title: 2020 Calabasas helicopter crash

text: The crash started a brush fire that was difficult to extinguish because of the presence of magnesium (which reacts with oxygen and water). Los Angeles County Fire Department firefighters responded to the scene and extinguished the fire by 10:30. The debris from the crash was scattered on steep terrain over a field estimated to extend . Firefighters hiked to the site and paramedics rappelled from a helicopter to the scene but could not locate any survivors; all nine occupants of the helicopter were killed in the crash. Based on examinations by the Los Angeles County Department of Medical Examiner-Coroner, all nine occupants died from blunt trauma.


title: 2020 Calabasas helicopter crash

text: The helicopter was a Sikorsky S-76B, registered N72EX. It was owned by Island Express Holding Corporation, based in Fillmore, California. Until 2015 it had been owned by the government of the state of Illinois, which used it to transport governors and other officials. The passenger compartment was converted from a configuration seating twelve (as N761LL) to eight after the sale to Island Express.


title: 2020 Calabasas helicopter crash

text: The aircraft did not have a flight data recorder (FDR) or cockpit voice recorder (CVR); helicopters in the U.S. are not required to carry them. Although the S-76B originally had a CVR installed, records show that Island Express removed the CVR shortly after acquiring the helicopter from the Illinois state government in March 2016. The helicopter was also not equipped with a terrain awareness and warning system (TAWS); although the NTSB recommended that all helicopters designed to carry six or more passenger seats be equipped with a TAWS after a 2004 S-76A crash, the FAA did not enforce the recommendation.


title: 2020 Calabasas helicopter crash

text: Bryant's company had chartered the helicopter from Island Express, via broker OC Helicopters (OCH). Bryant had started using Island Express in 2015, and Zobayan was his preferred pilot.


title: 2020 Calabasas helicopter crash

text: The operations manager of OC Helicopters called the vice president of Island Express around 9:49 a.m., asking for the current location of the helicopter, as the flight tracking application Spidertracks had stopped tracking at 9:45 a.m. The vice president called the general manager of Island Express, who was unable to reach the pilot over VHF radio, and Island Express activated their Emergency Response Plan at 9:58 a.m. The company launched another helicopter to the site of the last tracked position from the Queensway heliport (in Long Beach) at 10:22 a.m., but the later flight was recalled at 10:27 a.m. after a crash had been confirmed at the site.


title: 2020 Calabasas helicopter crash

text: At 11:24 a.m., less than two hours after the crash, TMZ was the first news source to confirm Bryant's death. TMZ was later criticized by local law enforcement for reporting the story before the coroner's office had the opportunity to confirm the identities of the helicopter's occupants and inform their families. Los Angeles County Sheriff Alex Villanueva stated, "It would be extremely disrespectful to understand that your loved one had perished and you learn [that] through TMZ."


title: 2020 Calabasas helicopter crash

text: At 2:30 p.m., the Los Angeles County Sheriff and Los Angeles County Fire Department held a joint press conference detailing initial aspects of the crash. Los Angeles County fire chief Daryl Osby confirmed the Federal Aviation Administration and the National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) were on the scene investigating. A "Go Team" consisting of 18 people, including specialists and investigators from the NTSB, arrived in the evening.


title: 2020 Calabasas helicopter crash

text: Sheriff Villanueva urged people to stay away because people had flooded into residential neighborhoods around the crash site and the traffic was getting in the way of responders. The FAA imposed a five-mile no-fly zone around the crash site up to an altitude of 5,000 feet at the request of Bryant's wife, Vanessa, in order to protect the victims' privacy. The Medical Examiner-Coroner was able to initially remove the remains of three of the nine victims overnight. In response to attempts at unauthorized access during the first evening after the crash, Sheriff Villanueva assigned deputies to patrol the rugged terrain on horseback and all-terrain vehicles in order to enforce a secure perimeter and prevent access by souvenir hunters. It was later reported that Los Angeles County sheriff deputies had taken and shared unauthorized graphic photos of the crash scene and were ordered by Sheriff Villanueva to delete the photographs to avoid discipline. The deletion of these photos led the Sheriff Civilian Oversight Commission to question whether that amounted to a cover-up.


title: 2020 Calabasas helicopter crash

text: It was reported the following day that the pilot was told that he was at a "too low level for flight following", which he had apparently requested, by air traffic controllers moments before the helicopter crashed into the hillside. This means that the helicopter was too low to be tracked by air traffic control, but does not necessarily mean that it was too low to fly safely.


title: 2020 Calabasas helicopter crash

text: By January 28, all nine bodies had been recovered from the crash site by the Medical Examiner-Coroner. The bodies of Kobe Bryant and three others were identified through fingerprints on January 28, and the five other bodies were identified on January 30 after DNA testing and analysis. Autopsies were conducted on January 28. By February 1, the Medical Examiner-Coroner had released most of the victims' bodies to their families, including the Bryants.


title: 2020 Calabasas helicopter crash

text: On February 24, 2020, Vanessa Bryant, Kobe Bryant's wife and the mother of Gianna, filed a wrongful death lawsuit against Island Express, the helicopter company that was transporting the 8 passengers, as well as the heirs of the estate of the pilot, Ara Zobayan. The Mauser and Altobelli families filed suit against Island Express in April, and the Chester family followed in May. Berge Zobayan, Ara's brother, responded to the original lawsuit in May, saying that Kobe was aware of the risks and faulted the negligence of the passengers. Island Express reiterated that Bryant was aware of the risks and disavowed responsibility, calling the crash "an act of God."


title: 2020 Calabasas helicopter crash

text: Island Express filed a cross-complaint lawsuit against two SCT air traffic controllers working for the FAA in August 2020, stating their "series of erroneous acts and/or omissions" caused the crash. That same month, Judge Virginia Keeny denied a motion filed by Zobayan's estate for a change of venue; the suit was filed in Los Angeles Superior Court and already had been assigned to a court in Van Nuys. Bryant amended her suit in September, naming OC Helicopters as an additional defendant, alleging the owner had checked and monitored weather conditions during the fatal flight.


title: 2020 Calabasas helicopter crash

text: As many as eight Los Angeles County Sheriff deputies who had responded to the crash took or shared pictures on personal devices; when Sheriff Villanueva learned about it, he ordered the deputies to delete the photographs. Although there was no official policy prohibiting photographs at an accident, Villanueva called it "inexcusable ... To have that on top of what they've already gone through is unconscionable" and apologized to the families while calling for a state law to prohibit unauthorized photographs. Vanessa Bryant also filed suit against the sheriff's office in September 2020 over the sharing of crash scene photographs. California passed AB2655 on September 28, which states first responders who take unauthorized photographs of victim(s) of a crime or accident outside their job duties can be cited with a misdemeanor offense, punishable by a fine of up to per instance. Mauser's family filed a similar lawsuit against the sheriff's office in December. United States District Court Judge John F. Walter ruled the names of the deputies suspended for misconduct could be released to the public in March 2021, which Vanessa Bryant revealed on March 15 of that year.


title: 2020 Calabasas helicopter crash

text: In November 2021, the Bryant family filed a lawsuit against Los Angeles County citing emotional distress. The Bryants' legal team claimed employees of Los Angeles County, including sheriff and firefighter personnel, took and shared images of the deceased bodies of the crash victims—including Kobe Bryant and his 13-year-old daughter. Court documents claim those who viewed the images described the bodies in crude terms. Los Angeles County had requested for the lawsuit to be dismissed. A hearing was scheduled for December 27, 2021. On January 5, 2022, U.S. District Judge John F. Walter dismissed Los Angeles County's request to dismiss the lawsuit, and a trial date was set. The trial took place in August 2022. During the trial, it was revealed a deputy sheriff allegedly referred to Bryant's dead body as a "pile of meat". The jury sided with the Bryant Family and awarded Vanessa Bryant 16 million dollars. The jury also awarded 15 million dollars to co-complainant Chris Chester, whose wife Sarah and daughter Payton were killed in the crash. The jury's verdict was unanimous, agreeing with Bryant, Chester, and their attorneys that the photos invaded the complainants' privacy and caused emotional distress.


title: 2020 Calabasas helicopter crash

text: A spokesperson for the National Transportation Safety Board said on January 31 that Island Express Helicopters, which owned the helicopter that crashed, was not certified to fly in foggy conditions.


title: 2020 Calabasas helicopter crash

text: On January 30, the wreckage of the helicopter was transported from Los Angeles to Phoenix, Arizona, for further analysis by NTSB investigators. However, the secure perimeter remained in place around the crash site, pending removal of hazardous materials (especially jet fuel and hydraulic fluids) by a private hazmat cleanup crew under the supervision of the California Department of Toxic Substances Control.


title: 2020 Calabasas helicopter crash

text: On February 7, the NTSB released an "investigative update" regarding the crash. Preliminary findings from the NTSB update show that there was no evidence of engine failure. The report indicates that "viewable sections of the engines showed no evidence of an uncontained or catastrophic internal failure" and that damage to the blades was "consistent with powered rotation at the time of impact."


title: 2020 Calabasas helicopter crash

text: On June 17, 2020, the NTSB released the public docket on the crash. It contained more than 1,700 pages "of factual reports on operations, survival factors, human performance, air traffic control, and aircraft performance. The docket also includes interview transcripts, photographs, and other investigative materials."


title: 2020 Calabasas helicopter crash

text: On February 9, 2021, the NTSB held a meeting to determine the probable cause of the crash. The Board concluded that Zobayan had flown into thick clouds, contrary to VFR requirements; the resulting spatial disorientation and loss of control led to the crash. Cited likely contributing causes were self-induced pressure by the pilot to complete the flight and the inadequate oversight of Island Express over its safety management process. Flying at an excessive speed for the weather conditions was also mentioned in the final report. Even if the helicopter had been equipped with a terrain awareness and warning system, it was not likely to have helped to avoid the crash due to the pilot's disorientation. The "probable cause" reads:


title: 2020 Calabasas helicopter crash

text: Around 200 people gathered at the foot of the hill close to the crash, with many wearing Bryant's jersey and holding basketballs. People also formed an impromptu memorial at the Staples Center, the home arena of the Los Angeles Lakers (the team which Bryant had played for during his entire 20 year NBA career, from 1996 to 2016) just hours before the arena was scheduled to host the 62nd Annual Grammy Awards. During the ceremony, host Alicia Keys and Boyz II Men performed "It's So Hard to Say Goodbye to Yesterday" in tribute to Bryant, and other performers, including Lil Nas X, Lizzo, Run-DMC, Aerosmith and DJ Khaled, incorporated tributes to Bryant in their performances. Bryant's two retired jerseys hanging in the rafters of the Staples Center were illuminated by spotlight. A week after Bryant's death, Staples Center staff began to clean up the makeshift memorial outside the arena, but promised to catalog, pack, and ship all nonperishable items to his family. Among the items thus recovered were 1,350 basketballs, as well as "25,000 candles, 5,000 signs or letters, 500 stuffed animals, 350 pairs of shoes and 14 banners."


