title: Caesarean section

text: A resuscitative hysterotomy, also known as a peri-mortem caesarean delivery, is an emergency caesarean delivery carried out where maternal cardiac arrest has occurred, to assist in resuscitation of the mother by removing the aortocaval compression generated by the gravid uterus. Unlike other forms of caesarean section, the welfare of the fetus is a secondary priority only, and the procedure may be performed even prior to the limit of fetal viability if it is judged to be of benefit to the mother.


title: Caesarean section

text: There are several types of caesarean section (CS). An important distinction lies in the type of incision (longitudinal or transverse) made on the uterus, apart from the incision on the skin: the vast majority of skin incisions are a transverse suprapubic approach known as a Pfannenstiel incision but there is no way of knowing from the skin scar which way the uterine incision was conducted.


title: Caesarean section

text: The EXIT procedure is a specialized surgical delivery procedure used to deliver babies who have airway compression.


title: Caesarean section

text: The Misgav Ladach method is a modified caesarean section which has been used nearly all over the world since the 1990s. It was described by Michael Stark, the president of the New European Surgical Academy, at the time he was the director of Misgav Ladach, a general hospital in Jerusalem. The method was presented during a FIGO conference in Montréal in 1994 and then distributed by the University of Uppsala, Sweden, in more than 100 countries. This method is based on minimalistic principles. He examined all steps in caesarean sections in use, analyzed them for their necessity and, if found necessary, for their optimal way of performance. For the abdominal incision he used the modified Joel Cohen incision and compared the longitudinal abdominal structures to strings on musical instruments. As blood vessels and muscles have lateral sway, it is possible to stretch rather than cut them. The peritoneum is opened by repeat stretching, no abdominal swabs are used, the uterus is closed in one layer with a big needle to reduce the amount of foreign body as much as possible, the peritoneal layers remain unsutured and the abdomen is closed with two layers only. Women undergoing this operation recover quickly and can look after the newborns soon after surgery. There are many publications showing the advantages over traditional caesarean section methods. There is also an increased risk of abruptio placentae and uterine rupture in subsequent pregnancies for women who underwent this method in prior deliveries.


title: Caesarean section

text: Since 2015, the World Health Organization has endorsed the Robson classification as a holistic means of comparing childbirth rates between different settings, with a view to allowing more accurate comparison of caesarean section rates.


title: Caesarean section

text: Antibiotic prophylaxis is used before an incision. The uterus is incised, and this incision is extended with blunt pressure along a cephalad-caudad axis. The infant is delivered, and the placenta is then removed. The surgeon then makes a decision about uterine exteriorization. Single-layer uterine closure is used when the mother does not want a future pregnancy. When subcutaneous tissue is 2 cm thick or more, surgical suture is used. Discouraged practices include manual cervical dilation, any subcutaneous drain, or supplemental oxygen therapy with intent to prevent infection.


title: Caesarean section

text: Caesarean section can be performed with single or double layer suturing of the uterine incision. Single layer closure compared with double layer closure has been observed to result in reduced blood loss during the surgery. It is uncertain whether this is the direct effect of the suturing technique or if other factors such as the type and site of abdominal incision contribute to reduced blood loss. Standard procedure includes the closure of the peritoneum. Research questions whether this is needed, with some studies indicating peritoneal closure is associated with longer operative time and hospital stay. The Misgave Ladach method is a surgery technical that may have fewer secondary complications and faster healing, due to the insertion into the muscle.


title: Caesarean section

text: Both general and regional anaesthesia (spinal, epidural or combined spinal and epidural anaesthesia) are acceptable for use during caesarean section. Evidence does not show a difference between regional anaesthesia and general anaesthesia with respect to major outcomes in the mother or baby. Regional anaesthesia may be preferred as it allows the mother to be awake and interact immediately with her baby. Compared to general anaesthesia, regional anaesthesia is better at preventing persistent postoperative pain 3 to 8 months after caesarean section. Other advantages of regional anesthesia may include the absence of typical risks of general anesthesia: pulmonary aspiration (which has a relatively high incidence in patients undergoing anesthesia in late pregnancy) of gastric contents and esophageal intubation. One trial found no difference in satisfaction when general anaesthesia was compared with either spinal anaesthesia.


title: Caesarean section

text: Regional anaesthesia is used in 95% of deliveries, with spinal and combined spinal and epidural anaesthesia being the most commonly used regional techniques in scheduled caesarean section. Regional anaesthesia during caesarean section is different from the analgesia (pain relief) used in labor and vaginal delivery. The pain that is experienced because of surgery is greater than that of labor and therefore requires a more intense nerve block.


title: Caesarean section

text: General anesthesia may be necessary because of specific risks to mother or child. Patients with heavy, uncontrolled bleeding may not tolerate the hemodynamic effects of regional anesthesia. General anesthesia is also preferred in very urgent cases, such as severe fetal distress, when there is no time to perform a regional anesthesia.


title: Caesarean section

text: Postpartum infection is one of the main causes of maternal death and may account for 10% of maternal deaths globally. A caesarean section greatly increases the risk of infection and associated morbidity, estimated to be between 5 and 20 times as high, and routine use of antibiotic prophylaxis to prevent infections was found by a meta-analysis to substantially reduce the incidence of febrile morbidity. Infection can occur in around 8% of women who have caesareans, largely endometritis, urinary tract infections and wound infections. The use of preventative antibiotics in women undergoing caesarean section decreased wound infection, endometritis, and serious infectious complications by about 65%. Side effects and effect on the baby is unclear.


title: Caesarean section

text: Women who have caesareans can recognize the signs of fever that indicate the possibility of wound infection. Taking antibiotics before skin incision rather than after cord clamping reduces the risk for the mother, without increasing adverse effects for the baby. Moderate certainty evidence suggest that chlorhexidine gluconate as a skin preparation is slightly more effective in prevention surgical site infections than povodone iodine but further research is needed.


title: Caesarean section

text: Some doctors believe that during a caesarean section, mechanical cervical dilation with a finger or forceps will prevent the obstruction of blood and lochia drainage, and thereby benefit the mother by reducing the risk of death. The evidence neither supported nor refuted this practice for reducing postoperative morbidity, pending further large studies.


title: Caesarean section

text: Hypotension (low blood pressure) is common in women who have spinal anaesthesia; intravenous fluids such as crystalloids, or compressing the legs with bandages, stockings, or inflatable devices may help to reduce the risk of hypotension but the evidence is still uncertain about their effectiveness.


title: Caesarean section

text: The WHO and UNICEF recommend that infants born by Caesarean section should have skin-to-skin contact (SSC) as soon as the mother is alert and responsive. Immediate SSC following a spinal or epidural anesthetic is possible because the mother remains alert however, after a general anesthetic the father or other family member may provide SSC until the mother is able.


title: Caesarean section

text: It is known that during the hours of labor before a vaginal birth a woman's body begins to produce oxytocin which aids in the bonding process, and it is thought that SSC can trigger its production as well. Indeed, women have reported that they felt that SSC had helped them to feel close to and bond with their infant. A review of literature also found that immediate or early SSC increased the likelihood of successful breastfeeding and that newborns were found to cry less and relax quicker when they had SSC with their father as well.


title: Caesarean section

text: It is common for women who undergo caesarean section to have reduced or absent bowel movements for hours to days. During this time, women may experience abdominal cramps, nausea and vomiting. This usually resolves without treatment. Poorly controlled pain following non-emergent caesarean section occurs in between 13% to 78% of women. Following caesarean delivery, complementary and alternative therapies (e.g., acupuncture) may help to relieve pain, though evidence supporting the efficacy of such treatments is extremely limited. Abdominal, wound and back pain can continue for months after a caesarean section. Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs can be helpful. For the first couple of weeks after a caesarean, women should avoid lifting anything heavier than their baby. To minimize pain during breastfeeding, women should experiment with different breastfeeding holds including the football hold and side-lying hold. Women who have had a caesarean are more likely to experience pain that interferes with their usual activities than women who have vaginal births, although by six months there is generally no longer a difference. Pain during sexual intercourse is less likely than after vaginal birth; by six months there is no difference.


title: Caesarean section

text: There may be a somewhat higher incidence of postnatal depression in the first weeks after childbirth for women who have caesarean sections, but this difference does not persist. Some women who have had caesarean sections, especially emergency caesareans, experience post-traumatic stress disorder.


title: Caesarean section

text: Those who undergoes caesarean section has 18.3% chance of chronic surgical pain at three months and 6.8% chance of surgical pain at 12 months.


title: Caesarean section

text: Global rates of caesarean section are increasing. It doubled from 2003 to 2018 to reach 21%, and is increasing annually by 4%. In southern Africa it is less than 5%; while the rate is almost 60% in some parts of Latin America. The Canadian rate was 26% in 2005–2006. Australia has a high caesarean section rate, at 31% in 2007. At one time a rate of 10% to 15% was thought to be ideal; a rate of 19% may result in better outcomes. The World Health Organization officially withdrew its previous recommendation of a 15% C-section rate in June 2010. Their official statement read, "There is no empirical evidence for an optimum percentage. What matters most is that all women who need caesarean sections receive them."


title: Caesarean section

text: More than 50 nations have rates greater than 27%. Another 45 countries have rates less than 7.5%. There are efforts to both improve access to and reduce the use of C-section. Globally, 1% of all caesarean deliveries are carried out without medical need. Overall, the caesarean section rate was 25.7% for 2004–2008.


title: Caesarean section

text: There is no significant difference in caesarean rates when comparing midwife continuity care to conventional fragmented care. More emergency caesareans—about 66%—are performed during the day rather than the night.


title: Caesarean section

text: The rate has risen to 46% in China and to levels of 25% and above in many Asian, European and Latin American countries. In Brazil and Iran the caesarean section rate is greater than 40%. Brazil has one of the highest caesarean section rates in the world, with rates in the public sector of 35–45%, and 80–90% in the private sector.


title: Caesarean section

text: Across Europe, there are differences between countries: in Italy the caesarean section rate is 40%, while in the Nordic countries it is 14%. In the United Kingdom, in 2008, the rate was 24%. In Ireland the rate was 26.1% in 2009.


