title: Titus

text: His satisfactory record may also have been due to the fact that he survived his accession but a very short time, for he was thus given no opportunity for wrongdoing. For he lived after this only two years, two months and twenty days—in addition to the thirty-nine years, five months and twenty-five days he had already lived at that time. In this respect, indeed, he is regarded as having equalled the long reign of Augustus, since it is maintained that Augustus would never have been loved had he lived a shorter time, nor Titus had he lived longer. For Augustus, though at the outset he showed himself rather harsh because of the wars and the factional strife, was later able, in the course of time, to achieve a brilliant reputation for his kindly deeds; Titus, on the other hand, ruled with mildness and died at the height of his glory, whereas, if he had lived a long time, it might have been shown that he owes his present fame more to good fortune than to merit.


title: Titus

text: Pliny the Elder, who later died during the eruption of Mount Vesuvius, dedicated his "Naturalis Historia" to Titus.


title: Titus

text: In contrast to the ideal portrayal of Titus in Roman histories, Jewish memory has "Titus the Wicked" remembered as an evil oppressor and destroyer of the Temple. For example, one legend in the Babylonian Talmud describes Titus as having had sex with a prostitute on a Torah scroll inside the Temple during its destruction.


title: Titus

text: The war in Judaea and the life of Titus, particularly his relationship with Berenice, have inspired writers and artists through the centuries. The bas-relief in the Arch of Titus has been influential in the depiction of the destruction of Jerusalem, with the Menorah frequently being used to symbolise the looting of the Second Temple.


title: Dwarf planet

text: A dwarf planet is a small planetary-mass object that is in direct orbit of the Sun, smaller than any of the eight classical planets but still a world in its own right. The prototypical dwarf planet is Pluto. The interest of dwarf planets to planetary geologists is that they may be geologically active bodies, an expectation that was borne out in 2015 by the "Dawn" mission to and the "New Horizons" mission to Pluto.


title: Dwarf planet

text: Astronomers are in general agreement that at least the nine largest candidates are dwarf planets: Pluto, , , , , , , , and . Of these and the tenth-largest candidate , all but Sedna have either been visited by spacecraft (Pluto and Ceres) or have at least one known moon (Pluto, Eris, Haumea, Makemake, Gonggong, Quaoar, Orcus, and Salacia), which allows their masses and thus an estimate of their densities to be determined. Mass and density in turn can be fit into geophysical models in an attempt to determine the nature of these worlds. Some astronomers include many smaller bodies as well, but there is no consensus that these are likely to be dwarf planets.


title: Dwarf planet

text: The term "dwarf planet" was coined by planetary scientist Alan Stern as part of a three-way categorization of planetary-mass objects in the Solar System: classical planets, dwarf planets, and satellite planets. Dwarf planets were thus conceived of as a category of planet. However, in 2006, the concept was adopted by the International Astronomical Union (IAU) as a category of "sub"-planetary objects, part of a three-way recategorization of bodies orbiting the Sun: planets, dwarf planets and small Solar System bodies. Thus Stern and other planetary geologists consider dwarf planets and large satellites to be planets, but since 2006 the IAU and perhaps the majority of astronomers have excluded them from the roster of planets.


title: Dwarf planet

text: Starting in 1801, astronomers discovered Ceres and other bodies between Mars and Jupiter that for decades were considered to be planets. Between then and around 1851, when the number of planets had reached 23, astronomers started using the word asteroid for the smaller bodies and began to distinguish them as "minor planets" rather than "major planets".


title: Dwarf planet

text: With the discovery of Pluto in 1930, most astronomers considered the Solar System to have nine major planets, along with thousands of significantly smaller bodies (asteroids and comets). For almost 50 years, Pluto was thought to be larger than Mercury, but with the discovery in 1978 of Pluto's moon Charon, it became possible to measure Pluto's mass accurately and to determine that it was much smaller than initial estimates. It was roughly one-twentieth the mass of Mercury, which made Pluto by far the smallest planet. Although it was still more than ten times as massive as the largest object in the asteroid belt, Ceres, it had only one-fifth the mass of Earth's Moon. Furthermore, having some unusual characteristics, such as large orbital eccentricity and a high orbital inclination, it became evident that it was a different kind of body from any of the other planets.


title: Dwarf planet

text: In the 1990s, astronomers began to find objects in the same region of space as Pluto (now known as the Kuiper belt), and some even farther away.


title: Dwarf planet

text: Many of these shared several of Pluto's key orbital characteristics, and Pluto started being seen as the largest member of a new class of objects, the plutinos. It became clear that either the larger of these bodies would also have to be classified as planets, or Pluto would have to be reclassified, much as Ceres had been reclassified after the discovery of additional asteroids.


title: Dwarf planet

text: This led some astronomers to stop referring to Pluto as a planet. Several terms, including "subplanet" and "planetoid", started to be used for the bodies now known as dwarf planets.


title: Dwarf planet

text: Astronomers were also confident that more objects as large as Pluto would be discovered, and the number of planets would start growing quickly if Pluto were to remain classified as a planet.


title: Dwarf planet

text: Eris (then known as ) was discovered in January 2005; it was thought to be slightly larger than Pluto, and some reports informally referred to it as the "tenth planet". As a consequence, the issue became a matter of intense debate during the IAU General Assembly in August 2006. The IAU's initial draft proposal included Charon, Eris, and Ceres in the list of planets. After many astronomers objected to this proposal, an alternative was drawn up by the Uruguayan astronomers Julio Ángel Fernández and Gonzalo Tancredi: they proposed an intermediate category for objects large enough to be round but which had not cleared their orbits of planetesimals. Beside dropping Charon from the list, the new proposal also removed Pluto, Ceres, and Eris, because they have not cleared their orbits.


