title: Niels Bohr

text: Bohr became convinced that light behaved like both waves and particles and, in 1927, experiments confirmed the de Broglie hypothesis that matter (like electrons) also behaved like waves. He conceived the philosophical principle of complementarity: that items could have apparently mutually exclusive properties, such as being a wave or a stream of particles, depending on the experimental framework. He felt that it was not fully understood by professional philosophers.


title: Niels Bohr

text: In February 1927, Heisenberg developed the first version of the uncertainty principle, presenting it using a thought experiment where an electron was observed through a gamma-ray microscope. Bohr was dissatisfied with Heisenberg's argument, since it required only that a measurement disturb properties that already existed, rather than the more radical idea that the electron's properties could not be discussed at all apart from the context they were measured in. In a paper presented at the Volta Conference at Como in September 1927, Bohr emphasized that Heisenberg's uncertainty relations could be derived from classical considerations about the resolving power of optical instruments. Understanding the true meaning of complementarity would, Bohr believed, require "closer investigation". Einstein preferred the determinism of classical physics over the probabilistic new quantum physics to which he himself had contributed. Philosophical issues that arose from the novel aspects of quantum mechanics became widely celebrated subjects of discussion. Einstein and Bohr had good-natured arguments over such issues throughout their lives.


title: Niels Bohr

text: In 1914 Carl Jacobsen, the heir to Carlsberg breweries, bequeathed his mansion (the Carlsberg Honorary Residence, currently known as Carlsberg Academy) to be used for life by the Dane who had made the most prominent contribution to science, literature or the arts, as an honorary residence (). Harald Høffding had been the first occupant, and upon his death in July 1931, the Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters gave Bohr occupancy. He and his family moved there in 1932. He was elected president of the Academy on 17 March 1939.


title: Niels Bohr

text: By 1929 the phenomenon of beta decay prompted Bohr to again suggest that the law of conservation of energy be abandoned, but Enrico Fermi's hypothetical neutrino and the subsequent 1932 discovery of the neutron provided another explanation. This prompted Bohr to create a new theory of the compound nucleus in 1936, which explained how neutrons could be captured by the nucleus. In this model, the nucleus could be deformed like a drop of liquid. He worked on this with a new collaborator, the Danish physicist Fritz Kalckar, who died suddenly in 1938.


title: Niels Bohr

text: The discovery of nuclear fission by Otto Hahn in December 1938 (and its theoretical explanation by Lise Meitner) generated intense interest among physicists. Bohr brought the news to the United States where he opened the Fifth Washington Conference on Theoretical Physics with Fermi on 26 January 1939. When Bohr told George Placzek that this resolved all the mysteries of transuranic elements, Placzek told him that one remained: the neutron capture energies of uranium did not match those of its decay. Bohr thought about it for a few minutes and then announced to Placzek, Léon Rosenfeld and John Wheeler that "I have understood everything." Based on his liquid drop model of the nucleus, Bohr concluded that it was the uranium-235 isotope and not the more abundant uranium-238 that was primarily responsible for fission with thermal neutrons. In April 1940, John R. Dunning demonstrated that Bohr was correct. In the meantime, Bohr and Wheeler developed a theoretical treatment which they published in a September 1939 paper on "The Mechanism of Nuclear Fission".


title: Niels Bohr

text: Heisenberg said of Bohr that he was "primarily a philosopher, not a physicist". Bohr read the 19th-century Danish Christian existentialist philosopher Søren Kierkegaard. Richard Rhodes argued in "The Making of the Atomic Bomb" that Bohr was influenced by Kierkegaard through Høffding. In 1909, Bohr sent his brother Kierkegaard's "Stages on Life's Way" as a birthday gift. In the enclosed letter, Bohr wrote, "It is the only thing I have to send home; but I do not believe that it would be very easy to find anything better ... I even think it is one of the most delightful things I have ever read." Bohr enjoyed Kierkegaard's language and literary style, but mentioned that he had some disagreement with Kierkegaard's philosophy. Some of Bohr's biographers suggested that this disagreement stemmed from Kierkegaard's advocacy of Christianity, while Bohr was an atheist.


title: Niels Bohr

text: There has been some dispute over the extent to which Kierkegaard influenced Bohr's philosophy and science. David Favrholdt argued that Kierkegaard had minimal influence over Bohr's work, taking Bohr's statement about disagreeing with Kierkegaard at face value, while Jan Faye argued that one can disagree with the content of a theory while accepting its general premises and structure.


title: Niels Bohr

text: There has been much subsequent debate and discussion about Bohr's views and philosophy of quantum mechanics. Regarding his ontological interpretation of the quantum world, Bohr has been seen as an anti-realist, an instrumentalist, a phenomenological realist or some other kind of realist. Furthermore, though some have seen Bohr as being a subjectivist or a positivist, most philosophers agree that this is a misunderstanding of Bohr as he never argued for verificationism or for the idea that the subject had a direct impact on the outcome of a measurement.


title: Niels Bohr

text: Bohr has often been quoted as saying that there is "no quantum world" but only an "abstract quantum physical description". This was not said by Bohr, but rather by Aage Petersen attempting to summarize Bohr's philosophy in a reminiscence after Bohr's death. N. David Mermin recalled Victor Weisskopf declaring that Bohr wouldn't have said anything of the sort and exclaiming, "Shame on Aage Petersen for putting those ridiculous words in Bohr's mouth!"


title: Niels Bohr

text: Numerous scholars have argued that the philosophy of Immanuel Kant had a strong influence on Bohr. Like Kant, Bohr thought distinguishing between the subject's experience and the object was an important condition for attaining knowledge. This can only be done through the use of causal and spatial-temporal concepts to describe the subject's experience. Thus, according to Jan Faye, Bohr thought that it is because of "classical" concepts like "space", "position", "time," "causation", and "momentum" that one can talk about objects and their objective existence. Bohr held that basic concepts like "time" are built in to our ordinary language and that the concepts of classical physics are merely a refinement of them. Therefore, for Bohr, we need to use classical concepts to describe experiments that deal with the quantum world. Bohr writes:It is decisive to recognize that, however far the phenomena transcend the scope of classical physical explanation, the account of all evidence must be expressed in classical terms. The argument is simply that by the word 'experiment' we refer to a situation where we can tell to others what we have done and what we have learned and that, therefore, the account of the experimental arrangement and of the results of the observations must be expressed in unambiguous language with suitable application of the terminology of classical physics ("APHK", p. 39).According to Faye, there are various explanations for why Bohr believed that classical concepts were necessary for describing quantum phenomena. Faye groups explanations into five frameworks: empiricism (i.e. logical positivism); Kantianism (or Neo-Kantian models of epistemology in which classical ideas are a priori concepts that the mind imposes on sense impressions); Pragmatism (which focus on how human beings experientially interact with atomic systems according to their needs and interests); Darwinianism (i.e. we are adapted to use classical type concepts, which Léon Rosenfeld said that we evolved to use); and Experimentalism (which focuses strictly on the function and outcome of experiments which thus must be described classically). These explanations are not mutually exclusive, and at times Bohr seems to emphasize some of these aspects while at other times he focuses on other elements.


title: Niels Bohr

text: According to Faye "Bohr thought of the atom as real. Atoms are neither heuristic nor logical constructions." However, according to Faye, he did not believe "that the quantum mechanical formalism was true in the sense that it gave us a literal ('pictorial') rather than a symbolic representation of the quantum world." Therefore, Bohr's theory of complementarity "is first and foremost a semantic and epistemological reading of quantum mechanics that carries certain ontological implications." As Faye explains, Bohr's "indefinability thesis" is thatthe truth conditions of sentences ascribing a certain kinematic or dynamic value to an atomic object are dependent on the apparatus involved, in such a way that these truth conditions have to include reference to the experimental setup as well as the actual outcome of the experiment.Faye notes that Bohr's interpretation makes no reference to a "collapse of the wave function during measurements" (and indeed, he never mentioned this idea). Instead, Bohr "accepted the Born statistical interpretation because he believed that the "ψ"-function has only a symbolic meaning and does not represent anything real." Since for Bohr, the "ψ"-function is not a literal pictorial representation of reality, there can be no real collapse of the wavefunction.


title: Niels Bohr

text: A much debated point in recent literature is what Bohr believed about atoms and their reality and whether they are something else than what they seem to be. Some like Henry Folse argue that Bohr saw a distinction between observed phenomena and a transcendental reality. Jan Faye disagrees with this position and holds that for Bohr, the quantum formalism and complementarity was the only thing we could say about the quantum world and that "there is no further evidence in Bohr's writings indicating that Bohr would attribute intrinsic and measurement-independent state properties to atomic objects (though quite unintelligible and inaccessible to us) in addition to the classical ones being manifested in measurement."


title: Niels Bohr

text: The rise of Nazism in Germany prompted many scholars to flee their countries, either because they were Jewish or because they were political opponents of the Nazi regime. In 1933, the Rockefeller Foundation created a fund to help support refugee academics, and Bohr discussed this programme with the President of the Rockefeller Foundation, Max Mason, in May 1933 during a visit to the United States. Bohr offered the refugees temporary jobs at the institute, provided them with financial support, arranged for them to be awarded fellowships from the Rockefeller Foundation, and ultimately found them places at institutions around the world. Those that he helped included Guido Beck, Felix Bloch, James Franck, George de Hevesy, Otto Frisch, Hilde Levi, Lise Meitner, George Placzek, Eugene Rabinowitch, Stefan Rozental, Erich Ernst Schneider, Edward Teller, Arthur von Hippel and Victor Weisskopf.


title: Niels Bohr

text: In April 1940, early in the Second World War, Nazi Germany invaded and occupied Denmark. To prevent the Germans from discovering Max von Laue's and James Franck's gold Nobel medals, Bohr had de Hevesy dissolve them in aqua regia. In this form, they were stored on a shelf at the Institute until after the war, when the gold was precipitated and the medals re-struck by the Nobel Foundation. Bohr's own medal had been donated to an auction to the Fund for Finnish Relief, and was auctioned off in March 1940, along with the medal of August Krogh. The buyer later donated the two medals to the Danish Historical Museum in Frederiksborg Castle, where they are still kept.


title: Niels Bohr

text: Bohr was aware of the possibility of using uranium-235 to construct an atomic bomb, referring to it in lectures in Britain and Denmark shortly before and after the war started, but he did not believe that it was technically feasible to extract a sufficient quantity of uranium-235. In September 1941, Heisenberg, who had become head of the German nuclear energy project, visited Bohr in Copenhagen. During this meeting the two men took a private moment outside, the content of which has caused much speculation, as both gave differing accounts.


title: Niels Bohr

text: According to Heisenberg, he began to address nuclear energy, morality and the war, to which Bohr seems to have reacted by terminating the conversation abruptly while not giving Heisenberg hints about his own opinions. Ivan Supek, one of Heisenberg's students and friends, claimed that the main subject of the meeting was Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker, who had proposed trying to persuade Bohr to mediate peace between Britain and Germany.


