title: SA80

text: The SA80A3 was first unveiled in prototype form in September 2016 with working models on display in September 2017 at the Defence and Security Equipment International event and official adoption taking place in 2018. The changes from the SA80A2 design include a modification to the upper receiver and a full-length rail system for optional add-ons such as a vertical foregrip, laser pointer and torch. It also includes a weight saving of 100 g and a new Flat Dark Earth coating offering improved durability and better camouflage across various environments. The Mid Life Improvement (MLI) project received an initial investment of £5.4 million to have 5,000 weapons upgraded initially, with plans for more weapons to be upgraded in the future. The MLI project should see the weapon in service with the British military beyond 2025. Only the L85 rifle was announced as being upgraded; the L86 LSW would be withdrawn from use.


title: SA80

text: With the exception of the L98A2, the SA80 system is a selective fire gas-operated design that uses ignited powder gases bled through a port in the barrel to provide the weapon's automation. The rifle uses a short-stroke gas piston system located above the barrel, which is fed gas through a three-position adjustable gas regulator. The first gas setting is used for normal operation, the second ("Excess") is for use in difficult environmental conditions, while the third setting ("Off") prevents any gas from reaching the piston and is used to launch rifle grenades. The weapon uses a rotating cylindrical bolt that contains seven radially mounted locking splines, an extractor and casing ejector. The bolt's rotation is controlled by a cam stud that slides inside a helical camming guide machined into the bolt carrier.


title: SA80

text: The family is built in a bullpup layout (the action is behind the trigger group), with a forward-mounted pistol grip. The main advantage of this type of arrangement is the overall compactness of the weapon, which can be achieved without compromising the barrel length, hence the overall length of the L85 rifle is shorter than a carbine, but the barrel length is that of an assault rifle. While left-handed conversion kits were trialled, the weapon as finally issued must be used exclusively right-handed since the ejection port and cocking handle (which reciprocates during firing) are on the right side of the receiver, making aimed fire from the left shoulder difficult. This can also give rise to a tactical disadvantage when firing around the left side of cover, where the shooter must expose the majority of their body. However left shoulder firing can be achieved by tilting the right hand side of the rifle downwards, reducing the impediments of the cocking handle and the ejection port; the MOD also maintains that left-handed soldiers are capable of accurately firing the weapon from the right shoulder.


title: SA80

text: The SA80 family is hammer-fired and has a trigger mechanism with a fire-control selector that enables semi-automatic/repetition and fully automatic fire (the fire selector lever is located at the left side of the receiver, just aft of the magazine). A cross bolt type safety prevents accidental firing and is located above the trigger; the "safe" setting blocks the movement of the trigger. The magazine release button is placed above the magazine housing, on the left side of the receiver. When the last cartridge is fired from the magazine, the bolt and bolt carrier assembly lock to the rear. To release the bolt, the user has to press a black button on the left side of the rifle, near the fire selector.


title: SA80

text: The SA80 barrel features a flash eliminator which serves as a mounting base for attaching a blank firing attachment; it also allows for the use of rifle grenades or a bayonet with the rifle variant.


title: SA80

text: The weapon's receiver is made from stamped sheet steel, reinforced with welded and riveted machined steel inserts. Synthetic materials such as nylon were used to fabricate the furniture and the safety plunger.


title: SA80

text: Initially, rifles used by the Royal Marines, British Army infantry soldiers (and other soldiers with a dismounted close combat role) and the RAF Regiment are equipped with a SUSAT (Sight Unit Small Arms, Trilux) optical sight, with a fixed 4× magnification and an illuminated aiming pointer powered by a variable tritium light source (as of 2006 almost all British Army personnel deployed on operations have been issued SUSATs); this is also the standard sighting arrangement for the LSW variant. Mounted on the SUSAT's one-piece, pressure die-cast aluminium body are a set of back-up iron sights that consist of a front blade and small rear aperture. Rifles used with other branches of the armed forces when not on operations are configured with fixed iron sights, consisting of a flip rear aperture housed inside the carrying handle and a forward post vertical blade foresight, installed on a bracket above the gas block. The rear sight can be adjusted for windage, and the foresight—elevation. In place of the SUSAT, a passive night vision CWS scope can be used.


title: SA80

text: More recently, weapons used by some Royal Marines, Infantry, RAF Regiment, Ministry of Defence Police and soldiers with a dismounted close combat role in operations in Afghanistan have had the SUSAT replaced with the Trijicon Advanced Combat Optical Gunsight (ACOG). In 2011, the Ministry of Defence began issuing ELCAN SpecterOS 4× Lightweight Day Sights (LDS) in an effort to replace ageing SUSAT units across the British Armed Forces, forming the first stage of the FIST infantry enhancement project. In order to mount the new sight, the weapon has been provided with an adapter to convert the existing sight rail to the Picatinny standard, in keeping with the updated handguard. The FIST project has also seen upgrades to the existing Qioptiq CWS (4×) and Maxi-Kite (6×) night vision scopes, and the introduction of the FIST Thermal Sight, following operational experience with the VIPIR-2+ thermal weapon sight in Afghanistan. All of the new FIST weapon sights have the capacity to accept Shield's Close Quarter Battlesight reflex sight.


title: SA80

text: SA80 weapons are fed from a STANAG magazine, usually with a 30-round capacity. Initially issued magazines were aluminium Colt magazines which were not particularly robust, leading to a steel replacement being produced by ROF Radway Green. These magazines were then replaced during the A2 upgrade programme with two new steel magazines by Heckler & Koch; the main variant is for live ammunition, and the other is exclusively used for blank ammunition. The blank variant is identified by yellow stripes on the magazine, and is designed to prevent the unintentional loading of live rounds. This magazine has less internal length so that live rounds will not fit, while still fitting blank rounds, which are shorter. Blank rounds will fit into the live-round magazine, but the difference in length increases the chance of a stoppage. The Magpul Industries polymer EMAG magazine was introduced from 2011, featuring a lower weight of compared to the steel magazine's , a detachable dust cover, and a clear window in the magazine body that allows easy monitoring of how much ammunition remains in the magazine. The Beta C-Mag was trialled in an attempt to improve the L86's limited ability to lay down sustained fire, but reliability problems with the magazine when loaded with British-issue ammunition meant that it was not adopted.


title: SA80

text: In British Armed Forces use, the L85 Rifle is issued with the socket-type L3A1 Bayonet, which has a hollow handle that fits onto the muzzle. The blade is offset to the side of the handle to allow the rifle to be fired while the bayonet is fitted; it is shaped to produce good penetration when thrust and to part a person's ribs without embedding into bone, and a ribbed section for rope cutting. The bayonet handle is shaped so as to allow the bayonet to be used as a fighting knife in its own right. The issued scabbard features a saw blade for use on wood, a sharpening stone to hone the bayonet, and a bottle opener; when combined with the bayonet, it also forms a wire cutter. When soldiers from the Princess of Wales's Royal Regiment went into battle with fixed bayonets on their SA80s during the Battle of Al Amara on 14 May 2004, it was the first time fixed bayonets had been used by British troops since the Falklands War; on several occasions, fixed bayonets have also been used during the Afghanistan conflict. The bayonet cannot be fitted to the L22 Carbine or L86 Light Support Weapon; as a result, soldiers equipped with the latter would sometimes swap their weapons for vehicle crewmen's L85s when clearing trenches during Operation Granby.


title: SA80

text: The SA80 is supplied with a sling, blank-firing adaptor, and cleaning kit. The rifle can be adapted to use .22 Long Rifle training ammunition with a special conversion kit. The Small Arms Weapons Effects Simulator can be used on the L85 when in training with blank ammunition. On operations with ground close combat units (Infantry, Royal Marines, RAF Regiment), the rifle is often fitted with an LLM01 Laser Light Module.


title: SA80

text: There are four main variants that make up the SA80 family: the L85 Rifle, the L86 Light Support Weapon, the L22 Carbine and the L98 Cadet rifle.


title: SA80

text: The L85 Rifle, referred to on occasion as the L85 Individual Weapon (IW), is the standard rifle for the British Armed Forces.


title: SA80

text: When initially adopted for service, the L85's grenade-launching ability was fulfilled by then-conventional rifle grenades, namely the L74A1 high-explosive anti-tank (HEAT) and L75A1 HEAT-APERS versions of the Luchaire grenade; when these experienced problems with premature detonation, the L85A1 HE grenade was adopted in their place. Various underbarrel grenade launcher models were trialled, including the M203 and a proprietary "Enfield Close Assault Weapon" developed by Royal Ordnance. It was eventually decided that the L17A2/L123 40mm Underslung Grenade Launcher (UGL) should be adopted; this is issued on a scale of one per fireteam, and is used with fragmentation, high-explosive dual-purpose (HEDP), red phosphorus, white illuminating parachute, infra-red illuminating parachute, practice, and drill ammunition, with buckshot ammunition also being intended for adoption. The addition of the UGL adds another 1.12 kg to the L85A2's weight.


title: SA80

text: The L86 Light Support Weapon (LSW) is a magazine-fed squad automatic weapon originally intended to provide fire support at a fireteam level. The weapon has a heavier, longer barrel than the rifle and features a shorter handguard with an integrated bipod protruding from the front. The stock has a shoulder strap to take the weapon's weight in the prone position and a rear vertical grip for better control of the weapon when firing bursts. The weapon is otherwise identical to the L85 version on which it is based, and the same magazines and sighting systems are used. In addition to British Armed Forces use, the LSW was also adopted by MOD-sponsored cadet organisations.


title: SA80

text: The increased barrel length, bipod and the optical performance of the SUSAT give the weapon excellent accuracy, increased muzzle velocity and greater effective range. From its inception, the L86 was a target of criticism on much the same basis as the L85. The LSW has the additional issue (shared by any light support weapon derived from a rifle, for example the heavy-barrel FN FAL) of its inability to deliver sustained automatic fire as it lacks a belt feed.


title: SA80

text: While the LSW was supposed to replace the L7A2 GPMG at the section level, the weapon's shortcomings meant that many units reverted to the GPMG (or held onto it if it had not already been replaced) and the role of a LSW was ultimately filled by the FN Minimi (known in service as the L110A1-A3 light machine gun), a belt fed weapon with a quick-change barrel in the same way as the GPMG. Owing to its high level of accuracy in semi-automatic mode, the primary use of the L86 shifted to that of a sharpshooter rifle following the introduction of the L110A1, however it was replaced in this role by the L129A1 Sharpshooter Rifle. The L86 was withdrawn from service in 2019.


title: SA80

text: The length savings offered by the SA80's bullpup design meant that initially there were no plans for a carbine variant. By 1984 however, an extremely short prototype model was developed; the barrel terminated immediately in front of the pistol grip, which in combination with the lack of any sort of foregrip or handguard presented a risk of self-inflicted gunshot injuries if the firer's left hand was to slip forward. Two further prototypes appeared in 1989 and 1994; the former was slightly longer than the previous model at an overall length with a barrel and used the rear grip from the LSW as a foregrip, while the latter used a 17.4-inch barrel (442 mm) with an overall length and was fitted with the handguard from the LSW.