title: Dwarf planet

text: Although concerns were raised about the classification of planets orbiting other stars, the issue was not resolved; it was proposed instead to decide this only when dwarf-planet-size objects start to be observed.


title: Dwarf planet

text: In the immediate aftermath of the IAU definition of dwarf planet, some scientists expressed their disagreement with the IAU resolution. Campaigns included car bumper stickers and T-shirts. Mike Brown (the discoverer of Eris) agrees with the reduction of the number of planets to eight.


title: Dwarf planet

text: NASA announced in 2006 that it would use the new guidelines established by the IAU. Alan Stern, the director of NASA's mission to Pluto, rejects the current IAU definition of planet, both in terms of defining dwarf planets as something other than a type of planet, and in using orbital characteristics (rather than intrinsic characteristics) of objects to define them as dwarf planets. Thus, in 2011, he still referred to Pluto as a planet, and accepted other likely dwarf planets such as Ceres and Eris, as well as the larger moons, as additional planets. Several years before the IAU definition, he used orbital characteristics to separate "überplanets" (the dominant eight) from "unterplanets" (the dwarf planets), considering both types "planets".


title: Dwarf planet

text: Names for large subplanetary bodies include "dwarf planet", "planetoid" (more general term), "meso-planet" (narrowly used for sizes between Mercury and Ceres), "quasi-planet" and (in the transneptunian region) "plutoid". "Dwarf planet", however, was originally coined as a term for the smallest planets, not the largest sub-planets, and is still used that way by many planetary astronomers.


title: Dwarf planet

text: Alan Stern coined the term "dwarf planet", analogous to the term "dwarf star", as part of a three-fold classification of planets, and he and many of his colleagues continue to classify dwarf planets as a class of planets. The IAU decided that dwarf planets are not to be considered planets, but kept Stern's term for them. Other terms for the IAU definition of the largest subplanetary bodies that do not have such conflicting connotations or usage include "quasi-planet"


title: Dwarf planet

text: and the older term "planetoid" ("having the form of a planet"). Michael E. Brown stated that "planetoid" is "a perfectly good word" that has been used for these bodies for years, and that the use of the term "dwarf planet" for a non-planet is "dumb", but that it was motivated by an attempt by the IAU division III plenary session to reinstate Pluto as a planet in a second resolution. Indeed, the draft of Resolution 5A had called these median bodies "planetoids," but the plenary session voted unanimously to change the name to "dwarf planet." The second resolution, 5B, defined "dwarf planets" as a subtype of "planet", as Stern had originally intended, distinguished from the other eight that were to be called "classical planets". Under this arrangement, the twelve planets of the rejected proposal were to be preserved in a distinction between eight "classical planets" and four "dwarf planets". Resolution 5B was defeated in the same session that 5A was passed. Because of the semantic inconsistency of a "dwarf planet" not being a planet due to the failure of Resolution 5B, alternative terms such as "nanoplanet" and "subplanet" were discussed, but there was no consensus among the CSBN to change it.


title: Dwarf planet

text: In most languages equivalent terms have been created by translating "dwarf planet" more-or-less literally: French ', Spanish ', German "", Russian "karlikovaya planeta" (), Arabic "kaukab qazm" (), Chinese "ǎixíngxīng" (), Korean "waesohangseong" () or "waehangseong" (), but in Japanese they are called "junwakusei" (), meaning "quasi-planets" or "peneplanets" (pene- meaning "almost").


title: Dwarf planet

text: IAU Resolution 6a of 2006 recognizes Pluto as "the prototype of a new category of trans-Neptunian objects". The name and precise nature of this category were not specified but left for the IAU to establish at a later date; in the debate leading up to the resolution, the members of the category were variously referred to as "plutons" and "plutonian objects" but neither name was carried forward, perhaps due to objections from geologists that this would create confusion with their "pluton".


title: Dwarf planet

text: On June 11, 2008, the IAU Executive Committee announced a new term, "plutoid", and a definition: all trans-Neptunian dwarf planets are plutoids. However, other departments of the IAU have rejected the term:


title: Dwarf planet

text: The category of 'plutoid' captured an earlier distinction between the 'terrestrial dwarf' Ceres and the 'ice dwarfs' of the outer Solar system, part of a conception of a threefold division of the Solar System into inner "terrestrial planets", central "gas giants" and outer "ice dwarfs", of which Pluto was the principal member. 'Ice dwarf' however also saw some use as an umbrella term for all trans-Neptunian minor planets, or for the ice asteroids of the outer Solar System; one attempted definition was that an ice dwarf "is larger than the nucleus of a normal comet and icier than a typical asteroid."


title: Dwarf planet

text: Since the "Dawn" mission, it has been recognized that Ceres is an icy body more similar to the icy moons of the outer planets and to TNOs such as Pluto than it is to the terrestrial planets, blurring the distinction,


title: Dwarf planet

text: The category "dwarf planet" arose from a conflict between dynamical and geophysical ideas of what a useful conception of a planet would be. In terms of the dynamics of the Solar System, the major distinction is between bodies that gravitationally dominate their neighbourhood (Mercury through Neptune) and those which do not (such as the asteroids and Kuiper belt objects). However, a celestial body may have a dynamic (planetary) geology at approximately the mass required for its mantle to become plastic under its own weight, which results in the body acquiring a round shape. Because this requires a much lower mass than gravitationally dominating the region of space near their orbit, there are a population of objects that are massive enough to have a world-like appearance and planetary geology, but not massive enough to clear their neighborhood. Examples are Ceres in the asteroid belt and Pluto in the Kuiper belt.


