title: Manisha Koirala

text: In her last release of the year, she acted in the musical drama "", which marked Sanjay Leela Bhansali's directorial debut. Koirala played Annie, a caring daughter to her deaf-mute parents Joseph and Flavy, portrayed by Nana Patekar and Seema Biswas respectively; Salman Khan played Raj, her love interest. In preparation for her role, Koirala learned the Indian Sign Language. A critic from Channel 4 wrote, "Koirala in particular is in her element and demonstrates the full range of her acting ability, rather than playing against it as she has had to do in more traditional films". Despite receiving critical acclaim, "Khamoshi: The Musical" was a flop. "Filmfare" included her performance among a list of "80 Iconic Performances" of Indian cinema in 2011. In a box office roundup of the year, "The Indian Express" felt Koirala put up an "impressive show" with her successes. Her performance in "Khamoshi" earned her a second Filmfare Award for Best Performance and a nomination for Best Actress. She also received her only win for Best Actress at the Screen Awards.


title: Manisha Koirala

text: In 1997, she played the leading role alongside Kajol and Bobby Deol in the thriller "", which was one of the biggest hits that year.


title: Manisha Koirala

text: She went on to collaborate once again with the acclaimed director Mani Ratnam, and starred in his film "Dil Se.." (1998) opposite Shah Rukh Khan. Her role received similarly good reviews and earned her several award nominations including the Filmfare Best Actress Award nomination. The film proved to be a hit overseas. The film became the first Indian film to enter the top 10 in the United Kingdom box office charts. Even months after its release in September 1998, the film was still screened on five screens, five times per day with an average of 3,000 spectators across all screens in the Cineworld complex in Feltham, West London. The film went on to win the Netpac Award at the Berlin International Film Festival, two National Film Awards, and six Filmfare Awards. The intense political agenda of the film with the trials of the Assamese on the India-China border, the love story and the fact that it coincided with the 50th Independence Anniversary celebrations became a major factor for its success overseas, particularly amongst the South Asian diaspora in the west. "Dil Se.." was also hit in Japan. Also she played the leading role opposite to Govinda in the movie "Maharaja".


title: Manisha Koirala

text: In 1999, she starred in the successful "Kuchhe Dhaage", which was followed by six more releases, the most notable of them being Indra Kumar's drama "Mann". She played a traffic accident victim in the film, which entered into the top five highest-grossing films of the year. Her performance in the film won her favourable reviews. Film critic M. Ali Ikram wrote about her performance: "If there is a respite for Manisha's innumerable fans of late, this flick is it. We may not care about hits and flops, but it is painful to watch this acting virtuoso in the innumerable side roles she has been seen in of late. Indra Kumar's decision to cast Manisha here is a case of perfect casting, and she never lets him or the audience down. This lady is truly the Meena Kumari of her generation. It is great fun watching Manisha and Aamir Khan's perfect chemistry opposite one another. The film's climax has both stars permanently molding a spot for themselves in Bollywood history, and it will have you shedding tears by the bucketful." It was a successful feature at the box office. While filming "Laawaris" (1999), Koirala began to get tired of her busy schedule and felt "the pressure getting to [her]"; she turned to alcohol for solace and developed anger issues.


title: Manisha Koirala

text: In 2000, she hosted the TV show "Sawaal Dus Crore Ka" on Zee TV alongside Anupam Kher. In 2001, she starred in the drama "Grahan" opposite Jackie Shroff. Her portrayal of a rape victim in the film who seeks justice was appreciated, but the film, which was a much-delayed project, was a major commercial failure. After starring in moderately successful "" she next played the protagonist in Rajkumar Santoshi's drama "Lajja", along with an ensemble cast that included Rekha, Anil Kapoor and Madhuri Dixit. The film received a positive reception from critics, and so did Koirala's performance. Her last release of the year was "Moksha", opposite Arjun Rampal, which was a failure at the box office.


title: Manisha Koirala

text: In 2002, she starred opposite Ajay Devgan in Ram Gopal Verma's "Company". The film was a critical success and she won her third Filmfare Critics' Best Actress Award. In that same year, she appeared in "Ek Chotisi Love Story". The film, when released, generated tremendous response at the box office, becoming one of the few successes of the year. The movie's release was stayed as she accused the director of the film, Shashilal Nair, of using her body double to shoot some love scenes in the film, and portraying her in bad light by shooting positions using another actress in her place, without her approval. A court finally decided to stay the release of the film.


