pinkman is alive.


title: Felina (Breaking Bad)

text: Walt retrieves the ricin from his abandoned house, connects an M60 machine gun to a pivoting turret in the trunk of the car he is now driving, and rigs it to a remote unlock button. He interrupts Todd and Lydia's coffee shop meeting and offers what he claims is a formula for methylamine-free meth. Lydia feigns interest so Walt will meet Jack, knowing Jack will kill him.


title: Felina (Breaking Bad)

text: Marie Schrader calls Skyler White to warn her Walt is in Albuquerque. Walt is already with Skyler and leaves her the lottery ticket containing the coordinates for Hank Schrader and Steve Gomez's grave, which he advises her to use to obtain a favorable plea bargain. He admits that despite claiming he produced meth to provide for his family, he did it to gratify himself. Skyler allows Walt to see the sleeping Holly and he later watches from afar as Walter Jr. arrives home from school.


title: Felina (Breaking Bad)

text: Walt parks alongside the headquarters of Jack's compound. Jack orders him killed and Walt accuses Jack of failing to carry out the execution of Jesse that Walt paid for. Jack is angered at the suggestion he partnered with a "rat" and orders that Jesse be brought from Jack's meth lab so he can prove Jesse is a captive. Walt tackles Jesse and remotely fires the machine gun; everyone but Jack, Todd, Jesse, and Walt is killed. Jesse strangles Todd with his shackles, then frees himself with Todd's keys. Jack pleads for his life, but Walt kills him. A wounded Walt asks Jesse to kill him, but Jesse says if Walt wants to die he should do it himself.


title: Felina (Breaking Bad)

text: Walt answers Todd's phone and tells an ill Lydia that she will soon die because he poisoned her coffee shop stevia. Jesse and Walt exchange a farewell glance before Jesse flees in Todd's El Camino. Walt admires Jack's lab before succumbing to his wound. Police rush in as he lies motionless, a slight smile on his face.


title: Felina (Breaking Bad)

text: Production on "Felina" and the "Breaking Bad" series concluded on April 3, 2013, according to Cranston.


title: Felina (Breaking Bad)

text: On September 18, 2013, it was announced that both "Granite State" and "Felina" would run 75 minutes, including commercials. The actual runtime of the episodes is 55 minutes. The episode was written and directed by series creator Vince Gilligan.


title: Felina (Breaking Bad)

text: The episode title, "Felina", is inspired by the character Feleena from the song "El Paso" by Marty Robbins, which plays a major role during the episode.


title: Felina (Breaking Bad)

text: The story of "El Paso" closely mirrors Walter White's character arc in the final season of "Breaking Bad". Walt, who has become a notorious criminal, flees from Albuquerque, living as a fugitive. Despite this being a successful outcome in the context of the story, he finds himself increasingly isolated and dissatisfied. Because his desire for emotional closure outweighs his fear of capture and death, he is eventually driven to return to the scene of his crimes, where he finds the closure he seeks but ultimately meets his end. "El Paso" is on a Marty Robbins cassette in Walt's car, and is played during the episode. Additionally, Walt sings the song to himself while building his machine gun turret. The writers changed the subject's name from "Feleena" to "Felina" so that, when used as the title, it could serve as an anagram of "finale".


title: Felina (Breaking Bad)

text: Badfinger's "Baby Blue" is played during the final scene. According to series creator Vince Gilligan, this is a reference to the high-quality blue meth Walt had produced over the previous seasons and his life as a drug kingpin which the main character, at last, recognizes he had enjoyed. According to "Rolling Stone", the music supervisors on the show disagreed with Gilligan's choice for the final song; however, music supervisor Thomas Golubić stated that "journalists sometimes try to create drama where there isn't any" and that his quotes were "mis-represented". "Baby Blue" became an obvious choice as the editing came closer to completion, with Golubić describing the process of finalizing the song:


title: Felina (Breaking Bad)

text: After the conclusion of the series, Gilligan had considered Jesse's fate, stating that rather than getting caught by police, he had envisioned that Jesse would end up in Alaska to start his life anew. He had mulled this idea over for some years, and as the tenth anniversary of "Breaking Bad" neared, became interested in producing a work to follow Jesse's fate after this episode. This ultimately resulted in the film "", which first aired on Netflix on October 11, 2019, and had limited theatrical runs that weekend. "El Camino", named for the car Jesse escapes in, takes place immediately after the events of "Felina", and was considered by Gilligan to be a coda to the overall series to close out Jesse's story. Aaron Paul returned to star as Jesse, and the film includes brief appearances by Bryan Cranston, Jonathan Banks, Jesse Plemons, Robert Forster, Matt Jones, Krysten Ritter and Charles Baker.


title: Felina (Breaking Bad)

text: "Felina" had the highest ratings of any episode of "Breaking Bad": 10.28 million in the United States, including 5.3 million adults aged 18–49. The episode generated millions of online comments and Nielsen Holdings rankings established that it was the most-discussed episode on Twitter for that week. The popularity of the episode resulted in a 2,981 percent increase of sales of the Badfinger song "Baby Blue", which features prominently in the ending sequence, as well as a 9,000 percent increase in streaming over Spotify.


title: Felina (Breaking Bad)

text: Upon airing, the episode received universal acclaim. Several critics have called it one of the greatest series finales of all time. In her review of "Felina", Donna Bowman of "The A.V. Club" gave the episode an A rating, writing that "Walt's purpose is fulfilled, and he just stops". Seth Amitin at "IGN" also praised the episode, calling it "fully satisfying" and awarding it a score of 9.8 out of 10. Katey Rich agreed with these sentiments, calling the episode "a deeply satisfying and surprisingly emotional finale". However, Emily Nussbaum, writing in "the New Yorker", criticized the episode, claiming it so neatly wrapped up the series in Walt's favor that it seemed more like "the dying fantasy on the part of Walter White, not something that was actually happening".


title: Felina (Breaking Bad)

text: This episode was nominated for six Primetime Emmy Awards. Vince Gilligan was nominated for Outstanding Directing for a Drama Series and Outstanding Writing for a Drama Series for directing and writing this episode, losing the latter to Moira Walley-Beckett for Ozymandias. Skip Macdonald won Outstanding Single-Camera Picture Editing for a Drama Series, Darryl L. Frank, Jeffrey Perkins, and Eric Justen were nominated for Outstanding Sound Mixing for a Comedy or Drama Series (One-Hour), Greg Nicotero, Howard Berger, Tarra D. Day, Stephan Dupuis, and Steve LaPorte were nominated for Outstanding Prosthetic Makeup for a Series, Limited Series, Movie or Special, and Kurt Nicholas Forshager, Kathryn Madsen, Jason Tregoe Newman, Mark Cookson, Cormac Funge, Jane Boegel, Jeffrey Cranford, Tim Boggs, Gregg Barbanell, and Dominique Decaudain were nominated for Outstanding Sound Editing for a Comedy or Drama Series (One-Hour).


title: Felina (Breaking Bad)

text: "MythBusters" tested the potential lethality of a machine-gun turret mounted within a vehicle's trunk, and they proved that it was possible in real life.


title: Ray Lewis

text: Raymond Anthony Lewis Jr. (born May 15, 1975) is an American former professional football player who played as a middle linebacker with the Baltimore Ravens for his entire 17-year career in the National Football League (NFL). He played college football for the Miami Hurricanes, where he earned All-America honors.


title: Ray Lewis

text: Lewis was drafted by the Ravens in the first round of the 1996 NFL Draft, and upon his retirement following the 2012 season, was the last remaining active player from the team's inaugural season. Lewis immediately became a leader on defense and led the team in tackles as a rookie, the first of 14 times he led the Ravens in tackles.


title: Ray Lewis

text: Lewis pleaded guilty to obstruction of justice in connection with the stabbing deaths of two men in 2000. The following season, he was named NFL Defensive Player of the Year and led the Ravens' record-setting defense, which established a 16-game single-season record for the fewest points allowed (165) and the fewest rushing yards allowed (970), to victory in Super Bowl XXXV. Lewis also became the second linebacker to win the Super Bowl Most Valuable Player Award, and the first to win the award on the winning Super Bowl team. Lewis won his second Defensive Player of the Year award in 2003, becoming the sixth player to win the award multiple times. After a triceps tear that sidelined him for most of the 2012 regular season, Lewis returned for the Ravens' playoff run and earned his second Super Bowl victory in his final NFL game. On February 3, 2018, the fifth anniversary of his final game, Lewis was selected to the Pro Football Hall of Fame in his first year of eligibility.


