title: Navier–Stokes equations

text: Stream function differences across open channels determine the flow. No boundary conditions are necessary on open boundaries, though consistent values may be used with some problems. These are all Dirichlet conditions.


title: Navier–Stokes equations

text: The algebraic equations to be solved are simple to set up, but of course are non-linear, requiring iteration of the linearized equations.


title: Navier–Stokes equations

text: Similar considerations apply to three-dimensions, but extension from 2D is not immediate because of the vector nature of the potential, and there exists no simple relation between the gradient and the curl as was the case in 2D.


title: Navier–Stokes equations

text: Recovering pressure from the velocity field is easy. The discrete weak equation for the pressure gradient is,


title: Navier–Stokes equations

text: where the test/weight functions are irrotational. Any conforming scalar finite element may be used. However, the pressure gradient field may also be of interest. In this case, one can use scalar Hermite elements for the pressure. For the test/weight functions one would choose the irrotational vector elements obtained from the gradient of the pressure element.


title: Navier–Stokes equations

text: The rotating frame of reference introduces some interesting pseudo-forces into the equations through the material derivative term. Consider a stationary inertial frame of reference , and a non-inertial frame of reference , which is translating with velocity and rotating with angular velocity with respect to the stationary frame. The Navier–Stokes equation observed from the non-inertial frame then becomes


title: Navier–Stokes equations

text: Here and are measured in the non-inertial frame. The first term in the parenthesis represents Coriolis acceleration, the second term is due to centrifugal acceleration, the third is due to the linear acceleration of with respect to and the fourth term is due to the angular acceleration of with respect to .


title: Navier–Stokes equations

text: The Navier–Stokes equations are strictly a statement of the balance of momentum. To fully describe fluid flow, more information is needed, how much depending on the assumptions made. This additional information may include boundary data (no-slip, capillary surface, etc.), conservation of mass, balance of energy, and/or an equation of state.


title: Navier–Stokes equations

text: Regardless of the flow assumptions, a statement of the conservation of mass is generally necessary. This is achieved through the mass continuity equation, given in its most general form as:


title: Navier–Stokes equations

text: Taking the curl of the incompressible Navier–Stokes equation results in the elimination of pressure. This is especially easy to see if 2D Cartesian flow is assumed (like in the degenerate 3D case with and no dependence of anything on ), where the equations reduce to:


title: Navier–Stokes equations

text: Differentiating the first with respect to , the second with respect to and subtracting the resulting equations will eliminate pressure and any conservative force.


title: Navier–Stokes equations

text: results in mass continuity being unconditionally satisfied (given the stream function is continuous), and then incompressible Newtonian 2D momentum and mass conservation condense into one equation:


title: Navier–Stokes equations

text: where is the 2D biharmonic operator and is the kinematic viscosity, . We can also express this compactly using the Jacobian determinant:


title: Navier–Stokes equations

text: This single equation together with appropriate boundary conditions describes 2D fluid flow, taking only kinematic viscosity as a parameter. Note that the equation for creeping flow results when the left side is assumed zero.


title: Navier–Stokes equations

text: In axisymmetric flow another stream function formulation, called the Stokes stream function, can be used to describe the velocity components of an incompressible flow with one scalar function.


title: Navier–Stokes equations

text: The incompressible Navier–Stokes equation is a differential algebraic equation, having the inconvenient feature that there is no explicit mechanism for advancing the pressure in time. Consequently, much effort has been expended to eliminate the pressure from all or part of the computational process. The stream function formulation eliminates the pressure but only in two dimensions and at the expense of introducing higher derivatives and elimination of the velocity, which is the primary variable of interest.


title: Navier–Stokes equations

text: The Navier–Stokes equations are nonlinear partial differential equations in the general case and so remain in almost every real situation. In some cases, such as one-dimensional flow and Stokes flow (or creeping flow), the equations can be simplified to linear equations. The nonlinearity makes most problems difficult or impossible to solve and is the main contributor to the turbulence that the equations model.


title: Navier–Stokes equations

text: The nonlinearity is due to convective acceleration, which is an acceleration associated with the change in velocity over position. Hence, any convective flow, whether turbulent or not, will involve nonlinearity. An example of convective but laminar (nonturbulent) flow would be the passage of a viscous fluid (for example, oil) through a small converging nozzle. Such flows, whether exactly solvable or not, can often be thoroughly studied and understood.


title: Navier–Stokes equations

text: Turbulence is the time-dependent chaotic behaviour seen in many fluid flows. It is generally believed that it is due to the inertia of the fluid as a whole: the culmination of time-dependent and convective acceleration; hence flows where inertial effects are small tend to be laminar (the Reynolds number quantifies how much the flow is affected by inertia). It is believed, though not known with certainty, that the Navier–Stokes equations describe turbulence properly.


title: Navier–Stokes equations

text: The numerical solution of the Navier–Stokes equations for turbulent flow is extremely difficult, and due to the significantly different mixing-length scales that are involved in turbulent flow, the stable solution of this requires such a fine mesh resolution that the computational time becomes significantly infeasible for calculation or direct numerical simulation. Attempts to solve turbulent flow using a laminar solver typically result in a time-unsteady solution, which fails to converge appropriately. To counter this, time-averaged equations such as the Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes equations (RANS), supplemented with turbulence models, are used in practical computational fluid dynamics (CFD) applications when modeling turbulent flows. Some models include the Spalart–Allmaras, –, –, and SST models, which add a variety of additional equations to bring closure to the RANS equations. Large eddy simulation (LES) can also be used to solve these equations numerically. This approach is computationally more expensive—in time and in computer memory—than RANS, but produces better results because it explicitly resolves the larger turbulent scales.


title: Navier–Stokes equations

text: Together with supplemental equations (for example, conservation of mass) and well-formulated boundary conditions, the Navier–Stokes equations seem to model fluid motion accurately; even turbulent flows seem (on average) to agree with real world observations.


title: Navier–Stokes equations

text: The Navier–Stokes equations assume that the fluid being studied is a continuum (it is infinitely divisible and not composed of particles such as atoms or molecules), and is not moving at relativistic velocities. At very small scales or under extreme conditions, real fluids made out of discrete molecules will produce results different from the continuous fluids modeled by the Navier–Stokes equations. For example, capillarity of internal layers in fluids appears for flow with high gradients. For large Knudsen number of the problem, the Boltzmann equation may be a suitable replacement.


title: Navier–Stokes equations

text: Another limitation is simply the complicated nature of the equations. Time-tested formulations exist for common fluid families, but the application of the Navier–Stokes equations to less common families tends to result in very complicated formulations and often to open research problems. For this reason, these equations are usually written for Newtonian fluids where the viscosity model is linear; truly general models for the flow of other kinds of fluids (such as blood) do not exist.


title: Navier–Stokes equations

text: The Navier–Stokes equations, even when written explicitly for specific fluids, are rather generic in nature and their proper application to specific problems can be very diverse. This is partly because there is an enormous variety of problems that may be modeled, ranging from as simple as the distribution of static pressure to as complicated as multiphase flow driven by surface tension.


title: Navier–Stokes equations

text: Generally, application to specific problems begins with some flow assumptions and initial/boundary condition formulation, this may be followed by scale analysis to further simplify the problem.


title: Navier–Stokes equations

text: Assume steady, parallel, one-dimensional, non-convective pressure-driven flow between parallel plates, the resulting scaled (dimensionless) boundary value problem is:


title: Navier–Stokes equations

text: From this point onward, more quantities of interest can be easily obtained, such as viscous drag force or net flow rate.


title: Navier–Stokes equations

text: Difficulties may arise when the problem becomes slightly more complicated. A seemingly modest twist on the parallel flow above would be the "radial" flow between parallel plates; this involves convection and thus non-linearity. The velocity field may be represented by a function that must satisfy:


title: Navier–Stokes equations

text: This ordinary differential equation is what is obtained when the Navier–Stokes equations are written and the flow assumptions applied (additionally, the pressure gradient is solved for). The nonlinear term makes this a very difficult problem to solve analytically (a lengthy implicit solution may be found which involves elliptic integrals and roots of cubic polynomials). Issues with the actual existence of solutions arise for (approximately; this is not ), the parameter being the Reynolds number with appropriately chosen scales. This is an example of flow assumptions losing their applicability, and an example of the difficulty in "high" Reynolds number flows.


title: Navier–Stokes equations

text: A type of natural convection that can be described by the Navier–Stokes equation is the Rayleigh–Bénard convection. It is one of the most commonly studied convection phenomena because of its analytical and experimental accessibility.


title: Navier–Stokes equations

text: Some exact solutions to the Navier–Stokes equations exist. Examples of degenerate cases—with the non-linear terms in the Navier–Stokes equations equal to zero—are Poiseuille flow, Couette flow and the oscillatory Stokes boundary layer. But also, more interesting examples, solutions to the full non-linear equations, exist, such as Jeffery–Hamel flow, Von Kármán swirling flow, stagnation point flow, Landau–Squire jet, and Taylor–Green vortex.


title: Navier–Stokes equations

text: Note that the existence of these exact solutions does not imply they are stable: turbulence may develop at higher Reynolds numbers.


title: Navier–Stokes equations

text: A steady-state example with no singularities comes from considering the flow along the lines of a Hopf fibration. Let be a constant radius of the inner coil. One set of solutions is given by:


title: Navier–Stokes equations

text: for arbitrary constants and . This is a solution in a non-viscous gas (compressible fluid) whose density, velocities and pressure goes to zero far from the origin. (Note this is not a solution to the Clay Millennium problem because that refers to incompressible fluids where is a constant, and neither does it deal with the uniqueness of the Navier–Stokes equations with respect to any turbulence properties.) It is also worth pointing out that the components of the velocity vector are exactly those from the Pythagorean quadruple parametrization. Other choices of density and pressure are possible with the same velocity field:


title: Navier–Stokes equations

text: These solutions are defined on a three-dimensional torus formula_64 and are characterized by positive and negative helicity respectively.


title: Navier–Stokes equations

text: where formula_66 is the wave number and the velocity components are normalized so that the average kinetic energy per unit of mass is formula_67 at formula_68.


title: Navier–Stokes equations

text: The pressure field is obtained from the velocity field as formula_69 (where formula_70 and formula_71 are reference values for the pressure and density fields respectively).


title: Navier–Stokes equations

text: Since both the solutions belong to the class of Beltrami flow, the vorticity field is parallel to the velocity and, for the case with positive helicity, is given by formula_72.