title: Niels Bohr

text: In 1957, Heisenberg wrote to Robert Jungk, who was then working on the book "". Heisenberg explained that he had visited Copenhagen to communicate to Bohr the views of several German scientists, that production of a nuclear weapon was possible with great efforts, and this raised enormous responsibilities on the world's scientists on both sides. When Bohr saw Jungk's depiction in the Danish translation of the book, he drafted (but never sent) a letter to Heisenberg, stating that he never understood the purpose of Heisenberg's visit, was shocked by Heisenberg's opinion that Germany would win the war, and that atomic weapons could be decisive.


title: Niels Bohr

text: Michael Frayn's 1998 play "Copenhagen" explores what might have happened at the 1941 meeting between Heisenberg and Bohr. A BBC television film version of the play was first screened on 26 September 2002, with Stephen Rea as Bohr, Daniel Craig as Heisenberg, and Francesca Annis as Margrethe Bohr. The same meeting had previously been dramatised by the BBC's "Horizon" science documentary series in 1992, with Anthony Bate as Bohr, and Philip Anthony as Heisenberg. The meeting is also dramatized in the Norwegian/Danish/British miniseries "The Heavy Water War".


title: Niels Bohr

text: In September 1943, word reached Bohr and his brother Harald that the Nazis considered their family to be Jewish, since their mother was Jewish, and that they were therefore in danger of being arrested. The Danish resistance helped Bohr and his wife escape by sea to Sweden on 29 September. The next day, Bohr persuaded King Gustaf V of Sweden to make public Sweden's willingness to provide asylum to Jewish refugees. On 2 October 1943, Swedish radio broadcast that Sweden was ready to offer asylum, and the mass rescue of the Danish Jews by their countrymen followed swiftly thereafter. Some historians claim that Bohr's actions led directly to the mass rescue, while others say that, though Bohr did all that he could for his countrymen, his actions were not a decisive influence on the wider events. Eventually, over 7,000 Danish Jews escaped to Sweden.


title: Niels Bohr

text: When the news of Bohr's escape reached Britain, Lord Cherwell sent a telegram to Bohr asking him to come to Britain. Bohr arrived in Scotland on 6 October in a de Havilland Mosquito operated by the British Overseas Airways Corporation (BOAC). The Mosquitos were unarmed high-speed bomber aircraft that had been converted to carry small, valuable cargoes or important passengers. By flying at high speed and high altitude, they could cross German-occupied Norway, and yet avoid German fighters. Bohr, equipped with parachute, flying suit and oxygen mask, spent the three-hour flight lying on a mattress in the aircraft's bomb bay. During the flight, Bohr did not wear his flying helmet as it was too small, and consequently did not hear the pilot's intercom instruction to turn on his oxygen supply when the aircraft climbed to high altitude to overfly Norway. He passed out from oxygen starvation and only revived when the aircraft descended to lower altitude over the North Sea. Bohr's son Aage followed his father to Britain on another flight a week later, and became his personal assistant.


title: Niels Bohr

text: Bohr was warmly received by James Chadwick and Sir John Anderson, but for security reasons Bohr was kept out of sight. He was given an apartment at St James's Palace and an office with the British Tube Alloys nuclear weapons development team. Bohr was astonished at the amount of progress that had been made. Chadwick arranged for Bohr to visit the United States as a Tube Alloys consultant, with Aage as his assistant. On 8 December 1943, Bohr arrived in Washington, D.C., where he met with the director of the Manhattan Project, Brigadier General Leslie R. Groves Jr. He visited Einstein and Pauli at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey, and went to Los Alamos in New Mexico, where the nuclear weapons were being designed. For security reasons, he went under the name of "Nicholas Baker" in the United States, while Aage became "James Baker". In May 1944 the Danish resistance newspaper "De frie Danske" reported that they had learned that 'the famous son of Denmark Professor Niels Bohr' in October the previous year had fled his country via Sweden to London and from there travelled to Moscow from where he could be assumed to support the war effort.


title: Niels Bohr

text: Bohr did not remain at Los Alamos, but paid a series of extended visits over the course of the next two years. Robert Oppenheimer credited Bohr with acting "as a scientific father figure to the younger men", most notably Richard Feynman. Bohr is quoted as saying, "They didn't need my help in making the atom bomb." Oppenheimer gave Bohr credit for an important contribution to the work on modulated neutron initiators. "This device remained a stubborn puzzle," Oppenheimer noted, "but in early February 1945 Niels Bohr clarified what had to be done."


title: Niels Bohr

text: Bohr recognised early that nuclear weapons would change international relations. In April 1944, he received a letter from Peter Kapitza, written some months before when Bohr was in Sweden, inviting him to come to the Soviet Union. The letter convinced Bohr that the Soviets were aware of the Anglo-American project, and would strive to catch up. He sent Kapitza a non-committal response, which he showed to the authorities in Britain before posting. Bohr met Churchill on 16 May 1944, but found that "we did not speak the same language". Churchill disagreed with the idea of openness towards the Russians to the point that he wrote in a letter: "It seems to me Bohr ought to be confined or at any rate made to see that he is very near the edge of mortal crimes."


title: Niels Bohr

text: Oppenheimer suggested that Bohr visit President Franklin D. Roosevelt to convince him that the Manhattan Project should be shared with the Soviets in the hope of speeding up its results. Bohr's friend, Supreme Court Justice Felix Frankfurter, informed President Roosevelt about Bohr's opinions, and a meeting between them took place on 26 August 1944. Roosevelt suggested that Bohr return to the United Kingdom to try to win British approval. When Churchill and Roosevelt met at Hyde Park on 19 September 1944, they rejected the idea of informing the world about the project, and the aide-mémoire of their conversation contained a rider that "enquiries should be made regarding the activities of Professor Bohr and steps taken to ensure that he is responsible for no leakage of information, particularly to the Russians".


title: Niels Bohr

text: In June 1950, Bohr addressed an "Open Letter" to the United Nations calling for international cooperation on nuclear energy. In the 1950s, after the Soviet Union's first nuclear weapon test, the International Atomic Energy Agency was created along the lines of Bohr's suggestion. In 1957 he received the first ever Atoms for Peace Award.


title: Niels Bohr

text: With the war now ended, Bohr returned to Copenhagen on 25 August 1945, and was re-elected President of the Royal Danish Academy of Arts and Sciences on 21 September. At a memorial meeting of the Academy on 17 October 1947 for King Christian X, who had died in April, the new king, Frederick IX, announced that he was conferring the Order of the Elephant on Bohr. This award was normally awarded only to royalty and heads of state, but the king said that it honoured not just Bohr personally, but Danish science. Bohr designed his own coat of arms which featured a taijitu (symbol of yin and yang) and a motto in , "opposites are complementary".


title: Niels Bohr

text: The Second World War demonstrated that science, and physics in particular, now required considerable financial and material resources. To avoid a brain drain to the United States, twelve European countries banded together to create CERN, a research organisation along the lines of the national laboratories in the United States, designed to undertake Big Science projects beyond the resources of any one of them alone. Questions soon arose regarding the best location for the facilities. Bohr and Kramers felt that the Institute in Copenhagen would be the ideal site. Pierre Auger, who organised the preliminary discussions, disagreed; he felt that both Bohr and his Institute were past their prime, and that Bohr's presence would overshadow others. After a long debate, Bohr pledged his support to CERN in February 1952, and Geneva was chosen as the site in October. The CERN Theory Group was based in Copenhagen until their new accommodation in Geneva was ready in 1957. Victor Weisskopf, who later became the Director General of CERN, summed up Bohr's role, saying that "there were other personalities who started and conceived the idea of CERN. The enthusiasm and ideas of the other people would not have been enough, however, if a man of his stature had not supported it."


title: Niels Bohr

text: Meanwhile, Scandinavian countries formed the Nordic Institute for Theoretical Physics in 1957, with Bohr as its chairman. He was also involved with the founding of the Research Establishment Risø of the Danish Atomic Energy Commission, and served as its first chairman from February 1956.


title: Niels Bohr

text: Bohr died of heart failure at his home in Carlsberg on 18 November 1962. He was cremated, and his ashes were buried in the family plot in the Assistens Cemetery in the Nørrebro section of Copenhagen, along with those of his parents, his brother Harald, and his son Christian. Years later, his wife's ashes were also interred there. On 7 October 1965, on what would have been his 80th birthday, the Institute for Theoretical Physics at the University of Copenhagen was officially renamed to what it had been called unofficially for many years: the Niels Bohr Institute.


title: Niels Bohr

text: Bohr received numerous honours and accolades. In addition to the Nobel Prize, he received the Hughes Medal in 1921, the Matteucci Medal in 1923, the Franklin Medal in 1926, the Copley Medal in 1938, the Order of the Elephant in 1947, the Atoms for Peace Award in 1957 and the Sonning Prize in 1961. He became foreign member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1923, and of the Royal Society in 1926. The Bohr model's semicentennial was commemorated in Denmark on 21 November 1963 with a postage stamp depicting Bohr, the hydrogen atom and the formula for the difference of any two hydrogen energy levels: formula_3. Several other countries have also issued postage stamps depicting Bohr. In 1997, the Danish National Bank began circulating the 500-krone banknote with the portrait of Bohr smoking a pipe. On 7 October 2012, in celebration of Niels Bohr's 127th birthday, a Google Doodle depicting the Bohr model of the hydrogen atom appeared on Google's home page. An asteroid, 3948 Bohr, was named after him, as was the Bohr lunar crater and bohrium, the chemical element with atomic number 107.


title: Minoxidil

text: Minoxidil, sold under the brand name Rogaine among others, is a medication used for the treatment of high blood pressure and pattern hair loss. It is an antihypertensive vasodilator. It is available as a generic medication by prescription in oral tablet form and over the counter as a topical liquid or foam.


title: Minoxidil

text: Minoxidil, when used for hypertension, is generally reserved for use in severe hypertension patients who can not respond to at least two agents and a diuretic. Minoxidil is also generally administered with a loop diuretic to prevent sodium and potassium retention. It may also cause a reflex tachycardia and thus is prescribed with a beta blocker.


title: Minoxidil

text: Minoxidil, applied topically, is widely used for the treatment of hair loss. It is effective in helping promote hair growth in people with androgenic alopecia regardless of sex. Minoxidil must be used indefinitely for continued support of existing hair follicles and the maintenance of any experienced hair regrowth.


title: Minoxidil

text: Its effect in people with alopecia areata is unclear. However, the association of oral minoxidil with Janus Kinase inhibitors (JAK inhibitors), termed oral adjuvant minoxidil, seems to increase hair regrowth in patients refractory to JAK inhibitor monotherapy.