title: Ray Lewis

text: During his tenure with the Ravens, he accumulated 2,059 career combined tackles, including 1,568 solo tackles, both of which are NFL records. Due to his numerous accolades and prodigious football play, Lewis is widely considered to be the greatest middle linebacker in NFL history. He was a 13-time Pro Bowler, a 10-time All-Pro, and one of the few players in NFL history to play in a Pro Bowl in three decades (1990s, 2000s, and 2010s). He is also considered to be the greatest Baltimore Raven of all time, as well as one of the greatest defensive players of all time.


title: Ray Lewis

text: Raymond Anthony Jenkins was born in Bartow, Florida in Central Florida, the oldest of five siblings. His mother was just 16 at the time of his birth, while his father was absent for most of his life. Not much was known about his father's life other that he was a record-setting high school wrestler before he was incarcerated for drug-related offenses. As a boy, and the eventual older brother to four younger siblings, Lewis quickly became the man of the house. He helped his sisters with their hair and made sure his younger brother arrived at daycare on time. When his father's contact became less frequent, he abandoned his last name and changed it to the last name of his mother's boyfriend, Ray Lewis, when he entered Kathleen High School in Lakeland. He is the older brother of former University of Maryland running back Keon Lattimore. Lewis was an All-American linebacker for the football team at Kathleen, overcoming his small size with his intensity and instincts. In addition, he was a prolific wrestler for the school. He later revealed that his stepfather was extremely abusive towards his mother, and got a deck of 52 playing cards to start his push-up regimen, so he could get stronger to protect her. This also was the reason behind choosing the #52 jersey in his professional career.


title: Ray Lewis

text: Lewis enrolled in the University of Miami, where he was a member of the Miami Hurricanes football team. As a freshman, he was an immediate contributor and became a starter for the Hurricanes' final five games. He compiled 81 tackles, two sacks, two tackles for loss, and four pass deflections en route to being named to the freshman All-American team.


title: Ray Lewis

text: In his sophomore season, Lewis earned first-team All-American and All-Big East honors. Lewis led the Big East with 153 tackles and also contributed nine tackles for a loss, two sacks, and an interception for a Hurricanes team that had the nation's top-ranked defense and finished No. 6 in both the writers' and coaches' polls.


title: Ray Lewis

text: Lewis's junior campaign was even more successful, as he was again named to the All-American and All-Big East teams, and finished as runner-up for the Butkus Award, given to the top linebacker in college football. Lewis finished his junior season with 160 tackles, the second highest in University of Miami team history after Ed Weisacosky's 164 in 1965.


title: Ray Lewis

text: Lewis led the Big East in tackles his last two seasons and accumulated the fifth most in Miami history despite playing only three seasons.


title: Ray Lewis

text: After the 1995 season, Lewis decided to forgo his final year of college eligibility and enter the NFL draft. The Baltimore Ravens, who were entering their inaugural season, selected Lewis 26th overall in the first round of the 1996 NFL Draft. Lewis was the Ravens' second ever draft pick behind offensive tackle Jonathan Ogden who was selected #4 overall the same year. Lewis eventually earned his undergraduate degree in Arts and Science in 2004 at the University of Maryland University College.


title: Ray Lewis

text: Lewis was the top-rated inside linebacker heading into the 1996 NFL Draft, in which Kevin Hardy was considered the draft's only outstanding linebacker prospect. Taken as the fifth linebacker in the draft, Lewis was seen by scouts as possessing speed, tackling ability, and intensity, as well as being praised for his ability to go into pass coverage. But many considered his lack of size a potential liability. In his first career game, a Week 1 19–14 victory over the Oakland Raiders, Lewis earned AFC Defensive Player of the Week for his seven-tackle performance, along with an unusual interception. Lewis earned "USA Today's" All-Rookie team honors after his 15 tackles for loss led the NFL and 110 tackles led the Ravens in the 1996 season. He finished his rookie season with two and a half sacks, six pass deflections, and an interception on the season as the Ravens finished with a 4–12 record.


title: Ray Lewis

text: In Week 9, against the Washington Redskins, Lewis earned his second AFC Defensive Player of the Week honor. Lewis recorded an NFL-best and career high 184 tackles in 1997, which also included 156 solo tackles, the most ever in single season, and earned his first Pro Bowl berth at the end of that season. In addition, Lewis totaled four sacks, an interception, a forced fumble, a fumble recovery, and 11 pass deflections in the Ravens' 6–9–1 season.


title: Ray Lewis

text: In 1998, Lewis made his second trip to the Pro Bowl after recording 120 tackles, three sacks, two interceptions, a forced fumble, and seven pass deflections. He led the 6–10 Ravens in tackles for the third consecutive season. He was also named to "The Sporting News" All-Pro Team. In what would prove to be Hall of Fame Detroit Lions running back Barry Sanders's final game, Lewis and the rest of the Ravens defense held him to just 41 rushing yards on 19 attempts.


title: Ray Lewis

text: In 1999, during the first game of the regular season against the St. Louis Rams, Lewis had 14 solo tackles, four tackles for loss, and a sack in Lewis in the 27–10 loss, In Week 2 against the Pittsburgh Steelers, he finished with a team leading 13 combined tackles in the 23–20 loss. In Week 3 against the Cleveland Browns, Lewis had ten combined tackles and a sack in the 17–10 win. In Week 4 against the Atlanta Falcons, Lewis finished with 12 combined tackles in the 19–13 overtime win. During week 5 against the Tennessee Titans, Lewis had 13 tackles and a safety in the 14–11 loss. In Week 8 against the Buffalo Bills, Lewis had 14 tackles and a sack in the 13–10 loss. Despite the Ravens having an 8–8 regular season record, Lewis led the NFL in tackles with 165. He was named to a third-straight Pro Bowl and the All-Pro first team. In addition, he totaled three and a half sacks, three interceptions, eight pass deflections, a safety, and a forced fumble. Lewis won the 1999 NFL Alumni Linebacker Of The Year chosen by past NFL players voting according to the position they played.


title: Ray Lewis

text: In 2000, Lewis led a defense which many call the greatest in NFL history for a single season. In week 2 of the regular season against the Jacksonville Jaguars, Lewis led the team in tackles with 11 tackles in the 39–36 win. In Week 3 against the Miami Dolphins, Lewis had 11 tackles in the 19–6 loss. In week 6 against the Jacksonville Jaguars, he finished 13 tackles and a fumble recovery in the 15–10 win. In Week 13 against the Cleveland Browns, Lewis had five tackles and two sacks in the 44–7 blowout win. Lewis finished the regular season with a franchise leading 137 tackles, as well as two interceptions, six pass deflections, and three fumble recoveries. The team set a 16-game single-season record for fewest points allowed (165) and fewest rushing yards allowed (970). The team recorded four shutouts, one shy of the single-season record. The unit finished first league-wide in six key defensive categories. Including the postseason, and excluding three combined touchdowns that were given up by the Ravens offense and special teams, Baltimore's defense allowed only 184 points in 20 games. After the regular season, he earned a unanimous All-Pro selection, and was once again named to start in the Pro Bowl. In the against the Denver Broncos, Lewis had seven tackles and an interception in the 21–3 win. In the against the Tennessee Titans, Lewis had 12 combined tackles and an interception returned for a touchdown in the 24–10 win. In the against the Oakland Raiders, he had seven combined tackles and a fumble recovery in the 16–3 win. Lewis was named NFL Defensive Player of The Year for the 2000 season. The Ravens became only the second team to ever record a defensive shutout in a Super Bowl, as they dominated the New York Giants 34–7 to win the franchise's first ever world championship. Lewis's five combined tackles and four passes defended earned him Super Bowl XXXV MVP honors. He also added 31 tackles, two interceptions, 9 pass deflections, one fumble recovery, and a touchdown in the four-game playoff run.


title: Ray Lewis

text: In 2001, Lewis earned his fifth consecutive Pro Bowl selection, when he led the NFL in tackles with 162 and earned first-team All-Pro honors. In Week 15, he earned his third AFC Defensive Player of the Week honor in a 15–0 shutout of the Cincinnati Bengals. The Ravens earned a playoff berth with a 10–6 record. In the Ravens' two playoff games, he totaled 17 tackles, three forced fumbles, and one pass deflection as the team's season ended in the Divisional Round.