title: 2020 Calabasas helicopter crash

text: Fans created a memorial for Bryant outside of the Kobe Bryant Gymnasium at Lower Merion High School in Ardmore, Pennsylvania, which Bryant attended from 1992 to 1996. Jerseys, dedicated basketballs, teddy bears, flowers and candles were all laid down to memorialize Bryant.


title: 2020 Calabasas helicopter crash

text: Landmarks around the world, including the Los Angeles International Airport, Madison Square Garden, the Empire State Building and the Santa Ana Water tower in Bryant's home of Orange County, CA were lit purple and gold in Bryant's memory.


title: 2020 Calabasas helicopter crash

text: On February 2, the world's tallest building, Burj Khalifa, lit up with images in tribute to Bryant and his daughter. The display was arranged by the Executive Chairman of Dubai Multi Commodities Centre (DMCC) Ahmed Sultan Bin Sulayem.


title: 2020 Calabasas helicopter crash

text: On February 7, Kobe and his daughter were buried in a private funeral in Pacific View Memorial Park in the Corona del Mar neighborhood of Newport Beach. Two days later, Bryant was also featured, alongside other recently deceased figures from the film industry, in the In Memoriam montage at the 92nd Academy Awards on February 9. A celebration of life for Kobe and his daughter was held at Staples Center on February 24, 2020.


title: 2020 Calabasas helicopter crash

text: On February 10, a memorial service was held inside Angel Stadium in Anaheim, California, honoring John Altobelli, his wife Keri and daughter Alyssa.


title: 2020 Calabasas helicopter crash

text: On July 18, the Academy of Television Arts & Sciences posthumously awarded Bryant a Governor's Award at the 72nd Los Angeles Emmy Awards in recognition of "his legacy of philanthropy, community building and inspiration that extended beyond the basketball court." Composer John Williams, whom Bryant worked with on his animated short film "Dear Basketball", accepted the award on his behalf. On January 26, 2022, on the 2nd anniversary of Kobe and Gigi's deaths, a statue of Kobe and Gigi was unveiled at Calabasas, California where the helicopter had crashed. The statue was left at the crash site for one day, allowing friends and fans alike to pay their respects to the victims of the crash. Dan Medina, artist of the statue, is looking for a permanent home for the lifesize version of the statue somewhere in downtown Los Angeles.


title: 2020 Calabasas helicopter crash

text: Gregg Downer, Bryant's high school basketball coach, was "completely shocked and devastated" by the news and was initially too distraught to speak to the media. Downer coached Bryant at Lower Merion High School in suburban Philadelphia from 1992 to 1996 and won the state championship with Bryant in 1996.


title: 2020 Calabasas helicopter crash

text: Michael Jordan, to whom Bryant was often compared, said in a statement: "Words can't describe the pain I am feeling. I loved Kobe he was like a little brother to me... We used to talk often, and I will miss those conversations very much. He was a fierce competitor, one of the greats of the game and a creative force." Shaquille O'Neal, Bryant's Lakers teammate from 1996 to 2004 and with whom he shared a friendship and later a heavily publicized feud, said that he was "sick" and "had no words to express the pain." Several NBA teams paid tribute to Bryant during their games that night with intentional on-court violations referring to his uniform numbers: violations of the 24-second shot clock and the rule requiring teams to advance the ball past midcourt within eight seconds. Kareem Abdul-Jabbar posted a video on Twitter expressing his condolences. LeBron James, who had passed Bryant on the list of NBA career scoring leaders the previous night and had spoken to Bryant on the morning of the accident, posted a statement on Instagram, saying "I'm heartbroken and devastated ... I promise you I'll continue your legacy." Jerry West, Laker great and general manager who had orchestrated the deal to acquire Bryant for the Lakers, said that "I think the thing that resonates with me most... One person with one name Kobe you wouldn't have to mention his last name" and that it was the "saddest day of his life" to learn that the families in the helicopter crash had died.


title: 2020 Calabasas helicopter crash

text: Dallas Mavericks owner Mark Cuban said "that the number 24 will never again be worn by a Dallas Maverick." Several NBA players previously wearing Bryant's uniform numbers decided to change to new numbers in honor of Bryant.


title: 2020 Calabasas helicopter crash

text: The NBA later postponed the Los Angeles Lakers' game against the Los Angeles Clippers that had been scheduled for January 28, two days after the accident. The game was made up on July 30, the second game of the NBA's return from their suspension caused by the COVID-19 pandemic in North America. It was originally planned to be made up on April 9, but was postponed again due to the suspension. The game ended in a Lakers 103–101 comeback victory. On January 30, the first game after the crash was played at Staples Center between the Clippers and the Sacramento Kings, the Clippers honored Bryant before the game, by having Paul George narrate a video tribute to Bryant. The Clippers also uncovered Kobe's 8 and 24 retired jerseys as part of the tribute. Usually, the Clippers hide all of the Lakers' retired numbers and championship banners during their home games. The next day, the Lakers played their first game after the crash against the Portland Trail Blazers. Ahead of the match, Lakers paid tribute to Bryant and all who lost their lives in the crash with a ceremony held just before tip off, with Usher singing "Amazing Grace" and Boyz II Men, who performed at the Grammys 5 days prior to the Lakers' first game since the crash, singing the National Anthem, while Wiz Khalifa and Charlie Puth reunited to perform their hit "See You Again" at halftime. James also delivered a speech to the crowd before the game, and every starter in the Lakers starting lineup was announced with Bryant's name. The Lakers also wore a patch with Kobe's initials for the rest of the season. The Lakers home court also paid tribute to Kobe by placing "KB" logos on the back ends of the court, and Kobe's numbers on the sidelines, with his #8 near the Lakers bench, and his #24 near the visiting team's bench. The game was the second-most watched game in ESPN history, averaging 4.41 million viewers.


title: 2020 Calabasas helicopter crash

text: On February 15, commissioner Adam Silver announced that the NBA All-Star Game MVP Award would be renamed to the NBA All-Star Game Kobe Bryant Most Valuable Player in honor of Bryant. Also, in the 2020 NBA All-Star Game on February 16, each player on Team Giannis wore the jersey number 24, in honor of Kobe, while each player on Team LeBron wore the jersey number 2, in honor of Gianna.


title: 2020 Calabasas helicopter crash

text: Soon after the crash, the Basketball Hall of Fame in Springfield put Kobe's name on their large sign out front as fans left candles and flowers on the large statue of James Naismith in front of the entrance. A vigil and a moment of silence was held inside the shrine with many fans of Bryant and the Lakers in attendance, despite it being in a strongly Celtics fans region. In addition to the Hall of Fame turning the thousands of lights of the large sphere of the shrine itself purple and gold numerous other office buildings in downtown Springfield did as well. Several billboards on Interstate 90 in Massachusetts were also dedicated to the memory of Kobe Bryant. Bryant was also inducted into the Hall of Fame Class of 2020 along with Tim Duncan and Kevin Garnett as players on their first years of eligibility.


title: 2020 Calabasas helicopter crash

text: In May 2020, almost four months after the crash, Mamba Sports Academy reverted its name to Sports Academy by dropping the "Mamba" nickname out of respect to Bryant. After the Lakers won the 2020 NBA Finals, they dedicated the championship to Bryant.


title: 2020 Calabasas helicopter crash

text: On January 26, 2022, coinciding with the 2nd anniversary of his death and the helicopter crash, a statue of Kobe Bryant and his daughter Gianna was placed at the site where the crash occurred.


title: 2020 Calabasas helicopter crash

text: Many Major League Baseball, National Football League, and National Hockey League players, teams and other organizations memorialized Bryant in the immediate aftermath of the crash.


title: 2020 Calabasas helicopter crash

text: News of Bryant's death broke just before kickoff of the 2020 Pro Bowl, with the players finding out in their locker rooms. Shortly after kickoff, Bryant's death was announced in the stadium and a moment of silence was held. ABC and ESPN broke away from their coverage of the event to cover the crash, and the player interviews focused heavily on the players' connections to, and respect for, Bryant. During pregame ceremonies for Super Bowl LIV the following week, players and coaches for both teams stood at both 24 yard lines, Bryant's number, during a tribute to Bryant and the other victims. With coverage of Bryant's death becoming a part of the game coverage, it was decided to end the Disney XD simulcast with nine minutes remaining in the second quarter and switch to a marathon of "Big City Greens".


title: 2020 Calabasas helicopter crash

text: WWE paid tribute to Bryant during its 2020 Royal Rumble pay-per-view later that night, as did All Elite Wrestling during that week's "AEW Dynamite" in Cleveland with the Southern California-based stable SoCal Uncensored wearing Bryant jerseys to the ring, and many professional wrestlers expressed their condolences for the Bryant family.


title: 2020 Calabasas helicopter crash

text: Many ATP Tour tennis players paid tribute to Bryant during the 2020 Australian Open, including Novak Djokovic, who noted: "He was one of the greatest athletes of all time he inspired myself and many other people around the world."


title: 2020 Calabasas helicopter crash

text: A.C. Milan, Bryant's favorite soccer team growing up in Italy, wore black armbands in memory of him in their Coppa Italia match against Torino on January 28, 2020. A minute of silence was also held before the match. Many soccer players and teams paid tribute to Bryant during matches and on social media. On January 26, 2020, after scoring his second goal from penalty spot against Lille OSC, Neymar paid tribute to Bryant by striking out four fingers of his right and two fingers of his left hand to mark number 24 towards the camera and then by offering a prayer to the heavens. On February 27, 2020, before Los Angeles FC's home match against Club León in the CONCACAF Champions League, LAFC fans unveiled a tifo honoring the Bryants; team captain Carlos Vela also wore an armband with Kobe's initials and uniform numbers. On January 27, Super League Greece club AE Larissa retired number 24 from their roster indefinitely.


title: 2020 Calabasas helicopter crash

text: The NASCAR Cup Series' 2020 Auto Club 400 at Auto Club Speedway, located in nearby Fontana, California, featured various tributes from drivers and teams. Ryan Blaney and William Byron drove cars with special paint schemes honoring Bryant, with the former's being sponsored by Bodyarmor SuperDrink, a company of which Bryant was an investor. Sales of toy replicas of the cars were donated to philanthropic organizations connected to Bryant, with Byron's going to After-School All-Stars and Blaney's to MambaOnThree.org. Tyler Reddick's No. 8 car featured a tribute sticker, while Daniel Suárez raced with purple-and-gold gloves and shoes that were auctioned to support the Mamba On Three Fund. The track also painted a number 24 decal in the infield, while NASCAR conducted a pre-race ceremony to honor the victims.


title: 2020 Calabasas helicopter crash

text: Tiger Woods was informed of the tragedy by his caddie Joe LaCava after finishing his final hole at the Farmers Insurance Open, and stated in the post-round interview that Bryant "brought it each and every night on both ends of the floor. And not too many guys can say that throughout NBA history".