title: Navier–Stokes equations

text: These solutions can be regarded as a generalization in three dimensions of the classic two-dimensional Taylor-Green Taylor–Green vortex.


title: Navier–Stokes equations

text: Wyld diagrams are bookkeeping graphs that correspond to the Navier–Stokes equations via a perturbation expansion of the fundamental continuum mechanics. Similar to the Feynman diagrams in quantum field theory, these diagrams are an extension of Keldysh's technique for nonequilibrium processes in fluid dynamics. In other words, these diagrams assign graphs to the (often) turbulent phenomena in turbulent fluids by allowing correlated and interacting fluid particles to obey stochastic processes associated to pseudo-random functions in probability distributions.


title: Navier–Stokes equations

text: Note that the formulas in this section make use of the single-line notation for partial derivatives, where, e.g. formula_73 means the partial derivative of with respect to , and formula_74 means the second-order partial derivative of with respect to .


title: Navier–Stokes equations

text: A 2022 paper provides a less costly, dynamical and recurrent solution of the Navier-Stokes equation for 3D turbulent fluid flows. On suitably short time scales, the dynamics of turbulence is deterministic.


title: Navier–Stokes equations

text: From the general form of the Navier–Stokes, with the velocity vector expanded as , sometimes respectively named , , , we may write the vector equation explicitly,


title: Navier–Stokes equations

text: Note that gravity has been accounted for as a body force, and the values of , , will depend on the orientation of gravity with respect to the chosen set of coordinates.


title: Navier–Stokes equations

text: When the flow is incompressible, does not change for any fluid particle, and its material derivative vanishes: . The continuity equation is reduced to:


title: Navier–Stokes equations

text: Thus, for the incompressible version of the Navier–Stokes equation the second part of the viscous terms fall away (see Incompressible flow).


title: Navier–Stokes equations

text: This system of four equations comprises the most commonly used and studied form. Though comparatively more compact than other representations, this is still a nonlinear system of partial differential equations for which solutions are difficult to obtain.


title: Navier–Stokes equations

text: A change of variables on the Cartesian equations will yield the following momentum equations for , , and


title: Navier–Stokes equations

text: The gravity components will generally not be constants, however for most applications either the coordinates are chosen so that the gravity components are constant or else it is assumed that gravity is counteracted by a pressure field (for example, flow in horizontal pipe is treated normally without gravity and without a vertical pressure gradient). The continuity equation is:


title: Navier–Stokes equations

text: This cylindrical representation of the incompressible Navier–Stokes equations is the second most commonly seen (the first being Cartesian above). Cylindrical coordinates are chosen to take advantage of symmetry, so that a velocity component can disappear. A very common case is axisymmetric flow with the assumption of no tangential velocity (), and the remaining quantities are independent of :


title: Navier–Stokes equations

text: These equations could be (slightly) compacted by, for example, factoring from the viscous terms. However, doing so would undesirably alter the structure of the Laplacian and other quantities.


title: Navier–Stokes equations

text: The Navier–Stokes equations are used extensively in video games in order to model a wide variety of natural phenomena. Simulations of small-scale gaseous fluids, such as fire and smoke, are often based on the seminal paper "Real-Time Fluid Dynamics for Games" by Jos Stam, which elaborates one of the methods proposed in Stam's earlier, more famous paper "Stable Fluids" from 1999. Stam proposes stable fluid simulation using a Navier–Stokes solution method from 1968, coupled with an unconditionally stable semi-Lagrangian advection scheme, as first proposed in 1992.


title: Navier–Stokes equations

text: More recent implementations based upon this work run on the game systems graphics processing unit (GPU) as opposed to the central processing unit (CPU) and achieve a much higher degree of performance.


title: Navier–Stokes equations

text: Many improvements have been proposed to Stam's original work, which suffers inherently from high numerical dissipation in both velocity and mass.


title: Navier–Stokes equations

text: An introduction to interactive fluid simulation can be found in the 2007 ACM SIGGRAPH course, Fluid Simulation for Computer Animation.


title: Roy Cohn

text: Roy Marcus Cohn (; February 20, 1927 – August 2, 1986) was an American lawyer and prosecutor who came to prominence for his role as Senator Joseph McCarthy's chief counsel during the Army–McCarthy hearings in 1954, when he assisted McCarthy's investigations of suspected communists. In the late 1970s and during the 1980s, he became a prominent political fixer in New York City. He also represented and mentored the real estate developer and later U.S. President Donald Trump during his early business career.


title: Roy Cohn

text: Cohn was born in The Bronx in New York City and educated at Columbia University. He rose to prominence as a U.S. Department of Justice prosecutor at the espionage trial of Julius and Ethel Rosenberg, where he successfully prosecuted the Rosenbergs leading to their execution in 1953. As a prosecuting chief counsel during the trials, his reputation deteriorated during the late 1950s to late 1970s after McCarthy's downfall.


title: Roy Cohn

text: In 1986, he was disbarred by the Appellate Division of the New York State Supreme Court for unethical conduct after attempting to defraud a dying client by forcing the client to sign a will amendment leaving him his fortune. He died five weeks later from AIDS-related complications, having vehemently denied that he was suffering from HIV.


title: Roy Cohn

text: Born to an affluent Jewish family in the Bronx, New York City, Cohn was the only child of Dora née Marcus (1892–1967) and Judge Albert C. Cohn (1885–1959); his father was an Assistant District Attorney of Bronx County, then appointed as a judge of the Appellate Division of the New York State Supreme Court. His great-uncle was Joshua Lionel Cowen, the founder and longtime owner of the Lionel Corporation, a manufacturer of toy trains.


title: Roy Cohn

text: Cohn had an unhappy childhood and was taunted by his mother for, in her view, being physically unattractive and mild mannered. Regardless, Cohn and his mother were very close, and Cohn lived with her until her death. When Cohn's father insisted that his son be sent to a summer camp, his mother rented a house near the camp and her presence cast a pall over his experience. In personal interactions, Cohn showed tenderness which was absent from his public persona, but exhibited deeply ingrained vanity and insecurity.


title: Roy Cohn

text: Cohn's maternal grandfather, Joseph S. Marcus, founded the Bank of United States in 1913. The bank failed in 1931 during the Great Depression, and its then-president, Bernie Marcus, Cohn's uncle, was convicted of fraud. Bernie Marcus was imprisoned at Sing Sing, and the young Cohn frequently visited him there.


title: Roy Cohn

text: After attending Horace Mann School and the Fieldston School, and completing studies at Columbia College in 1946, Cohn graduated from Columbia Law School at the age of 20.


title: Roy Cohn

text: After his graduation from law school, Cohn worked as a clerk for the U.S. Attorney for the Southern District of New York for two years. In May 1948, at age 21, he was old enough to be admitted to the state bar. He became an assistant U.S. attorney later that month.


title: Roy Cohn

text: As an Assistant US Attorney, Cohn helped to secure convictions in a number of well-publicized trials of accused Soviet operatives. One of the first began in December 1950 with the prosecution of William Remington, a former Commerce Department employee and member of the War Production Board who had been accused of espionage by KGB defector Elizabeth Bentley. Although an indictment for espionage could not be secured, Remington had denied his longtime membership in the Communist Party USA on two separate occasions and was convicted of perjury in two separate trials.


title: Roy Cohn

text: While working in Saypol's office for the Southern District of New York, Cohn aided in the prosecution of 11 members of the American Communist Party for advocating for the violent overthrow of the US government, under the Smith Act.


title: Roy Cohn

text: Cohn played a prominent role in the 1951 espionage trial of Julius and Ethel Rosenberg. Cohn's direct examination of Ethel's brother, David Greenglass, produced testimony that was central to the Rosenbergs' conviction and subsequent execution. Greenglass testified that he had given the Rosenbergs classified documents from the Manhattan Project that had been stolen by Klaus Fuchs. Greenglass would later claim that he lied at the trial in order "to protect himself and his wife, Ruth, and that he was encouraged by the prosecution to do so." Cohn always took great pride in the Rosenberg verdict and claimed to have played an even greater part than his public role. He said in his autobiography that his own influence had led to both Chief Prosecutor Saypol and Judge Irving Kaufman being appointed to the case. Cohn further said that Kaufman imposed the death penalty based on his personal recommendation. He denied participation in any ex parte ("on behalf of") discussions.


title: Roy Cohn

text: There is a consensus among historians that Julius was guilty, but his and Ethel's trial was marred by clear judicial and legal improprieties – many on the part of Cohn – and that they should not have been executed. Distilling this consensus, Harvard Law School professor Alan Dershowitz wrote that the Rosenbergs were "guilty – and framed."


title: Roy Cohn

text: The Rosenberg trial brought the 24-year-old Cohn to the attention of Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) director J. Edgar Hoover. With support from Hoover and Cardinal Spellman, Hearst columnist George Sokolsky convinced Joseph McCarthy to hire Cohn as his chief counsel, choosing him over Robert F. Kennedy. Cohn assisted McCarthy's work for the Senate Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations, becoming known for his aggressive questioning of suspected Communists. Cohn preferred not to hold hearings in open forums, which went well with McCarthy's preference for holding "executive sessions" and "off-the-record" sessions away from the Capitol to minimize public scrutiny and to question witnesses with relative impunity. Cohn was given free rein in pursuit of many investigations, with McCarthy joining in only for the more publicized sessions.


title: Roy Cohn

text: Cohn played a major role in McCarthy's anti-Communist hearings. During the Lavender Scare, Cohn and McCarthy attempted to amplify anti-Communist fervor in the country by claiming that Communists overseas had convinced several closeted homosexuals employed by the US federal government to pass on important government secrets in exchange for keeping their sexuality secret. Convinced that the employment of homosexuals was a threat to national security, President Dwight Eisenhower signed an executive order on April 29, 1953, to ban homosexuals from working in the federal government. According to David L. Marcus, Cohn's cousin, many people in Washington who were outed as gay by Cohn and McCarthy killed themselves. As time went on, it became well known that Cohn was himself gay, though he always denied it.


title: Roy Cohn

text: Sokolsky introduced G. David Schine, an anti-Communist propagandist, to Cohn, who invited him to join McCarthy's staff as an unpaid consultant. When Schine was drafted into the US Army in 1953, Cohn made extensive efforts to procure special treatment for him, even threatening to "wreck the Army" if his demands were not met. That conflict, along with McCarthy's claims that there were Communists in the Defense Department, led to the Army–McCarthy hearings of 1954, during which the Army charged Cohn and McCarthy with using improper pressure on Schine's behalf, and McCarthy and Cohn countercharged that the Army was holding Schine "hostage" in an attempt to squelch McCarthy's investigations into Communists in the Army.