title: Minoxidil

text: Topically applied minoxidil is generally well tolerated, but common side effects include itching of the eye, itching, redness or irritation at the treated area, and unwanted hair growth elsewhere on the body. Exacerbation of hair loss/alopecia has been reported. Other side effects may include rash, itching, difficulty breathing, swelling of the mouth, face, lips, or tongue, chest pain, dizziness, fainting, tachycardia, headache, sudden and unexplained weight gain, or swelling of the hands and feet. Rare side effects are erectile dysfunction, depression, anxiety, decreased libido, and skin disorders. Temporary hair loss is a common side effect of minoxidil treatment, a process referred to as "shedding."


title: Minoxidil

text: Alcohol and propylene glycol present in some topical preparations may dry the scalp, resulting in dandruff and contact dermatitis. Cases of allergic reactions to minoxidil or the non-active ingredient propylene glycol, which is found in some topical minoxidil formulations, have been reported.


title: Minoxidil

text: Side effects of oral minoxidil may include swelling of the face and extremities, rapid heartbeat, or lightheadedness. Cardiac lesions, such as focal necrosis of the papillary muscle and subendocardial areas of the left ventricle, have been observed in laboratory animals treated with minoxidil. Pseudoacromegaly is an extremely rare side effect reported with large doses of oral minoxidil.


title: Minoxidil

text: In 2013 or 2014 a seven-year-old girl was admitted to a children's hospital in Toulouse in France after accidentally ingesting a teaspoon of Alopexy (a brand name for minoxidil in France). The child vomited constantly after ingestion and showed hypotension and tachycardia for 40 hours. The authors of the report on the incident stressed that the product should be kept out of reach of children, and urged manufacturers to consider more secure child-resistant packaging.


title: Minoxidil

text: Minoxidil may cause hirsutism, although it is exceedingly rare and reversible by discontinuation of the drug.


title: Minoxidil

text: The mechanism by which minoxidil promotes hair growth is not fully understood. Minoxidil is an adenosine 5'-triphosphate-sensitive potassium channel opener, causing hyperpolarization of cell membranes. Theoretically, by widening blood vessels and opening potassium channels, it allows more oxygen, blood, and nutrients to the follicles. Moreover, minoxidil contains a nitric oxide moiety and may act as a nitric oxide agonist. This may cause follicles in the telogen phase to shed, which are then replaced by thicker hairs in a new anagen phase. Minoxidil is a prodrug that is converted by sulfation via the sulfotransferase enzyme SULT1A1 to its active form, minoxidil sulfate. The effect of minoxidil is mediated by adenosine, which triggers intracellular signal transduction via both adenosine A1 receptors and two sub-types of adenosine A2 receptors (A and A receptors). Minoxidil acts as an activator of the Kir6/SUR2 channel upon selective binding to SUR2. The expression of SUR2B in dermal papilla cells might play a role in the production of adenosine. Minoxidil induces cell growth factors such as VEGF, HGF, IGF-1 and potentiates HGF and IGF-1 actions by the activation of uncoupled sulfonylurea receptor on the plasma membrane of dermal papilla cells.


title: Minoxidil

text: A number of "in vitro" effects of minoxidil have been described in monocultures of various skin and hair follicle cell types including stimulation of cell proliferation, inhibition of collagen synthesis, and stimulation of vascular endothelial growth factor, prostaglandin synthesis and leukotriene B4 expression.


title: Minoxidil

text: Minoxidil causes a redistribution of cellular iron through its apparent capacity to bind this metal ion. By binding iron in a Fenton-reactive form, intracellular hydroxyl radical production would ensue, but hydroxyl would be immediately trapped and scavenged by the minoxidil to generate a nitroxyl radical. It is presumed that this nitroxyl radical will be capable of reduction by glutathione to reform minoxidil. Such a process would cycle until the minoxidil is otherwise metabolized and would result in rapid glutathione depletion with glutathione disulphide formation and therefore with concomitant consumption of NADPH/ NADH and other reducing equivalents. Minoxidil inhibited PHD by interfering with the normal function of ascorbate, a cofactor of the enzyme, leading to a stabilization of HIF-1α protein and a subsequent activation of HIF-1. In an in vivo angiogenesis assay, millimolar minoxidil increased blood vessel formation in a VEGF-dependent manner. Minoxidil inhibition of PHD occurs via interrupting ascorbate binding to iron. The structural feature of positioning amines adjacent to nitric oxide may confer the ability of millimolar minoxidil to chelate iron, thereby inhibiting PHD. Minoxidil is capable of tetrahydrobiopterin inhibition as a cofactor for nitric oxide synthase.


title: Minoxidil

text: Minoxidil stimulates prostaglandin E production by activating COX-1 and prostaglandin endoperoxide synthase-1 but inhibits prostacyclin production. Additionally, expression of the prostaglandin E receptor, the most upregulated target gene in the β-catenin pathway of DP cells, was enhanced by minoxidil, which may enable hair follicles to grow continuously and maintain the anagen phase.


title: Minoxidil

text: Due to anti-fibrotic activity of minoxidil inhibition of enzyme lysyl hydroxylase present in fibroblast may result in synthesis of a hydroxylysine-deficient collagen. Minoxidil can also potentially stimulate elastogenesis in aortic smooth muscle cells, and in skin fibroblasts in a dose-dependent manner. In hypertensive rats, minoxidil increases elastin level in the mesenteric, abdominal, and renal arteries by a decrease in "elastase" enzyme activity in these tissues. In rats, potassium channel openers decrease calcium influx which inhibits elastin gene transcription through extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK 1/2)-activator protein 1 signaling pathway. ERK 1/2 increases, through elastin gene transcription, adequately cross-linked elastic fiber content synthetized by smooth muscle cells, and decreases the number of cells in the aorta.


title: Minoxidil

text: Minoxidil possesses alpha 2-adrenoceptor agonist activity, stimulates the peripheral sympathetic nervous system (SNS) by way of carotid and aortic baroreceptor reflexes. Minoxidil administration also brings an increase in plasma renin activity, largely due to the aforementioned activation of the SNS. This activation of the renin-angiotensin axis further prompts increased biosynthesis of aldosterone; whereas plasma and urinary aldosterone levels are increased early in the course of treatment with minoxidil, over time these values tend to normalize presumably because of accelerated metabolic clearance of aldosterone in association with hepatic vasodilation.


title: Minoxidil

text: Minoxidil might increase blood-tumor barrier permeability in a time-dependent manner by down-regulating tight junction protein expression and this effect could be related to ROS/RhoA/PI3K/PKB signal pathway. Minoxidil significantly increases ROS concentration when compared to untreated cells.


title: Minoxidil

text: In vitro Minoxidil treatment resulted in a 0.22 fold change for 5α-R2 (p < 0.0001). This antiandrogenic effect of minoxidil, shown by significant downregulation of 5α-R2 gene expression in HaCaT cells, may be one of its mechanisms of action in alopecia.


title: Minoxidil

text: Minoxidil is less effective when the area of hair loss is large. In addition, its effectiveness has largely been demonstrated in younger men who have experienced hair loss for less than 5 years. Minoxidil use is indicated for central (vertex) hair loss only. Two clinical studies are being conducted in the US for a medical device that may allow patients to determine if they are likely to benefit from minoxidil therapy.


title: Minoxidil

text: Conditions such as Cantú syndrome have been shown to mimic the pharmacological properties of minoxidil.


title: Minoxidil

text: Minoxidil is an odorless, white to off-white, crystalline powder (crystals from methanol-acetonitrile). When heated to decomposition it emits toxic fumes of nitrogen oxides. It decomposes at 259-261 °C.


title: Minoxidil

text: Solubility (mg/ml): propylene glycol 75, methanol 44, ethanol 29, 2-propanol 6.7, dimethylsulfoxide 6.5, water 2.2, chloroform 0.5, acetone <0.5, ethyl acetate <0.5, diethyl ether <0.5, benzene <0.5, acetonitrile <0.5.


title: Minoxidil

text: Commercially available minoxidil topical solution should be stored at a temperature of 20-25 °C. Extemporaneous formulations of minoxidil have been reported to have variable stability, depending on the vehicle and method of preparation, and the FDA requests that physicians and pharmacists refrain from preparing extemporaneous topical formulations using commercially available minoxidil tablets. Minoxidil tablets should be stored in well-closed containers at 15-30 °C.


title: Minoxidil

text: Minoxidil, 6-amino-1,2-dihydro-1-hydroxy-2-imino-4-piperidinopyrimidine, is synthesized from barbituric acid, the reaction of which with phosphorus oxychloride gives 2,4,6-trichloropyrimidine. Upon reaction with ammonium, this turns into 2,4-diamino-6-chloropyrimidine. Next, the resulting 2,4-diamino-6-chloropyrimidine undergoes reaction with 2,4-dichlorophenol in the presence of potassium hydroxide, giving 2,4-diamino-6-(2,4-dichlorophenoxy)-pyrimidine. Oxidation of this product with 3-chloroperbenzoic acid gives 2,4-diamino-6-(2,4-dichlorophenoxy)pyrimidine-3-oxide, the 2,4-dichlorophenoxyl group of which is replaced with a piperidine group at high temperature, giving minoxidil.


title: Minoxidil

text: Minoxidil was developed in the late 1950s by the Upjohn Company (later became part of Pfizer) to treat ulcers. In trials using dogs, the compound did not cure ulcers, but proved to be a powerful vasodilator. Upjohn synthesized over 200 variations of the compound, including the one it developed in 1963 and named minoxidil. These studies resulted in the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approving minoxidil (with the brand name 'Loniten') in the form of oral tablets to treat high blood pressure in 1979.


title: Minoxidil

text: When Upjohn received permission from the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) to test the new drug as medicine for hypertension they approached Charles A. Chidsey MD, Associate Professor of Medicine at the University of Colorado School of Medicine. He conducted two studies, the second study showing unexpected hair growth. Puzzled by this side-effect, Chidsey consulted Guinter Kahn (who while a dermatology resident at the University of Miami had been the first to observe and report hair development on patients using the minoxidil patch) and discussed the possibility of using minoxidil for treating hair loss.


title: Minoxidil

text: Kahn along with his colleague Paul J. Grant MD had obtained a certain amount of the drug and conducted their own research, since they were first to make the side effect observation. Neither Upjohn or Chidsey at the time were aware of the side effect of hair growth. The two doctors had been experimenting with a 1% solution of minoxidil mixed with several alcohol-based liquids. Both parties filed patents to use the drug for hair loss prevention, which resulted in a decade-long trial between Kahn and Upjohn, which ended with Kahn's name included in a consolidated patent (U.S. #4,596,812 Charles A Chidsey, III and Guinter Kahn) in 1986 and royalties from the company to both Kahn and Grant.


title: Minoxidil

text: Meanwhile, the effect of minoxidil on hair loss prevention was so clear that in the 1980s physicians were prescribing Loniten off-label to their balding patients.


title: Minoxidil

text: In August 1988, the FDA approved the drug for treating baldness in men under the brand name "Rogaine" (FDA rejected Upjohn's first choice, Regain, as misleading). The agency concluded that although "the product will not work for everyone", 39% of the men studied had "moderate to dense hair growth on the crown of the head".