title: Manisha Koirala

text: After years of success, in 2003, she was seen in several low budget films, yet not less challenging roles. She ventured into strong woman-oriented films in 2003, such as "Escape From Taliban", which won her the BFJA Award for Best Actress. She then played the protagonist in "Market" (2003), a film portraying the whole life story of a young prostitute. The film did decently at the box office and was considered 'average.'


title: Manisha Koirala

text: In 2004, she moved to New York City and earned a diploma in filmmaking from New York University. While living in New York, she became a member of an independent documentary filmmakers' society.


title: Manisha Koirala

text: After receiving a diploma in filmmaking, she produced the small-budget caper-comedy "Paisa Vasool" (2004), in which she starred along with Sushmita Sen; this was probably the first ever chick-flick in Indian cinema in that it did not have a male lead nor a love story. Since then, she has played supporting and leading roles in various unsuccessful films, some of which have been well received by critics, such as the historical epic drama "" (2005), the thriller "Tum - A Dangerous Obsession" (2005), and the horror film "Anjaane – The Unknown" (2005).


title: Manisha Koirala

text: In "Anwar", she played a supporting role along with her brother Siddharth, her only release in 2007. In 2008, she made her comeback to films, with her first leading role since "Mumbai Express" (2005), in "Tulsi", opposite Irrfan Khan. Although before its release, her comeback was described by the media as "shocking", and the film suffered from poor marketing, her performance as Tulsi, a young homemaker diagnosed with leukemia, was well received. Taran Adarsh from "IndiaFM" wrote: "Manisha Koirala sinks her teeth in this role and delivers a fine performance." She next starred in "Sirf" (2008). The film was released without any notice or publicity and was a critical and box office failure. Her first Bengali film "Khela", directed by Rituparno Ghosh, released the same year, along with the long delayed Hindi film "Mehbooba"; both films released on the same day.


title: Manisha Koirala

text: In December 2009, she served as a jury member in the fifth edition of the Dubai International Film Festival. Her next film was Deepti Naval's directorial debut "Do Paise Ki Dhoop, Char Aane Ki Barish" which premiered at the market section of the 2009 Cannes Film Festival to a positive response. Later that year, she acted in Partho Ghosh's "Ek Second... Jo Zindagi Badal De?".


title: Manisha Koirala

text: On 19 June 2010, Koirala married Samrat Dahal, a Nepali businessman, in a traditional ceremony held in Kathmandu. The couple spent their honeymoon in Finland. They met through the online social networking website Facebook. The couple divorced in 2012.


title: Manisha Koirala

text: In 2010, she made her foray into Malayalam cinema with Shyamaprasad's "Elektra", a psycho-sensual drama based on Sophocles's ancient Greek tragic play "Electra". She plays the antagonist in the film, which revolves around the concept of the Electra complex, which is a daughter's psychosexual competition with her mother for her father's affection. The film premiered at the International Film Festival of India, where it was well received. She also acted in her native Nepali-language film, "Dharmaa", after a gap of 22 years since her first film.


title: Manisha Koirala

text: She was next seen in director Onir's critically acclaimed anthology film "I Am", sharing the screen with Juhi Chawla. Noted film critic Taran Adarsh commented: "It's a delight to watch Juhi and Manisha, after a hiatus. Both deliver striking performances – even getting the language right." In 2011 Koirala appeared in "Mappillai", her first Tamil movie in five years. A remake of the 1989 film of the same name, the film saw her reprising the role originally played by Srividya. Her performance earned her a nomination at the Filmfare Award for Best Supporting Actress – Tamil. The film was declared a hit. In 2012, she collaborated with director Ram Gopal Verma for his 3D horror film "Bhoot Returns", a sequel to the 2003 hit "Bhoot".


title: Manisha Koirala

text: On 29 November 2012, media news reported that Koirala had been diagnosed with ovarian cancer. She had no clue about the disease until she felt very weak, and went to a hospital in Kathmandu with her brother. She flew to India and was admitted to Jaslok Hospital in Mumbai. She then flew to the US for treatment, however the exact ailment was not disclosed. On 10 December, she underwent surgery. The following day it was reported that the surgery had been successful. She had to undergo chemotherapy and spent months at the hospital in New York. As of 2 May 2017, she had been cancer-free for four years. After fighting cancer and winning the battle, she is actively involved in spreading awareness about the disease.