title: Dwarf planet

text: Dynamicists usually prefer using gravitational dominance as the threshold for planethood, because from their perspective smaller bodies are better grouped with their neighbours, e.g. Ceres as simply a large asteroid and Pluto as a large Kuiper belt object. However, geoscientists usually prefer roundness as the threshold, because from their perspective the internally driven geology of a body like Ceres makes it more similar to a classical planet like Mars, than to a small asteroid that lacks internally driven geology. This necessitated the creation of the category of "dwarf planets" to describe this intermediate class.


title: Dwarf planet

text: Alan Stern and Harold F. Levison introduced a parameter Λ (lambda), expressing the likelihood of an encounter resulting in a given deflection of orbit. The value of this parameter in Stern's model is proportional to the square of the mass and inversely proportional to the period. This value can be used to estimate the capacity of a body to clear the neighbourhood of its orbit, where Λ > 1 will eventually clear it. A gap of five orders of magnitude in Λ was found between the smallest terrestrial planets and the largest asteroids and Kuiper belt objects.


title: Dwarf planet

text: Using this parameter, Steven Soter and other astronomers argued for a distinction between planets and dwarf planets based on the inability of the latter to "clear the neighbourhood around their orbits": planets are able to remove smaller bodies near their orbits by collision, capture, or gravitational disturbance (or establish orbital resonances that prevent collisions), whereas dwarf planets lack the mass to do so. Soter went on to propose a parameter he called the "planetary discriminant", designated with the symbol µ (mu), that represents an experimental measure of the actual degree of cleanliness of the orbital zone (where µ is calculated by dividing the mass of the candidate body by the total mass of the other objects that share its orbital zone), where µ > 100 is deemed to be cleared.


title: Dwarf planet

text: Jean-Luc Margot refined Stern and Levison's concept to produce a similar parameter Π (Pi). It is based on theory, avoiding the empirical data used by Λ. Π > 1 indicates a planet, and there is again a gap of several orders of magnitude between planets and dwarf planets.


title: Dwarf planet

text: There are several other schemes that try to differentiate between planets and dwarf planets, but the 2006 definition uses this concept.


title: Dwarf planet

text: Enough internal pressure, caused by the body's gravitation, will turn a body plastic, and enough plasticity will allow high elevations to sink and hollows to fill in, a process known as gravitational relaxation. Bodies smaller than a few kilometers are dominated by non-gravitational forces and tend to have an irregular shape and may be rubble piles. Larger objects, where gravity is significant but not dominant, are potato-shaped; the more massive the body, the higher its internal pressure, the more solid it is and the more rounded its shape, until the pressure is enough to overcome its compressive strength and it achieves hydrostatic equilibrium. Then, a body is as round as it is possible to be, given its rotation and tidal effects, and is an ellipsoid in shape. This is the defining limit of a dwarf planet.


title: Dwarf planet

text: If an object is in hydrostatic equilibrium, a global layer of liquid on its surface would form a surface of the same shape as the body, apart from small-scale surface features such as craters and fissures. The body will have a spherical shape if it doesn't rotate and an ellipsoidal one if it does. The faster it rotates, the more oblate or even scalene it becomes. If such a rotating body were heated until it melts, its shape would not change. The extreme example of a body that may be scalene due to rapid rotation is , which is twice as long on its major axis as it is at the poles. If the body has a massive nearby companion, then tidal forces gradually slow its rotation until it is tidally locked; that is, it always presents the same face to its companion. Tidally locked bodies are also scalene, though sometimes only slightly so. Earth's Moon is tidally locked, as are all the rounded satellites of the gas giants. Pluto and Charon are tidally locked to each other, as are Eris and Dysnomia.


title: Dwarf planet

text: There are no specific size or mass limits of dwarf planets, as those are not defining features. There is no clear upper limit: an object very far out the Solar system that is more massive than Mercury might not have had time to clear its neighbourhood; such a body would fit the definition of dwarf planet rather than planet. The lower limit is determined by the requirements of achieving and retaining hydrostatic equilibrium, but the size or mass at which an object attains and retains equilibrium and depends on its composition and thermal history, not simply its mass. An IAU question-and-answer press release from 2006 estimated that objects with mass above and radius greater than 400 km would "normally" be in hydrostatic equilibrium ("the shape ... would normally be determined by self-gravity"), but that "all borderline cases would need to be determined by observation." This is close to what as of 2019 is believed to be roughly the limit for objects beyond Neptune that are fully compact, solid bodies, with ("r" = , "m" = ) and possibly ("r" = , "m" unknown) being borderline cases both for the 2006 Q&A expectations and in more recent evaluations, and with being just above the expected limit. No other body with a measured mass is close to the expected mass limit, though several without a measured mass approach the expected size limit.


title: Dwarf planet

text: There is no clear definition of what constitutes a dwarf planet, and whether to classify an object as one is up to individual astronomers. Thus, the number of dwarf planets in the Solar System is unknown.


title: Dwarf planet

text: The three objects under consideration during the debates leading up to the 2006 IAU acceptance of the category of dwarf planet – Ceres, Pluto and Eris – are generally accepted as dwarf planets, including by those astronomers who continue to classify dwarf planets as planets. Only one of them – Pluto – has been observed in enough detail to verify that its current shape fits what would be expected from hydrostatic equilibrium. Ceres is close to equilibrium, but some gravitational anomalies remain unexplained. Eris is generally assumed to be a dwarf planet because it is more massive than Pluto.


title: Dwarf planet

text: The IAU only established guidelines for which committee would oversee the naming of likely dwarf planets: any unnamed trans-Neptunian object with an absolute magnitude brighter than +1 (and hence a minimum diameter of 838 km at the maximum geometric albedo of 1) was to be named by a joint committee consisting of the Minor Planet Center and the planetary working group of the IAU. At the time (and still as of 2021), the only bodies to meet this threshold were and . These bodies are generally assumed to be dwarf planets, although they have not yet been demonstrated to be in hydrostatic equilibrium, and there is some disagreement for Haumea:


title: Dwarf planet

text: These five bodies – the three under consideration in 2006 (Pluto, Ceres and Eris) plus the two named in 2008 (Haumea and Makemake) – are commonly presented as the dwarf planets of the Solar System, though the limiting factor (albedo) is not what defines an object as a dwarf planet.