title: Minoxidil

text: On February 12, 1996, the FDA approved both the over-the-counter sale of the medication and the production of generic formulations of minoxidil. Upjohn replied to that by lowering prices to half the price of the prescription drug and by releasing a prescription 5% formula of Rogaine in 1997. In 1998, a 5% formulation of minoxidil was approved for nonprescription sale by the FDA. The 5% aerosol foam formula was approved for medical use in the US in 2006. The generic versions of the 5% aerosol foam formula were approved in 2017.


title: Minoxidil

text: In 2017, "JAMA" published a study of pharmacy prices in four states for 41 over-the-counter minoxidil products which were "gender-specified." The authors found that the mean price for minoxidil solutions was the same for women and men even though the women's formulations were 2% and the men's were 5%, while the mean price for minoxidil foams, which were all 5%, was 40% higher for women. The authors noted this was the first time gender-based pricing had been shown for a medication.


title: Minoxidil

text: , Minoxidil was marketed under many trade names worldwide: Alomax, Alopek, Alopexy, Alorexyl, Alostil, Aloxid, Aloxidil, Anagen, Apo-Gain, Axelan, Belohair, Boots Hair Loss Treatment, Botafex, Capillus, Carexidil, Coverit, Da Fei Xin, Dilaine, Dinaxcinco, Dinaxil, Ebersedin, Eminox, Folcare, Guayaten, Hair Grow, Hair-Treat, Hairgain, Hairgaine, Hairgrow, Hairway, Headway, Inoxi, Ivix, Keranique, Lacovin, Locemix, Loniten, Lonnoten, Lonolox, Lonoten, Loxon, M E Medic, Maev-Medic, Mandi, Manoxidil, Mantai, Men's Rogaine, Minodil, Minodril, Minostyl, Minovital, Minox, Minoxi, Minoxidil, Minoxidilum, Minoximen, Minoxiten, Minscalp, Mintop, Modil, Morr, Moxidil, Neo-Pruristam, Neocapil, Neoxidil, Nherea, Noxidil, Oxofenil, Pilfud, Pilogro, Pilomin, Piloxidil,Re-Stim, Re-Stim+, Recrea, Regain, Regaine, Regaxidil, Regro, Regroe, Regrou, Regrowth, Relive, Renobell Locion, Reten, Rexidil, Rogaine, Rogan, Si Bi Shen, Splendora, Superminox, Trefostil, Tricolocion, Tricoplus, Tricovivax, Tricoxane, Trugain, Tugain, Unipexil, Vaxdil, Vius, Women's Regaine, Xenogrow, Xtreme Boost, Xtreme Boost+, Xue Rui, Ylox, and Zeldilon. It was also marketed as combination drug with amifampridine under the brand names Gainehair and Hair 4 U, and as a combination with tretinoin and clobetasol under the brand name Sistema GB.


title: Minoxidil

text: Minoxidil is suspected to be highly toxic to cats, even in small doses, as there are reported cases of cats dying shortly after coming in contact with minimal amounts of the substance.


title: Morgoth

text: Morgoth Bauglir (; originally Melkor ) is a character, one of the godlike Valar, from Tolkien's legendarium. He is the main antagonist of "The Silmarillion", "The Children of Húrin", "Beren and Lúthien" and "The Fall of Gondolin".


title: Morgoth

text: Melkor was the most powerful of the Valar but turned to darkness and was renamed Morgoth, the definitive antagonist of Arda. All evil in the world of Middle-earth ultimately stems from him. One of the Maiar of Aulë betrayed his kind and became Morgoth's principal lieutenant and successor, Sauron.


title: Morgoth

text: Melkor has been interpreted as analogous to Satan, once the greatest of all God's angels, Lucifer, but fallen through pride; he rebels against his creator. Scholars have likened Morgoth, too, to John Milton's fallen angel in "Paradise Lost". Tom Shippey has written that "The Silmarillion" maps the book of Genesis with its creation and its fall, even Melkor having begun with good intentions. Marjorie Burns has commented that Tolkien used the Norse god Odin to create aspects of several characters, the wizard Gandalf getting some of his good characteristics, while Morgoth gets his destructiveness, malevolence, and deceit.


title: Morgoth

text: Melkor was renamed "Morgoth" when he destroyed the Two Trees of Valinor, murdered Finwë, the High King of the Noldor Elves, and stole the Silmarils in the First Age. The darker name was then bestowed by Finwë's son Fëanor, and the Elves called him thereafter by that name alone. The name "Morgoth" is Sindarin (one of Tolkien's invented languages) and means "Dark Enemy" or "Black Foe". "Bauglir" is also Sindarin, meaning "Tyrant" or "Oppressor". According to "Morgoth's Ring", Fëanor named him "Moriñgotto" or "Moriñgotho" in Quenya, and this was later translated into Sindarin as "Morgoth".


title: Morgoth

text: "Morgoth Bauglir" is thus an epithet. His name in "Ainulindalë" (the creation myth of Middle-earth and first section of "The Silmarillion") is "Melkor", which means "He Who Arises in Might" in Quenya. This too is an epithet since he, like all the Valar, had another true name in Valarin (in the legendarium, the language of the Valar before the beginning of Time), but this name was not recorded. The Sindarin equivalent of "Melkor" is "Belegûr", but it is never used; instead, a deliberately similar name, "Belegurth", meaning "Great Death", was employed. Another form of his name was Melko, simply meaning "Mighty One".


title: Morgoth

text: Like Sauron, he had a host of other titles: Lord of the Dark, the Dark Power of the North, the Black Hand, and Great Enemy. The Edain called him the Dark King and the Dark Power; the Númenóreans corrupted by Sauron called him the Lord of All and the Giver of Freedom. He was called "Master of Lies" by Amlach of the House of Hador.


title: Morgoth

text: Before the creation of Eä and Arda (The Universe and the World), Melkor was the most powerful of the Ainur, the "angelic beings" including the Valar created by Eru Ilúvatar (analogous to God). Melkor, dissatisfied that Eru had abandoned the Void, had sought to emulate his creator and fill the Void with sentient beings. This, however, required the Flame Imperishable, the Secret Fire, which belonged to Eru alone; though Melkor searched for this, he could not find it. In what he hoped would be an alternative expression of his own originality and creativity, he contended with Eru in the Music of the Ainur, introducing what he perceived to be themes of his own.


title: Morgoth

text: During the Great Music of the Ainur, Melkor attempted to alter the Music and introduced what he believed to be elements purely of his own design. As part of these efforts, he drew many weaker-willed Ainur to him, creating a counter to Eru's main theme. Ironically, these attempts did not truly subvert the Music, but only elaborated Eru's original intentions: the Music of Eru took on depth and beauty precisely because of the strife and sadness Melkor's disharmonies (and measures to rectify them) introduced. Unlike his fellow Ainu Aulë, Melkor was too proud to admit that his creations were simply discoveries made possible entirely by Eru. Instead, Melkor aspired to the level of Eru, the true creator of all possibilities.


title: Morgoth

text: Since the Great Music of the Ainur stood as template for all of history and all of material creation in the Middle-earth cycle (it was first sung before Time, and then the universe was made in its image), the chaos introduced into the Music by Melkor's disharmonies was responsible for all evil in Arda, and everything in Middle-earth was tainted or "corrupted" by his influence. Tolkien elaborates on this in "Morgoth's Ring", drawing an analogy between the One Ring, into which Sauron committed much of his power, and all of Arda—"Morgoth's Ring"—which contains and is corrupted by the residue of Melkor's power until the Remaking of the World (analogous to the Apocalypse).


title: Morgoth

text: After the Creation, many Ainur entered into Eä. The most powerful of them were called the Valar, the Powers of the World; the lesser, who acted as their followers and assistants, were the Maiar. They immediately set about the ordering of the universe and Arda within it, according to the themes of Eru as best they understood them. Melkor and his followers entered Eä as well, but he was frustrated that his colleagues would not recognize him as leader of the new realm, despite his having a greater share of knowledge and power than all the rest. In anger and shame, Melkor set about ruining and undoing whatever the others did.


title: Morgoth

text: Each of the Valar was attracted to a particular aspect of the world that became the focus of his or her powers. Melkor was drawn to terrible extremes and violence—bitter cold, scorching heat, earthquakes, rendings, breakings, utter darkness, burning light, etc. His power was so great that at first the Valar were unable to restrain him; he single-handedly contended with the collective might of all of the Valar. Arda never seemed to achieve a stable form until the Vala Tulkas entered Eä and tipped the balance.


title: Morgoth

text: Driven out by Tulkas, Melkor brooded in the darkness at the outer reaches of Arda, until an opportune moment arrived when Tulkas was distracted. Melkor re-entered Arda and attacked and destroyed the Two Lamps, which at the time were the only sources of light, along with the Valarian land of Almaren, which was wiped from existence. Arda was plunged into darkness and fire, and Melkor withdrew to his newly established dominion in Middle-earth. In the latter versions, Melkor also dispersed agents throughout Arda, digging deep into the earth and constructing great pits and fortresses, as Arda was marred by darkness and rivers of fire.


title: Morgoth

text: After the fall of the Lamps, the Valar withdrew into the land of Aman in the far West. The country where they settled was called Valinor, which they heavily fortified. Melkor held dominion over Middle-earth from his fortress of Utumno in the North. His first reign ended after the Elves, the eldest of the Children of Ilúvatar, awoke at the shores of Cuiviénen, and the Valar resolved to rescue them from his malice. Melkor had captured a number of Elves before the Valar attacked him, and he tortured and corrupted them, breeding the first Orcs. Other versions of the story describe Orcs as corruptions of Men, or alternatively as soulless beings animated solely by the will of their evil lord. This last version illustrates the idea of Morgoth dispersing himself into the world he marred. His fortress Utumno dispersed deathly cold throughout Arda and brought on an endless winter in the north; for the sake of the Elves, the Valar waged a seven-year war with Melkor, defeating him after laying a grievous siege to Utumno. The battles fought there shaped and marred Arda even further. Melkor was defeated by Tulkas, bound with a specially forged chain, Angainor, and brought to Valinor, where he was imprisoned in the Halls of Mandos for three ages.


title: Morgoth

text: Upon his release, Melkor was paroled to Valinor, though a few of the Valar mistrusted him. He made a pretence of humility and virtue, but secretly plotted harm toward the Elves, whose awakening he blamed for his defeat. The Noldor, most skilled of the three kindreds of Elves that had come to Valinor, were most vulnerable to his plots, since he had much knowledge they eagerly sought, and while instructing them he also awoke unrest and discontent among them. When the Valar became aware of this they sent Tulkas to arrest him, but Melkor had already fled. With the aid of Ungoliant, a dark spirit in the form of a monstrous spider, he destroyed the Two Trees of Valinor, slew the King of the Noldor, Finwë, and stole the three Silmarils, jewels made by Finwë's son Fëanor, which were filled with the light of the Trees. Fëanor thereupon named him "Morgoth", "Black Foe", and the Eldar knew him by this name alone afterwards.