title: Roy Cohn

text: Cohn was asked to resign in 1954 and Robert F. Kennedy replaced him as chief counsel for McCarthy's committee. Cohn then entered private practice as an attorney.


title: Roy Cohn

text: After leaving McCarthy, Cohn had a 30-year career as an attorney in New York City. His clients included Donald Trump; New York Yankees baseball club owner George Steinbrenner; Aristotle Onassis; Mafia figures Tony Salerno, Carmine Galante, John Gotti and Mario Gigante, Studio 54 owners Steve Rubell and Ian Schrager (who hosted his birthday there one year – the invitation appearing like a subpoena); the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of New York; Texas financier and philanthropist Shearn Moody, Jr.; and business owner Richard Dupont. Dupont, then 48, was convicted of aggravated harassment and attempted grand larceny for his extreme attempts at coercing further representation by Cohn for a bogus claim to property ownership in a case against the actual owner of 644 Greenwich Street, Manhattan, where Dupont had operated Big Gym, and from where he had been evicted in January 1979. Throughout Cohn's career there were accusations of theft, obstruction, extortion, tax evasion, bribery, blackmail, fraud, perjury, and witness tampering. Cohn was known for his active social life, charitable giving, and combative and loyal personality. His combative personality would often come out in the threatening letters he would send to those who dared to sue his clients.


title: Roy Cohn

text: In the early 1960s he became a board member of the Western Goals Foundation. Although he was registered as a Democrat, Cohn supported most of the Republican presidents of his time and Republicans in major offices across New York. He maintained close ties in conservative political circles, serving as an informal advisor to Richard Nixon and Ronald Reagan. Cohn was also linked to and worked with Democrats such as Ed Koch, Meade Esposito, and John Moran Bailey. According to the documentary "Where's my Roy Cohn?", his father Albert Cohn introduced him to Franklin D. Roosevelt. While on the Reagan campaign he would befriend Roger Stone. Cohn's other clients included retired Harvard Law School professor Alan Dershowitz, who has referenced Cohn as "the quintessential fixer."


title: Roy Cohn

text: In 1971 Donald Trump first undertook large construction projects in Manhattan. In 1973, the Justice Department accused Trump of violating the Fair Housing Act in 39 of his properties. The government alleged that Trump's corporation quoted different rental terms and conditions and made false "no vacancy" statements to African Americans for apartments it managed in Brooklyn, Queens, and Staten Island.


title: Roy Cohn

text: Representing Trump, Cohn filed a countersuit against the government for $100 million, asserting that the charges were "irresponsible and baseless." The countersuit was unsuccessful. Trump settled the charges out of court in 1975, saying he was satisfied that the agreement did not "compel the Trump organization to accept persons on welfare as tenants unless as qualified as any other tenant." The corporation was required to send a bi-weekly list of vacancies to the New York Urban League, a civil rights group, and give the league priority for certain locations. In 1978, the Trump Organization was again in court for violating terms of the 1975 settlement; Cohn called the new charges "nothing more than a rehash of complaints by a couple of planted malcontents." Trump denied the charges.


title: Roy Cohn

text: Cohn was allegedly involved in the construction of Trump Tower. Trump Tower was to be built with concrete, however, at the time there was a city-wide Teamster strike and most unions in Manhattan were controlled by or had ties to organized crime. Cohn had represented mobsters in the past like Carmine Galante and Anthony Salerno. Salerno and Paul Castellano at the time controlled the concrete unions in Manhattan and, when Donald Trump needed concrete, he received it from union leader John Cody who was linked to mob boss Castellano.


title: Roy Cohn

text: Rupert Murdoch was a client, and Cohn repeatedly pressured President Ronald Reagan to further Murdoch's interests. He is credited with introducing Trump and Murdoch, in the mid-1970s, marking the beginning of what was to be a long, pivotal association between the two.


title: Roy Cohn

text: Cohn was the grandnephew of Joshua Lionel Cowen, founder of the Lionel model train company. By 1959, Cowen and his son Lawrence had become involved in a family dispute over control of the company. In October 1959, Cohn and a group of investors stepped in and gained control of the company, having bought 200,000 of the firm's 700,000 shares, which were purchased by his syndicate from the Cowens and on the open market over a three-month period prior to the takeover.


title: Roy Cohn

text: Under Cohn's leadership, Lionel was plagued by declining sales, quality-control problems and huge financial losses. In 1963, Cohn was forced to resign from the company after losing a proxy fight.


title: Roy Cohn

text: Cohn aided Roger Stone in Ronald Reagan's presidential campaign in 1979–1980, helping Stone arrange for John B. Anderson to get the nomination of the Liberal Party of New York, a move that would help split the opposition to Reagan in the state. Stone said Cohn gave him a suitcase that Stone avoided opening and, as instructed by Cohn, dropped it off at the office of a lawyer influential in Liberal Party circles. Reagan carried the state with 46 percent of the vote. Speaking after the statute of limitations for bribery had expired, Stone said, "I paid his law firm. Legal fees. I don't know what he did for the money, but whatever it was, the Liberal Party reached its right conclusion out of a matter of principle."


title: Roy Cohn

text: Cohn had many influential friends. According to Christine Seymour, his long-time switchboard operator, Cohn had frequent phone calls with Nancy Reagan and the former CIA director William Casey, who "called Roy almost daily during [Reagan's] 1st election." Both Casey and Cohn were reportedly close with Craig J. Spence, a high-powered Republican lobbyist known for his extravagant parties. Cohn referred to Donald Trump as his best friend. Cohn told journalists that Trump phoned him 15 to 20 times a day and according to Seymour's notes, Trump was the last person to speak to Cohn on the phone before he died in 1986. Cohn exchanged Christmas gifts with FBI director J. Edgar Hoover; the two also reportedly attended parties with their mutual sponsor and friend, Lewis Rosenstiel of Schenley. Cohn also attended events and parties with prominent people such as Margaret Trudeau and Virginia Graham. Cohn dated Barbara Walters in college and remained friends with her. Cohn got to know Alan Dershowitz when they worked together on the Claus von Bülow case and praised Dershowitz's support for Israel. Cohn was a close friend (some said lover) of Cardinal Francis Spellman, and described Generoso Pope as "a second father." Pope's son Generoso Jr. — who would go on to run "The National Enquirer"— was Cohn's classmate at Horace Mann and so was the heir to the Condé Nast publishing empire, Si Newhouse, another life-long friend. Cohn was also friends with Norman Mailer, Bianca Jagger, Estée Lauder, William F. Buckley Jr., New York City mayor Abraham Beame and Carmine DeSapio.


title: Roy Cohn

text: Following federal investigations during the 1970s and 1980s, Cohn was charged three times with professional misconduct, including perjury and witness tampering, and he was accused in New York of financial improprieties related to city contracts and private investments. He was acquitted on all charges. Many famous people showed up as character witnesses including Barbara Walters, "Firing Line" host William F. Buckley Jr., Alan Dershowitz and Donald Trump. In 1986, a five-judge panel of the Appellate Division of the New York State Supreme Court disbarred Cohn for unethical and unprofessional conduct, including misappropriation of clients' funds, lying on a bar application, and pressuring a client to amend his will. That arose from an incident in 1975, when Cohn entered the hospital room of the dying and comatose Lewis Rosenstiel, the multi-millionaire founder of Schenley Industries, forced a pen into his hand and lifted it to the will, in an attempt to make himself and Cathy Frank, Rosenstiel's granddaughter, beneficiaries. The resulting marks were determined in court to be indecipherable and in no way a valid signature.


title: Roy Cohn

text: When Cohn recruited G. David Schine as chief consultant to the McCarthy staff, speculation arose that Schine and Cohn had a sexual relationship. Schine's chauffeur later volunteered to testify that he had seen the two "engaged in homosexual acts" in the back of his limousine, though there was no evidence that Schine ever had any romantic feelings for Cohn. During this period, Schine dated the actress Piper Laurie, and he eventually married a former Miss Universe, producing six children. During the Army–McCarthy hearings, Cohn denied having any "special interest" in Schine or being bound to him "closer than to the ordinary friend". Joseph Welch, the Army's attorney in the hearings, made an apparent reference to Cohn's homosexuality. After asking a witness, at McCarthy's request, if a photo entered as evidence "came from a pixie", he defined "pixie" as "a close relative of a fairy". "Pixie" was a camera-model name at the time; "fairy" is a derogatory term for a homosexual man. The people at the hearing recognized the implication, and found it amusing; Cohn later called the remark "malicious", "wicked", and "indecent".


title: Roy Cohn

text: The young Cohn also attached himself to several older powerful men who, in return, provided Cohn with assistance. One of them was New York's Francis Cardinal Spellman, whose own alleged homosexuality has been a subject of controversy in the Catholic Church. During the years of debate over the passage of New York's first gay rights bill, Cohn would align himself with the Archdiocese of New York and express his conviction that "homosexual teachers are a grave threat to our children".


title: Roy Cohn

text: Although Cohn always denied his homosexuality in public, he had a few known boyfriends over the course of his life, including his assistant Russell Eldridge, who died from AIDS in 1984, and Peter Fraser, Cohn's partner for the last two years of his life, who was 30 years his junior.


title: Roy Cohn

text: Speculation about Cohn's sexuality intensified following his death from AIDS in 1986. In a 2008 article published in "The New Yorker", Jeffrey Toobin quotes Cohn associate Roger Stone: "Roy was not gay. He was a man who liked having sex with men. Gays were weak, effeminate. He always seemed to have these young blond boys around. It just wasn't discussed. He was interested in power and access."


title: Roy Cohn

text: Cohn and McCarthy targeted government officials and cultural figures not only for suspected Communist sympathies, but also for alleged homosexuality.


title: Roy Cohn

text: McCarthy and Cohn were responsible for the firing of scores of gay men from government employment, and strong-armed many opponents into silence using rumors of their homosexuality. Former U.S. Senator Alan K. Simpson wrote: "The so-called 'Red Scare' has been the main focus of most historians of that period of time. A lesser-known element…and one that harmed far more people was the witch-hunt McCarthy and others conducted against homosexuals."


title: Roy Cohn

text: According to New York attorney John Klotz, who had been investigating Cohn on behalf of his client Richard Dupont, Cohn provided protection for a "ring of pedophiles" operating out of Suite 233 at the Plaza Hotel. The ring, Klotz wrote, had "connections to the intelligence community".