title: Manisha Koirala

text: By mid-2014, the actress was cancer-free. In 2015, her much delayed psychological thriller "" (2015) released.


title: Manisha Koirala

text: Koirala silently returned with a Kannada- Tamil, mystery film "Game" where she portrayed the main female lead. Her official Bollywood comeback was with the drama "Dear Maya" (2017). Directed by Sunaina Bhatnagar and co-starring Madiha Imam, her role was of a middle-aged lonely woman who embarks on a journey to find love when she receives love letters. The film received mixed reviews from critics with praise directed to Koirala's performance. Sweta Kaushal of "Hindustan Times" said: "Manisha Koirala shines like a diamond in a coal mine." Suhani Singh from "India Today" noted that she is the "star in this mawkish coming-of-age story", while Stutee Ghosh of "The Quint" wrote that "Manisha Koirala's grace makes it worth a watch."


title: Manisha Koirala

text: The next year, Koirala starred in the Netflix anthology "Lust Stories". The film, a sequel to the 2013 film "Bombay Talkies", featured her in one of the segments directed by Dibakar Banerji. She played a middle-aged housewife, having an extra-marital affair with her husband's best friend. The film was nominated for International Emmy Award for Best TV Movie or Miniseries. Koirala's performance was also, appreciated. This was followed by an appearance in Rajkumar Hirani's biography "Sanju", based on the life of actor Sanjay Dutt; Koirala portrayed the role of actress Nargis, Dutt's mother. The film emerged as the highest-grossing film of the year. She later featured in "Prasthanam" Hindi remake of the political thriller with "same title", in which she played as Sanjay Dutt's wife and much delayed film "Do Paise Ki Dhoop, Chaar Aane Ki Baarish" released on Netflix this year.


title: Manisha Koirala

text: In 2021, she is appeared in AR Rahman's romantic musical "99 Songs". She then starred in an American comedy film "India Sweets and Spices", directed by Geeta Malik. The film is based on Geeta Malik's own script “Dinner With Friends” that won the 2016 Academy Nicholl Fellowships in screen-writing.


title: Manisha Koirala

text: Koirala is actively involved in social work, specifically working with organisations to promote women's rights, prevention of violence against women, and also to prevent the human trafficking of Nepali girls for prostitution.


title: Manisha Koirala

text: In September 1999, she was appointed as a UNFPA Goodwill Ambassador for India. Koirala has advocated the need for an official Earth Anthem for the planet supporting the efforts of Indian poet-diplomat Abhay K in this direction.


title: Manisha Koirala

text: In May 2013, after her cancer treatment, Koirala said she intends to use her celebrity status and personal story to inspire others who are battling the dreaded disease. "All I want to do from now onwards is to be useful to people who could need [a] little advice," she said in her first interview since undergoing cancer treatment at Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Centre. She has become a motivational speaker after her battle with cancer, and gives talks on various topics at schools, hospitals and organisations.


title: Manisha Koirala

text: She was appointed as a UNFPA Goodwill Ambassador for Nepal in 2015 and was involved in the relief works after the Nepal earthquake 2015.


title: Manisha Koirala

text: She gave speeches in 2016 on "Transformation" at Mercedes-Benz India in Pune, and on "Importance of Being Mindful Living" at Cipla in Goa. She was scheduled to speakon "Health is Our Responsibility" at Sneh Foundation in February 2017; on "Cancer is Conquerable" at Apollo Hospitals in Hyderabad; and on "My Life's Lesson" at Shiv Nadar Foundation in Chennai; on "Why Celebrities Need Coaching" in Delhi; on "Woman Empowerment" at National Women's Parliament in Vijayawada; and on "Gifts of Cancer" at TEDx Jaipur.


title: Manisha Koirala

text: In 2017, she was appointed as Goodwill Ambassador by Nepal’s Ministry of Urban Development for Bagmati Cleanup Mega Campaign aimed at cleaning the Bagmati River.


title: Manisha Koirala

text: She has contributed as a co-writer to a book: Healed, the story of her battle against ovarian cancer.


title: Manisha Koirala

text: In 2020, she launched "Manisha Koirala Cancer Education Fund" with the support of Global College International, Kathmandu to give educational scholarships to children of cancer victim or survivors with poor financial background. Her social activism and achievements in movies has made her one of the most famous Nepalis in the world.