title: Morgoth

text: Morgoth resumed his rule in the North of Middle-earth, this time in Angband, a lesser fortress than Utumno, but not so completely destroyed. He rebuilt it, and raised above it the volcanic triple peak of Thangorodrim. The Silmarils he set into a crown of iron, which he wore at all times. Fëanor and most of the Noldor pursued him, along the way slaying their kin the Teleri and incurring the Doom of Mandos. On arriving in Beleriand, the region of Middle-earth nearest Angband, the Noldor established kingdoms and made war on Morgoth. Soon afterwards, the Sun and the Moon arose for the first time, and Men awoke if they had not done so already. The major battles of the ensuing war included the Dagor-nuin-Giliath (Battle Under the Stars, fought before the first rising of the Moon), Dagor Aglareb (Glorious Battle), Dagor Bragollach (Battle of Sudden Flame) at which the long-standing Siege of Angband was broken, and the battle of Nírnaeth Arnoediad (Unnumbered Tears) when the armies of the Noldor and the Men allied with them were routed and the men of the East joined Morgoth. Over the next several decades, Morgoth destroyed the remaining Elven kingdoms, reducing their domain to an island in the Bay of Balar to which many refugees fled, and a small settlement at the Mouths of Sirion under the protection of Ulmo.


title: Morgoth

text: Before the Nírnaeth Arnoediad, the Man Beren and Elf Lúthien, the daughter of Thingol, entered Angband and recovered a Silmaril from Morgoth's crown after Luthien's singing sent him to sleep. It was inherited by their granddaughter Elwing, who joined those dwelling at the Mouths of Sirion. Her husband Eärendil, wearing the Silmaril on his brow, sailed across the sea to Valinor, where he pleaded with the Valar to liberate Middle-earth from Morgoth.


title: Morgoth

text: During the ensuing War of Wrath, Beleriand and much of the north of Middle-earth was destroyed and reshaped. Morgoth summoned many Men to his side during the fifty-year conflict, which became the largest, longest, and bloodiest conflict ever fought in Arda's history. In the end, Morgoth was utterly defeated, and his armies were almost entirely slaughtered. The dragons were almost all destroyed, and Thangorodrim was shattered when Eärendil slew the greatest of dragons, Ancalagon the Black, who crashed upon it as he fell. The few remaining dragons were scattered, and the handful of surviving Balrogs hid themselves deep within the earth. Morgoth fled into the deepest pit and begged for pardon, but his feet were cut from under him, his crown was made into a collar, and he was chained once again with Angainor. The Valar exiled him permanently from the world, thrusting him through the Door of Night into the void, excluded from Arda until the prophesied Dagor Dagorath, when he would meet his final destruction. His evil remained, however, as "Arda Marred," and his will influenced all living creatures.


title: Morgoth

text: In this more complete version of a story summarized in "Quenta Silmarillion", Húrin and his younger brother Huor were leaders of the House of Hador, one of the three kindred of elf-friends. At "Nírnaeth Arnoediad" they covered the escape of Turgon to Gondolin by sacrificing their army and themselves. Huor was slain, but Húrin was brought before Morgoth alive. As revenge for his aid to Turgon and his defiance, Morgoth cursed Húrin and his children, binding Húrin to a seat upon Thangorodrim and forcing him to witness all that happened (using the long sight of Morgoth himself) to his children in the succeeding years. There is little additional information about Morgoth in this book, except in the encounter with Húrin, which is set out in more detail than in "The Silmarillion" and in a more connected narrative than in "Unfinished Tales". It gives the first allusion to the corruption of Men by Morgoth soon after their awakening, and the assertion by Morgoth of his power over the entire Earth through "the shadow of my purpose".


title: Morgoth

text: Melkor is mentioned briefly in the chapter "A Knife in the Dark" in "The Lord of the Rings", where Aragorn sings the story of Tinúviel and briefly recounts the role of Morgoth ("the Great Enemy") in the wider history of the Silmarils.


title: Morgoth

text: In the early versions of Tolkien's stories, Melkor/Morgoth was not seen as the most powerful of the Valar. He is described as being equal in power to Manwë, chief of the Valar in Arda. But his power increased in later revisions of the story until he became the most powerful among them, and in a late essay more powerful than all of the other Valar combined. He developed from a standout among equals into a being so powerful that the other created beings could not utterly defeat him.


title: Morgoth

text: Over time, Tolkien altered both the conception of this character and his name. The name given by Fëanor, Morgoth, was present from the first stories; he was for a long time also called "Melko". Tolkien vacillated over the Sindarin equivalent of this, which appeared as "Belcha", "Melegor", and "Moeleg". The meaning of the name also varied, related in different times to "milka" ("greedy") or "velka" ("flame"). Similarly the Old English translations devised by Tolkien differ in sense: Melko is rendered as "Orgel" ("Pride") and Morgoth as "Sweart-ós" ("Black God"). Morgoth is once given a particular sphere of interest: in the early "Tale of Turambar", Tinwelint (precursor of Thingol) names him "the Vala of Iron".


title: Morgoth

text: Melkor's inability to create anything genuinely new is tied to the idea that something of one's actual being must pass into the things one creates, so as to give them an effective substance and reality. Melkor could not truly create, as he did not possess the Flame Imperishable; thus he could only create a mockery of those things in Arda. From his Trolls to the Sun (which was made from the fruit of a Tree poisoned by Ungoliant, and was thus itself imperfect), Melkor's power and essence was poured into Arda. Melkor's individual self was diminished as a consequence. He was reduced to Morgoth, the "Dark Enemy" (poetically elaborated as "The Black Foe of the World").


title: Morgoth

text: Morgoth, once the most powerful being in Eä, spent his will on his vast armies and followers, so that in the War of Wrath, as his armies were swept away before the host of Aman, he was captured by Eönwë and cast off his throne. Morgoth's spirit was cast out beyond the Walls of Night, yet his presence remains as the pervasive corruption of the world, "even until the End of Days".


title: Morgoth

text: After Morgoth's defeat, his lieutenant Sauron gradually rallied many of Morgoth's servants to his own cause, and during the Second Age established himself in the land of Mordor. Sauron lacked the raw power and malice of his master, but he seduced many to his allegiance with lies and false promises. In the Second Age, Sauron repeatedly used his fame among Men as Morgoth's erstwhile lieutenant to portray himself as Morgoth's representative and thus gain the allegiance of his former master's worshippers. Similarly, in Númenor following his capture, Sauron became very powerful by seducing Ar-Pharazôn to the worship of Melkor, establishing a Cult in which it was only natural that, as Melkor's foremost former disciple, he became high priest. This cult exploited the Númenórean fear of death by claiming that human sacrifice to Melkor would grant the Men of Númenor immortality. In actuality, by turning away from Eru and the Valar they only dwindled more rapidly. Sauron used this religion among his means of encouraging Ar-Pharazôn's invasion of Valinor, which resulted in the destruction of Númenor by Eru. By the Third Age, Sauron came more often to propound himself, rather than Morgoth, as the object of worship for his servants and subjects, but in his pride, also portrayed himself as Morgoth returned when it was more convenient for him to do so.


title: Morgoth

text: Melkor has been interpreted as analogous to Satan, once the greatest of all God's angels, Lucifer, but fallen through pride; he rebels against his creator. John R. Holmes, writing in "The J. R. R. Tolkien Encyclopedia", suggests that Melkor's nature resonates with John Milton's fallen angel in "Paradise Lost". Just as in Christian tradition Satan leads humanity to become slaves of sin, Melkor creates an "iron hell" for his elven slave labourers. His greed for ever more power and his fondness for technology make him a symbol for the despotism of modern machinery. His rebellion against Eru is creative, as Melkor is impatient for the void of the world to be filled with things. But his creativity becomes destructive, as it is tainted with pride. "His desire to create other beings for his glory" turns into a desire for servants and slaves to follow his own will. This "temptation of creativity" is echoed in Tolkien's work by Melkor's opponent Fëanor, who loves the Silmarils he created so much that he leads his entire people to a hopeless war when Melkor steals them.


title: Morgoth

text: The Tolkien scholar Tom Shippey writes that "The Silmarillion" is most obviously a calque on the book of Genesis (where the Shire is a calque upon England). Tolkien thus says that even Melkor begins with good intentions, just as Satan was created good. Shippey concludes that clearly the reader can assume "that the exploit of Morgoth of which the Eldar [Elves] never learnt was the traditional seduction of Adam and Eve by the serpent", while the Men in the story are Adam's descendants "flying from Eden and subject to the curse of Babel".


title: Morgoth

text: The Tolkien scholar Marjorie Burns writes in "" that Morgoth, like all Tolkien's Middle-earth characters, is based on a complex "literary soup". One element of his construction, she states, is the Norse god Odin. Tolkien used aspects of Odin's character and appearance for the wandering wizard Gandalf, with hat, beard, and staff, and a supernaturally fast horse, recalling Odin's steed Sleipnir; for the Dark Lord Sauron, with his single eye; for the corrupted white wizard Saruman, cloaked and hatted like Gandalf, but with far-flying birds like Odin's eagles and ravens. In "The Silmarillion", too, the farseeing Vala Manwë, who lives on the tallest of the mountains, and loves "all swift birds, strong of wing", is Odinesque. And just as Sauron and Saruman oppose Gandalf in "The Lord of the Rings", so the enemy Morgoth gets Odin's negative characteristics "—his ruthlessness, his destructiveness, his malevolence, his all-pervading deceit". Burns compares this allocation to the way that Norse myth allots some of Odin's characteristics to the troublemaker god Loki. Odin has many names, among them "Shifty-eyed" and "Swift in Deceit", and he is equally a god of the Norse underworld, "Father of the Slain". She notes that Morgoth, too, is named "Master of Lies" and "Demon of Dark", and who functions as a fierce god of battle.


title: Morgoth

text: The Tolkien scholar Verlyn Flieger, discussing the splintering of the original created light of Middle-earth, notes both that Melkor initiates the rebellion against Eru, and likens Melkor/Morgoth's response to the Silmarils to that of Fëanor, who had created those jewels. She states that "desire to possess is the cardinal temptation, and possessiveness the great transgression in Tolkien's cosmology", observing that the commandment "Love not too well the work of thy hands and the devices of thy heart" is actually stated in "The Silmarillion". Flieger compares Tolkien's descriptions of the two characters: "the heart of Fëanor was fast bound to these things that he himself had made", followed at once by "Melkor lusted for the Silmarils, and the very memory of their radiance was a gnawing fire in his heart". She writes that it is a "fitting irony" that Melkor and Fëanor, "each one the best and brightest of his kind" – Melkor being the greatest of the Ainur, Fëanor the most subtle and skilful of the creative Noldor among the Elves – should "usher in the darkness".