title: Roy Cohn

text: Some of Cohn's former clients, including Bill Bonanno, son of crime boss Joseph Bonanno, also credit him with having compromising photographs of former FBI director J. Edgar Hoover. Because Hoover knew the pictures existed, Cohn told Bonanno, Hoover feared being blackmailed. Other organized crime figures have corroborated these allegations.


title: Roy Cohn

text: In 1984, Cohn was diagnosed with AIDS and attempted to keep his condition secret while receiving experimental drug treatment. He participated in clinical trials of AZT, a drug initially synthesized to treat cancer but later developed as the first anti-HIV agent for AIDS patients. He insisted to his dying day that his disease was liver cancer. He died on August 2, 1986, in Bethesda, Maryland, of complications from AIDS, at the age of 59. At death, the IRS seized almost everything he had. One of the things that the IRS did not seize was a pair of diamond cuff links, given to him by his client and friend, Donald Trump.


title: Roy Cohn

text: According to Roger Stone, Cohn's "absolute goal was to die completely broke and owing millions to the IRS. He succeeded in that." He was buried in Union Field Cemetery in Queens, New York. While his tombstone describes him as a lawyer and a patriot, the AIDS Memorial Quilt describes him as "Roy Cohn. Bully. Coward. Victim." It is this latter description that made Tony Kushner interested in Cohn.


title: Roy Cohn

text: In 1978, Ken Auletta wrote in an "Esquire" profile of Cohn: "He fights his cases as if they were his own. It is war. If he feels his adversary has been unfair, it is war to the death. No white flags. No Mr. Nice Guy. Prospective clients who want to kill their husband, torture a business partner, break the government's legs, hire Roy Cohn. He is a legal executioner—the toughest, meanest, loyalest, vilest, and one of the most brilliant lawyers in America."


title: Roy Cohn

text: "Politico" writer Michael Kruse wrote of Cohn: "He was preening and combative, look-at-me lavish and loud. It was an act. The truth was he hated what he was—a lawyer who hated lawyers, a Jewish person who hated Jewish people, and a gay person, fiercely closeted if haphazardly hidden, who hated gay people, calling them 'fags'..."


title: Roy Cohn

text: Maureen Dowd wrote in an article for "The New York Times" which described Matt Tyrnauer's film "Where's My Roy Cohn?": "Roy Cohn understood the political value of wrapping himself in the flag. He made good copy. He knew how to manipulate the press and dictate stories to the New York tabloids. He surrounded himself with gorgeous women. There was always something of a nefarious nature going on. He was like a caged animal who would go after you the minute the cage door was opened."


title: Roy Cohn

text: Several people have asserted that Cohn had considerable influence on the Presidency of Donald Trump, e.g. Ivy Meeropol, director of "Bully, Coward, Victim: The Story of Roy Cohn" said "Cohn really paved the way for Trump and set him up with the right people, introduced him to Paul Manafort and Roger Stone—the people who helped him get to the White House." "Where's my Roy Cohn?" director Matt Tyrnauer told "Esquire" that he "was very aware of [Cohn's] relationship with Donald Trump and the fact that he had a huge influence on him. Having done a lot of research and now made a film, I think that that's actually understating it. I think Roy Cohn created a president from beyond the grave".


title: Roy Cohn

text: "Vanity Fair"'s Marie Brenner wrote in an article about Cohn's mentorship of Trump: "Cohn—possessed of a keen intellect, unlike Trump—could keep a jury spellbound. When he was indicted for bribery, in 1969, his lawyer suffered a heart attack near the end of the trial. Cohn deftly stepped in and did a seven-hour closing argument—never once referring to a notepad… When Cohn spoke, he would fix you with a hypnotic stare. His eyes were the palest blue, all the more startling because they appeared to protrude from the sides of his head. While Al Pacino's version of Cohn (in Mike Nichols's 2003 HBO adaptation of Tony Kushner's "Angels in America") captured Cohn's intensity, it failed to convey his child-like yearning to be liked."


title: Roy Cohn

text: The late Wayne Barrett, who spent dozens of hours interviewing Cohn and Trump beginning in the 70s, told "Democracy Now!" in 2016: "He was the weirdest guy. He was into the strangest stuff. He was a chicken hawk... yet he was the most virulently anti-gay guy you could imagine. And so, that was Donald's mentor and constant sidekick, who represented all five of the organized crime families in the City of New York."


title: Roy Cohn

text: A dramatic figure in life, Cohn inspired several fictional portrayals after his death. Probably the best known is in Tony Kushner's "" (1991), which portrays Cohn as a closeted, power-hungry hypocrite haunted by the ghost of Ethel Rosenberg as he denies dying of AIDS. In the initial Broadway production, the role was played by Ron Leibman; in the HBO miniseries (2003), Cohn is played by Al Pacino; and in the 2010 Off-Broadway revival by the Signature Theatre Company in Manhattan, the role was reprised by Frank Wood. Nathan Lane played Cohn in the 2017 Royal National Theatre production and the 2018 Broadway production. Cohn is also a character in Kushner's one-act play, "G. David Schine in Hell" (1996). That play may have been inspired in part by the "National Lampoon" comic strip "Roy Cohn in Hell" (Feb. 1987), which depicts Cohn joining Hoover and Senator McCarthy in the nether regions.


title: Roy Cohn

text: Cohn is portrayed by James Woods in the biographical film "Citizen Cohn" (1992), by Joe Pantoliano in "Robert Kennedy and His Times" (1985), by George Wyner in "Tail Gunner Joe" (1977), and by David Moreland in "The X-Files" episode "Travelers" (1998), in which an elderly former FBI agent speaks to Agent Fox Mulder about the early years of the McCarthy era and the beginning of the X-Files.


title: Roy Cohn

text: In the early 1990s, Cohn was one of two subjects of Ron Vawter's one-man show "Roy Cohn/Jack Smith"; his part was written by Gary Indiana.


title: Roy Cohn

text: He was the subject of two 2019 documentaries: "Bully, Coward, Victim: The Story of Roy Cohn", directed by Ivy Meeropol (a documentary filmmaker and granddaughter of Julius and Ethel Rosenberg) and Matt Tyrnauer's "Where's My Roy Cohn?"


title: Roy Cohn

text: "Attorney Roland Blum", played by Michael Sheen, is a trickster lawyer, inspired by Cohn, who appears in "The One Inspired by Roy Cohn": Episode 2, Season 3, of "The Good Fight" from CBS Studios (March 2019).


title: 2021–2023 ICC World Test Championship

text: The 2021–2023 ICC World Test Championship is the second edition of the ICC World Test Championship of Test cricket. It started on 4 August 2021 and is scheduled to finish on 31 March 2023.


title: 2021–2023 ICC World Test Championship

text: The five-match Pataudi Trophy between England and India, started 4 August 2021, began the second cycle of the World Test Championship. That series, along with the Ashes in December 2021, will be the only two series comprising five Tests in the second WTC cycle. New Zealand are the defending champions. In September 2022, the International Cricket Council (ICC) announced that the final of this edition of the World Test Championship would be played at The Oval in June 2023.


title: 2021–2023 ICC World Test Championship

text: The tournament will be played over two years, with 69 matches over 27 series scheduled for the league stage from which the top two teams will advance to a final. Each team is scheduled to play six series, with three at home and three away. Each series will consist of two to five Test matches. Each participant will play between 12 and 22 matches. Each match is scheduled for a duration of five days.


title: 2021–2023 ICC World Test Championship

text: The points system was changed from the previous edition. In this edition, 12 points would be available each match regardless of how many matches there are in a series. A win is worth all 12 points, a tie is worth 6 points each, a draw is worth 4 points each, and a loss is worth 0 points. A team that was behind the required over rate at the end of a match would have one point deducted for each over it was behind. As in the previous edition, teams are ranked in the league table based on percentage of total points won out of total points contested.


title: 2021–2023 ICC World Test Championship

text: The schedule for the World Test Championship was announced by the International Cricket Council (ICC) on 20 June 2018, as part of the 2018–2023 Future Tours Programme. Rather than being a full round-robin tournament in which everyone played everyone else equally, each team played only six of the other eight as in the previous cycle.


title: Pandemic

text: A pandemic () is an epidemic of an infectious disease that has spread across a large region, for instance multiple continents or worldwide, affecting a substantial number of individuals. A widespread endemic disease with a stable number of infected individuals is not a pandemic. Widespread endemic diseases with a stable number of infected individuals such as recurrences of seasonal influenza are generally excluded as they occur simultaneously in large regions of the globe rather than being spread worldwide.


title: Pandemic

text: Throughout human history, there have been a number of pandemics of diseases such as smallpox. The most fatal pandemic in recorded history was the Black Death—also known as The Plague—which killed an estimated 75–200 million people in the 14th century.<ref name="ABC/Reuters"></ref> The term had not been used then but was used for later epidemics, including the 1918 influenza pandemic—more commonly known as the Spanish flu.


title: Pandemic

text: A pandemic is an epidemic occurring on a scale that crosses international boundaries, usually affecting people on a worldwide scale. A disease or condition is not a pandemic merely because it is widespread or kills many people; it must also be infectious. For instance, cancer is responsible for many deaths but is not considered a pandemic because the disease is not contagious—i.e. easily transmittable—and not even simply infectious.


title: Pandemic

text: In 2009, the World Health Organization (WHO) dropped the words "with enormous numbers of deaths and illness" from their definition. In 2008, it also dropped the requirement of an "influenza pandemic" to be a new sub-type with a simple reassortant virus, meaning that many seasonal flu viruses now could be classified as pandemic influenza.


title: Pandemic

text: The World Health Organization previously applied a six-stage classification to describe the process by which a novel influenza virus moves from the first few infections in humans through to a pandemic. It starts when mostly animals are infected with a virus and a few cases where animals infect people, then moves to the stage where the virus begins to be transmitted directly between people and ends with the stage when infections in humans from the virus have spread worldwide. In February 2020, a WHO spokesperson clarified that "there is no official category [for a pandemic]".


title: Pandemic

text: During the 2009 influenza pandemic, Dr. Keiji Fukuda, Assistant Director-General "ad interim" for Health Security and Environment, WHO said "An easy way to think about pandemic... is to say: a pandemic is a global outbreak. Then you might ask yourself: 'What is a global outbreak?' Global outbreak means that we see both the spread of the agent... and then we see disease activities in addition to the spread of the virus."


