title: Aztec Empire

text: Early in the history of the empire, Tenochtitlan developed a four-member military and advisory Council which assisted the Huey tlatoani in his decision-making: the ; the ; the ; and the . This design not only provided advise for the ruler, it also served to contain ambition on the part of the nobility, as henceforth Huey Tlatoani could only be selected from the council. Moreover, the actions of any one member of the council could easily be blocked by the other three, providing a simple system of checks on the ambition higher officials. These four Council members were also generals, members of various military societies. The ranks of the members were not equal, with the and having a higher status than the others. These two Councillors were members of the two most prestigious military societies, the ("shorn ones") and the ("Otomies"). The , the relatives of the former Huey tlatoani, will choose the next Huey tlatoani from the four council members.


title: Aztec Empire

text: Traditionally, provinces and altepetl were governed by hereditary tlatoani. As the empire grew, the system evolved further and some tlatoani were replaced by other officials. The other officials had similar authority to tlatoani. As has already been mentioned, directly appointed stewards (singular , plural ) were sometimes imposed on altepetl instead of the selection of provincial nobility to the same position of tlatoani. At the height of empire, the organization of the state into tributary and strategic provinces saw an elaboration of this system. The 38 tributary provinces fell under the supervision of high stewards, or , whose authority extended over the lower-ranking calpixque. These calpixque and huecalpixque were essentially managers of the provincial tribute system which was overseen and coordinated in the paramount capital of Tenochtitlan not by the , but rather by a separate position altogether: the . On the occasion that a recently conquered altepetl was seen as particularly restive, the Nahuas placed a military governor, or , at the head of provincial supervision. During his reign, Moctezuma I elaborated the calpixque system, with two calpixque assigned per tributary province. The province itself stationed one, perhaps for supervising the collection of tribute, and the other in Tenochtitlan, perhaps for supervising storage of tribute. Commoners drew the tribute, the , and distributed to the nobility, be they 'kings' (), lesser rulers (), or provincial nobility ().


title: Aztec Empire

text: The Nahuas supervised the tribute collection by the above officials and relied upon the coercive power of the Aztec military, but also upon the cooperation of the (the local nobility who were themselves exempt from and recipient to tribute) and the hereditary class of merchants known as . These pochteca had various gradations of ranks which granted them certain trading rights and so were not necessarily pipiltin themselves, yet they played an important role in both the growth and administration of the Aztec tributary system nonetheless. The pochteca strongly tied their power, political and economic, to the political and military power of the Aztec nobility and state. In addition to serving as diplomats (, or "travelers of the lord") and spies in the prelude to conquest, higher-ranking pochteca also served as judges in market plazas and were to certain degree autonomous corporate groups, having administrative duties within their own estate.


title: Aztec Empire

text: Nahua metaphysics centers around , "a single, dynamic, vivifying, eternally self-generating and self-regenerating sacred power, energy or force." This is conceptualized in a kind of monistic pantheism as manifest in the supreme god , as well as a large pantheon of lesser gods and idealizations of natural phenomena such as stars and fire. Priests and educated upper classes held more monistic views, while the popular religion of the uneducated tended to embrace the polytheistic and mythological aspects.


title: Aztec Empire

text: The Aztec empire's state-sanctioned religion meanwhile had to fulfill the spiritual obligations of the upper classes while maintaining their control over the lower classes and conquered populations. This was executed in grand public religious ceremonies, sponsorship of the most popular cults, and a relative degree of religious freedom.


title: Aztec Empire

text: Rulers, if they are local or , or central Huetlatoani, were seen as representatives of the gods and therefore ruled by divine right. , or the principle of rulership, established that descent inherited this divine right. Political order was, therefore, also a cosmic order, and to kill a was to transgress that order. For this reason, whenever the Nahuas killed or otherwise removed a tlatoani from their station, their stead typically placed a relative and member of the same bloodline. The establishment of the office of Huetlatoani understood through the creation of another level of rulership, , standing in superior contrast to the lesser principle.


title: Aztec Empire

text: A militaristic interpretation of Nahua religion, specifically a devout veneration of the sun god, Huitzilopochtli, guided expansion of the empire. Militaristic state rituals were performed throughout the year according to a ceremonial calendar of events, rites, and mock battles. The time period they lived in was understood as the , or Sun of Movement, which was believed to have been the final age after which humanity would be destroyed. It was under Tlacaelel that Huitzilopochtli assumed his elevated role in the state pantheon and who argued that it was through blood sacrifice that the Sun would be maintained and thereby stave off the end of the world. It was under this new, militaristic interpretation of Huitzilopochtli that Aztec soldiers were encouraged to fight wars and capture enemy soldiers for sacrifice. Though blood sacrifice was common in Mesoamerica, the scale of human sacrifice under the Aztecs was likely unprecedented in the region.


title: Aztec Empire

text: Originally, the Aztec empire was a loose alliance between three cities: Tenochtitlan, Texcoco, and the most junior partner, Tlacopan. As such, they were known as the 'Triple Alliance.' This political form was very common in Mesoamerica, where alliances of city-states were ever fluctuating. However, over time, Tenochtitlan assumed paramount authority in the alliance, and although each partner city shared spoils of war and rights to regular tribute from the provinces and were governed by their own Huetlatoani, Tenochtitlan became the largest, most powerful, and most influential of the three cities. It was the de facto and acknowledged center of empire.


title: Aztec Empire

text: Though the Aztecs did not describe them this way, there were essentially two types of provinces: Tributary and Strategic. Strategic provinces were essentially subordinate client states which provided tribute or aid to the Aztec state under "mutual consent." Tributary provinces, on the other hand, provided regular tribute to the empire; obligations on the part of Tributary provinces were mandatory rather than consensual.


title: Aztec Empire

text: These are Aztec gods and goddesses, who were also part of the Thirteen Heavens, as well as the "Aztec Empire".


title: Aztec Empire

text: Ruler Nezahualcoyotl developed the most developed code of law in the city-state of Texcoco under him. It was a formal written code, not merely a collection of customary practices. The sources for knowing about the legal code are colonial-era writings by Franciscan Toribio de Benavente Motolinia, Franciscan Fray Juan de Torquemada, and Texcocan historians Juan Bautista Pomar, and Fernando de Alva Cortés Ixtlilxochitl. The law code in Texcoco under Nezahualcoyotl was legalistic, as many tried cases by particular types of evidence and many disregarded the social status of the litigants, and consisted of 80 written laws. These laws called for severe, publicly administered punishments, creating a legal framework of social control.


title: Aztec Empire

text: Much less is known about the legal system in Tenochtitlan, which might be less legalistic or sophisticated as those of Texcoco for this period. Those under the reign of Moctezuma I established it. These laws served to establish and govern relations between the state, classes, and individuals. State authorities meted out punishments solely. The Nahuas enshrined Nahua mores in these laws, criminalizing public acts of homosexuality, drunkenness, and nudity, not to mention more universal proscriptions against theft, murder, and property damage. As stated before, could serve as judges, often exercising judicial oversight of their own members. Likewise, military courts dealt with both cases within the military and without during wartime. There was an appeal process, with appellate courts standing between local, typically market-place courts, on the provincial level and a supreme court and two special higher appellate courts at Tenochtitlan. One of those two special courts dealt with cases arising within Tenochtitlan, the other with cases originating from outside the capital. The ultimate judicial authority laid in hands of the , who had the right to appoint lesser judges.


title: IUCN Red List

text: The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List of Threatened Species, also known as the IUCN Red List or Red Data Book, founded in 1964, is the world's most comprehensive inventory of the global conservation status of biological species. It uses a set of precise criteria to evaluate the extinction risk of thousands of species and subspecies. These criteria are relevant to all species and all regions of the world. With its strong scientific base, the IUCN Red List is recognized as the most authoritative guide to the status of biological diversity. A series of Regional Red Lists are produced by countries or organizations, which assess the risk of extinction to species within a political management unit.


title: IUCN Red List

text: The aim of the IUCN Red List is to convey the urgency of conservation issues to the public and policy makers, as well as help the international community to reduce species extinction. According to IUCN the formally stated goals of the Red List are to provide scientifically based information on the status of species and subspecies at a global level, to draw attention to the magnitude and importance of threatened biodiversity, to influence national and international policy and decision-making, and to provide information to guide actions to conserve biological diversity.


title: IUCN Red List

text: Major species assessors include BirdLife International, the Institute of Zoology (the research division of the Zoological Society of London), the World Conservation Monitoring Centre, and many Specialist Groups within the IUCN Species Survival Commission (SSC). Collectively, assessments by these organizations and groups account for nearly half the species on the Red List.


title: IUCN Red List

text: The IUCN aims to have the category of every species re-evaluated at least every ten years, or every five years if possible. This is done in a peer reviewed manner through IUCN Species Survival Commission Specialist Groups, which are Red List Authorities responsible for a species, group of species or specific geographic area, or in the case of BirdLife International, an entire class (Aves).


title: IUCN Red List

text: The number of species which have been assessed for the Red List has been increasing over time. As of 2019, of 105,000 species surveyed, 28,338 are considered at risk of extinction because of human activity, in particular overfishing, hunting, and land development.


title: IUCN Red List

text: The 1964 IUCN Red List of Threatened Plants used the older pre-criteria Red List assessment system. Plants listed may not, therefore, appear in the current Red List. IUCN advise that it is best to check both the online Red List and the 1997 plants Red List publication.


title: IUCN Red List

text: The 2006 Red List, released on 4 May 2006 evaluated 40,168 species as a whole, plus an additional 2,160 subspecies, varieties, aquatic stocks, and subpopulations.


title: IUCN Red List

text: On 12 September 2007, the World Conservation Union (IUCN) released the 2007 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. In this release, they have raised their classification of both the western lowland gorilla ("Gorilla gorilla gorilla") and the Cross River gorilla ("Gorilla gorilla diehli") from endangered to critically endangered, which is the last category before extinct in the wild, due to Ebola virus and poaching, along with other factors. Russ Mittermeier, chief of Swiss-based IUCN's Primate Specialist Group, stated that 16,306 species are endangered with extinction, 188 more than in 2006 (total of 41,415 species on the Red List). The Red List includes the Sumatran orangutan ("Pongo abelii") in the Critically Endangered category and the Bornean orangutan ("Pongo pygmaeus") in the Endangered category.


title: IUCN Red List

text: The 2008 Red List was released on 6 October 2008 at the IUCN World Conservation Congress in Barcelona and "confirmed an extinction crisis, with almost one in four [mammals] at risk of disappearing forever". The study shows at least 1,141 of the 5,487 mammals on Earth are known to be threatened with extinction, and 836 are listed as Data Deficient.