title: Spirited (film)

text: Spirited is a 2022 American Christmas-themed musical comedy film directed by Sean Anders, and written and produced by Anders and John Morris. Starring Will Ferrell, Ryan Reynolds, Octavia Spencer, Sunita Mani, Patrick Page, Marlow Barkley and the voice of Tracy Morgan, the film is a modern retelling of Charles Dickens's 1843 novella "A Christmas Carol" and a satire of the various adaptations since. The Ghost of Christmas Present is nearing retirement and sets his sights on fixing an "unredeemable" man.


title: Spirited (film)

text: "Spirited" was released in select theaters on November 11, 2022 ahead of an Apple TV+ streaming release on November 18. The film received positive reviews from critics, but was criticized for its lack of improvement over previous adaptations of the novella.


title: Spirited (film)

text: For nearly two centuries, Jacob Marley and the Ghosts of Christmas Past, Present and Yet-to-Come, have led a team of afterlife spirits in helping find and redeem one new human soul or “perp” every Christmas ("That Christmas Morning Feelin'"). Christmas Present has been eligible for "retirement" for decades but refuses to do so despite being tempted by the promise of settling down and making up for his own failures in his past life ("Present's Lament").


title: Spirited (film)

text: Scoping for a new soul to redeem, the spirits encounter Clint Briggs, a renowned controversial media consultant ("Bringin' Back Christmas"). Despite Marley's insistence that Briggs is an "unredeemable" soul, Present is set on him as he believes that his redemption could have a “ripple” effect, making him a force for positive change in humanity. The Ghosts begin a year of research on Clint, preparing for the annual haunt.


title: Spirited (film)

text: As they near Christmas, they visit Clint's headquarters where they witness him instructing his niece Wren, who is running for class president, to tank her grades and post an unflattering video of Joshua, an opposing classmate. Clint’s assistant Kimberly, who discovered the video at his instruction, is riddled with guilt and almost quits, but ultimately doesn't ("The View from Here"). Matters are further complicated when Present is unexpectedly seen by Kimberly. They start the assignment, but it quickly goes off the rails when Clint interrupts Marley ("The Story of Your Life (Marley's Haunt)") and easily seduces Past, forcing Present to take over.


title: Spirited (film)

text: Clint is dismissive of Present and resists his past memories, particularly that of his ex-girlfriend Nora, who broke up with him over his selfishness, and his older sister, Carrie, who asked Clint to raise her daughter, Wren, while on her deathbed. Realizing Clint's case requires an unconventional approach, Present takes him into his own past, revealing that he was once Ebenezer Scrooge, the only other unredeemable soul to go through the program ("Good Afternoon"). Marley is furious and orders Present to "stick to the script" in finishing Clint's redemption.


title: Spirited (film)

text: Present brings Clint to Nora, who is happily celebrating Christmas with her husband and children, but Clint deduces that Present longs for a happy family life himself with Kimberly ("The Story of Your Life (Clint's Pitch)"). Present dismisses this and then shows him Wren's classmate's reaction when he sees she posted the video. He then finally forces Clint to relive his sister's dying request to raise Wren, where Clint turns her down and passes the responsibility onto their younger brother Owen.


title: Spirited (film)

text: Present prepares to leave Clint with Yet-To-Come but Clint forces Present to confront his own fears of whether he was truly redeemed, since he had only lived 3 more weeks after encountering the ghosts, and convinces him to take retirement and return to Earth ("Unredeemable"). He does so and, after he and Clint wake up in Clint's apartment, asks Kimberly out on a date ("The View from Here (Riverwalk)"). Clint is then intercepted by Yet-to-Come and shown glimpses of the future, including Joshua's suicide. The vision shakes Clint, and he runs away from the haunt but is intercepted by Past and Yet-To-Come, who force him back to Earth.


title: Spirited (film)

text: Returning to his apartment, he and Present race to stop Wren from posting the video. Finally catching up to her, Kimberly stops them. She explains that she told Wren not to do it and then informs Clint she's quitting. Present is jubilant and waits for Clint to receive his congratulations from the ghost crew, but is confused when they don’t arrive.


title: Spirited (film)

text: Clint explains that all he did was redeem a mistake and that he hasn't changed but convinces Present that life is still worth trying and offers his friendship. Present, convinced he is unredeemable, tries to jump in front of a bus to return to the afterlife and his job. Clint pushes him out of the way and time freezes before the bus hits him as the spirits arrive to finally congratulate him ("Do a Little Good"). However, when time resumes, the bus hits and kills Clint.


title: Spirited (film)

text: Clint is reunited with Carrie but doesn't want to leave Present behind. Instead, he makes a proposal to Marley. Several years later, Clint has assumed the role of the Ghost of Christmas Present and is in a relationship with Past. He is expanding the program to include other holidays, take on more perps every year, and has brought Carrie onboard as part of the staff. He also regularly visits Present, now going by Roberto, and Kimberly as they raise their two kids, revealing that they continue to work together redeeming souls. Wren has grown up and has been accepted into a masters program at Stanford ("That Christmas Morning Feelin' (Curtain Call)").


title: Spirited (film)

text: On September 20, 2019, it was announced that "Daddy's Home"s Sean Anders and John Morris were attached to write and direct the film, as well as produce under their production company Two Grown Men alongside Will Ferrell and Jessica Elbaum of Gloria Sanchez Productions and Ryan Reynolds and George Dewey of Maximum Effort. The following month, it was announced that Apple had won a competitive bidding war for the rights to the film. Also it was reported that more than $60 million was spent on talent for the film, which was later increased to $75 million.


title: Spirited (film)

text: Alongside the initial announcement, Ferrell and Reynolds were cast in main roles. Both actors earned $20 million for their parts in the film. On February 8, 2021, Octavia Spencer joined the cast, with Reynolds confirmed as the lead and Ferrell playing the role of the Ghost of Christmas Present. In June, Sunita Mani was cast as Ghost of Christmas Past.


title: Spirited (film)

text: Principal photography for the film began on July 6, 2021 in Boston, which stood in for Manhattan. On October 18, 2021, Reynolds announced that filming had wrapped.


title: Spirited (film)

text: "Spirited" had a limited theatrical release on November 11, 2022, followed by its digital release on Apple TV+ one week later, on November 18.


title: Spirited (film)

text: A 12-inch vinyl single featuring songs from "Spirited" was announced for Record Store Day's annual Black Friday event in 2022. It featured the song "That Christmas Mornin' Feeling" sung by Ferrell as the A-side and "Do a Little Good" sung by Ferrell and Reynolds as the B-side.


title: Jonathan Frakes

text: Jonathan Scott Frakes (born August 19, 1952) is an American actor and director. He is best known for his portrayal of Commander William Riker in the television series "" and subsequent films and series. Frakes also hosted the anthology series "", and was the voice for David Xanatos in the Disney television series "Gargoyles". In June 2011, he narrated the History Channel documentary, "Lee and Grant".


title: Jonathan Frakes

text: Frakes directed while starring in "" as well as "". He has directed more than 70 television episodes, including episodes of several "Star Trek" television series and "The Orville". He is the author of the novel "The Abductors: Conspiracy".


title: Jonathan Frakes

text: Frakes was born in Bellefonte, Pennsylvania, the son of Doris J. (née Yingling; 1926–2020) and Dr. James R. Frakes (1924–2002). His father was a professor of English literature at Lehigh University from 1958 to 2001, where he was the Edmund W. Fairchild Professor in American Studies and was a critic for "New York Times Book Review" and a book editor until his death in 2002. Frakes had a younger brother, Daniel, who died in 1997 from pancreatic cancer.


title: Jonathan Frakes

text: Frakes was raised in Bethlehem, Pennsylvania in the Lehigh Valley region of eastern Pennsylvania. He attended Liberty High School in Bethlehem, where he ran track and played with the Liberty High School Grenadier Band. He graduated from Liberty High School in 1970.


title: Jonathan Frakes

text: Frakes attended Pennsylvania State University, earning a Bachelor of Fine Arts in Theater Arts in 1974. He was a member of the Thespians. In 1976, he received his Master of Arts from Harvard University and was active in Harvard's acting company, the Loeb Drama Center.


title: Jonathan Frakes

text: For a time in the 1970s, Frakes worked for Marvel Comics, appearing at conventions in costume as Captain America. Frakes moved to New York City and became a member of the Impossible Ragtime Theater. In that company, Frakes did his first off-Broadway acting in Eugene O'Neill's "The Hairy Ape" directed by George Ferencz. His first Broadway appearance was in "Shenandoah". At the same time, he landed a role in the NBC soap opera "The Doctors". When his character was dismissed from the show, Frakes moved to Los Angeles and had guest spots in many of the top television series of the 1970s and 1980s, including "The Waltons" in the episodes "The Legacy" and "The Lost Sheep"; "Eight Is Enough"; "Hart to Hart"; "The Dukes of Hazzard"; "Matlock"; "Quincy, M.E." in "The Face of Fear"; and "Hill Street Blues".


title: Jonathan Frakes

text: He played the part of Charles Lindbergh in a 1983 episode of "Voyagers!" titled "An Arrow Pointing East". In 1983, he had a role in the short-lived NBC prime time soap opera "Bare Essence" (which also starred his future wife Genie Francis), and a supporting role in the equally short-lived primetime soap "Paper Dolls" in 1984. He also had recurring roles in "Falcon Crest" and the miniseries "North and South". Frakes appeared in the 1986 miniseries "Dream West".


title: Jonathan Frakes

text: In 1987, Frakes was cast in the role of Commander William T. Riker on "". He was one of only two actors to appear in every episode (the other being Patrick Stewart). While appearing on the show, Frakes was allowed to sit in on casting sessions, concept meetings, production design, editing, and post-production, which gave him the preparation he needed to become a director. He directed eight episodes of the show and a total of 21 episodes across the "Star Trek" franchise. After the TV series ended in 1994, Frakes reprised his role in the "Star Trek: The Next Generation" movies, two of which ("" and "") he also directed.


title: Jonathan Frakes

text: As well as "Star Trek: The Next Generation", Frakes has made appearances in "", "", "", "", and "", making him the only "Star Trek" regular to appear on six different "Star Trek" series. He has also directed episodes in five of the series ("TNG", "DS9," "VOY", "DIS", and "PIC").


title: Jonathan Frakes

text: Frakes is also one of six "Star Trek" actors (the other actors being Kate Mulgrew, Michael Dorn, George Takei, Avery Brooks and Majel Barrett) to lend their voices to the video game "Star Trek: Captain's Chair", reprising his role as Riker when users visit the "Enterprise"-E bridge featured in the game.


title: Jonathan Frakes

text: Wanting to branch out from the "Star Trek" franchise, Frakes turned down the opportunity to direct "" to direct the family film "Clockstoppers". However, his next film, "Thunderbirds", was a box office bomb which he has said single-handedly almost destroyed what had been a successful directing career: "[My] name was taken off the lists ... I went from 60 to zero. It was a wake-up for me. I had been so positive, and so blessed, and so fortunate." It was several years before Frakes was given another opportunity to direct for television, and "Thunderbirds" remains his last theatrical directorial credit.