title: Phylicia Rashad

text: Phylicia Rashad ( ) (née Ayers-Allen; born June 19, 1948) is an American actress, singer and director who is dean of the College of Fine Arts at Howard University. She is best known for her role as Clair Huxtable on the NBC sitcom "The Cosby Show" (1984–1992) which earned her Emmy Award nominations in 1985 and 1986. She also played Ruth Lucas on "Cosby" (1996–2000). She was dubbed "The Mother of the Black Community" at the 2010 NAACP Image Awards.


title: Phylicia Rashad

text: In 2004, Rashad became the first black actress to win the Tony Award for Best Actress in a Play, which she won for her role in the revival of "A Raisin in the Sun". In 2022, Rashad won her second Tony Award for Best Featured Actress in a Play for her performance in Dominique Morisseau's "Skeleton Crew". Her other Broadway credits include "Into the Woods" (1988), "Jelly's Last Jam" (1993), "Gem of the Ocean" (2004), and "Cat on a Hot Tin Roof" (2008). Rashad won a NAACP Image Award when she reprised her "A Raisin in the Sun" role in the 2008 television adaptation.


title: Phylicia Rashad

text: She has appeared in the films "For Colored Girls" (2010), "Good Deeds" (2012), "Creed" (2015), and "Creed II" (2018). She also voiced Brenda Glover on the Nick Jr. animated children's educational television series "Little Bill" (1999–2004). In the 21st century, she has directed revivals of three plays by August Wilson, in major theaters in Seattle, Princeton, New Jersey; and Los Angeles.


title: Phylicia Rashad

text: Phylicia Ayers-Allen was born on June 19, 1948, in Houston, Texas. Her mother, Vivian Ayers, is a Pulitzer Prize-nominated artist, poet, playwright, scholar, and publisher. Her father, Andrew Arthur Allen, was an orthodontist. Her siblings are brother Tex (Andrew Arthur Allen Jr.), a jazz-musician; sister Debbie Allen, an actress, choreographer, and director; and brother Hugh Allen, now a real estate banker in Charlotte, North Carolina. Their parents divorced when Phylicia was six.


title: Phylicia Rashad

text: Several years later, her mother moved with the two sisters to Mexico, to evade United States segregation.


title: Phylicia Rashad

text: Ayers-Allen later studied at Howard University, graduating "magna cum laude" in 1970 with a Bachelor of Fine Arts degree. While there, she was initiated into the Alpha Chapter of Alpha Kappa Alpha sorority.


title: Phylicia Rashad

text: Ayers-Allen first became known for her stage work with a string of Broadway credits, including Deena Jones in "Dreamgirls" (she also was Sheryl Lee Ralph's understudy until leaving the show in 1982, after being passed over as Ralph's full-time replacement). She played a Munchkin in "The Wiz" for three and a half years. In 1978, she released the album "Josephine Superstar", a disco concept album telling the life story of Josephine Baker. The album was mainly written and produced by Jacques Morali and Victor Willis, Rashad's second husband and the original lead singer and lyricist of the Village People. She met Willis while they were both cast in "The Wiz".


title: Phylicia Rashad

text: Other Broadway credits include "", "Cat on a Hot Tin Roof", "Gem of the Ocean", "Raisin in the Sun" (2004 Tony Award for Best Actress in a Play/Drama Desk Award), "Blue", "Jelly's Last Jam", "Into the Woods", and "Ain't Supposed to Die a Natural Death". Off-Broadway credits include Lincoln Center's productions of "Cymbeline" and "Bernarda Alba"; "Helen", "The Story" and "Everybody's Ruby" at the Public Theater; The Negro Ensemble Company productions of "Puppet Play", "Zooman and the Sign", "Sons and Fathers of Sons", "In an Upstate Motel", "Weep Not For Me", and "The Great Mac Daddy"; Lincoln Center's production of Ed Bullins' "The Duplex"; and "The Sirens" at the Manhattan Theatre Club. In regional theatre, she performed as Euripides' "Medea" and in "Blues for an Alabama Sky" at the Alliance Theatre in Atlanta, Georgia. Other regional theatres at which she has performed are the Arena Stage in Washington, D.C. and the Huntington Theatre in Boston.