title: Caesarean section

text: In Italy, the incidence of caesarean sections is particularly high, although it varies from region to region. In Campania, 60% of 2008 births reportedly occurred via caesarean sections. In the Rome region, the mean incidence is around 44%, but can reach as high as 85% in some private clinics.


title: Caesarean section

text: In the United States the rate of C-section is around 33%, varying from 23% to 40% depending on the state. One of three women who gave birth in the US delivered by caesarean in 2011. In 2012, close to 23 million C-sections were carried out globally.


title: Caesarean section

text: With nearly 1.3 million stays, caesarean section was one of the most common procedures performed in U.S. hospitals in 2011. It was the second-most common procedure performed for people ages 18 to 44 years old. Caesarean rates in the U.S. have risen considerably since 1996. The rate has increased in the United States, to 33% of all births in 2012, up from 21% in 1996. In 2010, the caesarean delivery rate was 32.8% of all births (a slight decrease from 2009's high of 32.9% of all births). A study found that in 2011, women covered by private insurance were 11% more likely to have a caesarean section delivery than those covered by Medicaid. The increase in use has not resulted in improved outcomes, resulting in the position that C-sections may be done too frequently. It is believed that the high rate of induced deliveries has also led to the high rate of c-sections because they are twice as likely to lead to one.


title: Caesarean section

text: Hospitals and doctors make more money from c-section births than vaginal deliveries. Economists have calculated that hospitals may make a few thousand dollars more and doctors a few hundred. It has been found that for-profit hospitals do more c-sections than non-profit hospitals.One study looked at the rate of c-sections done for women who were themselves doctors. It found that there were 10 percent less c-sections done. But if the hospital paid their doctors a flat salary removing the incentive to do the surgical procedures, which take more time, the rate of c-sections done on women who were themselves physicians exceeded that of the procedure done on non-medically knowledgeable mothers, suggesting that some women who actually needed c-sections were not getting them.


title: Caesarean section

text: Historically, caesarean sections performed upon a live woman usually resulted in the death of the mother. It was considered an extreme measure, performed only when the mother was already dead or considered to be beyond help. By way of comparison, see the resuscitative hysterotomy or perimortem caesarean section.


title: Caesarean section

text: According to the ancient Chinese mythology "Records of the Grand Historian", Luzhong, a sixth-generation descendant of the mythical Yellow Emperor, had six sons, all born by "cutting open the body". The sixth son Jilian founded the House of Mi that ruled the State of Chu (–223 BC).


title: Caesarean section

text: Sage Sushruta, a founder of ancient Hindu medicine mentions the importance of performing a post-mortem caesarean section in his medical treatise “Sushruta Samhita”. The first available non-mythical record of C-section is the mother of Bindusara (born , ruled 298 – ), the second Mauryan "Samrat" (emperor) of India, accidentally consumed poison and died when she was close to delivering him. Chanakya, Chandragupta's teacher and adviser, made up his mind that the baby should survive. He cut open the belly of the queen and took out the baby, thus saving the baby's life.


title: Caesarean section

text: An early account of caesarean section in Iran (Persia) is mentioned in the book of "Shahnameh", written around 1000 AD, and relates to the birth of Rostam, the legendary hero of that country. According to the "Shahnameh", the Simurgh instructed Zal upon how to perform a caesarean section, thus saving Rudaba and the child Rostam. In Persian literature caeserean section is known as "Rostamina" (رستمینه).


title: Caesarean section

text: In the Irish mythological text the Ulster Cycle, the character Furbaide Ferbend is said to have been born by posthumous caesarean section, after his mother was murdered by his evil aunt Medb.


title: Caesarean section

text: The Babylonian Talmud, an ancient Jewish religious text, mentions a procedure similar to the caesarean section. The procedure is termed "yotzei dofen". It also discusses at length the permissibility of performing a c-section on a dying or dead mother. There is also some basis for supposing that Jewish women regularly survived the operation in Roman times (as early as the 2nd century AD).


title: Caesarean section

text: Pliny the Elder theorized that Julius Caesar's (born 100 BC) name came from an ancestor who was born by caesarean section, but the truth of this is debated (see the discussion of the etymology of "Caesar"). Some stories involve Caesar himself being born from the procedure; this is almost certainly false, as Caesar's mother Aurelia Cotta lived until Caesar's mid-40s. The Ancient Roman caesarean section was first performed to remove a baby from the womb of a mother who died during childbirth, a practice sometimes called the "Caesarean law".


title: Caesarean section

text: The Catalan saint Raymond Nonnatus (1204–1240) received his surname—from the Latin "non-natus" ("not born")—because he was born by caesarean section. His mother died while giving birth to him.


title: Caesarean section

text: There is some indirect evidence that the first caesarean section that was survived by both the mother and child was performed in Prague in 1337. The mother was Beatrice of Bourbon, the second wife of the King of Bohemia John of Luxembourg. Beatrice gave birth to the king's son Wenceslaus I, later the duke of Luxembourg, Brabant, and Limburg, and who became the half brother of the later King of Bohemia and Holy Roman Emperor, Charles IV.


title: Caesarean section

text: In an account from the 1580s, Jakob Nufer, a veterinarian in Siegershausen, Switzerland, is supposed to have performed the operation on his wife after a prolonged labour, with her surviving. His wife allegedly bore five more children, including twins, and the baby delivered by caesarean section purportedly lived to the age of 77.


title: Caesarean section

text: For most of the time since the 16th century, the procedure had a high mortality rate. In Great Britain and Ireland, the mortality rate in 1865 was 85%. Key steps in reducing mortality were:


title: Caesarean section

text: European travellers in the Great Lakes region of Africa during the 19th century observed caesarean sections being performed on a regular basis. The expectant mother was normally anesthetized with alcohol, and herbal mixtures were used to encourage healing. From the well-developed nature of the procedures employed, European observers concluded they had been employed for some time. Robert William Felkin provided a detailed description. James Barry was the first European doctor to carry out a successful caesarean in Africa, while posted to Cape Town between 1817 and 1828.


title: Caesarean section

text: The first successful caesarean section to be performed in the United States took place in Mason County, Virginia (now Mason County, West Virginia), in 1794. The procedure was performed by Dr. Jesse Bennett on his wife Elizabeth.


title: Caesarean section

text: The patron saint of caesarean section is Caesarius, a young deacon martyred at Terracina, who has replaced and Christianized the pagan figure of Caesar. The martyr (Saint Cesareo in Italian) is invoked for the success of this surgical procedure, because it was considered the new "Christian Caesar" – as opposed to the "pagan Caesar" – in the Middle Ages it began to be invoked by pregnant women to wish a physiological birth, for the success of the expulsion of the baby from the uterus and, therefore, for their salvation and that of the unborn. The practice continues, in fact the martyr Caesarius is invoked by the future mothers who, due to health problems or that of the baby, must give birth to their child by caesarean section.


title: Caesarean section

text: The Roman "Lex Regia" (royal law), later the "Lex Caesarea" (imperial law), of Numa Pompilius (715–673 BC), required the child of a mother who had died during childbirth to be cut from her womb.


title: Caesarean section

text: There was a cultural taboo that mothers should not be buried pregnant, that may have reflected a way of saving some fetuses. Roman practice required a living mother to be in her tenth month of pregnancy before resorting to the procedure, reflecting the knowledge that she could not survive the delivery.


title: Caesarean section

text: Speculations that the Roman dictator Julius Caesar was born by the method now known as C-section are false. Although caesarean sections were performed in Roman times, no classical source records a mother surviving such a delivery. As late as the 12th century, scholar and physician Maimonides expresses doubt over the possibility of a woman's surviving this procedure and again becoming pregnant. The term has also been explained as deriving from the verb "caedere", "to cut", with children delivered this way referred to as "caesones". Pliny the Elder refers to a certain Julius Caesar (an ancestor of the famous Roman statesman) as "ab utero caeso", "cut from the womb" giving this as an explanation for the cognomen "Caesar" which was then carried by his descendants. Nonetheless, the false etymology has been widely repeated until recently. For example, the first (1888) and second (1989) editions of the "Oxford English Dictionary" say that caesarean birth "was done in the case of Julius Cæsar". More recent dictionaries are more diffident: the online edition of the OED (2021) mentions "the traditional belief that Julius Cæsar was delivered this way", and "Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary" (2003) says "from the legendary association of such a delivery with the Roman cognomen "Caesar"".


title: Caesarean section

text: The word 'Caesar', meaning either Julius Caesar or an emperor in general, is also borrowed or calqued in the name of the procedure in many other languages in Europe and beyond.


title: Caesarean section

text: Finally, the Roman "praenomen" (given name) Caeso was said to be given to children who were born via C-section. While this was probably just folk etymology made popular by Pliny the Elder, it was well known by the time the term came into common use.


title: Caesarean section

text: The term "caesarean" is spelled in various accepted ways, as discussed at Wiktionary. The Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) of the United States National Library of Medicine (NLM) uses "cesarean section", while some other American medical works, e.g. "Saunders Comprehensive Veterinary Dictionary", use "caesarean", as do most British works. The online versions of the US-published "Merriam-Webster Dictionary" and "American Heritage Dictionary" list "cesarean" first and other spellings as "variants".


title: Caesarean section

text: In many hospitals, the mother's partner is encouraged to attend the surgery to support her and share the experience. The anaesthetist will usually lower the drape temporarily as the child is delivered so the parents can see their newborn.


title: Caesarean section

text: In Judaism, there is a dispute among the "poskim" (Rabbinic authorities) as to whether the first-born son from a caesarean section has the laws of a "bechor". Traditionally, a male child delivered by caesarean is not eligible for the "Pidyon HaBen" dedication ritual.


title: Caesarean section

text: In rare cases, caesarean sections can be used to remove a dead fetus; otherwise, the woman has to labour and deliver a baby known to be a stillbirth. A late-term abortion using caesarean section procedures is termed a hysterotomy abortion and is very rarely performed.


title: Caesarean section

text: The mother may perform a caesarean section on herself; there have been successful cases, such as Inés Ramírez Pérez of Mexico who, on 5 March 2000, took this action. She survived, as did her son, Orlando Ruiz Ramírez.