title: IUCN Red List

text: The Red List of 2012 was released 19 July 2012 at Rio+20 Earth Summit; nearly 2,000 species were added, with 4 species to the extinct list, 2 to the rediscovered list. The IUCN assessed a total of 63,837 species which revealed 19,817 are threatened with extinction. 3,947 were described as "critically endangered" and 5,766 as "endangered", while more than 10,000 species are listed as "vulnerable". At threat are 41% of amphibian species, 33% of reef-building corals, 30% of conifers, 25% of mammals, and 13% of birds. The IUCN Red List has listed 132 species of plants and animals from India as "Critically Endangered".


title: IUCN Red List

text: Species are classified by the IUCN Red List into nine groups, specified through criteria such as rate of decline, population size, area of geographic distribution, and degree of population and distribution fragmentation. There is an emphasis on the acceptability of applying any criteria in the absence of high quality data including suspicion and potential future threats, "so long as these can reasonably be supported".


title: IUCN Red List

text: In the IUCN Red List, "threatened" embraces the categories of Critically Endangered, Endangered, and Vulnerable.


title: IUCN Red List

text: In the 2001 framework, "Near Threatened" and "Least Concern" became their own categories, while "Conservation Dependent" was removed and its contents merged into "Near Threatened".


title: IUCN Red List

text: The tag of "possibly extinct" (PE) is used by Birdlife International, the Red List Authority for birds for the IUCN Red List. BirdLife International has recommended PE become an official tag for Critically Endangered species, and this has now been adopted, along with a "Possibly Extinct in the Wild" tag for species with populations surviving in captivity but likely to be extinct in the wild.


title: IUCN Red List

text: In 1997, the IUCN Red List received criticism on the grounds of secrecy (or at least poor documentation) surrounding the sources of its data. These allegations have led to efforts by the IUCN to improve its documentation and data quality, and to include peer reviews of taxa on the Red List. The list is also open to petitions against its classifications, on the basis of documentation or criteria.


title: IUCN Red List

text: In the November 2002 issue of Trends in Ecology & Evolution, an article suggested that the IUCN Red List and similar works are prone to misuse by governments and other groups that draw possibly inappropriate conclusions on the state of the environment or to affect exploitation of natural resources.


title: IUCN Red List

text: In the November 2016 issue of Science Advances, a research article claims there are serious inconsistencies in the way species are classified by the IUCN. The researchers contend that the IUCN's process of categorization is "out-dated, and leaves room for improvement", and further emphasize the importance of readily available and easy-to-include geospatial data, such as satellite and aerial imaging. Their conclusion questioned not only the IUCN's method but also the validity of where certain species fall on the List. They believe that combining geographical data can significantly increase the number of species that need to be reclassified to a higher risk category.


title: Qantas

text: Qantas Airways Limited ( ) is the flag carrier of Australia and the country's largest airline by fleet size, international flights, and international destinations. It is the world's third-oldest airline still in operation, having been founded in November 1920; it began international passenger flights in May 1935. "Qantas" is an acronym of the airline's original name, Queensland and Northern Territory Aerial Services, as it originally served Queensland and the Northern Territory, and is popularly nicknamed "The Flying Kangaroo". Qantas is a founding member of the Oneworld airline alliance.


title: Qantas

text: The airline is based in the Sydney suburb of Mascot, adjacent to its main hub at Sydney Airport. , Qantas had a 65 per cent share of the Australian domestic market and carried 14.9 per cent of all passengers travelling into and out of Australia. Various subsidiary airlines operate to regional centres and on some trunk routes within Australia under the QantasLink banner. Qantas also owns Jetstar, a low-cost airline that operates both international services from Australia and domestic services within Australia and New Zealand; and holds stakes in a number of other Jetstar-branded airlines.


title: Qantas

text: Qantas was founded in Winton, Queensland on 16 November 1920 by Hudson Fysh, Paul McGinness and Fergus McMaster as Queensland and Northern Territory Aerial Services Limited. The airline's first aircraft was an Avro 504K. It moved its headquarters to Longreach, Queensland in 1921 and Brisbane, Queensland in 1930.


title: Qantas

text: In 1934, QANTAS and Britain's Imperial Airways (a forerunner of British Airways) formed a new company, Qantas Empire Airways Limited (QEA). The new airline commenced operations in December 1934, flying between Brisbane and Darwin. QEA flew internationally from May 1935, when the service from Darwin was extended to Singapore (Imperial Airways operated the rest of the service through to London). When World War II began, enemy action and accidents destroyed half of the fleet of ten, and most of the fleet was taken over by the Australian government for war service.


title: Qantas

text: Flying boat services were resumed in 1943, with flights between the Swan River at Crawley in Perth, Western Australia and Koggala Lake in Ceylon (now Sri Lanka). This linked up with the British Overseas Airways Corporation (BOAC, the successor airline to Imperial Airways) service to London. Qantas' kangaroo logo was first used on the "Kangaroo Route", begun in 1944, from Sydney to Karachi, where BOAC crews took over for the rest of the journey to the UK.


title: Qantas

text: In 1947, QEA was nationalised by the Australian government led by Labor Prime Minister Ben Chifley. QANTAS Limited was then wound up. After nationalisation, Qantas' remaining domestic network, in Queensland, was transferred to the also nationally owned Trans-Australia Airlines, leaving Qantas with a purely international network. Shortly after nationalisation, QEA began its first services outside the British Empire, to Tokyo. Services to Hong Kong began around the same time. In 1957 a head office, Qantas House, opened in Sydney.


title: Qantas

text: In June 1959, Qantas entered the jet age when the first Boeing 707–138 was delivered. On , Qantas merged with nationally owned domestic airline Australian Airlines (renamed from Trans-Australia Airlines in 1986). The airline started to be rebranded as Qantas in the following year. Qantas was gradually privatised between 1993 and 1997. Under legislation passed to allow the privatisation, Qantas must be at least 51% owned by Australian shareholders.


title: Qantas

text: In 1998, Qantas co-founded the Oneworld alliance with American Airlines, British Airways, Canadian Airlines, and Cathay Pacific, with other airlines joining subsequently.


title: Qantas

text: With the entry of new discount airline Virgin Blue (now Virgin Australia) into the domestic market in 2000, Qantas' market share fell. Qantas created the budget Jetstar in 2001 to compete. The main domestic competitor to Qantas, Ansett Australia, collapsed on 14 September 2001. Market share for Qantas immediately neared 90%, but competition with Virgin increased as it expanded; the market share of the Qantas Group eventually settled at a relatively stable position of about 65%, with 30% for Virgin and other regional airlines accounting for the rest of the market.


title: Qantas

text: Qantas briefly revived the Australian Airlines name for a short-lived international budget airline between 2002 and 2006, but this subsidiary was shut down in favour of expanding Jetstar internationally, including to New Zealand. In 2004, the Qantas group expanded into the Asian budget airline market with Jetstar Asia Airways, in which Qantas owns a minority stake. A similar model was used for the investment into Jetstar Pacific, headquartered in Vietnam, in 2007, and Jetstar Japan, launched in 2012.


title: Qantas

text: In December 2006, Qantas was the subject of a failed bid from a consortium calling itself Airline Partners Australia. Merger talks with British Airways in 2008 also did not proceed to an agreement. In 2011, industrial relations dispute between Qantas and the Transport Workers Union of Australia resulted in the grounding of all Qantas aircraft and lock-out of the airline's staff for two days.


title: Qantas

text: On 25 March 2018, a Qantas Boeing 787 scheduled non-stop commercial flight between Australia and Europe connecting the two continents by air for the first time, with the inaugural arrival in London of Flight 9 (QF9). QF9 was a 17-hour, 14,498 km (9,009-mile) journey from Perth Airport in Western Australia to London Heathrow.


title: Qantas

text: On 20 October 2019, Qantas Airways completed the longest commercial flight to date between New York City and Sydney using Boeing 787–9 Dreamliner in 19 hours and 20 minutes.


title: Qantas

text: On 19 March 2020, Qantas confirmed it would suspend about 60% of domestic flights, put two thirds of its employees on leave, suspend all international flights and ground more than 150 of its aircraft from the end of March until at least 31 May 2020 following expanded government travel restrictions due to the COVID-19 pandemic. To survive the pandemic, Qantas announced that it would be axing 6,000 jobs and announced a plan to raise A$1.9 billion in new capital. Qantas also announced it would be offloading its 30% stake in Jetstar Pacific to Vietnam Airlines, hence retiring the Jetstar brand in Vietnam.


title: Qantas

text: Qantas retired its last Boeing 747 in July 2020 after almost 49 years of continuous operation—the first 747 was inducted in August 1971, while all twelve Airbus A380s were placed in storage (ten at Mojave Air & Space Port and two at Los Angeles International Airport) for a minimum of three years. The pilots of the last Boeing 747 flight to Mojave Desert via Los Angeles traced the shape of the iconic Qantas logo in the flight path before the jet continued on its journey.


title: Qantas

text: In November 2020, Qantas announced that the company will ask for proof of COVID-19 vaccination from international travelers. According to Alan Joyce, the firm's CEO, a coronavirus vaccine would become a "necessity" when travelling, "We are looking at changing our terms and conditions to say for international travellers, we will ask people to have a vaccination before they can get on the aircraft." Qantas also announced that it will cut 2000 jobs trying to limit its financial losses.


title: Qantas

text: In August 2021, Qantas announced that it would require all of its 22,000 employees to be fully vaccinated against the virus.


title: Qantas

text: In May 2022, Qantas ordered twelve A350-1000 planes from Airbus to be used in non-stop flights from Sydney to London in late 2025. In the same month, Qantas agreed terms to purchase Alliance Airlines. The deal is currently subjected to regulatory and shareholder approval.


title: Qantas

text: In August 2022, Qantas Airways announced plans to compete in June 2023 with Air New Zealand on the non-stop Auckland—New York route, which Qantas would originate in Sydney before converting the flight in 2025 to a non-stop Sydney—New York route as part of Project Sunrise, through which Qantas aims to eliminate the "tyranny of distance" by developing non-stop flight routes connecting Australian cities to New York City, and also to London.


title: Qantas

text: Qantas operates flightseeing charters to Antarctica on behalf of Croydon Travel. It first flew Antarctic flightseeing trips in 1977. They were suspended for a number of years due to the crash of Air New Zealand Flight 901 on Mount Erebus in 1979. Qantas restarted the flights in 1994. Although these flights do not touch down, they require specific polar operations and crew training due to factors like sector whiteout, which contributed to the 1979 Air New Zealand disaster.