title: Pandemic

text: In planning for a possible influenza pandemic, the WHO published a document on pandemic preparedness guidance in 1999, which was revised in 2005 and 2009. It defined phases and appropriate actions for each phase in an "aide-mémoire" titled "WHO pandemic phase descriptions and main actions by phase". The 2009 revision, including descriptions of a pandemic and the phases leading to its declaration, was finalized in February 2009. The 2009 H1N1 virus pandemic was neither on the horizon at that time nor mentioned in the document. All versions of this document refer to influenza. The phases are defined by the spread of the disease; virulence and mortality are not mentioned in the current WHO definition, although these factors have previously been included.


title: Pandemic

text: In 2014, the United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention introduced an analogous framework to the WHO's pandemic stages titled the Pandemic Intervals Framework. It includes two pre-pandemic intervals,


title: Pandemic

text: In 2014, the United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention adopted the Pandemic Severity Assessment Framework (PSAF) to assess the severity of pandemics. The PSAF superseded the 2007 linear Pandemic Severity Index, which assumed 30% spread and measured case fatality rate (CFR) to assess the severity and evolution of the pandemic.


title: Pandemic

text: Historically, measures of pandemic severity were based on the case fatality rate. However, the case fatality rate might not be an adequate measure of pandemic severity during a pandemic response because:


title: Pandemic

text: To account for the limitations of measuring the case fatality rate alone, the PSAF rates the severity of a disease outbreak on two dimensions: clinical severity of illness in infected persons; and the transmissibility of the infection in the population. Each dimension can be measured using more than one metric, which are scaled to allow comparison of the different metrics. Clinical severity can instead be measured, for example, as the ratio of deaths to hospitalizations or using genetic markers of virulence. Transmissibility can be measured, for example, as the basic reproduction number R and serial interval or via underlying population immunity. The framework gives guidelines for scaling the various measures and examples of assessing past pandemics using the framework.


title: Pandemic

text: The basic strategies in the control of an outbreak are containment and mitigation. Containment may be undertaken in the early stages of the outbreak, including contact tracing and isolating infected individuals to stop the disease from spreading to the rest of the population, other public health interventions on infection control, and therapeutic countermeasures such as vaccinations which may be effective if available. When it becomes apparent that it is no longer possible to contain the spread of the disease, management will then move on to the mitigation stage, in which measures are taken to slow the spread of the disease and mitigate its effects on society and the healthcare system. In reality, containment and mitigation measures may be undertaken simultaneously.


title: Pandemic

text: A key part of managing an infectious disease outbreak is trying to decrease the epidemic peak, known as "flattening the curve". This helps decrease the risk of health services being overwhelmed and provides more time for a vaccine and treatment to be developed. A broad group of the so-called non-pharmaceutical interventions may be taken to manage the outbreak. In a flu pandemic, these actions may include personal preventive measures such as hand hygiene, wearing face-masks, and self-quarantine; community measures aimed at social distancing such as closing schools and canceling mass gatherings; community engagement to encourage acceptance and participation in such interventions; and environmental measures such as cleaning of surfaces.


title: Pandemic

text: Another strategy, suppression, requires more extreme long-term non-pharmaceutical interventions to reverse the pandemic by reducing the basic reproduction number to less than1. The suppression strategy, which includes stringent population-wide social distancing, home isolation of cases, and household quarantine, was undertaken by China during the COVID-19 pandemic where entire cities were placed under lockdown; such a strategy may carry with it considerable social and economic costs.


title: Pandemic

text: Although the WHO uses the term "global epidemic" to describe HIV (), as HIV is no longer an uncontrollable outbreak outside of Africa, some authors use the term "pandemic".


title: Pandemic

text: HIV originated in Africa, and spread to the United States via Haiti between 1966 and 1972. AIDS is currently a pandemic in Africa, with infection rates as high as 25% in some regions of southern and eastern Africa. In 2006, the HIV prevalence among pregnant women in South Africa was 29%. Effective education about safer sexual practices and bloodborne infection precautions training have helped to slow down infection rates in several African countries sponsoring national education programs. There were an estimated 1.5 million new infections of HIV/AIDS in 2020. there have been about a total of 32.7 million deaths related to HIV/AIDS since the epidemic started.


title: Pandemic

text: SARS-CoV-2, a new strain of coronavirus, was first detected in the city of Wuhan, Hubei Province, China, in December 2019. It caused a pandemic of cases of an acute respiratory disease, which is referred to as coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). More than 200 countries and territories have been affected by COVID-19, with major outbreaks occurring in Brazil, Russia, India, Mexico, Peru, South Africa, Western Europe, and the United States. On 11 March 2020, the World Health Organization characterized the spread of COVID-19 as a pandemic, marking the first global pandemic since the 2009 swine flu pandemic. As of November 15 2022, the number of people infected with COVID-19 has reached more than 635 million worldwide. The current death toll is 6,611,456. It is believed that these figures underestimate true totals as testing did not commence in the initial stages of the outbreak and many people infected by the virus have no or only mild symptoms so may not have been tested. Similarly, the number of deaths may also be understated as fatalities may have not been tested or are attributed to other conditions. This was especially the case in large urban areas where a non-trivial number of patients died while in their private residences.


title: Pandemic

text: In human history, it is generally zoonoses such as influenza and tuberculosis which constitute most of the widespread outbreaks, resulting from the domestication of animals. There have been many particularly significant epidemics that deserve mention above the "mere" destruction of cities:


title: Pandemic

text: Encounters between European explorers and populations in the rest of the world often introduced epidemics of extraordinary virulence. Disease killed part of the native population of the Canary Islands in the 16th century (Guanches). Half the native population of Hispaniola in 1518 was killed by smallpox. Smallpox also ravaged Mexico in the 1520s, killing 150,000 in Tenochtitlán alone, including the emperor, and in Peru in the 1530s, aiding the European conquerors. Measles killed a further two million native Mexicans in the 17th century. In 1618–1619, smallpox wiped out 90% of the Massachusetts Bay Native Americans. During the 1770s, smallpox killed at least 30% of the Pacific Northwest Native Americans. Smallpox epidemics in 1780–1782 and 1837–1838 brought devastation and drastic depopulation among the Plains Indians. Some believe the death of up to 95% of the Native American population of the New World was caused by Europeans introducing Old World diseases such as smallpox, measles and influenza. Over the centuries, Europeans had developed high degrees of herd immunity to these diseases, while the indigenous peoples had no such immunity.


title: Pandemic

text: Smallpox, introduced by European settlers in 1789 to the Australian continent, devastated the Australian Aboriginal population, killing up to 50% of those infected with the disease during the first decades of colonisation. It also killed many New Zealand Māori. In 1848–49, as many as 40,000 out of 150,000 Hawaiians are estimated to have died of measles, whooping cough and influenza. Introduced diseases, notably smallpox, nearly wiped out the native population of Easter Island. Measles killed more than 40,000 Fijians, approximately one-third of the population, in 1875, and in the early 19th century devastated the Great Andamanese population. The Ainu population decreased drastically in the 19th century, due in large part to infectious diseases brought by Japanese settlers pouring into Hokkaido.


title: Pandemic

text: Researchers concluded that syphilis was carried from the New World to Europe after Columbus's voyages. The findings suggested Europeans could have carried the nonvenereal tropical bacteria home, where the organisms may have mutated into a more deadly form in the different conditions of Europe. The disease was more frequently fatal than it is today. Syphilis was a major killer in Europe during the Renaissance. Between 1602 and 1796, the Dutch East India Company sent almost a million Europeans to work in Asia. Ultimately, fewer than a third made their way back to Europe. The majority died of diseases. Disease killed more British soldiers in India and South Africa than war.


title: Pandemic

text: As early as 1803, the Spanish Crown organized a mission (the Balmis expedition) to transport the smallpox vaccine to the Spanish colonies, and establish mass vaccination programs there. By 1832, the federal government of the United States established a smallpox vaccination program for Native Americans. From the beginning of the 20th century onwards, the elimination or control of disease in tropical countries became a driving force for all colonial powers. The sleeping sickness epidemic in Africa was arrested due to mobile teams systematically screening millions of people at risk. In the 20th century, the world saw the biggest increase in its population in human history due to a drop in the mortality rate in many countries as a result of medical advances. The world population has grown from 1.6 billion in 1900 to an estimated 6.8 billion in 2011.


title: Pandemic

text: Dengue is spread by several species of female mosquitoes of the Aedes type, principally "A. aegypti". The virus has five types; infection with one type usually gives lifelong immunity to that type, but only short-term immunity to the others. Subsequent infection with a different type increases the risk of severe complications. Several tests are available to confirm the diagnosis including detecting antibodies to the virus or its RNA.


title: Pandemic

text: Typhus is sometimes called "camp fever" because of its pattern of flaring up in times of strife. (It is also known as "gaol fever", "Aryotitus fever" and "ship fever", for its habits of spreading wildly in cramped quarters, such as jails and ships.) Emerging during the Crusades, it had its first impact in Europe in 1489, in Spain. During fighting between the Christian Spaniards and the Muslims in Granada, the Spanish lost 3,000 to war casualties, and 20,000 to typhus. In 1528, the French lost 18,000 troops in Italy, and lost supremacy in Italy to the Spanish. In 1542, 30,000 soldiers died of typhus while fighting the Ottomans in the Balkans.


title: Pandemic

text: During the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648), about eight million Germans were killed by bubonic plague and typhus. The disease also played a major role in the destruction of Napoleon's "Grande Armée" in Russia in 1812. During the retreat from Moscow, more French military personnel died of typhus than were killed by the Russians. Of the 450,000 soldiers who crossed the Neman on 25 June 1812, fewer than 40,000 returned. More military personnel were killed from 1500 to 1914 by typhus than from military action. In early 1813, Napoleon raised a new army of 500,000 to replace his Russian losses. In the campaign of that year, more than 219,000 of Napoleon's soldiers died of typhus. Typhus played a major factor in the Great Famine of Ireland. During World War I, typhus epidemics killed more than 150,000 in Serbia. There were about 25 million infections and 3million deaths from epidemic typhus in Russia from 1918 to 1922. Typhus also killed numerous prisoners in the Nazi concentration camps and Soviet prisoner of war camps during World WarII. More than 3.5 million Soviet POWs died out of the 5.7 million in Nazi custody.