title: Dewey Decimal Classification

text: The Dewey Decimal Classification (DDC), colloquially known as the Dewey Decimal System, is a proprietary library classification system which allows new books to be added to a library in their appropriate location based on subject.


title: Dewey Decimal Classification

text: It was first published in the United States by Melvil Dewey in 1876. Originally described in a 44-page pamphlet, it has been expanded to multiple volumes and revised through 23 major editions, the latest printed in 2011. It is also available in an abridged version suitable for smaller libraries. OCLC, a non-profit cooperative that serves libraries, currently maintains the system and licenses online access to WebDewey, a continuously updated version for catalogers.


title: Dewey Decimal Classification

text: The decimal number classification introduced the concepts of "relative location" and "relative index". Libraries previously had given books permanent shelf locations that were related to the order of acquisition rather than topic. The classification's notation makes use of three-digit numbers for main classes, with fractional decimals allowing expansion for further detail. Numbers are flexible to the degree that they can be expanded in linear fashion to cover special aspects of general subjects. A library assigns a classification number that unambiguously locates a particular volume in a position relative to other books in the library, on the basis of its subject. The number makes it possible to find any book and to return it to its proper place on the library shelves. The classification system is used in 200,000 libraries in at least 135 countries.


title: Dewey Decimal Classification

text: Melvil Dewey (1851–1931) was an American librarian and self-declared reformer. He was a founding member of the American Library Association and can be credited with the promotion of card systems in libraries and business. He developed the ideas for his library classification system in 1873 while working at the Amherst College library. He applied the classification to the books in that library, until in 1876 he had a first version of the classification. In 1876, he published the classification in pamphlet form with the title "A Classification and Subject Index for Cataloguing and Arranging the Books and Pamphlets of a Library."


title: Dewey Decimal Classification

text: He used the pamphlet, published in more than one version during the year, to solicit comments from other librarians. It is not known who received copies or how many commented as only one copy with comments has survived, that of Ernest Cushing Richardson. His classification system was mentioned in an article in the first issue of the "Library Journal" and in an article by Dewey in the Department of Education publication "Public Libraries in America" in 1876. In March 1876, he applied for, and received, copyright on the first edition of the index. The edition was 44 pages in length, with 2,000 index entries, and was printed in 200 copies.


title: Dewey Decimal Classification

text: The second edition of the Dewey Decimal system, published in 1885 with the title "", comprised 314 pages, with 10,000 index entries. Five hundred copies were produced. Editions 3–14, published between 1888 and 1942, used a variant of this same title. Dewey modified and expanded his system considerably for the second edition. In an introduction to that edition Dewey states that "nearly 100 persons hav [spelling of 'have' per English-language spelling reform, which Dewey championed] contributed criticisms and suggestions".


title: Dewey Decimal Classification

text: One of the innovations of the Dewey Decimal system was that of positioning books on the shelves in relation to other books on similar topics. When the system was first introduced, most libraries in the US used fixed positioning: each book was assigned a permanent shelf position based on the book's height and date of acquisition. Library stacks were generally closed to all but the most privileged patrons, so shelf browsing was not considered of importance. The use of the Dewey Decimal system increased during the early 20th century as librarians were convinced of the advantages of relative positioning and of open shelf access for patrons.


title: Dewey Decimal Classification

text: New editions were readied as supplies of previously published editions were exhausted, even though some editions provided little change from the previous, as they were primarily needed to fulfill demand. In the next decade, three editions followed closely on: the 3rd (1888), 4th (1891), and 5th (1894). Editions 6 through 11 were published from 1899 to 1922. The 6th edition was published in a record 7,600 copies, although subsequent editions were much lower. During this time, the size of the volume grew, and edition 12 swelled to 1,243 pages, an increase of 25% over the previous edition.


title: Dewey Decimal Classification

text: In response to the needs of smaller libraries which were finding the expanded classification schedules difficult to use, in 1894, the first abridged edition of the Dewey Decimal system was produced. The abridged edition generally parallels the full edition, and has been developed for most full editions since that date. By popular request, in 1930, the Library of Congress began to print Dewey Classification numbers on nearly all of its cards, thus making the system immediately available to all libraries making use of the Library of Congress card sets.


title: Dewey Decimal Classification

text: Dewey's was not the only library classification available, although it was the most complete. Charles Ammi Cutter published the Expansive Classification in 1882, with initial encouragement from Melvil Dewey. Cutter's system was not adopted by many libraries, with one major exception: it was used as the basis for the Library of Congress Classification system.


title: Dewey Decimal Classification

text: In 1895, the International Institute of Bibliography, located in Belgium and led by Paul Otlet, contacted Dewey about the possibility of translating the classification into French, and using the classification system for bibliographies (as opposed to its use for books in libraries). This would have required some changes to the classification, which was under copyright. Dewey gave permission for the creation of a version intended for bibliographies, and also for its translation into French. Dewey did not agree, however, to allow the International Institute of Bibliography to later create an English version of the resulting classification, considering that a violation of their agreement, as well as a violation of Dewey's copyright. Shortly after Dewey's death in 1931, however, an agreement was reached between the committee overseeing the development of the Decimal Classification and the developers of the French "Classification Decimal". The English version was published as the Universal Decimal Classification and is still in use today.


title: Dewey Decimal Classification

text: According to a study done in 1927, the Dewey system was used in the US in approximately 96% of responding public libraries and 89% of the college libraries. After the death of Melvil Dewey in 1931, administration of the classification was under the Decimal Classification Committee of the Lake Placid Club Education Foundation, and the editorial body was the Decimal Classification Editorial Policy Committee with participation of the American Library Association (ALA), Library of Congress, and Forest Press. By the 14th edition in 1942, the Dewey Decimal Classification index was over 1,900 pages in length and was published in two volumes.


title: Dewey Decimal Classification

text: The growth of the classification to date had led to significant criticism from medium and large libraries which were too large to use the abridged edition but found the full classification overwhelming. Dewey had intended issuing the classification in three editions: the library edition, which would be the fullest edition; the bibliographic edition, in English and French, which was to be used for the organization of bibliographies rather than of books on the shelf; and the abridged edition. In 1933, the bibliographic edition became the Universal Decimal Classification, which left the library and abridged versions as the formal Dewey Decimal Classification editions. The 15th edition, edited by Milton Ferguson, implemented the growing concept of the "standard edition", designed for the majority of general libraries but not attempting to satisfy the needs of the very largest or of special libraries. It also reduced the size of the Dewey system by over half, from 1,900 to 700 pages. This revision was so radical that an advisory committee was formed right away for the 16th and 17th editions. The 16th and 17th editions, under the editorship of the Library of Congress, grew again to two volumes. However, by now, the Dewey Decimal system had established itself as a classification for general libraries, with the Library of Congress Classification having gained acceptance for large research libraries.


title: Dewey Decimal Classification

text: The first electronic version of "Dewey" was created in 1993. Hard-copy editions continue to be issued at intervals; the online WebDewey and Abridged WebDewey are updated quarterly.


title: Dewey Decimal Classification

text: Dewey and a small editorial staff managed the administration of the very early editions. Beginning in 1922, the Lake Placid Club Educational Foundation, a not-for-profit organization founded by Melvil Dewey, managed administrative affairs. The ALA set up a Special Advisory Committee on the Decimal Classification as part of the Cataloging and Classification division of ALA in 1952. The previous Decimal Classification Committee was changed to the Decimal Classification Editorial Policy Committee, with participation of the ALA Division of Cataloging and Classification, and of the Library of Congress.


title: Dewey Decimal Classification

text: Melvil Dewey edited the first three editions of the classification system and oversaw the revisions of all editions until his death in 1931. May Seymour became editor in 1891 and served until her death in 1921. She was followed by Dorcas Fellows, who was editor until her death in 1938. Constantin J. Mazney edited the 14th edition. Milton Ferguson functioned as editor from 1949 to 1951. The 16th edition in 1958 was edited under an agreement between the Library of Congress and Forest Press, with David Haykin as director. Editions 16–19 were edited by Benjamin A. Custer and the editor of edition 20 was John P. Comaromi. Joan Mitchell was editor until 2013, covering editions 21 to 23. In 2013 Michael Panzer of OCLC became Editor-in-Chief. The Dewey Editorial Program Manager since 2016 has been Dr. Rebecca Green.


title: Dewey Decimal Classification

text: Dewey himself held copyright in editions 1 to 6 (1876–1919). Copyright in editions 7–10 was held by the publisher, The Library Bureau. On the death of May Seymour, Dewey conveyed the "copyrights and control of all editions" to the Lake Placid Club Educational Foundation, a non-profit chartered in 1922. The Online Computer Library Center (OCLC) of Dublin, Ohio, US, acquired the trademark and copyrights associated with the Dewey Decimal Classification system when it bought Forest Press in 1988. In 2003 the Dewey Decimal Classification came to the attention of the U.S. press when OCLC sued the Library Hotel for trademark infringement for using the classification system as the hotel theme. The case was settled shortly thereafter.


title: Dewey Decimal Classification

text: The OCLC has maintained the classification since 1988, and also publishes new editions of the system. The editorial staff responsible for updates is based partly at the Library of Congress and partly at OCLC. Their work is reviewed by the Decimal Classification Editorial Policy Committee, a ten-member international board which meets twice each year. The four-volume unabridged edition was published approximately every six years, with the last edition (DDC 23) published in mid-2011. In 2017 the editorial staff announced that the English edition of DDC will no longer be printed, in favor of using the frequently updated WebDewey. An experimental version of Dewey in RDF was previously available at dewey.info beginning in 2009, but has not been available since 2015.


title: Dewey Decimal Classification

text: In addition to the full version, a single-volume abridged edition designed for libraries with 20,000 titles or fewer has been made available since 1895. The last printed English abridged edition, Abridged Edition 15, was published in early 2012.