title: Qantas

text: With Flights 7 and 8 – a non-stop service between Sydney and Dallas/Fort Worth operated by the Airbus A380 – commencing on 29 September 2014, Qantas operated the world's longest passenger flight on the world's largest passenger aircraft. This was overtaken on 1 March 2016 by Emirates' new Auckland-Dubai service. After it ordered Boeing 787 aircraft, Qantas announced an intention to launch non-stop flights between Australia and the United Kingdom during March 2018 from Perth to London. The inaugural flight left Perth on 24 March.


title: Qantas

text: On 19 March 2020, Qantas confirmed it would suspend all international flights and about 60% of domestic flights from the end of March until at least 31 May 2020 following expanded government travel restrictions due to the COVID-19 pandemic.


title: Qantas

text: In addition to the above codeshares, Qantas has entered into joint ventures with the following airlines:


title: Qantas

text: , Qantas and its subsidiaries operated 323 aircraft, including 75 aircraft by Jetstar Airways; 109 by the various QantasLink-branded airlines and 15 by Express Freighters Australia (on behalf of Qantas Freight, which also wet leases two Atlas Air Boeing 747-400Fs).


title: Qantas

text: The key trends for the Qantas Group (Qantas Airways Ltd and Controlled Entities, which includes Jetstar and Qantas Cargo), are shown below (as at year ending 30 June):


title: Qantas

text: In late February 2021 Qantas reported a half-year revenue loss of A$1.08 billion. Revenue fell by 75 per cent to A$2.3 billion, passenger numbers fell by 83 per cent.


title: Qantas

text: Qantas' headquarters are located at the Qantas Centre in the suburb of Mascot, Sydney, New South Wales. The headquarters underwent a redevelopment which was completed in December 2013.


title: Qantas

text: Qantas operates a freight service under the name Qantas Freight (which uses aircraft operated by Qantas subsidiary Express Freighters Australia and also leases aircraft from Atlas Air) and also wholly owns the logistics-and-air-freight company Australian airExpress.


title: Qantas

text: Qantas, through its Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Programme, has some links with the Aboriginal Australian community. In the Qantas Reconciliation Action Plan 2015 – 2018, Qantas revealed that 1 percent of all their staff are Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander. Qantas employs a full-time Diversity Coordinator, who is responsible for the programme.


title: Qantas

text: Qantas has also bought and donated Aboriginal art. An installation at its passenger lounge in Brisbane features a painting by Jenna Lee. Qantas has had a number of its planes painted with the art of Aboriginal artist Emily Kame Kngwarreye and others with art inspired by Rene Kulitja and Paddy Bedford.


title: Qantas

text: An early television campaign, starting in 1969 and running for several decades, was aimed at American audiences; it featured a live koala, voiced by Howard Morris, who complained that too many tourists were coming to Australia and concluded "I hate Qantas." The koala ads have been ranked among the greatest commercials of all time. A long-running advertising campaign features renditions by children's choirs of Peter Allen's "I Still Call Australia Home", at various famous landmarks in Australia and foreign locations such as Venice. The song has also been used in Qantas's safety videos since 2018.


title: Qantas

text: Qantas is the main sponsor of the Australia national rugby union team. It also sponsors the Socceroos, Australia's national association football team. Qantas was the naming rights sponsor for the Formula One Australian Grand Prix from 2010 until 2012. On 26 December 2011, Qantas signed a four-year deal with Australian cricket's governing body Cricket Australia, to be the official carrier of the Australia national cricket team.


title: Qantas

text: Qantas management has expressed strong support for Marriage Equality and LGBTIQ issues, with CEO Alan Joyce said to be, "arguably the most prominent corporate voice in the marriage equality campaign." As official airline partner for the Sydney Mardi Gras, Qantas decorated one of its aircraft with rainbow wording and positioned a rainbow flag next to the tail's flying kangaroo. Qantas also served pride cookies to its passengers. It had a rainbow roo float in the Mardi Gras parade. There has been criticism of Qantas using its corporate power to prosecute the private interests on their staff and the community. Peter Dutton has said that chief executives such as Alan Joyce at Qantas should "stick to their knitting" rather than using the company's brand to advocate for political causes. A senior church leader has made similar comments. Despite the criticism, Qantas will continue to advocate for marriage equality which will include offering customers specially commissioned rings with the phrase, "until we all belong". This phrase will also appear on Qantas boarding passes and other paraphernalia. The cost of the campaign by Qantas and other participating companies is expected to be more than $5 million.


title: Qantas

text: Joyce has pledged Qantas will, "continue social-justice campaigning". In relation to Israel Folau, sacked by Rugby Australia which is financially supported by Qantas, following his social media postings on homosexuality.


title: Qantas

text: In August 2011, the company announced that following financial losses of A$200 million ($209 million) for the year ending June 2011 and a decline in market share, major structural changes would be made. One planned change that did not come to fruition was the plan to create a new Asia-based premium airline that would operate under a different name. In addition to this plan, Qantas announced it planned to cut 1,000 jobs. The reforms included route changes, in particular the cessation of services to London via Hong Kong and Bangkok. While Qantas still operated in these cities, onward flights to London would be via its Oneworld partner British Airways under a code-share service.


title: Qantas

text: The following year Qantas reported an A$245 million full-year loss to the end of June 2012, citing high fuel prices, intense competition and industrial disputes. This was the first full year loss since Qantas was fully privatised 17 years previously, in 1995, and led to the airline cancelling its order of 35 new Boeing 787 aircraft, to reduce its spending. Qantas subsequently divested itself of its 50% holding of StarTrack, Australia's largest road freight company, in part for acquiring full interest in Australian airExpress. On 26 March 2012, Qantas set up Jetstar Hong Kong with China Eastern Airlines Corporation, which was intended to begin flights in 2013, but became embroiled in a protracted approval process.


title: Qantas

text: Qantas and Emirates began an alliance on 31 March 2013, in which their combined carriers offered 98 flights per week to Dubai, that saw bookings up six-fold. In September 2013, following the announcement the carrier expected another A$250 million ( million) net loss for the half-year period that ended on 31 December and the implementation of further cost-cutting measures that would see the cut of 1,000 jobs within a year, S&P downgraded Qantas credit from BBB- (the lowest investment grade) to BB+. Moody's applied a similar downgrading a month later.


title: Qantas

text: Losses continued into 2014 reporting year, with the Qantas Group reporting a half year loss of A$235 million ( million) and eventual full year loss of A$2.84 billion. In February 2014 additional cost-cutting measures to save A$2 billion, including the loss of 5,000 jobs that will see the workforce lowered from 32,000 to 27,000 by 2017 were announced. In May 2014 the company stated it expected to shed 2,200 jobs by June 2014, including those of 100 pilots. The carrier also reduced the size of its fleet by retiring aircraft and deferring deliveries; and planned to sell some of its assets. With 2,200 employees laid off by June 2014, another 1,800 job positions were planned to be cut by June 2015. Also during 2014 the "Qantas Sale Act", under which the airline was privatised, was amended to repeal parts of section 7. That act limits foreign ownership of Qantas to 49 percent, with foreign airlines subject to further restrictions, including a 35-percent limit for all foreign airline shareholdings combined. In addition, a single foreign entity can hold no more than 25 percent of the airline's shares.


title: Qantas

text: The airline returned to profit in 2015, announcing a A$557 million after tax profit in August 2015, in contrast with a A$2.84 billion loss the year earlier. In 2015, Qantas sold its lease of Terminal 3 at Sydney Airport, which was due to continue until 2019, back to Sydney Airport Corporation for $535 million. This meant Sydney Airport resumed operational responsibility of the terminal, including the lucrative retail areas.


title: Qantas

text: Beginning in the early 2000s Qantas began working with industrial designer Marc Newson on aircraft seating and cabin interiors, product design, and first-class lounges. This collaboration resulted in the introduction of the Skybed business class seat in 2003 and led to Newson being named as the first Creative Director of Qantas in 2006. Newson was responsible for the design of the Qantas A380 fleet which first entered service in 2008. Subsequently, Newson protégé David Caon was engaged to design the Boeing 787-9 Dreamliner cabins and seating, as well as new first-class and business class lounges, furniture, and accessories. Furniture and accessories designed for Qantas first-class lounges and in-flight service has been manufactured by companies such as Poltrona Frau, Cappellini, Alessi, and Noritake. Qantas has received many awards for design.


title: Qantas

text: Australian chef and entrepreneur Neil Perry, owner of Sydney's "Margaret" and "Rockpool Bar & Grill" restaurants, has been responsible for the in-flight and ground based culinary offerings of the airline since becoming the director of food, beverage, and service in 1997. In 2022, to celebrate the 25-year collaboration with Perry, Qantas reintroduced a selection of his most popular inflight and lounge dishes.


title: Qantas

text: Paris-based Australian designer Martin Grant is responsible for the new Qantas airline staff uniforms that were publicly unveiled on 16 April 2013. These were to replace the previous uniforms, dubbed colloquially as "Morrissey" by staff after the designer, Peter Morrissey. The new outfits combine the colours of navy blue, red and fuchsia pink. Qantas chief executive Alan Joyce stated that the new design "speaks of Australian style on the global stage" at the launch event that involved Qantas employees modelling the uniforms. Grant consulted with Qantas staff members over the course of one year to finalise the 35 styles that were eventually created. Not all employees were happy with the new uniform, however, with one flight attendant being quoted as saying "The uniforms are really tight and they are simply not practical for the very physical job we have to do." In 2020 Grant also designed a Qantas branded athleisure-wear collection.


title: Qantas

text: Two Qantas aircraft are currently decorated with an Indigenous Australian art scheme. One aircraft, a Boeing 737–800, wears a livery called "Mendoowoorrji", which was revealed in November 2013. The design was drawn from the late West Australian Aboriginal artist Paddy Bedford.


title: Qantas

text: A Boeing 787–9 Dreamliner is adorned in a paint scheme inspired by the late Emily Kame Kngwarreye's 1991 painting "Yam Dreaming". The adaptation of "Yam Dreaming" to the aircraft, led by Balarinji, a Sydney-based and Aboriginal-owned design firm, incorporates the red Qantas tailfin into the design, which includes white dots with red and orange tones. The design depicts the yam plant, an important and culturally significant symbol in Kngwarreye's Dreaming stories, and a staple food source in her home region of Utopia. The design was applied to the aircraft during manufacture, prior to its delivery in March 2018 to Alice Springs Airport, situated 230 kilometers southeast of Utopia, where the aircraft was met by Kngwarreye's descendants, the local community, and Qantas executives. The aircraft would later operate Qantas' inaugural nonstop services between Perth and London Heathrow, and between Melbourne and San Francisco, scheduled with Boeing 787 aircraft.