title: Pandemic

text: Smallpox was a contagious disease caused by the variola virus. The disease killed an estimated 400,000 Europeans per year during the closing years of the 18th century. During the 20th century, it is estimated that smallpox was responsible for 300–500 million deaths. As recently as the early 1950s, an estimated 50 million cases of smallpox occurred in the world each year. After successful vaccination campaigns throughout the 19th and 20th centuries, the WHO certified the eradication of smallpox in December 1979. To this day, smallpox is the only human infectious disease to have been completely eradicated, and one of two infectious viruses ever to be eradicated, along with rinderpest.


title: Pandemic

text: Historically, measles was prevalent throughout the world, as it is highly contagious. According to the U.S. National Immunization Program, by 1962 90% of people were infected with measles by age 15. Before the vaccine was introduced in 1963, there were an estimated three to four million cases in the U.S. each year. Measles killed around 200 million people worldwide over the last 150 years. In 2000 alone, measles killed some 777,000 worldwide out of 40 million cases globally.


title: Pandemic

text: Measles is an endemic disease, meaning it has been continually present in a community, and many people develop resistance. In populations that have not been exposed to measles, exposure to a new disease can be devastating. In 1529, a measles outbreak in Cuba killed two-thirds of the natives who had previously survived smallpox. The disease had ravaged Mexico, Central America, and the Inca civilization.


title: Pandemic

text: One-quarter of the world's current population has been infected with "Mycobacterium tuberculosis", and new infections occur at a rate of one per second. About 5–10% of these latent infections will eventually progress to active disease, which, if left untreated, kills more than half its victims. Annually, eight million people become ill with tuberculosis, and two million die from the disease worldwide. In the 19th century, tuberculosis killed an estimated one-quarter of the adult population of Europe; by 1918, one in six deaths in France were still caused by tuberculosis. During the 20th century, tuberculosis killed approximately 100 million people. TB is still one of the most important health problems in the developing world. In 2018, Tuberculosis became the leading cause of death from an infectious disease, with roughly 1.5 million deaths worldwide.


title: Pandemic

text: Leprosy, also known as Hansen's disease, is caused by a bacillus, "Mycobacterium leprae". It is a chronic disease with an incubation period of up to five years. Since 1985, 15 million people worldwide have been cured of leprosy.


title: Pandemic

text: Historically, leprosy has affected people since at least 600 BC. Leprosy outbreaks began to occur in Western Europe around 1000 AD. Numerous "leprosoria", or leper hospitals, sprang up in the Middle Ages; Matthew Paris estimated that in the early 13th century, there were 19,000 of them across Europe.


title: Pandemic

text: Malaria is widespread in tropical and subtropical regions, including parts of the Americas, Asia, and Africa. Each year, there are approximately 350–500 million cases of malaria. Drug resistance poses a growing problem in the treatment of malaria in the 21st century, since resistance is now common against all classes of antimalarial drugs, except for the artemisinins.


title: Pandemic

text: Malaria was once common in most of Europe and North America, where it is now for all purposes non-existent. Malaria may have contributed to the decline of the Roman Empire. The disease became known as "Roman fever". "Plasmodium falciparum" became a real threat to colonists and indigenous people alike when it was introduced into the Americas along with the slave trade. Malaria devastated the Jamestown colony and regularly ravaged the South and Midwest of the United States. By 1830, it had reached the Pacific Northwest. During the American Civil War, there were more than 1.2 million cases of malaria among


title: Pandemic

text: soldiers of both sides. The southern U.S. continued to be affected by millions of cases of malaria into the 1930s.


title: Pandemic

text: Yellow fever has been a source of several devastating epidemics. Cities as far north as New York, Philadelphia, and Boston were hit with epidemics. In 1793, one of the largest yellow fever epidemics in U.S. history killed as many as 5,000 people in Philadelphia—roughly 10% of the population. About half of the residents had fled the city, including President George Washington.


title: Pandemic

text: Another major outbreak of the disease struck the Mississippi River Valley in 1878, with deaths estimated at 20,000. Among the hardest-hit places was Memphis, Tennessee, where 5,000 people were killed and over 20,000 fled, then representing over half the city's population, many of whom never returned. In colonial times, West Africa became known as "the white man's grave" because of malaria and yellow fever.


title: Pandemic

text: In a press conference on 28 December 2020, Dr. Mike Ryan, head of the WHO Emergencies Program, and other officials said the current COVID-19 pandemic is "not necessarily the big one" and "the next pandemic may be more severe." They called for preparation. The WHO and the UN, have warned the world must tackle the cause of pandemics and not just the health and economic symptoms.


title: Pandemic

text: The October 2020 'era of pandemics' report by the United Nations' Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services, written by 22 experts in a variety of fields, said the anthropogenic destruction of biodiversity is paving the way to the pandemic era and could result in as many as 850,000 viruses being transmitted from animals—in particular birds and mammals—to humans. The "exponential rise" in consumption and trade of commodities such as meat, palm oil, and metals, largely facilitated by developed nations, and a growing human population, are the primary drivers of this destruction. According to Peter Daszak, the chair of the group who produced the report, "there is no great mystery about the cause of the Covid-19 pandemic or any modern pandemic. The same human activities that drive climate change and biodiversity loss also drive pandemic risk through their impacts on our environment." Proposed policy options from the report include taxing meat production and consumption, cracking down on the illegal wildlife trade, removing high-risk species from the legal wildlife trade, eliminating subsidies to businesses that are harmful to the natural world, and establishing a global surveillance network.


title: Pandemic

text: In June 2021, a team of scientists assembled by the Harvard Medical School Center for Health and the Global Environment warned that the primary cause of pandemics so far, the anthropogenic destruction of the natural world through such activities including deforestation and hunting, is being ignored by world leaders.


title: Pandemic

text: Antibiotic-resistant microorganisms, which sometimes are referred to as "superbugs", may contribute to the re-emergence of diseases that are currently well controlled. For example, cases of tuberculosis that are resistant to traditionally effective treatments remain a cause of great concern to health professionals. Every year, nearly half a million new cases of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB) are estimated to occur worldwide. China and India have the highest rate of multidrug-resistant TB. The World Health Organization (WHO) reports that approximately 50 million people worldwide are infected with MDR TB, with 79 percent of those cases resistant to three or more antibiotics. In 2005, 124 cases of MDR TB were reported in the United States. Extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis (XDR TB) was identified in Africa in 2006 and subsequently discovered to exist in 49 countries, including the United States. There are about 40,000 new cases of XDR-TB per year, the WHO estimates.


title: Pandemic

text: In the past 20 years, common bacteria including "Staphylococcus aureus", "Serratia marcescens" and Enterococcus, have developed resistance to various antibiotics such as vancomycin, as well as whole classes of antibiotics, such as the aminoglycosides and cephalosporins. Antibiotic-resistant organisms have become an important cause of healthcare-associated (nosocomial) infections (HAI). In addition, infections caused by community-acquired strains of methicillin-resistant "Staphylococcus aureus" (MRSA) in otherwise healthy individuals have become more frequent in recent years.


title: Pandemic

text: Early development of vaccines may be one way to prepare for future pandemics that couldn't get prevented. In 2021, scientists called for accelerated efforts in the development of broadly protective vaccines, especially a universal coronavirus vaccine that durably protects not just against all SARS-CoV-2 variants but also other coronaviruses, including already identified animal coronaviruses with pandemic potential. Other components may include measures related to disease surveillance for detecting pathogens (including early warning systems), data collection and modelling to enable tracing and explaining the spread of pathogens, improvements to public-health guidance and communication, and the development of relevant therapies, including therapies beyond vaccines.


title: Pandemic

text: Viral hemorrhagic fevers such as Ebola virus disease, Lassa fever, Rift Valley fever, Marburg virus disease, Severe fever with thrombocytopenia as well as Argentine, Bolivian, Brazilian, Crimean-Congo and Venezuelan hemorrhagic fevers are highly contagious and deadly diseases, with the theoretical potential to become pandemics. Their ability to spread efficiently enough to cause a pandemic is limited, however, as transmission of these viruses requires close contact with the infected vector, and the vector has only a short time before death or serious illness. Furthermore, the short time between a vector becoming infectious and the onset of symptoms allows medical professionals to quickly quarantine vectors, and prevent them from carrying the pathogen elsewhere. Genetic mutations could occur, which could elevate their potential for causing widespread harm; thus close observation by contagious disease specialists is merited.


title: Pandemic

text: Coronaviruses (CoV) are a large family of viruses that cause illness ranging from the common cold to more severe diseases such as Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS-CoV) and severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS-CoV-1). A new strain of coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) causes Coronavirus disease 2019, or COVID-19, which was declared as a pandemic by the WHO on 11 March 2020.


title: Pandemic

text: Some coronaviruses are zoonotic, meaning they are transmitted between animals and people. Detailed investigations found that SARS-CoV-1 was transmitted from civet cats to humans and MERS-CoV from dromedary camels to humans. Several known coronaviruses are circulating in animals that have not yet infected humans. Common signs of infection include respiratory symptoms, fever, cough, shortness of breath, and breathing difficulties. In more severe cases, an infection can cause pneumonia, acute respiratory distress syndrome, kidney failure, and even death. Standard recommendations to prevent the spread of infection include regular hand washing, wearing a face mask, going outdoors when meeting people, and avoiding close contact with people who have tested positive regardless of whether they have symptoms or not. It is recommended that people stay two meters or six feet away from others, commonly called social distancing.


title: Pandemic

text: After the SARS outbreak, in 2003 the Italian physician Carlo Urbani (1956–2003) was the first to identify severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) as a new and dangerously contagious disease, although he became infected and died. It is caused by a coronavirus dubbed SARS-CoV-1. Rapid action by national and international health authorities such as the World Health Organization helped to slow transmission and eventually broke the chain of transmission, which ended the localized epidemics before they could become a pandemic. However, the disease has not been eradicated and could re-emerge. This warrants monitoring and reporting of suspicious cases of atypical pneumonia.


title: Pandemic

text: Wild aquatic birds are the natural hosts for a range of influenza A viruses. Occasionally, viruses are transmitted from these species to other species, and may then cause outbreaks in domestic poultry or, rarely, in humans.


title: Pandemic

text: In February 2004, avian influenza virus was detected in birds in Vietnam, increasing fears of the emergence of new variant strains. It is feared that if the avian influenza virus combines with a human influenza virus (in a bird or a human), the new subtype created could be both highly contagious and highly lethal in humans. Such a subtype could cause a global influenza pandemic, similar to the Spanish flu or the lower mortality pandemics such as the Asian flu and the Hong Kong flu.