title: Dewey Decimal Classification

text: The Dewey Decimal Classification organizes library materials by discipline or field of study. Main divisions include philosophy, social sciences, science, technology, and history. The scheme comprises ten classes, each divided into ten divisions, each having ten sections. The system's notation uses Indo-Arabic numbers, with three whole numbers making up the main classes and sub-classes and decimals designating further divisions. The classification structure is hierarchical and the notation follows the same hierarchy. Libraries not needing the full level of detail of the classification can trim right-most decimal digits from the class number to obtain more general classifications. For example:


title: Dewey Decimal Classification

text: The classification was originally enumerative, meaning that it listed all of the classes explicitly in the schedules. Over time it added some aspects of a faceted classification scheme, allowing classifiers to construct a number by combining a class number for a topic with an entry from a separate table. Tables cover commonly used elements such as geographical and temporal aspects, language, and bibliographic forms. For example, a class number could be constructed using 330 for economics + .9 for geographic treatment + .04 for Europe to create the class 330.94 European economy. Or one could combine the class 973 (for the United States) + .05 (for periodical publications on the topic) to arrive at the number 973.05 for periodicals concerning the United States generally. The classification also makes use of mnemonics in some areas, such that the number 5 represents the country Italy in classification numbers like 945 (history of Italy), 450 (Italian language), and 195 (Italian philosophy). The combination of faceting and mnemonics makes the classification "synthetic" in nature, with meaning built into parts of the classification number.


title: Dewey Decimal Classification

text: The Dewey Decimal Classification has a number for all subjects, including fiction, although many libraries maintain a separate fiction section shelved by alphabetical order of the author's surname. Each assigned number consists of two parts: a class number (from the Dewey system) and a book number, which "prevents confusion of different books on the same subject". A common form of the book number is called a Cutter number, which represents the author and distinguishes the book from other books on the same topic.


title: Dewey Decimal Classification

text: The Relative Index (or, as Dewey spelled it, "Relativ Index") is an alphabetical index to the classification, for use both by classifiers and by library users when seeking books by topic. The index was "relative" because the index entries pointed to the class numbers, not to the page numbers of the printed classification schedule. In this way, the Dewey Decimal Classification itself had the same relative positioning as the library shelf and could be used either as an entry point to the classification, by catalogers, or as an index to a Dewey-classed library itself.


title: Dewey Decimal Classification

text: Dewey Decimal Classification numbers formed the basis of the Universal Decimal Classification (UDC), which combines the basic Dewey numbers with selected punctuation marks (comma, colon, parentheses, etc.). Adaptations of the system for specific regions outside the English-speaking world include the Korean Decimal Classification, the New Classification Scheme for Chinese Libraries, and the Nippon Decimal Classification (Japanese).


title: Dewey Decimal Classification

text: Despite its widespread use, the classification has been criticized for its complexity and its limited capability for amendment. In particular, the arrangement of subheadings has been described as archaic and biased towards an Anglo-American world view. This is particularly clear in the 800s section, in which most literature, particularly from outside the United States or Europe, is relegated to the 890s particularly when contrasted with the 900s—history. In 2007–08, the Maricopa County Library District in Arizona abandoned the DDC in favor of the Book Industry Standards and Communications (BISAC) system commonly used by commercial bookstores, in an effort to make its libraries more accessible for their users. Several other libraries across the United States and other countries (including Canada and the Netherlands) followed suit. The DDC has also been criticized for being a proprietary system licensed by a single entity (OCLC), making it expensive to adopt.


title: Dewey Decimal Classification

text: In 1932, topics relating to homosexuality were first added to the system under 132 (mental derangements) and 159.9 (abnormal psychology). In 1952, homosexuality was also included under 301.424 (the study of sexes in society). In 1989, it was added to 363.49 (social problems), a classification that continues in the current edition.


title: Dewey Decimal Classification

text: In 1996, homosexuality was added to 306.7 (sexual relations); this remains the preferred location in the current edition. Although books can also be found under 616.8583 (sexual practices viewed as medical disorders), the official direction states:


title: Dewey Decimal Classification

text: The top-level class for religion heavily favors Christianity, dedicating nearly all of the 200 division to it: the world's thousands of other religions were listed under the 290s. For example, Islam is under just DDC 297, despite being almost as large as Christianity by population. The entire 200 section has remained largely unchanged since DDC 1, since restructuring would pose a significant amount of work for existing libraries. The motivation for this change is ideological rather than technical, as appending significant figures can add space as needed.


title: Dewey Decimal Classification

text: It has also been argued by Hope A. Olson that the placement of topics related to women shows implicit bias, but this has been simpler to address than the religion schema. Some changes made so far have been in numerical proximity, altering the placement of topics relative to each other. For example, in older versions of the DDC, some categories regarding women were adjacent to categories on etiquette; the placement of these categories next to each other imposed an association of etiquette with women, rather than treating it as gender-neutral. This was changed in DDC version 17, in 1965.


title: Tulip mania

text: Tulip mania () was a period during the Dutch Golden Age when contract prices for some bulbs of the recently introduced and fashionable tulip reached extraordinarily high levels. The major acceleration started in 1634 and then dramatically collapsed in February 1637. It is generally considered to have been the first recorded speculative bubble or asset bubble in history. In many ways, the tulip mania was more of a then-unknown socio-economic phenomenon than a significant economic crisis. It had no critical influence on the prosperity of the Dutch Republic, which was one of the world's leading economic and financial powers in the 17th century, with the highest per capita income in the world from about 1600 to about 1720. The term "tulip mania" is now often used metaphorically to refer to any large economic bubble when asset prices deviate from intrinsic values.


title: Tulip mania

text: Forward markets appeared in the Dutch Republic during the 17th century. Among the most notable centred on the tulip market, at the height of tulip mania. At the peak of tulip mania, in February 1637, some single tulip bulbs sold for more than 10 times the annual income of a skilled artisan. Research is difficult because of the limited economic data from the 1630s, much of which come from biased and speculative sources. Some modern economists have proposed rational explanations, rather than a speculative mania, for the rise and fall in prices. For example, other flowers, such as the hyacinth, also had high initial prices at the time of their introduction, which then fell as the plants were propagated. The high asset prices may also have been driven by expectations of a parliamentary decree that contracts could be voided for a small cost, thus lowering the risk to buyers.


title: Tulip mania

text: The 1637 event gained popular attention in 1841 with the publication of the book "Extraordinary Popular Delusions and the Madness of Crowds", written by Scottish journalist Charles Mackay, who wrote that at one point of land were offered for a "Semper Augustus" bulb. Mackay claimed that many investors were ruined by the fall in prices, and Dutch commerce suffered a severe shock. Although Mackay's book is a classic, his account is contested. Many modern scholars believe that the mania was not as destructive as he described.


title: Tulip mania

text: The introduction of the tulip to Europe is often questionably attributed to Ogier de Busbecq, the ambassador of Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, to Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent, who sent the first tulip bulbs and seeds to Vienna in 1554 from the Ottoman Empire. Tulip bulbs, along with other new plant life like potatoes, peppers, tomatoes and other vegetables, came to Europe in the 16th century. These bulbs were soon distributed from Vienna to Augsburg, Antwerp and Amsterdam.


title: Tulip mania

text: Their popularity and cultivation in the United Provinces (now the Netherlands) started in earnest around 1593 after the Southern Netherlandish botanist Carolus Clusius had taken up a post at the University of Leiden and established the "hortus academicus". He planted his collection of tulip bulbs and found that they were able to tolerate the harsher conditions of the Low Countries. Shortly thereafter, the tulip grew in popularity.


title: Tulip mania

text: The tulip was different from other flowers known to Europe at that time, because of its intense saturated petal colour. The appearance of the nonpareil tulip as a status symbol coincides with the rise of newly independent Holland's trade fortunes. No longer the Spanish Netherlands, its economic resources could now be channelled into commerce and Holland embarked on its Golden Age. Amsterdam merchants were at the centre of the lucrative East Indies trade, where one voyage could yield profits of 400%.


title: Tulip mania

text: As a result, tulips rapidly became a coveted luxury item, and a profusion of varieties followed. They were classified in groups: the single-hued tulips of red, yellow, or white were known as "Couleren"; the multicolored "Rosen" (white streaks on a red or pink background); "Violetten" (white streaks on a purple or lilac background); and the rarest of all, the "Bizarden (Bizarres)", (yellow or white streaks on a red, brown or purple background). The multicolour effects of intricate lines and flame-like streaks on the petals were vivid and spectacular, making the bulbs that produced these even more exotic-looking plants highly sought-after. It is now known that this effect is due to the bulbs being infected with a type of tulip-specific mosaic virus, known as the "tulip breaking virus", so called because it "breaks" the one petal colour into two or more.


title: Tulip mania

text: Growers named their new varieties with exalted titles. Many early forms were prefixed "Admirael" ("admiral"), often combined with the growers' names: "Admirael van der Eijck" was perhaps the most highly regarded of about fifty so named. "Generael" ("general") was another prefix used for around thirty varieties. Later varieties were given even more extravagant names, derived from Alexander the Great or Scipio, or even "Admiral of Admirals" and "General of Generals". Naming could be haphazard and varieties highly variable in quality. Most of these varieties have now died out.


title: Tulip mania

text: Tulips grow from bulbs and can be propagated through both seeds and buds. Seeds from a tulip will form a flowering bulb after 7–12 years. When a bulb grows into the flower, the original bulb will disappear, but a clone bulb forms in its place, as do several buds. Properly cultivated, these buds will become flowering bulbs of their own, usually after a couple of years. The tulip breaking virus spreads only through buds, not seeds, and propagation is greatly slowed down by the virus. Cultivating the varieties that were most appealing at the time therefore took years.


title: Tulip mania

text: In the Northern Hemisphere, tulips bloom in April and May for about one week. During the plant's dormant phase from June to September, bulbs can be uprooted and moved about, so actual purchases (in the spot market) occurred during these months.


title: Tulip mania

text: During the rest of the year, "florists", or tulip traders, signed forward contracts before a notary to buy tulips at the end of the season. Thus the Dutch, who developed many of the techniques of modern finance, created a market for tulip bulbs, which were durable goods. Short selling was banned by an edict of 1610, which was reiterated or strengthened in 1621 and 1630, and again in 1636. Short sellers were not prosecuted under these edicts, but forward contracts were deemed unenforceable, so traders could repudiate deals if faced with a loss.


title: Tulip mania

text: As the flowers grew in popularity, professional growers paid higher and higher prices for bulbs with the virus, and prices rose steadily. By 1634, in part as a result of demand from the French, speculators began to enter the market. The contract price of rare bulbs continued to rise throughout 1636. By November, the price of common, "unbroken" bulbs also began to increase, so that soon any tulip bulb could fetch hundreds of guilders. Forward contracts were used to buy bulbs at the end of the season.


title: Tulip mania

text: Traders met in "colleges" at taverns and buyers were required to pay a 2.5% "wine money" fee, up to a maximum of three guilders per trade. Neither party paid an initial margin, nor a mark-to-market margin, and all contracts were with the individual counter-parties rather than with the Exchange. The Dutch described tulip contract trading as "windhandel" (literally "wind trade"), because no bulbs were actually changing hands. The entire business was accomplished on the margins of Dutch economic life, not in the Exchange itself.


title: Tulip mania

text: Tulip mania reached its peak during the winter of 1636–37, when contracts were changing hands five times. No deliveries were ever made to fulfill any of these contracts, because in February 1637, tulip bulb contract prices collapsed abruptly and the trade of tulips ground to a halt.


title: Tulip mania

text: The collapse began in Haarlem, when, for the first time, buyers apparently refused to show up at a routine bulb auction. This may have been because Haarlem was then suffering from an outbreak of bubonic plague. The existence of the plague may have helped to create a culture of fatalistic risk-taking that allowed the speculation to skyrocket in the first place; this outbreak might also have helped to burst the bubble.


title: Tulip mania

text: After the market collapsed, the problem of resolving hundreds of disputed sales remained. The matter was brought to the Court of Holland, which ordered each city to freeze tulip agreements, investigate the matter, and then act according to its own judgment. The process took the longest in Haarlem, where the city closed the courts to tulip cases and left parties to resolve their own disputes through arbitration or otherwise. Although a minority of determined growers pressed for full payment, it was less trouble to settle on terms that buyers could actually pay.


title: Tulip mania

text: The lack of consistently recorded price data from the 1630s makes the extent of the tulip mania difficult to discern. The bulk of available data comes from an anonymous satire, "Dialogues between Waermondt and Gaergoedt", written just after the bubble. Economist Peter Garber collected data on the sales of 161 bulbs of 39 varieties between 1633 and 1637, with 53 being recorded in the "Dialogues ".


title: Tulip mania

text: Ninety-eight sales were recorded for the last date of the bubble, February 5, 1637, at wildly varying prices. The sales were made using several market mechanisms: forward trading at the colleges, spot sales by growers, notarized forward sales by growers, and estate sales. "To a great extent, the available price data are a blend of apples and oranges", according to Garber.


title: Tulip mania

text: The modern discussion of tulip mania began with the book "Extraordinary Popular Delusions and the Madness of Crowds", published in 1841 by the Scottish journalist Charles Mackay. He proposed that crowds of people often behave irrationally, and tulip mania was, along with the South Sea Bubble and the Mississippi Company scheme, one of his primary examples. His account was largely sourced from a 1797 work by Johann Beckmann titled "A History of Inventions, Discoveries, and Origins". Beckmann in turn used several available sources, but all of them drew heavily from the satirical "Dialogues" that were written to mock the speculators. Mackay's vivid book was popular among generations of economists and stock market participants. His popular but flawed description of tulip mania as a speculative bubble remains prominent, even though since the 1980s economists have debunked many aspects of his account.


title: Tulip mania

text: According to Mackay, the growing popularity of tulips in the early 17th century caught the attention of the entire nation; "the population, even to its lowest dregs, embarked in the tulip trade". By 1635, a sale of 40 bulbs for 100,000 florins (also known as Dutch guilders) was recorded. By way of comparison, a "tun" () of butter cost around 100 florins, a skilled laborer might earn 150–350 florins a year, and "eight fat swine" cost 240 florins.


title: Tulip mania

text: By 1636, tulips were traded on the exchanges of numerous Dutch towns and cities. This encouraged trade by all members of society. Mackay recounted people selling possessions in order to speculate on the tulip market, such as an offer of of land for one of two existing "Semper Augustus" bulbs, or a single bulb of the "Viceroy" that, he said, was purchased in exchange for a basket of goods (shown in table) worth 2,500 florins.


title: Tulip mania

text: The increasing mania generated several amusing, if unlikely, anecdotes that Mackay recounted, such as a sailor who mistook the valuable tulip bulb of a merchant for an onion and grabbed it to eat. According to Mackay, the merchant and his family hunted down the sailor to find him "eating a breakfast whose cost might have regaled a whole ship's crew for a twelvemonth"; the sailor was supposedly jailed for eating the bulb. However, tulips are poisonous if prepared incorrectly, taste bad, and are considered to be only marginally edible even during famines. This directly contradicts Mackay's claim that the tulip bulb had been "quite delicious".


title: Tulip mania

text: People were purchasing bulbs at higher and higher prices, intending to re-sell them for a profit. Such a scheme could not last unless someone was ultimately willing to pay such high prices and take possession of the bulbs. In February 1637, tulip traders could no longer find new buyers willing to pay increasingly inflated prices for their bulbs. As this realization set in, the demand for tulips collapsed, and prices plummeted—the speculative bubble burst. Some were left holding contracts to purchase tulips at prices now ten times greater than those on the open market, while others found themselves in possession of bulbs now worth a fraction of the price they had paid. Mackay says the Dutch devolved into distressed accusations and recriminations against others in the trade.


title: Tulip mania

text: In Mackay's account, the panicked tulip speculators sought help from the government of the Netherlands, which responded by declaring that anyone who had bought contracts to purchase bulbs in the future could void their contract by payment of a 10 percent fee. Attempts were made to resolve the situation to the satisfaction of all parties, but these were unsuccessful. The mania finally ended, Mackay says, with individuals stuck with the bulbs they held at the end of the crash—no court would enforce payment of a contract, since judges regarded the debts as contracted through gambling, and thus not enforceable by law.


title: Tulip mania

text: According to Mackay, lesser tulip manias also occurred in other parts of Europe, although matters never reached the state they had in the Netherlands. He also thought that the aftermath of the tulip price deflation led to a widespread economic chill throughout the Netherlands for many years afterwards.


title: Tulip mania

text: Mackay's account of inexplicable mania was unchallenged, and mostly unexamined, until the 1980s. Research into tulip mania since then, especially by proponents of the efficient-market hypothesis, suggests that his story was incomplete and inaccurate. In her 2007 scholarly analysis "Tulipmania", Anne Goldgar states that the phenomenon was limited to "a fairly small group", and that most accounts from the period "are based on one or two contemporary pieces of propaganda and a prodigious amount of plagiarism". Peter Garber argues that the trade in common bulbs "was no more than a meaningless winter drinking game, played by a plague-ridden population that made use of the vibrant tulip market."


title: Tulip mania

text: While Mackay's account held that a wide array of society was involved in the tulip trade, Goldgar's study of archived contracts found that even at its peak the trade in tulips was conducted almost exclusively by merchants and skilled craftsmen who were wealthy, but not members of the nobility. Any economic fallout from the bubble was very limited. Goldgar, who identified many prominent buyers and sellers in the market, found fewer than half a dozen who experienced financial troubles in the time period, and even of these cases it is not clear that tulips were to blame. This is not altogether surprising. Although prices had risen, money had not changed hands between buyers and sellers. Thus profits were never realised for sellers; unless sellers had made other purchases on credit in expectation of the profits, the collapse in prices did not cause anyone to lose money.


title: Tulip mania

text: It is well established that prices for tulip bulb contracts rose and then fell between 1636 and 1637; however, such dramatic curves do not necessarily imply that an economic or speculative bubble developed and then burst. For the then tulip market to qualify as an economic bubble, the price of bulbs would need to have been mutually agreed and surpassed the intrinsic value of the bulbs. Modern economists have advanced several possible reasons for why the rise and fall in prices may not have constituted a bubble, even though a Viceroy Tulip was worth upwards of five times the cost of an average house at the time.


title: Tulip mania

text: The increases of the 1630s corresponded with a lull in the Thirty Years' War. In 1634–1635 the German and Swedish armies lost ground in the South of Germany; then Cardinal-Infante Ferdinand of Austria moved north. After the Peace of Prague the French and the Dutch decided to support the Swedish and German Protestants with money and arms against the Habsburg empire, and to occupy the Spanish Netherlands in 1636. Hence market prices, at least initially, were responding rationally to a rise in demand. The fall in prices was faster and more dramatic than the rise. Data on sales largely disappeared after the February 1637 collapse in prices, but a few other data points on bulb prices after tulip mania show that bulbs continued to lose value for decades thereafter.


title: Tulip mania

text: Garber compared the available price data on tulips to hyacinth prices at the beginning of the 19th century when the hyacinth replaced the tulip as the fashionable flower and found a similar pattern. When hyacinths were introduced florists strove with one another to grow beautiful hyacinth flowers, as demand was strong. As people became more accustomed to hyacinths the prices began to fall. The most expensive bulbs fell to 1 to 2 percent of their peak value within 30 years.


title: Tulip mania

text: Garber notes that, "a small quantity of prototype lily bulbs recently was sold for 1 million guilders ($US480,000 at 1987 exchange rates)", demonstrating that even in the modern world, flowers can command extremely high prices. Because the rise in prices occurred after bulbs were planted for the year, growers would not have had an opportunity to increase production in response to price.


title: Tulip mania

text: Other economists believe that these elements cannot completely explain the dramatic rise and fall in tulip prices. Garber's theory has also been challenged for failing to explain a similar dramatic rise and fall in prices for regular tulip bulb contracts. Some economists also point to other factors associated with speculative bubbles, such as a growth in the supply of money, demonstrated by an increase in deposits at the Bank of Amsterdam during that period.


title: Tulip mania

text: Earl Thompson argued in a 2007 paper that Garber's explanation cannot account for the extremely swift drop in tulip bulb contract prices. The annualised rate of price decline was 99.999%, instead of the average 40% for other flowers. He provided another explanation for Dutch tulip mania. Since late 1636, the Dutch parliament had been considering a decree (originally sponsored by Dutch tulip investors who had lost money because of a German setback in the Thirty Years' War) that changed the way tulip contracts functioned:


title: Tulip mania

text: Before this parliamentary decree, the purchaser of a tulip contract—known in modern finance as a forward contract—was legally "obliged" to buy the bulbs. The decree changed the nature of these contracts, so that if the current market price fell, the purchaser could opt to pay a penalty and forgo receipt of the bulb, rather than pay the full contracted price. This change in law meant that, in modern terminology, the forward contracts had been transformed into options contracts—contracts which were extremely favourable to the buyers.


title: Tulip mania

text: Thompson argues that the "bubble" in the price of tulip bulb forward prior to the February 1637 decree was due primarily to buyers' awareness of what was coming. Although the final 3.5% strike price was not actually settled until February 24, Thompson writes, "as information ... entered the market in late November, contract prices soared to reflect the expectation that the contract price was now a call-option exercise, or strike, price rather than a price committed to be paid."


title: Tulip mania

text: Thompson concludes that "the real victims of the contractual conversion" were the investors who had bought forward contracts "prior" to November 30, 1636, on the incorrect assumption that their contracts would benefit from the February 1637 decree. In other words, many investors were making an "additional gamble with respect to the prices the buyers would eventually have to pay for their options"—a factor unrelated to the intrinsic value of the tulip bulbs themselves.


title: Tulip mania

text: Using data about the specific payoffs present in the forward and options contracts, Thompson argued that tulip bulb contract prices hewed closely to what a rational economic model would dictate: "Tulip contract prices before, during, and after the 'tulipmania' appear to provide a remarkable illustration of efficient market prices."


title: Tulip mania

text: The popularity of Mackay's tale has continued to this day, with new editions of "Extraordinary Popular Delusions" appearing regularly, with introductions by writers such as financier Bernard Baruch (1932), financial writer Andrew Tobias (1980), psychologist David J. Schneider (1993), and journalist Michael Lewis (2008).


title: Tulip mania

text: Goldgar argues that although tulip mania may not have constituted an economic or speculative bubble, it was nonetheless traumatic to the Dutch for other reasons: "Even though the financial crisis affected very few, the shock of tulipmania was considerable. A whole network of values was thrown into doubt." In the 17th century, it was unimaginable to most people that something as common as a flower could be worth so much more money than most people earned in a year. The idea that the prices of flowers that grow only in the summer could fluctuate so wildly in the winter, threw into chaos the very understanding of "value".


title: Tulip mania

text: Many of the sources telling of the woes of tulip mania, such as the anti-speculative pamphlets that were later reported by Beckmann and Mackay, have been cited as evidence of the extent of the economic damage. These pamphlets were not written by victims of a bubble, but were primarily religiously motivated. The upheaval was viewed as a perversion of the moral order—proof that "concentration on the earthly, rather than the heavenly flower could have dire consequences".


title: Tulip mania

text: Nearly a century later, during the crash of the Mississippi Company and the South Sea Company in about 1720, tulip mania appeared in satires of these manias. When Beckmann first described tulip mania in the 1780s, he compared it to the failing lotteries of the time. In Goldgar's view, even many modern popular works about financial markets, such as Burton Malkiel's "A Random Walk Down Wall Street" (1973) and John Kenneth Galbraith's "A Short History of Financial Euphoria" (1990; written soon after the crash of 1987), used the tulip mania as a lesson in morality.


title: Tulip mania

text: Tulip mania became a popular reference during the dot-com bubble of 1995–2001, and the subprime mortgage crisis of 2007–2010. In 2013, Nout Wellink, former president of the Dutch Central Bank, described Bitcoin as "worse than the tulip mania", adding, "At least then you got a tulip, now you get nothing." Despite the mania's enduring popularity, Daniel Gross has said of economists offering efficient-market explanations for the mania, "If they're correct ... then business writers will have to delete Tulipmania from their handy-pack of bubble analogies."


title: Willow (TV series)

text: Willow is an American fantasy adventure television series based on and serving as a sequel to the 1988 film of the same name. Produced by Lucasfilm and Imagine Entertainment, the series premiered on November 30, 2022 on Disney+.


title: Willow (TV series)

text: It has been nearly 17 years (200 moons) since Queen Bavmorda was defeated. An unlikely group of six heroes sets off on a dangerous quest to places far beyond their home where they must face their inner demons and come together to save their world from the Gales.


title: Willow (TV series)

text: Additionally, Kevin Pollak and Rick Overton reprise their roles as brownie duo Rool and Franjean, respectively. Christian Slater has been cast as Allagash.


title: Willow (TV series)

text: Discussions about a continuation of the film began as early as 2005, with Warwick Davis reiterating his interest in returning in multiple interviews. During a May 2019 interview with an MTV podcast, Ron Howard, director of the 1988 film, revealed he had been approached by Jonathan Kasdan about rebooting the film as a television series at Disney+.


title: Willow (TV series)

text: In October 2020, the series was greenlit, with Jon M. Chu directing the pilot episode and Davis reprising his titular role. Chu would announce that he had to step away from directing duties due to a production delay and personal reasons in January 2021. Later that month, Jonathan Entwistle was hired to replace Chu as director of the pilot, and as executive producer. However, due to production delays as a result of a recasting, Entwistle also exited the series, with Stephen Woolfenden coming in to direct the first two episodes of the series.


title: Willow (TV series)

text: In November 2020, Erin Kellyman, Cailee Spaeny and Ellie Bamber entered negotiations to join the cast. In January 2021, Tony Revolori would enter negotiations to join the cast, which was now confirmed to include Kellyman, Spaeny and Bamber. Revolori would be confirmed to join the cast in March, along with the recasting of Spaeny with Ruby Cruz. Amer Chadha-Patel would join the next month. By November 2021, Ralph Ineson was added to the cast. In April 2022, Talisa García and Rosabell Laurenti Sellers were cast, with Garcia starring as Revolori's character's mother, marking the first time a transgender actor has appeared in a Lucasfilm production. In May 2022, Joanne Whalley appeared at the Lucasfilm panel at Star Wars Celebration, revealing that she would be reprising her role as Sorsha from the original film. At the D23 Expo in September, Kevin Pollak and Rick Overton were revealed to be reprising their roles from the film, with Christian Slater also being announced as part of the cast.


title: Willow (TV series)

text: Val Kilmer was unable to participate in filming to reprise his role as Madmartigan due to his recovery from throat cancer and the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic, but Davis and Kasdan said that his character would still be involved "in a big way".


title: Willow (TV series)

text: Production for the series began in June 2021 in Wales, with Dragon Studios near Llanharan being used as a location. Filming took place at Pendine Sands in October.


title: Willow (TV series)

text: The score for the series is composed by James Newton Howard and Xander Rodzinski and includes the themes from the film composed by James Horner.


title: Willow (TV series)

text: A second trailer and official poster were released at the Disney fan expo D23 on September 10, 2022. The D23 expo also featured a panel consisting of several "Willow" cast members including Davis and Slater.


title: Willow (TV series)

text: On November 1 during the Lucca Comics & Games 2022, a part of the first episode and exclusive video clips of the series was shown in world premiere in the presence of actors Ellie Bamber, Erin Kellyman and Amar Chadha-Patel.


title: Willow (TV series)

text: The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported an 84% approval rating with an average rating of 6.90/10, based on 54 critic reviews. However the audience score was much lower at only 28% based off of 1,827 ratings. The website's critics consensus reads, "Expanding on the saga while leaving plenty of room for callbacks to the original, this series-length sequel should satisfy fans who've been patiently waiting for more "Willow"." Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned a score of 70 out of 100 based on 22 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".


title: Sour (album)

text: Sour (stylized in all caps) is the debut studio album by American singer-songwriter Olivia Rodrigo, released on May 21, 2021, via Geffen Records. The album was written by Rodrigo and her producer Dan Nigro. Originally planned as an EP, "Sour" was expanded into a full-length album following the viral success of her debut single, "Drivers License".


title: Sour (album)

text: Influenced by Rodrigo's favorite genres and singer-songwriters, "Sour" is primarily a pop record that spans from energetic pop punk songs to bedroom pop ballads. Its subject matter centers on adolescence, failed romance, and heartache. She said the album explores her perils and discoveries as a 17-year-old, with its title referring to the "sour" emotions young people experience but are often criticized for, such as anger, jealousy, and unhappiness.


title: Sour (album)

text: Three singles preceded "Sour"s release, all of which entered the top three of the US "Billboard" Hot 100. The lead single, "Drivers License", topped the chart and propelled Rodrigo to mainstream prominence. It was followed by "Deja Vu", which peaked at number 3, and "Good 4 U", the album's second chart-topper. It made Rodrigo the first artist in history to debut their first three singles in the top 10 of the Hot 100, and "Sour" the first debut album in history to spawn two number-one debuts on the chart. Prior to becoming the fourth single, "Traitor" landed at number nine on the Hot 100 as the fourth top-10 song from the album. "Sour" broke the global Spotify record for the biggest opening week for an album by a female artist. It topped the charts in several countries, including the US "Billboard" 200, and was one of the best-selling albums of 2021.


title: Sour (album)

text: Upon release, "Sour" received universal acclaim from critics. Critics regarded it as a solid debut album, underscoring Rodrigo's realistic lyrics and appeal to Gen Z. Various publications listed it among the best albums of 2021, including "Billboard" and "Rolling Stone" that placed the album at number one on their year-end rankings. At the 64th Annual Grammy Awards, "Sour" and "Drivers License" won Best Pop Vocal Album and Pop Solo Performance, respectively; Rodrigo won Best New Artist as well. A YouTube concert film and a Disney+ documentary, titled "Sour Prom" and "Driving Home 2 U" respectively, supplement the album. Rodrigo embarked on the Sour Tour, her first headlining concert tour, from April 5, 2022 to July 7 of that year.


title: Sour (album)

text: In 2020, American actress and singer Olivia Rodrigo signed to Geffen Records, intending to release her debut EP the following year. American songwriter and producer Daniel Nigro was suggested by a friend to listen to Rodrigo's songs on "" (2020). Nigro was "just completely blown away" and reached out to Rodrigo via Instagram, offering to work with her. The pair had a meeting to get to know one another, shortly before the COVID-19 pandemic impacted the United States. They started collaborating after figuring out ways to work safely in isolation. She released her debut single "Drivers License", produced by Nigro, on January 8, 2021, to unprecedented commercial and critical success. "Billboard" declared the single one of the most dominant number-one songs in Hot 100 history.


title: Sour (album)

text: Rodrigo began teasing a follow-up single by archiving her past Instagram posts and posting cryptic teasers of it on her social media accounts in late March 2021; on March 29, she announced that it would be titled "Deja Vu", and set a release date of three days later, reassuring fans that the announcement was not an April Fools' Day joke. Rodrigo unveiled the song's artwork in the same post. Following her rise to prominence, Rodrigo stated that she would be releasing a studio album instead of an EP, after she felt unsatisfied with the scope of a shorter project when only a full-length album would be "truly reflective of what [she] can do". Rodrigo had met with producer Dan Nigro in March 2020 a week before COVID-19 lockdowns commenced. Nigro was "blown away" after watching an Instagram video of Rodrigo playing her song "Happier". Recording for "Sour" took place throughout 2020 and into early 2021. Nigro said that with the pandemic, they were "oddly very fortunate to have as much time as we did to make music". The final production session took place on March 30, 2021.


title: Sour (album)

text: Rodrigo described her ambition for her debut project, "Sour", was a "super versatile" body of work that mainly blends mainstream pop, folk, and alternative rock genres, alongside elements of pop-punk, country and grunge. She stated that it is inspired by the works of her favorite singer-songwriters, such as Alanis Morissette, Taylor Swift, Kacey Musgraves, and the "pouty", "angsty" sound of rock acts like No Doubt and the White Stripes. Rodrigo also cited her mother Jennifer's musical tastes as an influence, as it was her who introduced young Rodrigo to metal, punk and 1990s alternative rock.


title: Sour (album)

text: Rodrigo's vision for the album's lyrics was to explore a variety of "sour" emotions that young women "are often shamed for", such as anger, jealousy and sadness. The album title refers to the concept of "awesome things" in Rodrigo's life "progressively going sour" as she gets older, representing a specific "slice" of her life as a 17-year-old, "its unending growing pains and surprising discoveries." She insisted this point in her interview to "The Guardian" as well, saying "Sour" is an "intrinsically young" album that is aimed at honoring "acute teenage feelings". Rodrigo explained, "something I'm really proud of is that this record talks about emotions that are hard to talk about or aren't really socially acceptable especially for girls: anger, jealousy, spite, sadness, they're frowned-upon as bitchy and moaning and complaining or whatever. But I think they're such valid emotions."


title: Sour (album)

text: According to Rodrigo, the word "sour" has many different meanings and she tried to write a song titled "Sour" for a long time but was unsuccessful in doing so, making her realize that it is an "all-encompassing" trope that covered the sour portion of her life. She tried to balance out the "sour" songs of the album with some love songs, in order to avoid being pigeonholed as "the heartbreak girl"; however, she eventually dropped the idea, to preserve her authenticity as a songwriter. She asserted that love and happiness were not the emotions she felt while making the album. Nevertheless, Rodrigo did not want "Sour" to be filled with "sad piano songs" either, hence she infused danceability and upbeat arrangements into the record, evident in tracks such as "Brutal" and "Good 4 U".


title: Sour (album)

text: "Sour" has been described as a genre-hopping pop, pop-punk, alternative pop, and bedroom pop record with synth-pop, dream pop, alternative rock, pop rock, and folk-pop elements. Stylistically, the album spans from energetic 1990s-inspired guitar rock to tender acoustic balladry driven by piano and fingerpicked guitars. Craig Jenkins of "Vulture" categorized "Sour" as a "post-genre" record, one which materializes Rodrigo's aim to transcend boundaries of music genres and coalesce them. The songs of "Sour" represent different perspectives to a single storyline of failed romance. The songwriting is characterized by self-aware themes of insecurities, anger, revenge, envy, and jealousy, using detail-specific lyrics exuding vulnerability.


title: Sour (album)

text: "Sour" opens with "Brutal", which was described as "angsty" and "uptempo" by Rodrigo. The song was characterized as an enjoyable, "angrily insecure alt-rock tirade" and "playful and easy pop-punk" that "free falls into the depths of grungy rock", with elements of indie rock. "Brutal" was the last song written for the album; Rodrigo and Nigro wrote the track two weeks before she had to turn in the record. Rodrigo noted that the song represents her teenage years. The song has "thrashy" guitars, and was reported to be a "desire to defy any pop expectations that have been placed upon [Rodrigo] by fans, friends, executives, or exes". Spencer Kornhaber of "The Atlantic" described the guitar riff on "Brutal" as "scary in the manner of Clinton-era Nine Inch Nails". "Traitor", the second track, is an indie pop ballad with a folk instrumental. Its lyrics have been described to consist of "post-grief anger and bargaining". Furthermore, details on the lyrics also depict Rodrigo's ex moving on with another girl while she is unable to get over it as she tries to figure out what went wrong.


title: Sour (album)

text: The fourth track, "1 Step Forward, 3 Steps Back", interpolates the piano line from Taylor Swift's "New Year's Day" (2017), which was a result of Rodrigo singing "1 Step Forward, 3 Steps Back" over the chords of the Swift song. It is described to be a "regret-wracked" tune. Rodrigo revealed that she wrote the hook of the song from a text message, going on to say that she "thought it would be a cool way to describe this toxic, sort of manipulative relationship". The chirping birds at the beginning of the track were a result of Nigro recording them through a window at his house. "Enough For You", the seventh track, is a "simple" and "minimal" bedroom pop song with "searing" lyrics and acoustic instrumentals. Rodrigo described the song as "very insecure and vulnerable, but [she] also love[s] how it's really hopeful", referencing the line "someday I'll be everything to somebody else". "Happier" serves as the eighth track, a piano-led song featuring lyrics admitting selfishness and exuding self-criticism.


title: Sour (album)

text: The ninth track, "Jealousy, Jealousy", has been described as "jazzy", "serpentine" and an "alt-rock squall à la the Kills" with a "plucky bassline and a prowling piano build". Lyrics talk about the toxicity of social media and its addictiveness, displaying the obsessions of living a perfect life. The stripped-down tenth track, "Favorite Crime", an indie pop and folk-pop song that incorporates a set of layered harmonies with a "thinly veiled Bonnie and Clyde-type metaphor". It speaks about "on the examination of glaring red flags that only appear in their true colors through the lens of hindsight".


title: Sour (album)

text: "Hope Ur OK", the closing track, has been reported to be a "shimmering blessing to down-on-their-luck people Rodrigo has known", and the sound of the chorus has been described as a benediction. Lyrically, it steps away from Rodrigo's self-referential narratives to secondhand stories from her friends, rooting from her genuine sympathy to them. Rodrigo revealed that the song makes her "really emotional", and that the song is "super personal about people that [she] really love[s]". On an appearance on The Zach Sang Show, Rodrigo described the placement of the track as the album's closer: "I feel like it's super hopeful. "Sour" is a very sort of sad, angry, emotional record, and I wanted to end it with a song that was [reassuring]. It was really important for me to end this sort of somber record on that note."


title: Sour (album)

text: On April 1, 2021, Rodrigo announced on social media her debut album with the working title "*O*R" would be released on May 21, 2021. Preorders for the album began the following day. On April 13, Rodrigo teased the album's title, and subsequently, revealed the album's title as "Sour", posted its track listing and cover artwork on the same day. It was released on May 21, 2021, via retail stores, digital music and streaming platforms, as well as on Rodrigo's website. Vinyl LPs of "Sour" were released on August 20, 2021, in various colored variants, each of which were exclusively available at Rodrigo's webstore, Urban Outfitters, Target, Walmart, or Amazon. Merchandise in the form of clothing was also released, although some customers alleged it as being low quality and "nothing like what was advertised".


title: Sour (album)

text: Photographed by Grant Spanier, the standard cover artwork of "Sour" depicts Rodrigo standing against a purple backdrop, wearing a fuzzy pale pink tank top and checkered bottoms. She sticks her tongue out, with her face covered in a variety of colorful stickers. The stickers on her tongue spell the album title. "PopSugar" observed that Rodrigo is also wearing a ring in the cover artwork, identical to a ring that Taylor Swift had gifted her earlier. The backside cover also has a purple background, featuring scattered stickers as well as the tracklist on a pearly-colored balloon that Rodrigo's hand is about to pop with a safety pin. In the alternative cover available for the Target-exclusive and vinyl editions of "Sour", purple is again the dominant color, but stickers are not present. Stickers also recur through the album artwork and promotional material, which followed a theme of scrapbooking in a school notebook.


title: Sour (album)

text: "Sour" was supported by five singles, four of which charted in the top 10 of the "Billboard" Hot 100. "Drivers License", Rodrigo's debut single, was released on January 8, 2021, as the lead single of "Sour". An accompanying music video for the song, directed by Matthew Dillon Cohen, was uploaded to Rodrigo's YouTube channel simultaneously with the single's release. The song broke a string of records, including the Spotify record for the most single-day streams for a non-holiday song and the biggest first week for a song on Spotify and on Amazon Music. The song debuted atop the US "Billboard" Hot 100 and made Rodrigo the youngest artist ever to debut atop the chart. It was certified triple platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America. The single also topped charts in the UK, Canada, Australia, and many more countries.


title: Sour (album)

text: "Deja Vu" was announced as the second single on her social media accounts on March 29, 2021, and was released three days later along with its music video, directed by Allie Avital in Malibu. The song debuted at number eight on the Hot 100, making Rodrigo the first artist in history to debut her first two singles in the top 10 of the chart. It reached a new peak of number three after the release of "Sour".


title: Sour (album)

text: The third single, "Good 4 U", was announced on May 10, 2021, and was released on May 14. Its music video, directed by Petra Collins, features Rodrigo as a revengeful cheerleader, making references to the 2000s' cult classic films "Princess Diaries" and "Jennifer's Body". The energetic song provided listeners the taste of a different side of "Sour", departing from the slower and melancholic emotion of the preceding singles "Drivers License" and "Deja Vu". "Good 4 U" debuted atop the Hot 100, garnering Rodrigo her second number-one song in the US and the second from "Sour".


title: Sour (album)

text: "Traitor" impacted US contemporary hit radio formats on August 10, 2021, as the fourth single from "Sour". Before it was promoted as a single, "Traitor" landed at number 9 on the Hot 100 upon the album release, charting alongside "Good 4 U" and "Deja Vu" in the top 10 region. "Billboard" remarked how "Traitor" registered impressive sales and streaming tallies for an album track.


title: Sour (album)

text: "Brutal" received a music video on August 23, 2021, before it impacted Italian contemporary hit radio formats through Universal Music Italy on September 3, 2021, as the fifth single from the album. Before becoming a single, the song arrived at number 12 on the Hot 100, and landed atop the "Billboard" Hot Rock & Alternative Songs chart.


title: Sour (album)

text: Rodrigo gave the debut performance of "Drivers License" on February 4, 2021, on "The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon". She has expressed excitement for a potential upcoming tour in support of the album after the COVID-19 pandemic ends. A sneak-peek of the creation process of the album was featured in IMAX screenings of "In the Heights" (2021) on Mother's Day. On May 11, Rodrigo performed "Drivers License" at the 2021 Brit Awards held on The O2 Arena in London. On May 12, 2021, a trailer to "Sour" was posted to Rodrigo's YouTube channel, which showed studio clips of herself and Nigro, and featured a snippet of "Good 4 U" which was set to release two days later. She performed "Drivers License" and debuted "Good 4 U" live at "Saturday Night Live" on May 15, 2021, hosted by American actor Keegan-Michael Key. On May 16, 2021, a hotline phone number (323-622-SOUR) was made available, which teased an unreleased track from "Sour". In the evening of May 20, 2021, Rodrigo appeared on YouTube's livestream of the official premiere party of "Sour", as an episode for the platform's "Released" series. She played voice memos from her phone, discussed songs, interacted with fans, and exclusively performed the track "Enough for You". Rodrigo gave interviews and appeared on the magazine covers of "Billboard", "Interview", "Elle", "The Face", "NME", "Nylon", and "Variety". On May 25, Rodrigo appeared on "Vevo Lift" to perform "Favorite Crime".


title: Sour (album)

text: On June 29, 2021, a livestream concert film entitled "Sour Prom" aired on Rodrigo's YouTube channel, in celebration of "Sour" success. It featured songs from the album performed in various locations, such as "the back of a limo, on a prom dancefloor, in a darkroom, and accompanied by a marching band on a football field." She also hosted a "pre-party" Q&A segment in which she answered questions on the album's creation. She then performed several live renditions of her "Sour" tracks, including "Drivers License" and "Good 4 U". The film was described as "the ultimate alternative prom experience", after Rodrigo herself graduated high school recently. The concert film later was nominated at the 2021 UK Music Video Awards in the category 'Best Special Video Project'.


title: Sour (album)

text: On February 17, 2022, Rodrigo announced a documentary about "Sour", titled , releasing to Disney+ on March 25, 2022. It was directed by Stacey Lee and produced by Interscope Films and Supper Club. According to a press release, the film captures Rodrigo's road trip from Salt Lake City to Los Angeles, during which she began writing "Sour". The film includes "new live arrangements of her songs, intimate interviews, and never-before-seen footage from the making of the album."


title: Sour (album)

text: To support "Sour", Rodrigo embarked on the Sour Tour, her first headlining concert tour. It covered North America and Europe with 47 dates. It commenced on April 5, 2022, in Portland, Oregon, and concluded on July 7, 2022, in London. Gracie Abrams and Holly Humberstone were the opening acts for the North American dates, and Baby Queen for European dates. On the tour, Rodrigo covered Avril Lavigne's "Complicated" at all tour dates. At the Toronto show on April 29, Lavigne joined Rodrigo as a surprise guest on stage to perform the song together for the first time.


title: Sour (album)

text: "Sour" received widespread critical acclaim upon release. The general consensus was that the album is a strong debut record that mounts Rodrigo as the new face of "Gen Z pop". On Metacritic, which assigns a normalized score out of 100 to ratings from publications, the album received a mean score of 83 based on 20 reviews, indicating "universal acclaim".


title: Sour (album)

text: Robin Murray of "Clash" hailed "Sour" as a "bravura" pop statement "marked by excellence from front to back". He described its 11 tracks as "potential smash hit singles", and complimented Rodrigo's bold lyricism, punchy execution, deeming her "pop's newest icon, and one of its bravest voices". "The A.V. Club" Tatiana Tenreyro designated "Sour" a contender for best pop album of 2021, and highlighted its lack of filler tracks. She stated each song depicts a different side to Rodrigo's artistry, embracing influences while still creating "something fresh". Kate Solomon, writing for "i", called "Sour" a "surprisingly accomplished package" and a "stunning portrait of adolescence". "NME" critic Rhian Daly called Rodrigo a "multidimensional" artist writing detailed songs that "go full-circle from being precisely personal to universally relatable".


title: Sour (album)

text: Neil McCormick of "The Daily Telegraph" opined "Sour" excels in modern production, striking an acoustic-electronic balance by combining Taylor Swift's traditional songcraft, Lorde's harmonies and Billie Eilish's whispery vocals with the brashness of Alanis Morissette and Avril Lavigne. Also touching on these comparisons, fellow critic Robert Christgau said Rodrigo "recalls her hero Taylor more than her West Coast homegirl Billie with bravely retro pre-track-and-hook structures and lyrics that map out the kind of emotional grounding all parents pray their kids achieve, the female ones especially". Mikael Wood of "Los Angeles Times" dubbed the album "flawless Gen Z pop" that ranges from crisp 1990s rock to acoustic balladry, and "the most self-aware pop record in recent memory". "Entertainment Weekly"s Maura Johnston felt "Sour" heaviness is bettered by Rodrigo's grace and self-awareness, and that she is not trying to be "the next" anyone, but instead distills her life and musical tastes into promising, "powerful, hooky pop". "Rolling Stone" critic Angie Martoccio said, beyond her idols and inspirations, Rodrigo forged "a path into an entirely new realm of pop" in "Sour", where she is "unapologetically and enthusiastically her own guide". In July 2022, the publication ranked "Sour" as the 39th best debut album of all time.


title: Sour (album)

text: "Variety" Chris Williman called "Sour" "ridiculously good", and "unabashedly teenage" atypical of most teen singers who often try to mimick adult music. Praising Rodrigo's musical vision and Nigro's production, Rachel Saywitz, reviewing for "The Line of Best Fit", said "Sour" swerves the conventional genres to work Rodrigo's wide taste. Jon Caramanica of "The New York Times" called it a "nuanced and often exceptional debut album", traversing Rodrigo's evolving perspectives real-time. "The Independent" critic Helen Brown thought "Sour" converts 21st-century adolescence into universally resonating "story-songs", and admired Rodrigo's "disarming honesty", using F-bombs unlike former teen stars who "don't usually do that until they're onto the post-breakdown record". She added its organic musicality breaks the "shiny surfaces we've come to expect from such glossy girls."


title: Sour (album)

text: Olivia Horn of "Pitchfork" called it a "nimble and lightly chaotic collection of breakup tunes filled with melancholy and mischief", with profanity typically prohibited by the morality clauses limiting Disney singers. However, Horn stated Rodrigo is "more invested in content than in craft" at moments, settling for simple rhymes, self-evident phrasing, and a DIY recording quality that exposes imperfections in Rodrigo's voice. Rachel Aroesti of "The Guardian" said "Sour" is polished "pop euphoria" that processes anger, jealousy and bewilderment, and is "one of the most gratifyingly undignified breakup albums ever made", but nevertheless, majority of it follows the style of "Drivers License", resulting in a lovely and thoughtful but unadventurous record. "Stereogum" Chris DeVille stated, though Rodrigo's lyrics "can come off desperate and immature" while the album's pace can be a "wearisome slog" at times, "Sour" works by weaponizing its drawbacks. Regarding the album "a youthful tour through heartbreak angst" that weakens only when it "plays too safe", "DIY" Jenessa Williams felt Rodrigo's "truly soars" when she heads strong, rather than victimizing herself in "bitterness".


title: Sour (album)

text: Rodrigo received seven nominations at the 64th Annual Grammy Awards, including Album of the Year and Best Pop Vocal Album for "Sour;" Record of the Year, Song of the Year and Best Pop Solo Performance for "Drivers License"; and Best New Artist. She became the second youngest artist (18 years old) to be nominated for all four of the general categories in the same ceremony, after Billie Eilish (17, for the 62nd Annual Grammy Awards in 2020). Taylor Swift, Jack Antonoff and St. Vincent were nominated for Album of the Year for "Sour" as songwriters credited for interpolation, but subsequently withdrawn by the Recording Academy as they were "not actively involved" in creating "Sour".


title: Sour (album)

text: Numerous critics and publications listed "Sour" in their year-end ranking of the best albums of 2021, often inside the top-ten.


title: Sour (album)

text: "Sour" was the most pre-added album on Apple Music during the week leading up to its release (May 14, 2021 to May 20, 2021), dethroning Billie Eilish's "Happier Than Ever" (2021). Upon release, "Sour" garnered 385 million streams in its first week on global Spotify—the biggest opening week for an album by a female artist on the platform, beating the former record set by Ariana Grande's "Thank U, Next" (2019). The International Federation of the Phonographic Industry (IFPI) reported that Rodrigo was the world's tenth best-selling artist of 2021.


title: Sour (album)

text: Following the debuts of "Drivers License" and "Good 4 U" at the number one spot of the US "Billboard" Hot 100, "Sour" became the first debut album in history to have two songs debut atop the chart, and overall the fourth album to do so.


title: Sour (album)

text: "Sour" debuted at number one on the "Billboard" 200 chart with 295,000 album-equivalent units, of which 72,000 were album sales, and spent a total of five weeks at the spot, becoming the longest reigning number-one album by a female artist in 2021. At the time, the 295,000 sum marked the biggest opening week for any album in 2021. "Sour" further garnered the second-biggest streaming week for an album by a female artist in the US with 300.73 million on-demand streams, behind Ariana Grande's "Thank U, Next" (307.07 million), and the biggest streaming week ever for a debut album by a female artist, surpassing Cardi B's "Invasion of Privacy" (2018). "Sour" charted at number two in its second week earning 186,000 units and remained at the same spot in its third week with 143,000 units.