title: Ray Lewis

text: In 2002, Lewis was limited to only five games due to a shoulder injury. He still managed to rank fifth on the team with 58 tackles. In addition, Lewis compiled two interceptions, two pass deflections, a forced fumble and a fumble recovery. Lewis earned AFC Defensive Player of the Week honors in Week 4 against the Denver Broncos after posting 18 tackles (11 solo), two pass deflections, and an interception. After having been selected to the Pro Bowl for five consecutive seasons (1997–2001), Lewis's streak was stopped by his season-ending injury. In his absence, the Baltimore Ravens defense finished ranked 19th in points allowed the team as a whole finished with a 7–9 record.


title: Ray Lewis

text: Lewis was the leading vote recipient for the 2003 AP All-Pro team, earning 49 of 50 votes. He also won the annual AP NFL Defensive Player of the Year with 43 votes out of 50. He was named to his sixth career Pro Bowl for the 2003 season. Additionally, Lewis earned "Pro Football Weekly", PFWA, and "Football Digest" Defensive MVP honors and was named to Dr. Z's "Sports Illustrated" All-Pro team, "Pro Football Weekly" All-NFL team, "Pro Football Weekly" All-AFC team, "Football Digest" All-Pro first team, and "The Sporting News" All-Pro team. Lewis also earned the KC 101 AFC Defensive Player of the Year award for the 3rd time in four years, the 2003 NFL Alumni Linebacker Of The Year, and finished with 161 tackles, one and a half sacks, six interceptions, two forced fumbles, two fumble recoveries, 14 pass deflections, and one touchdown. He was named NFL Defensive Player of the Month for November and AFC Defensive Player of the Week for his 15-tackle, one-interception performance against the Pittsburgh Steelers in Week 17. In the loss to the Tennessee Titans, Lewis totaled 17 tackles.


title: Ray Lewis

text: In 2004, Lewis was named first-team All-Pro by the AP, second-team "All Pro" by "College and Pro Football Weekly" and "Football Digest," and "All Pro" by "The Sporting News." He finished the 2004 season playing 15 games while recording 146 total tackles, one sack, two fumble recoveries, one fumble forced, and six pass deflections as the Ravens went 9–7. He earned a seventh Pro Bowl nomination.


title: Ray Lewis

text: Lewis's 2005 season was cut short by an injury in Week 6. He was placed on injured reserve in Week 8, having amassed 46 tackles, a sack, an interception, two pass deflections, and a fumble recovery in the season's first six games. The Ravens struggled to a final record of 6–10.


title: Ray Lewis

text: In 2006, Lewis led the Ravens defense to an NFL-best ranking in 14 major defensive categories, including total yards allowed, points per game allowed, and interceptions. The Ravens also finished second in sacks, take-aways, and rushing yards allowed. Lewis missed two games due to an injury, but still recorded 103 tackles, a personal best of five sacks, two interceptions, and eight pass deflections in 14 games. He also forced a fumble and recovered one. The Ravens allowed just one 100-yard rushing performance in the 14 games Lewis played. Lewis was named AFC Defensive Player of the Week following his seven-tackle, one-sack, and three-pass-deflection performance against the Tampa Bay Buccaneers in the season opener. He was also selected to the Pro Bowl, but withdrew because of a hand injury, ceding his spot to fellow Ravens linebacker Bart Scott. Lewis finished fifth in voting for Defensive Player of the Year. Lewis totaled 15 tackles and a pass deflection in the loss to the Indianapolis Colts.


title: Ray Lewis

text: Despite the Ravens' mediocre 5–11 season, Lewis was the team's leading tackler. Against the Cleveland Browns, Lewis recorded 16 tackles, recovered a fumble, and returned an interception for a touchdown. He earned his ninth career Pro Bowl nomination. He finished the season with 120 total tackles, two sacks, two forced fumbles, one fumble recovery, ten passes deflected, two interceptions, and one touchdown.


title: Ray Lewis

text: In 2008, Lewis helped lead the Ravens to the AFC Championship while totaling 117 tackles, three and a half sacks, three interceptions, two forced fumbles, two fumble recoveries, and nine passes deflected. He was named a starter to the Pro Bowl, his tenth such nomination, and was named an Associated Press first-team All-Pro for the sixth time. In addition, he was named the AFC Defensive Player of the Week following his eight tackles, two interception, and two pass deflections against the Houston Texans in Week 10. In the three playoff games against the Miami Dolphins, Tennessee Titans, and Pittsburgh Steelers, Lewis totaled 29 tackles, two forced fumbles, and one pass deflection in three games. After the season, he became an unrestricted free agent, but agreed to return to the Baltimore Ravens to complete his career. The contract, which would have run through 2015 (including two option years), was said to be worth $10 million the first year, but was highly incentivized.


title: Ray Lewis

text: In 2009, Lewis was named first-team All-Pro by the Associated Press for the seventh time (ninth selection overall) and named to his 11th Pro Bowl. He accumulated an AFC-leading 134 tackles on the season. He also added three sacks, two forced fumbles, one fumble recovery, and seven passes deflected. Lewis added 21 tackles, one sack, and one pass deflection in two playoff games. In the September 2009 issue of "Sporting News' Magazine", Lewis was selected to their Team of the Decade (2000s). In Week 2 against the San Diego Chargers, Lewis made the game-saving tackle on running back Darren Sproles on a fourth-down play. After the game, Lewis said it was one of the best tackles he has made in his career. Lewis was named to the Pro Football Hall of Fame 1st team All-2000s Team.


title: Ray Lewis

text: In 2010, Lewis was named second-team All-Pro by the Associated Press for the third time (10th All-Pro selection overall) and named to his 12th Pro Bowl. He totaled 139 tackles, two sacks, two interceptions, two forced fumbles, three fumble recoveries, four pass deflections, and one touchdown. Lewis added 13 tackles, one sack, and a forced fumble in two playoff games. On Sunday, November 21, 2010, Lewis became only the second player in NFL history to record at least 30 interceptions and 30 sacks for their career. He was the fastest player (204 games) to achieve that feat. He was ranked fourth by his fellow players on the NFL Top 100 Players of 2011. He earned the highest ranking for a defensive player on the initial ranking by the NFL players.


title: Ray Lewis

text: In Week 3, Lewis was named AFC Defensive Player of the Week for his performance against the St. Louis Rams. In the 37–7 victory, Lewis had one sack, one forced fumble, and ten solo tackles. In the 2011 season, Lewis was named to his 13th and what proved to be his final Pro Bowl, and led the Ravens with 95 tackles despite missing four games with an injury. Lewis also collected two sacks, one interception, two forced fumbles, and seven pass deflections. Lewis totaled 20 tackles and one pass deflection in two playoff games. On Sunday, October 16, 2011, against the Houston Texans, Lewis became the first player in NFL history with at least 40 sacks and 30 interceptions in his career. He was ranked 20th by his fellow players on the NFL Top 100 Players of 2012.


title: Ray Lewis

text: Lewis suffered torn triceps on October 14, 2012, during a game against the Dallas Cowboys, and had them surgically repaired three days later. Several sources had reported he was expected to return to action December 16 in the game against the Denver Broncos, much earlier than his expected return in January, but he was inactive for the game. On January 2, 2013, Lewis announced he would retire after his team finished the 2012–13 NFL playoffs.


title: Ray Lewis

text: He returned to action for Baltimore's game against the Colts and led the defense to a 24–9 win. On the game's last play, Lewis lined up on offense at fullback. The Ravens were not slated to play another home playoff game (since they were the number-four seed, and the day before, the Houston Texans beat the number-six seed Cincinnati Bengals), so they wanted Lewis to be on the field for the final play. Next, the Ravens defeated the Denver Broncos in the Divisional Round, 38–35 in double overtime, and then defeated the New England Patriots in the , 28–13.


title: Ray Lewis

text: Lewis's final career NFL game was Super Bowl XLVII, where the Ravens defeated the San Francisco 49ers by a score of 34–31. Lewis finished the regular season with 57 tackles, one sack, one forced fumble, one fumble recovery, and one deflection in six games. In the postseason, Lewis led the NFL with 51 tackles. He contributed two tackles for loss and one pass deflection in the Ravens' Super Bowl XLVII run.