title: Pandemic

text: From October 2004 to February 2005, some 3,700 test kits of the 1957 pandemic influenza virus, H2N2, were accidentally spread around the world from a lab in the U.S.


title: Pandemic

text: In May 2005, scientists urgently called upon nations to prepare for a global influenza pandemic that could strike as much as 20% of the world's population.


title: Pandemic

text: In October 2005, cases of the avian flu (the deadly strain H5N1) were identified in Turkey. EU Health Commissioner Markos Kyprianou said: "We have received now confirmation that the virus found in Turkey is an avian flu H5N1 virus. There is a direct relationship with viruses found in Russia, Mongolia, and China." Cases of bird flu were also identified shortly thereafter in Romania, and then Greece. Possible cases of the virus have also been found in Croatia, Bulgaria, and the United Kingdom.


title: Pandemic

text: By November 2007, numerous confirmed cases of the H5N1 strain had been identified across Europe. However, by the end of October, only 59 people had died as a result of H5N1, which was atypical of previous influenza pandemics.


title: Pandemic

text: Avian flu cannot be categorized as a "pandemic" because the virus cannot yet cause sustained and efficient human-to-human transmission. Cases so far are recognized to have been transmitted from bird to human, but as of December 2006 there had been few (if any) cases of proven human-to-human transmission. Regular influenza viruses establish infection by attaching to receptors in the throat and lungs, but the avian influenza virus can attach only to receptors located deep in the lungs of humans, requiring close, prolonged contact with infected patients, and thus limiting person-to-person transmission.


title: Pandemic

text: An outbreak of Zika virus began in 2015 and strongly intensified throughout the start of 2016, with more than 1.5 million cases across more than a dozen countries in the Americas. The World Health Organization warned that Zika had the potential to become an explosive global pandemic if the outbreak was not controlled.


title: Pandemic

text: In 2016, the commission on a Global Health Risk Framework for the Future estimated that pandemic disease events would cost the global economy over $6 trillion in the 21st century—over $60 billion per year. The same report recommended spending $4.5 billion annually on global prevention and response capabilities to reduce the threat posed by pandemic events, a figure that the World Bank Group raised to $13 billion in a 2019 report. It has been suggested that such costs be paid from a tax on aviation rather than from, e.g., income taxes, given the crucial role of air traffic in transforming local epidemics into pandemics (being the only factor considered in state-of-the-art models of long-range disease transmission ).


title: Pandemic

text: The COVID-19 pandemic is expected to have a profound negative effect on the global economy, potentially for years to come, with substantial drops in GDP accompanied by increases in unemployment noted around the world. The slowdown of economic activity early in the COVID-19 pandemic had a profound effect on emissions of pollutants and greenhouse gases. The reduction of air pollution, and economic activity associated with it during a pandemic was first documented by Alexander F. More for the Black Death plague pandemic, showing the lowest pollution levels in the last 2000 years occurring during that pandemic, due to its 40 to 60% death rate throughout Eurasia.


title: Patricia Clarkson

text: Patricia Davies Clarkson (born December 29, 1959) is an American actress. She has starred in numerous leading and supporting roles in a variety of films ranging from independent film features to major film studio productions. Her accolades include a Golden Globe Award and three Primetime Emmy Awards, in addition to nominations for an Academy Award and a Tony Award.


title: Patricia Clarkson

text: Born and raised in New Orleans to a politician mother and school administrator father, Clarkson earned a degree in drama from Fordham University before attending the Yale School of Drama, where she graduated with a Master of Fine Arts degree. She made her feature film debut in Brian De Palma's mob drama "The Untouchables" (1987), followed by a supporting role in Clint Eastwood's "The Dead Pool" (1988). After appearing in minor roles in the early and mid-1990s, she garnered critical attention for her portrayal of a drug-addicted actress in the independent drama "High Art" (1998). She appeared in numerous supporting roles in such films as "The Green Mile" (1999), "The Pledge" (2001), "Far from Heaven" (2002), and "Dogville" (2003).


title: Patricia Clarkson

text: She garnered further critical acclaim in 2003 for her performances in the drama films "The Station Agent", which earned her a Screen Actors Guild Award nomination, and "Pieces of April", for which she was nominated for a Golden Globe and an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress. Clarkson also appeared as a recurring guest star on the HBO series "Six Feet Under" from 2002 to 2006, and won two Primetime Emmy Awards for her performance. Other credits from the 2000s include "Good Night, and Good Luck" (2005), "Lars and the Real Girl" (2007), and "Elegy" (2008). She also appeared in Woody Allen's "Vicky Cristina Barcelona" (2008), and "Whatever Works" (2009).


title: Patricia Clarkson

text: In 2010, Clarkson had a supporting role in Martin Scorsese's thriller "Shutter Island", followed by roles in the mainstream comedies "Easy A" and "Friends with Benefits". She subsequently portrayed the villainous Ava Paige in "The Maze Runner" (2014) and its two sequels. She returned to theater in 2014, playing the role of Madge Kendal in a Broadway production of "The Elephant Man", for which she was nominated for a Tony Award for Best Featured Actress. In 2017, she won a British Independent Film Award for Best Supporting Actress for her performance in Sally Potter's drama "The Party", and guest-starred on the Netflix series "House of Cards". She co-starred with Amy Adams on the HBO miniseries "Sharp Objects" in 2018, for which she won a Golden Globe for Best Supporting Actress in a Series, Miniseries, or Television Film.


title: Patricia Clarkson

text: Clarkson was born on December 29, 1959, in New Orleans, Louisiana, the daughter of Jackie Clarkson (née Brechtel), a New Orleans politician and councilwoman, and Arthur "Buzz" Clarkson, a school administrator who worked at the Louisiana State University School of Medicine. She is one of five sisters, all of whom attended O. Perry Walker High School, where she graduated in 1977. She was raised in the Algiers section of New Orleans, on the West Bank of the Mississippi River.


title: Patricia Clarkson

text: From 1977 to 1979, Clarkson studied speech pathology at Louisiana State University before deciding she wanted to pursue a drama degree. In 1980, she transferred to Fordham University in New York City to enroll in their undergraduate acting program, from which she graduated summa cum laude in 1982. She then earned her Master of Fine Arts at the Yale School of Drama in 1985.


title: Patricia Clarkson

text: After graduating from the Yale School of Drama, Clarkson was cast in a 1986 Broadway production of "The House of Blue Leaves" as a replacement in the role of Corrinna Stroller. The following year, she made her feature film debut in Brian De Palma's "The Untouchables" (1987), portraying Catherine Ness, the wife of US Treasury Prohibition agent Eliot Ness (Kevin Costner). Clarkson stated she was struggling financially at the time, paying student loans, and De Palma expanded her role in the film; she originally had only several days of shooting. The next year, she was cast in Clint Eastwood's "The Dead Pool" (1988), the fifth installment in the "Dirty Harry" film series.


title: Patricia Clarkson

text: Clarkson returned to Broadway in 1989 in "Eastern Standard", portraying a Wall Street investment counselor whose brother (played by Kevin Conroy) is diagnosed with AIDS; the play ran from January to March of that year.


title: Patricia Clarkson

text: Clarkson has stated that in the early 1990s, she went through a turbulent period in her career and was unable to find significant work. She had a small role in "Jumanji" (1995) before being cast in the independent drama "High Art" (1998), portraying a drug-addicted German actress in New York City. Her performance earned her an Independent Spirit Award nomination for Best Supporting Actress.


title: Patricia Clarkson

text: In 1998, Clarkson had a small role in the critically acclaimed independent romantic comedy "Playing By Heart", playing a woman at a bar who listens to a false story told by a man (Dennis Quaid) as part of his improv class. In 1999, Clarkson appeared in a supporting role as an ailing wife of a prison warden in "The Green Mile", which was nominated for a Screen Actors Guild Award for Best Ensemble Cast. The same year, she had a supporting part in the romantic comedy "Simply Irresistible" (1999), followed by a supporting part in Stanley Tucci's biopic "Joe Gould's Secret" (2000). Next, she portrayed a single mother in the drama "The Safety of Objects" (2001), and had a supporting role opposite Jack Nicholson in the Sean Penn-directed thriller "The Pledge" (2001), playing the mother of a murder victim. She also had a leading role in the independent horror film "Wendigo" (2001), directed by Larry Fessenden, and in the comedy "Welcome to Collinwood" (2002). Roger Ebert praised the performances in the former, noting: "The actors [in "Wendigo"] have an unforced, natural quality that looks easy but is hard to do." In 2001 she had a recurring role on "Frasier" as Claire French, who dated Frasier Crane played by Kelsey Grammer.


title: Patricia Clarkson

text: In 2002, Clarkson was cast in a supporting role in Todd Haynes's period drama "Far from Heaven", opposite Julianne Moore and Dennis Quaid, playing the neighbor of a repressed housewife in the 1950s. The same year, she starred as Margaret White in the television film adaptation of Stephen King's "Carrie". Between 2002 and 2005, Clarkson had a guest-starring role on the HBO drama series "Six Feet Under", playing Sarah O'Connor, the artist sister of Ruth Fisher. For her portrayal, she won two Primetime Emmy Awards for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Drama Series, in 2002 and 2005, respectively.


title: Patricia Clarkson

text: Clarkson appeared in multiple independent films in 2003, including "The Baroness and the Pig"; Lars von Trier's experimental drama "Dogville";, the critically acclaimed indie film "The Station Agent", playing an artist who befriends a diminutive man (Peter Dinklage) who suddenly appears as a town resident living in a local train depot; "Pieces of April", in which she portrayed a mother dying of cancer who travels to visit her estranged daughter (Katie Holmes) for Thanksgiving; and the David Gordon Green-directed drama "All the Real Girls", as the mother of a young womanizer in a small southern town. Four of the films"The Baroness and the Pig", "Pieces of April", "The Station Agent", and "All the Real Girls"premiered at the 2003 Sundance Film Festival. Clarkson received numerous accolades for her performances: For "The Station Agent", she won the Special Jury Prize at Sundance, and was nominated for a Screen Actors Guild award for Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Leading Role, among others. Her performance in "Pieces of April" earned her a Sundance Special Jury Prize, as well as nominations for the Screen Actors Guild award for Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Supporting Role, a Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actress, and an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress.