title: Jonathan Frakes

text: Much of Frakes' acting work after "Star Trek" has been animation voice acting, most notably voicing the recurring role of David Xanatos in the animated series "Gargoyles", and he provided the voice of his own head in a jar in the "Futurama" episode "Where No Fan Has Gone Before". He had a small, uncredited role in the 1994 movie "Camp Nowhere". Frakes also voiced Finn the Human's adult version in the episodes "Puhoy" and "Dungeon Train" on "Adventure Time".


title: Jonathan Frakes

text: Frakes was an executive producer for the WB series "Roswell", directed several episodes, and guest-starred in three episodes. His relationship with "Star Trek" is downplayed in the season 3 episode "Secrets and Lies", in which the alien character Max auditions for a guest role as an alien for "Star Trek: Enterprise".


title: Jonathan Frakes

text: Frakes appeared on the 1994 Phish album "Hoist", playing trombone on the track titled "Riker's Mailbox". Frakes would occasionally perform on the trombone during his tenure as Commander Riker, drawing on his college marching band experience. He was also a member of "The Sunspots", a vocal backup group of "Star Trek" cast members that appeared on Brent Spiner's 1991 album "Ol' Yellow Eyes Is Back".


title: Jonathan Frakes

text: Frakes hosted "The Paranormal Borderline", a short-lived television series on UPN, which dealt with the paranormal and mysterious happenings and creatures. In one episode, Frakes presented an interview of reporter Yolanda Gaskins with veteran astronaut Gordon Cooper, where they discussed the possibility of aliens having visited Earth in the past. He hosted seasons 2 through 4 of "," which also dealt with the paranormal world.


title: Jonathan Frakes

text: Frakes and Francis appeared together in "Lois & Clark" in the episode "Don't Tug on Superman's Cape" as a creepily too-good-to-be-true couple. He narrated the History Channel's "That's Impossible".


title: Jonathan Frakes

text: In addition to "Roswell", Frakes has directed episodes of "Leverage", "Castle", "", "Burn Notice", "Falling Skies" and most recently Marvel's "Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D.", "Switched at Birth", "Hit the Floor", "The Librarians", and "The Orville".


title: Jonathan Frakes

text: Frakes works with the Workshops, the Waterfall Arts Center, and the Saltwater Film Society, all located in Maine, where he teaches classes on film direction. He has also previously taught directing and filmmaking courses at Rockport College, now called Maine Media College. He and Francis owned a home furnishings store in Belfast, Maine, called "The Cherished Home", which closed in August 2012 due to her being too busy with her acting to spend adequate time at the store.


title: Jonathan Frakes

text: Frakes first met actress Genie Francis on the set of the television soap opera "Bare Essence", and again while filming the mini-series "North and South". They began dating in 1985, became engaged in 1986, and married on May 28, 1988. The couple have two children, Jameson Ivor Frakes, born in 1994, and Elizabeth Frances Frakes, born in 1997. They moved from Belfast, Maine, to Beverly Hills, California, in 2008 and later moved to Calabasas, California.


title: Ann Dunham

text: Stanley Ann Dunham (November 29, 1942 – November 7, 1995) was an American anthropologist who specialized in the economic anthropology and rural development of Indonesia. She is the mother of Barack Obama, the 44th president of the United States. Dunham was known as Stanley Ann Dunham through high school, then as Ann Dunham, Ann Obama, Ann Soetoro, a.k.a. Ann Sutoro, and resumed her maiden name, Ann Dunham, later in life.


title: Ann Dunham

text: Born in Wichita, Kansas, Dunham studied at the East–West Center and at the University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa in Honolulu, where she attained a bachelor of arts degree in anthropology (1967), and later received master of arts (1974) and PhD (1992) degrees, also in anthropology. She also attended the University of Washington in Seattle from 1961 to 1962. Interested in craftsmanship, weaving, and the role of women in cottage industries, Dunham's research focused on women's work on the island of Java and blacksmithing in Indonesia. To address the problem of poverty in rural villages, she created microcredit programs while working as a consultant for the United States Agency for International Development. Dunham was also employed by the Ford Foundation in Jakarta and she consulted with the Asian Development Bank in Gujranwala, Pakistan. Towards the latter part of her life, she worked with Bank Rakyat Indonesia, where she helped apply her research to the largest microfinance program in the world.


title: Ann Dunham

text: After her son was elected president, interest renewed in Dunham's work: the University of Hawaiʻi held a symposium about her research; an exhibition of Dunham's Indonesian batik textile collection toured the United States; and in December 2009, Duke University Press published "Surviving against the Odds: Village Industry in Indonesia", a book based on Dunham's original 1992 dissertation. Janny Scott, an author and former "New York Times" reporter, published a biography of her titled "A Singular Woman" in 2011. Posthumous interest has also led to the creation of the Ann Dunham Soetoro Endowment in the Anthropology Department at the University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa, as well as the Ann Dunham Soetoro Graduate Fellowships, intended to fund students associated with the East–West Center in Honolulu, Hawaii.


title: Ann Dunham

text: In an interview, Barack Obama referred to his mother as "the dominant figure in my formative years ... The values she taught me continue to be my touchstone when it comes to how I go about the world of politics."


title: Ann Dunham

text: Dunham was born on November 29, 1942, at St. Francis Hospital in Wichita, Kansas, the only child of Madelyn Lee Payne and Stanley Armour Dunham. She was of predominantly English ancestry, with some Scottish, Welsh, Irish, German and Swiss. Wild Bill Hickok is her sixth cousin, five times removed. Ancestry.com announced on July 30, 2012, after using a combination of old documents and yDNA analysis, that Dunham's mother was descended from John Punch, an enslaved African man who lived in seventeenth-century colonial Virginia.


title: Ann Dunham

text: Her parents were born in Kansas and met in Wichita, where they married on May 5, 1940. After the attack on Pearl Harbor, her father joined the United States Army and her mother worked at a Boeing plant in Wichita. According to Dunham, she was named after her father because he wanted a son, though her relatives doubt this story and her maternal uncle recalled that her mother named Dunham after her favorite actress Bette Davis' character in the film "In This Our Life" because she thought Stanley, as a girl's name, sounded sophisticated. As a child and teenager she was known as Stanley. Other children teased her about her name. Nonetheless, she used it through high school, "apologizing for it each time she introduced herself in a new town." By the time Dunham began attending college, she was known by her middle name, Ann, instead. After World War II, Dunham's family moved from Wichita to California while her father attended the University of California, Berkeley. In 1948, they moved to Ponca City, Oklahoma, and from there to Vernon, Texas, and then to El Dorado, Kansas. In 1955, the family moved to Seattle, Washington, where her father was employed as a furniture salesman and her mother worked as vice president of a bank. They lived in an apartment complex in the Wedgwood neighborhood where she attended Nathan Eckstein Junior High School.


title: Ann Dunham

text: In 1956, Dunham's family moved to Mercer Island, an Eastside suburb of Seattle. Dunham's parents wanted their 13-year-old daughter to attend the newly opened Mercer Island High School. At the school, teachers Val Foubert and Jim Wichterman taught the importance of challenging social norms and questioning authority to the young Dunham, and she took the lessons to heart: "She felt she didn't need to date or marry or have children." One classmate remembered her as "intellectually way more mature than we were and a little bit ahead of her time, in an off-center way", and a high school friend described her as knowledgeable and progressive: "If you were concerned about something going wrong in the world, Stanley would know about it first. We were liberals before we knew what liberals were." Another called her "the original feminist". She went through high school "reading beatnik poets and French existentialists".


title: Ann Dunham

text: On August 21, 1959, Hawaii became the 50th state to be admitted into the Union. Dunham's parents sought business opportunities in the new state, and after graduating from high school in 1960, Dunham and her family moved to Honolulu. Dunham enrolled at the University of Hawaii at Mānoa.


title: Ann Dunham

text: While attending a Russian language class, Dunham met Barack Obama Sr., the school's first African student. At the age of 23, Obama Sr. had come to Hawaii to pursue his education, leaving behind a pregnant wife, Kezia, and their infant son in his home town of Nyang'oma Kogelo in Kenya. Dunham and Obama Sr. were married on the Hawaiian island of Maui on February 2, 1961, despite parental opposition from both families. Dunham was three months pregnant. Obama Sr. eventually informed Dunham about his first marriage in Kenya but claimed he was divorced. Years later she discovered this was false. Obama Sr.'s first wife, Kezia, later said she had granted her consent for him to marry a second wife in keeping with Luo customs.


title: Ann Dunham

text: On August 4, 1961, at the age of 18, Dunham gave birth to her first child, Barack Obama in Honolulu. Friends in the state of Washington recall her visiting with her month-old baby in 1961.


title: Ann Dunham

text: She studied at the University of Washington from September 1961 to June 1962, and lived as a single mother in the Capitol Hill neighborhood of Seattle with her son while her husband continued his studies in Hawaii. When Obama Sr. graduated from the University of Hawaii in June 1962, he was offered a scholarship to study in New York City, but declined it, preferring to attend the more prestigious Harvard University. He left for Cambridge, Massachusetts, where he began graduate study at Harvard in the fall of 1962. Dunham returned to Honolulu and resumed her undergraduate education at the University of Hawaii with the spring semester in January 1963. During this time, her parents helped her raise the young Barack. Dunham filed for divorce in January 1964, which Obama Sr. did not contest. In December 1964, Obama Sr. married Ruth Baker, a Jewish American of Lithuanian-Jewish heritage; they were separated in 1971 and divorced in 1973 after having two sons. In 1965, Obama Sr. received a MA in economics from Harvard. In 1971, he stayed in Hawaii for a month and visited his 10 year old son Barack. In 1982, Obama Sr. was killed in a car accident.


title: Ann Dunham

text: It was at the East–West Center that Dunham met Lolo Soetoro, a Javanese surveyor who had come to Honolulu in September 1962 on an East–West Center grant to study geography at the University of Hawaii. Soetoro graduated from the University of Hawaii with an MA in geography in June 1964. In 1965, Soetoro and Dunham were married in Hawaii, and in 1966, Soetoro returned to Indonesia. Dunham graduated from the University of Hawaii with a B.A. in anthropology on August 6, 1967, and moved in October the same year with her six-year-old son to Jakarta, Indonesia, to rejoin her husband.