title: Dwarf planet

text: The astronomical community commonly refers to other larger TNOs as dwarf planets as well. At least four additional bodies meet the preliminary criteria of Brown, of Tancredi et al., and of Grundy et al. for identifying dwarf planets, and are generally called dwarf planets by astronomers as well:


title: Dwarf planet

text: For instance, JPL/NASA called Gonggong a dwarf planet after observations in 2016, and Simon Porter of the Southwest Research Institute spoke of "the big eight [TNO] dwarf planets" in 2018, referring to Pluto, Eris, Haumea, Makemake, Gonggong, , and .


title: Dwarf planet

text: More bodies have been proposed, such as and by Brown, and by Tancredi et al., and by Sheppard et al. Most of the larger bodies have moons, which enables a determination of their mass and thus their density, which inform estimates of whether they could be dwarf planets. The largest TNOs that are not known to have moons are Sedna, , and Ixion. In particular, Salacia has a known mass and diameter putting it as a borderline case by the IAU's 2006 Q&A.


title: Dwarf planet

text: At the time Makemake and Haumea were named, it was thought that trans-Neptunian objects (TNOs) with icy cores would require a diameter of only about 400 km (250 mi), or 3% the size of Earththe size of the moons Mimas, the smallest moon that is round, and Proteus, the largest that is notto relax into gravitational equilibrium. Researchers thought that the number of such bodies could prove to be around 200 in the Kuiper belt, with thousands more beyond.


title: Dwarf planet

text: This was one of the reasons (keeping the roster of 'planets' to a reasonable number) that Pluto was reclassified in the first place.


title: Dwarf planet

text: However, research since then has cast doubt on the idea that bodies that small could have achieved or maintained equilibrium under the typical conditions of the Kuiper belt and beyond.


title: Dwarf planet

text: Individual astronomers have recognized a number of objects as dwarf planets or as likely to prove to be dwarf planets. In 2008, Tancredi et al. advised the IAU to officially accept Orcus, Sedna and Quaoar as dwarf planets (Gonggong was not yet known), though the IAU did not address the issue then and has not since. Tancredi also considered the five TNOs , , , , and to most likely be dwarf planets as well.


title: Dwarf planet

text: Since 2011, Brown has maintained a list of hundreds of candidate objects, ranging from "nearly certain" to "possible" dwarf planets, based solely on estimated size.


title: Dwarf planet

text: As of 13 September 2019, Brown's list identifies ten trans-Neptunian objects with diameters then thought to be greater than 900 km (the four named by the IAU plus , , , , and ) as "near certain" to be dwarf planets, and another 16, with diameter greater than 600 km, as "highly likely". Notably, Gonggong may have a larger diameter () than Pluto's round moon Charon (1212 km).


title: Dwarf planet

text: But in 2019 Grundy et al. proposed, based on their studies of Gǃkúnǁʼhòmdímà, that dark, low-density bodies smaller than about 900–1000 km in diameter, such as Salacia and , never fully collapsed into solid planetary bodies and retain internal porosity from their formation (in which case they could not be dwarf planets). They accept that brighter (albedo > ≈0.2) or denser (> ≈1.4 g/cc) Orcus and Quaoar probably were fully solid:


title: Dwarf planet

text: Salacia was later found to have a somewhat higher density, comparable within uncertainties to that of Orcus, though still with a very dark surface. Despite this determination, Grundy et al. call it "dwarf-planet sized", while calling Orcus a dwarf planet. Later studies on Varda suggest that its density may also be high, though a low density could not be excluded.


title: Dwarf planet

text: The trans-Neptunian objects in the following tables, except Salacia, are agreed by Brown, Tancredi et al. and Grundy et al. to be probable dwarf planets, or close to it. Salacia has been included as the largest TNO not generally agreed to be a dwarf planet and a borderline body by many criteria. Charon, a moon of Pluto that was proposed as a dwarf planet by the IAU in 2006, is included for comparison. Those objects that have absolute magnitude greater than +1, and so meet the threshold of the joint planet–minor planet naming committee of the IAU, are highlighted, as is Ceres, which the IAU has assumed is a dwarf planet since they first debated the concept.


title: Dwarf planet

text: Ceres and Pluto received symbols like the major planets, as they were thought to be major planets when they were discovered. By the time the others were discovered, planetary symbols had mostly fallen out of use among astronomers. Unicode includes symbols for the dwarf planets Quaoar , Sedna , Orcus , Haumea , Eris , Makemake , and Gonggong that are mostly used among astrologers: they were devised by Denis Moskowitz, a software engineer in Massachusetts. NASA has used his Haumea, Eris, and Makemake symbols, as well as the traditional astrological symbol for Pluto to refer to it as a dwarf planet. A Unicode proposal for most of Moskowitz's symbols mentions symbols that have been suggested for some smaller candidates – Salacia , Varda , Ixion or , Gǃkúnǁʼhòmdímà , Varuna , and Chaos – but these do not have consistent, independent usage among astrologers.


title: Dwarf planet

text: On March 6, 2015, the "Dawn" spacecraft entered orbit around Ceres, becoming the first spacecraft to visit a dwarf planet. On July 14, 2015, the "New Horizons" space probe flew by Pluto and its five moons.


title: Dwarf planet

text: Ceres displays such evidence of an active geology as salt deposits and cryovolcanos, while Pluto has water-ice mountains drifting in nitrogen-ice glaciers, as well as a significant atmosphere.