title: Patricia Clarkson

text: Following these critical successes, Clarkson had a lead role opposite Kurt Russell in the sports docudrama "Miracle" (2004), about the U.S. hockey team defeating the heavily favored Soviets in the 1980 Olympics, and played the wife of a news correspondent (Robert Downey Jr.) in George Clooney's historical drama "Good Night, and Good Luck" (2005), about the conflict between journalist Edward R. Murrow and Joseph McCarthy. She then starred as the wife of a Hollywood studio executive in the independent drama "The Dying Gaul" (2005). 2006 saw the release of "The Woods", a supernatural horror film shot in 2003 in which she portrayed the headmistress of a girls' boarding school. The same year, she portrayed Sadie Burke in "All the King's Men", set in her native New Orleans.


title: Patricia Clarkson

text: In 2007, she had a supporting role in the romantic comedy "No Reservations", as well as in the comedy-drama "Lars and the Real Girl", in which she portrayed a psychiatrist treating a man in love with a sex doll. She subsequently co-starred with Ben Kingsley in the drama "Elegy" (2008), and had supporting roles in two Woody Allen films: 2008's "Vicky Cristina Barcelona", portraying an unhappy housewife, and 2009's "Whatever Works". In 2008, producer Gerald Peary approached Clarkson to do the voice-over for the documentary film "". Says Peary, "She agreed to do the narration...  And she was so nice, and so cooperative, and so prepared, and so intelligent. And one of the key reasons she wanted to do the movie was that she regularly reads criticism, and has a genuine respect for film criticism. Clarkson returned to New Orleans on January 17, 2009 for the reopening of the Mahalia Jackson Theatre for the Performing Arts. She served as master of ceremonies for a gala featuring Plácido Domingo in concert with the New Orleans Opera, conducted by Robert Lyall. She also made a cameo appearance in the "Saturday Night Live" Digital Short "Motherlover" on May 9, 2009. The video featured Andy Samberg, Justin Timberlake, and Susan Sarandon. She reprised the role on May 21, 2011, in the digital short "3-Way (The Golden Rule)".


title: Patricia Clarkson

text: In 2010, Clarkson appeared opposite Leonardo DiCaprio in the Martin Scorsese-directed thriller "Shutter Island", playing a woman escaped from a psychiatric institution. Recounting being cast in the part, Clarkson said: "I got the call that every actor lives for. “Patty, Martin Scorsese is thinking of casting you in his new movie.” And I do what I call the little “Martin Scorsese dance” around my apartment. I think I was in my underwear or pajamas. It's a call you live for. Then I hear back, “But it’s just one scene.” So then I'm dancing a little lower. Then I hear, “It’s you and Leonardo DiCaprio in a cave,” and then I'm dancing again." The film was a box office hit, and Scorsese's highest-grossing film at the time.


title: Patricia Clarkson

text: Clarkson subsequently had roles in two independent films: "Legendy" and "Main Street" (both 2010), before appearing in two mainstream comedies directed by Will Gluck: "Easy A" (2010), as the mother of a troubled high school student (Emma Stone), and as the mother of an executive recruiter (Mila Kunis) in "Friends with Benefits" (2011). She also appeared in the romantic drama "One Day" (2011) as the mother of a college student in Scotland (portrayed by Jim Sturgess), and guest-starred on two episodes of the comedy series "Parks and Recreation". In 2013, she had a supporting role in the thriller "The East" (2013) as the leader of a private intelligence firm.


title: Patricia Clarkson

text: In 2014, Clarkson returned to Broadway portraying Madge Kendal opposite Bradley Cooper in a production of "The Elephant Man", which earned her a Tony Award nomination for Best Featured Actress in a Play. The same year, she starred opposite Ben Kingsley in the comedy-drama film "Learning to Drive", portraying Wendy, a depressed middle-aged New York book critic learning to drive from a Sikh man. John Patterson of "The Guardian" praised her performance, writing: "Clarkson gives us every ounce of Wendy’s desperation and self-loathing, and every shade of them as well. She has always been a miraculous performer." The same year, she appeared as villain Ava Paige in the major box-office hit "The Maze Runner", a dystopian film based on the 2009 young adult novel. She subsequently reprised the role in both sequels: "" (2015), and "" (2018).


title: Patricia Clarkson

text: Clarkson starred in the ensemble drama "The Party" in 2017, directed by Sally Potter, for which she won a British Independent Film Award for Best Supporting Actress. The same year, she co-starred with Emily Mortimer and Bill Nighy in "The Bookshop", a period drama set in 1959 Suffolk involving two women vying to acquire a building for their own respective businesses. She also guest-starred on the fifth and sixth seasons (2017–2018) of the Netflix political drama series "House of Cards", portraying Jane Davis, a United States Department of Commerce official.


title: Patricia Clarkson

text: She subsequently starred in the science fiction film "Jonathan", involving two brothers who alternately share a single body, and the psychological horror film "Delirium", which was released directly-to-DVD. Clarkson also starred opposite Amy Adams in the psychological drama miniseries "Sharp Objects" (2018), portraying the wealthy mother of an alcoholic reporter (Adams) investigating a murder in their Missouri town. For her performance in the series, Clarkson won a Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actress in a Series, Miniseries or Television Film.


title: Patricia Clarkson

text: In response to the Deepwater Horizon oil spill, Clarkson published a post for Natural Resources Defense Council's magazine "OnEarth". She also released a public service announcement talking about her experiences growing up in New Orleans. Both pieces were released on July 26, 2010.


title: Patricia Clarkson

text: Clarkson resides in New York City. In 2007, she purchased a loft in Greenwich Village for $1.5 million. She listed it for $2.5 million in November 2018. She has never married and has no children. Interviewed in 2013 at age 53, she said, "I've never wanted to marry, I've never wanted children—I was born without that gene." Three of Clarkson's four sisters have children and she is very close to her nieces and nephews. One of her nephews, Mac Alsfeld, is an actor, writer and director.


title: Patricia Clarkson

text: She made her film debut in "The Untouchables" (1987), followed by a supporting role in "The Dead Pool" (1988). She appeared in numerous supporting roles in such films as "The Green Mile" (1999), "The Pledge" (2001), "Far from Heaven" (2002), "Dogville" (2003), "The Station Agent" (2003), "Pieces of April" (2003), "Good Night, and Good Luck" (2005), "Lars and the Real Girl" (2007), and "Elegy" (2008). She also appeared in Woody Allen films "Vicky Cristina Barcelona" (2008) and "Whatever Works" (2009).


title: Patricia Clarkson

text: In 2010, Clarkson had a supporting role in the thriller "Shutter Island", followed by roles in the comedies "Easy A" and "Friends with Benefits". She portrayed Ava Paige in "The Maze Runner" (2014) and its two sequels. In 2017, she co-starred in Sally Potter's drama "The Party", and guest-starred on the Netflix series "House of Cards". She co-starred with Amy Adams on the HBO miniseries "Sharp Objects" in 2018.


title: Patricia Clarkson

text: Clarkson was honored by the Jameson Dublin International Film Festival when she received one of the 2010 Volta awards for achievements in her career.


title: Jaundice

text: Jaundice, also known as icterus, is a yellowish or greenish pigmentation of the skin and sclera due to high bilirubin levels. Jaundice in adults is typically a sign indicating the presence of underlying diseases involving abnormal heme metabolism, liver dysfunction, or biliary-tract obstruction. The prevalence of jaundice in adults is rare, while jaundice in babies is common, with an estimated 80% affected during their first week of life. The most commonly associated symptoms of jaundice are itchiness, pale feces, and dark urine.


title: Jaundice

text: Normal levels of bilirubin in blood are below 1.0 mg/dl (17 μmol/L), while levels over 2–3 mg/dl (34–51 μmol/L) typically result in jaundice. High blood bilirubin is divided into two types – unconjugated and conjugated bilirubin.


title: Jaundice

text: Causes of jaundice vary from relatively benign to potentially fatal. High unconjugated bilirubin may be due to excess red blood cell breakdown, large bruises, genetic conditions such as Gilbert's syndrome, not eating for a prolonged period of time, newborn jaundice, or thyroid problems. High conjugated bilirubin may be due to liver diseases such as cirrhosis or hepatitis, infections, medications, or blockage of the bile duct, due to factors including gallstones, cancer, or pancreatitis. Other conditions can also cause yellowish skin, but are not jaundice, including carotenemia, which can develop from eating large amounts of foods containing carotene — or medications such as rifampin.


title: Jaundice

text: Treatment of jaundice is typically determined by the underlying cause. If a bile duct blockage is present, surgery is typically required; otherwise, management is medical. Medical management may involve treating infectious causes and stopping medication that could be contributing to the jaundice. Jaundice in newborns may be treated with phototherapy or exchanged transfusion depending on age and prematurity when the bilirubin is greater than 4–21 mg/dl (68–360 μmol/L). The itchiness may be helped by draining the gallbladder, ursodeoxycholic acid, or opioid antagonists such as naltrexone. The word "jaundice" is from the French "jaunisse", meaning "yellow disease".


title: Jaundice

text: The most common signs of jaundice in adults are a yellowish discoloration of the white area of the eye (sclera) and skin with scleral icterus presence indicating a serum bilirubin of at least 3 mg/dl. Other common signs include dark urine (bilirubinuria) and pale (acholia) fatty stool (steatorrhea). Because bilirubin is a skin irritant, jaundice is commonly associated with severe itchiness.


title: Jaundice

text: Eye conjunctiva has a particularly high affinity for bilirubin deposition due to high elastin content. Slight increases in serum bilirubin can, therefore, be detected early on by observing the yellowing of sclerae. Traditionally referred to as scleral icterus, this term is actually a misnomer, because bilirubin deposition technically occurs in the conjunctival membranes overlying the avascular sclera. Thus, the proper term for the yellowing of "white of the eyes" is conjunctival icterus.


title: Jaundice

text: A much less common sign of jaundice specifically during childhood is yellowish or greenish teeth. In developing children, hyperbilirubinemia may cause a yellow or green discoloration of teeth due to bilirubin deposition during the process of tooth calcification. While this may occur in children with hyperbilirubinemia, tooth discoloration due to hyperbilirubinemia is not observed in individuals with adult-onset liver disease. Disorders associated with a rise in serum levels of conjugated bilirubin during early development can also cause dental hypoplasia.


title: Jaundice

text: Jaundice is a sign indicating the presence of an underlying diseases involving abnormal bilirubin metabolism, liver dysfunction, or biliary-tract obstruction. In general, jaundice is present when blood levels of bilirubin exceed 3 mg/dl. Jaundice is classified into three categories, depending on which part of the physiological mechanism the pathology affects. The three categories are: