title: Temple Mount

text: Early Islam regarded the Foundation Stone as the location of Solomon's Temple, and the first architectural initiatives on the Temple Mount sought to glorify Jerusalem by presenting Islam as a continuation of Judaism and Christianity. Almost immediately after the Muslim conquest of Jerusalem in 638 CE, Caliph 'Omar ibn al Khatab, reportedly disgusted by the filth covering the site, had it thoroughly cleaned, and granted Jews access to the site. According to early Quranic interpreters and what is generally accepted as Islamic tradition, in 638 CE Umar, upon entering a conquered Jerusalem, consulted with Ka'ab al-Ahbar – a Jewish convert to Islam who came with him from Medina – as to where the best spot would be to build a mosque. Al-Ahbar suggested to him that it should be behind the Rock "... so that all of Jerusalem would be before you." Umar replied, "You correspond to Judaism!" Immediately after this conversation, Umar began to clean up the site – which was filled with trash and debris – with his cloak, and other Muslim followers imitated him until the site was clean. Umar then prayed at the spot where it was believed that Muhammad had prayed before his night journey, reciting the Quranic "sura" "Sad". Thus, according to this tradition, Umar thereby reconsecrated the site as a mosque.


title: Temple Mount

text: Muslim interpretations of the Quran agree that the Mount is the site of the Temple originally built by Solomon, considered a prophet in Islam, that was later destroyed. After the construction, Muslims believe, the temple was used for the worship of the one God by many prophets of Islam, including Jesus. Other Muslim scholars have used the Torah (called in Arabic) to expand on the details of the temple. The term "Bayt al-Maqdis" (or "Bayt al-Muqaddas"), which frequently appears as a name of Jerusalem in early Islamic sources, is a cognate of the Hebrew term "bēt ha-miqdāsh" (בית המקדש), the Temple in Jerusalem. Mujir al-Din, a 15th-century Jerusalemite chronicler, mentions an earlier tradition related by al-Wasti, according which "after David built many cities and the situation of the children of Israel was improved, he wanted to construct Bayt al-Maqdis and build a dome over the rock in the place that Allah sanctified in Aelia."


title: Temple Mount

text: According to the Qur'an, Muhammad was transported to a site named Al-Aqsa Mosque – "the furthest place of prayer" ("al-Masjid al-'Aqṣā") during his Night Journey ("Isra and Mi'raj"). The Qur'an describes how Muhammad was taken by the miraculous steed Buraq from the Great Mosque of Mecca to al-Aqsa Mosque where he prayed. After Muhammad finished his prayers, the angel Jibril (Gabriel) traveled with him to heaven, where he met several other prophets and led them in prayer.


title: Temple Mount

text: The Qur'an does not mention the exact location of "the furthest place of prayer", and the city of Jerusalem is not mentioned by any of its names in the Qur'an. According to the Encyclopaedia of Islam, the phrase was originally understood as a reference to a site in the heavens. A group of Islamic scholars understood the story of Muhammad's ascension from al-Aqsa Mosque as relating to the Jewish Temple in Jerusalem. Another group disagreed with this identification and preferred the meaning of the term as referring to heaven. Al-Bukhari and Al-Tabari, for example, are believed to have rejected the identification with Jerusalem. Eventually, a consensus emerged around the identification of the "furthest place of prayer" with Jerusalem, and by implication the Temple Mount. Later "hadiths" referred to Jerusalem as the site of the Al-Aqsa Mosque:


title: Temple Mount

text: Some scholars point to the political motives of the Umayyad dynasty which led to the sanctification of Jerusalem in Islam. According to the Encyclopaedia of Islam, the Night Journey was associated with Jerusalem by the Umayyads as a political means to advance the glory of Jerusalem to compete with the glory of the sanctuary in Mecca then controlled by Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr. The construction of the Dome of the Rock was interpreted by Ya'qubi, a 9th-century Abbasid historian, as an Umayyad attempt to redirect the Hajj from Mecca to Jerusalem by creating a rival to the Ka'aba.


title: Temple Mount

text: Other academics attribute the holiness of Jerusalem to the rise and expansion of a certain type of literary genre, known as "al-Fadhail" or history of cities. The Fadhail of Jerusalem inspired Muslims, especially during the Umayyad period, to embellish the sanctity of the city beyond its status in the holy texts. Based on the writings of the eighth century historians Al-Waqidi and al-Azraqi, some scholars have suggested that al-Aqsa Mosque mentioned in the Qur'an is not in Jerusalem but in the village of al-Ju'ranah, 18 miles northeast of Mecca.


title: Temple Mount

text: Later medieval scripts, as well as modern-day political tracts, tend to classify al-Aqsa Mosque as the third holiest site in Islam.


title: Temple Mount

text: The historical significance of al-Aqsa Mosque in Islam is further emphasized by the fact that Muslims turned towards al-Aqsa when they prayed for a period of 16 or 17 months after migration to Medina in 624; it thus became the "qibla" ("direction") that Muslims faced for prayer. Muhammad later prayed towards the Kaaba in Mecca after receiving a revelation during a prayer session in the Masjid al-Qiblatayn. The "qibla" was relocated to the Kaaba where Muslims have been directed to pray ever since.


title: Temple Mount

text: The Organisation of Islamic Cooperation refers to al-Aqsa Mosque as the third holiest site in Islam (and calls for Arab sovereignty over it).


title: Temple Mount

text: According to archeologists, the Temple Mount served as the center of the religious life of biblical Jerusalem as well as the royal acropolis of the Kingdom of Judah. The First Temple is believed to have once been a part of a much larger royal complex. The Bible also mentions several other buildings constructed by Solomon at the site, including the royal palace, the "House of the Lebanon Forest", the "Hall of Pillars", the "Hall of Throne" and the "House of Pharaoh's Daughter". Some scholars believe that, in accordance with biblical accounts, the royal and religious compound on the Temple Mount was built by Solomon during the 10th century BCE as a separate entity, which was later incorporated into the city. Knauf argued that the Temple Mount already served as the cultic and governmental center of Jerusalem as early as in the Late Bronze Age. Alternatively, Na'aman suggested that Solomon built the Temple on a much smaller scale than the one described in the Bible, which was enlarged or rebuilt during the 8th century BCE. In 2014, Finkelstein, Koch and Lipschits proposed that the tell of ancient Jerusalem lies beneath the modern-day compound, rather than the nearby archeological site known as the City of David, as mainstream archaeology believes; however, this proposal was rejected by other scholars of the subject.


title: Temple Mount

text: All scholars agree that the Iron Age Temple Mount was smaller than the Herodian compound still visible today. Some scholars, such as Kenyon and Ritmeyer, argued that the walls of the First Temple compound extended eastward as far as the Eastern Wall. Ritmeyer identifies specific courses of visible ashlars located on to the northern and south of the Golden Gate as Judean Iron Age in style, dating them to the construction of this wall by Hezekiah. More such stones are supposed to survive underground. Ritmeyer has also suggested that one of the steps leading to the Dome of the Rock is actually the top of a remaining stone course of the western wall of the Iron Age compound.


title: Temple Mount

text: Construction of the Second Temple began under Cyrus in around 538 BCE and was completed in 516 BCE. It was built at the original site of Solomon's Temple.


title: Temple Mount

text: According to Patrich and Edelcopp, the ideal area of the complex, described in Ezekiel as 50x50 cubits, was attained by the Hasmoneans, perhaps under John Hyrcanus; this is the same size later mentioned by the Mishnah.


title: Temple Mount

text: Evidence of a Hasmonean expansion of the Temple Mount has been recovered by archaeologist Leen Ritmeyer.


title: Temple Mount

text: In 67 BCE a quarrel broke out between Aristobulus II and Hyrcanus II on the Hasmonean throne. Roman general Pompey, who had been invited to intervene in the conflict, decided to side with Hyrcanus; Aristobulus and his followers barricaded themselves inside the Temple Mount and destroyed the bridge linking it to the city. When the Roman Army arrived in Jerusalem, Pompey ordered the moat defending the Temple Mount from the north to be filled in. To accomplish this, Pompey waited for Sabbaths, so the defenders would not disrupt the work. After a three-month siege, the Romans were able to topple one of the guard towers and storm the Temple Mount. Pompey himself entered the Holy of Holies, but did not harm the Temple, and allowed the priests to continue their work as usual.


title: Temple Mount

text: Around 19 BCE, Herod the Great further expanded the Temple Mount and rebuilt the temple. The ambitious project, which involved the employment of 10,000 workers, more than doubled the size of the Temple Mount to approximately . Herod leveled the area by cutting away rock on the northwest side and raising the sloping ground to the south. He achieved this by constructing huge buttress walls and vaults, and filling the necessary sections with earth and rubble. The result was the largest temenos in the ancient world.


title: Temple Mount

text: The main entrances to the Herodian Temple Mount were two sets of gates built into the southern wall, together with four other gates reachable from the western side by stairs and bridges. Grand stoas encircled the platform on three sides, and on its southern side stood a magnificent basilica Josephus referred to as the Royal Stoa. The Royal Stoa served as a center for the city's commercial and legal transactions, and was provided with separate access to the city below via the Robinson's Arch overpass. The Temple itself and its courts were located on an elevated platform in the middle of the larger compound. In addition to the restoration of the Temple, its courtyards and porticoes, Herod also built the Antonia Fortress, which dominated the northwestern corner of the Temple Mount, and a rainwater reservoir, Birket Israel, in the northeast. A monumental street, today referred to as the "Stepped Street," and took pilgrims from the city's southern gate via the Tyropoeon Valley to the western side of the Temple Mount. It has been proposed in 2019 that Pontius Pilate constructed the road during the 30s.


title: Temple Mount

text: During the early phases of the First Jewish-Roman War (66–70 CE), the Temple Mount became a center of fighting for various Jewish factions struggling for control of the city, with different factions holding the area during the conflict. In April 70, the Roman army under Titus reached Jerusalem and began besieging the city. It took the Romans four months to defeat the Temple Mount's defenders and take the site. The Romans completely destroyed the Temple and all the other structures on the platform. Massive stone collapses from the upper walls were discovered laying over the Herodian street that runs along the southern part of the Western Wall, with some of the stones burned at temperatures reaching 800 °C (1472 °F). The Trumpeting Place inscription, a monumental Hebrew inscription which was thrown down by Roman legionnaires, was found in one of these stone piles.


title: Temple Mount

text: The city of Aelia Capitolina was built in 130 CE by the Roman emperor Hadrian, and occupied by a Roman colony on the site of Jerusalem, which was still in ruins from the First Jewish Revolt in 70 CE. "Aelia" came from Hadrian's "nomen gentile", "Aelius", while "Capitolina" meant that the new city was dedicated to Jupiter Capitolinus, to whom a temple was built overlapping the site of the former second Jewish temple, the Temple Mount.


title: Temple Mount

text: Hadrian had intended the construction of the new city as a gift to the Jews, but since he had constructed a giant statue of himself in front of the Temple of Jupiter and the Temple of Jupiter had a huge statue of Jupiter inside of it, there were on the Temple Mount now two enormous graven images, which Jews considered idolatrous. It was also customary in Roman rites to sacrifice a pig in land purification ceremonies. After the Third Jewish Revolt, all Jews were forbidden on pain of death from entering the city or the surrounding territory around the cite.


title: Temple Mount

text: From the first through the seventh centuries Christianity spread throughout the Roman Empire, gradually became the predominant religion of Palestine and under the Byzantines Jerusalem itself was almost completely Christian, with most of the population being Jacobite Christians of the Syrian rite.


title: Temple Mount

text: Emperor Constantine I promoted the Christianization of Roman society, giving it precedence over pagan cults. One consequence was that Hadrian's Temple to Jupiter on the Temple Mount was demolished immediately following the First Council of Nicea in 325 CE on orders of Constantine.


title: Temple Mount

text: The Bordeaux Pilgrim, who visited Jerusalem in 333–334, during the reign of Emperor Constantine I, wrote that "There are two statues of Hadrian, and, not far from them, a pierced stone to which the Jews come every year and anoint. They mourn and rend their garments, and then depart." The occasion is assumed to have been Tisha b'Av, since decades later Jerome related that that was the only day on which Jews were permitted to enter Jerusalem.


title: Temple Mount

text: Constantine's nephew Emperor Julian granted permission in the year 363 for the Jews to rebuild the Temple. In a letter attributed to Julian he wrote to the Jews that "This you ought to do, in order that, when I have successfully concluded the war in Persia, I may rebuild by my own efforts the sacred city of Jerusalem, which for so many years you have longed to see inhabited, and may bring settlers there, and, together with you, may glorify the Most High God therein." Julian saw the Jewish God as a fitting member of the pantheon of gods he believed in, and he was also a strong opponent of Christianity. Church historians wrote that the Jews began to clear away the structures and rubble on the Temple Mount but were thwarted, first by a great earthquake, and then by miracles that included fire springing from the earth. However, no contemporary Jewish sources mention this episode directly.


title: Temple Mount

text: During his excavations in the 1930s, Robert Hamilton uncovered portions of a multicolor mosaic floor with geometric patterns inside al-Aqsa mosque, but did not publish them. The date of the mosaic is disputed: Zachi Dvira considers that they are from the pre-Islamic Byzantine period, while Baruch, Reich and Sandhaus favor a much later Umayyad origin on account of their similarity to a known Umayyad mosaic.


title: Temple Mount

text: In 610, the Sassanid Empire drove the Byzantine Empire out of the Middle East, giving the Jews control of Jerusalem for the first time in centuries. The Jews in Palestine were allowed to set up a vassal state under the Sassanid Empire called the "Sassanid Jewish Commonwealth" which lasted for five years. Jewish rabbis ordered the restart of animal sacrifice for the first time since the time of Second Temple and started to reconstruct the Jewish Temple. Shortly before the Byzantines took the area back five years later in 615, the Persians gave control to the Christian population, who tore down the partially built Jewish Temple edifice and turned it into a garbage dump, which is what it was when the Rashidun Caliph Umar took the city in 637.


title: Temple Mount

text: In 637 Arabs besieged and captured the city from the Byzantine Empire, which had defeated the Persian forces and their allies, and reconquered the city. There are no contemporary records, but many traditions, about the origin of the main Islamic buildings on the mount. A popular account from later centuries is that the Rashidun Caliph Umar was led to the place reluctantly by the Christian patriarch Sophronius. He found it covered with rubbish, but the sacred Rock was found with the help of a converted Jew, Ka'b al-Ahbar. Al-Ahbar advised Umar to build a mosque to the north of the rock, so that worshippers would face both the rock and Mecca, but instead Umar chose to build it to the south of the rock. It became known as al-Aqsa Mosque. According to Muslim sources, Jews participated in the construction of the haram, laying the groundwork for both al-Aqsa and the Dome of the Rock mosques. The first known eyewitness testimony is that of the pilgrim Arculf who visited about 670. According to Arculf's account as recorded by Adomnán, he saw a rectangular wooden house of prayer built over some ruins, large enough to hold 3,000 people.


title: Temple Mount

text: In 691 an octagonal Islamic building topped by a dome was built by the Caliph Abd al-Malik around the rock, for a myriad of political, dynastic and religious reasons, built on local and Quranic traditions articulating the site's holiness, a process in which textual and architectural narratives reinforced one another. The shrine became known as the Dome of the Rock (, "Qubbat as-Sakhra"). (The dome itself was covered in gold in 1920.) In 715 the Umayyads, led by the Caliph al-Walid I, built al-Aqsa Mosque (, "al-Masjid al-'Aqṣā",  "Furthest Mosque"), corresponding to the Islamic belief of Muhammad's miraculous nocturnal journey as recounted in the Quran and hadith. The term "Noble Sanctuary" or "Haram al-Sharif", as it was called later by the Mamluks and Ottomans, refers to the whole area that surrounds that Rock.


title: Temple Mount

text: The Crusader period began in 1099 with the First Crusade's capture of Jerusalem. After the city's conquest, the Crusading order known as the Knights Templar was granted use of Al-Aqsa Mosque to use as their headquarters. This was probably by Baldwin II of Jerusalem and Warmund, Patriarch of Jerusalem at the Council of Nablus in January 1120. The Temple Mount had a mystique because it was above what were believed to be the ruins of the Temple of Solomon. The Crusaders therefore referred to al-Aqsa Mosque as Solomon's Temple, and it was from this location that the new Order took the name of "Poor Knights of Christ and the Temple of Solomon", or "Templar" knights.


title: Temple Mount

text: In 1187, once he retook Jerusalem, Saladin removed all traces of Christian worship from the Temple Mount, returning the Dome of the Rock and al-Aqsa Mosque to their original purposes. It remained in Muslim hands thereafter, even during the relatively short periods of Crusader rule following the Sixth Crusade.


title: Temple Mount

text: There are several Mamluk buildings on and around the Haram esplanade, such as the late 15th-century al-Ashrafiyya Madrasa and Sabil (fountain) of Qaitbay. The Mamluks also raised the level of Jerusalem's Central or Tyropoean Valley bordering the Temple Mount from the west by constructing huge substructures, on which they then built on a large scale. The Mamluk-period substructures and over-ground buildings are thus covering much of the Herodian western wall of the Temple Mount.


title: Temple Mount

text: Following the Ottoman conquest of Palestine in 1516, the Ottoman authorities continued the policy of prohibiting non-Muslims from setting foot on the Temple Mount until the early 19th century, when non-Muslims were again permitted to visit the site.


title: Temple Mount

text: In 1867, a team from the Royal Engineers, led by Lieutenant Charles Warren and financed by the Palestine Exploration Fund (P.E.F.), discovered a series of tunnels near the Temple Mount. Warren secretly excavated some tunnels near the Temple Mount walls and was the first one to document their lower courses. Warren also conducted some small scale excavations inside the Temple Mount, by removing rubble that blocked passages leading from the Double Gate chamber.


title: Temple Mount

text: Between 1922 and 1924, the Dome of the Rock was restored by the Islamic Higher Council. The Zionist movement at the time was strongly opposed to any notion that the Temple itself might be rebuilt. Indeed, its armed wing, the Haganah militia, assassinated a Jewish man when his plan to blow up the Islamic sites on the Haram came to their attention in 1931.


title: Temple Mount

text: Jordan undertook two renovations of the Dome of the Rock, replacing the leaking, wooden inner dome with an aluminum dome in 1952, and, when the new dome leaked, carrying out a second restoration between 1959 and 1964.


title: Temple Mount

text: Neither Israeli Arabs nor Israeli Jews could visit their holy places in the Jordanian territories during this period.


title: Temple Mount

text: On 7 June 1967, during the Six-Day War, Israeli forces advanced beyond the 1949 Armistice Agreement Line into West Bank territories, taking control of the Old City of Jerusalem, inclusive of the Temple Mount.


title: Temple Mount

text: The Chief Rabbi of the Israeli Defense Forces, Shlomo Goren, led the soldiers in religious celebrations on the Temple Mount and at the Western Wall. The Israeli Chief Rabbinate also declared a religious holiday on the anniversary, called "Yom Yerushalayim" (Jerusalem Day), which became a national holiday to commemorate the reunification of Jerusalem. Many saw the capture of Jerusalem and the Temple Mount as a miraculous liberation of biblical-messianic proportions. A few days after the war over 200,000 Jews flocked to the Western Wall in the first mass Jewish pilgrimage near the Mount since the destruction of the Temple in 70 CE. Islamic authorities did not disturb Goren when he went to pray on the Mount until, on the Ninth Day of Av, he brought 50 followers and introduced both a shofar, and a portable ark to pray, an innovation which alarmed the Waqf authorities and led to a deterioration of relations between the Muslim authorities and the Israeli government.


title: Temple Mount

text: In June 1969 an Australian set fire to the Jami'a al-Aqsa. On April 11, 1982, a Jew hid in the Dome of the Rock and sprayed gunfire, killing 2 Palestinians and wounding 44; in 1974, 1977 and 1983 groups led by Yoel Lerner conspired to blow up both the Dome of the Rock and al-Aqsa. On 26 January 1984 Waqf guards detected members of B'nei Yehuda, a messianic cult of former gangsters turned mystics based in Lifta, trying to infiltrate the area to blow it up.


title: Temple Mount

text: On 15 January 1988, during the First Intifada, Israeli troops fired rubber bullets and tear gas at protesters outside the mosque, wounding 40 worshipers.


title: Temple Mount

text: On October 8, 1990, Israeli forces patrolling the site blocked worshippers from reaching it. A tear gas canister was set off among the female worshippers, which caused events to escalate. On 12 October 1990 Palestinian Muslims protested violently the intention of some extremist Jews to lay a cornerstone on the site for a New Temple as a prelude to the destruction of the Muslim mosques. The attempt was blocked by Israeli authorities but demonstrators were widely reported as having stoned Jews at the Western Wall. According to Palestinian historian Rashid Khalidi, investigative journalism has shown this allegation to be false. Rocks were eventually thrown, while security forces fired rounds that ended up killing 21 people and injuring 150 more. An Israeli inquiry found Israeli forces at fault, but it also concluded that charges could not be brought against any particular individuals.


title: Temple Mount

text: On 8 October 1990, 22 Palestinians were killed and over 100 others injured by Israeli Border Police during protests that were triggered by the announcement of the Temple Mount Faithful, a group of religious Jews, that they were going to lay the cornerstone of the Third Temple. Between 1992 and 1994, the Jordanian government undertook the unprecedented step of gilding the dome of the Dome of the Rock, covering it with 5000 gold plates, and restoring and reinforcing the structure. The Salah Eddin minbar was also restored. The project was paid for by King Hussein personally, at a cost of $8 million. The Temple Mount remains, under the terms of the 1994 Israel–Jordan peace treaty, under Jordanian custodianship. In December 1997, Israeli security services preempted an attempt by Jewish extremists to throw a pig's head wrapped in the pages of the Quran into the area, in order to spark a riot and embarrass the government.


title: Temple Mount

text: On 28 September 2000, then-opposition leader of Israel Ariel Sharon and members of the Likud Party, along with 1,000 armed guards, visited the al-Aqsa compound. The visit was seen as a provocative gesture by many Palestinians, who gathered around the site. After Sharon and the Likud Party members left, a demonstration erupted and Palestinians on the grounds of the Haram al-Sharif began throwing stones and other projectiles at Israeli riot police. Police fired tear gas and rubber bullets at the crowd, injuring 24 people. The visit sparked a five-year uprising by the Palestinians, commonly referred to as the al-Aqsa Intifada, though some commentators, citing subsequent speeches by PA officials, particularly Imad Falouji and Arafat himself, claim that the Intifada had been planned months in advance, as early as July upon Yasser Arafat's return from Camp David talks. On 29 September, the Israeli government deployed 2,000 riot police to the mosque. When a group of Palestinians left the mosque after Friday prayers ("Jumu'ah,") they hurled stones at the police. The police then stormed the mosque compound, firing both live ammunition and rubber bullets at the group of Palestinians, killing four and wounding about 200.


title: Temple Mount

text: In the first ten years of British rule in Palestine, all were allowed entry to the Temple Mount/Haram al-Sharif complex. Sometimes violence broke out at the entrance between Jews and Muslims. During the 1929 Palestine riots, Jews were accused of violating the status quo Following the riots, the Supreme Muslim Council and the Jerusalem Islamic Waqf prohibited Jews from entering the site's gates. During the mandate period, Jewish leaders celebrated ancient religious practices at the Western Wall. The ban on visitors continued until 1948


title: Temple Mount

text: Although the 1949 Armistice Agreement called for "resumption of the normal functioning of the cultural and humanitarian institutions on Mount Scopus and free access thereto; free access to the Holy Places and cultural institutions and use of the cemetery on the Mount of Olives.", in practice, wire and concrete barriers were the reality. Cultural and religious sites in both sides of the city were destroyed and neglected and the Jewish community barred from its sacred places.


title: Temple Mount

text: A few days after the Six-Day War, on June 17, 1967, a meeting was held at al-Aqsa between Moshe Dayan and Muslim religious authorities of Jerusalem reformulating the status quo. Jews were given the right to visit the Temple Mount unobstructed and free of charge if they respected Muslims' religious feelings and acted decently, but they were not allowed to pray. The Western Wall was to remain the Jewish place of prayer. 'Religious sovereignty' was to remain with the Muslims while 'overall sovereignty' became Israeli. The Muslims objected to Dayan's offer, as they completely rejected the Israeli conquest of Jerusalem and the Mount. Some Jews, led by Shlomo Goren, then the military chief rabbi, had objected as well, claiming the decision handed over the complex to the Muslims, since the Western Wall's holiness is derived from the Mount and symbolizes exile, while praying on the Mount symbolizes freedom and the return of the Jewish people to their homeland. The President of the High Court of Justice, Aharon Barak, in response to an appeal in 1976 against police interference with an individual's putative right to prayer on the site, expressed the view that, while Jews had a right to prayer there, it was not absolute but subject to the public interest and the rights of other groups. Israel's courts have considered the issue as one beyond their remit, and, given the delicacy of the matter, under political jurisdiction. He wrote:


title: Temple Mount

text: Police continued to forbid Jews to pray on the Temple Mount. Subsequently, several prime ministers also made attempts to change the status quo, but failed to do so. In October 1986, an agreement between the Temple Mount Faithful, the Supreme Muslim Council and police, which would allow short visits in small groups, was exercised once and never repeated, after 2,000 Muslims armed with stones and bottles attacked the group and stoned worshipers at the Western Wall. During the 1990s, additional attempts were made for Jewish prayer on the Temple Mount, which were stopped by Israeli police.


title: Temple Mount

text: Until 2000, non-Muslim visitors could enter the Dome of the Rock, al-Aqsa Mosque and the Islamic Museum by getting a ticket from the . This procedure ended when the Second Intifada erupted. Fifteen years later, negotiation between Israel and Jordan might result in reopening of those sites once again.


title: Temple Mount

text: In the 2010s, fear arose among Palestinians that Israel planned to change the status quo and permit Jewish prayers or that al-Aqsa mosque might be damaged or destroyed by Israel. Al-Aqsa was used as a base for attacks on visitors and the police from which stones, firebombs and fireworks were thrown. The Israeli police had never entered al-Aqsa Mosque until November 5, 2014, when dialog with the leaders of the and the rioters failed. This resulted in imposing strict limitations on entry of visitors to the Temple Mount. Israeli leadership repeatedly stated that the status quo would not change. According to then Jerusalem police commissioner Yohanan Danino, the place is at the center of a "holy war" and "anyone who wants to change the status quo on the Temple Mount should not be allowed up there", citing an "extreme right-wing agenda to change the status quo on the Temple Mount"; Hamas and Islamic Jihad continued to erroneously assert that the Israeli government planned to destroy Al-Aksa Mosque, resulting in chronic terrorist attacks and rioting.


title: Temple Mount

text: Many Palestinians believe the status quo is threatened since right-wing Israelis have been challenging it with more force and frequency, asserting a religious right to pray there. Until Israel banned them, members of Murabitat, a group of women, cried 'Allah Akbar' at groups of Jewish visitors to remind them the Temple Mount was still in Muslim hands. In October 2021, a Jewish man, Aryeh Lippo, who was banned by Israeli police from the Temple Mount for fifteen days after being caught quietly praying, had his ban overturned by an Israeli court on the grounds that his behavior had not violated police instructions. Hamas called the ruling "a clear declaration of war". A higher Israel court quickly reversed the lower court's ruling.


title: Temple Mount

text: An Islamic has managed the Temple Mount continuously since the Muslim reconquest of the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem in 1187. On June 7, 1967, soon after Israel had taken control of the area during the Six-Day War, Prime Minister Levi Eshkol assured that "no harm whatsoever shall come to the places sacred to all religions". Together with the extension of Israeli jurisdiction and administration over east Jerusalem, the Knesset passed the Preservation of the Holy Places Law, ensuring protection of the Holy Places against desecration, as well as freedom of access thereto. The site remains within the area controlled by the State of Israel, with administration of the site remaining in the hands of the Jerusalem Islamic Waqf.


title: Temple Mount

text: Although freedom of access was enshrined in the law, as a security measure, the Israeli government currently enforces a ban on non-Muslim prayer on the site. Non-Muslims who are observed praying on the site are subject to expulsion by the police. At various times, when there is fear of Arab rioting upon the mount resulting in throwing stones from above towards the Western Wall Plaza, Israel has prevented Muslim men under 45 from praying in the compound, citing these concerns. Sometimes such restrictions have coincided with Friday prayers during the Islamic holy month of Ramadan. Normally, West Bank Palestinians are allowed access to Jerusalem only during Islamic holidays, with access usually restricted to men over 35 and women of any age eligible for permits to enter the city. Palestinian residents of Jerusalem, which because of Israel's annexation of Jerusalem, hold Israeli permanent residency cards, and Israeli Arabs, are permitted unrestricted access to the Temple Mount. The Mughrabi Gate is the only entrance to the Temple Mount accessible to non-Muslims.


title: Temple Mount

text: Due to religious restrictions on entering the most sacred areas of the Temple Mount (see following section), the Western Wall, a retaining wall for the Temple Mount and remnant of the Second Temple structure, is considered by some rabbinical authorities to be the holiest accessible site for Jews to pray at. A 2013 Knesset committee hearing considered allowing Jews to pray at the site, amidst heated debate. Arab-Israeli MPs were ejected for disrupting the hearing, after shouting at the chairman, calling her a "pyromaniac". Religious Affairs Minister Eli Ben-Dahan of Jewish Home said his ministry was seeking legal ways to enable Jews to pray at the site.


title: Temple Mount

text: During Temple times, entry to the Mount was limited by a complex set of purity laws. Persons suffering from corpse uncleanness were not allowed to enter the inner court. Non-Jews were also prohibited from entering the inner court of the Temple. A hewn stone measuring and engraved with Greek uncials was discovered in 1871 near a court on the Temple Mount in Jerusalem in which it outlined this prohibition:


title: Temple Mount

text: Translation: "Let no foreigner enter within the parapet and the partition which surrounds the Temple precincts. Anyone caught [violating] will be held accountable for his ensuing death." Today, the stone is preserved in Istanbul's Museum of Antiquities.


title: Temple Mount

text: Maimonides wrote that it was only permitted to enter the site to fulfill a religious precept. After the destruction of the Temple there was discussion as to whether the site, bereft of the Temple, still maintained its holiness or not. Jewish codifiers accepted the opinion of Maimonides who ruled that the holiness of the Temple sanctified the site for eternity and consequently the restrictions on entry to the site are still currently in force. While secular Jews ascend freely, the question of whether ascending is permitted is a matter of some debate among religious authorities, with a majority holding that it is permitted to ascend to the Temple Mount, but not to step on the site of the inner courtyards of the ancient Temple. The question then becomes whether the site can be ascertained accurately.


title: Temple Mount

text: There is debate over whether reports that Maimonides himself ascended the Mount are reliable. One such report claims that he did so on Thursday, October 21, 1165, during the Crusader period. Some early scholars however, claim that entry onto certain areas of the Mount is permitted. It appears that Radbaz also entered the Mount and advised others how to do this. He permits entry from all the gates into the 135 x 135 cubits of the Women's Courtyard in the east, since the biblical prohibition only applies to the 187 x 135 cubits of the Temple in the west. There are also Christian and Islamic sources which indicate that Jews visited the site, but these visits may have been made under duress.


title: Temple Mount

text: A few hours after the Temple Mount came under Israeli control during the Six-Day War, a message from the Chief Rabbis of Israel, Isser Yehuda Unterman and Yitzhak Nissim was broadcast, warning that Jews were not permitted to enter the site. This warning was reiterated by the Council of the Chief Rabbinate a few days later, which issued an explanation written by Rabbi Bezalel Jolti (Zolti) that "Since the sanctity of the site has never ended, it is forbidden to enter the Temple Mount until the Temple is built." The signatures of more than 300 prominent rabbis were later obtained.


title: Temple Mount

text: A major critic of the decision of the Chief Rabbinate was Rabbi Shlomo Goren, the chief rabbi of the IDF. According to General Uzi Narkiss, who led the Israeli force that conquered the Temple Mount, Goren proposed to him that the Dome of the Rock be immediately blown up. After Narkiss refused, Goren unsuccessfully petitioned the government to close off the Mount to Jews and non-Jews alike. Later he established his office on the Mount and conducted a series of demonstrations on the Mount in support of the right of Jewish men to enter there. His behavior displeased the government, which restricted his public actions, censored his writings, and in August prevented him from attending the annual Oral Law Conference at which the question of access to the Mount was debated. Although there was considerable opposition, the conference consensus was to confirm the ban on entry to Jews. The ruling said "We have been warned, since time immemorial [], against entering the entire area of the Temple Mount and have indeed avoided doing so." According to Ron Hassner, the ruling "brilliantly" solved the government's problem of avoiding ethnic conflict, since those Jews who most respected rabbinical authority were those most likely to clash with Muslims on the Mount.


title: Temple Mount

text: Rabbinical consensus in the post-1967 period, held that it is forbidden for Jews to enter any part of the Temple Mount, and in January 2005 a declaration was signed confirming the 1967 decision.


title: Temple Mount

text: Most Haredi rabbis are of the opinion that the Mount is off limits to Jews and non-Jews alike. Their opinions against entering the Temple Mount are based on the current political climate surrounding the Mount, along with the potential danger of entering the hallowed area of the Temple courtyard and the impossibility of fulfilling the ritual requirement of cleansing oneself with the ashes of a red heifer. The boundaries of the areas which are completely forbidden, while having large portions in common, are delineated differently by various rabbinic authorities.


title: Temple Mount

text: However, there is a growing body of Modern Orthodox and national religious rabbis who encourage visits to certain parts of the Mount, which they believe are permitted according to most medieval rabbinical authorities. These rabbis include: Shlomo Goren (former Ashkenazi Chief Rabbi of Israel); Chaim David Halevi (former Chief Rabbi of Tel Aviv and Yafo); Dov Lior (Rabbi of Kiryat Arba); Yosef Elboim; Yisrael Ariel; She'ar Yashuv Cohen (Chief Rabbi of Haifa); Yuval Sherlo (rosh yeshiva of the hesder yeshiva of Petah Tikva); Meir Kahane. One of them, Shlomo Goren, held that it is possible that Jews are even allowed to enter the heart of the Dome of the Rock in time of war, according to Jewish Law of Conquest. These authorities demand an attitude of veneration on the part of Jews ascending the Temple Mount, ablution in a mikveh prior to the ascent, and the wearing of non-leather shoes. Some rabbinic authorities are now of the opinion that it is imperative for Jews to ascend in order to halt the ongoing process of Islamization of the Temple Mount. Maimonides, perhaps the greatest codifier of Jewish Law, wrote in "Laws of the Chosen House ch 7 Law 15" "One may bring a dead body in to the (lower sanctified areas of the) Temple Mount and there is no need to say that the ritually impure (from the dead) may enter there, because the dead body itself can enter". One who is ritually impure through direct or in-direct contact of the dead cannot walk in the higher sanctified areas. For those who are visibly Jewish, they have no choice, but to follow a peripheral route as it has become unofficially part of the status quo on the Mount. Many of these recent opinions rely on archaeological evidence.


title: Temple Mount

text: In December 2013, the two Chief Rabbis of Israel, David Lau and Yitzhak Yosef, reiterated the ban on Jews entering the Temple Mount. They wrote, "In light of [those] neglecting [this ruling], we once again warn that nothing has changed and this strict prohibition remains in effect for the entire area [of the Temple Mount]". In November 2014, the Sephardic chief rabbi Yitzhak Yosef reiterated the point of view held by many rabbinic authorities that Jews should not visit the Mount.


title: Temple Mount

text: On the occasion of an upsurge in Palestinian knifing attacks on Israelis, associated with fears that Israel was changing the status quo on the Mount, the Haredi newspaper Mishpacha ran a notification in Arabic asking 'their cousins', Palestinians, to stop trying to murder members of their congregation, since they were vehemently opposed to ascending the Mount and consider such visits proscribed by Jewish law.


title: Temple Mount

text: The large courtyard ("sahn") can host more than 400,000 worshippers, making it one of the largest mosques in the world.


title: Temple Mount

text: The upper platform was built around the peak of the Temple Mount, carrying the Dome of the Rock; the peak just breaches the floor level of the upper platform within the Dome of the Rock, in the shape of a large limestone outcrop, which is part of the bedrock. Beneath the surface of this rock there is a cave known as the Well of Souls, originally accessible only by a narrow hole in the rock itself; the Crusaders hacked open an entrance to the cave from the south, by which it can now be entered.


title: Temple Mount

text: There is also a smaller domed building on the upper platform, slightly to the east of the Dome of the Rock, known as the Dome of the Chain – traditionally the location where a chain once rose to heaven.


title: Temple Mount

text: Several stairways rise to the upper platform from the lower; that at the northwest corner is believed by some archaeologists be part of a much wider monumental staircase, mostly hidden or destroyed, and dating from the Second Temple era.


title: Temple Mount

text: The lower platform – which constitutes most of the surface of the Temple Mount – has at its southern end al-Aqsa Mosque, which takes up most of the width of the Mount. Gardens take up the eastern and most of the northern side of the platform; the far north of the platform houses an Islamic school.


title: Temple Mount

text: The lower platform also houses an ablution fountain (known as "al-Kas"), originally supplied with water via a long narrow aqueduct leading from the so-called "Solomon's Pools" near Bethlehem, but now supplied from Jerusalem's water mains.


title: Temple Mount

text: There are several cisterns beneath the lower platform, designed to collect rain water as a water supply. These have various forms and structures, seemingly built in different periods, ranging from vaulted chambers built in the gap between the bedrock and the platform, to chambers cut into the bedrock itself. Of these, the most notable are (numbering traditionally follows Wilson's scheme):


title: Temple Mount

text: The retaining walls of the platform contain several gateways, all currently blocked. In the eastern wall is the Golden Gate, through which legend states the Jewish Messiah would enter Jerusalem. On the southern face are the Hulda Gates – the "triple gate" (which has three arches) and the "double gate" (which has two arches, and is partly obscured by a Crusader building); these were the entrance and exit (respectively) to the Temple Mount from Ophel (the oldest part of Jerusalem), and the main access to the Mount for ordinary Jews. In the western face, near the southern corner, is the Barclay's Gate – only half visible due to a building (the "house of Abu Sa'ud") on the northern side. Also in the western face, hidden by later construction but visible via the recent Western Wall Tunnels, and only rediscovered by Warren, is Warren's Gate; the function of these western gates is obscure, but many Jews view Warren's Gate as particularly holy, due to its location due west of the Dome of the Rock. The current location of the Dome of the Rock is considered one of the possible locations where the Holy of Holies was placed; numerous alternative opinions exist, based on study and calculations, such as those of Tuvia Sagiv.


title: Temple Mount

text: Warren was able to investigate the inside of these gates. Warren's Gate and the Golden Gate simply head towards the centre of the Mount, fairly quickly giving access to the surface by steps. Barclay's Gate is similar, but abruptly turns south as it does so; the reason for this is currently unknown. The double and triple gates (the "Huldah Gates") are more substantial; heading into the Mount for some distance they each finally have steps rising to the surface just north of al-Aqsa Mosque. The passageway for each is vaulted, and has two aisles (in the case of the triple gate, a third aisle exists for a brief distance beyond the gate); the eastern aisle of the double gates and western of the triple gates reach the surface, the other aisles terminating some way before the steps – Warren believed that one aisle of each original passage was extended when al-Aqsa Mosque blocked the original surface exits.


title: Temple Mount

text: In the process of investigating Cistern 10, Warren discovered tunnels that lay "under" the Triple Gate passageway. These passages lead in erratic directions, some leading beyond the southern edge of the Temple Mount (they are at a depth below the base of the walls); their purpose is currently unknown – as is whether they predate the Temple Mount – a situation not helped by the fact that apart from Warren's expedition no one else is known to have visited them.


title: Temple Mount

text: Altogether, there are six major sealed gates and a postern, listed here counterclockwise, dating from either the Roman/Herodian, Byzantine, or Early Muslim periods:


title: Temple Mount

text: East of and joined to the triple gate passageway is a large vaulted area, supporting the southeastern corner of the Temple Mount platform – which is substantially above the bedrock at this point – the vaulted chambers here are popularly referred to as Solomon's Stables. They were used as stables by the Crusaders, but were built by Herod the Great – along with the platform they were built to support.


title: Temple Mount

text: The existing four minarets include three near the Western Wall and one near the northern wall. The first minaret was constructed on the southwest corner of the Temple Mount in 1278. The second was built in 1297 by order of a Mameluk king, the third by a governor of Jerusalem in 1329, and the last in 1367.


title: Temple Mount

text: The complex is bordered on the south and east by the outer walls of the Old City of Jerusalem. On the north and west it is bordered by two long porticos ("riwaq"), built during the Mamluk period.


title: Temple Mount

text: Due to the extreme political sensitivity of the site, no real archaeological excavations have ever been conducted on the Temple Mount itself. Protests commonly occur whenever archaeologists conduct projects near the Mount. This sensitivity has not, however, prevented both Jewish and Muslim works from accusations of destroying archeological evidence on a number of occasions. Aside from visual observation of surface features, most other archaeological knowledge of the site comes from the 19th-century survey carried out by Charles Wilson and Charles Warren and others. Since the Waqf is granted almost full autonomy on the Islamic holy sites, Israeli archaeologists have been prevented from inspecting the area, and are restricted to conducting excavations around the Temple Mount.


title: Temple Mount

text: After the Six-Day War of 1967, Israeli archeologists began a series of excavations near the site at the southern wall that uncovered finds from the Second Temple period through Roman, Umayyad and Crusader times. Israeli archaeological digs at the southwestern corner of Temple Mount discovered traces of four Muslim palaces built under the Umayyad Caliphate, though the remains have not been well preserved but instead had a museum built upon them. The former UN envoy to Jerusalem, Raymond M. Lemaire, criticised "the construction of a metallic pergola in the middle of the courtyard of one of the Umayyad palaces, which disfigures the site." Upon visiting Jerusalem in September 1999, medieval art historian Léon Pressouyre noted that the palaces had lost their archaeological features due to neglect, "for in the guise of highlighting the remains of previous periods [the Israeli authorities] trivialise the Umayyad palaces, major monuments in the area".


title: Temple Mount

text: Over the period 1970–88, a number of tunnels were excavated in the vicinity, including one that passed to the west of the Mount and became known as the Western Wall Tunnel, which was opened to the public in 1996. The same year the Waqf began construction of a new mosque in the structures known since Crusader times as Solomon's Stables. Many Israelis regarded this as a radical change of the status quo, which should not have been undertaken without first consulting the Israeli government. The project was done without attention to the possibility of disturbing historically significant archaeological material, with stone and ancient artifacts treated without regard to their preservation.


title: Temple Mount

text: Israeli organizations such as the Committee to Prevent the Destruction of Antiquities on the Temple Mount argue that Palestinians are deliberately removing significant amounts of archaeological evidence about the Jewish past of the site and claim to have found significant artifacts in the fill removed by bulldozers and trucks from the Temple Mount. Since the late 1990s, the Temple Mount Sifting Project has been reclaiming earth from similar illegal excavations on the mount that had been dumped in the nearby Kidron Valley that had yielded important finds, including Iron Age figurines, an 8th or 7th centuries BCE clay sealing inscribed in Hebrew, Persian period YHD coins, Herodian opus sectile tiles, Byzantine tesserae, and arrowheads, mostly from the Crusader period.


title: Temple Mount

text: In late 2002, a bulge of about was reported in the southern retaining wall part of the Temple Mount. A Jordanian team of engineers recommended replacing or resetting most of the stones in the affected area. In February 2004, the eastern wall of the Mount was damaged by an earthquake. The damage threatened to topple sections of the wall into the area known as Solomon's Stables. A few days later, a portion of retaining wall, supporting the earthen ramp that led from the Western Wall plaza to the Gate of the Moors on the Temple Mount, collapsed. In 2007 the Israel Antiquities Authority started work on the construction of a temporary wooden pedestrian pathway to replace the Mugrabi Gate ramp after a landslide in 2005 made it unsafe and in danger of collapse. The works sparked condemnation from Arab leaders.


title: Temple Mount

text: In July 2007 the Muslim religious trust which administers the Mount began digging a , trench from the northern side of the Temple Mount compound to the Dome of the Rock in order to replace 40-year-old electric cables in the area. Israeli archaeologists accused the waqf of a deliberate act of cultural vandalism. Accusations of vandalism at the site resurfaced in 2018 and again in 2022.


title: Helena Christensen

text: Helena Christensen (born 25 December 1968) is a Danish model and photographer. She is a former Victoria's Secret Angel, clothing designer and beauty queen. Christensen was also the co-founder and original creative director for "Nylon" magazine, and she is a supporter of funding for breast cancer organizations and other philanthropic charities.


title: Helena Christensen

text: Christensen was born in Copenhagen, Denmark, as the elder of two daughters of a Danish father, Fleming and a Peruvian mother, Elsa. She has one sister, Anita, She is fluent in Danish, Spanish, English, French and German. Winning the Miss Universe Denmark crown in 1986 at the age of 17, she subsequently represented Denmark in the Miss Universe 1986 pageant held in Panama. The following year, she participated in the Look of the Year 1987 competition, where she was a finalist. Christensen left home soon after to pursue modelling in Paris.


title: Helena Christensen

text: Christensen rose to prominence in the 1990s, becoming one of the most popular models of her time. In 1990, she starred in the music video for Chris Isaak's song "Wicked Game". The video was later featured on MTV's "Sexiest Video of All-Time", voted #4 on VH1's "50 Sexiest Video Moments", and voted #13 on VH1's "100 Greatest Videos". She became a spokesmodel for Revlon cosmetics in 1992. She appeared on magazine covers including "Vogue", "Elle", "Harper’s Bazaar", and "W", and in fashion campaigns including Revlon, Chanel, Versace, Lanvin, Prada, Sonia Rykiel, Hermès, Valentino and Karl Lagerfeld. One noted campaign featured her in a billboard in Times Square, naked, "except for a strategically placed banana leaf." She was in the "Victoria's Secret" catalog and in their television commercials as one of the original "Angels", along with Tyra Banks, Karen Mulder, Daniela Peštová, and Stephanie Seymour.


title: Helena Christensen

text: In 1996, Frank DeCaro of the "New York Times" cited Christensen, along with Linda Evangelista, Christy Turlington, Cindy Crawford, Naomi Campbell, Elle Macpherson and Claudia Schiffer, as "The Magnificent Seven". DeCaro reflected, "Known by their first names to legions of fans, they are the supermodel legends of the modern catwalk, the girl next door pretty underneath all the paint".


title: Helena Christensen

text: Christensen has continued to model. She graced the covers of "Vogue Italia" (2016), Portuguese "Vogue" (2016), British "Tatler" (2018), French "Elle" (2018). In September 2017, Christensen, along with Schiffer, Campbell, Crawford, and Carla Bruni, closed the Versace spring/summer 2018 fashion show, which was an homage to the late Gianni Versace and supermodel history. She walked the runway for Dolce & Gabbana and appeared in their spring/summer 2019 advertisement campaign with Carla Bruni, Eva Herzigová and Marpessa Hennink. Christensen is signed to ZZO Management in Paris, D Management in Milan, Unsigned Group in London and 1/One Management in New York City.


title: Helena Christensen

text: Christensen was co-founder and creative director of "Nylon" magazine in 1999 with "Ray Gun" magazine publisher Marvin Scott Jarrett, and "Kung Faux" creator Mic Neumann. She launched her own clothing line, Christensen & Sigersen, with lifelong friend Leif Sigersen. The pair previously ran Butik, a shop in New York's West Village. Christensen created a vintage clothing line, sold in her mother's store, the Yo-Yo Second Hand Shop, in Christianshavn, Copenhagen, Denmark. In 2012, she created a lingerie collection, Helena Christensen for Triumph, for the UK-based lingerie brand. Christensen's collaboration with Triumph started in 2008 as the face of the Triumph brand.


title: Helena Christensen

text: Aside from her modeling work, Christensen is an accomplished photographer herself, whose work has appeared in "Nylon," "Marie Claire," and "ELLE." Her exhibition "A Quiet Story," curated by Jim Cook, premiered at the Locus Gallery in Rotterdam, 2006, and HotelArena in Amsterdam, 2007. Her exhibition "Far From, Close" appeared at Dactyl Foundation in 2008–09, to benefit International Center of Photography educational programs and Chernobyl Children's Project International.


title: Helena Christensen

text: In 2014, Christensen worked on a photography series: Liberty Ross, Liv Tyler, and The Pursuit of Grace. "I like doing personal, very intimate projects that don’t require a lot of pre-meetings".


title: Helena Christensen

text: Christensen has traveled extensively and often finds herself on both sides of the camera. In 2016, she was announced as the "Global Explorer" for the Luxury Collection Hotels and Resorts. Her major project for the company was documenting a trip from the seaside town of Paracas to the colonial city of Cusco and the nearby Urubamba Valley.


title: Helena Christensen

text: Christensen partnered with Oxfam in 2009 to document the impact of climate change in Peru, where her mother was born. "Climate change in Peru is already devastating and we welcome Helena’s commitment to show this to the rest of the world," said Frank Boeren, Oxfam’s coordinator in Peru. "Peru is on the frontline of climate change, along with other developing countries, which have played little part in causing the problem".


title: Helena Christensen

text: Christensen launched the second Fashion Targets Breast Cancer campaign, which involves the sale of designer t-shirts to raise money for Ireland's Action Breast Cancer (Irish Cancer Society) and Europa Donna Ireland to help younger women with breast cancer.


title: Helena Christensen

text: Christensen dated and lived with INXS frontman Michael Hutchence on and off in France and Denmark for five years in the early 1990s. She was in a relationship with actor Norman Reedus for five years; together they have a son born October 1999. Reedus and Christensen separated in 2003. Later, she dated Interpol singer Paul Banks for seven years.


title: Helena Christensen

text: Christensen has an apartment in Copenhagen, a house in Catskill, NY, and lives in Manhattan, where she drives "the only type of car I've ever had", a Morris Minor. She reported in 2007 that she had been residing in Monaco.


title: Radhe (2021 film)

text: Radhe: Your Most Wanted Bhai is a 2021 Indian Hindi-language action thriller film directed by Prabhu Deva and produced by Salman Khan, Sohail Khan, Atul Agnihotri and Zee Studios. It stars Salman Khan, Disha Patani, Randeep Hooda and Jackie Shroff.


title: Radhe (2021 film)

text: "Radhe" was originally scheduled to release theatrically on 22 May 2020, but postponed indefinitely due to COVID-19 pandemic. The film was finally released on 13 May 2021, coinciding with Eid al-Fitr, as premium video on demand on Zee Plex through ZEE5 in India, with a theatrical release overseas. Radhe received highly negative reviews from critics and audiences alike, who criticized the story, screenplay, direction, unoriginality, the leads' performances and chemistry, action sequences, VFX, toxic masculinity and police brutality, though Hooda's performance has been praised. Publications like The Indian Express listed "Radhe" as one of the worst Indian films of 2021.


title: Radhe (2021 film)

text: Rana, a ruthless gangster, shifts to Mumbai to start a drug business. He kills a man for not returning the money he borrowed from him. The man is an accomplice of Mansoor Bhai. Rana starts selling drugs to not only to college students but to school children as well. Due to this, 12 people committed suicide in the last 3 months due to drug addiction. Mumbai Police send two senior officers to stop Rana but they were heavily drugged and killed. The police force decides to send Radhe, an undercover police officer to the case. He accepts the job. Radhe meets Diya Abhyankar, a model, and falls in love with her. Radhe tells her that he is an aspiring model and that his name is Bholu. Diya slowly falls in love with Radhe. Radhe finds out from fellow officers that there are two gangs that operate under their jurisdiction. The first gang is led by Dilawar and the second gang is led by Dagdu Dada. Both the gangs are at war with each other.


title: Radhe (2021 film)

text: Radhe defeats all the men in Dagdu Dada's gang including Dada. Radhe arrests one of Dada's men and question him. He tells him that Dilawar's brother Mansoor deals with drugs. Radhe goes to Dilawar's area and threatens them to bring him Mansoor. Dilawar agrees but Radhe arrests Dilawar. He makes Dilawar and Dada find peace with each other. Rana teams up with Mansoor and they lure Dilawar to them. Rana and his men brutally stab Dilawar to death. Later, Radhe finds out that Diya is the sister of Radhe's senior officer Avinash Abhyankhar. Avinash approves of their relationship. Rana and his guards kill Dada's gang members. In the next two days, Rana sells more drugs. Radhe gets information that Rana and his guards will be going to the Allied PD club. Radhe goes to the pub and fights Rana in the restroom. Radhe gets beat up by Rana and his guards. They escape just as the police arrive.


title: Radhe (2021 film)

text: Diya finds out that Radhe is a police officer and confesses her love to him. Radhe arrests Mansoor and convinces him to join his side. Radhe beats up Rana's guards with the help of Dagdu but one of them escapes and informs Rana. Rana kills Dagdu for revenge. Radhe is deeemed incompetent and another officer is handed the case. Radhe, with the help of Avinash, continues his job covertly. Meanwhile, one of Rana's guard, who was arrested, meets with two police officers. They make a deal. The officers will let the guard escape if he supplies them with drugs. The guard accepts the deal. The two officers are revealed to be hired by Radhe as a ruse. Rana's guard meets up with the officers later and gets captured by Radhe. Rana finds out that Mansoor works with Radhe and kills him.


title: Radhe (2021 film)

text: Radhe seeks the help of school students. They accept and start taking photos of Rana's gang and the people they supply drugs to Radhe, who along with his fellow police officers, arrests all of them. One of the police officer named Nikisha gets caught by Rana. Rana is about to kill her but Radhe saves her. Rana escapes and Radhe chases after him but loses sight of him after a while. The next day, some of Rana's guards who were arrested, escape. Radhe kills most of them except for one of the guard who gets in a helicopter with Rana. Rana plans to move away from Mumbai and create a drug business elsewhere. Radhe jumps onto the helicopter and fights Rana and the guard. Due to their fight, the helicopter crashes, killing the guard. Avinash arrives and tries to kill Rana but Rana thrashes Avinash and is about to kill him. Radhe saves Avinash and fight Rana. Radhe gets the upper hand and kills Rana.


title: Radhe (2021 film)

text: In September 2019, media reports speculated that Prabhu Deva will direct Salman Khan's next project after completing "Dabangg 3" and will be released on the occasion of Eid al-Fitr (22 May 2020; the date which Khan's shelved film "Inshallah" was speculated to release). An article from "Deccan Chronicle" mentioned the project as a sequel to "Wanted" (2009), being titled as "Wanted 2" but neither was confirmed from the makers. In October 2019, the film was reported to be the remake of the 2017 South Korean film "The Outlaws".


title: Radhe (2021 film)

text: On 18 October 2019, Salman Khan revealed the film's title as "Radhe" through the motion poster of "Dabangg 3"; also confirming it as an Eid 2020 release.


title: Radhe (2021 film)

text: Disha Patani, Randeep Hooda and Jackie Shroff were cast in pivotal roles, the former in her second collaboration with Khan after "Bharat". In November 2019, Bharath Srinivasan was reported to be part of the film; Gautam Gulati also confirmed his presence in the film.


title: Radhe (2021 film)

text: The film's principal photography commenced on 1 November 2019. The first schedule of the film took place on 4 November, at Mehboob Studios in Mumbai. Khan introduced new guidelines for the cast and crew members to be followed on the sets which was meant to lay emphasis on maintaining discipline on the sets and maintaining a buddy-system for helping newcomers or juniors.


title: Radhe (2021 film)

text: The second schedule of the film took place on 21 January 2020 in Goa, where few chasing scenes featuring Khan and Hooda were filmed. For the climax shot, the makers spent crore on the visual effects. The shooting of the film was supposed to wrap up by 21 February 2020, but the makers planned another schedule in Thailand, which was then cancelled by the COVID-19 outbreak. It was reported that Khan was working on the post-production of the film at his farmhouse, however Khan's manager claimed that there was no plans for post-production as all the production works were halted as per the directives of the government.


title: Radhe (2021 film)

text: The shooting of the film was resumed on 4 October 2020, where few patchwork scenes and a song featuring Khan and Patani were filmed. The film was wrapped up on 14 October 2020.


title: Radhe (2021 film)

text: The film's soundtrack is composed by Sajid–Wajid, Devi Sri Prasad and Himesh Reshammiya, whereas lyrics being written by Shabbir Ahmed, Sajid Khan and Kunaal Vermaa. The film score is composed by Sanchit Balhara and Ankit Balhara.


title: Radhe (2021 film)

text: "Radhe" is the posthumous work of Wajid Khan (of the Sajid–Wajid duo) and the title track was his last composition before his death in June 2020. This also makes it the first solo album of Sajid Khan. Prasad recreated his song "Seeti Maar" from the Telugu film (2017). Himesh Reshammiya has also composed one song in the film.


title: Radhe (2021 film)

text: "Radhe" had a limited theatrical release on 13 May 2021. On 21 April 2021, Khan further announced that the film will be released in all operational theatres, and in pay-per-view and digital streaming method through Zee Plex and ZEE5. It became the first Indian film to have a hybrid release, as theatres in Mumbai and Delhi were closed. The move was welcomed by film trade analysts and exhibitors as a possible "turning point" for the Indian cinema's economy during the pandemic. Advanced bookings for the film in the Middle East regions (United Arab Emirates, Qatar, Oman, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia and Bahrain) began on 29 April 2021, two weeks before the release schedule.


title: Radhe (2021 film)

text: Khan, in a video-call interaction, apologised to the theatre owners for the poor collection of the film due to a limited theatrical release. Khan also assured the plans of a theatrical re-release when the pandemic subsides.


title: Radhe (2021 film)

text: Zee Plex revealed the starting price of the film as per view in late April 2021, allowing the users to watch the film through digital streaming as well as in leading DTH services. Furthermore, ZEE5 announced "Radhe Combo", a package priced at allowing users to watch the film and access contents of the platform for one year. Internationally, the film was made available for renting and streaming on Apple TV.


title: Radhe (2021 film)

text: Khan and Zee Studios announced that the revenues of the film will be donated to COVID-19 relief funds.


title: Radhe (2021 film)

text: The film was originally scheduled to release on 15 October 2019, but was postponed due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The distribution rights of the film was sold to Yash Raj Films upon the initial release, with T-Series bagging the music rights and Amazon Prime Video acquiring the digital rights, but later in January 2021, it was reported that Khan had signed a new deal with Zee Studios, and sold the entire rights of the film (including theatrical, digital, satellite and music rights) to the company for crore. The deal was later renegotiated citing the pandemic situation, with the revised bid being crore in May 2021.


title: Radhe (2021 film)

text: The film received generally negative reviews from critics and audience. On the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds a rating of 9% based on 11 reviews and an average rating of 1.6/10. IMDB gave the film 1.9/10, the lowest rated film of Khan on the website.


title: Radhe (2021 film)

text: Anna M. M. Vetticad of "Firstpost" gave "Radhe" a rating of 0/5 and wrote "This film is so generic that it would be a challenge to write down the plot from A-Z after a single viewing. Salman Khan's performance reiterates the fact that he is not looking at gaining any validation from the audiences taking them for granted". She also criticised the movie for not giving the lead actress enough screen time by stating, "The movie treats its ‘heroine’ as nothing but a body on display whose sole job is to give the hero someone to fall in love with, dance with and protect". Stutee Ghosh from "The Quint" gave "Radhe" a rating of 0.5/5. Calling it a "cringefest" she wrote, ""Radhe" is a loud, senseless and offensive film that has little regard for women, the police force and the audience's intelligence in general". She further stated, ""Radhe" is frustratingly tone deaf to how it promotes police brutality and the almost suffocating toxic masculinity that is sprayed on like a cheap deodorant". Shubhra Gupta from "The Indian Express" gave "Radhe" a rating of 0.5/5 and wrote, ""Radhe" is a mindless, moronic mess of a movie in which Salman does every single thing he's done a zillion times". Soumya Srivastava from "The Hindustan Times" called "Radhe" a torture of a film and one of Khan's worst movies. She described "Radhe" as a "cringeworthy movie" and stated, "The movie is nothing but a collection of action sequences piled upon each other as Disha's tight dresses, some dance numbers, and goons saying 'apun' a lot act as fillers".


title: Radhe (2021 film)

text: Saibal Chatterjee from "NDTV" gave the film a rating of 2/5 and opined that "The film dumps a whole lot of dross on us with a certain degree of surface stink." He concluded by saying "Radhe has no inducements for diehard Salman Khan fans to keep them interested". Trade Analyst Taran Adarsh gave "Radhe" a rating of 2/5 and called it "Disappointing". Calling its screenplay and writing "lackluster" he wrote, ""Radhe" doesn't meet the sky-high expectations, The film has a clichéd plot and a predictable formula remodelled with new packaging". Anupama Chopra of "Film Companion" wrote, "The Salman Khan starrer is so free of craft that it hurts; Prabhudeva delivers yet another loud, numbing, pointless paean to the cult of Salman Khan". Namrata Joshi from "The National Herald" wrote, ""Radhe" is an empty vessel of a film that tries to sail through by making a lot of loud noise that signifies nothing". Criticising the framing of Patani's character she further wrote, "Diya itself is acutely offensive. It just shows the acutely conservative mindset of the makers and of the Salman Khan universe itself, where men and women are hardly ever in a relationship of equals, where the man is this self-anointed “protector” of the woman and the woman is seen as some kind of a property or possession". Sushri Sahu of "Mashable" criticised "Radhe" for glorifying police brutality, gun violence and toxic masculinity. She further wrote, ""Radhe" is repetitive with not just the dialogues but the rogue cop-on-a-cleaning-spree formula. It doesn't even spare the minimum of one rape assault trope. The film, in fact, looks like a brochure to sell Khan's already popular brand. It is out-and-out ‘bhai’ porn".


title: Sébastien Haller

text: Sébastien Romain Teddy Haller (born 22 June 1994) is a professional footballer who plays as a striker for Bundesliga club Borussia Dortmund and the Ivory Coast national team.


title: Sébastien Haller

text: Haller began his career in France with Auxerre, and moved on loan to Dutch Eredivisie side Utrecht in 2015, before signing on a permanent basis. Two years later, he moved to the German club Eintracht Frankfurt, winning the DFB-Pokal in 2018. English Premier League side West Ham United signed him a year later for a club-record transfer worth €49.8 million (£45 million). Haller returned to the Netherlands in 2021, signing with Ajax, for a club record fee of €22.5 million (£18.8 million). In his first six months, he won the Eredivisie and the KNVB Cup. He became the first player to score across seven consecutive UEFA Champions League matches during the 2021–22 season, and then transferred to Borussia Dortmund for an initial €31 million.


title: Sébastien Haller

text: Born in France to a French father and an Ivorian mother, Haller represented France at youth level, before switching his allegiance in 2020 to the Ivory Coast. He scored his first international goal against Madagascar, and represented the national team at the 2021 Africa Cup of Nations.


title: Sébastien Haller

text: During the 2011 FIFA U-17 World Cup, on 26 June 2011, Haller signed his first professional contract with Auxerre, agreeing to a three-year deal.


title: Sébastien Haller

text: Ahead of the 2012–13 season, Haller was promoted to the senior team by manager Jean-Guy Wallemme. His professional debut came on 27 July 2012, in the team's opening league match of the 2012–13 campaign against Nîmes.


title: Sébastien Haller

text: On 24 December 2014, it was announced that Haller was sent on loan to Dutch Eredivisie club Utrecht until the end of the season. At the end of the season, it was announced that FC Utrecht had signed Haller. The supporters voted for Haller as the winner of the Di Tommaso Trophy 2015, Utrecht's player of the year award.


title: Sébastien Haller

text: On 15 May 2017, Haller signed with Eintracht Frankfurt on a four-year deal for a reported fee of €7 million. In the 2017–18 DFB-Pokal, he scored four goals for Frankfurt, as the club won the final, marking the first trophy of Haller's career. In the 2018–19 Bundesliga season, he scored 15 league goals in 29 appearances as the club finished seventh.


title: Sébastien Haller

text: In addition to his goals scored, he also made nine assists, meaning he was involved in 24 goals, a figure only beaten in the 2018–19 season by Robert Lewandowski with 29.


title: Sébastien Haller

text: On 17 July 2019, Haller signed with West Ham United on a five-year deal for a club record fee, that could rise to £45 million. He made his debut on 10 August, playing the full 90 minutes of a 5–0 Premier League loss against reigning champions Manchester City. Two weeks later, he scored his first goals in a 3–1 away win against Watford in which the latter was an acrobatic bicycle kick. Haller struggled at West Ham, attributing it to David Moyes replacing Manuel Pellegrini as manager and then preferring Michail Antonio up front, as well as the ill health of his wife and newborn son.


title: Sébastien Haller

text: In July 2020, Frankfurt reported West Ham to FIFA after they had failed to pay an instalment in May 2020 of £5.4 million as part of the £45 million transfer. West Ham claimed that they had withheld the payment, following a contractual dispute between the two clubs. On 16 December, Haller scored an overhead kick in a 1–1 draw against Crystal Palace that was voted as the Premier League Goal of the Month.


title: Sébastien Haller

text: On 8 January 2021, Haller signed a four-and-a-half-year contract with Dutch club Ajax for a club record fee of €22.5 million (£18.8 million), reuniting with his former Utrecht manager Erik ten Hag. He made his debut two days later as a second-half substitute against De Topper rivals PSV, assisting Antony for the equaliser in a 2–2 draw. On 14 January, he scored his first goal, and provided an assist, in a 3–1 away win over Twente. On 3 February, Haller was mistakenly omitted from the club's list for the knockout stages of the UEFA Europa League and therefore would be unable to play for the club in the competition.


title: Sébastien Haller

text: In a 5–1 away victory over Sporting CP in the UEFA Champions League on 15 September 2021, Haller scored twice in each half to become the first player to score four on his Champions League debut since Marco van Basten for A.C. Milan in 1992; the Dutchman had however already played in the competition under its former name of the European Cup. In the following fixture 13 days later, he recorded a goal against Beşiktaş, becoming the first player in the history of the competition to score five goals in his first two matches appearances; against the same team on 24 November, Haller scored twice in a 2–1 win to become the first player to score nine goals in five consecutive matches of the competition. On 7 December, Haller scored in his team's Champions League group stage match, becoming only the second player to register in all six group games after Cristiano Ronaldo in 2017–18 and became the fastest player to 10 goals in competition history. On 23 February 2022, he made amends for an earlier own goal, and helped Ajax to a 2–2 away draw against Benfica in the last, becoming the first player to score in seven consecutive matches in the competition; his side lost 3–2 aggregate. With 21 league goals in 31 games, he finished the season as Eredivisie top scorer.


title: Sébastien Haller

text: On 6 July 2022, Haller signed a contract with Borussia Dortmund until 30 June 2026. The transfer fee paid was €31 million, which could be increased to as much as €34.5 million after undisclosed bonuses. On 18 July, Haller withdrew from the club's pre-season training camp in Switzerland after a tumour was found in his testicle.


title: Sébastien Haller

text: Haller was a France youth international, having represented his country of birth at every youth level and totalling 51 caps and 27 goals. He played with the under-17 team at the 2011 FIFA U-17 World Cup in Mexico, scoring in a 3–0 win over Argentina in the opening group game.


title: Sébastien Haller

text: On 14 November 2013, Haller made his under-21 debut, coming on for Anthony Martial in the 57th minute against Armenia in a European qualifier in Toulouse and scoring to conclude a 6–0 win. He scored a hat-trick on 25 March 2015 in a friendly win of the same score against Estonia, and he did the same on 10 November 2016 in a 5–1 win over the Ivory Coast at the Stade Pierre Brisson.


title: Sébastien Haller

text: In November 2020, Haller was called up to the Ivory Coast national team. He debuted in a 2–1 2021 Africa Cup of Nations qualification win over Madagascar on 12 November, scoring his side's game-winning goal in the 55th minute. He was called up for the finals in Cameroon, where he scored in a 2–2 group stage draw with Sierra Leone; in the last 16 against Egypt, he was substituted at half time in extra time for Maxwel Cornet as the side lost on penalties.


title: Roosevelt family

text: The Roosevelt family is an American political family from New York whose members have included two United States presidents, a First Lady, and various merchants, bankers, politicians, inventors, clergymen, artists, and socialites. The progeny of a mid-17th-century Dutch immigrant to New Amsterdam, many members of the family became locally prominent in New York City politics and business and intermarried with prominent colonial families. Two distantly related branches of the family from Oyster Bay and Hyde Park, New York, rose to national political prominence with the presidencies of Theodore Roosevelt (1901–1909) and his fifth cousin Franklin D. Roosevelt (1933–1945), whose wife, First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt, was Theodore's niece.


title: Roosevelt family

text: Claes Maartenszen van Rosenvelt (c. 1626 – 1659), the immigrant ancestor of the Roosevelt family, arrived in New Amsterdam (present-day New York City) sometime between 1638 and 1649. About the year 1652, he bought a farm from Lambert van Valckenburgh, comprising 24 morgens (i.e., 20.44 ha or 50.51 acres) in what is now Midtown Manhattan, including the present site of the Empire State Building. The property included approximately what is now the area between Lexington Avenue and Fifth Avenue bounded by 29th St. and 35th St.


title: Roosevelt family

text: Claes' son Nicholas was the first to use the spelling Roosevelt and the first to hold political office, as an alderman. Nicholas' children Johannes and Jacobus were, respectively, the progenitors of the Oyster Bay and Hyde Park branches of the family. By the late 19th century, the Hyde Park Roosevelts were generally associated with the Democratic Party and the Oyster Bay Roosevelts with the Republican Party. President Theodore Roosevelt, an Oyster Bay Roosevelt, was the uncle of Eleanor Roosevelt, later wife of Franklin Roosevelt. Despite political differences that caused family members to actively campaign against each other, the two branches generally remained friendly.


title: Roosevelt family

text: In heraldry, canting arms are a visual or pictorial depiction of a surname, and were and still are a popular practice. It would be common to find roses, then, in the arms of many Roosevelt families, even unrelated ones (the name Rosenvelt means "rose field"). Also, grassy mounds or fields of green would be a familiar attribute.


title: Roosevelt family

text: The Van Roosevelts of Oud-Vossemeer in Zeeland have a coat of arms that is divided horizontally, the top portion with a white chevron between three white roses, while the bottom half is gold with a red lion rampant. A traditional blazon suggested would be, "Per fess vert a chevron between three roses argent and Or a lion rampant gules".


title: Roosevelt family

text: The coat of arms of the namesakes of the Dutch immigrant Claes van Rosenvelt, ancestor of the American political family that included Theodore and Franklin D. Roosevelt, were white with a rosebush with three rose flowers growing upon a grassy mound, and whose crest was of three ostrich feathers divided into red and white halves each. In heraldic terms this would be described as, "Argent upon a grassy mound a rose bush proper bearing three roses gules barbed and seeded all proper", with a crest upon a torse argent and gules of "Three ostrich plumes each per pale gules and argent". Franklin Roosevelt altered his arms to omit the rosebush and use in its place three crossed roses on their stems, changing the blazon of his shield to "Three roses one in pale and two in saltire gules barbed seeded slipped and left proper".


title: Friedrich Engels

text: Friedrich Engels ( , ; 28 November 1820 – 5 August 1895) was a German philosopher, critic of political economy, historian, political theorist and revolutionary socialist. He was also a businessman, journalist and political activist, whose father was an owner of large textile factories in Salford (Lancashire, England) and Barmen, Prussia (now Wuppertal, Germany).


title: Friedrich Engels

text: Engels developed what is now known as Marxism together with Karl Marx. In 1845, he published "The Condition of the Working Class in England", based on personal observations and research in English cities. In 1848, Engels co-authored "The Communist Manifesto" with Marx and also authored and co-authored (primarily with Marx) many other works. Later, Engels supported Marx financially, allowing him to do research and write "Das Kapital". After Marx's death, Engels edited the second and third volumes of "Das Kapital". Additionally, Engels organised Marx's notes on the "Theories of Surplus Value" which were later published as the "fourth volume" of "Das Kapital". In 1884, he published "The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State" on the basis of Marx's ethnographic research.


title: Friedrich Engels

text: On 5 August 1895, aged 74, Engels died of laryngeal cancer in London. Following cremation, his ashes were scattered off Beachy Head, near Eastbourne.


title: Friedrich Engels

text: Friedrich Engels was born on 28 November 1820 in Barmen, Jülich-Cleves-Berg, Prussia (now Wuppertal, Germany), as eldest son of Friedrich Engels Sr. (1796–1860) and of Elisabeth "Elise" Franziska Mauritia von Haar (1797–1873). The wealthy Engels family owned large cotton-textile mills in Barmen and Salford, both expanding industrial metropoles. Friedrich's parents were devout Pietist Protestants and they raised their children accordingly.


title: Friedrich Engels

text: At the age of 13, Engels attended grammar school ("Gymnasium") in the adjacent city of Elberfeld but had to leave at 17, due to pressure from his father, who wanted him to become a businessman and start work as a mercantile apprentice in the family firm. After a year in Barmen, the young Engels was in 1838 sent by his father to undertake an apprenticeship at a trading house in Bremen. His parents expected that he would follow his father into a career in the family business. Their son's revolutionary activities disappointed them. It would be some years before he joined the family firm.


title: Friedrich Engels

text: Whilst at Bremen, Engels began reading the philosophy of Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, whose teachings dominated German philosophy at that time. In September 1838 he published his first work, a poem entitled "The Bedouin", in the "Bremisches Conversationsblatt" No. 40. He also engaged in other literary work and began writing newspaper articles critiquing the societal ills of industrialisation. He wrote under the pseudonym "Friedrich Oswald" to avoid connecting his family with his provocative writings.


title: Friedrich Engels

text: In 1841, Engels performed his military service in the Prussian Army as a member of the Household Artillery (). Assigned to Berlin, he attended university lectures at the University of Berlin and began to associate with groups of Young Hegelians. He anonymously published articles in the "Rheinische Zeitung", exposing the poor employment- and living-conditions endured by factory workers. The editor of the "Rheinische Zeitung" was Karl Marx, but Engels would not meet Marx until late November 1842. Engels acknowledged the influence of German philosophy on his intellectual development throughout his career. In 1840, he also wrote: "To get the most out of life you must be active, you must live and you must have the courage to taste the thrill of being young."


title: Friedrich Engels

text: In 1842, his parents sent the 22-year-old Engels to Manchester, England, a manufacturing centre where industrialisation was on the rise. He was to work in Weaste, Salford, in the offices of Ermen and Engels's Victoria Mill, which made sewing threads. Engels's father thought that working at the Manchester firm might make his son reconsider some of his radical opinions. On his way to Manchester, Engels visited the office of the "Rheinische Zeitung" in Cologne and met Karl Marx for the first time. Initially they were not impressed with each other. Marx mistakenly thought that Engels was still associated with the Berliner Young Hegelians, with whom Marx had just broken off ties.


title: Friedrich Engels

text: In Manchester, Engels met Mary Burns, a fierce young Irish woman with radical opinions who worked in the Engels factory. They began a relationship that lasted 20 years until her death in 1863. The two never married, as both were against the institution of marriage. While Engels regarded stable monogamy as a virtue, he considered the current state and church-regulated marriage as a form of class oppression. Burns guided Engels through Manchester and Salford, showing him the worst districts for his research.


title: Friedrich Engels

text: Engels was often described as a man with a very strong libido and not much restraint. He had numerous affairs with a string of lovers and despite his condemnation of prostitution as "exploitation of the proletariat by the bourgeoisie" he also occasionally paid for sex. In 1846 he wrote to Marx: "If I had an income of 5000 francs I would do nothing but work and amuse myself with women until I went to pieces. If there were no Frenchwomen, life wouldn't be worth living. But so long as there are grisettes, well and good!" His most controversial relationship was with the wife of his rival Moses Hess, Sibylle, who later accused him of rape.


title: Friedrich Engels

text: While in Manchester between October and November 1843, Engels wrote his first critique of political economy, entitled "Outlines of a Critique of Political Economy". Engels sent the article to Paris, where Marx published it in the "Deutsch–Französische Jahrbücher" in 1844.


title: Friedrich Engels

text: While observing the slums of Manchester in close detail, Engels took notes of its horrors, notably child labour, the despoiled environment, and overworked and impoverished labourers. He sent a trilogy of articles to Marx. These were published in the "Rheinische Zeitung" and then in the "Deutsch–Französische Jahrbücher", chronicling the conditions among the working class in Manchester. He later collected these articles for his influential first book, "The Condition of the Working Class in England" (1845). Written between September 1844 and March 1845, the book was published in German in 1845. In the book, Engels described the "grim future of capitalism and the industrial age", noting the details of the squalor in which the working people lived. The book was published in English in 1887. Archival resources contemporary to Engels's stay in Manchester shed light on some of the conditions he describes, including a manuscript (MMM/10/1) held by special collections at the University of Manchester. This recounts cases seen in the Manchester Royal Infirmary, where industrial accidents dominated and which resonate with Engels's comments on the disfigured persons seen walking round Manchester as a result of such accidents.


title: Friedrich Engels

text: Engels continued his involvement with radical journalism and politics. He frequented areas popular among members of the English labour and Chartist movements, whom he met. He also wrote for several journals, including "The Northern Star", Robert Owen's "New Moral World," and the "Democratic Review" newspaper.


title: Friedrich Engels

text: Engels decided to return to Germany in 1844. On the way, he stopped in Paris to meet Karl Marx, with whom he had an earlier correspondence. Marx had been living in Paris since late October 1843, after the "Rheinische Zeitung" was banned in March 1843 by Prussian governmental authorities. Prior to meeting Marx, Engels had become established as a fully developed materialist and scientific socialist, independent of Marx's philosophical development.


title: Friedrich Engels

text: In Paris, Marx was publishing the "Deutsch–Französische Jahrbücher". Engels met Marx for a second time at the Café de la Régence on the Place du Palais, 28 August 1844. The two quickly became close friends and remained so their entire lives. Marx had read and was impressed by Engels's articles on "The Condition of the Working Class in England" in which he had written that "[a] class which bears all the disadvantages of the social order without enjoying its advantages, [...] Who can demand that such a class respect this social order?" Marx adopted Engels's idea that the working class would lead the revolution against the bourgeoisie as society advanced toward socialism, and incorporated this as part of his own philosophy.


title: Friedrich Engels

text: Engels stayed in Paris to help Marx write "The Holy Family". It was an attack on the Young Hegelians and the Bauer brothers, and was published in late February 1845. Engels's earliest contribution to Marx's work was writing for the "Deutsch–Französische Jahrbücher", edited by both Marx and Arnold Ruge, in Paris in 1844. During this time in Paris, both Marx and Engels began their association with and then joined the secret revolutionary society called the League of the Just. The League of the Just had been formed in 1837 in France to promote an egalitarian society through the overthrow of the existing governments. In 1839, the League of the Just participated in the 1839 rebellion fomented by the French utopian revolutionary socialist, Louis Auguste Blanqui; however, as Ruge remained a Young Hegelian in his belief, Marx and Ruge soon split and Ruge left the "Deutsch–Französische Jahrbücher". Nonetheless, following the split, Marx remained friendly enough with Ruge that he sent Ruge a warning on 15 January 1845 that the Paris police were going to execute orders against him, Marx and others at the "Deutsch–Französische Jahrbücher" requiring all to leave Paris within 24 hours. Marx himself was expelled from Paris by French authorities on 3 February 1845 and settled in Brussels with his wife and one daughter. Having left Paris on 6 September 1844, Engels returned to his home in Barmen, Germany, to work on his "The Condition of the Working Class in England", which was published in late May 1845. Even before the publication of his book, Engels moved to Brussels in late April 1845, to collaborate with Marx on another book, "German Ideology". While living in Barmen, Engels began making contact with Socialists in the Rhineland to raise money for Marx's publication efforts in Brussels; however, these contacts became more important as both Marx and Engels began political organizing for the Social Democratic Workers' Party of Germany.


title: Friedrich Engels

text: The nation of Belgium, founded in 1830, was endowed with one of the most liberal constitutions in Europe and functioned as refuge for progressives from other countries. From 1845 to 1848, Engels and Marx lived in Brussels, spending much of their time organising the city's German workers. Shortly after their arrival, they contacted and joined the underground German Communist League. The Communist League was the successor organisation to the old League of the Just which had been founded in 1837, but had recently disbanded. Influenced by Wilhelm Weitling, the Communist League was an international society of proletarian revolutionaries with branches in various European cities.


title: Friedrich Engels

text: The Communist League also had contacts with the underground conspiratorial organisation of Louis Auguste Blanqui. Many of Marx's and Engels's current friends became members of the Communist League. Old friends like Georg Friedrich Herwegh, who had worked with Marx on the "Rheinsche Zeitung", Heinrich Heine, the famous poet, a young physician by the name of Roland Daniels, Heinrich Bürgers and August Herman Ewerbeck all maintained their contacts with Marx and Engels in Brussels. Georg Weerth, who had become a friend of Engels in England in 1843, now settled in Brussels. Carl Wallau and Stephen Born (real name Simon Buttermilch) were both German immigrant typesetters who settled in Brussels to help Marx and Engels with their Communist League work. Marx and Engels made many new important contacts through the Communist League. One of the first was Wilhelm Wolff, who was soon to become one of Marx's and Engels's closest collaborators. Others were Joseph Weydemeyer and Ferdinand Freiligrath, a famous revolutionary poet. While most of the associates of Marx and Engels were German immigrants living in Brussels, some of their new associates were Belgians. Phillipe Gigot, a Belgian philosopher and Victor Tedesco, a lawyer from Liège, both joined the Communist League. Joachim Lelewel a prominent Polish historian and participant in the Polish uprising of 1830–1831 was also a frequent associate.


title: Friedrich Engels

text: The Communist League commissioned Marx and Engels to write a pamphlet explaining the principles of communism. This became the "Manifesto of the Communist Party", better known as "The Communist Manifesto". It was first published on 21 February 1848 and ends with the world-famous phrase: "Let the ruling classes tremble at a Communistic revolution. The proletariat have nothing to lose but their chains. They have a world to win. Working Men of All Countries, Unite!"


title: Friedrich Engels

text: Engels's mother wrote in a letter to him of her concerns, commenting that he had "really gone too far" and "begged" him "to proceed no further". She further stated:You have paid more heed to other people, to strangers, and have taken no account of your mother's pleas. God alone knows what I have felt and suffered of late. I was trembling when I picked up the newspaper and saw therein that a warrant was out for my son's arrest.


title: Friedrich Engels

text: There was a revolution in France in 1848 that soon spread to other Western European countries. These events caused Engels and Marx to return to their homeland of the Kingdom of Prussia, specifically to the city of Cologne. While living in Cologne, they created and served as editors for a new daily newspaper called the "Neue Rheinische Zeitung". Besides Marx and Engels, other frequent contributors to the "Neue Rheinische Zeitung" included Karl Schapper, Wilhelm Wolff, Ernst Dronke, Peter Nothjung, Heinrich Bürgers, Ferdinand Wolff and Carl Cramer. Friedrich Engels's mother, herself, gives unwitting witness to the effect of the "Neue Rheinische Zeitung" on the revolutionary uprising in Cologne in 1848. Criticising his involvement in the uprising she states in a 5 December 1848 letter to Friedrich that "nobody, ourselves included, doubted that the meetings at which you and your friends spoke, and also the language of "(Neue) Rh.Z." were largely the cause of these disturbances."


title: Friedrich Engels

text: Engels's parents hoped that young Engels would "decide to turn to activities other than those which you have been pursuing in recent years and which have caused so much distress". At this point, his parents felt the only hope for their son was to emigrate to America and start his life over. They told him that he should do this or he would "cease to receive money from us"; however, the problem in the relationship between Engels and his parents was worked out without Engels having to leave England or being cut off from financial assistance from his parents. In July 1851, Engels's father arrived to visit him in Manchester, England. During the visit, his father arranged for Engels to meet Peter Ermen of the office of "Ermen & Engels", to move to Liverpool and to take over sole management of the office in Manchester.