title: SA80

text: The fourth attempt (2003–2004) is also the only one to officially be adopted, being known as the L22 Carbine in British service; it resembles the 1989 model, including the foregrip which is now a purpose-made component which can be adjusted by the end user, but is constructed to A2 standards and has a barrel and an overall length of 565 mm. Around 1,500 were manufactured from surplus L86 LSWs; more were built with the increased demand, bringing the total to around 2,000. The shortened barrel means that the carbine is less accurate than the rifle variant, especially at longer ranges; the official manual gives an effective range of 200 m while stating that the weapon's effectiveness beyond this is entirely dependent on the firer's skill.


title: SA80

text: The version that was finally accepted for service was introduced during the A2 upgrade programme - official documentation disagrees over whether to refer to the weapon as the L22A1 or L22A2, Initially issued to tank and armoured vehicle crews for emergency action out of vehicle, the L22's compact size has also led it to being used by the Royal Marines Fleet Protection Group as well as helicopter pilots, armoured fighting vehicle crews and dog handlers of all three service branches.


title: SA80

text: The L98 Cadet General Purpose (GP) Rifle is used for weapons training by MOD-sponsored cadet organisations such as the Army Cadet Force, Sea Cadet Corps and Air Training Corps. The L98A1 version was introduced in 1987 to replace the .303 Lee–Enfield No 4 rifles and .303 Bren guns (which had not been replaced by the SLR owing to that weapon's weight and recoil being too much for young cadets; the GP Rifle had no such problems, and its suitability for cadet use was emphasised in official documentation).


title: SA80

text: It was similar to the L85A1 but lacked the gas components, instead being a manually operated, single-shot weapon, with a cocking handle extension piece mounted on the right side of the weapon for this purpose. It was also distinguishable by the absence of a flash eliminator and only being fitted with adjustable iron sights. The L98A1 rifle began a phased decommission in early 2009 in favour of the updated L98A2 version; this is virtually identical to the L85A2 rifle save for the absence of fully automatic capability and a plain foresight blade without a tritium insert.


title: SA80

text: Both Cadet GP Rifle variants also have a drill purpose version designated as the L103, used for teaching cadets the basics of the weapon they are handling and for rifle drill; this SA80 variant has been modified so as to render it a deactivated weapon and make subsequent reactivation uneconomical. It can be distinguished from live weapons by the use of a white cheek piece and handguard top cover, the bolt carrier assembly being painted red, and the letters 'DP' (Drill Purpose) being present towards the rear of the weapon.


title: SA80

text: The SA80 has been used in all conflicts in which the British Armed Forces have been involved since its introduction in the early 1980s. Deployments include the following:


title: Anglerfish

text: The anglerfish are fish of the teleost order Lophiiformes (). They are bony fish named for their characteristic mode of predation, in which a modified luminescent fin ray (the esca or illicium) acts as a lure for other fish. The luminescence comes from symbiotic bacteria, which are thought to be acquired from seawater, that dwell in and around the sea.


title: Anglerfish

text: Some anglerfish are notable for extreme sexual dimorphism and sexual symbiosis of the small male with the much larger female, seen in the suborder Ceratioidei, the deep sea anglerfish. In these species, males may be several orders of magnitude smaller than females.


title: Anglerfish

text: Anglerfish occur worldwide. Some are pelagic (dwelling away from the sea floor), while others are benthic (dwelling close to the sea floor). Some live in the deep sea (such as the Ceratiidae), while others on the continental shelf, such as the frogfishes and the Lophiidae (monkfish or goosefish). Pelagic forms are most often laterally compressed, whereas the benthic forms are often extremely dorsoventrally compressed (depressed), often with large upward-pointing mouths.


title: Anglerfish

text: A mitochondrial genome phylogenetic study suggested the anglerfishes diversified in a short period of the early to mid-Cretaceous, between 130 and 100 million years ago.


title: Anglerfish

text: FishBase, Nelson, and Pietsch list 18 families, but ITIS lists only 16. The following taxa have been arranged to show their evolutionary relationships.


title: Anglerfish

text: All anglerfish are carnivorous and are thus adapted for the capture of prey. Ranging in color from dark gray to dark brown, deep-sea species have large heads that bear enormous, crescent-shaped mouths full of long, fang-like teeth angled inward for efficient prey grabbing. Their length can vary from , with a few types getting as large as , but this variation is largely due to sexual dimorphism, with females being much larger than males. Frogfish and other shallow-water anglerfish species are ambush predators, and often appear camouflaged as rocks, sponges or seaweed.


title: Anglerfish

text: Most adult female ceratioid anglerfish have a luminescent organ called the esca at the tip of a modified dorsal ray (the illicium or fishing rod; derived from Latin "ēsca", "bait"). The organ has been hypothesized to serve the obvious purpose of luring prey in dark, deep-sea environments, but also serves to call males' attention to the females to facilitate mating.


title: Anglerfish

text: The source of luminescence is symbiotic bacteria that dwell in and around the esca, enclosed in a cup-shaped reflector containing crystals, probably consisting of guanine. Only a handful of luminescent symbiont species can associate with deep-sea anglerfishes. In some species, the bacteria recruited to the esca are incapable of luminescence independent of the anglerfish, suggesting they have developed a symbiotic relationship and the bacteria are unable to synthesize all of the chemicals necessary for luminescence on their own. They depend on the fish to make up the difference. Electron microscopy of these bacteria in some species reveals they are Gram-negative rods that lack capsules, spores, or flagella. They have double-layered cell walls and mesosomes. A pore connects the esca with the seawater, which enables the removal of dead bacteria and cellular waste, and allows the pH and tonicity of the culture medium to remain constant. This, as well as the constant temperature of the bathypelagic zone inhabited by these fish, is crucial for the long-term viability of bacterial cultures.


title: Anglerfish

text: The light gland is always open to the exterior, so it is possible that the fish acquires the bacteria from the seawater. However, it appears that each species uses its own particular species of bacteria, and these bacteria have never been found in seawater. Haygood (1993) theorized that esca discharge bacteria during spawning and the bacteria are thereby transferred to the eggs.


title: Anglerfish

text: Some evidence shows that some anglerfish acquired their bioluminescent symbionts from the local environment. Genetic materials of the symbiont bacteria is found near the anglerfish, indicating that the anglerfish and their associated bacteria are most likely not evolved together and the bacteria take difficult journeys to enter the host. In a study on Ceratioid anglerfish in the Gulf of Mexico, researchers noticed that the confirmed host-associated bioluminescent microbes are not present in the larval specimens and throughout host development. The Ceratioids likely acquired their bioluminescent symbionts from the seawater. "Photobacterium phosphoreum" and members from kishitanii clade constitute the major or sole bioluminescent symbiont of several families of deep-sea luminous fishes.


title: Anglerfish

text: It is known that genetic makeup of the symbiont bacteria has undergone changes since they became associated with their host. Compared to their free-living relatives, deep-sea anglerfish symbiont genomes are reduced in size by 50%. Reductions in amino acid synthesis pathways and abilities to utilize diverse sugars are found. Nevertheless, genes involved in chemotaxis and motility that are thought to be useful only outside the host are retained in the genome. Symbiont genome contains very high numbers of pseudogenes and show massive expansions of transposable elements. The process of genome reduction is still ongoing in these symbionts lineages, and the gene loss may lead to host dependence.


title: Anglerfish

text: In most species, a wide mouth extends all around the anterior circumference of the head, and bands of inwardly inclined teeth line both jaws. The teeth can be depressed so as to offer no impediment to an object gliding towards the stomach, but prevent its escape from the mouth. The anglerfish is able to distend both its jaw and its stomach, since its bones are thin and flexible, to enormous size, allowing it to swallow prey up to twice as large as its entire body.


title: Anglerfish

text: In 2005, near Monterey, California, at 1,474 metres depth, an ROV filmed a female ceratioid anglerfish of the genus "Oneirodes" for 24 minutes. When approached, the fish retreated rapidly, but in 74% of the video footage, it drifted passively, oriented at any angle. When advancing, it swam intermittently at a speed of 0.24 body lengths per second, beating its pectoral fins in-phase. The lethargic behavior of this ambush predator is suited to the energy-poor environment of the deep sea.


title: Anglerfish

text: Another in situ observation of three different whipnose anglerfish showed unusual inverted swimming-behavior. Fish were observed floating inverted completely motionless with the illicium hanging down stiffly in a slight arch in front of the fish. The illicium was hanging over small visible burrows. It was suggested this is an effort to entice prey and an example of low-energy opportunistic foraging and predation. When the ROV approached the fish, they exhibited burst swimming, still inverted.


title: Anglerfish

text: The jaw and stomach of the anglerfish can extend to allow it to consume prey up to twice its size. Because of the limited amount of food available in the anglerfish's environment, this adaptation allows the anglerfish to store food when there is an abundance.


title: Anglerfish

text: The name "anglerfish" derives from the species' characteristic method of predation. Anglerfish typically have at least one long filament sprouting from the middle of their heads, termed the illicium. The illicium is the detached and modified first three spines of the anterior dorsal fin. In most anglerfish species, the longest filament is the first. This first spine protrudes above the fish's eyes and terminates in an irregular growth of flesh (the esca), and can move in all directions. Anglerfish can wiggle the esca to make it resemble a prey animal, which lures the anglerfish's prey close enough for the anglerfish to devour them whole. Some deep-sea anglerfish of the bathypelagic zone also emit light from their esca to attract prey.


title: Anglerfish

text: Because anglerfish are opportunistic foragers, they show a range of preferred prey with fish at the extremes of the size spectrum, whilst showing increased selectivity for certain prey. One study examining the stomach contents of threadfin anglerfish off the Pacific coast of Central America found these fish primarily ate two categories of benthic prey: crustaceans and teleost fish. The most frequent prey were pandalid shrimp. 52% of the stomachs examined were empty, supporting the observations that anglerfish are low energy consumers.


title: Anglerfish

text: Some anglerfish, like those of the Ceratiidae, or sea devils employ an unusual mating method. Because individuals are locally rare, encounters are also very rare. Therefore, finding a mate is problematic. When scientists first started capturing ceratioid anglerfish, they noticed that all of the specimens were female. These individuals were a few centimetres in size and almost all of them had what appeared to be parasites attached to them. It turned out that these "parasites" were highly reduced male ceratioids. This indicates some taxa of anglerfish use a polyandrous mating system. In some species of anglerfish, fusion between male and female when reproducing is possible due to the lack of immune system keys that allow antibodies to mature and create receptors for T-cells.


title: Anglerfish

text: Certain ceratioids rely on parabiotic reproduction. Free-living males and unparasitized females in these species never have fully developed gonads. Thus, males never mature without attaching to a female, and die if they cannot find one. At birth, male ceratioids are already equipped with extremely well-developed olfactory organs that detect scents in the water. Males of some species also develop large, highly specialized eyes that may aid in identifying mates in dark environments. The male ceratioids are significantly smaller than a female anglerfish, and may have trouble finding food in the deep sea. Furthermore, growth of the alimentary canals of some males becomes stunted, preventing them from feeding. Some taxa have jaws that are never suitable or effective for prey capture. These features mean the male must quickly find a female anglerfish to prevent death. The sensitive olfactory organs help the male to detect the pheromones that signal the proximity of a female anglerfish.


title: Anglerfish

text: The methods anglerfish use to locate mates vary. Some species have minute eyes that are unfit for identifying females, while others have underdeveloped nostrils, making them unlikely to effectively find females by scent. When a male finds a female, he bites into her skin, and releases an enzyme that digests the skin of his mouth and her body, fusing the pair down to the blood-vessel level. The male becomes dependent on the female host for survival by receiving nutrients via their shared circulatory system, and provides sperm to the female in return. After fusing, males increase in volume and become much larger relative to free-living males of the species. They live and remain reproductively functional as long as the female lives, and can take part in multiple spawnings. This extreme sexual dimorphism ensures that when the female is ready to spawn, she has a mate immediately available. Multiple males can be incorporated into a single individual female with up to eight males in some species, though some taxa appear to have a "one male per female" rule.


title: Anglerfish

text: Symbiosis is not the only method of reproduction in anglerfish. In fact, many families, including the Melanocetidae, Himantolophidae, Diceratiidae, and Gigantactinidae, show no evidence of male symbiosis. Females in some of these species contain large, developed ovaries and free-living males have large testes, suggesting these sexually mature individuals may spawn during a temporary sexual attachment that does not involve fusion of tissue. Males in these species also have well-toothed jaws that are far more effective in hunting than those seen in symbiotic species.


title: Anglerfish

text: Sexual symbiosis may be an optional strategy in some species of anglerfishes. In the Oneirodidae, females carrying symbiotic males have been reported in "Leptacanthichthys" and "Bertella"—and others that were not still developed fully functional gonads. One theory suggests the males attach to females regardless of their own reproductive development if the female is not sexually mature, but when both male and female are mature, they spawn then separate.


title: Anglerfish

text: One explanation for the evolution of sexual symbiosis is that the relatively low density of females in deep-sea environments leaves little opportunity for mate choice among anglerfish. Females remain large to accommodate fecundity, as is evidenced by their large ovaries and eggs. Males would be expected to shrink to reduce metabolic costs in resource-poor environments and would develop highly specialized female-finding abilities. If a male manages to find a female, then symbiotic attachment is ultimately more likely to improve life-time fitness relative to free living, particularly when the prospect of finding future mates is poor. An additional advantage to symbiosis is that the male's sperm can be used in multiple fertilizations, as he always remains available to the female for mating. Higher densities of male-female encounters might correlate with species that demonstrate facultative symbiosis or simply use a more traditional temporary contact mating.


title: Anglerfish

text: The spawn of the anglerfish of the genus "Lophius" consists of a thin sheet of transparent gelatinous material wide and greater than long. Such an egg sheet is rare among fish. The eggs in this sheet are in a single layer, each in its own cavity. The spawn is free in the sea. The larvae are free-swimming and have the pelvic fins elongated into filaments.


title: Anglerfish

text: Northwest European "Lophius" species are listed by the ICES as "outside safe biological limits". Additionally, anglerfish are known to occasionally rise to the surface during El Niño, leaving large groups of dead anglerfish floating on the surface.


title: Anglerfish

text: In 2010, Greenpeace International added the American angler ("Lophius americanus"), the angler ("Lophius piscatorius"), and the black-bellied angler ("Lophius budegassa") to its seafood red list—a list of fish commonly sold worldwide with a high likelihood of being sourced from unsustainable fisheries.


title: Anglerfish

text: One family, the Lophiidae, is of commercial interest with fisheries found in western Europe, eastern North America, Africa, and East Asia. In Europe and North America, the tail meat of fish of the genus "Lophius", known as monkfish or goosefish (North America), is widely used in cooking, and is often compared to lobster tail in taste and texture.


title: Anglerfish

text: In Asia, especially Korea and Japan, monkfish liver, known as "ankimo", is considered a delicacy. Anglerfish is especially heavily consumed in South Korea, where it is featured as the main ingredient in dishes such as "Agujjim".


title: Great Northern War

text: The Great Northern War (1700–1721) was a conflict in which a coalition led by the Tsardom of Russia successfully contested the supremacy of the Swedish Empire in Northern, Central and Eastern Europe. The initial leaders of the anti-Swedish alliance were Peter I of Russia, Frederick IV of Denmark–Norway and Augustus II the Strong of Saxony–Poland–Lithuania. Frederick IV and Augustus II were defeated by Sweden, under Charles XII, and forced out of the alliance in 1700 and 1706 respectively, but rejoined it in 1709 after the defeat of Charles XII at the Battle of Poltava. George I of Great Britain and the Electorate of Hanover joined the coalition in 1714 for Hanover and in 1717 for Britain, and Frederick William I of Brandenburg-Prussia joined it in 1715.


title: Great Northern War

text: Charles XII led the Swedish army. Swedish allies included Holstein-Gottorp, several Polish magnates under Stanislaus I Leszczyński (1704–1710) and Cossacks under the Ukrainian Hetman Ivan Mazepa (1708–1710). The Ottoman Empire temporarily hosted Charles XII of Sweden and intervened against Peter I.


title: Great Northern War

text: The war began when an alliance of Denmark–Norway, Saxony and Russia, sensing an opportunity as Sweden was ruled by the young Charles XII, declared war on the Swedish Empire and launched a threefold attack on Swedish Holstein-Gottorp, Swedish Livonia, and Swedish Ingria. Sweden parried the Danish and Russian attacks at Travendal (August 1700) and Narva (November 1700) respectively, and in a counter-offensive pushed Augustus II's forces through the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth to Saxony, dethroning Augustus on the way (September 1706) and forcing him to acknowledge defeat in the Treaty of Altranstädt (October 1706). The treaty also secured the extradition and execution of Johann Reinhold Patkul, architect of the alliance seven years earlier. Meanwhile, the forces of Peter I had recovered from defeat at Narva and gained ground in Sweden's Baltic provinces, where they cemented Russian access to the Baltic Sea by founding Saint Petersburg in 1703. Charles XII moved from Saxony into Russia to confront Peter, but the campaign ended in 1709 with the destruction of the main Swedish army at the decisive Battle of Poltava (in present-day Ukraine) and Charles' exile in the Ottoman town of Bender. The Ottoman Empire defeated the Russian-Moldavian army in the Pruth River Campaign, but that peace treaty was in the end without great consequence to Russia's position.


title: Great Northern War

text: After Poltava, the anti-Swedish coalition revived and subsequently Hanover and Prussia joined it. The remaining Swedish forces in plague-stricken areas south and east of the Baltic Sea were evicted, with the last city, Riga, falling in 1710. The coalition members partitioned most of the Swedish dominions among themselves, destroying the Swedish "dominium maris baltici". Sweden proper was invaded from the west by Denmark–Norway and from the east by Russia, which had occupied Finland by 1714. Sweden defeated the Danish invaders at the Battle of Helsingborg. Charles XII opened up a Norwegian front but was killed in the Siege of Fredriksten in 1718.


title: Great Northern War

text: The war ended with the defeat of Sweden, leaving Russia as the new dominant power in the Baltic region and as a new major force in European politics. The Western powers, Great Britain and France, became caught up in the separate War of the Spanish Succession (1701–1714), which broke out over the Bourbon Philip of Anjou's succession to the Spanish throne and a possible joining of France and Spain. The formal conclusion of the Great Northern War came with the Swedish-Hanoverian and Swedish-Prussian Treaties of Stockholm (1719), the Dano-Swedish Treaty of Frederiksborg (1720), and the Russo-Swedish Treaty of Nystad (1721). By these treaties Sweden ceded its exemption from the Sound Dues and lost the Baltic provinces and the southern part of Swedish Pomerania. The peace treaties also ended its alliance with Holstein-Gottorp. Hanover gained Bremen-Verden, Brandenburg-Prussia incorporated the Oder estuary (Stettin Lagoons), Russia secured the Baltic Provinces, and Denmark strengthened its position in Schleswig-Holstein. In Sweden, the absolute monarchy had come to an end with the death of Charles XII, and Sweden's Age of Liberty began.


title: Great Northern War

text: Between 1560 and 1658, Sweden created a Baltic empire centred on the Gulf of Finland and comprising the provinces of Karelia, Ingria, Estonia, and Livonia. During the Thirty Years' War Sweden gained tracts in Germany as well, including Western Pomerania, Wismar, the Duchy of Bremen, and Verden. During the same period, Sweden conquered Danish and Norwegian provinces north of the Sound (1645; 1658). These victories may be ascribed to a well-trained army, which despite its comparatively small size, was far more professional than most continental armies, and also to a modernization of administration (both civilian and military) in the course of the 17th century, which enabled the monarchy to harness the resources of the country and its empire effectively. Fighting in the field, the Swedish army (which during the Thirty Years' War contained more German and Scottish mercenaries than ethnic Swedes, but was administered by the Swedish Crown) was able, in particular, to make quick, sustained marches across large tracts of land and to maintain a high rate of small arms fire due to proficient military drill.


title: Great Northern War

text: However, the Swedish state ultimately proved unable to support and maintain its army in a prolonged war. Campaigns on the continent had been proposed on the basis that the army would be financially self-supporting through plunder and taxation of newly gained land, a concept shared by most major powers of the period. The cost of the warfare proved to be much higher than the occupied countries could fund, and Sweden's coffers and resources in manpower were eventually drained in the course of long conflicts.


title: Great Northern War

text: The foreign interventions in Russia during the Time of Troubles resulted in Swedish gains in the Treaty of Stolbovo (1617). The treaty deprived Russia of direct access to the Baltic Sea. Russian fortunes began to reverse in the final years of the 17th century, notably with the rise to power of Peter the Great, who looked to address the earlier losses and re-establish a Baltic presence. In the late 1690s, the adventurer Johann Patkul managed to ally Russia with Denmark and Saxony by the secret Treaty of Preobrazhenskoye, and in 1700 the three powers attacked.


title: Great Northern War

text: Charles XII of Sweden succeeded Charles XI of Sweden in 1697, aged 14. From his predecessor, he took over the Swedish Empire as an absolute monarch. Charles XI had tried to keep the empire out of wars, and concentrated on inner reforms such as reduction and allotment, which had strengthened the monarch's status and the empire's military abilities. Charles XII refrained from all kinds of luxury and alcohol and usage of the French language, since he considered these things decadent and superfluous. He preferred the life of an ordinary soldier on horseback, not that of contemporary baroque courts. He determinedly pursued his goal of dethroning his adversaries, whom he considered unworthy of their thrones due to broken promises, thereby refusing to take several chances to make peace. During the war, the most important Swedish commanders besides Charles XII were his close friend Carl Gustav Rehnskiöld, also Magnus Stenbock and Adam Ludwig Lewenhaupt.


title: Great Northern War

text: Charles Frederick, son of Frederick IV, Duke of Holstein-Gottorp (a cousin of Charles XII) and Hedvig Sophia, daughter of Charles XI of Sweden, had been the Swedish heir since 1702. He claimed the throne upon Charles XII's death in 1718, but was supplanted by Ulrike Eleonora. Charles Frederick was married to a daughter of Peter I, Anna Petrovna.


title: Great Northern War

text: Ivan Mazepa was a Ukrainian Cossack hetman who fought for Russia but defected to Charles XII in 1708. Mazepa died in 1709 in Ottoman exile.


title: Great Northern War

text: Peter the Great became Tsar in 1682 upon the death of his elder brother Feodor but did not become the actual ruler until 1689. He commenced reforming the country, turning the Russian tsardom into a modernized empire relying on trade and on a strong, professional army and navy. He greatly expanded the size of Russia during his reign while providing access to the Baltic, Black, and Caspian seas. Beside Peter, the principal Russian commanders were Aleksandr Danilovich Menshikov and Boris Sheremetev.


title: Great Northern War

text: Augustus II the Strong, elector of Saxony and another cousin of Charles XII, gained the Polish crown after the death of King John III Sobieski in 1696. His ambitions to transform the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth into an absolute monarchy were not realized due to the zealous nature of the Polish nobility and the previously initiated laws that decreased the power of the monarch. His meeting with Peter the Great in Rawa Ruska in September 1698, where the plans to attack Sweden were made, became legendary for its decadence.


title: Great Northern War

text: Frederick IV of Denmark-Norway, another cousin of Charles XII, succeeded Christian V in 1699 and continued his anti-Swedish policies. After the setbacks of 1700, he focused on transforming his state, an absolute monarchy, in a manner similar to Charles XI of Sweden. He did not achieve his main goal: to regain the former eastern Danish provinces lost to Sweden in the course of the 17th century. He was not able to keep northern Swedish Pomerania, Danish from 1712 to 1715. He did put an end to the Swedish threat south of Denmark. He ended Sweden's exemption from the Sound Dues (transit taxes/tariffs on cargo moved between the North Sea and the Baltic Sea).


title: Great Northern War

text: Frederick William I entered the war as elector of Brandenburg and king in Prussia – the royal title had been secured in 1701. He was determined to gain the Oder estuary with its access to the Baltic Sea for the Brandenburgian core areas, which had been a state goal for centuries.


title: Great Northern War

text: George I of the House of Hanover, elector of Hanover and, since 1714, king of Great Britain and of Ireland, took the opportunity to connect his landlocked German electorate to the North Sea.


title: Great Northern War

text: In 1700, Charles XII had a standing army of 77,000 men (based on annual training). By 1707 this number had swollen to at least 120,000 despite casualties.


title: Great Northern War

text: Russia was able to mobilize a larger army but could not put all of it into action simultaneously. The Russian mobilization system was ineffective and the expanding nation needed to be defended in many locations. A grand mobilization covering Russia's vast territories would have been unrealistic. Peter I tried to raise his army's morale to Swedish levels. Denmark contributed 20,000 men in their invasion of Holstein-Gottorp and more on other fronts. Poland and Saxony together could mobilize at least 100,000 men.


title: Great Northern War

text: Frederik IV of Denmark–Norway directed his first attack against Sweden's ally Holstein-Gottorp. In March 1700, a Danish army laid siege to Tönning. Simultaneously, Augustus II's forces advanced through Swedish Livonia, captured Dünamünde and laid siege to Riga.


title: Great Northern War

text: Charles XII of Sweden first focused on attacking Denmark. The Swedish navy was able to outmaneuver the Danish Sound blockade and deploy an army near the Danish capital, Copenhagen. At the same time, a combined Anglo-Dutch fleet had also set course towards Denmark. Together with the Swedish fleet, they carried out a bombardment of Copenhagen from 20 to 26 July. This surprise move and pressure by the Maritime Powers (England and the Dutch Republic) forced Denmark–Norway to withdraw from the war in August 1700 according to the terms of the Peace of Travendal.


title: Great Northern War

text: Charles XII was now able to speedily deploy his army to the eastern coast of the Baltic Sea and face his remaining enemies: besides the army of Augustus II in Livonia, an army of Russian tsar Peter I was already on its way to invade Swedish Ingria, where it laid siege to Narva in October. In November, the Russian and Swedish armies met at the First Battle of Narva where the Russians suffered a crushing defeat.


title: Great Northern War

text: After the dissolution of the first coalition through the peace of Travendal and with the victory at Narva; the Swedish chancellor, Benedict Oxenstjerna, attempted to use the bidding for the favour of Sweden by France and the Maritime Powers (then on the eve of the War of the Spanish Succession) to end the war and make Charles an arbiter of Europe.


title: Great Northern War

text: Charles XII then turned south to meet Augustus II, Elector of Saxony, King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania. The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth was formally neutral at this point, as Augustus started the war as an Elector of Saxony. Disregarding Polish negotiation proposals supported by the Swedish parliament, Charles crossed into the Commonwealth and decisively defeated the Saxe-Polish forces in the Battle of Klissow in 1702 and in the Battle of Pultusk in 1703. This successful invasion enabled Charles XII to dethrone Augustus II and coerce the Polish sejm to replace him with Stanislaus Leszczyński in 1704. August II resisted, still possessing control of his native Saxony, but was decisively defeated at the Battle of Fraustadt in 1706, a battle sometimes compared to the Ancient Battle of Cannae due to the Swedish forces' use of double envelopment, with a deadly result for the Saxon army. In 1706, after a Swedish invasion of Saxony, August II was forced to sign the Treaty of Altranstädt in which he made peace with the Swedish Empire, renounced his claims to the Polish crown, accepted Stanislaus Leszczyński as king, and ended his alliance with Russia. Patkul was also extradited and executed by breaking on the wheel in 1707, an incident which, given his diplomatic immunity, infuriated opinion against the Swedish king, who was then expected to win the war against the only hostile power remaining, Tsar Peter's Russia.


title: Great Northern War

text: The Battle of Narva dealt a severe setback to Peter the Great, but the shift of Charles XII's army to the Polish-Saxon threat soon afterward provided him with an opportunity to regroup and regain territory in the Baltic provinces. Russian victories at Erastfer and Nöteborg (Shlisselburg) provided access to Ingria in 1703, where Peter captured the Swedish fortress of Nyen, guarding the mouth of the River Neva. Thanks to General Adam Ludwig Lewenhaupt, whose outnumbered forces fended the Russians off in the battles of Gemäuerthof and Jakobstadt, Sweden was able to maintain control of most of its Baltic provinces. Before going to war, Peter had made preparations for a navy and a modern-style army, based primarily on infantry drilled in the use of firearms.


title: Great Northern War

text: The Nyen fortress was soon abandoned and demolished by Peter, who built nearby a superior fortress as a beginning to the city of Saint Petersburg. By 1704, other fortresses were situated on the island of Kotlin and the sand flats to its south. These became known as Kronstadt and Kronslot. The Swedes attempted a raid on the Neva fort on 13 July 1704 with ships and landing armies, but the Russian fortifications held. In 1705, repeated Swedish attacks were made against Russian fortifications in the area, to little effect. A major attack on 15 July 1705 ended in the deaths of more than 500 Swedish men, or a third of its forces


title: Great Northern War

text: In view of continued failure to check Russian consolidation, and with declining manpower, Sweden opted to blockade Saint Petersburg in 1705. In the summer of 1706, Swedish General Georg Johan Maidel crossed the Neva with 4,000 troops and defeated an opposing Russian force, but made no move on Saint Petersburg. Later in the autumn Peter I led an army of 20,000 men in an attempt to take the Swedish town and fortress of Viborg. However, bad roads proved impassable to his heavy siege guns. The troops, who arrived on 12 October, therefore had to abandon the siege after only a few days. On 12 May 1708, a Russian galley fleet made a lightning raid on Borgå and managed to return to Kronslot just one day before the Swedish battle fleet returned to the blockade, after being delayed by unfavourable winds.


title: Great Northern War

text: In August 1708, a Swedish army of 12,000 men under General Georg Henrik Lybecker attacked Ingria, crossing the Neva from the north. They met stubborn resistance, ran out of supplies and, after reaching the Gulf of Finland west of Kronstadt, had to be evacuated by sea between 10 and 17 October. Over 11,000 men were evacuated but more than 5000 horses were slaughtered, which crippled the mobility and offensive capability of the Swedish army in Finland for several years. Peter I took advantage of this by redeploying a large number of men from Ingria to Ukraine.


title: Great Northern War

text: Charles spent the years 1702–06 in a prolonged struggle with Augustus II the Strong; he had already inflicted defeat on him at Riga in June 1701 and took Warsaw the following year, but trying to force a decisive defeat proved elusive. Russia left Poland in the spring of 1706, abandoning artillery but escaping from the pursuing Swedes, who stopped at Pinsk. Charles wanted not just to defeat the Commonwealth army but to depose Augustus, whom he regarded as especially treasonous, and have him replaced with someone who would be a Swedish ally, though this proved hard to achieve. After years of marches and fighting around Poland he finally had to invade Augustus' hereditary Saxony to take him out of the war. In the treaty of Altranstädt (1706), Augustus was finally forced to step down from the Polish throne, but Charles had already lost the valuable advantage of time over his main enemy in the east, Peter I, who then had the time to recover and build up an army that was both new and better.


title: Great Northern War

text: At this point, in 1707, Peter offered to return everything he had so far occupied (essentially Ingria) except Saint Petersburg and the line of the Neva, to avoid a full-scale war, but Charles XII refused. Instead he initiated a march from Saxony to invade Russia. Though his primary goal was Moscow, the strength of his forces was sapped by the cold weather (the winter of 1708/09 being one of the most severe in modern European history) and Peter's use of scorched earth tactics. When the main army turned south to recover in Ukraine, the second army with supplies and reinforcements was intercepted and routed at Lesnaya—and so were the supplies and reinforcements of Swedish ally Ivan Mazepa in Baturyn. Charles was crushingly defeated by a larger Russian force under Peter in the Battle of Poltava and fled to the Ottoman Empire while the remains of his army surrendered at Perevolochna.


title: Great Northern War

text: This shattering defeat in 1709 did not end the war, although it decided it. Denmark and Saxony joined the war again and Augustus the Strong, through the politics of Boris Kurakin, regained the Polish throne. Peter continued his campaigns in the Baltics, and eventually he built up a powerful navy. In 1710 the Russian forces captured Riga, at the time the most populated city in the Swedish realm, and Tallinn, evicting the Swedes from the Baltic provinces, now integrated in the Russian Tsardom by the capitulation of Estonia and Livonia.


title: Great Northern War

text: After Poltava, Peter the Great and Augustus the Strong allied again in the Treaty of Thorn (1709); Frederick IV of Denmark-Norway with Augustus the Strong in the Treaty of Dresden (1709); and Russia with Denmark–Norway in the subsequent Treaty of Copenhagen. In the Treaty of Hanover (1710), Hanover, whose elector was to become George I of Great Britain, allied with Russia. In 1713, Brandenburg-Prussia allied with Russia in the Treaty of Schwedt. George I of Great Britain and Hanover concluded three alliances in 1715: the Treaty of Berlin with Denmark–Norway, the Treaty of Stettin with Brandenburg-Prussia, and the Treaty of Greifswald with Russia.


title: Great Northern War

text: When his army surrendered, Charles XII of Sweden and a few soldiers escaped to Ottoman territory, founding a colony in front of Bender, Moldova. Peter I demanded Charles's eviction, and when the sultan refused, Peter decided to force it by invading the Ottoman Empire. However the ensuing Pruth River Campaign resulted in a disaster for the Russians as Peter's army was trapped by an Ottoman army at the Pruth river. However, Peter managed to negotiate a retreat, making a few territorial concessions and promising to withdraw his forces from the Holy Roman Empire as well as allowing Charles's return to Sweden. These terms were laid out in the Treaty of Adrianople (1713). Charles showed no interest in returning, established a provisional court in his colony, and sought to persuade the sultan to engage in an Ottoman-Swedish assault on Russia. The sultan put an end to the generous hospitality granted and had the king arrested in what became known as the "kalabalik" in 1713. Charles was then confined at Timurtash and Demotika; later he abandoned his hopes for an Ottoman front and returned to Sweden in a 14-day ride.


title: Great Northern War

text: The war between Russia and Sweden continued after the disaster of Poltava in 1709, though the shattered Swedish continental army could provide very little help. Russia captured Viborg (ru. Vyborg) in 1710 and successfully held it against Swedish attempts to retake the town in 1711. In 1712 the first Russian campaign to capture Finland began under the command of General Admiral Fyodor Apraksin. Apraksin gathered an army of 15,000 men at Vyborg and started the operation in late August. Swedish General Georg Henrik Lybecker chose not to face the Russians with his 7,500 men in the prepared positions close to Vyborg and instead withdrew west of Kymijoki river using scorched earth tactics. Apraksin's forces reached the river but chose not to cross it and instead withdrew back to Vyborg, likely due to problems in supply. Swedish efforts to maintain their defences were greatly hampered by the drain of manpower by the continental army and various garrisons around the Baltic Sea as well as by the plague outbreak that struck Finland and Sweden between 1710 and 1713, which devastated the land killing, amongst others, over half of the population of Helsingfors (Helsinki).


title: Great Northern War

text: After the failure of 1712, Peter the Great ordered that further campaigns in war-ravaged regions of Finland with poor transportation networks were to be performed along the coastline and the seaways near the coast. Alarmed by the Russian preparations Lybecker requested naval units to be brought in as soon as possible in the spring of 1713. However, like so often, Swedish naval units arrived only after the initial Russian spring campaign had ended. Nominally under the command of Apraksin, but accompanied Peter the Great, a fleet of coastal ships together with 12,000 men – infantry and artillery – began the campaign by sailing from Kronstadt on 2 May 1713; a further 4,000 cavalry were later sent overland to join with the army. The fleet had already arrived at Helsinki on 8 May and were met by 1,800 Swedish infantry under General Carl Gustaf Armfeldt. Together with rowers from the ships the Russians had 20,000 men at their disposal even without the cavalry. The defenders, however, managed to fend off landing attempts by the attackers until the Russians landed at their flank at Sandviken, which forced Armfelt to retire towards Porvoo (Borgå) after setting afire both the town and all the supplies stored there as well as bridges leading north from the town. It was only on 12 May that Swedish squadron under Admiral Erik Johan Lillie made it to Helsinki but there was nothing it could do.


title: Great Northern War

text: The bulk of the Russian forces moved along the coast towards Borgå and the forces of Lybecker, whom Armfelt had joined. On 21–22 May 1713 a Russian force of 10,000 men landed at Pernå (Pernaja) and constructed fortifications there. Large stores of supplies and munitions were transported from Vyborg and Saint Petersburg to the new base of operations. Russian cavalry managed to link up with the rest of the army there as well. Lybecker's army of 7000 infantry and 3000 cavalry avoided contact with the Russians and instead kept withdrawing further inland without even contesting the control of Borgå region or the important coastal road between Helsinki (Helsingfors) and Turku (Åbo). This also severed the contact between Swedish fleet and ground forces and prevented Swedish naval units from supplying it. Soldiers in the Swedish army who were mostly Finnish resented being repeatedly ordered to withdraw without even seeing the enemy. Lybecker was soon recalled to Stockholm for a hearing and Armfelt was ordered to the command of the army. Under his command the Swedish army in Finland stopped to engage the advancing Russians at Pälkäne in October 1713, where a Russian flanking manoeuvre forced him to withdraw to avoid getting encircled. The armies met again later at Napue in February 1714, where the Russians won a decisive victory.


title: Great Northern War

text: In 1714 far greater Swedish naval assets were diverted towards Finland, which managed to cut the coastal sea route past Hangö cape already in early May 1714. This caused severe trouble for Russian supply route to Turku and beyond as supplies had to be carried overland. The Russian galley fleet arrived to the area on 29 June but stayed idle until 26–27 July when, under the leadership of Peter, Russian galleys managed to run the blockade making use of calm weather, which immobilized the Swedish battlefleet while losing only one galley of roughly 100. A small, hastily assembled Swedish coastal squadron met the Russian galley fleet west of Hangö cape in the Battle of Gangut and was overpowered by the Russians who had nearly ten-fold superiority. Russian breach of the blockade at Hangö forced the Swedish fleet to withdraw to prevent the Russian fleet from reaching Sweden itself. The Russian army occupied Finland mostly in 1713–1714, capturing Åland from where the population had already fled to Sweden on 13 August 1714. Since the Russian galley fleet was not able to raid the Swedish coast, with the exception of Umeå, which was plundered on 18 September, the fleet instead supported the advance of the Russian army, which led to hastily withdrawal by the Swedish army from Raahe (Brahestad) to Tornio (Torneå). The brutal occupation period of Finland in 1714–1721 is known as the Great Wrath.


title: Great Northern War

text: In 1710, the Swedish army in Poland retreated to Swedish Pomerania, pursued by the coalition. In 1711, siege was laid to Stralsund. Yet the town could not be taken due to the arrival of a Swedish relief army, led by general Magnus Stenbock, which secured the Pomeranian pocket before turning west to defeat an allied army in the Battle of Gadebusch. Pursued by coalition forces, Stenbock and his army was trapped and surrendered during the Siege of Tönning.


title: Great Northern War

text: In 1714, Charles XII returned from the Ottoman Empire, arriving in Stralsund in November. In nearby Greifswald, already lost to Sweden, Russian tsar Peter the Great and British king George I, in his position as Elector of Hanover, had just signed an alliance on 17 (OS)/28 (NS) October. Previously a formally neutral party in the Pomeranian campaigns, Brandenburg-Prussia openly joined the coalition by declaring war on Sweden in the summer of 1715. Charles was then at war with much of Northern Europe, and Stralsund was doomed. Charles remained there until December 1715, escaping only days before Stralsund fell. When Wismar surrendered in 1716, all of Sweden's Baltic and German possessions were lost.


title: Great Northern War

text: After Charles XII had returned from the Ottoman Empire and resumed personal control of the war effort, he initiated two Norwegian Campaigns, starting in February 1716, to force Denmark–Norway into a separate peace treaty. Furthermore, he attempted to bar Great Britain access to the Baltic Sea. In search for allies, Charles XII also negotiated with the British Jacobite party. This resulted in Great Britain declaring war on Sweden in 1717. The Norwegian campaigns were halted and the army withdrawn when Charles XII was shot dead while besieging Norwegian Fredriksten on 30 November 1718 (OS). He was succeeded by his sister, Ulrika Eleonora.


title: Great Northern War

text: After the death of Charles XII, Sweden still refused to make peace with Russia on Peter's terms. Despite a continued Swedish naval presence and strong patrols to protect the coast, small Russian raids took place in 1716 at Öregrund, while in July 1717 a Russian squadron landed troops at Gotland who raided for supplies. To place pressure on Sweden, Russia sent a large fleet to the Swedish east coast in July 1719. There, under protection of the Russian battlefleet, the Russian galley fleet was split into three groups. One group headed for the coast of Uppland, the second to the vicinity of Stockholm, and the last to coast of Södermanland. Together they carried a landing force of nearly 30,000 men. Raiding continued for a month and devastated amongst others the towns of Norrtälje, Södertälje, Nyköping and Norrköping, and almost all the buildings in the archipelago of Stockholm were burned. A smaller Russian force advanced on the Swedish capital but was stopped at the battle of Stäket on 13 August. Swedish and British fleets, now allied with Sweden, sailed from the west coast of Sweden but failed to catch the raiders.


title: Great Northern War

text: After the treaty of Frederiksborg in early 1720, Sweden was no longer at war with Denmark, which allowed more forces to be placed against the Russians. This did not prevent Russian galleys from raiding the town of Umeå once again. Later in July 1720 a squadron from the Swedish battlefleet engaged the Russian galley fleet in the battle of Grengam. While the result of the battle is contested, it ended Russian galley raids in 1720. As negotiations for peace did not progress, the Russian galleys were once again sent to raid the Swedish coast in 1721, targeting primarily the Swedish coast between Gävle and Piteå.


title: Great Northern War

text: By the time of Charles XII's death, the anti-Swedish allies became increasingly divided on how to fill the power gap left behind by the defeated and retreating Swedish armies. George I and Frederik IV both coveted hegemony in northern Germany, while Augustus the Strong was concerned about the ambitions of Frederick William I on the southeastern Baltic coast. Peter the Great, whose forces were spread all around the Baltic Sea, envisioned hegemony in East Central Europe and sought to establish naval bases as far west as Mecklenburg. In January 1719, George I, Augustus and emperor Charles VI concluded a treaty in Vienna aimed at reducing Russia's frontiers to the pre-war limits.


title: Great Northern War

text: Hanover-Great Britain and Brandenburg-Prussia thereupon negotiated separate peace treaties with Sweden, the treaties of Stockholm in 1719 and early 1720, which partitioned Sweden's northern German dominions among the parties. The negotiations were mediated by French diplomats, who sought to prevent a complete collapse of Sweden's position on the southern Baltic coast and assured that Sweden was to retain Wismar and northern Swedish Pomerania. Hanover gained Swedish Bremen-Verden, while Brandenburg-Prussia incorporated southern Swedish Pomerania.


title: Great Northern War

text: In addition to the rivalries in the anti-Swedish coalition, there was an inner-Swedish rivalry between Charles Frederick, Duke of Holstein-Gottorp, and Frederick I of Hesse-Cassel for the Swedish throne. The Gottorp party succumbed and Ulrike Eleonora, wife of Frederick I, transferred power to her husband in May 1720. When peace was concluded with Denmark, the anti-Swedish coalition had already fallen apart, and Denmark was not in a military position to negotiate a return of its former eastern provinces across the sound. Frederick I was, however, willing to cede Swedish support for his rival in Holstein-Gottorp, which came under Danish control with its northern part annexed, and furthermore cede the Swedish privilege of exemption from the Sound Dues. A respective treaty was concluded in Frederiksborg in June 1720.


title: Great Northern War

text: When Sweden finally was at peace with Hanover, Great Britain, Brandenburg-Prussia and Denmark–Norway, it hoped that the anti-Russian sentiments of the Vienna parties and France would culminate in an alliance that would restore its Russian-occupied eastern provinces. Yet, primarily due to internal conflicts in Great Britain and France, that did not happen. Therefore, the war was finally concluded by the Treaty of Nystad between Russia and Sweden in Uusikaupunki ("Nystad") on 30 August 1721 (OS). Finland was returned to Sweden, while the majority of Russia's conquests (Swedish Estonia, Livonia, Ingria, Kexholm and a portion of Karelia) were ceded to the tsardom. Sweden's dissatisfaction with the result led to fruitless attempts at recovering the lost territories in the course of the following century, such as the Russo-Swedish War (1741–1743), and the Russo-Swedish War (1788–1790).


title: Great Northern War

text: Saxe-Poland-Lithuania and Sweden did not conclude a formal peace treaty; instead, they renewed the Peace of Oliva that had ended the Second Northern War in 1660.


title: Great Northern War

text: Sweden had lost almost all of its "overseas" holdings gained in the 17th century and ceased to be a major power. Russia gained its Baltic territories and became one of the greatest powers in Europe.


title: Jonny Greenwood

text: Jonathan Richard Guy Greenwood (born 5 November 1971) is an English musician and composer. He is the lead guitarist and keyboardist of the alternative rock band Radiohead, and has written numerous film scores.


title: Jonny Greenwood

text: Along with his elder brother, the Radiohead bassist Colin, Greenwood attended Abingdon School in Abingdon near Oxford, England, where he met the future band members. The youngest of the group, Greenwood was the last to join, first playing keyboards and harmonica but soon becoming lead guitarist. He abandoned a degree in music when the band signed to Parlophone; their debut single, "Creep", (1992) was distinguished by Greenwood's aggressive guitar work. Radiohead have since achieved critical acclaim and sold over 30 million albums. Along with the other members of Radiohead, Greenwood was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 2019.


title: Jonny Greenwood

text: Greenwood was named the 48th greatest guitarist of all time by "Rolling Stone." A multi-instrumentalist, he also uses instruments including the bass guitar, piano, glockenspiel and drums, and is a prominent player of the ondes Martenot, an early electronic instrument. He uses electronic techniques such as programming, sampling and looping, and writes music software used by Radiohead. He described his role in the band as an arranger, helping to transform Thom Yorke's demos into finished songs. Radiohead albums feature Greenwood's string and brass arrangements, and he has composed for orchestras including the London Contemporary Orchestra and the BBC Concert Orchestra. He has collaborated several times with the Israeli composer Shye Ben Tzur, including on the 2015 album "Junun". In 2021, Greenwood debuted a new band, the Smile, with Yorke and the drummer Tom Skinner.


title: Jonny Greenwood

text: Greenwood's first solo work, the soundtrack for the film "Bodysong," was released in 2003. In 2007, he scored "There Will Be Blood", the first of several collaborations with director Paul Thomas Anderson; in 2018, he was nominated for an Academy Award for his score for Anderson's "Phantom Thread". He was nominated a second time for his score for "The Power of the Dog" (2021), directed by Jane Campion. Greenwood also scored "We Need to Talk About Kevin" (2011) and "You Were Never Really Here" (2017), both directed by Lynne Ramsay.


title: Jonny Greenwood

text: Jonny Greenwood was born on 5 November 1971 in Oxford, England. His brother, the Radiohead bassist Colin Greenwood, is two years older. His father served in the British Army as a bomb disposal expert. The Greenwood family has historical ties to the British Communist Party and the socialist Fabian Society.


title: Jonny Greenwood

text: When he was a child, Greenwood's family would listen to a small number of cassettes in their car, including Mozart's horn concertos, the musicals "Flower Drum Song" and "My Fair Lady", and cover versions of Simon and Garfunkel songs. When the cassettes were not playing, Greenwood would listen to the noise of the engine and try to recall every detail of the music. He credited his older siblings with exposing him to rock bands such as the Beat and New Order. The first gig Greenwood attended was the Fall on their 1988 "Frenz Experiment" tour, which he found "overwhelming".


title: Jonny Greenwood

text: Greenwood's first instrument was a recorder given to him at age four or five. He took the instrument seriously, playing it into adulthood, and played baroque music in recorder groups as a teenager. He also learnt the viola and joined the Thames Vale youth orchestra, which he described as a formative experience: "I'd been in school orchestras and never seen the point. But in Thames Vale I was suddenly with all these 18-year-olds who could actually play in tune. I remember thinking: 'Ah, that's what an orchestra is supposed to sound like!'" Greenwood spent time as a child programming computers, experimenting with BASIC and simple machine code to make computer games. According to Greenwood, "The closer I got to the bare bones of the computer, the more exciting I found it."


title: Jonny Greenwood

text: The Greenwood brothers attended the independent boys' school Abingdon, where they formed a band, On a Friday, with the singer Thom Yorke, the guitarist Ed O'Brien and the drummer Philip Selway. Jonny had previously been in another band, Illiterate Hands, with Matt Hawksworth, Simon Newton, Ben Kendrick, Nigel Powell and Yorke's brother Andy Yorke. The youngest member of On a Friday, Greenwood was two school years below Yorke and Colin and the last to join. He first played harmonica and keyboards, but soon became the lead guitarist.


title: Jonny Greenwood

text: As the band had fired their previous keyboardist for playing too loudly, Greenwood spent his first months playing with his keyboard turned off. No one in the band realised, and Yorke told him he added an "interesting texture". According to Greenwood, "I'd go home in the evening and work out how to actually play chords, and cautiously, over the next few months, I would start turning this keyboard up." Greenwood studied music at A Level, including chorale harmonisation.


title: Jonny Greenwood

text: In 1991, Greenwood was three weeks into a degree in music and psychology at Oxford Polytechnic when On a Friday signed a recording contract with EMI. He dropped out of university and On a Friday changed their name to Radiohead. The band found early success with their debut single, "Creep" (1992). According to "Rolling Stone", "It was Greenwood's gnashing noise blasts that marked Radiohead as more than just another mopey band ... An early indicator of his crucial role in pushing his band forward." Greenwood played harmonica on Blind Mr. Jones's 1992 single "Crazy Jazz".


title: Jonny Greenwood

text: Greenwood wrote his first Radiohead string part for the middle eight of "My Iron Lung", which appeared on Radiohead's second album, "The Bends" (1995). On tour for "The Bends", Greenwood damaged his hearing and wore protective ear shields for some performances.


title: Jonny Greenwood

text: Radiohead's third album, "OK Computer" (1997), achieved acclaim, showcasing Greenwood's lead guitar work on songs such as "Paranoid Android". For "Climbing up the Walls", Greenwood wrote a part for 16 stringed instruments playing quarter tones apart, inspired by the Polish composer Krzysztof Penderecki.


title: Jonny Greenwood

text: For the 1998 film "Velvet Goldmine", Greenwood formed Venus in Furs with Yorke, Suede's Bernard Butler, and Roxy Music's Andy Mackay and recorded covers of the Roxy Music songs "2HB", "Ladytron" and "Bitter-Sweet". Greenwood played harmonica on the tracks "Platform Blues" and "Billie" on Pavement's final album, "Terror Twilight" (1999).


title: Jonny Greenwood

text: Radiohead's albums "Kid A" (2000) and "Amnesiac" (2001) marked a dramatic change in sound, incorporating influences from electronica, classical music, jazz and krautrock. Greenwood employed a modular synthesiser to build the drum machine rhythm of "Idioteque", and played ondes Martenot, an early electronic instrument similar to a theremin, on several tracks.


title: Jonny Greenwood

text: For "How to Disappear Completely", Greenwood composed a string section by multitracking his ondes Martenot playing. According to Radiohead's producer, Nigel Godrich, when the string players saw Greenwood's score "they all just sort of burst into giggles, because they couldn't do what he'd written, because it was impossible—or impossible for them, anyway". The orchestra leader, John Lubbock, encouraged the musicians to experiment and work with Greenwood's "naive" ideas. Greenwood played guitar on Bryan Ferry's 2002 album "Frantic".


title: Jonny Greenwood

text: In 2003, Greenwood released his first solo work, the soundtrack for the documentary film "Bodysong". It incorporates guitar, jazz, and classical music. In 2004, Greenwood and Yorke contributed to the Band Aid 20 single "Do They Know It's Christmas?", produced by Godrich.


title: Jonny Greenwood

text: Greenwood's first work for orchestra, "Smear", was premiered by the London Sinfonietta in March 2004. In May, Greenwood was appointed composer-in-residence to the BBC Concert Orchestra, for whom he wrote "Popcorn Superhet Receiver" (2005), which won the Radio 3 Listeners' Award at the 2006 BBC British Composer Awards. The piece was inspired by radio static and the elaborate, dissonant tone clusters of Penderecki's "Threnody to the Victims of Hiroshima "(1960). Greenwood wrote the piece by recording individual tones on viola, then manipulating and overdubbing them in Pro Tools. As part of his prize, Greenwood received £10,000 from the PRS Foundation towards a commission for a new orchestral work.


title: Jonny Greenwood

text: For the 2005 film "Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire", Greenwood appeared as part of the wizard rock band Weird Sisters with the Radiohead drummer Philip Selway, the Pulp members Jarvis Cocker and Steve Mackey, the electronica artist Jason Buckle and the Add N to (X) member Steven Claydon. At the 2005 Ether Festival, Greenwood and Yorke performed "Arpeggi" with the London Sinfonietta orchestra and the Arab Orchestra of Nazareth. It was released in a different arrangement on Radiohead's seventh album, "In Rainbows" (2007), retitled "Weird Fishes/Arpeggi".


title: Jonny Greenwood

text: Greenwood composed the score for the 2007 film "There Will Be Blood" by the director Paul Thomas Anderson. The soundtrack won an award at the Critics' Choice Awards and the Best Film Score trophy in the Evening Standard British Film Awards for 2007. As it contains excerpts from "Popcorn Superhet Receiver", an earlier piece, it was ineligible for an Academy Award. "Rolling Stone" named "There Will Be Blood" the best film of the decade and described the score as "a sonic explosion that reinvented what film music could be". In 2016, the film composer Hans Zimmer said the score was the one that had most "stood out to him" in the past decade, describing it as "recklessly, crazily beautiful".


title: Jonny Greenwood

text: Greenwood curated a compilation album of reggae tracks, "Jonny Greenwood Is the Controller," released by Trojan Records in March 2007. It features mostly 70s roots and dub tracks from artists including Lee "Scratch" Perry, Joe Gibbs, and Linval Thompson; the title references Thompson's track "Dread Are the Controller". In 2008, Greenwood wrote the title music for Adam Buxton's sketch show "Meebox". He also collaborated with the Israeli rock musician Dudu Tasaa on the Hebrew-language single "What a Day".


title: Jonny Greenwood

text: In February 2010, Greenwood debuted a new composition, "Doghouse", at the BBC's Maida Vale Studios. Greenwood wrote the piece in hotels and dressing rooms while on tour with Radiohead. He expanded "Doghouse" into the score for the Japanese film "Norwegian Wood", released later that year. Greenwood played guitar on Bryan Ferry's 2010 album "Olympia." In 2011, he and Yorke collaborated with the rapper MF Doom on the track "Retarded Fren".


title: Jonny Greenwood

text: Radiohead's eighth album, "The King of Limbs" (2011), was recorded using sampler software written by Greenwood. In 2011, Greenwood scored "We Need to Talk About Kevin," directed by Lynne Ramsay, using instruments including a wire-strung harp. In 2012, he composed the score for Anderson's film "The Master". That March, Greenwood and the Polish composer Krzysztof Penderecki, one of Greenwood's greatest influences, released an album comprising Penderecki's 1960s compositions "Polymorphia" "and Threnody for the Victims of Hiroshima," Greenwood's "Popcorn Superhet Receiver", and a new work by Greenwood, "48 Responses to "Polymorphia"".


title: Jonny Greenwood

text: In the same year, Greenwood accepted a three-month residency with the Australian Chamber Orchestra in Sydney and composed a new piece, "Water". Greenwood, Yorke, and other artists contributed music to "The UK Gold", a 2013 documentary about tax avoidance in the UK. The soundtrack was released free in February 2015 through the online audio platform SoundCloud.


title: Jonny Greenwood

text: Greenwood composed the soundtrack for the Paul Thomas Anderson film "Inherent Vice" (2014). It features a new version of an unreleased Radiohead song, "Spooks", performed by Greenwood and two members of Supergrass. In 2014, Greenwood performed with the London Contemporary Orchestra, performing selections from his soundtracks alongside new compositions.


title: Jonny Greenwood

text: In the same year, Greenwood performed with the Israeli composer Shye Ben Tzur and his band. Greenwood described Tzur's music as "quite celebratory, more like gospel music than anything—except that it's all done to a backing of Indian harmoniums and percussion". He said he would play a "supportive" rather than "solistic" role.


title: Jonny Greenwood

text: In 2015, Greenwood, Tzur and Godrich recorded an album, "Junun", with Indian musicians at Mehrangarh Fort in Rajasthan, India. Greenwood insisted they hire only musicians from Rajasthan and only use string instruments native to the region. Ben Tzur wrote the songs, with Greenwood contributing guitar, bass, keyboards, ondes Martenot and programming. Whereas western music is based on harmonies and chord progressions, Greenwood wanted to use chords sparingly, and instead write using North Indian ragas. Greenwood and Godrich said they wanted to avoid the "obsession" with high fidelity in recording world music, and instead hoped to capture the "dirt" and "roughness" of music in India. The recording is the subject of a 2015 documentary, "Junun", by Paul Thomas Anderson.


title: Jonny Greenwood

text: Greenwood contributed string orchestration to Frank Ocean's 2016 albums "Endless" and "Blonde". Radiohead's ninth album, "A Moon Shaped Pool", was released in May 2016, featuring strings and choral vocals arranged by Greenwood and performed by the London Contemporary Orchestra. With Ben Tzur and the Indian ensemble, Greenwood supported Radiohead's 2018 "Moon Shaped Pool" tour under the name Junun.


title: Jonny Greenwood

text: Greenwood wrote the score for Anderson's 2017 film "Phantom Thread." It was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Original Score and earned Greenwood his sixth Ivor Novello award. In the same year, he reunited with Ramsay to score her film "You Were Never Really Here." At the 2019 BBC Proms in London, Greenwood debuted his composition "Horror Vacui" for solo violin and 68 string instruments.


title: Jonny Greenwood

text: Radiohead were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in March 2019. Greenwood did not attend the event; in the year before Radiohead became eligible for nomination, he told "Rolling Stone": "I don't care. Maybe it's a cultural thing that I really don't understand ... It's quite a self-regarding profession anyway. And anything that heightens that just makes me feel even more uncomfortable."


title: Jonny Greenwood

text: In September 2019, Greenwood launched a record label, Octatonic Records, to release contemporary classical music by soloists and small groups. He started the label to record the musicians he had met as a film composer. In 2021, he expressed uncertainty about releasing further Octatonic records, as the two they had released "seemed to not really connect with anybody".


title: Jonny Greenwood

text: For the soundtrack for "The Power of the Dog" (2021), Greenwood played the cello in the style of a banjo and recorded a piece for player piano controlled with the software Max. The soundtrack earned Greenwood his second nomination for the Academy Award for Best Original Score. For his soundtrack to" Spencer" (2021), Greenwood combined Baroque and jazz music, creating a conflict between the "rigid" and "colourful" styles. He also contributed cues to Anderson's 2021 film "Licorice Pizza".


title: Jonny Greenwood

text: In 2021, Greenwood debuted a new band, the Smile, with Yorke and the jazz drummer Tom Skinner. Greenwood said the project was a way for him and Yorke to work together during the COVID-19 lockdowns. The Smile made their surprise debut in a performance streamed by Glastonbury Festival on May 22, with Greenwood playing guitar and bass.


title: Jonny Greenwood

text: The "Guardian" critic Alexis Petridis said the Smile "sound like a simultaneously more skeletal and knottier version of Radiohead", exploring more progressive rock influences with unusual time signatures, complex riffs and "hard-driving" motorik psychedelia. In May 2022, the Smile released their debut album, "A Light for Attracting Attention", and began an international tour. Greenwood and Yorke contributed music to the sixth series of the television drama "Peaky Blinders" in 2022.


title: Jonny Greenwood

text: Greenwood is Radiohead's lead guitarist. He is known for his aggressive playing style; in the 1990s, he developed repetitive stress injury, necessitating a brace on his right arm, which he likened to "taping up your fingers before a boxing match". For most Radiohead songs, Greenwood has long used a Fender Telecaster Plus, a model of Telecaster that uses Lace Sensor pickups. According to "Far Out", Greenwood used the Telecaster's "power and instability" to produce a "punchy" sound that helped set Radiohead apart in the 1990s.


title: Jonny Greenwood

text: On softer tracks, such as "Subterranean Homesick Alien" and "Let Down" from "OK Computer" and "You And Whose Army?" from "Amnesiac," Greenwood plays a Fender Starcaster. He plays a Gibson Les Paul for solo performances and his work with the Smile. For bass, he plays a Fender Precision Bass, using an aggressive picking style. He sometimes plays with a violin bow. Greenwood said he dislikes the reputation of guitars as something to be "admired or worshipped", and instead sees them as a tool like a typewriter or a vacuum cleaner.


title: Jonny Greenwood

text: Greenwood often uses effect pedals, such as the Marshall ShredMaster distortion pedal used on many 90s Radiohead songs. For the "My Iron Lung" riff, he uses a DigiTech Whammy pedal to pitch-shift his guitar by one octave, creating a "glitchy, lo-fi" sound. On "Identikit" and several Smile songs, Greenwood uses a delay effect to create "angular" synchronised repeats. His main amplifiers are a Vox AC30 and a Fender 85.


title: Jonny Greenwood

text: In 2010, "NME" named Greenwood one of the greatest living guitarists. He was voted the seventh-greatest guitarist of all time in a 2010 poll of more than 30,000 BBC 6 Music listeners. In 2011, "Rolling Stone" ranked Greenwood the 48th-greatest guitarist of all time, and in 2012 "Spin" ranked him the 29th. In 2008, Greenwood's guitar solo in "Paranoid Android" was named the 34th-best guitar solo by "Guitar World." "Paranoid Android", "Just" and "The Bends" appeared in "NME"'s 2012 list of the best guitar solos.


title: Jonny Greenwood

text: Greenwood is a prominent player of the ondes Martenot, an early electronic instrument played by moving a ring along a wire, creating sounds similar to a theremin. He is credited with bringing the ondes Martenot to a larger audience. He first used it on Radiohead's 2000 album "Kid A," and it appears in Radiohead songs including "The National Anthem", "How to Disappear Completely" and "Where I End and You Begin".


title: Jonny Greenwood

text: Greenwood became interested in the ondes Martenot at the age of 15 after hearing Olivier Messiaen's "Turangalîla Symphony". He said he was partly attracted to the instrument as he cannot sing: "I've always wanted to be able to play an instrument that was like singing, and there's nothing closer." As production of the ondes Martenot ceased in 1988, Greenwood had a replica created to take on tour with Radiohead in 2001 for fear of damaging his original model.


title: Jonny Greenwood

text: Greenwood is a multi-instrumentalist and plays instruments including piano, synthesiser, viola, glockenspiel, harmonica, recorder, organ, banjo and harp. He said he enjoyed "struggling with instruments I can't really play", and that he enjoyed playing glockenspiel with Radiohead as much as he did guitar.


title: Jonny Greenwood

text: Greenwood created the rhythm for "Idioteque" (from "Kid A") with a modular synthesiser and sampled the song's four-chord synthesiser phrase from "mild und leise", a computer music piece by Paul Lansky. He uses a Kaoss Pad to manipulate Yorke's vocals during performances of the "Kid A" song "Everything in its Right Place". In 2014, Greenwood wrote of his fascination with Indian instruments, particularly the tanpura, which he felt created uniquely complex "walls" of sounds.


title: Jonny Greenwood

text: Greenwood uses a "home-made sound machine" comprising small hammers striking objects including yoghurt cartons, tubs, bells, and tambourines. He has used found sounds, using a television and a transistor radio on "Climbing Up the Walls" (from "OK Computer") and "The National Anthem" (from "Kid A").


title: Jonny Greenwood

text: At the suggestion of Radiohead's producer, Nigel Godrich, Greenwood began using the music programming language Max. He said: "I got to reconnect properly with computers… I didn't have to use someone else's idea of what a delay, or a reverb, or a sequencer should do, or should sound like—I could start from the ground, and think in terms of sound and maths. It was like coming off the rails." Examples of Greenwood's use of Max include the processed piano on the "Moon Shaped Pool" track "Glass Eyes" and his signature "stutter" guitar effect used on tracks such as the 2003 single "Go to Sleep". He also used Max to write sampling software used to create Radiohead's eighth album, "The King of Limbs".


title: Jonny Greenwood

text: Greenwood's major writing contributions to Radiohead include "Just" (which Yorke described as "a competition by me and Jonny to get as many chords as possible into a song"); "My Iron Lung", co-written with Yorke, from "The Bends" (1995); "The Tourist" and the "rain down" bridge of "Paranoid Android" from "OK Computer" (1997); the vocal melody of "Kid A" from "Kid A" (2000); and the guitar melody of "A Wolf At The Door" from "Hail To The Thief" (2003), whose "sweet" quality inspired Yorke to sing the song's "angry" lyrics.


title: Jonny Greenwood

text: The "New York Times" described Greenwood as "the guy who can take an abstract Thom Yorke notion and master the tools required to execute it in the real world". Greenwood described his role as arranger: It's not really about can I do my guitar part now, it's more ... What will serve this song best? How do we not mess up this really good song? Part of the problem is Thom will sit at the piano and play a song like "Pyramid Song" and we're going to record it and how do we not make it worse, how do we make it better than him just playing it by himself, which is already usually quite great.For his film soundtracks, Greenwood attempts to keep the instrumentation contemporary to the period of the story. For example, he recorded the "Norwegian Wood" soundtrack using a 1960s Japanese nylon-strung guitar and recorded it with period home recording equipment, attempting to create a recording that one of the characters might have made.


title: Jonny Greenwood

text: Many of Greenwood's compositions are microtonal. He often uses modes of limited transposition, particularly the octatonic scale, saying: "I like to know what I "can’t" do and then work inside that."


title: Jonny Greenwood

text: Greenwood has cited influences from genres including jazz, classical, rock, reggae, hip-hop, and electronic music. His jazz favourites include Lee Morgan, Alice Coltrane and Miles Davis. Along with the other members of Radiohead, he admires Scott Walker and the Krautrock band Can. Greenwood said the guitarist that had most influenced him was John McGeoch of Magazine, and that Magazine's songwriting "informs so much of what [Radiohead] do". He declined an offer to fill in for McGeoch, who died in 2004, during Magazine's 2009 reunion tour. According to the Radiohead collaborator Adam Buxton, Jonny was "overwhelmed" and too shy to accept the role.


title: Jonny Greenwood

text: Greenwood first heard Olivier Messiaen's Turangalîla Symphony at the age of 15 and became "round-the-bend-obsessed with it". Messiaen was Greenwood's "first connection" to classical music, and remains an influence; he said: "He was still alive when I was 15, and for whatever reason I felt I could equate him with my other favourite bands – there was no big posthumous reputation to put me off. So I'm still very fond of writing things in the same modes of limited transposition that he used."


title: Jonny Greenwood

text: Greenwood is an admirer of the Polish composer Krzysztof Penderecki, and cited a concert of Penderecki's music in the early 90s as a "conversion experience". He is also a fan of the composers György Ligeti, Henri Dutilleux, and Steve Reich. He has performed Reich's 1987 guitar composition "Electric Counterpoint" and recorded a version for Reich's 2014 album "Radio Rewrite."


title: Jonny Greenwood

text: Greenwood is married to the Israeli visual artist Sharona Katan, whom he met in 1993 when Radiohead performed in Israel. Her work (credited as Shin Katan) appears on the covers of "Junun" and Greenwood's soundtracks for "Bodysong," "There Will" "Be Blood", "Norwegian Wood", "The Master", "Inherent Vice", and "Phantom Thread". Their first son was born in 2002; Radiohead's 2003 album "Hail to the Thief" was dedicated to him. Their daughter was born in 2005, and a second son was born in February 2008. Katan said she considers their family Jewish: "Our kids are raised as Jews, we have a mezuzah in our house, we sometimes have Shabbos dinners, we celebrate Jewish holidays. The kids don’t eat pork. It's important to me to keep this stuff."


title: Jonny Greenwood

text: In February 2021, Greenwood appeared on the BBC Radio 4 program "Saturday Live," where his selected "Inheritance Tracks" were "Sweetheart Contract" by Magazine and "Brotherhood of Man" by Oscar Peterson and Clark Terry. Greenwood is red-green colour blind.


title: Hydrogen sulfide

text: Hydrogen sulfide is a chemical compound with the formula . It is a colorless chalcogen-hydride gas, and is poisonous, corrosive, and flammable, with trace amounts in ambient atmosphere having a characteristic foul odor of rotten eggs. The underground mine gas term for foul-smelling hydrogen sulfide-rich gas mixtures is "stinkdamp". Swedish chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele is credited with having discovered the chemical composition of purified hydrogen sulfide in 1777. The British English spelling of this compound is hydrogen sulphide, a spelling no longer recommended by the Royal Society of Chemistry or the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry.


title: Hydrogen sulfide

text: Hydrogen sulfide is toxic to humans and most other animals by inhibiting cellular respiration in a manner similar to hydrogen cyanide. When it is inhaled or it or its salts are ingested in high amounts, damage to organs occurs rapidly with symptoms ranging from breathing difficulties to convulsions and death. Despite this, the human body produces small amounts of this sulfide and its mineral salts, and uses it as a signalling molecule.


title: Hydrogen sulfide

text: Hydrogen sulfide is often produced from the microbial breakdown of organic matter in the absence of oxygen, such as in swamps and sewers; this process is commonly known as anaerobic digestion, which is done by sulfate-reducing microorganisms. It also occurs in volcanic gases, natural gas deposits, and sometimes in well-drawn water.


title: Hydrogen sulfide

text: Hydrogen sulfide is slightly denser than air. A mixture of and air can be explosive. Hydrogen sulfide burns in oxygen with a blue flame to form sulfur dioxide () and water. In general, hydrogen sulfide acts as a reducing agent, although in the presence of a base, it can act as an acid by donating a proton and forming SH.


title: Hydrogen sulfide

text: At high temperatures or in the presence of catalysts, sulfur dioxide reacts with hydrogen sulfide to form elemental sulfur and water. This reaction is exploited in the Claus process, an important industrial method to dispose of hydrogen sulfide.


title: Hydrogen sulfide

text: Hydrogen sulfide is slightly soluble in water and acts as a weak acid (p"K" = 6.9 in 0.01–0.1 mol/litre solutions at 18 °C), giving the hydrosulfide ion (also written ). Hydrogen sulfide and its solutions are colorless. When exposed to air, it slowly oxidizes to form elemental sulfur, which is not soluble in water. The sulfide anion is not formed in aqueous solution.


title: Hydrogen sulfide

text: Hydrogen sulfide reacts with metal ions to form metal sulfides, which are insoluble, often dark colored solids. Lead(II) acetate paper is used to detect hydrogen sulfide because it readily converts to lead(II) sulfide, which is black. Treating metal sulfides with strong acid or electrolysis often liberates hydrogen sulfide. Hydrogen sulfide is also responsible for tarnishing on various metals including copper and silver; the chemical responsible for black toning found on silver coins is silver sulfide (AgS), which is produced when the silver on the surface of the coin reacts with atmospheric hydrogen sulfide.


title: Hydrogen sulfide

text: At pressures above 90 GPa (gigapascal), hydrogen sulfide becomes a metallic conductor of electricity. When cooled below a critical temperature this high-pressure phase exhibits superconductivity. The critical temperature increases with pressure, ranging from 23 K at 100 GPa to 150 K at 200 GPa. If hydrogen sulfide is pressurized at higher temperatures, then cooled, the critical temperature reaches , the highest accepted superconducting critical temperature as of 2015. By substituting a small part of sulfur with phosphorus and using even higher pressures, it has been predicted that it may be possible to raise the critical temperature to above and achieve room-temperature superconductivity.


title: Hydrogen sulfide

text: Hydrogen sulfide decomposes without a presence of a catalyst under atmospheric pressure around 1200 °C into hydrogen and sulfur.


title: Hydrogen sulfide

text: Hydrogen sulfide is most commonly obtained by its separation from sour gas, which is natural gas with a high content of . It can also be produced by treating hydrogen with molten elemental sulfur at about 450 °C. Hydrocarbons can serve as a source of hydrogen in this process.


title: Hydrogen sulfide

text: Sulfate-reducing (resp. sulfur-reducing) bacteria generate usable energy under low-oxygen conditions by using sulfates (resp. elemental sulfur) to oxidize organic compounds or hydrogen; this produces hydrogen sulfide as a waste product.


title: Hydrogen sulfide

text: Many metal and nonmetal sulfides, e.g. aluminium sulfide, phosphorus pentasulfide, silicon disulfide liberate hydrogen sulfide upon exposure to water:


title: Hydrogen sulfide

text: This gas is also produced by heating sulfur with solid organic compounds and by reducing sulfurated organic compounds with hydrogen.


title: Hydrogen sulfide

text: Water heaters can aid the conversion of sulfate in water to hydrogen sulfide gas. This is due to providing a warm environment sustainable for sulfur bacteria and maintaining the reaction which interacts between sulfate in the water and the water heater anode, which is usually made from magnesium metal.


title: Hydrogen sulfide

text: Hydrogen sulfide can be generated in cells via enzymatic or non-enzymatic pathways. in the body acts as a gaseous signaling molecule which is known to inhibit Complex IV of the mitochondrial electron transport chain which effectively reduces ATP generation and biochemical activity within cells. Three enzymes are known to synthesize : cystathionine γ-lyase (CSE), cystathionine β-synthetase (CBS) and 3-mercaptopyruvate sulfurtransferase (3-MST). These enzymes have been identified in a breadth of biological cells and tissues, and their activity has been observed to be induced by a number of disease states. It is becoming increasingly clear that is an important mediator of a wide range of cell functions in health and in diseases. CBS and CSE are the main proponents of biogenesis, which follows the trans-sulfuration pathway. These enzymes are characterized by the transfer of a sulfur atom from methionine to serine to form a cysteine molecule. 3-MST also contributes to hydrogen sulfide production by way of the cysteine catabolic pathway. Dietary amino acids, such as methionine and cysteine serve as the primary substrates for the transulfuration pathways and in the production of hydrogen sulfide. Hydrogen sulfide can also be synthesized by non-enzymatic pathway, which is derived from proteins such as ferredoxins and Rieske proteins. There has been continuing interest in exploiting such knowledge of hydrogen sulfide's role in signaling through development of mechanistically related therapeutic agents.