title: 2020 Calabasas helicopter crash

text: The following week's PGA Tour event was the Waste Management Open, an event that annually sees some of golf's most raucous crowds, particularly on the 16th hole. Several players, including Justin Thomas and Tony Finau, wore Bryant jerseys while playing the hole. On Sunday, the pin was placed 24 paces from the front and 8 paces from the left side in honor of Bryant's jersey numbers.


title: 2020 Calabasas helicopter crash

text: Formula One champion Lewis Hamilton posted on Instagram and Twitter paying tribute to Bryant, along with several other former and current drivers, while Renault F1 driver Daniel Ricciardo wore a purple racing helmet with "KB24" below the visor during the 2020 Formula One pre-season test. Chinese debutant Guanyu Zhou chose one of Bryant's jersey numbers, 24, as his race number to honour him.


title: 2020 Calabasas helicopter crash

text: Former presidents Bill Clinton and Barack Obama, former Secretary of State Hillary Clinton, Los Angeles mayor Eric Garcetti, and other American politicians all expressed their condolences.


title: 2020 Calabasas helicopter crash

text: American rappers Jay Electronica and Jay-Z recorded the somber track "A.P.I.D.T.A." on the night of the helicopter crash, later released as the final track on Jay Electronica's debut album "A Written Testimony" on March 13, 2020. ESPN's Elle Duncan shared an emotional story while she hosted the "SportsCenter" show on January 27, 2020, about how proud Bryant was of being a father to his daughters; Duncan recalled, amongst other things, Bryant telling her: "I would have five more girls if I could. I'm a "girl dad."" Duncan's story went viral and inspired other fathers across the world to celebrate their relationships with their daughters, using the hashtag #GirlDad.


title: James Mason

text: James Neville Mason (; 15 May 190927 July 1984) was an English actor. He achieved considerable success in British cinema before becoming a star in Hollywood. He was the top box-office attraction in the UK in 1944 and 1945; his British films included "The Seventh Veil" (1945) and "The Wicked Lady" (1945). He starred in "Odd Man Out" (1947), the first recipient of the BAFTA Award for Best British Film.


title: James Mason

text: Mason starred in such films as George Cukor's "A Star Is Born" (1954), Alfred Hitchcock's "North by Northwest" (1959), Stanley Kubrick's "Lolita" (1962), Warren Beatty's "Heaven Can Wait" (1978), and Sidney Lumet's "The Verdict" (1982). He also starred in a number of successful British and American films from the 1950s to the early 1980s, including: "" (1951), "Julius Caesar" (1953), "Bigger Than Life" (1956), "20,000 Leagues Under the Sea" (1954),


title: James Mason

text: Mason was nominated for three Academy Awards, three Golden Globes (winning the Golden Globe in 1955 for "A Star is Born") and two BAFTA Awards throughout his career. Following his death in 1984, his ashes were interred near the tomb of his close friend, fellow English actor Sir Charlie Chaplin.


title: James Mason

text: Mason was born on 15 May 1909, in Huddersfield, in the West Riding of Yorkshire, the youngest of three sons of John Mason and Mabel Hattersley, daughter of J. Shaw Gaunt. A wealthy wool merchant like his own father before him, John Mason travelled a good deal on business, mainly in France and Belgium; Mabel – who was "uncommonly well-educated" and had lived in London to study and begin work as an artist before returning to Yorkshire to care for her father – was "attentive and loving" in raising her sons. The Masons lived in a house in its own grounds on Croft House Lane in Marsh, which was replaced in the mid-1970s by flats called Arncliffe Court. A small residential development opposite where the house once stood is now called James Mason Court.


title: James Mason

text: Mason was educated at Marlborough College, and took a first in architecture at Peterhouse, Cambridge, where he became involved in stock theatre companies in his spare time. He had no formal training in acting and initially embarked upon it for fun.


title: James Mason

text: He joined the Old Vic theatre in London under the guidance of Tyrone Guthrie. While there he appeared in productions of "The Cherry Orchard", "Henry VIII", "Measure for Measure", "The Importance of Being Earnest", "Love for Love", "The Tempest", "Twelfth Night", and "Macbeth". Featuring in many of these were Charles Laughton and Elsa Lanchester. In the mid-1930s he also appeared at the Gate Theatre, Dublin, notably in "Pride and Prejudice" with Betty Chancellor.


title: James Mason

text: In 1933, Alexander Korda gave Mason a small role in "The Private Life of Don Juan" but sacked him three days into shooting.


title: James Mason

text: From 1935 to 1938, Mason starred in many British quota quickies, starting with his first film "Late Extra" (1935), in which he played the lead. Albert Parker directed. Mason appeared in "Twice Branded" (1936); "Troubled Waters" (1936), also directed by Parker; "Prison Breaker" (1936); "Blind Man's Bluff" (1936), for Parker's "The Secret of Stamboul" (1936), and "The Mill on the Floss" (1936), an "A" movie.


title: James Mason

text: Mason had a key support role in Korda's "Fire Over England" (1937) with Laurence Olivier and Vivien Leigh. He was in another "A", "The High Command" (1937) directed by Thorold Dickinson, then went back to quickies, starring in "Catch As Catch Can" (1937), directed by Roy Kellino. Korda cast him as the villain in "The Return of the Scarlet Pimpernel" (1937)


title: James Mason

text: Mason began appearing in some televised productions of plays, made in the very early days of television: "Cyrano de Bergerac" (1938), "The Moon in the Yellow River" (1938), "Bees on the Boat-Deck" (1939), "Square Pegs" (1939), "L’Avare" (1939), and "The Circle" (1939).


title: James Mason

text: He returned to features with "I Met a Murderer" (1939) based on a story by Mason and Pamela Kellino, who also starred with Mason and whom he would marry. Her husband Roy Kellino directed.


title: James Mason

text: He registered as a conscientious objector during World War II (causing his family to break with him for many years) but his tribunal did not exempt him on the requirement to do non-combatant military service, which he also refused to perform. He appealed against that aspect of the tribunal's decision. His appeal became irrelevant once he was included in a general exemption for film work. In 1941–42 he returned to the stage to appear in "Jupiter Laughs" by A. J. Cronin. He established himself as a leading man in Britain in a series of films: "The Patient Vanishes" (1941); "Hatter's Castle" (1941) with Robert Newton and Deborah Kerr; "The Night Has Eyes" (1941); "Alibi" (1942) with Margaret Lockwood; "Secret Mission" (1942); "Thunder Rock" (1942) with Michael Redgrave; and "The Bells Go Down" (1943) with Tommy Trinder.


title: James Mason

text: Mason became hugely popular for his brooding anti-heroes, and occasional outright villains, in the Gainsborough series of melodramas of the 1940s, starting with "The Man in Grey" (1943). The film was a huge hit and launched him and co-stars Lockwood, Stewart Granger and Phyllis Calvert, to top level stars.


title: James Mason

text: Mason starred in two war time dramas, "They Met in the Dark" (1943) and "Candlelight in Algeria" (1944), then returned to Gainsborough melodrama with "Fanny By Gaslight" (1944) with Granger and Calvert; it was another big hit.


title: James Mason

text: Mason starred in "Hotel Reserve" (1944), a thriller, then did a ghost story for Gainsborough with Lockwood, "A Place of One's Own" (1945). Far more popular was a melodrama, "They Were Sisters" (1945).


title: James Mason

text: Sydney Box cast Mason in a psychodrama about musicians, "The Seventh Veil" (1945) as the tyrannical guardian of pianist Ann Todd. It was a huge success in Britain and the US and demand for Mason was at a fever pitch. Exhibitors voted him the most popular star in Britain in each year between 1944 and 1947. They also thought he was the most popular international star in 1946; he dropped to second place the following year. He was the most popular male star in Canada in 1948.


title: James Mason

text: Mason had a relatively minor role in "The Wicked Lady" (1945) with Lockwood, a big hit. Mason then received his best reviews to date playing a mortally wounded IRA bank robber on the run in Carol Reed's "Odd Man Out" (1947).


title: James Mason

text: Mason was able to turn producer with Sydney Box on "The Upturned Glass" (1947), which starred Mason with a script by Mason's wife. It was not particularly successful. Neither was "Bathsheba," a play the Masons did on Broadway.


title: James Mason

text: Mason went to Hollywood for his first film, "Caught" (1949), directed by Max Ophüls. Mason then played Gustave Flaubert in MGM's "Madame Bovary" (1949).


title: James Mason

text: He did another with Ophüls, "The Reckless Moment" (1949), and followed that with "East Side, West Side" (1949) with Barbara Stanwyck at MGM and "One Way Street" (1950) at Universal. He made "Pandora and the Flying Dutchman" (1951) with Ava Gardner. None of these films was particularly successful.


title: James Mason

text: Mason's Hollywood career was revived when he was cast as General Rommel in "" (1951), directed by Henry Hathaway. To do the film he agreed to sign a contract with 20th Century Fox for seven years at one film a year.


title: James Mason

text: Mason did a film at Republic Pictures written by his wife and directed by Roy Kellino, "Lady Possessed" (1951). At Fox, he played a spy in "5 Fingers" (1951), directed by Joseph L. Mankiewicz.


title: James Mason

text: MGM hired him to play Rupert of Hentzau in "The Prisoner of Zenda" (1952) opposite Granger. He was in the lower budgeted "Face to Face" (1952) then went to Paramount to play a villainous sea captain opposite Alan Ladd in "Botany Bay" (1953).


title: James Mason

text: Mason was one of many stars in MGM's "The Story of Three Loves" (1953). At Fox, he reprised his role as Rommel in "The Desert Rats" (1953), then he was reunited with Mankiewicz at MGM, playing Brutus in "Julius Caesar" (1953), opposite Marlon Brando. The film was very successful.


title: James Mason

text: Mason worked with Carol Reed in "The Man Between" (1953), then Fox used him as a villain again in "Prince Valiant" (1954). Mason did another film with a screenplay by his wife and directed by Roy Kellino, "Charade" (1954).


title: James Mason

text: Warner Bros., hired him to play Judy Garland's leading man in "A Star Is Born" (1954) after Cary Grant turned the role down. Mason won the Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy and was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actor. He went over to Disney to play Captain Nemo in "20,000 Leagues Under the Sea" (1954), a huge hit which also starred Kirk Douglas. During 1954 and 1955, Mason was the host of some episodes of "Lux Video Theatre" on CBS television.


title: James Mason

text: Mason appeared with Lucille Ball and Desi Arnaz in "Forever, Darling" (1956) then starred in and produced a film at Fox, "Bigger Than Life" (1956), directed by Nicholas Ray. Mason played a small-town school teacher driven insane by the effects of cortisone. He did another for Fox, the hugely popular melodrama, "Island in the Sun" (1957).


title: James Mason

text: Mason began appearing regularly on television in shows such as "Panic!", "General Electric Theater", "Schlitz Playhouse", "Goodyear Theatre" and "Playhouse 90" (several episodes including "John Brown's Raid").