title: Ann Dunham

text: In Indonesia, Soetoro worked first as a low-paid topographical surveyor for the Indonesian government, and later in the government relations office of Union Oil Company. The family first lived at 16 Kyai Haji Ramli Tengah Street in a newly built neighborhood in the Menteng Dalam administrative village of the Tebet subdistrict in South Jakarta for two and a half years, with her son attending the nearby Indonesian-language Santo Fransiskus Asisi (St. Francis of Assisi) Catholic School for 1st, 2nd, and part of 3rd grade, then in 1970 moved two miles north to 22 Taman Amir Hamzah Street in the Matraman Dalam neighborhood in the Pegangsaan administrative village of the Menteng subdistrict in Central Jakarta, with her son attending the Indonesian-language government-run Besuki School one and half miles east in the exclusive Menteng administrative village of the Menteng subdistrict for part of 3rd grade and for 4th grade. On August 15, 1970, Soetoro and Dunham had a daughter, Maya Kassandra Soetoro.


title: Ann Dunham

text: In Indonesia, Dunham enriched her son's education with correspondence courses in English, recordings of Mahalia Jackson, and speeches by Martin Luther King Jr. In 1971, she sent the young Obama back to Hawaii to attend Punahou School starting in 5th grade rather than having him stay in Indonesia with her. Madelyn Dunham's job at the Bank of Hawaii, where she had worked her way up over a decade from clerk to becoming one of its first two female vice presidents in 1970, helped pay the steep tuition, with some assistance from a scholarship.


title: Ann Dunham

text: A year later, in August 1972, Dunham and her daughter moved back to Hawaii to rejoin her son and begin graduate study in anthropology at the University of Hawaii at Manoa. Dunham's graduate work was supported by an Asia Foundation grant from August 1972 to July 1973 and by an East–West Center Technology and Development Institute grant from August 1973 to December 1978.


title: Ann Dunham

text: Dunham completed her coursework at the University of Hawaii for an M.A. in anthropology in December 1974, and after having spent three years in Hawaii, Dunham, accompanied by her daughter Maya, returned to Indonesia in 1975 to do anthropological field work. Her son chose not to go with them back to Indonesia, preferring to finish high school at Punahou School in Honolulu while living with his grandparents. Lolo Soetoro and Dunham divorced on November 5, 1980; Lolo Soetoro married Erna Kustina in 1980 and had two children, a son, Yusuf Aji Soetoro (born 1981), and daughter, Rahayu Nurmaida Soetoro (born 1987). Lolo Soetoro died, age 52, on March 2, 1987, due to liver failure.


title: Ann Dunham

text: Dunham was not estranged from either ex-husband and encouraged her children to feel connected to their fathers.


title: Ann Dunham

text: From January 1968 to December 1969, Dunham taught English and was an assistant director of the Lembaga Persahabatan Indonesia Amerika (LIA)–the Indonesia-America Friendship Institute at 9 Teuku Umar Street in the Gondangdia administrative village of the Menteng subdistrict in Central Jakarta–which was subsidized by the United States government. From January 1970 to August 1972, Dunham taught English and was a department head and a director of the Lembaga Pendidikan dan Pengembangan Manajemen (LPPM)–the Institute of Management Education and Development at 9 Menteng Raya Street in the Kebon Sirih administrative village of the Menteng subdistrict in Central Jakarta.


title: Ann Dunham

text: From 1968 to 1972, Dunham was a co-founder and active member of the Ganesha Volunteers (Indonesian Heritage Society) at the National Museum in Jakarta. From 1972 to 1975, Dunham was crafts instructor (in weaving, batik, and dye) at the Bishop Museum in Honolulu.


title: Ann Dunham

text: Dunham then had a career in rural development, championing women's work and microcredit for the world's poor and worked with leaders from organizations supporting Indonesian human rights, women's rights, and grass-roots development.


title: Ann Dunham

text: In March 1977, Dunham, under the supervision of agricultural economics professor Leon A. Mears, developed and taught a short lecture course at the Faculty of Economics of the University of Indonesia (FEUI) in Jakarta for staff members of BAPPENAS (Badan Perencanaan Pembangunan Nasional)—the Indonesian National Development Planning Agency.


title: Ann Dunham

text: From June 1977 through September 1978, Dunham carried out research on village industries in the Daerah Istimewa Yogyakarta (DIY)—the Yogyakarta Special Region within Central Java in Indonesia under a student grant from the East–West Center. As a weaver herself, Dunham was interested in village industries, and moved to Yogyakarta City, the center of Javanese handicrafts.


title: Ann Dunham

text: In May and June 1978, Dunham was a short-term consultant in the office of the International Labour Organization (ILO) in Jakarta, writing recommendations on village industries and other non-agricultural enterprises for the Indonesian government's third five-year development plan (REPELITA III).


title: Ann Dunham

text: From October 1978 to December 1980, Dunham was a rural industries consultant in Central Java on the Indonesian Ministry of Industry's Provincial Development Program (PDP I), funded by USAID in Jakarta and implemented through Development Alternatives, Inc. (DAI).


title: Ann Dunham

text: From January 1981 to November 1984, Dunham was the program officer for women and employment in the Ford Foundation's Southeast Asia regional office in Jakarta. While at the Ford Foundation, she developed a model of microfinance which is now the standard in Indonesia, a country that is a world leader in micro-credit systems. Peter Geithner, father of Tim Geithner (who later became U.S. Secretary of the Treasury in her son's administration), was head of the foundation's Asia grant-making at that time.


title: Ann Dunham

text: From May to November 1986 and from August to November 1987, Dunham was a cottage industries development consultant for the Agricultural Development Bank of Pakistan (ADBP) under the Gujranwala Integrated Rural Development Project (GADP). The credit component of the project was implemented in the Gujranwala district of the Punjab province of Pakistan with funding from the Asian Development Bank and IFAD, with the credit component implemented through Louis Berger International, Inc. Dunham worked closely with the Lahore office of the Punjab Small Industries Corporation (PSIC).


title: Ann Dunham

text: From January 1988 to 1995, Dunham was a consultant and research coordinator for Indonesia's oldest bank, Bank Rakyat Indonesia (BRI) in Jakarta, with her work funded by USAID and the World Bank. In March 1993, Dunham was a research and policy coordinator for Women's World Banking (WWB) in New York. She helped WWB manage the Expert Group Meeting on Women and Finance in New York in January 1994, and helped the WWB take prominent roles in the UN's Fourth World Conference on Women held September 4–15, 1995 in Beijing, and in the UN regional conferences and NGO forums that preceded it.


title: Ann Dunham

text: On August 9, 1992, she was awarded PhD in anthropology from the University of Hawaii, under the supervision of Prof. Alice G. Dewey, with a 1,043-page dissertation titled "Peasant blacksmithing in Indonesia: surviving and thriving against all odds." Anthropologist Michael Dove described the dissertation as "a classic, in-depth, on-the-ground anthropological study of a 1,200-year-old industry". According to Dove, Dunham's dissertation challenged popular perceptions regarding economically and politically marginalized groups, and countered the notions that the roots of poverty lie with the poor themselves and that cultural differences are responsible for the gap between less-developed countries and the industrialized West. According to Dove, Dunham


title: Ann Dunham

text: found that the villagers she studied in Central Java had many of the same economic needs, beliefs and aspirations as the most capitalist of Westerners. Village craftsmen were "keenly interested in profits", she wrote, and entrepreneurship was "in plentiful supply in rural Indonesia", having been "part of the traditional culture" there for a millennium.Based on these observations, Dr. Soetoro concluded that underdevelopment in these communities resulted from a scarcity of capital, the allocation of which was a matter of politics, not culture. Antipoverty programs that ignored this reality had the potential, perversely, of exacerbating inequality because they would only reinforce the power of elites. As she wrote in her dissertation, "many government programs inadvertently foster stratification by channeling resources through village officials", who then used the money to strengthen their own status further.


title: Ann Dunham

text: Dunham produced a large amount of professional papers that are held in collections of the National Anthropological Archives (NAA). Her daughter donated a collection of them that is categorized as the "S. Ann Dunham papers, 1965-2013". This collection contains case studies, correspondence, field notebooks, lectures, photographs, reports, research files, research proposals, surveys, and floppy disks documenting her dissertation research on blacksmithing, as well as her professional work as a consultant for organizations such as the Ford Foundation and the Bank Raykat Indonesia (BRI). They are housed at the Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History.


title: Ann Dunham

text: Her field notes have been digitized and, in 2020, Smithsonian Magazine noted that an effort had been established for a project to transcribe them. Public participation in the transcription project was announced at the same time.


title: Ann Dunham

text: In late 1994, Dunham was living and working in Indonesia. One night, during dinner at a friend's house in Jakarta, she experienced stomach pain. A visit to a local physician led to an initial diagnosis of indigestion. Dunham returned to the United States in early 1995 and was examined at the Memorial Sloan–Kettering Cancer Center in New York City and diagnosed with uterine cancer. By this time, the cancer had spread to her ovaries. She moved back to Hawaii to live near her widowed mother and died on November 7, 1995, 22 days short of her 53rd birthday. Following a memorial service at the University of Hawaii, Obama and his sister spread their mother's ashes in the Pacific Ocean at Lanai Lookout on the south side of Oahu. Obama scattered the ashes of his grandmother Madelyn Dunham in the same spot on December 23, 2008, weeks after his election to the presidency.


title: Ann Dunham

text: Obama talked about Dunham's death in a 30-second campaign advertisement ("Mother") arguing for health care reform. The ad featured a photograph of Dunham holding a young Obama in her arms as Obama talks about her last days worrying about expensive medical bills. The topic also came up in a 2007 speech in Santa Barbara:


title: Ann Dunham

text: I remember my mother. She was 52 years old when she died of ovarian cancer, and you know what she was thinking about in the last months of her life? She wasn't thinking about getting well. She wasn't thinking about coming to terms with her own mortality. She had been diagnosed just as she was transitioning between jobs. And she wasn't sure whether insurance was going to cover the medical expenses because they might consider this a preexisting condition. I remember just being heartbroken, seeing her struggle through the paperwork and the medical bills and the insurance forms. So, I have seen what it's like when somebody you love is suffering because of a broken health care system. And it's wrong. It's not who we are as a people.


title: Ann Dunham

text: Dunham's employer-provided health insurance covered most of the costs of her medical treatment, leaving her to pay the deductible and uncovered expenses, which came to several hundred dollars per month. Her employer-provided disability insurance denied her claims for uncovered expenses because the insurance company said her cancer was a preexisting condition.


title: Ann Dunham

text: In September 2008, the University of Hawaii at Mānoa held a symposium about Dunham. In December 2009, Duke University Press published a version of Dunham's dissertation titled "Surviving against the Odds: Village Industry in Indonesia." The book was revised and edited by Dunham's graduate advisor, Alice G. Dewey, and Nancy I. Cooper. Dunham's daughter, Maya Soetoro-Ng, wrote the foreword for the book. In his afterword, Boston University anthropologist Robert W. Hefner describes Dunham's research as "prescient" and her legacy as "relevant today for anthropology, Indonesian studies, and engaged scholarship". The book was launched at the 2009 annual meeting of the American Anthropological Association in Philadelphia with a special Presidential Panel on Dunham's work; The 2009 meeting was taped by C-SPAN.