title: Ray Lewis

text: Following a Super Bowl XXXIV party in Atlanta on January 31, 2000, a fight broke out between Lewis and his companions and another group of people, resulting in the stabbing deaths of Jacinth Baker and Richard Lollar. Lewis and two companions, Reginald Oakley and Joseph Sweeting, were questioned by Atlanta police, and 11 days later the three men were indicted on murder and aggravated assault charges. The fight occurred about from the Cobalt Lounge at 265 East Paces Ferry Road in the Buckhead Village neighborhood about two miles north of downtown Atlanta where Lewis had been celebrating.


title: Ray Lewis

text: The white suit Lewis was wearing the night of the killings has never been found. Fulton County District Attorney Paul Howard alleged the blood-stained suit was dumped in a garbage bin outside a fast food restaurant. A knife found at the scene did not have any fingerprints or DNA. Lewis subsequently testified that Oakley and Sweeting had bought knives earlier in the week before the Super Bowl from a Sports Authority where Lewis had been signing autographs. Baker's blood was found inside of Lewis's limousine.


title: Ray Lewis

text: Two weeks into the trial Lewis's attorneys, Don Samuel and Ed Garland, negotiated a plea agreement with the District Attorney in which the murder charges against Lewis were dismissed in exchange for his testimony against Oakley and Sweeting, and his guilty plea to a misdemeanor charge of obstruction of justice. Lewis admitted he gave a misleading statement to police on the morning after the killings (initially telling them that he was not at the scene). Superior Court Judge Alice D. Bonner sentenced Lewis to 12 months' probation. One year in prison is the maximum sentence for a first-time offender, and the immediate probation was the judge's decision. He was also fined $250,000 by the NFL, which was believed to be the highest fine levied against an NFL player for an infraction not involving substance abuse. Under the terms of the sentence, Lewis could not use drugs or alcohol during the duration of the probation.


title: Ray Lewis

text: Oakley and Sweeting were acquitted of the charges in June 2000. No other suspects have ever been arrested for the incident.


title: Ray Lewis

text: The following year, Lewis was named Super Bowl XXXV MVP. However, the signature phrase "I'm going to Disney World!" was given instead to quarterback Trent Dilfer.


title: Ray Lewis

text: On April 29, 2004, Lewis reached an out-of-court settlement with four-year-old India Lollar, born months after the death of her father Richard, pre-empting a scheduled civil proceeding. Lewis also reached an undisclosed settlement with Baker's family.


title: Ray Lewis

text: During a taped pre-game interview with Shannon Sharpe that aired on CBS before Super Bowl XLVII, Sharpe told Lewis that the families of the slain men find it difficult to see Lewis idolized by millions of fans, believing he knows more about the killings than he shared, and asked what he had to say to those families. Lewis responded, "God has never made a mistake. That's just who He is, you see... To the family, if you knew, if you really knew the way God works, He don't use people who commits anything like that for His glory."


title: Ray Lewis

text: The Ravens' crisis management around Lewis's murder trial was revisited by former head coach Brian Billick, by then a media analyst, after the 2013 arrest of Aaron Hernandez and his swift release by the New England Patriots.


title: Ray Lewis

text: Throughout his career, Lewis built a reputation as a leader and intimidating force at middle linebacker. He has led his team in tackles in 12 of his 14 seasons. The Ravens did not allow a single 100-yard rusher in 51 consecutive games from the 1998 through 2001 seasons. In addition to his run defense, Lewis has also gained a reputation as a complete defender. His 31 interceptions rank fifth all-time among NFL linebackers, and just six short of the top spot. Since the murder allegations, Lewis's image has recovered, and today he is considered one of the most dominant linebackers in the history of the NFL. Lewis was also selected as the third-best linebacker of all time on the show "The Sports List". A poll of NFL coaches selected him as the most dominant player in the NFL before the 2003 season by being mentioned on 10 ballots, while no other player was mentioned more than twice. Team owner Steve Bisciotti stated his intention to erect a statue of Lewis outside M&T Bank Stadium. On September 4, 2014, days before the Ravens season opener, a statue of Lewis was unveiled in front of M&T Bank Stadium.


title: Ray Lewis

text: Lewis has been referenced in television shows such as "The Wire", films such as "The Rundown" (by that movie's star and Lewis's friend & former teammate at Miami, Dwayne Johnson), and in music videos, such as in Mario's "Just a Friend 2002" and Nelly's "Heart of a Champion". Lewis has appeared in television ads for NFL Network, Reebok, Under Armour, Old Spice, and Eastern Motors. He was the featured athlete on the cover of "Madden NFL 2005". That season, he missed a number of games to an injury, adding to the "Madden Curse". He was documented in NFL Network's documentary series "A Football Life". He was named to the NFL 100 All Time Team.


title: Ray Lewis

text: Lewis opened the Ray Lewis Full Moon Bar-B-Que, which operated in Baltimore's Canton neighborhood from February 2005 until 2008. He has also gained several national corporate endorsements, some of which draw upon his tough image. In 2004, Lewis was placed on the cover of the highly popular "Madden NFL 2005" video game published by EA Sports, and is also a very avid player of the same series. In 2006, it was announced that Lewis, Hall of Fame running back Gale Sayers, and entrepreneur Mark Bloomquist would form S&L Racing, intending to race both cars and trucks from a North Carolina headquarters. Lewis's attempt to join NASCAR racing failed.


title: Ray Lewis

text: On March 13, 2013, it was announced that Lewis would join ESPN as a contributor for their NFL coverage. Lewis was let go by ESPN in 2016. On June 20, 2017, it was announced Lewis had been hired by cable sports network Fox Sports 1.


title: Ray Lewis

text: Lewis competed against tight end Tony Gonzalez in an episode of Spike (now Paramount Network)'s "Lip Sync Battle", which aired on February 2, 2017. He emerged victorious with performances of Al Green's "Let's Stay Together" and "Hot in Herre" by Nelly, who joined him for the performance.


title: Ray Lewis

text: In August 2019, Lewis was announced as one of the celebrities to compete on season 28 of "Dancing with the Stars". He later withdrew from the competition due to a tendon injury in his foot, requiring surgery.


title: Ray Lewis

text: Lewis has been heavily involved in charitable activities throughout his professional career. He started the Ray Lewis 52 Foundation which is a nonprofit corporation whose mission is to provide personal and economic assistance to disadvantaged youth. The foundation has funded such events as adopting 10 families in the Baltimore City community for the holidays, an annual celebrity auction and bowling tournament, the Great Maryland Duck Derby, Thanksgiving food drives on North Avenue in Baltimore, and Ray's Summer Days. All proceeds have helped fund the Ray Lewis Foundation.


title: Ray Lewis

text: Lewis has since been involved in pressing political, business, and philanthropic leaders for a stronger commitment to disability sports both here and in the developing world. Lewis was also honored with a JB award (named in honor of CBS broadcaster James Brown) during the 2006 off-season and received the "Act of Kindness" Award for his work in the community.


title: Ray Lewis

text: Since his rookie year in 1996, Lewis has won numerous NFL awards, including being named Defensive Player of the Year twice (2000 and 2003), as well as Super Bowl MVP after winning Super Bowl XXXV after the 2000 season. He is also a 13-time Pro Bowler and seven-time AP First Team All-Pro player, a three-time AP Second Team All-Pro Selection, and was also a two-time All-American in college (1994 and 1995).


title: Ray Lewis

text: On May 11, 2010, a portion of Baltimore's North Avenue was renamed "Ray Lewis Way" in honor of the linebacker and his charitable work.


title: Ray Lewis

text: Lewis had career totals of 2,059 total tackles (1,568 solo), 19 forced fumbles, 117 passes defended, 102.5 stuffs for a loss, 41.5 sacks, 20 fumble recoveries, 31 interceptions for 503 yards, one safety, and three touchdowns in 228 games. He has been selected to 13 NFL Pro Bowl games, a record for an inside/middle linebacker, in his 17 seasons, and led the NFL in tackles five times (1997, 1999, 2001, 2003 and 2004). In 2003, Lewis led all linebackers with six interceptions, a total matching the post-merger all-time record for a middle linebacker in a single season. Lewis was named first-team Associated Press All-Pro in 1999, 2000, 2001, 2003, 2004, 2008, 2009 and second-team All-Pro in 1997, 1998, and 2010. His 10 total All-Pro selections is a record for an inside/middle linebacker and ties the record for a linebacker (Lawrence Taylor also has 10 selections). In 21 career playoff games, Lewis has totaled 214 tackles (135 solo), two sacks, six forced fumbles, one fumble recovery, two interceptions for 54 yards, 15 pass deflections, 10.5 stuffs for a loss, and one touchdown.