title: James Mason

text: He starred in two thrillers for Andrew L. Stone, "Cry Terror!" (1958) and "The Decks Ran Red" (1958) then played a suave master spy hunting down Cary Grant with romantic assistance from Eva Marie Saint in "North by Northwest" (1959), directed by Alfred Hitchcock


title: James Mason

text: At Fox he had a huge hit returning to Jules Verne science fantasy as the determined Scottish scientist and explorer in "Journey to the Centre of the Earth" (1959), taking over a role meant for Clifton Webb. He did a comedy "A Touch of Larceny" (1960) and was Sir Edward Carson in "The Trials of Oscar Wilde" (1960).


title: James Mason

text: He continued to appear on TV shows like "The DuPont Show with June Allyson", "Golden Showcase", "Theatre '62" and "The Alfred Hitchcock Hour".


title: James Mason

text: He did "The Marriage-Go-Round" (1961), then played Dolores' sexually obsessive stepfather Humbert Humbert in Stanley Kubrick's version of "Lolita" (1962).


title: James Mason

text: He starred in "Tiara Tahiti" (1962), then "Hero's Island" (1962), which he also produced. He was in "Torpedo Bay" (1963).


title: James Mason

text: In 1963 Mason settled in Switzerland, and embarked on a transatlantic career. He began to drift into support roles, or second leads: the epic "The Fall of the Roman Empire" (1964); "The Pumpkin Eater" (1964), with Anne Bancroft; a river pirate who betrays Peter O'Toole's character in "Lord Jim" (1965); a Chinese noble in "Genghis Khan" (1965); "The Uninhibited" (1965); a guest role on "Dr Kildare"; James Leamington in the Swinging London-set "Georgy Girl" (1966), a role that earned him a second Academy Award nomination, this one for Best Actor in a Supporting Role.


title: James Mason

text: In 1967, Mason narrated the documentary "The London Nobody Knows". An ardent cinephile on top of his career interests, Mason narrated two British documentary series supervised by Kevin Brownlow: "Hollywood" (1980), on the silent cinema and "Unknown Chaplin" (1983), devoted to out-take material from the films of Sir Charlie Chaplin. Mason had been a long-time neighbour and friend of the actor and director Charlie Chaplin. In the late 1970s, Mason became a mentor to up-and-coming actor Sam Neill.


title: James Mason

text: He was in several episodes of "ITV Play of the Week" and he had the lead in "The Deadly Affair" (1967) for Sidney Lumet (playing a character based on George Smiley though it was renamed); and "Stranger in the House" (1968).


title: James Mason

text: He provided a supporting role in "Duffy" (1968), "The Blue Max (1966)" and "Mayerling" (1968) but was top billed in "The Sea Gull" (1968) for Sidney Lumet and starred as Bradley Morahan in "Age of Consent" (1969) for Michael Powell, a film which Mason also produced. The movie featured Helen Mirren's first major film role, and was Powell's last major film. He also had the star role in "Spring and Port Wine" (1970).


title: James Mason

text: Mason supported Charles Bronson in "Cold Sweat" (1970) and Lee Van Cleef in "Bad Man's River" (1971). He was a support in "Kill! Kill! Kill! Kill!" (1971) and top billed in "Child's Play" (1972) for Lumet, replacing Marlon Brando. He was one of many stars in "The Last of Sheila" (1973) and played the evil Doctor Polidori in "" (1973). He had support roles in "The MacKintosh Man" (1973), "11 Harrowhouse" (1974), "The Marseille Contract" (1974), and "Great Expectations" (1974) and was top billed in "Mandingo" (1975).


title: James Mason

text: Mason's later 70s performances included "Kidnap Syndicate" (1975), "The Left Hand of the Law" (1975), "Autobiography of a Princess" (1975), "Inside Out" (1975), "The Flower in His Mouth" (1975), "Voyage of the Damned" (1976), "Hot Stuff" (1977), "Cross of Iron" (1977), "Jesus of Nazareth" (1977), "The Yin and the Yang of Mr. Go" (1978), "The Water Babies" (1978), "Heaven Can Wait" (1978), "The Boys from Brazil" (1978), "Murder by Decree" (1979) (as Watson), "The Passage" (1979), "Bloodline" (1979) and as the vampire's servant, Richard Straker, in "Salem's Lot" (1979).


title: James Mason

text: Mason was in "North Sea Hijack" (1980), supporting Roger Moore, "Evil Under the Sun" (1982), "Ivanhoe" (1982), and "A Dangerous Summer" (1982).


title: James Mason

text: One of his last roles, that of the corrupt lawyer Ed Concannon in "The Verdict" (1982), opposite Paul Newman, earned him his third and final Oscar nomination, for Best Actor in a Supporting Role.


title: James Mason

text: Having completed playing the lead role in "Dr. Fischer of Geneva" (1985), adapted from Graham Greene's eponymous novella for the BBC, he stepped into the role in "The Shooting Party" originally meant for Paul Scofield, who was unable to continue after being seriously injured in an accident on the first day of shooting. This was to be Mason's final screen performance in a feature film. He did appear on television in "A.D." (1985) and "The Assisi Underground" (1985).


title: James Mason

text: Mason was a devoted lover of animals, particularly cats. He and his wife, Pamela Mason, co-authored the book "The Cats in Our Lives", which was published in 1949. James Mason wrote most of the book and also illustrated it. In "The Cats in Our Lives", he recounted humorous and sometimes touching tales of the cats (as well as a few dogs) he had known and loved.


title: James Mason

text: In 1952, Mason purchased a house previously owned by Buster Keaton. He discovered reels of nitrate film thought to have been lost, stored in the house and produced by the comedian, such as "The Boat" (1921). Mason arranged to have the decomposing films transferred to safety stock and thus saved them from oblivion.


title: James Mason

text: In his youth, Mason was a keen fan of his local Rugby League team, Huddersfield. In later years he also began to follow the fortunes of Huddersfield Town.


title: James Mason

text: Mason survived a severe heart attack in 1959. He died as result of another heart attack on 27 July 1984 in Lausanne, Switzerland, and was cremated. Mason left his entire estate to his second wife, Clarissa Kaye, but his will was challenged by his two children. The lawsuit had not been settled when she died on 21 July 1994 from cancer. Clarissa Kaye Mason left her holdings to the religious guru Sathya Sai Baba, including the actor's ashes, which she had retained in their shared home. Mason's children sued Sai Baba and subsequently had Mason's ashes interred in Corsier-sur-Vevey, Vaud, Switzerland. The remains of Mason's friend Charlie Chaplin are in a tomb a few steps away. Mason's children specified that his headstone read: "Never say in grief you are sorry he's gone. Rather, say in thankfulness you are grateful he was here", words that were spoken to Portland Mason by U.S. Senator Ted Kennedy after the actor's death.


title: Giuseppe Garibaldi

text: Giuseppe Maria Garibaldi ( , ; 4 July 1807 – 2 June 1882) was an Italian general, patriot, revolutionary and republican. He contributed to Italian unification and the creation of the Kingdom of Italy. He is considered one of the greatest generals of modern times and one of Italy's "fathers of the fatherland", along with Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour, Victor Emmanuel II of Italy and Giuseppe Mazzini. Garibaldi is also known as the ""Hero of the Two Worlds"" because of his military enterprises in South America and Europe.


title: Giuseppe Garibaldi

text: Garibaldi was a follower of the Italian nationalist Mazzini and embraced the republican nationalism of the Young Italy movement. He became a supporter of Italian unification under a democratic republican government. However, breaking with Mazzini, he pragmatically allied himself with the monarchist Cavour and Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia in the struggle for independence, subordinating his republican ideals to his nationalist ones until Italy was unified. After participating in an uprising in Piedmont, he was sentenced to death, but escaped and sailed to South America, where he spent 14 years in exile, during which he took part in several wars and learnt the art of guerrilla warfare. In 1835 he joined the rebels known as the Ragamuffins (), in the Ragamuffin War in Brazil, and took up their cause of establishing the Riograndense Republic and later the Catarinense Republic. Garibaldi also became involved in the Uruguayan Civil War, raising an Italian force known as Redshirts, and is still celebrated as an important contributor to Uruguay's reconstitution.


title: Giuseppe Garibaldi

text: In 1848, Garibaldi returned to Italy and commanded and fought in military campaigns that eventually led to Italian unification. The provisional government of Milan made him a general and the Minister of War promoted him to General of the Roman Republic in 1849. When the war of independence broke out in April 1859, he led his Hunters of the Alps in the capture of major cities in Lombardy, including Varese and Como, and reached the frontier of South Tyrol; the war ended with the acquisition of Lombardy. The following year, he led the Expedition of the Thousand on behalf of and with the consent of Victor Emmanuel II. The expedition was a success and concluded with the annexation of Sicily, Southern Italy, Marche and Umbria to the Kingdom of Sardinia before the creation of a unified Kingdom of Italy on 17 March 1861. His last military campaign took place during the Franco-Prussian War as commander of the Army of the Vosges.


title: Giuseppe Garibaldi

text: Garibaldi became an international figurehead for national independence and republican ideals, and is considered by the twentieth-century historiography and popular culture as Italy's greatest national hero. He was showered with admiration and praise by many contemporary intellectuals and political figures, including Abraham Lincoln, William Brown, Francesco de Sanctis, Victor Hugo, Alexandre Dumas, Malwida von Meysenbug, George Sand, Charles Dickens, and Friedrich Engels.


title: Giuseppe Garibaldi

text: Garibaldi also inspired later figures like Jawaharlal Nehru or Che Guevara. Historian A. J. P. Taylor called him "the only wholly admirable figure in modern history". In the popular telling of his story, he is associated with the red shirts that his volunteers, the "Garibaldini", wore in lieu of a uniform.


title: Giuseppe Garibaldi

text: Garibaldi was born and christened Joseph-Marie Garibaldi on 4 July 1807 in Nice, which had been conquered by the French First Republic in 1792, to the Ligurian family of Domenico Garibaldi from Chiavari and Maria Rosa Nicoletta Raimondi from Loano. In 1814, the Congress of Vienna returned Nice to Victor Emmanuel I of Sardinia; nevertheless, France re-annexed it in 1860 by the Treaty of Turin, which was ardently opposed by Garibaldi. Garibaldi's family's involvement in coastal trade drew him to a life at sea. He participated actively in the Nizzardo Italians community and was certified in 1832 as a merchant navy captain.


title: Giuseppe Garibaldi

text: He lived in Pera district of Constantinople from 1828 to 1832. He became an instructor and taught Italian, French and mathematics.


title: Giuseppe Garibaldi

text: In April 1833, he travelled to Taganrog, in the Russian Empire, aboard the schooner "Clorinda" with a shipment of oranges. During ten days in port, he met Giovanni Battista Cuneo from Oneglia, a politically active immigrant and member of the secret Young Italy movement of Giuseppe Mazzini. Mazzini was a passionate proponent of Italian unification as a liberal republic via political and social reform. Garibaldi joined the society and took an oath dedicating himself to the struggle to liberate and unify his homeland from Austrian dominance.


title: Giuseppe Garibaldi

text: In November 1833, Garibaldi met Mazzini in Genoa, starting a long relationship that later became troubled. He joined the Carbonari revolutionary association, and in February 1834 participated in a failed Mazzinian insurrection in Piedmont. A Genoese court sentenced Garibaldi to death "in absentia", and he fled across the border to Marseille.


title: Giuseppe Garibaldi

text: Garibaldi first sailed to the Beylik of Tunis before eventually finding his way to the Empire of Brazil. Once there, he took up the cause of the Riograndense Republic in its attempt to separate from Brazil, joining the rebels known as the Ragamuffins in the Ragamuffin War of 1835.


title: Giuseppe Garibaldi

text: During this war, he met Ana Maria de Jesus Ribeiro da Silva, commonly known as Anita. When the rebels proclaimed the Catarinense Republic in the Brazilian province of Santa Catarina in 1839, she joined him aboard his ship, "Rio Pardo", and fought alongside him at the battles of Imbituba and Laguna.


title: Giuseppe Garibaldi

text: In 1841, Garibaldi and Anita moved to Montevideo, Uruguay, where Garibaldi worked as a trader and schoolmaster. The couple married in Montevideo the following year. They had four children; Domenico Menotti (1840–1903), Rosa (1843–1845), Teresa Teresita (1845–1903), and Ricciotti (1847–1924). A skilled horsewoman, Anita is said to have taught Giuseppe about the gaucho culture of Argentina, southern Brazil and Uruguay. Around this time he adopted his trademark clothing—the red shirt, poncho, and sombrero commonly worn by gauchos.


title: Giuseppe Garibaldi

text: In 1842, Garibaldi took command of the Uruguayan fleet and raised an Italian Legion of soldiers—known as Redshirts—for the Uruguayan Civil War. This recruitment was possible as Montevideo had a large Italian population at the time: 4,205 out of a total population of 30,000 according to an 1843 census.


title: Giuseppe Garibaldi

text: Garibaldi aligned his forces with the Uruguayan Colorados led by Fructuoso Rivera and Joaquín Suárez, who were aligned with the Argentine Unitarian Party. This faction received some support from the French and British in their struggle against the forces of former Uruguayan president Manuel Oribe's Blancos, which was also aligned with Argentine Federales under the rule of Buenos Aires caudillo Juan Manuel de Rosas.


title: Giuseppe Garibaldi

text: The Italian Legion adopted a black flag that represented Italy in mourning, with a volcano at the center that symbolized the dormant power in their homeland. Though contemporary sources do not mention the Redshirts, popular history asserts that the legion first wore them in Uruguay, getting them from a factory in Montevideo that had intended to export them to the slaughterhouses of Argentina. These shirts became the symbol of Garibaldi and his followers.


title: Giuseppe Garibaldi

text: Between 1842 and 1848, Garibaldi defended Montevideo against forces led by Oribe. In 1845, he managed to occupy Colonia del Sacramento and Martín García Island, and led the infamous sacks of Martín García island and Gualeguaychú during the Anglo-French blockade of the Río de la Plata. Garibaldi saved his life after being defeated in the Costa Brava combat, delivered on 15 and 16 August 1842, thanks to the greatness of Admiral William Brown. The Argentines, wanting to pursue him to finish him off, were stopped by Brown who exclaimed "let him escape, that gringo is a brave man." Years later, a grandson of Garibaldi would be named William, in honor of Admiral Brown. Adopting amphibious guerrilla tactics, Garibaldi later achieved two victories during 1846, in the Battle of Cerro and the Battle of San Antonio del Santo.


title: Giuseppe Garibaldi

text: Garibaldi joined Freemasonry during his exile, taking advantage of the asylum the lodges offered to political refugees from European countries governed by despotic regimes. At the age of 37, during 1844, Garibaldi was initiated in the L' Asil de la Vertud Lodge of Montevideo. This was an irregular lodge under a Brazilian Freemasonry not recognized by the main international masonic obediences, such as the United Grand Lodge of England or the Grand Orient de France.


title: Giuseppe Garibaldi

text: While Garibaldi had little use for Masonic rituals, he was an active Freemason and regarded Freemasonry as a network that united progressive men as brothers both within nations and as a global community. Garibaldi was eventually elected as the Grand Master of the Grand Orient of Italy.


title: Giuseppe Garibaldi

text: Garibaldi regularized his position later in 1844, joining the lodge Les Amis de la Patrie of Montevideo under the Grand Orient of France.


title: Giuseppe Garibaldi

text: The fate of his homeland continued to concern Garibaldi. The election of Pope Pius IX in 1846 caused a sensation among Italian patriots, both at home and in exile. Pius's initial reforms seemed to identify him as the liberal pope called for by Vincenzo Gioberti, who went on to lead the unification of Italy. When news of these reforms reached Montevideo, Garibaldi wrote to the Pope:


title: Giuseppe Garibaldi

text: Mazzini, from exile, also applauded the early reforms of Pius IX. In 1847, Garibaldi offered the apostolic nuncio at Rio de Janeiro, Bedini, the service of his Italian Legion for the liberation of the peninsula. Then news of an outbreak of revolution in Palermo in January 1848 and revolutionary agitation elsewhere in Italy, encouraged Garibaldi to lead approximately 60 members of his legion home.


title: Giuseppe Garibaldi

text: Garibaldi returned to Italy amidst the turmoil of the revolutions of 1848 in the Italian states and was one of the founders and leaders of the Action Party. Garibaldi offered his services to Charles Albert of Sardinia, who displayed some liberal inclinations, but he treated Garibaldi with coolness and distrust. Rebuffed by the Piedmontese, he and his followers crossed into Lombardy where they offered assistance to the provisional government of Milan, which had rebelled against the Austrian occupation. In the course of the following unsuccessful First Italian War of Independence, Garibaldi led his legion to two minor victories at Luino and Morazzone.


title: Giuseppe Garibaldi

text: After the crushing Piedmontese defeat at the Battle of Novara on 23 March 1849, Garibaldi moved to Rome to support the Roman Republic recently proclaimed in the Papal States. However, a French force sent by Louis Napoleon threatened to topple it. At Mazzini's urging, Garibaldi took command of the defence of Rome. In fighting near Velletri, Achille Cantoni saved his life. After Cantoni's death, during the battle of Mentana, Garibaldi wrote the novel "Cantoni the Volunteer".


title: Giuseppe Garibaldi

text: On 30 April 1849, the Republican army, under Garibaldi's command, defeated a numerically far superior French army at the Porta San Pancrazio gate of Rome. Subsequently, French reinforcements arrived, and the siege of Rome began on 1 June. Despite the resistance of the Republican army, the French prevailed on 29 June. On 30 June the Roman Assembly met and debated three options: surrender, continue fighting in the streets, or retreat from Rome to continue resistance from the Apennine mountains. Garibaldi, having entered the chamber covered in blood, made a speech favouring the third option, ending with: "Ovunque noi saremo, sarà Roma." (Wherever we will go, that will be Rome).


title: Giuseppe Garibaldi

text: The sides negotiated a truce on 1–2 July, Garibaldi withdrew from Rome with 4,000 troops, and an ambition to rouse popular rebellion against the Austrians in central Italy. The French Army entered Rome on 3 July and reestablished the Holy See's temporal power. Garibaldi and his forces, hunted by Austrian, French, Spanish, and Neapolitan troops, fled to the north, intending to reach Venice, where the Venetians were still resisting the Austrian siege. After an epic march, Garibaldi took temporary refuge in San Marino, with only 250 men having not abandoned him. Anita, who was carrying their fifth child, died near Comacchio during the retreat.


title: Giuseppe Garibaldi

text: Garibaldi eventually managed to reach Porto Venere, near La Spezia, but the Piedmontese government forced him to emigrate again. He went to Tangier, where he stayed with Francesco Carpanetto, a wealthy Italian merchant. Carpanetto suggested that he and some of his associates finance the purchase of a merchant ship, which Garibaldi would command. Garibaldi agreed, feeling that his political goals were, for the moment, unreachable, and he could at least earn a living.


title: Giuseppe Garibaldi

text: The ship was to be purchased in the United States. Garibaldi went to New York, arriving on 30 July 1850. However, the funds for buying a ship were lacking. While in New York, he stayed with various Italian friends, including some exiled revolutionaries. He attended the Masonic lodges of New York in 1850, where he met several supporters of democratic internationalism, whose minds were open to socialist thought, and to giving Freemasonry a strong anti-papal stance.


title: Giuseppe Garibaldi

text: The inventor Antonio Meucci employed Garibaldi in his candle factory on Staten Island. (The cottage where he stayed is listed on the U.S. National Register of Historic Places and is preserved as the Garibaldi Memorial.) Garibaldi was not satisfied with this, and in April 1851 he left New York with his friend Carpanetto for Central America, where Carpanetto was establishing business operations. They first went to Nicaragua, and then to other parts of the region. Garibaldi accompanied Carpanetto as a companion, not a business partner, and used the name "Giuseppe Pane".


title: Giuseppe Garibaldi

text: Carpanetto went on to Lima, Peru, where a shipload of his goods was due, arriving late in 1851 with Garibaldi. En route, Garibaldi called on revolutionary heroine Manuela Sáenz. At Lima, Garibaldi was generally welcomed. A local Italian merchant, Pietro Denegri, gave him command of his ship "Carmen" for a trading voyage across the Pacific. Garibaldi took the "Carmen" to the Chincha Islands for a load of guano. Then on 10 January 1852, he sailed from Peru for Canton, China, arriving in April.


title: Giuseppe Garibaldi

text: After side trips to Xiamen and Manila, Garibaldi brought the "Carmen" back to Peru via the Indian Ocean and the South Pacific, passing clear around the south coast of Australia. He visited Three Hummock Island in the Bass Strait. Garibaldi then took the "Carmen" on a second voyage: to the United States via Cape Horn with copper from Chile, and also wool. Garibaldi arrived in Boston and went on to New York. There he received a hostile letter from Denegri and resigned his command. Another Italian, Captain Figari, had just come to the U.S. to buy a ship and hired Garibaldi to take the ship to Europe. Figari and Garibaldi bought the "Commonwealth" in Baltimore, and Garibaldi left New York for the last time in November 1853. He sailed the "Commonwealth" to London, and then to Newcastle on the River Tyne for coal.


title: Giuseppe Garibaldi

text: The "Commonwealth" arrived on 21 March 1854. Garibaldi, already a popular figure on Tyneside, was welcomed enthusiastically by local working men-although the "Newcastle Courant" reported that he refused an invitation to dine with dignitaries in the city. He stayed in Huntingdon Place Tynemouth for a few days, and in South Shields on Tyneside for over a month, departing at the end of April 1854. During his stay, he was presented with an inscribed sword, which his grandson Giuseppe Garibaldi II later carried as a volunteer in British service in the Second Boer War. He then sailed to Genoa, where his five years of exile ended on 10 May 1854.


title: Giuseppe Garibaldi

text: Garibaldi returned to Italy in 1854. Using an inheritance from the death of his brother, he bought half of the Italian island of Caprera (north of Sardinia), devoting himself to agriculture. In 1859, the Second Italian War of Independence (also known as the Austro-Sardinian War) broke out in the midst of internal plots at the Sardinian government. Garibaldi was appointed major general and formed a volunteer unit named the Hunters of the Alps ("Cacciatori delle Alpi"). Thenceforth, Garibaldi abandoned Mazzini's republican ideal of the liberation of Italy, assuming that only the Sardinian monarchy could effectively achieve it. He and his volunteers won victories over the Austrians at Varese, Como, and other places.


title: Giuseppe Garibaldi

text: Garibaldi was very displeased as his home city of Nice ("Nizza" in Italian) had surrendered to the French in return for crucial military assistance. In April 1860, as deputy for Nice in the Piedmontese parliament at Turin, he vehemently attacked Cavour for ceding Nice and the County of Nice ("Nizzardo") to Louis Napoleon, Emperor of France. In the following years, Garibaldi (with other passionate "Nizzardo Italians") promoted the "Italian irredentism" of his "Nizza", even with riots (in 1872).


title: Giuseppe Garibaldi

text: On 24 January 1860, Garibaldi married 18-year-old Giuseppina Raimondi. Immediately after the wedding ceremony, she informed him that she was pregnant with another man's child and Garibaldi left her the same day. At the beginning of April 1860, uprisings in Messina and Palermo in the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies provided Garibaldi with an opportunity. He gathered about a thousand volunteers called "i Mille" (the Thousand), or the Redshirts as popularly known, in two ships named "Il Piemonte" and "Il Lombardo", and left from Quarto, in Genoa, on 5 May in the evening and landed at Marsala, on the westernmost point of Sicily, on 11 May.


title: Giuseppe Garibaldi

text: Swelling the ranks of his army with scattered bands of local rebels, Garibaldi led 800 volunteers to victory over an enemy force of 1,500 on the hill of Calatafimi on 15 May. He used the counter-intuitive tactic of an uphill bayonet charge. He saw that the hill was terraced, and the terraces would shelter his advancing men. Though small by comparison with the coming clashes at Palermo, Milazzo, and Volturno, this battle was decisive in establishing Garibaldi's power in the island. An apocryphal but realistic story had him say to his lieutenant Nino Bixio, "Here we either make Italy, or we die." In reality, the Neapolitan forces were ill-guided, and most of its higher officers had been bought out.


title: Giuseppe Garibaldi

text: The next day, he declared himself dictator of Sicily in the name of Victor Emmanuel II of Italy. He advanced to the outskirts of Palermo, the capital of the island, and launched a siege on 27 May. He had the support of many inhabitants, who rose up against the garrison—but before they could take the city, reinforcements arrived and bombarded the city nearly to ruins. At this time, a British admiral intervened and facilitated a truce, by which the Neapolitan royal troops and warships surrendered the city and departed. The young Henry Adams—later to become a distinguished American writer—visited the city in June and described the situation, along with his meeting with Garibaldi, in a long and vivid letter to his older brother Charles. Historians Clough et al. argue that Garibaldi's Thousand were students, independent artisans, and professionals, not peasants. The support given by Sicilian peasants was not out of a sense of patriotism but from their hatred of exploitative landlords and oppressive Neapolitan officials. Garibaldi himself had no interest in social revolution and instead sided with the Sicilian landlords against the rioting peasants.


title: Giuseppe Garibaldi

text: By conquering Palermo, Garibaldi had won a signal victory. He gained worldwide renown and the adulation of Italians. Faith in his prowess was so strong that doubt, confusion, and dismay seized even the Neapolitan court. Six weeks later, he marched against Messina in the east of the island, winning a ferocious and difficult battle at Milazzo. By the end of July, only the citadel resisted.


title: Giuseppe Garibaldi

text: Having conquered Sicily, he crossed the Strait of Messina and marched north. Garibaldi's progress was met with more celebration than resistance, and on 7 September he entered the capital city of Naples, by train. Despite taking Naples, however, he had not to this point defeated the Neapolitan army. Garibaldi's volunteer army of 24,000 was not able to defeat conclusively the reorganized Neapolitan army—about 25,000 men—on 30 September at the battle of Volturno. This was the largest battle he ever fought, but its outcome was effectively decided by the arrival of the Piedmontese Army.


title: Giuseppe Garibaldi

text: Following this, Garibaldi's plans to march on to Rome were jeopardized by the Piedmontese, technically his ally but unwilling to risk war with France, whose army protected the Pope. The Piedmontese themselves had conquered most of the Pope's territories in their march south to meet Garibaldi, but they had deliberately avoided Rome, capital of the Papal state. Garibaldi chose to hand over all his territorial gains in the south to the Piedmontese and withdrew to Caprera and temporary retirement. Some modern historians consider the handover of his gains to the Piedmontese as a political defeat, but he seemed willing to see Italian unity brought about under the Piedmontese Crown. The meeting at Teano between Garibaldi and Victor Emmanuel II is the most important event in modern Italian history but is so shrouded in controversy that even the exact site where it took place is in doubt.


title: Giuseppe Garibaldi

text: Garibaldi deeply disliked the Sardinian Prime Minister, Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour. To an extent, he simply mistrusted Cavour's pragmatism and "realpolitik", but he also bore a personal grudge for Cavour's trading away his home city of Nice to the French the previous year. On the other hand, he supported the Sardinian monarch, Victor Emmanuel II, who in his opinion had been chosen by Providence for the liberation of Italy. In his famous meeting with Victor Emmanuel at Teano on 26 October 1860, Garibaldi greeted him as King of Italy and shook his hand. Garibaldi rode into Naples at the king's side on 7 November, then retired to the rocky island of Caprera, refusing to accept any reward for his services.


title: Giuseppe Garibaldi

text: At the outbreak of the American Civil War (in 1861), he was a very popular figure. The 39th New York Volunteer Infantry Regiment was named "Garibaldi Guard" after him. Garibaldi expressed interest in aiding the Union, and he was offered a major general's commission in the U.S. Army through a letter from Secretary of State William H. Seward to Henry S. Sanford, the U.S. Minister at Brussels, 27 July 1861. On 9 September 1861, Sanford met with Garibaldi and reported the result of the meeting to Seward:


title: Giuseppe Garibaldi

text: This meeting occurred a year before Lincoln was ready to issue the preliminary Emancipation Proclamation. Sanford's mission was hopeless, and Garibaldi did not join the Union army. A historian of the American Civil War, Don H. Doyle, however, wrote, "Garibaldi's full-throated endorsement of the Union cause roused popular support just as news of the Emancipation Proclamation broke in Europe." On 6 August 1863, after the Emancipation Proclamation had been issued, Garibaldi wrote to Lincoln, "Posterity will call you the great emancipator, a more enviable title than any crown could be, and greater than any merely mundane treasure."


title: Giuseppe Garibaldi

text: On 5 October 1861, Garibaldi set up the International Legion bringing together different national divisions of French, Poles, Swiss, Germans and other nationalities, with a view not just of finishing the liberation of Italy, but also of their homelands. With the motto "Free from the Alps to the Adriatic," the unification movement set its gaze on Rome and Venice. Mazzini was discontented with the perpetuation of monarchial government, and continued to agitate for a republic. Garibaldi, frustrated at inaction by the king, and bristling over perceived snubs, organized a new venture. This time, he intended to take on the Papal States.


title: Giuseppe Garibaldi

text: Garibaldi himself was intensely anti-Catholic and anti-papal. His efforts to overthrow the Pope by military action mobilized anti-Catholic support. There were major anti-Catholic riots in his name across Britain in 1862, with the Irish Catholics fighting in defense of their Church. Garibaldi's hostility to the Pope's temporal domain was viewed with great distrust by Catholics around the world, and the French Emperor Napoleon III had guaranteed the independence of Rome from Italy by stationing a French garrison in Rome. Victor Emmanuel was wary of the international repercussions of attacking Rome and the Pope's seat there, and discouraged his subjects from participating in revolutionary ventures with such intentions. Nonetheless, Garibaldi believed he had the secret support of his government.


title: Giuseppe Garibaldi

text: In June 1862, he sailed from Genoa to Palermo to gather volunteers for the impending campaign, under the slogan "Roma o Morte" (Rome or Death). An enthusiastic party quickly joined him, and he turned for Messina, hoping to cross to the mainland there. He arrived with a force of around two thousand, but the garrison proved loyal to the king's instructions and barred his passage. They turned south and set sail from Catania, where Garibaldi declared that he would enter Rome as a victor or perish beneath its walls. He landed at Melito on 14 August, and marched at once into the Calabrian mountains.


title: Giuseppe Garibaldi

text: Far from supporting this endeavor, the Italian government was quite disapproving. General Enrico Cialdini dispatched a division of the regular army, under Colonel Emilio Pallavicini, against the volunteer bands. On 28 August, the two forces met in the rugged Aspromonte. One of the regulars fired a chance shot, and several volleys followed, killing a few of the volunteers. The fighting ended quickly, as Garibaldi forbade his men to return fire on fellow subjects of the Kingdom of Italy. Many of the volunteers were taken prisoner, including Garibaldi, who had been wounded by a shot in the foot. The episode was the origin of a famous Italian nursery rhyme: "Garibaldi fu ferito" ("Garibaldi was wounded").


title: Giuseppe Garibaldi

text: A government steamer took him to a prison at Varignano near La Spezia, where he was held in a sort of honorable imprisonment and underwent a tedious and painful operation to heal his wound. His venture had failed, but he was consoled by Europe's sympathy and continued interest. After he regained his health, the government released Garibaldi and let him return to Caprera.


title: Giuseppe Garibaldi

text: En route to London in 1864 he stopped briefly in Malta, where many admirers visited him in his hotel. Protests by opponents of his anticlericalism were suppressed by the authorities. In London his presence was received with enthusiasm by the population. He met the British Prime Minister Viscount Palmerston, as well as revolutionaries then living in exile in the city. At that time, his ambitious international project included the liberation of a range of occupied nations, such as Croatia, Greece, and Hungary. He also visited Bedford and was given a tour of the Britannia Iron Works, where he planted a tree (which was cut down in 1944 due to decay).


title: Giuseppe Garibaldi

text: Garibaldi took up arms again in 1866, this time with the full support of the Italian government. The Austro-Prussian War had broken out, and Italy had allied with Prussia against the Austrian Empire in the hope of taking Venetia from Austrian rule (Third Italian War of Independence). Garibaldi gathered again his Hunters of the Alps, now some 40,000 strong, and led them into the Trentino. He defeated the Austrians at Bezzecca, and made for Trento.


title: Giuseppe Garibaldi

text: The Italian regular forces were defeated at Lissa on the sea, and made little progress on land after the disaster of Custoza. The sides signed an armistice by which Austria ceded Venetia to Italy, but this result was largely due to Prussia's successes on the northern front. Garibaldi's advance through Trentino was for nought, and he was ordered to stop his advance to Trento. Garibaldi answered with a short telegram from the main square of Bezzecca with the famous motto: "Obbedisco!" ("I obey!").


title: Giuseppe Garibaldi

text: After the war, Garibaldi led a political party that agitated for the capture of Rome, the peninsula's ancient capital. In 1867, he again marched on the city, but the Papal army, supported by a French auxiliary force, proved a match for his badly armed volunteers. He was shot in the leg in the Battle of Mentana, and had to withdraw from the Papal territory. The Italian government again imprisoned him for some time, after which he returned to Caprera.


title: Giuseppe Garibaldi

text: In the same year, Garibaldi sought international support for altogether eliminating the papacy. At the 1867 congress for the League of Peace and Freedom in Geneva he proposed: "The papacy, being the most harmful of all secret societies, ought to be abolished."


title: Giuseppe Garibaldi

text: When the Franco-Prussian War broke out in July 1870, Italian public opinion heavily favored the Prussians, and many Italians attempted to sign up as volunteers at the Prussian embassy in Florence. After the French garrison was recalled from Rome, the Italian Army captured the Papal States without Garibaldi's assistance. Following the wartime collapse of the Second French Empire after the Battle of Sedan, Garibaldi, undaunted by the recent hostility shown to him by the men of Napoleon III, switched his support to the newly declared French Third Republic. On 7 September 1870, within three days of the revolution in Paris that ended the Empire, he wrote to the "Movimento" of Genoa, "Yesterday I said to you: war to the death to Bonaparte. Today I say to you: rescue the French Republic by every means."


title: Giuseppe Garibaldi

text: Subsequently, Garibaldi went to France and assumed command of the Army of the Vosges, an army of volunteers. French socialist Louis Blanc referred to Garibaldi as a "soldier of revolutionary cosmopolitanism" based on his support for liberation movements through the world. After the war he was elected to the French National Assembly, where he briefly served as member of Parliament for Alpes-Maritimes before returning to Caprera.


title: Giuseppe Garibaldi

text: When the Paris Commune erupted in 1871, Garibaldi joined with younger radicals such as Felice Cavallotti in declaring his full support for the Communards and internationalism. Garibaldi suggested a grand alliance between various factions of the left: "Why don't we pull together in one organized group the Freemasonry, democratic societies, workers' clubs, Rationalists, Mutual Aid, etc., which have the same tendency towards good?" He began organizing a Congress of Unity, which was supported by many of the radical, free-thinking, and socialist groups throughout Italy such as "La Plebe". The Congress was held in the Teatro Argentina despite being banned by the government, and endorsed a set of radical policies including universal suffrage, progressive taxation, compulsory lay education, administrative reform, and abolition of the death penalty.


title: Giuseppe Garibaldi

text: Garibaldi had long claimed an interest in a vague ethical socialism such as that advanced by Henri Saint-Simon and saw the struggle for liberty as an international affair, one which "does not make any distinction between the African and the American, the European and the Asian, and therefore proclaims the fraternity of all men whatever nation they belong to." He interpreted the International Workingmen's Association as an extension of the humanitarian ideals for which he had always fought. Although he did not agree with their calls for the abolition of property, Garibaldi defended the Communards and the First International against the attacks of their enemies: "Is it not the product of the abnormal state in which society finds itself in the world? [...] Shouldn't a society (I mean a human society) in which the majority struggle for subsistence and the minority want to take the larger part of the product of the former through deceptions and violence but without hard work, arouse discontent and thoughts of revenge amongst those who suffer?"


title: Giuseppe Garibaldi

text: Garibaldi wrote a letter to Celso Ceretti in which he declared: "The International is the sun of the future ["sole dell'avvenire"]!" The letter was printed in dozens of workers' newssheets and papers, and was instrumental in persuading many fence-sitters to join the organization. After Garibaldi's death, many of his disciples embraced the libertarian socialist ideas of Mikhail Bakunin. As Italy still lacked an industrial proletariat, "Garibaldi's socialism represented most accurately craft trade-unionism and a general focus on economic egalitarianism". His socialism was a "socialism wherein the struggle against every injustice, and a love for freedom, predominated. Garibaldi was not an unpractical man, but an active witness of that kind of generosity in feelings and firm wish for justice". In the first volume of Carl Landauer's "European Socialism", Garibaldi is mentioned alongside Mazzini as outstanding "Italian revolutionaries".


title: Giuseppe Garibaldi

text: According to Denis Mack Smith, "the difference is not so large when we find what Garibaldi meant by the term. Socialism for him was nothing very revolutionary, and perhaps he flaunted the word partly because he delighted to feel that it would shock the Mazzinians". In describing the move to the left of Garibaldi and the Mazzinians, Lucy Riall writes that this "emphasis by younger radicals on the 'social question' was paralleled by an increase in what was called 'internationalist' or socialist activity (mostly Bakuninist anarchism) throughout northern and southern Italy, which was given a big boost by the Paris Commune". The rise of this socialism "represented a genuine challenge to Mazzini and the Mazzinian emphasis on politics and culture; and Mazzinis' death early in 1872 only served to underline the prevailing sense that his political era was over. Garibaldi now broke definitively with Mazzini, and this time he moved to the left of him. He came out entirely in favour of the Paris Commune and internationalism, and his stance brought him much closer to the younger radicals, especially Cavallotti, and gave him a new lease on political life. From his support was born an initiative to relaunch a broad party of the radical left".


title: Giuseppe Garibaldi

text: Despite being elected again to the Italian parliament, first as part of the Historical Left and then of the Historical Far Left, Garibaldi spent much of his late years in Caprera. However, he still managed to serve the Italian parliament with extreme distinction and supported an ambitious project of land reclamation in the marshy areas of southern Lazio. In 1879, Garibaldi founded the League of Democracy, along with Cavallotti, Alberto Mario and Agostino Bertani, which reiterated his support for universal suffrage, abolition of ecclesiastical property, the legal and political emancipation of women and a plan of public works to improve the Roman countryside that was completed.


title: Giuseppe Garibaldi

text: In a 6 October 1875 letter from Caprera, "To my brothers of the Herzegovina and to the oppressed of Eastern Europe", Garibaldi wrote:


title: Giuseppe Garibaldi

text: Ill and confined to bed by arthritis, Garibaldi made trips to Calabria and Sicily. In 1880, he married Francesca Armosino, with whom he previously had three children. Though born as a Catholic Christian he abjured Christianity towards the end of his life and became a deist and a supporter of Freemasonry. On his deathbed, Garibaldi asked for his bed to be moved to where he could view the sea. On his death on 2 June 1882 at the age of almost 75, his wishes for a simple funeral and cremation were not respected. He was buried in his farm on the island of Caprera alongside his last wife and some of his children.


title: Giuseppe Garibaldi

text: In 2012, Garibaldi's descendants announced that, with permission from authorities, they would have Garibaldi's remains exhumed to confirm through DNA analysis that the remains in the tomb are indeed Garibaldi's. Some anticipated that there would be a debate about whether to preserve the remains or to grant his final wish for a simple cremation. In 2013, personnel changes at the Ministry of Culture sidelined the exhumation plans. The new authorities were "less than enthusiastic" about the plan.


title: Giuseppe Garibaldi

text: Garibaldi's popularity, skill at rousing the common people and his military exploits are all credited with making the unification of Italy possible. He also served as a global exemplar of mid-19th century revolutionary liberalism and nationalism. After the liberation of southern Italy from the Neapolitan monarchy in the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, Garibaldi chose to sacrifice his liberal republican principles for the sake of unification. Garibaldi's acclaim stretched across Europe with his name revered in Britain to America and France, the tale of an Italian vagabond trekking the South American plains from battle to battle with his pregnant wife in tow, and then returning home and for the love of his homeland forsaking his ambition of making Italy a republic. His exploits became legendary, and when he toured Britain in his older days he was received as a hero.


title: Giuseppe Garibaldi

text: Garibaldi subscribed to the anti-clericalism common among Latin liberals and did much to circumscribe the temporal power of the Papacy. His personal religious convictions are unclear to historians. In 1882, he wrote that "Man created God, not God created Man", yet he is quoted as saying in his autobiography: "I am a Christian, and I speak to Christians – I am a true Christian, and I speak to true Christians. I love and venerate the religion of Christ, because Christ came into the world to deliver humanity from slavery. [...] You have the duty to educate the people—educate the people—educate them to be Christians—educate them to be Italians. [...] Viva l'Italia! Viva Christianity!"


title: Giuseppe Garibaldi

text: Garibaldi was a popular hero in Britain. In his review of Lucy Riall's Garibaldi biography for "The New Yorker", Tim Parks cites the English historian A. J. P. Taylor as saying that "Garibaldi is the only wholly admirable figure in modern history." British historian Denis Mack Smith wrote:


title: Giuseppe Garibaldi

text: Along with Giuseppe Mazzini and other Europeans, Garibaldi supported the creation of a European federation. Many Europeans expected that the 1871 unification of Germany would make Germany a European and world leader that would champion humanitarian policies. This idea is apparent in the following letter Garibaldi sent to Karl Blind on 10 April 1865:


title: Giuseppe Garibaldi

text: Through the years, Garibaldi was showered with admiration and praises by many intellectuals and political figures. Francesco De Sanctis stated that "Garibaldi must win by force: he is not a man; he is a symbol, a form; he is the Italian soul. Between the beats of his heart, everyone hears the beats of his own". Admiral William Brown called him "the most generous of the pirates I have ever encountered". Argentine revolutionary Che Guevara stated: "The only hero the world has ever needed is called Giuseppe Garibaldi."


title: Giuseppe Garibaldi

text: Five ships of the Italian Navy have been named after him, including a World War II cruiser and the former flagship, the aircraft carrier "Giuseppe Garibaldi". Statues of his likeness, as well as the handshake of Teano, stand in many Italian squares, and in other countries around the world. On the top of the Janiculum hill in Rome, there is a statue of Garibaldi on horse-back. His face was originally turned in the direction of the Vatican, but after the Lateran Treaty in 1929 the orientation of the statue was changed at the Vatican's request. Many theatres in Sicily take their name from him and are named Garibaldi Theatre.


title: Giuseppe Garibaldi

text: Several worldwide military units are named after Garibaldi, including the Polish Garibaldi Legion during the January Uprising and the French foreign Garibaldi Legion during World War I. The 39th New York Volunteer Infantry Regiment of the American Civil War was named "Garibaldi Guard" after him. Also, a bust of Giuseppe Garibaldi is prominently placed outside the entrance to the old Supreme Court Chamber in the U.S. Capitol Building in Washington, DC, a gift from members of the Italian Society of Washington.


title: Giuseppe Garibaldi

text: In 1865, English football team Nottingham Forest chose their home colours from the uniform worn by Garibaldi and his men in 1865. A school in Mansfield, Nottinghamshire was also named after him.


title: Giuseppe Garibaldi

text: The Giuseppe Garibaldi Trophy (; ) is a rugby union trophy awarded to the winner of the annual Six Nations Championship match between France and Italy.


title: Giuseppe Garibaldi

text: The Garibaldi biscuit was named after him, as was a style of beard. Garibaldi is also a name of a cocktail made of orange juice and Campari.