title: Qantas

text: Australian Aboriginal art designs have previously adorned some Qantas aircraft; the first design was called "Wunala Dreaming", which was unveiled in 1994 and had been painted on now-retired Boeing 747–400 and 747-400ER aircraft between 1994 and 2012. The "motif" was an overall-red design depicting ancestral spirits in the form of kangaroos travelling in the outback.


title: Qantas

text: The second design was called "Nalanji Dreaming" and was depicted on a Boeing 747–300 from 1995 until its retirement in 2005. "Nalanji Dreaming" was a bright blue design inspired by rainforest landscape and tropical seas.


title: Qantas

text: The third design was titled "Yananyi Dreaming," and featured a depiction of Uluru. The scheme was designed by Uluru-based artist Rene Kulitja, in collaboration with Balarinji. It was painted on the 737 at the Boeing factory prior to its delivery in 2002. It was repainted into the standard livery in 2014.


title: Qantas

text: In November 2014 the airline revealed that the 75th Boeing 737–800 jet to be delivered would carry a 'retro-livery' based on the airline's 1971 'ochre' colour scheme design featuring the iconic 'Flying Kangaroo' on its tail and other aspects drawn from its 1970s fleet. The aircraft was delivered on 17 November.


title: Qantas

text: Qantas announced a second 737–800 would receive a 'retro roo' livery in October 2015. On 16 November 2015 the airline unveiled the second 'retro roo' 737, bearing a replica livery from 1959 to celebrate the airline's 95th birthday.


title: Qantas

text: Several Qantas aircraft have been decorated with promotional liveries, promoting telecommunications company Optus; the Disney motion picture "Planes"; the Australian national association football team, the Socceroos; and the Australian national rugby union team, the Wallabies. Two aircraft – an Airbus A330-200 and a Boeing 747-400ER – were decorated with special liveries promoting the Oneworld airline alliance (of which Qantas is a member) in 2009. On 29 September 2014, nonstop Airbus A380 service to Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport was inaugurated using an A380 decorated with a commemorative cowboy hat and bandana on the kangaroo tail logo. Prior to the 2017 Sydney Mardi Gras, Qantas decorated one of its Airbus A330-300 aircraft with rainbow lettering and depicted a rainbow flag on the tail of the aircraft.


title: Qantas

text: Qantas domestic flights are primarily operated by Boeing 737-800 and Airbus A330-200 aircraft; Airbus A330-300s sometimes operate domestically as well. A two-class configuration (Business and Economy) is offered.


title: Qantas

text: Domestic Business Class is offered on all Boeing 737 and Airbus A330 aircraft. On the Boeing 737, Business is exclusively available in the first three rows of the cabin, with a seat configuration of 2–2, seat recline, and a larger pitch between seats. As the A330s operate international flights, Business Suites are sometimes available on domestic routes. These seats feature all-aisle access in a 1-2-1 configuration and a fully flat bed.


title: Qantas

text: Domestic Economy Class is offered on all Boeing 737 and Airbus A330 aircraft. Seat pitch is usually and seat width ranges from . Layouts are 3–3 on the 737 and 2-4-2 on the A330.


title: Qantas

text: Qantas international flights are primarily operated on Airbus A380s, A330-300s, Boeing 787s, and sometimes on Airbus A330-200s and Boeing 737-800s. Passenger class configuration varies by aircraft, with the Airbus A330-300 offering a two-class configuration of Business and Economy on short to medium-haul flights. This compares to the Airbus A380, which offers a four-class configuration of First, Business, Premium Economy, and Economy on selected long haul flights.


title: Qantas

text: It offers 14 individual suites in a 1-1-1 layout. The seats rotate, facing forward for takeoff, but rotating to the side for dining and sleeping, with 83.5 in seat pitch (extending to a 212 cm fully flat bed) and a width of . Each suite has a widescreen HD monitor with 1,000 AVOD programs. In addition to 110 V AC power outlets, USB ports are offered for connectivity. Passengers are also able to make use of the on-board business lounge on the upper deck. Complimentary access to both the first class and business class lounges (or affiliated lounges) is offered.


title: Qantas

text: Updated versions of this seat were fitted to the airline's refurbished Airbus A380 aircraft from late 2019. This seat featured refreshed cushioning and larger entertainment screens compared to the older version seat.


title: Qantas

text: On all International and selected Domestic flights, Qantas offers two different types of Business Class seats, as listed below.


title: Qantas

text: These seats include beds and are in a 1-2-1 configuration. The Business Suite was introduced on the A330 in October 2014, and also contains a bed. This seat includes a Panasonic eX3 system with a touchscreen. By the end of 2016, the business class seats of Qantas' entire Airbus A330 fleet were refitted. Airbus A330 Business Suites are available on Asian routes, transcontinental routes across Australia and smaller routes such as the East Coast triangle.


title: Qantas

text: On the Airbus A380, 64 fully-flat Skybed seats are available with seat pitch (converting to a 200 cm long bed). These seats are located on the upper deck in a 2-2-2 configuration in two separate cabins. Features include a 30 cm touchscreen monitor with 1,000 AVOD programmes and an on-board lounge. Airbus A380 Business Skybeds are available on Qantas' flagship routes such as Australia to/from London via Singapore, Los Angeles, Dallas, and Hong Kong (seasonal).


title: Qantas

text: The Skybed 1 (Mark I) version of the lie-flat seats, featured between 2003 and 2019 had of seat pitch and width; however passengers slept at a distinct slope to the cabin floor. The Skybed 2 (Mark II) version, introduced in 2008 has a pitch, and allows passengers to lie fully horizontal.


title: Qantas

text: On the now-retired Boeing 747, seating was in a 2-3-2 configuration on the main deck and a 2–2 configuration on the upper deck. Skybed seats on Boeing 747s featured a touchscreen monitor with 400 AVOD programs. Before their retirement, Boeing 747 Business Skybeds were available on Asian, African, and South American routes.


title: Qantas

text: In 2019, Qantas began the process of retrofitting its Airbus A380 aircraft with new Business Suites as offered on Airbus A330 and Boeing 787 aircraft. The aircraft will gain six business class seats compared to the previous configuration.


title: Qantas

text: On the Airbus A380, the seat pitch ranges from , with a width of . On the Boeing 787, it is configured in a 2-3-2 seating arrangement around the middle of the aircraft, whereas it is in a 2-3-2 seating arrangement at the rear of the upper deck on the A380. The total number of seats depends on the aircraft type, as A380s have 35–60 seats, (depending on the configuration) and 787s have 28 seats.


title: Qantas

text: Qantas premium economy is presented as a lighter business class product rather than most other airlines' premium economy, which is often presented as a higher economy class, however Qantas premium economy does not offer access to premium lounges, and meals are only a slightly uprated version of economy class meals.


title: Qantas

text: In 2019, Qantas began the process of retrofitting its Airbus A380 aircraft with new Premium Economy seats, as offered on Boeing 787 aircraft. The aircraft will gain 25 premium economy seats compared to the previous configuration.


title: Qantas

text: Seat pitch is usually and seat width ranges from . Layouts are 3–3 on the 737, 2-4-2 on the A330, and 3-3-3 on the B787-9. On the A380, the layout is 3-4-3 and there are four self-service snack bars located in between cabins.


title: Qantas

text: In 2019, Qantas began the process of retrofitting its Airbus A380 aircraft which includes new Economy seats with new seat cushions and improved inflight entertainment, as offered on Airbus A330 and Boeing 787 aircraft. The aircraft will have fewer economy seats compared to the previous configuration due to an increase in the number of premium seats.


title: Qantas

text: Every Qantas mainline aircraft has some form of video audio entertainment. Qantas has several types of in-flight entertainment (IFE) systems installed on its aircraft and refers to the in-flight experience as "On:Q".


title: Qantas

text: The "Total Entertainment System" by Rockwell Collins was featured on selected domestic and international aircraft between 2000 and 2019. This AVOD system included personal LCD screens in all classes, located in the seat back for economy and business class, and in the armrest for premium economy and first class.


title: Qantas

text: The Mainscreen System is featured on selected Boeing 737–800 aircraft. This entertainment system, introduced between 2002 and 2011, has overhead video screens as the main form of entertainment. Movies are shown on the screens for lengthier flights or TV programmes on shorter flights. A news telecast will usually feature at the start of the flight. Audio options are less varied than on Q, iQ or the Total Entertainment System.


title: Qantas

text: The "iQ" inflight entertainment system by Panasonic Avionics Corporation is featured on all Boeing 747, and selected Airbus A380 and Boeing 737–800 aircraft. This audio video on demand (AVOD) experience, introduced in 2008, is based on the Panasonic Avionics system and features expanded entertainment options; touch screens; and new communications-related features such as Wi-Fi and mobile phone functionality; as well as increased support for electronics (such as USB and iPod connectivity).


title: Qantas

text: The "Q" inflight entertainment system by Panasonic Avionics Corporation in collaboration with Massive Interactive is featured on all Airbus A330-300, A330-200, Boeing 787 and selected Airbus A380 aircraft. This audio video on demand (AVOD) experience, introduced in 2014 and updated in 2018 on selected aircraft, is based on the Panasonic eX3 system and features extensive entertainment options; enhanced touch screens; and communications-related features such as Wi-Fi and mobile phone functionality; as well as increased support for electronics (such as USB and iPod connectivity). A "my flight" feature offers access to maps, playlists, and a service timeline showing when drinks and meals will be served and the best time for resting on long-haul flights.


title: Qantas

text: Q Streaming is an in-flight entertainment system in which entertainment is streamed to iPads or personal devices available in all classes on selected aircraft. A selection of movies, TV, music, and a kids' choice are available.


title: Qantas

text: In 2007, Qantas conducted a trial for use of mobile telephones with AeroMobile, during domestic services for three months on a Boeing 767. During the trial, passengers were allowed to send and receive text messages and emails but were not able to make or receive calls.


title: Qantas

text: Since 2014, Sky News Australia has provided multiple news bulletins both in-flight and in Qantas branded lounges. Previously, the Australian Nine Network provided a news bulletin for Qantas entitled "Nine's Qantas Inflight News", which was the same broadcast as Nine's "", however Nine lost the contract to Sky News.


title: Qantas

text: In July 2015, Qantas signed a deal with American cable network HBO to provide over 120 hours of television programming in-flight from the network which will be updated monthly, as well as original lifestyle and entertainment programming from both Foxtel and the National Geographic Channel. In August 2022, it was announced that the airline had partnered with Network 10 owner Paramount to launch the Paramount+ service on its in-flight entertainment systems.


title: Qantas

text: In 2017 Qantas commenced rolling out complimentary high speed Wi-Fi on domestic aircraft. The services utilises NBN Co Sky Muster satellites to deliver higher speeds than generally offered by onboard Wi-Fi. Previously, in July 2007, Qantas announced that Wi-Fi would be available on its long haul A380s and 747-400s although that system ultimately did not proceed following trials.


title: Qantas

text: "Qantas: The Australian Way" is the airline's in-flight magazine. In mid-2015, the magazine ended a 14-year publishing deal with Bauer Media, switching its publisher to Medium Rare.


title: Qantas

text: The Qantas Club is the airline lounge for Qantas with airport locations around Australia and the world. Additionally, Qantas operates dedicated international first-class lounges in Sydney, Melbourne, Auckland, Los Angeles and Singapore. Domestically, Qantas also offers dedicated Business Lounges at Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, Canberra and Perth for domestic Business Class, Qantas Platinum and Platinum One, and OneWorld Emerald frequent flyers.


title: Qantas

text: In April 2013, Qantas opened its new flagship lounge in Singapore, the Qantas Singapore Lounge. This replaced the former separate first- and business-class lounges as a result of the new Emirates alliance. Similar combined lounges were also opened in Hong Kong in April 2014 and in Brisbane in October 2016. These new lounges provide the same service currently offered by Sofitel in its flagship First lounges in Sydney and Melbourne and a dining experience featuring Neil Perry's Spice Temple inspired dishes and signature cocktails.


title: Qantas

text: Qantas Club Members, Gold Frequent Flyers, and Oneworld Sapphire holders are permitted to enter domestic Qantas Clubs when flying on Qantas or Jetstar flights along with one guest who need not be travelling. Platinum and Oneworld Emerald Members are permitted to bring in two guests who do not need to be travelling. Internationally, members use Qantas International Business Class lounges (or the Oneworld equivalent). Guests of the member must be travelling to gain access to international lounges. When flying with American Airlines, members have access to Admirals Club lounges and when flying on British Airways, members have access to British Airways' Terraces and Galleries Lounges.


title: Qantas

text: Platinum Frequent Flyers had previously been able to access the Qantas Club in Australian domestic terminals at any time, regardless of whether they were flying that day. Travellers holding Oneworld Sapphire or Emerald status are also allowed in Qantas Club lounges worldwide.


title: Qantas

text: Access to Qantas First lounges is open to passengers travelling on internationally operated Qantas or Oneworld first-class flights, as well as Qantas platinum and Oneworld emerald frequent flyers. Emirates first-class passengers are also eligible for access to the Qantas first lounges in Sydney and Melbourne.


title: Qantas

text: The Qantas Club also offers membership by paid subscription (one, two, or four years) or by achievement of Gold or Platinum frequent flyer status. Benefits of membership include lounge access, priority check-in, priority luggage handling and increased luggage allowances.


title: Qantas

text: The Qantas frequent-flyer program is aimed at rewarding customer loyalty. The program is long-standing, although the date of the actual inception has been a matter that has generated some commentary. Qantas state the program launched in 1987 although other sources claim what is the current program was launched in the early 1990s, with a Captain's Club program existing before that.


title: Qantas

text: Points are accrued based on distance flown, with bonuses that vary by travel class. Points can also be earned on other Oneworld airlines as well as through other non-airline partners. Points can be redeemed for flights or upgrades on flights operated by Qantas, Oneworld airlines, and other partners. Other partners include credit cards, car rental companies, hotels and many others. Flights with Qantas and selected partner airlines earn Status Credits — and accumulation of these allows progression to Silver status (Oneworld Ruby), Gold status (Oneworld Sapphire), Platinum and Platinum One status (Oneworld Emerald).


title: Qantas

text: Membership of the program has grown significantly since 2000, when the program had 2.4 million members. By 2005 membership had grown to 4.3 million, then to 7.2 million by 2010 and 10.8 million in 2015. As at 2018, the program has 12.3 million members, or approaching the equivalent of half of the Australian population.


title: Qantas

text: Qantas has faced criticism regarding availability of seats for members redeeming points. In 2004, the Australian Competition & Consumer Commission directed Qantas to provide greater disclosure to members regarding the availability of frequent-flyer seats.


title: Qantas

text: In March 2008, an analyst at JPMorgan Chase suggested that the Qantas frequent-flyer program could be worth A$2 billion (US$1.9 billion), representing more than a quarter of the total market value of Qantas.


title: Qantas

text: On 1 July 2008 a major overhaul of the program was announced. The two key new features of the program were Any Seat rewards, in which members could now redeem any seat on an aircraft, rather than just selected seats — at a price. The second new feature was Points Plus Pay, which has enabled members to use a combination of cash and points to redeem an award. Additionally, the Frequent Flyer store was also expanded to include a greater range of products and services.


title: Qantas

text: Announcing the revamp, Qantas confirmed it would be seeking to raise about A$1 billion in 2008 by selling up to 40% of the frequent flyer program. However, in September 2008, it stated it would defer the float, citing volatile market conditions.


title: Qantas

text: It is often claimed that Qantas has never had an aircraft crash. While it is true that the company has neither lost a jet airliner nor had any jet fatalities, it had eight fatal accidents and an aircraft shot down between 1927 and 1945, with the loss of 63 people. Half of these accidents and the shoot-down occurred during World War II, when the Qantas aircraft were operating on behalf of Allied military forces. Post-war, it lost another four aircraft (one was owned by BOAC and operated by Qantas in a pooling arrangement) with a total of 21 people killed. The last fatal accidents suffered by Qantas were in 1951, with three fatal crashes in five months. Qantas' safety record allows the airline to be officially known as the world's safest airline for seven years in a row from 2012 until 2019 and again in 2021.


title: Qantas

text: On 26 May 1971 Qantas received a call from a "Mr. Brown" claiming that there was a bomb planted on a Hong Kong-bound jet and demanding $500,000 in unmarked $20 notes. The caller and threat were taken seriously when he directed police to an airport locker where a functional bomb was found. Arrangements were made to pick up the money in front of the head office of the airline in the heart of the Sydney business district. Qantas paid the money and it was collected, after which Mr. Brown called again, advising the "bomb on the plane" story was a hoax. The initial pursuit of the perpetrator was bungled by the New South Wales Police Force which, despite having been advised of the matter from the time of the first call, failed to establish adequate surveillance of the pick-up of the money. Directed not to use their radios (for fear of being "overheard"), the police were unable to communicate adequately. Tipped off by a still-unidentified informer, the police arrested an Englishman, Peter Macari, finding more than $138,000 hidden in an Annandale property. Convicted and sentenced to 15 years in prison, Macari served nine years before being deported to Britain. More than $224,000 remains unaccounted for. The 1986 telemovie "Call Me Mr. Brown", directed by Scott Hicks and produced by Terry Jennings, relates to this incident. On 4 July 1997 a copycat extortion attempt was thwarted by police and Qantas security staff.


title: Qantas

text: In November 2005 it was revealed that Qantas had a policy of not seating adult male passengers next to unaccompanied children. This led to accusations of discrimination. The policy came to light following an incident in 2004 when Mark Wolsay, who was seated next to a young boy on a Qantas flight in New Zealand, was asked to change seats with a female passenger. A steward informed him that "it was the airline's policy that only women were allowed to sit next to unaccompanied children". Cameron Murphy of the NSW Council for Civil Liberties president criticised the policy and stated that "there was no basis for the ban". He said it was wrong to assume that all adult males posed a danger to children. The policy has also been criticised for failing to take female abusers into consideration.


title: Qantas

text: In 2010, when British Airways was successfully sued to change its child seating policy, Qantas argued again that banning men from sitting next to unaccompanied children "reflected parents' concerns". In August 2012, the controversy resurfaced when a male passenger had to swap seats with a female passenger after the crew noticed he was sitting next to an unrelated girl travelling alone. The man felt discriminated against and humiliated before the other passengers as a possible paedophile. A Qantas spokesman defended the policy as consistent with that of other airlines in Australia and around the globe.


title: Qantas

text: In 2006 a class action lawsuit, alleging price-fixing on air cargo freight, was commenced in Australia. The lawsuit was settled early in 2011 with Qantas agreeing to pay in excess of $21 million to settle the case.


title: Qantas

text: Qantas has pleaded guilty to participating in a cartel that fixed the price of air cargo. Qantas Airways Ltd. was fined CAD$155,000 after it admitted that its freight division fixed surcharges on cargo exported on certain routes from Canada between May 2002 and February 2006. In July 2007, Qantas pleaded guilty in the United States to price fixing and was fined a total of $61 million through the Department of Justice investigation. The executive in charge was jailed for six months. Other Qantas executives were granted immunity after the airline agreed to co-operate with authorities. In 2008 the Australian Competition & Consumer Commission fined the airline $20 million for breaches of the acts associated with protecting consumers. In November 2010 Qantas was fined 8.8 million euros for its part in an air cargo cartel involving up to 11 other airlines. Qantas was fined NZ$6.5 million in April 2011 when it pleaded guilty in the New Zealand High Court to the cartel operation.


title: Qantas

text: In response to ongoing industrial unrest over failed negotiations involving three unions (the Australian Licensed Aircraft Engineers Association (ALAEA), the Australian and International Pilots Association (AIPA) and the Transport Workers Union of Australia (TWU)), the company grounded its entire domestic and international fleet from 5 pm AEDT on 29 October. Employees involved would be locked out from 8 p.m. AEDT on 31 October. It was reported that the grounding would have a daily financial impact of A$20 million. In the early hours of 31 October, Fair Work Australia ordered that all industrial action taken by Qantas and the involved trade unions be terminated immediately. The order was requested by the federal government amid fears that an extended period of grounding would do significant damage to the national economy, especially the tourism and mining sectors. The grounding affected an estimated 68,000 customers worldwide.


title: Qantas

text: Qantas has been subject to protests in relation to the deportation of asylum seekers, which led to disruptions of flights. In 2015 activists prevented the transfer of a Tamil man from Melbourne to Darwin (from where he was to be deported to Colombo) by refusing to take their seats on a Qantas flight. It was reported that Qantas banned the student from taking Qantas flights in the future. A nameless head of security from Qantas sent a letter to the Melbourne student's email account saying her "actions are unacceptable and will not be tolerated by the Qantas Group or the Jetstar Group". Also in 2015, another Tamil man was to be sent from Melbourne to Darwin to later be deported. A protest by the man led to him not being put on the plane. A spokesman for Qantas said flight QF838 was delayed almost two hours. The delays reportedly caused inconvenience to multiple passengers, especially those with connecting flights. A spokesperson from Qantas stated that "[s]afety and security is the number-one priority for all airlines and an aircraft is not the right place for people to conduct protests." Campaigners also asked Qantas to rule out deporting Iraqi man Saeed in 2017. Campaigners have asked Qantas not to participate in the high-profile deportation case of the Nadesalingam family. In response a Qantas spokesperson stated: "We appreciate that this is a sensitive issue. The government and courts are best placed to make decisions on complex immigration matters, not airlines".


title: YouTube Creator Awards

text: YouTube Creator Awards, commonly known as YouTube Play Buttons or YouTube Plaques, are a series of awards from YouTube that aim to recognize its most popular channels. They are based on a channel's subscriber count but are offered at the sole discretion of YouTube. Each channel is reviewed before an award is issued, to ensure that the channel follows the YouTube community guidelines. YouTube reserves the right to refuse to hand out a Creator Award, which it has done for channels featuring horror or extremist political content.


title: YouTube Creator Awards

text: When a YouTube channel reaches a specific milestone and is deemed eligible for a YouTube Creator Reward, they are awarded a relatively flat trophy in a metal casing with a YouTube play button symbol. The trophies are of different sizes: each button and plaque gets progressively bigger with the channel's subscriber count. The Gold Creator Award was introduced at VidCon 2012, alongside the Silver Creator Award at VidCon 2013 and the Diamond Creator Award at VidCon 2015. The Creator Awards are made by the New York firm Society Awards.


title: YouTube Creator Awards

text: Prior to March 2021, YouTube featured three additional benefit levels. These are not eligible for Creator Rewards, but they do offer several preliminary benefits:


title: YouTube Creator Awards

text: There are currently three regular Creator Awards tiers, plus a fourth and fifth that have been awarded a few times:


title: YouTube Creator Awards

text: Awarded to channels that reach or surpass 100,000 subscribers. The old version was made of nickel-plated cupronickel alloy. The new version (as of March 1, 2017) is 92% nickel, 5% carbon and 2.5% zinc, with traces of other metals. In March 2018, the look of the Silver Play Button was updated from a metal button housed within a window box with the channel's name printed on the front glass pane to a cleaner-looking flat designed metal plaque award featuring the channel's name embossed on it. Channels at this level are also eligible to apply for a digital verification badge.


title: YouTube Creator Awards

text: Awarded to channels that reach or surpass 1,000,000 subscribers. It is made of gold-plated brass. In March 2018, the look of the Gold Play Button was updated from a metal button housed within a window box with the channel's name printed on the front glass pane to a cleaner-looking flat designed metal plaque award featuring the channel's name embossed on it.


title: YouTube Creator Awards

text: Awarded to channels that reach or surpass 10 million subscribers. It is made of silver-plated metal inset with a large piece of colorless crystal in the shape of a play button triangle. When introduced during VidCon 2015, 35 channels qualified for the award. As of June 28, 2022, there are 984 channels that have 10 million subscribers or more.


title: YouTube Creator Awards

text: Awarded to channels that reach or surpass 50 million subscribers. It is absent from the Creators Award page. PewDiePie gave the nickname of Ruby Creator Award to this award, as he received a ruby-colored award in the shape of his channel's logo. The color can vary per creator, however: for example, T-Series received a colorless award, while Blackpink received a black award on top of a pink base. Channels with a dagger () symbol have presented their Custom Creator Award to the public. As of June 28, 2022, 35 channels have reached this level, with 17 of these reaching this level prior to 2021:


title: YouTube Creator Awards

text: Awarded to channels that reach or surpass 100 million subscribers. Inspired by the Diamond Creator Award, it features a play button triangle with a large dark red crystal. It is also absent from the Creators Awards page. There are currently seven channels that have reached this level:


title: Battle of the Teutoburg Forest

text: The Battle of the Teutoburg Forest, described as the Varian Disaster () by Roman historians, took place at modern Kalkriese in AD 9, when an alliance of Germanic peoples ambushed Roman legions and their auxiliaries, led by Publius Quinctilius Varus. The alliance was led by Arminius, a Germanic officer of Varus's auxilia. Arminius had acquired Roman citizenship and had received a Roman military education, which enabled him to deceive the Roman commander methodically and anticipate the Roman army's tactical responses.


title: Battle of the Teutoburg Forest

text: Teutoburg Forest is commonly seen as one of the most important defeats in Roman history, bringing the triumphant period of expansion under Augustus to an abrupt end. The outcome of this battle dissuaded the Romans from their ambition of conquering Germania, and is thus considered one of the most important events in European history. The provinces of Germania Superior and Germania Inferior, sometimes collectively referred to as "Roman Germania", were subsequently established in northeast Roman Gaul, while territories beyond the Rhine remained independent of Roman control. Retaliatory campaigns were commanded by Tiberius and Germanicus and would enjoy success, but the Rhine would eventually become the border between the Roman Empire and the rest of Germania. The Roman Empire would launch no other major incursion into Germania until Marcus Aurelius (r. 161–180) during the Marcomannic Wars.


title: Battle of the Teutoburg Forest

text: Some of the descendants of the vassal kingdoms, like the Suebi (by suzerainty), that Augustus tried to create in Germania to expand the "romanitas" and the Empire in a peaceful way would be the ones that invaded the Empire in the fourth and fifth centuries.


title: Battle of the Teutoburg Forest

text: Following the attacks of Drusus I in 11–9 BC, Arminius, along with his brother Flavus, was sent to Rome as tribute by their father, Segimerus the Conqueror, chieftain of the noblest house in the tribe of the Cherusci. Arminius then spent his youth in Rome as a hostage, where he received a military education, and was even given the rank of Equestrian. During Arminius' absence, Segimerus was declared a coward by the other Germanic chieftains, because he had submitted to Roman rule, a crime punishable by death under Germanic law. Between 11 BC and AD 4 , hostility and suspicion among the allied Germanic peoples deepened. Trade and political accords between the warlords deteriorated.


title: Battle of the Teutoburg Forest

text: In AD 4 the Roman general (and later emperor) Tiberius entered Germania and subjugated the Cananefates in Germania Inferior, the Chatti near the upper Weser River, and the Bructeri south of the Kalkriese. After these conquests he led his army across the Weser.


title: Battle of the Teutoburg Forest

text: In early AD 6, Legatus Gaius Sentius Saturninus and Consul Legatus Marcus Aemilius Lepidus led a massive army of 13 legions and their entourage, totalling around 100,000 men (65,000 heavy infantry legionaries, 10,000–20,000 cavalrymen, archers, and 10,000–20,000 civilians) against Maroboduus, the king of the Marcomanni, who were a tribe of the Suebi. Later in 6 AD, leadership of the Roman force was turned over to Publius Quinctilius Varus, a nobleman and experienced administrative official from a patrician family who was related to the Imperial family. He was assigned to consolidate the new province of Germania in the autumn of that year.


title: Battle of the Teutoburg Forest

text: Tiberius was then forced to turn his attention to the Bellum Batonianum, also known as the Great Illyrian Revolt, which broke out in the Balkan province of Illyricum. Led by Bato the Daesitiate, Bato the Breucian, Pinnes of Pannonia, and elements of the Marcomanni, it lasted nearly four years. Tiberius was forced to stop his campaign against Maroboduus and recognise him as king so that he could then send his eight legions (VIII "Augusta", XV "Apollinaris", XX "Valeria Victrix", XXI "Rapax", XIII "Gemina", XIV "Gemina", XVI "Gallica" and an unknown unit) to crush the rebellion in the Balkans.


title: Battle of the Teutoburg Forest

text: Nearly half of all Roman legions in existence were sent to the Balkans to end the revolt, which was itself triggered by constant neglect, endemic food shortages, high taxes, and harsh behaviour on the part of the Roman tax collectors. This campaign, led by Tiberius and Quaestor Legatus Germanicus under Emperor Augustus, was one of the most difficult, and most crucial, in the history of the Roman Empire. Due to this massive redeployment of available legions, when Varus was named in Germania, only three legions were available to him.


title: Battle of the Teutoburg Forest

text: Varus's name and deeds were well known beyond the empire because of his ruthlessness and crucifixion of insurgents. While he was feared by the people, he was highly respected by the Roman Senate. On the Rhine, he was in command of the XVII, XVIII, and XIX legions. These had previously been led by General Gaius Sentius Saturninus, who had been sent back to Rome after being awarded the . The other two legions in the winter-quarters of the army at were led by Varus' nephew, Lucius Nonius Asprenas, and perhaps Lucius Arruntius.


title: Battle of the Teutoburg Forest

text: After his return from Rome, Arminius became a trusted advisor to Varus, but in secret he forged an alliance of Germanic peoples that had traditionally been enemies. These probably included the Cherusci, Marsi, Chatti, and Bructeri. These were some of the fifty Germanic tribes at the time. Using the collective outrage over Varus' tyrannous insolence and wanton cruelty to the conquered, Arminius was able to unite the disorganized groups who had submitted in sullen hatred to the Roman dominion, and maintain the alliance until the most opportune moment to strike.


title: Battle of the Teutoburg Forest

text: Varus decided to quell this uprising immediately, expediting his response by taking a detour through territory that was unfamiliar to the Romans. Arminius, who accompanied him, directed him along a route that would facilitate an ambush. Another Cheruscan nobleman, Segestes, brother of Segimerus and unwilling father-in-law to Arminius, warned Varus the night before the Roman forces departed, allegedly suggesting that Varus should apprehend Arminius, along with other Germanic leaders whom he identified as participants in the planned uprising. His warning, however, was dismissed as stemming from the personal feud between Segestes and Arminius. Arminius then left under the pretext of drumming up Germanic forces to support the Roman campaign. Once free from prying eyes, he immediately led his troops in a series of attacks on the surrounding Roman garrisons.


title: Battle of the Teutoburg Forest

text: Recent archaeological finds place the battle at Kalkriese Hill in Osnabrück county, Lower Saxony. On the basis of Roman accounts, the Romans were marching northwest from what is now the city of Detmold, passing east of Osnabrück after camping in the area, prior to the attack.


title: Battle of the Teutoburg Forest

text: Varus' forces included his three legions (Legio XVII, Legio XVIII and Legio XIX), six cohorts of auxiliary troops (non-citizens or allied troops) and three squadrons of cavalry ("alae"). Most of these lacked combat experience, both with regard to Germanic fighters and under the prevalent local conditions. The Roman forces were not marching in combat formation and were interspersed with large numbers of camp followers. As they entered the forest northeast of Osnabrück, they found the track narrow and muddy. According to Cassius Dio, a violent storm had also arisen. He also writes that Varus neglected to send out reconnaissance parties ahead of the main body of troops.


title: Battle of the Teutoburg Forest

text: The line of march was now stretched out perilously long—between . It was in this state when it came under attack by Germanic warriors armed with swords, large lances and narrow-bladed short spears called "fremae". The attackers surrounded the entire Roman army and rained down javelins on the intruders. Arminius, recalling his education in Rome, understood his enemies' tactics and was able to direct his troops to counter them effectively by using locally superior numbers against the dispersed Roman legions. The Romans managed to set up a fortified night camp and, in the next morning, broke out into the open country north of the Wiehen Hills, near the modern town of Ostercappeln. The break-out was accompanied by heavy losses to the Roman survivors, as was a further attempt to escape by marching through another forested area, as the torrential rains continued.


title: Battle of the Teutoburg Forest

text: The Romans undertook a night march to escape, but marched into another trap that Arminius had set at the foot of Kalkriese Hill. There, a sandy, open strip on which the Romans could march was constricted by the hill, so that there was a gap of only about between the woods and the swampland at the edge of the Great Bog. The road was further blocked by a trench and, towards the forest, an earthen wall had been built along the roadside, permitting the Germanic alliance to attack the Romans from cover. The Romans made a desperate attempt to storm the wall, but failed, and the highest-ranking officer next to Varus, "Legatus" Numonius Vala, abandoned the troops by riding off with the cavalry. His retreat was in vain, however, as he was overtaken by the Germanic cavalry and killed shortly thereafter, according to Velleius Paterculus. The Germanic warriors then stormed the field and slaughtered the disintegrating Roman forces. Varus committed suicide, and Velleius reports that one commander, "Praefectus" Ceionius, surrendered, then later took his own life, while his colleague "Praefectus" Eggius died leading his doomed troops.


title: Battle of the Teutoburg Forest

text: Roman casualties have been estimated at 15,000–20,000 dead, and many of the officers were said to have taken their own lives by falling on their swords in the approved manner. Tacitus wrote that many officers were sacrificed by the Germanic forces as part of their indigenous religious ceremonies, cooked in pots and their bones used for rituals. Others were ransomed and some common soldiers appear to have been enslaved.


title: Battle of the Teutoburg Forest

text: All Roman accounts stress the completeness of the Roman defeat, and the finds at Kalkriese of 6,000 pieces of Roman equipment, but only a single item that is clearly Germanic (part of a spur), suggest few Germanic losses. However, the victors would most likely have removed the bodies of their fallen and their practice of burying their warriors' battle gear with them would have contributed to the lack of Germanic relics. Additionally, as many as several thousand Germanic soldiers were deserting militiamen and wore Roman armour, and thus would appear to be "Roman" in the archaeological digs. It is known, too, that the Germanic peoples wore perishable organic material, such as leather, and less metal than the Roman legionaries.


title: Battle of the Teutoburg Forest

text: The victory was followed by a clean sweep of all Roman forts, garrisons and cities (of which there were at least two) east of the Rhine; the two Roman legions remaining in Germania, commanded by Varus' nephew Lucius Nonius Asprenas, simply tried to hold the Rhine. One fort, Aliso, most likely located in today's Haltern am See, fended off the Germanic alliance for many weeks, perhaps even a few months. After the situation became untenable, the garrison under Lucius Caedicius, accompanied by survivors of Teutoburg Forest, broke through the siege and reached the Rhine. They had resisted long enough for Nonius Asprenas to have organized the Roman defence on the Rhine with two legions and Tiberius to have arrived with a new army, together preventing Arminius from crossing the Rhine and invading Gaul.


title: Battle of the Teutoburg Forest

text: Upon hearing of the defeat, the Emperor Augustus, according to the Roman historian Suetonius in "The Twelve Caesars", was so shaken that he stood butting his head against the walls of his palace, repeatedly shouting:


title: Battle of the Teutoburg Forest

text: The legion numbers XVII, XVIII and XIX were not used again by the Romans. This was in contrast to other legions that were reestablished after suffering defeat.


title: Battle of the Teutoburg Forest

text: The battle abruptly ended the period of triumphant Roman expansion that followed the end of the Civil Wars forty years earlier. Augustus' stepson Tiberius took effective control, and prepared for the continuation of the war. Legio "II Augusta", "XX Valeria Victrix" and "XIII Gemina" were sent to the Rhine to replace the lost legions.


title: Battle of the Teutoburg Forest

text: Arminius sent Varus' severed head to Maroboduus, king of the Marcomanni, the other most powerful Germanic ruler, with the offer of an anti-Roman alliance. Maroboduus declined, sending the head to Rome for burial, and remained neutral throughout the ensuing war. Only thereafter did a brief, inconclusive war break out between the two Germanic leaders.


title: Battle of the Teutoburg Forest

text: Though the shock at the slaughter was enormous, the Romans immediately began a slow, systematic process of preparing for the reconquest of the country. In 14 AD, just after Augustus' death and the accession of his heir and stepson Tiberius, a massive raid was conducted by the new emperor's nephew Germanicus. He attacked the Marsi with the element of surprise. The Bructeri, Tubanti and Usipeti were roused by the attack and ambushed Germanicus on the way to his winter quarters, but were defeated with heavy losses.


title: Battle of the Teutoburg Forest

text: The next year was marked by two major campaigns and several smaller battles with a large army estimated at 55,000–70,000 men, backed by naval forces. In spring 15 AD, "Legatus" Caecina Severus invaded the Marsi a second time with about 25,000–30,000 men, causing great havoc. Meanwhile, Germanicus' troops had built a fort on Mount Taunus from where he marched with about 30,000–35,000 men against the Chatti. Many of the men fled across a river and dispersed themselves in the forests. Germanicus next marched on Mattium ("caput gentis", capital city) and burned it to the ground. After initial successful skirmishes in summer 15 AD, including the capture of Arminius' wife Thusnelda, the army visited the site of the first battle. According to Tacitus, they found heaps of bleached bones and severed skulls nailed to trees, which they buried, "...looking on all as kinsfolk and of their own blood...". At a location Tacitus calls the "pontes longi" ("long causeways"), in boggy lowlands somewhere near the Ems, Arminius' troops attacked the Romans. Arminius initially caught Germanicus' cavalry in a trap, inflicting minor casualties, but the Roman infantry reinforced the rout and checked them. The fighting lasted for two days, with neither side achieving a decisive victory. Germanicus' forces withdrew and returned to the Rhine.


title: Battle of the Teutoburg Forest

text: Under Germanicus, the Romans marched another army, along with allied Germanic auxiliaries, into Germania in 16 AD. He forced a crossing of the Weser near modern Minden, suffering some losses to a Germanic skirmishing force, and forced Arminius' army to stand in open battle at Idistaviso in the Battle of the Weser River. Germanicus' legions inflicted huge casualties on the Germanic armies while sustaining only minor losses. A final battle was fought at the Angrivarian Wall west of modern Hanover, repeating the pattern of high Germanic fatalities, which forced them to flee beyond the Elbe. Germanicus, having defeated the forces between the Rhine and the Elbe, then ordered Caius Silius to march against the Chatti with a mixed force of three thousand cavalry and thirty thousand infantry and lay waste to their territory, while Germanicus, with a larger army, invaded the Marsi for the third time and devastated their land, encountering no resistance.


title: Battle of the Teutoburg Forest

text: With his main objectives reached and winter approaching, Germanicus ordered his army back to their winter camps, with the fleet incurring some damage from a storm in the North Sea. Afterwards, a few more raids across the Rhine resulted in the recovery of two of the three legions' eagles lost in 9 AD: one Legion Eagle was recovered from the Marsi in 14 AD; the Legion XIX Eagle was recovered from the Bructeri in 15 AD by troops under Lucius Stertinius. Tiberius ordered the Roman forces to halt and withdraw across the Rhine. Germanicus was recalled to Rome and informed by Tiberius that he would be given a triumph and reassigned to a new command.


title: Battle of the Teutoburg Forest

text: Germanicus' campaign had been taken to avenge the Teutoburg slaughter and also partially in reaction to indications of mutinous intent amongst his troops. Arminius, who had been considered a very real threat to stability by Rome, was now defeated. Once his Germanic coalition had been broken and honour avenged, the huge cost and risk of keeping the Roman army operating beyond the Rhine was not worth any likely benefit to be gained. Tacitus, with some bitterness, claims that Tiberius' decision to recall Germanicus was driven by his jealousy of the glory Germanicus had acquired, and that an additional campaign the next summer would have concluded the war and facilitated a Roman occupation of territories between the Rhine and the Elbe.


title: Battle of the Teutoburg Forest

text: The third legionary standard was recovered in 41 AD by Publius Gabinius from the Chauci during the reign of Claudius, brother of Germanicus. Possibly the recovered "aquilae" were placed within the Temple of Mars Ultor ("Mars the Avenger"), the ruins of which stand today in the Forum of Augustus by the Via dei Fori Imperiali in Rome.


title: Battle of the Teutoburg Forest

text: The last chapter was recounted by the historian Tacitus. Around 50 AD, bands of Chatti invaded Roman territory in Germania Superior, possibly an area in Hesse east of the Rhine that the Romans appear to have still held, and began to plunder. The Roman commander, Publius Pomponius Secundus, and a legionary force supported by Roman cavalry recruited auxiliaries from the Vangiones and Nemetes. They attacked the Chatti from both sides and defeated them, and joyfully found and liberated Roman prisoners, including some from Varus' legions who had been held for 40 years.


title: Battle of the Teutoburg Forest

text: From the time of the rediscovery of Roman sources in the 15th century, the Battles of the Teutoburg Forest have been seen as a pivotal event resulting in the end of Roman expansion into northern Europe. This theory became prevalent in the 19th century, and formed an integral part of the mythology of German nationalism.


title: Battle of the Teutoburg Forest

text: More recently some scholars questioned this interpretation, advancing a number of reasons why the Rhine was a practical boundary for the Roman Empire, and more suitable than any other river in Germania. Logistically, armies on the Rhine could be supplied from the Mediterranean via the Rhône, Saône and Mosel, with a brief stretch of portage. Armies on the Elbe, on the other hand, would have to have been supplied either by extensive overland routes or ships travelling the hazardous Atlantic seas. Economically, the Rhine was already supporting towns and sizeable villages at the time of the Gallic conquest. Northern Germania was far less developed, possessed fewer villages, and had little food surplus and thus a far lesser capacity for tribute. Thus the Rhine was both significantly more accessible from Rome and better suited to supply sizeable garrisons than the regions beyond. There were also practical reasons to fall back from the limits of Augustus' expansionism in this region. The Romans were mostly interested in conquering areas that had a high degree of self-sufficiency which could provide a tax base for them to extract from. Most of Germania Magna did not have the higher level of urbanism at this time as in comparison with some Celtic Gallic settlements, which were in many ways already integrated into the Roman trade network in the case of southern Gaul. In a cost/benefit analysis, the prestige to be gained by conquering more territory was outweighed by the lack of financial benefits accorded to conquest.


title: Battle of the Teutoburg Forest

text: The Teutoburg Forest myth is noteworthy in 19th century Germanic interpretations as to why the "march of the Roman Empire" was halted, but in reality Roman punitive campaigns into Germania continued and they were intended less for conquest or expansion than they were to force the Germanic alliance into some kind of political structure that would be compliant with Roman diplomatic efforts. The most famous of those incursions, led by the Roman emperor Maximinus Thrax, resulted in a Roman victory in 235 AD at the Battle at the Harzhorn Hill, which is located in the modern German state of Lower Saxony, east of the Weser river, between the towns of Kalefeld and Bad Gandersheim. After the Marcomannic Wars, the Romans even managed to occupy the provinces of Marcomannia and Sarmatia, corresponding to modern Czech Republic, Slovakia and Bavaria/Austria/Hungary north of Danube. Final plans to annex those territories were discarded by Commodus deeming the occupation of the region too expensive for the imperial treasury.


title: Battle of the Teutoburg Forest

text: After Arminius was defeated and dead, having been murdered in 21 AD by opponents within his own tribe, Rome tried to control Germania beyond the Limes indirectly, by appointing client kings. Italicus, a nephew of Arminius, was appointed king of the Cherusci, Vangio and Sido became vassal princes of the powerful Suebi, and the Quadian client king Vannius was imposed as a ruler of the Marcomanni. Between 91 and 92 during the reign of emperor Domitian, the Romans sent a military detachment to assist their client Lugii against the Suebi in what is now Poland.


title: Battle of the Teutoburg Forest

text: Roman controlled territory was limited to the modern states of Austria, Baden-Württemberg, southern Bavaria, southern Hesse, Saarland and the Rhineland as Roman provinces of Noricum, Raetia and Germania. The Roman provinces in western Germany, Germania Inferior (with the capital situated at Colonia Claudia Ara Agrippinensium, modern Cologne) and Germania Superior (with its capital at Mogontiacum, modern Mainz), were formally established in 85 AD, after a long period of military occupation beginning in the reign of the emperor Augustus. Nonetheless, the Severan-era historian Cassius Dio is emphatic that Varus had been conducting the latter stages of full colonization of a greater German province, which has been partially confirmed by recent archaeological discoveries such as the Varian-era Roman provincial settlement at Waldgirmes Forum.


title: Battle of the Teutoburg Forest

text: The theories about the location of the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest have emerged in large numbers especially since the beginning of the 16th century, when the Tacitus works "Germania" and "Annales" were rediscovered. The assumptions about the possible place of the battle are based essentially on place names and river names, as well as on the description of the topography by the ancient writers, on investigations of the prehistoric road network, and on archaeological finds. Only a few assumptions are scientifically based theories.


title: Battle of the Teutoburg Forest

text: The prehistorian and provincial archaeologist Harald Petrikovits combined the several hundred theories in 1966 into four units:


title: Battle of the Teutoburg Forest

text: For almost 2,000 years, the site of the battle was unidentified. The main clue to its location was an allusion to the "saltus Teutoburgiensis" in section i.60–62 of Tacitus' "Annals", an area "not far" from the land between the upper reaches of the Lippe and Ems rivers in central Westphalia. During the 19th century, theories as to the site abounded, and the followers of one theory successfully argued for a long wooded ridge called the Osning, near Bielefeld. This was then renamed the Teutoburg Forest.


title: Battle of the Teutoburg Forest

text: Late 20th-century research and excavations were sparked by finds by a British amateur archaeologist, Major Tony Clunn, who was casually prospecting at Kalkriese Hill () with a metal detector in the hope of finding "the odd Roman coin". He discovered coins from the reign of Augustus (and none later), and some ovoid leaden Roman sling bolts. Kalkriese is a village administratively part of the city of Bramsche, on the north slope fringes of the Wiehen, a ridge-like range of hills in Lower Saxony north of Osnabrück. This site, some north west of Osning, was first suggested by the 19th-century historian Theodor Mommsen, renowned for his fundamental work on Roman history.


title: Battle of the Teutoburg Forest

text: Initial systematic excavations were carried out by the archaeological team of the "Kulturhistorisches Museum Osnabrück" under the direction of Professor Wolfgang Schlüter from 1987. Once the dimensions of the project had become apparent, a foundation was created to organise future excavations and to build and operate a museum on the site, and to centralise publicity and documentation. Since 1990 the excavations have been directed by Susanne Wilbers-Rost.


title: Battle of the Teutoburg Forest

text: Excavations have revealed battle debris along a corridor almost from east to west and little more than wide. A long zig-zagging wall of peat turves and packed sand had apparently been constructed beforehand: concentrations of battle debris in front of it and a dearth behind it testify to the Romans' inability to breach the Germanic tribes' strong defence. Human remains appear to corroborate Tacitus' account of the Roman legionaries' later burial. Coins minted with the countermark , distributed by Varus, also support the identification of the site. As a result, Kalkriese is now perceived to be an event of the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest.


title: Battle of the Teutoburg Forest

text: The includes a large outdoor area with trails leading to a re-creation of part of the earthen wall from the battle and other outdoor exhibits. An observation tower, which holds most of the indoor exhibits, allows visitors to get an overview of the battle site. A second building includes the ticket centre, museum store and a restaurant. The museum houses a large number of artefacts found at the site, including fragments of studded sandals legionaries lost, spearheads, and a Roman officer's ceremonial face-mask, which was originally silver-plated.


title: Battle of the Teutoburg Forest

text: Although the majority of evidence has the battle taking place east and north of Osnabrück and the end at Kalkriese Hill, some scholars and others still adhere to older theories. Moreover, there is controversy among Kalkriese adherents themselves as to the details.


title: Battle of the Teutoburg Forest

text: The German historians Peter Kehne and Reinhard Wolters believe that the battle was probably in the Detmold area, and that Kalkriese is the site of one of the battles in 15 AD. This theory is, however, in contradiction to Tacitus' account.


title: Battle of the Teutoburg Forest

text: A number of authors, including the archaeologists Susanne Wilbers-Rost and Günther Moosbauer, historian Ralf Jahn, and British author Adrian Murdoch (see below), believe that the Roman army approached Kalkriese from roughly due east, from Minden, North Rhine-Westphalia, not from south of the Wiehen Hills (i.e., from Detmold). This would have involved a march along the northern edge of the Wiehen Hills, and the army would have passed through flat, open country, devoid of the dense forests and ravines described by Cassius Dio. Historians such as Gustav-Adolf Lehmann and Boris Dreyer counter that Cassius Dio's description is too detailed and differentiated to be thus dismissed.


title: Battle of the Teutoburg Forest

text: Tony Clunn (see below), the discoverer of the battlefield, and a "southern-approach" proponent, believes that the battered Roman army regrouped north of Ostercappeln, where Varus committed suicide, and that the remnants were finally overcome at the Kalkriese Gap.


title: Battle of the Teutoburg Forest

text: Peter Oppitz argues for a site in Paderborn, some south of Kalkriese. Based on a reinterpretation of the writings of Tacitus, Paterculus, and Florus and a new analysis of those of Cassius Dio, he proposes that an ambush took place in Varus's summer camp during a peaceful meeting between the Roman commanders and the Germanic leaders.


title: Battle of the Teutoburg Forest

text: The legacy of the Germanic victory was resurrected with the recovery of the histories of Tacitus in the 15th century, when the figure of Arminius, now known as "Hermann" (a mistranslation of the name "Armin" which has often been incorrectly attributed to Martin Luther), became a nationalistic symbol of "Pan-Germanism". From then, Teutoburg Forest has been seen as a pivotal clash that ended Roman expansion into northern Europe. This notion became especially prevalent in the 19th century, when it formed an integral part of the mythology of German nationalism.


title: Battle of the Teutoburg Forest

text: In 1808 the German Heinrich von Kleist's play "Die Hermannsschlacht" aroused anti-Napoleonic sentiment, even though it could not be performed under occupation. In 1847, Josef Viktor von Scheffel wrote a lengthy song, "Als die Römer frech geworden" ("When the Romans got cheeky"), relating the tale of the battle with somewhat gloating humour. Copies of the text are found on many souvenirs available at the Detmold monument.


title: Battle of the Teutoburg Forest

text: The battle had a profound effect on 19th-century German nationalism along with the histories of Tacitus; the Germans, at that time still divided into many states, identified with the Germanic peoples as shared ancestors of one "German people" and came to associate the imperialistic Napoleonic French and Austro-Hungarian forces with the invading Romans, destined for defeat.


title: Battle of the Teutoburg Forest

text: As a symbol of unified Romantic nationalism, the "Hermannsdenkmal", a monument to Hermann surmounted by a statue, was erected in a forested area near Detmold, believed at that time to be the site of the battle. Paid for largely out of private funds, the monument remained unfinished for decades and was not completed until 1875, after the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–71 unified the country. The completed monument was then a symbol of conservative German nationalism. The battle and the Hermannsdenkmal monument are commemorated by the similar Hermann Heights Monument in New Ulm, Minnesota, US, erected by the Sons of Hermanni, a support organisation for German immigrants to the United States. Hermann, Missouri, claims Hermann (Arminius) as its namesake and a third statue of Hermann was dedicated there in a ceremony on 24 September 2009, celebrating the 2,000th anniversary of the battle.


title: Battle of the Teutoburg Forest

text: According to journalist David Crossland, "The old nationalism has been replaced by an easy-going patriotism that mainly manifests itself at sporting events like the soccer World Cup."