title: Ray Lewis

text: Lewis was voted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame in 2018, his first year of eligibility. Lewis joined teammate Jonathan Ogden in Canton; the two were the Ravens' first two draft picks after the team relocated to Baltimore.


title: Ray Lewis

text: Lewis is a Christian, and his commitment to his faith was featured in a "Sports Illustrated" cover story in 2006. He has a total of six children, four boys, and two girls. His son, Ray Lewis III, played college football at the University of Miami and later Coastal Carolina. He was dismissed from Coastal Carolina's football team and the university in 2016 upon being indicted by a South Carolina grand jury on a charge of third-degree criminal sexual assault. Those charges were dropped after a lengthy and more thorough investigation by law enforcement officials in South Carolina. Ray Lewis III would later play indoor football for the Wyoming Mustangs in 2021. His other son, Rayshad Lewis, committed to Utah State out of high school. His freshman year was successful. After his freshman year, Rayshad decided to transfer to the University of Maryland.


title: Ray Lewis

text: Michael Phelps, a Baltimore native and Ravens fan, stated that he found his life purpose and desire to compete in the 2016 Summer Olympics after seeking Lewis's advice.


title: Solar Opposites

text: Solar Opposites is an American science-fiction animated sitcom created by Justin Roiland and Mike McMahan for Hulu. Originally created for the Fox Broadcasting Company, the project was shelved before being bought by Hulu and given a two-season order consisting of 8 episodes each. The first season was released on May 8, 2020. The second season was released on March 26, 2021 and a holiday special was released on November 22, 2021. In June 2020, the series was renewed for a third season consisting of 11 episodes that was released on July 13, 2022 and a Halloween special was released on October 3, 2022. In June 2021, the series was renewed for a fourth season consisting of 12 episodes. In October 2022, the series was renewed for a fifth season.


title: Solar Opposites

text: "Solar Opposites" centers around Terry, Korvo, Jesse, and Yumyulack — a family of aliens who crash land on Earth and are forced to stay there, often disagreeing on whether this is a good thing. The family comes from Planet Shlorp, an advanced totalitarian world that sent out one hundred ships to colonize new planets shortly before its destruction. The show features parallel storylines, the most prominent of which follows a society of humans shrunk by the replicant Yumyulack and imprisoned in a terrarium known as "the Wall”. Starting in the third season, another storyline follows a group of intergalactic corrupt police officers, known as the SilverCops, that routinely arrest and brutalize Shlorpians fleeing from the destruction of their homeworlds.


title: Solar Opposites

text: On August 28, 2018, it was announced that Hulu had given the production a series order for two seasons consisting of sixteen episodes. The series was created by "Rick and Morty" cocreator Justin Roiland and Mike McMahan, who were also expected to serve as executive producers. Production companies involved with the series are slated to consist of 20th Television. On June 18, 2020, Hulu renewed the series for a third season consisting of 11 episodes. On June 22, 2021, Hulu renewed the series for a fourth season consisting of 12 episodes. On October 6, 2022, Hulu renewed the series for a fifth season.


title: Solar Opposites

text: The Wall in Yumyulack's room in which he keeps shrunken-down people as prisoners was, as Roiland has noted, one of the duo's initial ideas for the series, as they were interested in a "B-story" that lasted the entire first season. Some of the animation is made with assistance from Film Victoria in Melbourne, Australia.


title: Solar Opposites

text: Alongside the series order announcement, it was confirmed that Justin Roiland, Thomas Middleditch, Sean Giambrone, and Mary Mack would voice the lead characters in the series. In September 2022, Tiffany Haddish, who voiced the recurring character of Aisha in the first three seasons of the series, confirmed she had lost "all [her] gigs" following allegations of child sexual abuse, implying that she would not return in future seasons as the character.


title: Solar Opposites

text: The first teaser for the series was released on March 25, 2020. The official trailer was released on April 15, 2020. On May 8, 2020, the first season was released. In January 2021, along with a second trailer, it was revealed that the second season would premiere on March 26, 2021, on Hulu. Internationally, the series premiered on Disney+ under the dedicated streaming hub Star as an original series on February 23, 2021. On June 18, 2020, ahead of the season two premiere, Hulu renewed the series for a third season consisting of 11 episodes, which was released on July 13, 2022. Executive Producer, Josh Bycel confirmed Season 4 has been written, although Hulu has not yet shared a release date, it will likely be revealed in early 2023.


title: Solar Opposites

text: "Solar Opposites" were featured character players in the crossover racing game "Warped Kart Racers", released to Apple Arcade on May 2022, along with characters from "Family Guy", "American Dad!" and "King of the Hill".


title: Solar Opposites

text: On January 27, 2021, it was revealed at the 2021 Funko Fair that new figures based on the series would be made, which were released on June 25, 2021. On November 17, 2021, Hulu launched an online storefront which featured merchandise based on select shows from its service, with "Solar Opposites" being one of them.


title: Solar Opposites

text: On July 22, 2022, at San Diego Comic Con that a 192-page art titled "The Art of Solar Opposites" will be released in early 2023 for $49.99 and will be published by Dark Horse Books.


title: Solar Opposites

text: According to Hulu, "Solar Opposites" was the most watched program and the most watched Hulu Original comedy show premiere on the platform, following its debut on May 8, 2020 to May 12, 2020. According to Nielsen, "Solar Opposites" was the 10th most streamed original series across all platforms in the United States, during the week of March 22, to March 28, 2022, and the 7th during the week March 29, 2021 to April 4, 2021.


title: Solar Opposites

text: According to Whip Media's viewership tracking app TV Time, "Solar Opposites" was the 4th most anticipated returning television series of July 2022, and the 7th most streamed original series across all platforms in the United States, during the week ending July 24, 2022.


title: Solar Opposites

text: On Rotten Tomatoes the season 1 has an approval rating of 92% based on reviews from 37 critics, with an average rating of 7.60/10. The website's critical consensus states, "Charming, hilarious, and surprisingly sincere, "Solar Opposites" revels in the ridiculousness of life while finding a few fresh things to say about humanity along the way." On Metacritic it has a weighted average score of 72 out of 100, based on reviews from 10 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews."


title: Solar Opposites

text: Dan Fienberg of "The Hollywood Reporter" praised the animation of the series, acclaimed the performances of the voice actors, and complimented the humor of the show, writing, "Justin Roiland and Mike McMahan's new Hulu animated comedy "Solar Opposites" has enough loopy sci-fi elements to appeal to "Rick and Morty" fans and a distinctly adult sensibility." Alison Foreman of "Mashable" praised the dynamic and strong relationships between the different characters, drawing comparisons with other families coming from adult animated sitcoms such as "The Simpsons" while complimenting the humor of the show, calling it a "spectacular gem worthy of its own fanbase." Joe Matar of "Den of Geek" rated the series 5 out of 5 stars, praised the show for its classic sitcom format, acclaimed the performances of the voice actors, and applauded the comicality, stating that despite the comparisons with "Rick and Morty", the series manages to stand on its own. Alex McLevy of "The A.V. Club" gave the show a B grade and called it "a mischievous cousin of "3rd Rock from the Sun"" while saying it doesn't stray too far from the template Roiland set with "Rick and Morty". McLevy feels the show is still finding its feet, but "Luckily, the humor is so reliably strong, the pacing so breakneck as it races from one plot to the next, that it's hard not to be won over by "Solar Opposites" avalanche of charm." Joyce Slaton of "Common Sense Media" rated "Solar Opposites" 3 out of 5 stars, writing, ""Solar Opposites" is an animated show by the brains behind "Rick and Morty." It has the same style and vibe, including lots of edgy humor, cheerful gory violence, surreal visuals and plot twists, and wall-to-wall language."


title: Solar Opposites

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, the second season has an approval rating of 100% based on reviews from 14 critics, with an average rating of 8.10/10. The website's critical consensus states, ""Solar Opposites" successfully shoots for the moon in an ambitious sophomore outing that manages to build on the first season while adding plenty of fun surprises."