title: Dwarf planet

text: Ceres evidently has brine percolating through its subsurface, while there is evidence that Pluto has an actual subsurface ocean.


title: Dwarf planet

text: "Dawn" had previously orbited the asteroid Vesta. Saturn's moon Phoebe has been imaged by Cassini and before that by Voyager 2, which also encountered Neptune's moon Triton. All three bodies show evidence of once being dwarf planets, and their exploration helps clarify the evolution of dwarf planets.


title: Dwarf planet

text: "New Horizons" has captured distant images of Triton, Quaoar, Haumea, Eris, and Makemake, as well as the smaller candidates Ixion, , and .


title: Dwarf planet

text: A number of bodies physically resemble dwarf planets. These include former dwarf planets, which may still have equilibrium shape or evidence of active geology; planetary-mass moons, which meet the physical but not the orbital definition for dwarf planet; and Charon in the Pluto–Charon system, which is arguably a binary dwarf planet. The categories may overlap: Triton, for example, is both a former dwarf planet and a planetary-mass moon.


title: Dwarf planet

text: Vesta, the next-most-massive body in the asteroid belt after Ceres, was once in hydrostatic equilibrium and is roughly spherical, deviating mainly due to massive impacts that formed the Rheasilvia and Veneneia craters after it solidified.


title: Dwarf planet

text: Triton is more massive than Eris or Pluto, has an equilibrium shape, and is thought to be a captured dwarf planet (likely a member of a binary system), but no longer directly orbits the sun.


title: Dwarf planet

text: Phoebe is a captured centaur that, like Vesta, is no longer in hydrostatic equilibrium, but is thought to have been so early in its history due to radiogenic heating.


title: Dwarf planet

text: Evidence from 2019 suggests that Theia, the former planet that collided with Earth in the giant-impact hypothesis, may have originated in the outer Solar System rather than the inner Solar System and that Earth's water originated on Theia, thus implying that Theia may have been a former dwarf planet from the Kuiper Belt.


title: Dwarf planet

text: At least nineteen moons have equilibrium shape from having relaxed under self-gravity at some point, though some have since frozen solid and are no longer in equilibrium. Seven are more massive than either Eris or Pluto. These moons are not physically distinct from the dwarf planets, but do not fit the IAU definition because they do not directly orbit the Sun. (Indeed, Neptune's moon Triton is a captured dwarf planet, and Ceres formed in the same region of the Solar System as the moons of Jupiter and Saturn.) Alan Stern calls planetary-mass moons "satellite planets", one of three categories of planet, together with dwarf planets and classical planets. The term "planemo" ("planetary-mass object") also covers all three populations.


title: Dwarf planet

text: There has been some debate as to whether the Pluto–Charon system should be considered a double dwarf planet.


title: Dwarf planet

text: In a draft resolution for the IAU definition of planet, both Pluto and Charon were considered planets in a binary system. The IAU currently says Charon is not considered a dwarf planet but rather a satellite of Pluto, though the idea that Charon might qualify as a dwarf planet may be considered at a later date. However, it is no longer clear that Charon is in hydrostatic equilibrium. Also, the location of the barycenter depends not only on the relative masses of the bodies, but also on the distance between them; the barycenter of the Sun–Jupiter orbit, for example, lies outside the Sun, but they are not considered a binary object. Thus, a formal definition of what constitutes a binary (dwarf) planet must be established before Pluto and Charon are formally defined as binary dwarf planets.


title: Hugo Lloris

text: Hugo Hadrien Dominique Lloris (born 26 December 1986) is a French professional footballer who plays as a goalkeeper for club Tottenham Hotspur and the France national team. He is a three-time winner of the National Union of Professional Footballers (UNFP) Ligue 1 Goalkeeper of the Year award.


title: Hugo Lloris

text: Lloris began his career with hometown club OGC Nice, made his debut as a teenager in October 2005 and started in goal during the team's run to the 2006 Coupe de la Ligue Final. After excelling at the club for three seasons, Lloris moved to seven-time Ligue 1 champions Olympique Lyonnais, amid interest from several other clubs, notably Milan. Lloris won several domestic awards in his first season with Lyon and, in his second season, earned award nominations for his performances in the UEFA Champions League, which saw Lyon reach the semi-finals for the first time. He joined Tottenham in 2012, and helped the team reach the Champions League final in 2019.


title: Hugo Lloris

text: Lloris is a French international having represented his nation at under-18, under-19, and under-21 level. Prior to playing at senior level, he played on the under-19 team that won the 2005 UEFA European Under-19 Championship. Lloris made his senior international debut in November 2008 in a friendly against Uruguay. He helped France qualify for the 2010 FIFA World Cup and was applauded by the media for his performance over two legs against the Republic of Ireland in the qualifying playoffs. He captained the national team for the first time in 2010, and became first-choice captain on 28 February 2012, leading France into the quarter-finals of both UEFA Euro 2012 and the 2014 FIFA World Cup, as runners-up at UEFA Euro 2016 and the 2022 FIFA World Cup, and winning the 2018 FIFA World Cup held in Russia. He is France's most-capped player.


title: Hugo Lloris

text: Lloris was born on 26 December 1986 in the Mediterranean city of Nice to an upper-class family. His French mother was a lawyer and his father is a Monte Carlo-based banker of Spanish descent. He has a younger brother, Gautier, who had played for his older brother's former club OGC Nice as a central defender. As a youth, like his international and club teammate Yoann Gourcuff, Lloris excelled at tennis and played the sport up until the age of 13. He was among the top players in his age group, ranking high in the country's national standings before opting to focus on football.


title: Hugo Lloris

text: Lloris started playing football at the age of six at CEDAC (Centre de Diffusion et d'Action Culturelle), a local cultural center based in the neighborhood of Cimiez, Nice. The centre offered a variety of activities, which included football. Lloris played a variety of positions at the centre, such as in the attack, before switching to the goalkeeper position after coaches noticed that he possessed impressive goalkeeping qualities, such as ball-handling and catching skills. Lloris excelled at the position and caught the attention of former OGC Nice goalkeeper and French international Dominique Baratelli, who recommended that the player join his former club. At the age of ten, Lloris joined Nice's youth academy. He spent several years in the club's youth academy and was the starting goalkeeper for the club's under-17 team that won the 2003–04 edition of the "Championnat Nationaux des 18 ans", a country-wide domestic league competition for players under the age of 18.


title: Hugo Lloris

text: After success with the club's under-18 team, Lloris was promoted to the club's reserve team in the Championnat de France Amateur, the fourth level of French football, for the 2004–05 season. He alternated the starting goalkeeper spot with Hilaire Munoz as he appeared in 12 matches. Lloris was promoted to the first team squad ahead of the 2005–06 season and assigned the number 1 shirt. He was designated by manager Frédéric Antonetti as the team's starting goalkeeper for the club's Coupe de la Ligue campaign ahead of fan-favourite (and fellow Nice native) Damien Gregorini, who was relied more upon in league play. Lloris made his professional debut on 25 October 2005, at the age of 18, recording a clean sheet in Nice's 2–0 Coupe de la Ligue win over Châteauroux. He recorded another clean sheet the following round against Sedan and helped Nice upset favorites Bordeaux and Derby de la Côte d'Azur rivals Monaco in the quarter-finals and semi-finals respectively, meaning the club had reached its first-ever Coupe de la Ligue final. In the final, Lloris played the entire match in the club's 2–1 defeat against Nancy.


title: Hugo Lloris

text: Lloris made his league debut on 18 March 2006 against Nancy picking up a clean sheet in a 1–0 victory. He made four more league appearances that season. The following season, Lloris was given the starting job permanently ahead of Gregorini, who subsequently departed the club for Nancy. Lloris appeared in all but one league match recording 13 clean sheets as Nice finished in 16th place. Despite the disappointing finish, the club was the fifth-best defensive team in the league with Lloris conceding only 36 goals. Only veterans Grégory Coupet, Cédric Carrasso and Ulrich Ramé conceded fewer. For the early part of the 2007–08 season, Lloris endured a recurring ligament injury in his left knee, which forced him to miss three weeks in September. He returned to the team on 6 October 2007 in a league match against Le Mans, but was substituted out after 71 minutes after the injury relapsed. Lloris missed a further six weeks before returning on 24 November in the team's 2–1 victory over Paris Saint-Germain. He appeared consistently with the team for the rest of the season as Nice finished in 8th place, the club's best finish in the league since finishing 6th in the 1988–89 season. Lloris conceded only 24 goals in his 30 appearances recording 13 clean sheets. He contributed to a defense that only conceded 30 overall during the season, tied for the league-best. Lloris' efforts that season led to him being approached by several big European clubs with hopes of signing him for the future.


title: Hugo Lloris

text: After another solid season with Nice, speculation arose as to where Lloris would play the following season. He was primarily linked to French club Lyon, who wanted him to replace the departing Grégory Coupet, Milan, who wanted him to replace the Brazilian Dida, and Tottenham Hotspur, who wanted Lloris to replace Paul Robinson. After reportedly coming to personal terms with Milan, Lloris snubbed the Italian club for seven-time Ligue 1 champions Lyon. Milan vice president Adriano Galliani later declared that an agreement had been all but reached stating that Lloris was "practically ours", but the deal reached a stumbling block when Milan goalkeeper Christian Abbiati refused a move to Palermo. Lloris explained his decision citing Lyon's European ambitions, more playing time at Lyon, and in Milan, he was not guaranteed the starting goalkeeper spot. The transfer fee was initially undisclosed, but was later discovered to be priced at €8.5 million. He was promptly handed the number 1 shirt and also the starting goalkeeper position.


title: Hugo Lloris

text: Lloris made his club debut in the team's opening league match of the 2008–09 season on 10 August 2008 against Toulouse. Lyon won the match 3–0 win giving the goalkeeper his first career clean sheet with the club. In the following three matches, Lloris earned clean sheets against Lorient and regional rivals Grenoble and Saint-Étienne. Despite Lyon losing out on the title for the first time in seven years, he finished the campaign conceding only 27 goals in the league and recording 16 clean sheets; both of which were second-best to only Cédric Carrasso. Lloris was, subsequently, named the league's top goalkeeper and also named to the Team of the Year.


title: Hugo Lloris

text: In the 2009–10 season, Lloris remained the club's first-choice goalkeeper and opened the new campaign by recording four clean sheets in the club's first eight matches. For his performances in the month of September, he was awarded the UNFP Player of the Month becoming the first goalkeeper since Steve Mandanda in August 2008 to receive the award. Lloris earned media praise for his performances against Liverpool in the UEFA Champions League. In the first match, played at Anfield, Lloris made four saves holding Liverpool to only one goal. Lyon won the match 2–1. In the second match at the Stade de Gerland, he produced stops from shots by Fernando Torres, Dirk Kuyt and Andriy Voronin in the first half, then displayed reflexes to deny the Brazilian Lucas midway through the second period. Though Lyon conceded late, the team drew the match 1–1 with a goal from Lisandro López in stoppage time.


title: Hugo Lloris

text: On 8 November 2009, Lloris, alongside Marseille and France's number two goalkeeper Steve Mandanda, each conceded five goals in a 5–5 draw between Lyon and Marseille, though most of the goals conceded were attributed to "slack defending" displayed by both clubs as described by the media and both managers. On 20 December, Lloris finished third behind Nicolas Anelka and Yoann Gourcuff in voting for the "France Football" 2009 French Player of the Year award.


title: Hugo Lloris

text: Lloris remained consistent during the 2010 portion of the season conceding only two goals in the club's first four matches of the year with Lyon winning all of them and Lloris picking up two clean sheets. On 16 February, Lloris earned a clean sheet in Lyon's first leg of its UEFA Champions League knockout round match against Real Madrid. Lloris made two saves in the team's 1–0 victory making a finger-tipping save from a deflected Cristiano Ronaldo shot in the 61st minute and producing a reflex save on a shot from Gonzalo Higuaín three minutes later to keep Lyon ahead on the scoreline. Lyon later achieved qualification to the quarterfinals in the competition after drawing 1–1 in Madrid with Lloris conceding the opening goal to Cristiano Ronaldo in the sixth minute. It was the goalkeeper's first goal conceded in over 620 minutes. On 2 May, Lloris provided the assist on the game-winning goal scored by Michel Bastos in Lyon's 1–0 win over Montpellier. A week later, he was named, for the second consecutive season, the UNFP Ligue 1 Goalkeeper of the Year.


title: Hugo Lloris

text: Ahead of the 2010–11 season, Lloris was nominated for the UEFA Club Goalkeeper of the Year award at the UEFA Club Football Awards, but lost out on the award to Champions League-winning keeper Júlio César of Internazionale. In the season, Lloris performed well, despite conceding a career-high 40 goals in the league as Lyon failed to win the league for the third consecutive season. The frustrating season for the club and Lloris himself reached its nadir on 3 April 2011 following the club's 2–2 away draw with Lloris' former club Nice. Despite being up 2–0 heading into stoppage time, Lyon conceded two goals within two minutes of each other, an Éric Mouloungui penalty and a goal at the death from Renato Civelli, allowing Nice to leave the match with a draw. Following the conclusion of the match, a disappointed Lloris, who had previously saved a penalty shot in the match, delivered a surprising profanity-laced declaration in the team's locker room, in which he questioned the team's overall performance. Following the team's 3–0 win over Lens the following week, in which Lloris earned his first clean sheet in over a month, the goalkeeper reflected on his comments after the Nice match, stating, "It was a human reaction. There was frustration and accumulation and it had to come out. It was intolerable to draw 2–2 when leading 2–0."


title: Hugo Lloris

text: In the Champions League, Lyon finished second in their group to qualify to the round of 16, before they were eliminated by APOEL on penalties. In the Coupe de France, Lyon managed to win the title after a 1–0 win over Quevilly in the final. Despite Lyon finishing fourth in Ligue 1, Lloris was voted best goalkeeper in the championship for the third time in his career.


title: Hugo Lloris

text: Lloris signed for Tottenham Hotspur on 31 August 2012 for €10 million and €5 million variable. Lyon also receives 20% of Lloris's future transfer profit. He made his debut for Spurs in a UEFA Europa League match against Lazio on 20 September 2012, the result of the match was 0–0. Lloris started his first Premier League game against Aston Villa on 7 October 2012, keeping a clean sheet in a 2–0 home victory. His appearance ended fellow Tottenham goalkeeper Brad Friedel's run of 310 consecutive games in the Premier League. After conceding only four goals in six games, he was nominated for the Premier League Player of the Month for December 2012, but lost out to Manchester United's Robin van Persie. Lloris ended the 2012–13 season with 25 appearances and 9 clean sheets.


title: Hugo Lloris

text: Following speculation linking him with a move to Monaco, Lloris insisted he had left Lyon to play abroad. On 3 November 2013, in a match against Everton, Lloris lost consciousness in a collision with Romelu Lukaku's knee, but remained in the game after manager André Villas-Boas determined he "showed great character and personality". The decision was heavily criticised by head injury charities, FIFA and the players' union, FIFPro.


title: Hugo Lloris

text: Lloris signed a five-year contract extension in July 2014. He said that Mauricio Pochettino, the new manager at Tottenham, had convinced him to sign the new contract with his "rigour and vision" that gave the club "new benchmarks".


title: Hugo Lloris

text: In a 2014–15 UEFA Europa League group stage match on 23 October 2014, Tottenham were leading Asteras Tripoli 5–0 with four minutes to play when Lloris was sent off for a professional foul on Tasos Tsokanis. As the team had used all three substitutes, forward Harry Kane was forced into goal and conceded a goal from a freekick in the 89th minute; Tottenham won the match 5–1. Tottenham progressed through the League Cup to face Chelsea in the final at Wembley. Lloris was named in the starting eleven in the hopes of getting silverware but Tottenham lost 2–0.


title: Hugo Lloris

text: In August 2015, Tottenham manager Mauricio Pochettino named Lloris permanent captain of the team, replacing the outgoing Younès Kaboul.


title: Hugo Lloris

text: In a 2016–17 UEFA Champions League group stage match (which ended in a 0–0 draw) against Bayer Leverkusen on 18 October 2016, Lloris made a string of fine saves, including a spectacular one-handed stop on the goal-line to deny Javier Hernández; Tottenham's manager Mauricio Pochettino described Lloris's performance in the second half as "brilliant". On 22 November 2016, Lloris saved Radamel Falcao's 11th-minute penalty and pulled off multiple world-class saves, including incredibly tipping Kamil Glik's powerful volley from five metres out over the bar in the 68th minute, in their 2016–17 UEFA Champions League group stage match away at Monaco; however Tottenham lost the match 1–2 and were eliminated from the competition.


title: Hugo Lloris

text: In December 2016, Lloris signed a contract extension to remain at Tottenham until 2022. In the 2016–17 season, Lloris helped Tottenham achieve the best defensive record in the club's history, conceding only 26 goals in the Premier League that season (only 9 of which were conceded in home league games), 6 better than the previous record of 32 conceded that was set in the 1908–09 season in the Second Division. He kept 15 clean sheets this season, but missed out on the Golden Glove award when a goal was conceded in the last game of the season, a record-breaking 7–1 away league win at Hull City.


title: Hugo Lloris

text: On 17 April 2018, Lloris made his 250th appearance for Tottenham in a 1–1 draw with Brighton. In doing so, he became only the 61st player, and sixth goalkeeper to achieve the milestone for the club.


title: Hugo Lloris

text: In the Champions League group round match against PSV on 24 October 2018, Lloris was sent off after a challenge late in the game that ended in a 2–2 draw. On 2 March 2019, Lloris saved a late penalty in the North London derby, and kept the score at 1–1. A few days later on 5 March 2019, in the Champions League last-16 away tie against Borussia Dortmund, Lloris made a number of crucial saves to kept a clean sheet, which ensured a 4–0 win on aggregate and progress to the club's second quarterfinal in the Champions League. This is his 100th clean sheet with the club. He also kept a clean sheet in the home leg of the quarter-final against Manchester City, saving a penalty in a 1–0 win that helped keep Tottenham in the competition. The previous week in the Premier League match against Liverpool, he made a goalkeeping error which let in a late goal and lost 2–1.


title: Hugo Lloris

text: In the 2019–20 season, Lloris made his 300th appearance for the club in the second league match of the season against Manchester City, a match that finished 2–2. On 5 October, Lloris was carried off on a stretcher after suffering a dislocated elbow against Brighton, a match which ended in 3–0 defeat for Spurs. Ligament damage sustained in the injury would rule him out the team for a few months. In November 2019, he underwent surgery for the dislocation. He returned from injury in January 2020 in the home game against Norwich City.


title: Hugo Lloris

text: On 29 November 2020, he played his 100th European match in a 1–0 defeat against Royal Antwerp in the Europa League, becoming the first French goalkeeper to achieve this feat. On 28 February 2021, he had his 100th Premier League clean sheet in a 4–0 win over Burnley.


title: Hugo Lloris

text: On 22 August 2021, he played his 300th Premier League match in a 1–0 away win over Wolverhampton Wanderers. In January 2022, he extended his contract with Tottenham Hotspur until 2024. On 19 February 2022, he made his 400th appearance for his club in all competitions in a 3–2 away win over Manchester City. On 15 May 2022, he equaled his record of 15 clean sheets per season in a 1–0 win over Burnley, before breaking the record to reach his personal best of 16 clean sheets in a 5–0 away win over Norwich City in the last match of the season.


title: Hugo Lloris

text: Lloris has been active on the international front with France, first appearing with the under-18 team making his debut on 11 March 2004 in a friendly match against Germany. He later played with the under-19 team and was part of the winning team at the 2005 UEFA European Under-19 Championship. Lloris appeared in all five matches the team played in the competition. He made only five appearances with the under-21 team, primarily because of his commitments to the senior team. On 11 October 2008, with the under-21 squad attempting to qualify for the 2009 European Under-21 Championship, coach Erick Mombaerts called up Lloris to the team for their important two-legged playoff against Germany, despite him having been called up to the senior team and the player having last played for the team in August 2007. Lloris honored the call up and started the second leg. With France seconds away from a spot in the tournament, because of the team's 1–1 draw in the first leg, Germany got a late goal from Benedikt Höwedes. The 1–0 loss eliminated France from the competition and also ended Lloris's under-21 career.


title: Hugo Lloris

text: Lloris received his first call-up to the senior national team for France's 6 February 2008 match against Spain. However, he instead played for the B team in their friendly match against the Congo DR, held the day before the Spain friendly. After receiving several more call ups in 2008, he finally earned his first cap on 19 November 2008 in a 0–0 draw with Uruguay. On 9 September 2009, Lloris received his first international red card, against Serbia, following a foul on Nikola Žigić in the penalty box, despite replays showing otherwise. Lloris returned to the team on 14 October playing the entire 90 minutes in the team's 3–1 win over Austria.


title: Hugo Lloris

text: Lloris was applauded by the media and players, alike, for his performance over two legs against the Republic of Ireland that saw France earn a spot in the 2010 FIFA World Cup. Former national team goalkeeper Grégory Coupet credited his performance as "phenomenal", while the French media described him as "Saint Lloris", which is a play on the nickname of Real Madrid counterpart Iker Casillas, who was considered one of the top goalkeepers in Europe at the time.


title: Hugo Lloris

text: On 11 May 2010, Lloris was named in Domenech's 30-man preliminary squad to participate in the 2010 World Cup, later being named to the final 23-man team and installed as first-choice goalkeeper. On 11 June 2010, Lloris made his World Cup debut in the team's opening group stage match against Uruguay, earning a clean sheet in a 0–0 draw. Lloris appeared in both of France's other group stage matches, against Mexico and hosts South Africa. Against South Africa, Lloris committed a goalkeeping error which resulted in the opening goal for the hosts. He redeemed himself later in the match, however, by producing several saves to limit the South Africans' chances of progressing to the knockout rounds. France lost the match 2–1, which resulted in the hosts' elimination from the competition.


title: Hugo Lloris

text: On 17 November 2010, Lloris captained France for the first time in the team's 2–1 victory over England at Wembley Stadium. After leading France out six more times on an interim basis, on 28 February 2012, he was named first-choice captain of the national team by manager Laurent Blanc ahead of UEFA Euro 2012. Lloris started for his country in the final tournament, as they reached the quarter-finals, where they were eliminated following a 2–0 loss to eventual champions Spain.


title: Hugo Lloris

text: Lloris started for France at the 2014 World Cup, helping the team to the quarter-finals, where they were defeated 1–0 by eventual champions Germany.