title: Giuseppe Garibaldi

text: A species of bright red-orange fish in the damselfish family received the vernacular name Garibaldi in memory of the Garibaldi red shirts. Also, a species of hoverfly, "Sphiximorpha garibaldii", was described from a specimen collected in Italy shortly after Garibaldi's victory in the Battle of Varese, and named in his honour.


title: Giuseppe Garibaldi

text: Garibaldi is a major character in two juvenile historical novels by Geoffrey Trease: "Follow My Black Plume" and "A Thousand for Sicily". He also appears in the novels "Heart" by Edmondo De Amicis and "Fire on the Mountain" by Terry Bisson.


title: Giuseppe Garibaldi

text: In movies, Garibaldi is played by Osvaldo Valenti in the 1940 film "Antonio Meucci", by Ugo Sasso in the 1950 film "Cavalcade of Heroes", by Raf Vallone in the 1952 film "Red Shirts", by Renzo Ricci in the 1961 film "Garibaldi", and by Gabriel Braga Nunes in the 2013 film "Anita e Garibaldi". He is also played by Thiago Lacerda in the 2003 Brazilian serial "A Casa das Sete Mulheres" and by Giorgio Pasotti in the 2012 miniseries "Anita Garibaldi".


title: Giuseppe Garibaldi

text: On 18 February 1960, the American television series "Dick Powell's Zane Grey Theatre" aired the episode "Guns for Garibaldi" to commemorate the centennial of the unification of Italy. This was the only such program to emphasize the role of Italians in pre-Civil War America. The episode is set in Indian Creek, a western gold mining town. Giulio Mandati, played by Fernando Lamas, takes over his brother's gold claim. People in Indian Creek wanted to use the gold to finance a dam, but Mandati plans to lend support to General Garibaldi and Italian reunification. Garibaldi had asked for financing and volunteers from around the world as he launched his Redshirts in July 1860 to invade Sicily and conquer the Kingdom of Naples for annexation to what would finally become the newly born Kingdom of Italy with King Victor Emmanuel II.


title: Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind (film)

text: "Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind" was released in Japan on 11 March 1984. A heavily edited adaptation of the film created by Manson International, "Warriors of the Wind", was released in the United States and other markets throughout the mid-to-late 1980s. The Manson cut was derided by Miyazaki and eventually replaced in circulation by an uncut, redubbed version produced by Walt Disney Pictures in 2005. Though it was made before Studio Ghibli was founded, it is often considered a Ghibli work, and was released as part of the "Studio Ghibli Collection" DVD and Blu-ray range. The film received critical acclaim, with praise being directed at the story, themes, characters and animation. It is the highest ranked Japanese anime in a survey published by the Japan's Agency for Cultural Affairs in 2007.


text: One thousand years have passed since the Seven Days of Fire, an apocalyptic war that destroyed civilization and created the vast Toxic Jungle, a poisonous forest swarming with giant mutant insects. In the kingdom of the Valley of the Wind, a prophecy predicts a saviour "clothed in blue robe, descending onto a golden field". Nausicaä, the 16-year-old princess of the Valley of the Wind, explores the jungle and communicates with its creatures, including the gigantic, trilobite-like armored Ohm. She hopes to understand the jungle and find a way for it and humans to co-exist.


text: One day at dawn, a massive cargo aircraft from the kingdom of Tolmekia crashes in the Valley despite Nausicaä's attempt to save it. Its sole survivor, Princess Lastelle of Pejite, pleads with Nausicaä to destroy the cargo and dies. The cargo is an embryo of a Giant Warrior, one of the lethal, gargantuan humanoid bioweapons that caused the Seven Days of Fire. Tolmekia, a military state, seized the embryo and Lastelle from Pejite, but their plane was attacked by insects and crashed. One of the insects emerges wounded from the wreckage and poises to attack, but Nausicaä uses a bullroarer to calm it and guides it away from the village.


text: Soon after, Tolmekian troops, led by Princess Kushana, invade the Valley, execute Nausicaä's father and capture the embryo. Enraged, Nausicaä assaults and kills several Tolmekian soldiers and is about to be overwhelmed when the Valley's swordsmaster, Lord Yupa, soothes the belligerents. Kushana plans to mature the Giant Warrior and use it to burn the Toxic Jungle. Yupa discovers a secret garden of jungle plants reared by Nausicaä; according to her findings, plants that grow in clean soil and water are not toxic, but the jungle's soil has been tainted by pollution.


text: Kushana leaves for the Tolmekian capital with Nausicaä and five hostages from the Valley, but a Pejite interceptor shoots down the Tolmekian airships carrying them. Nausicaä, Kushana and the hostages crash-land in the jungle, disturbing several Ohms, which Nausicaä soothes. She leaves to rescue the Pejite pilot Asbel, twin brother of Princess Lastelle, but both crash through a stratum of quicksand into a non-toxic area below the Toxic Jungle. Nausicaä realizes that the jungle plants purify the polluted topsoil, producing clean water and soil underground.


text: Nausicaä and Asbel return to Pejite but find it ravaged by insects. A band of survivors explains that they lured the insects to eradicate the Tolmekians, and are doing the same to the Valley. They capture Nausicaä to prevent her from warning the Valley, but with the help of Asbel, his mother, and a number of sympathizers, Nausicaä escapes on her glider. Flying home, she finds two Pejite soldiers baiting thousands of Ohms into the Valley using a wounded baby Ohm. The people of the Valley take shelter while the Tolmekians deploy tanks and the Giant Warrior, but tank-fire does not deter the Ohms, and the Giant Warrior, hatched prematurely, disintegrates.


text: Nausicaä liberates the baby Ohm and gains its trust. She and the Ohm stand before the herd but are run over. The Ohms calm down and use their golden tentacles to resuscitate her. Nausicaä, her dress drenched blue with Ohm blood, walks atop golden Ohm tentacles as through golden fields, fulfilling the savior prophecy. The Ohms and Tolmekians leave the Valley, and the Pejites remain with the Valley people, helping them rebuild. Deep underneath the Toxic Jungle, a non-toxic tree sprouts.


text: Hayao Miyazaki made his credited directorial debut in 1979 with "The Castle of Cagliostro", a film which was a distinct departure from the antics of the "Lupin III" franchise, but still went on to receive the Ōfuji Noburō Award at the 1979 Mainichi Film Awards. Although "Cagliostro" was not a box office success, Toshio Suzuki, editor of the magazine "Animage", was impressed by the film and encouraged Miyazaki to produce works for "Animage's" publisher, Tokuma Shoten. Miyazaki's film ideas were rejected, and Tokuma asked him to do a manga: this led to the creation of "Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind". Miyazaki began writing and drawing the manga in 1981, and it quickly became "Animage's" most popular feature. Hideo Ogata and Yasuyoshi Tokuma, the founders of "Animage" and Tokuma Shoten respectively, encouraged Miyazaki to work on a film adaptation. Miyazaki initially refused, but agreed on the condition that he could direct.


text: In the early stages, Isao Takahata, credited as executive producer, reluctantly joined the project even before the animation studio was chosen. An outside studio to produce the film was needed because Tokuma Shoten did not own an animation studio: Miyazaki and Takahata chose the minor studio Topcraft. The production studio's work was known to both Miyazaki and Takahata and was chosen because its artistic talent could transpose the sophisticated atmosphere of the manga to the film. On 31 May 1983, work began on the pre-production of the film. Miyazaki encountered difficulties in creating the screenplay, with only sixteen chapters of the manga to work with. Miyazaki would take elements of the story and refocus the narrative and characters to the Tolmekian invasion of Nausicaä's homeland. Takahata would enlist the experimental and minimalist composer Joe Hisaishi to do the score for the film.


text: In August, the animation work began on the film and was produced by animators hired for the one film and paid per frame. One notable animator was Hideaki Anno, a founding member of Gainax who among later works wrote and directed "Neon Genesis Evangelion". Anno was assigned to draw the challenging God Warrior's attack sequence, which according to Toshio Suzuki is a "high point in the film". The film was released in March 1984, with a production schedule of only nine months and with a budget equivalent to $1 million.


text: Miyazaki's work on "Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind" was inspired by a range of works including Ursula K. Le Guin's "Earthsea", Brian Aldiss's "Hothouse", Isaac Asimov's "Nightfall", and J. R. R. Tolkien's "The Lord of the Rings". Dani Cavallaro also suggests inspiration from "The Lady who Loved Insects" folktale, and the works of William Golding. Nausicaä, the character, was inspired in name and personality by Homer's Phaeacian princess in the "Odyssey". According to a number of reviewers, Frank Herbert's science fiction novel "Dune" (1965) was one of the inspirations for the film's post-apocalyptic world. Some online commentators have dubbed it "anime's answer to "Dune"". Miyazaki's imagination was sparked by the mercury poisoning of Minamata Bay and how nature responded and thrived in a poisoned environment, using it to create the polluted world depicted in the film. Kyle Anderson of "Nerdist" describes the film's setting as a steampunk post-apocalypse, while Philip Boyes of "Eurogamer" describes the technology in "Nausicaä" and "Castle in the Sky" as dieselpunk.


text: The most prominent themes are the anti-war and environmental focus of the film. Nausicaä, the heroine, believes in the value of life regardless of its form and through her actions stops a war. Loy and Goodhew state there is no evil portrayed in the film, but the Buddhist roots of evil: greed, ill will and delusion. Fear is what drives the conflicts, the fear of the poisoned forest results in greed and resentment. Nausicaä, in addition to being a transformative force, leads people to understand and respect nature, which is portrayed as welcoming, spiritual, and restorative for those who enter it peacefully. Ian DeWeese-Boyd agrees, "Her commitment to love and understanding—even to the point of death—transforms the very nature of the conflict around her and begins to dispel the distorting visions that have brought it about."


text: The film was released in 1984, with a recommendation from the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF). On 30 July 1995, a subtitled version of the film was screened at the Institute of Contemporary Arts in London, as part of the "Building Bridges" film festival, marking the fiftieth anniversary of the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. In her 25 March 2013 presentation at Colorado College, on "Tapestries of Apocalypse: From Angers to 'Nausicaa' and Beyond", Dr. Susan J. Napier places the film, and in particular the tapestry depicted underneath the opening credits, within the tradition of artistic representation of apocalypses and apocalyptic visions. She explores the role such expressions play in understanding apocalyptic events and post-event recovery.


text: In Japan, the film was released on VHS and Laserdisc in 1985 by Tokuma Shoten's "Animage Video" imprint. It was also included on the "Ghibli ga Ippai: Studio Ghibli Complete LD Collection" boxset, released by Tokuma Shoten in August 1996. The VHS was reissued as the third volume of Buena Vista Home Entertainment Japan's "Ghibli ga Ippai" imprint, on September 19, 1997.


text: Buena Vista released the film on three DVD sets, with a regular DVD and figure set released on 19 November 2003 and a collectors set following on 7 December 2003. By 2003, "Nausicaä" had sold 1.77million VHS and DVD units in Japan. Walt Disney Studios Japan released the film on Blu-ray on July 14, 2010.