title: Solar Opposites

text: Jess Joho of "Mashable" found that the second season gives "Solar Opposites" its own identity, writing, "Roiland and other "Ricky and Morty" talent finally releasing themselves from the creative shackles of what works for that show, to find their own uniquely satisfying rhythm." Joe Matar of "Den of Geek" rated the second season 5 out of 5 stars, found it to be a "bigger, crazier, and funnier" season compared to the first one, and gave praise for its cursed language, references to pop culture, and level of violence depicted across its episodes. Davis Opie of "Digital Spy" rated the second season of the series 4 out of 5 stars, stating, "Everything that worked in season one is intensified here for the better," and claimed that "Solar Opposites" manages to be distinct from "Rick and Morty" across its humor and story lines, saying, ""Solar Opposites" is very much its own beast." Ethan Anderson of "SlashFilm" gave the second season a grade of 8 out of 10, stated it brings back the humor of the first season with a dark storytelling, and claimed it manages to be "bigger, crazier, and even more confident" than the first season.


title: Solar Opposites

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, the third season has an approval rating of 100% based on reviews from 6 critics, with an average rating of 8/10.


title: Solar Opposites

text: Lex Briscuso of "SlashFilm" called the third season of "Solar Opposites" "bright, bold, and, frankly, bananas in the best way," writing, ""Solar Opposites" has established itself as a spicy animated situational comedy that pulls from the best parts of its predecessor, "Rick and Morty", yet doesn't get stuck looking for its place outside of the Adult Swim hit's shadow. The show is self-assured with a unique vibe and tone all its own, and that continues to shine in the third season. By leaning into the more human elements of what the series has to offer — both the base exploration of those concepts with the aliens and the desperate attempt at a reclamation from the wall people — season 3 of "Solar Opposites" reminds us that clever structure can give way to everything else you love about a story: clever writing, brash jokes, and pure cathartic connective tissue." Anthony Orlando of "BuzzFeed" ranked "Solar Opposites" 10th in their "17 Shows And Characters That Absolutely, Positively Should Have Received Emmy Nominations," saying, "Sure, this show may not be as good as "Rick and Morty", but "Solar Opposites" is very much its own comedic beast. Co-creator Justin Roiland and his team inject the same amount of hilarity and creativity into this alien-centric show as he did with the former series. Also, the side-adventures in The Wall should've garnered some nominations by themselves, as they made for an outstanding show within the show."


title: Reincarnation

text: Reincarnation, also known as rebirth or transmigration, is the philosophical or religious concept that the non-physical essence of a living being begins a new life in a different physical form or body after biological death. Resurrection is a similar process hypothesized by some religions, in which a soul comes back to life in the same body. In most beliefs involving reincarnation, the soul is seen as immortal and the only thing that becomes perishable is the body. Upon death, the soul becomes transmigrated into a new infant (or animal) to live again. The term transmigration means passing of soul from one body to another after death.


title: Reincarnation

text: Reincarnation ("Punarjanma") is a central tenet of the Indian religions such as Buddhism, Hinduism, Jainism, and Sikhism; as well as certain Paganist religious groups, although there are Hindu and Buddhist groups who do not believe in reincarnation, instead believing in an afterlife. In various forms, it occurs as an esoteric belief in many streams of Judaism in different aspects, in some beliefs of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas, and some Indigenous Australians (though most believe in an afterlife or spirit world). A belief in rebirth/metempsychosis was held by Greek historical figures, such as Pythagoras, Socrates, and Plato, as well as in various modern religions.


title: Reincarnation

text: Although the majority of denominations within Christianity and Islam do not believe that individuals reincarnate, particular groups within these religions do refer to reincarnation; these groups include the mainstream historical and contemporary followers of Cathars, Alawites, the Druze, and the Rosicrucians. The historical relations between these sects and the beliefs about reincarnation that were characteristic of Neoplatonism, Orphism, Hermeticism, Manichaenism, and Gnosticism of the Roman era as well as the Indian religions have been the subject of recent scholarly research. In recent decades, many Europeans and North Americans have developed an interest in reincarnation, and many contemporary works mention it.


title: Reincarnation

text: The word "reincarnation" derives from a Latin term that literally means 'entering the flesh again'. Reincarnation refers to the belief that an aspect of every human being (or all living beings in some cultures) continues to exist after death. This aspect may be the soul or mind or consciousness or something transcendent which is reborn in an interconnected cycle of existence; the transmigration belief varies by culture, and is envisioned to be in the form of a newly born human being, or animal, or plant, or spirit, or as a being in some other non-human realm of existence.


title: Reincarnation

text: An alternative term is "transmigration", implying migration from one life (body) to another. The term has been used by modern philosophers such as Kurt Gödel and has entered the English language.


title: Reincarnation

text: The Greek equivalent to reincarnation, "metempsychosis" (), derives from "meta" ('change') and ('to put a soul into'), a term attributed to Pythagoras. Another Greek term sometimes used synonymously is "palingenesis", 'being born again'.


title: Reincarnation

text: Rebirth is a key concept found in major Indian religions, and discussed using various terms. Reincarnation, or "Punarjanman" (, 'rebirth, transmigration'), is discussed in the ancient Sanskrit texts of Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism, with many alternate terms such as "punarāvṛtti" (), "punarājāti" (), "punarjīvātu" (), "punarbhava" (), "āgati-gati" (, common in Buddhist Pali text), "nibbattin" (), "upapatti" (), and "uppajjana" ().


title: Reincarnation

text: These religions believe that this reincarnation is cyclic and an endless Saṃsāra, unless one gains spiritual insights that ends this cycle leading to liberation. The reincarnation concept is considered in Indian religions as a step that starts each "cycle of aimless drifting, wandering or mundane existence," but one that is an opportunity to seek spiritual liberation through ethical living and a variety of meditative, yogic ("marga"), or other spiritual practices. They consider the release from the cycle of reincarnations as the ultimate spiritual goal, and call the liberation by terms such as moksha, nirvana, "mukti" and "kaivalya". However, the Buddhist, Hindu and Jain traditions have differed, since ancient times, in their assumptions and in their details on what reincarnates, how reincarnation occurs and what leads to liberation.


title: Reincarnation

text: "Gilgul", "Gilgul neshamot", or "Gilgulei Ha Neshamot" () is the concept of reincarnation in Kabbalistic Judaism, found in much Yiddish literature among Ashkenazi Jews. "Gilgul" means 'cycle' and "neshamot" is 'souls'. Kabbalistic reincarnation says that humans reincarnate only to humans unless YHWH/Ein Sof/God chooses.


title: Reincarnation

text: The origins of the notion of reincarnation are obscure. Discussion of the subject appears in the philosophical traditions of India. The Greek Pre-Socratics discussed reincarnation, and the Celtic druids are also reported to have taught a doctrine of reincarnation.


title: Reincarnation

text: The concepts of the cycle of birth and death, Saṁsāra, and liberation partly derive from ascetic traditions that arose in India around the middle of the first millennium BCE. The first textual references to the idea of reincarnation appear in the Upanishads of the late Vedic period (c. 1100 – c. 500 BCE), predating the Buddha and the Mahavira. Though no direct evidence of this has been found, the tribes of the Ganges valley or the Dravidian traditions of South India have been proposed as another early source of reincarnation beliefs.


title: Reincarnation

text: The idea of reincarnation, "Saṁsāra", did not exist in the early Vedic religions. The early Vedas do not mention the doctrine of Karma and rebirth but mention the belief in an afterlife. It is in the early Upanishads, which are pre-Buddha and pre-Mahavira, where these ideas are developed and described in a general way. Detailed descriptions first appear around the mid-1st millennium BCE in diverse traditions, including Buddhism, Jainism and various schools of Hindu philosophy, each of which gave unique expression to the general principle.


title: Reincarnation

text: The texts of ancient Jainism that have survived into the modern era are post-Mahavira, likely from the last centuries of the first millennium BCE, and extensively mention rebirth and karma doctrines. The Jaina philosophy assumes that the soul ("jiva" in Jainism; "atman" in Hinduism) exists and is eternal, passing through cycles of transmigration and rebirth. After death, reincarnation into a new body is asserted to be instantaneous in early Jaina texts. Depending upon the accumulated karma, rebirth occurs into a higher or lower bodily form, either in heaven or hell or earthly realm. No bodily form is permanent: everyone dies and reincarnates further. Liberation ("kevalya") from reincarnation is possible, however, through removing and ending karmic accumulations to one's soul. From the early stages of Jainism on, a human being was considered the highest mortal being, with the potential to achieve liberation, particularly through asceticism.


title: Reincarnation

text: The early Buddhist texts discuss rebirth as part of the doctrine of "Saṃsāra". This asserts that the nature of existence is a "suffering-laden cycle of life, death, and rebirth, without beginning or end." Also referred to as the wheel of existence ("Bhavacakra"), it is often mentioned in Buddhist texts with the term "punarbhava" (rebirth, re-becoming). Liberation from this cycle of existence, "Nirvana", is the foundation and the most important purpose of Buddhism. Buddhist texts also assert that an enlightened person knows his previous births, a knowledge achieved through high levels of meditative concentration. Tibetan Buddhism discusses death, bardo (an intermediate state), and rebirth in texts such as the "Tibetan Book of the Dead". While Nirvana is taught as the ultimate goal in the Theravadin Buddhism, and is essential to Mahayana Buddhism, the vast majority of contemporary lay Buddhists focus on accumulating good karma and acquiring merit to achieve a better reincarnation in the next life.


title: Reincarnation

text: In early Buddhist traditions, "Saṃsāra" cosmology consisted of five realms through which the wheel of existence cycled. This included hells ("niraya"), hungry ghosts ("pretas"), animals ("tiryak"), humans ("manushya"), and gods ("devas", heavenly). In latter Buddhist traditions, this list grew to a list of six realms of rebirth, adding demigods ("asuras").


title: Reincarnation

text: The earliest layers of Vedic text incorporate the concept of life, followed by an afterlife in heaven and hell based on cumulative virtues (merit) or vices (demerit). However, the ancient Vedic Rishis challenged this idea of afterlife as simplistic, because people do not live equally moral or immoral lives. Between generally virtuous lives, some are more virtuous; while evil too has degrees, and the texts assert that it would be unfair for people, with varying degrees of virtue or vices, to end up in heaven or hell, in "either or" and disproportionate manner irrespective of how virtuous or vicious their lives were. They introduced the idea of an afterlife in heaven or hell in proportion to one's merit.


title: Reincarnation

text: Early texts of Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism share the concepts and terminology related to reincarnation. They also emphasize similar virtuous practices and karma as necessary for liberation and what influences future rebirths. For example, all three discuss various virtues—sometimes grouped as Yamas and Niyamas—such as non-violence, truthfulness, non-stealing, non-possessiveness, compassion for all living beings, charity and many others.


title: Reincarnation

text: Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism disagree in their assumptions and theories about rebirth. Hinduism relies on its foundational assumption that 'soul, Self exists' ("atman" or "attā"), in contrast to Buddhist assumption that there is 'no soul, no Self' ("anatta" or "anatman"). Hindu traditions consider soul to be the unchanging eternal essence of a living being, and what journeys across reincarnations until it attains self-knowledge. Buddhism, in contrast, asserts a rebirth theory without a Self, and considers realization of non-Self or Emptiness as Nirvana ("nibbana"). Thus Buddhism and Hinduism have a very different view on whether a self or soul exists, which impacts the details of their respective rebirth theories.


title: Reincarnation

text: The reincarnation doctrine in Jainism differs from those in Buddhism, even though both are non-theistic Sramana traditions. Jainism, in contrast to Buddhism, accepts the foundational assumption that soul exists ("Jiva") and asserts this soul is involved in the rebirth mechanism. Further, Jainism considers asceticism as an important means to spiritual liberation that ends all reincarnation, while Buddhism does not.


title: Reincarnation

text: Early Greek discussion of the concept dates to the sixth century BCE. An early Greek thinker known to have considered rebirth is Pherecydes of Syros (fl. 540 BCE). His younger contemporary Pythagoras (c. 570–c. 495 BCE), its first famous exponent, instituted societies for its diffusion. Some authorities believe that Pythagoras was Pherecydes' pupil, others that Pythagoras took up the idea of reincarnation from the doctrine of Orphism, a Thracian religion, or brought the teaching from India.


title: Reincarnation

text: Plato (428/427–348/347 BCE) presented accounts of reincarnation in his works, particularly the "Myth of Er", where Plato makes Socrates tell how Er, the son of Armenius, miraculously returned to life on the twelfth day after death and recounted the secrets of the other world. There are myths and theories to the same effect in other dialogues, in the Chariot allegory of the "Phaedrus", in the "Meno", "Timaeus" and "Laws". The soul, once separated from the body, spends an indeterminate amount of time in the intelligible realm (see The Allegory of the Cave in "The Republic") and then assumes another body. In the "Timaeus", Plato believes that the soul moves from body to body without any distinct reward-or-punishment phase between lives, because the reincarnation is itself a punishment or reward for how a person has lived.


title: Reincarnation

text: In "Phaedo", Plato has his teacher Socrates, prior to his death, state: "I am confident that there truly is such a thing as living again, and that the living spring from the dead." However, Xenophon does not mention Socrates as believing in reincarnation, and Plato may have systematized Socrates' thought with concepts he took directly from Pythagoreanism or Orphism. Recent scholars have come to see that Plato has multiple reasons for the belief in reincarnation. One argument concerns the theory of reincarnation's usefulness for explaining why non-human animals exist: they are former humans, being punished for their vices; Plato gives this argument at the end of the "Timaeus".


title: Reincarnation

text: The Orphic religion, which taught reincarnation, about the sixth century BCE, produced a copious literature. Orpheus, its legendary founder, is said to have taught that the immortal soul aspires to freedom while the body holds it prisoner. The wheel of birth revolves, the soul alternates between freedom and captivity round the wide circle of necessity. Orpheus proclaimed the need of the grace of the gods, Dionysus in particular, and of self-purification until the soul has completed the spiral ascent of destiny to live forever.


title: Reincarnation

text: An association between Pythagorean philosophy and reincarnation was routinely accepted throughout antiquity, as Pythagoras also taught about reincarnation. However, unlike the Orphics, who considered metempsychosis a cycle of grief that could be escaped by attaining liberation from it, Pythagoras seems to postulate an eternal, neutral reincarnation where subsequent lives would not be conditioned by any action done in the previous.


title: Reincarnation

text: In later Greek literature the doctrine is mentioned in a fragment of Menander and satirized by Lucian. In Roman literature it is found as early as Ennius, who, in a lost passage of his "Annals", told how he had seen Homer in a dream, who had assured him that the same soul which had animated both the poets had once belonged to a peacock. Persius in his satires (vi. 9) laughs at this; it is referred to also by Lucretius and Horace.


title: Reincarnation

text: Virgil works the idea into his account of the Underworld in the sixth book of the "Aeneid". It persists down to the late classic thinkers, Plotinus and the other Neoplatonists. In the Hermetica, a Graeco-Egyptian series of writings on cosmology and spirituality attributed to Hermes Trismegistus/Thoth, the doctrine of reincarnation is central.


title: Reincarnation

text: Julius Caesar recorded that the druids of Gaul, Britain and Ireland had metempsychosis as one of their core doctrines:


title: Reincarnation

text: Diodorus also recorded the Gaul belief that human souls were immortal, and that after a prescribed number of years they would commence upon a new life in another body. He added that Gauls had the custom of casting letters to their deceased upon the funeral pyres, through which the dead would be able to read them. Valerius Maximus also recounted they had the custom of lending sums of money to each other which would are repayable in the next world. This was mentioned by Pomponius Mela, who also recorded Gauls buried or burnt with them things they would need in a next life, to the point some would jump into the funeral piles of their relatives in order to cohabite in the new life with them.


title: Reincarnation

text: Hippolytus of Rome believed the Gauls had been taught the doctrine of reincarnation by a slave of Pythagoras named Zalmoxis. Conversely, Clement of Alexandria believed Pythagoras himself had learned it from the Celts and not the opposite, claiming he had been taught by Galatian Gauls, Hindu priests and Zoroastrians. However, author T. D. Kendrick rejected a real connection between Pythagoras and the Celtic idea reincarnation, noting their beliefs to have substantial differences, and any contact to be historically unlikely. Nonetheless, he proposed the possibility of an ancient common source, also related to the Orphic religion and Thracian systems of belief.


title: Reincarnation

text: Surviving texts indicate that there was a belief in rebirth in Germanic paganism. Examples include figures from eddic poetry and sagas, potentially by way of a process of naming and/or through the family line. Scholars have discussed the implications of these attestations and proposed theories regarding belief in reincarnation among the Germanic peoples prior to Christianization and potentially to some extent in folk belief thereafter.


title: Reincarnation

text: The belief in reincarnation developed among Jewish mystics in the Medieval World, among whom differing explanations were given of the afterlife, although with a universal belief in an immortal soul. It was explicitly rejected by Saadiah Gaon. Today, reincarnation is an esoteric belief within many streams of modern Judaism. Kabbalah teaches a belief in "gilgul", transmigration of souls, and hence the belief in reincarnation is universal in Hasidic Judaism, which regards the Kabbalah as sacred and authoritative, and is also sometimes held as an esoteric belief within other strains of Orthodox Judaism. In Judaism, the Zohar, first published in the 13th century, discusses reincarnation at length, especially in the Torah portion "Balak." The most comprehensive kabbalistic work on reincarnation, "Shaar HaGilgulim", was written by Chaim Vital, based on the teachings of his mentor, the 16th century kabbalist Isaac Luria, who was said to know the past lives of each person through his semi-prophetic abilities. The 18th century Lithuanian master scholar and kabbalist, Elijah of Vilna, known as the Vilna Gaon, authored a commentary on the biblical Book of Jonah as an allegory of reincarnation.


title: Reincarnation

text: The practice of conversion to Judaism is sometimes understood within Orthodox Judaism in terms of reincarnation. According to this school of thought in Judaism, when non-Jews are drawn to Judaism, it is because they had been Jews in a former life. Such souls may "wander among nations" through multiple lives, until they find their way back to Judaism, including through finding themselves born in a gentile family with a "lost" Jewish ancestor.


title: Reincarnation

text: In Greco-Roman thought, the concept of metempsychosis disappeared with the rise of Early Christianity, reincarnation being incompatible with the Christian core doctrine of salvation of the faithful after death. It has been suggested that some of the early Church Fathers, especially Origen, still entertained a belief in the possibility of reincarnation, but evidence is tenuous, and the writings of Origen as they have come down to us speak explicitly against it.


title: Reincarnation

text: Several Gnostic sects professed reincarnation. The Sethians and followers of Valentinus believed in it. The followers of Bardaisan of Mesopotamia, a sect of the second century deemed heretical by the Catholic Church, drew upon Chaldean astrology, to which Bardaisan's son Harmonius, educated in Athens, added Greek ideas including a sort of metempsychosis. Another such teacher was Basilides (132–? CE/AD), known to us through the criticisms of Irenaeus and the work of Clement of Alexandria (see also Neoplatonism and Gnosticism and Buddhism and Gnosticism).


title: Reincarnation

text: In the third Christian century Manichaeism spread both east and west from Babylonia, then within the Sassanid Empire, where its founder Mani lived about 216–276. Manichaean monasteries existed in Rome in 312 AD. Noting Mani's early travels to the Kushan Empire and other Buddhist influences in Manichaeism, Richard Foltz attributes Mani's teaching of reincarnation to Buddhist influence. However the inter-relation of Manicheanism, Orphism, Gnosticism and neo-Platonism is far from clear.


title: Reincarnation

text: Taoist documents from as early as the Han Dynasty claimed that Lao Tzu appeared on earth as different persons in different times beginning in the legendary era of Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors. The (ca. third century BC) "Chuang Tzu" states: "Birth is not a beginning; death is not an end. There is existence without limitation; there is continuity without a starting-point. Existence without limitation is Space. Continuity without a starting point is Time. There is birth, there is death, there is issuing forth, there is entering in."


title: Reincarnation

text: Around the 11–12th century in Europe, several reincarnationist movements were persecuted as heresies, through the establishment of the Inquisition in the Latin west. These included the Cathar, Paterene or Albigensian church of western Europe, the Paulician movement, which arose in Armenia, and the Bogomils in Bulgaria.


title: Reincarnation

text: Christian sects such as the Bogomils and the Cathars, who professed reincarnation and other gnostic beliefs, were referred to as "Manichaean", and are today sometimes described by scholars as "Neo-Manichaean". As there is no known Manichaean mythology or terminology in the writings of these groups there has been some dispute among historians as to whether these groups truly were descendants of Manichaeism.


title: Reincarnation

text: While reincarnation has been a matter of faith in some communities from an early date it has also frequently been argued for on principle, as Plato does when he argues that the number of souls must be finite because souls are indestructible, Benjamin Franklin held a similar view. Sometimes such convictions, as in Socrates' case, arise from a more general personal faith, at other times from anecdotal evidence such as Plato makes Socrates offer in the "Myth of Er".


title: Reincarnation

text: During the Renaissance translations of Plato, the Hermetica and other works fostered new European interest in reincarnation. Marsilio Ficino argued that Plato's references to reincarnation were intended allegorically, Shakespeare alluded to the doctrine of reincarnation but Giordano Bruno was burned at the stake by authorities after being found guilty of heresy by the Roman Inquisition for his teachings. But the Greek philosophical works remained available and, particularly in north Europe, were discussed by groups such as the Cambridge Platonists. Emanuel Swedenborg believed that we leave the physical world once, but then go through several lives in the spiritual world—a kind of hybrid of Christian tradition and the popular view of reincarnation.


title: Reincarnation

text: By the 19th century the philosophers Schopenhauer and Nietzsche could access the Indian scriptures for discussion of the doctrine of reincarnation, which recommended itself to the American Transcendentalists Henry David Thoreau, Walt Whitman and Ralph Waldo Emerson and was adapted by Francis Bowen into "Christian Metempsychosis".


title: Reincarnation

text: By the early 20th century, interest in reincarnation had been introduced into the nascent discipline of psychology, largely due to the influence of William James, who raised aspects of the philosophy of mind, comparative religion, the psychology of religious experience and the nature of empiricism. James was influential in the founding of the American Society for Psychical Research (ASPR) in New York City in 1885, three years after the British Society for Psychical Research (SPR) was inaugurated in London, leading to systematic, critical investigation of paranormal phenomena. Famous World War II American General George Patton was a strong believer in reincarnation, believing, among other things, he was a reincarnation of the Carthaginian General Hannibal.


title: Reincarnation

text: At this time popular awareness of the idea of reincarnation was boosted by the Theosophical Society's dissemination of systematised and universalised Indian concepts and also by the influence of magical societies like The Golden Dawn. Notable personalities like Annie Besant, W. B. Yeats and Dion Fortune made the subject almost as familiar an element of the popular culture of the west as of the east. By 1924 the subject could be satirised in popular children's books. Humorist Don Marquis created a fictional cat named Mehitabel who claimed to be a reincarnation of Queen Cleopatra.


title: Reincarnation

text: Théodore Flournoy was among the first to study a claim of past-life recall in the course of his investigation of the medium Hélène Smith, published in 1900, in which he defined the possibility of cryptomnesia in such accounts.


title: Reincarnation

text: Carl Gustav Jung, like Flournoy based in Switzerland, also emulated him in his thesis based on a study of cryptomnesia in psychism. Later Jung would emphasise the importance of the persistence of memory and ego in psychological study of reincarnation: "This concept of rebirth necessarily implies the continuity of personality... (that) one is able, at least potentially, to remember that one has lived through previous existences, and that these existences were one's own..." Hypnosis, used in psychoanalysis for retrieving forgotten memories, was eventually tried as a means of studying the phenomenon of past life recall.


title: Reincarnation

text: More recently, many people in the West have developed an interest in and acceptance of reincarnation. Many new religious movements include reincarnation among their beliefs, e.g. modern Neopagans, Spiritism, Astara, Dianetics, and Scientology. Many esoteric philosophies also include reincarnation, e.g. Theosophy, Anthroposophy, Kabbalah, and Gnostic and Esoteric Christianity such as the works of Martinus Thomsen.


title: Reincarnation

text: Demographic survey data from 1999 to 2002 shows a significant minority of people from Europe (22%) and America (20%) believe in the existence of life before birth and after death, leading to a physical rebirth. The belief in reincarnation is particularly high in the Baltic countries, with Lithuania having the highest figure for the whole of Europe, 44%, while the lowest figure is in East Germany, 12%. A quarter of U.S. Christians, including 10% of all born again Christians, embrace the idea.