title: Phylicia Rashad

text: In the early 21st century, Rashad was the first black actress of any nationality to win the Best Actress (Play) Tony Award, for her 2004 performance as Lena Younger in a revival of the play "A Raisin in the Sun" by Lorraine Hansberry. Rashad also won the 2004 Drama Desk award for Best Actress in a Play for "A Raisin in the Sun", tying (split award that year) with Viola Davis for the play "Intimate Apparel". Rashad was nominated again for a Tony the following year, for her performance in "Gem of the Ocean".


title: Phylicia Rashad

text: In 2007, Rashad made her directorial debut with the Seattle Repertory Theatre's production of August Wilson’s "Gem of the Ocean".


title: Phylicia Rashad

text: In 2008, Rashad starred on Broadway as Big Mama in an all African-American production of Tennessee Williams's Pulitzer Prize-winning drama "Cat on a Hot Tin Roof", directed by her sister Debbie Allen. She appeared alongside stage veterans James Earl Jones (Big Daddy) and Anika Noni Rose (Maggie), as well as film actor Terrence Howard, who made his Broadway debut as Brick. In 2009, she appeared as Violet Weston, the drug-addicted matriarch of Tracy Letts's award-winning play "", at the Music Box Theatre.


title: Phylicia Rashad

text: Rashad returned to directing August Wilson's work in early 2014, when she led a revival of Wilson's "Fences", at the McCarter Theatre in Princeton, New Jersey. It received generally positive reviews. She continued to focus on Wilson's work, including a well-received production of "Ma Rainey's Black Bottom", which she directed at the Mark Taper Forum in Los Angeles in late 2016.


title: Phylicia Rashad

text: From March 17 to May 1, 2016, Rashad played the lead role of Shelah in Tarell Alvin McCraney's play "Head of Passes" at The Public Theater. Her performance was positively reviewed.


title: Phylicia Rashad

text: Rashad joined the cast of the ABC soap opera "One Life to Live" to play publicist Courtney Wright in 1983. She is best known for the role of attorney Clair Huxtable on the NBC sitcom "The Cosby Show". The show, which ran from 1984 to 1992, starred Bill Cosby as obstetrician Heathcliff "Cliff" Huxtable, and focused on their life with their five children. In 1985, Rashad co-hosted the NBC telecast of the "Macy's Thanksgiving Day Parade" with Pat Sajak and Bert Convy.


title: Phylicia Rashad

text: When Cosby returned to TV comedy in 1996 with CBS's "Cosby", he called Rashad to play Ruth Lucas, his character's wife. The pilot episode had been shot with Telma Hopkins, but Cosby fired the executive producer and replaced Hopkins with Rashad. The sitcom ran from 1996 to 2000. That year, Cosby also asked Rashad to work on his animated television series "Little Bill", in which the actress voiced Bill's mother, Brenda, until the show's end in 2004. She also played a role in the pre-show of the Dinosaur ride at Walt Disney World's Animal Kingdom theme park as Dr. Helen Marsh, the head of the Dino Institute.


title: Phylicia Rashad

text: Rashad played "Kill Moves"' wealthy mother on "Everybody Hates Chris" on December 9, 2007. In 2007 she appeared as Winnie Guster in the "Psych" episode "Gus's Dad May Have Killed an Old Guy". She returned to the role in 2008, in the episode "Christmas Joy".


title: Phylicia Rashad

text: In February 2008, Rashad portrayed Lena Younger in the television film adaptation of "A Raisin in the Sun", directed by Kenny Leon. It starred core members of the cast of the 2004 Broadway revival at the Royale Theatre of Lorraine Hansberry's 1959 play, including Audra McDonald as Ruth Younger, and Sean Combs as Walter Lee Younger. The television film adaption debuted at the 2008 Sundance Film Festival and was broadcast by ABC on February 25, 2008. According to Nielsen Media Research, the program was watched by 12.7 million viewers and ranked #9 in the ratings for the week ending March 2, 2008.


title: Phylicia Rashad

text: In November 2010, Rashad featured as Gilda in the ensemble cast in the Tyler Perry film "For Colored Girls", based on the play "For Colored Girls Who Have Considered Suicide When the Rainbow Is Enuf" by Ntozake Shange.


title: Phylicia Rashad

text: "I saw the original Broadway play. I thought it was amazing how such a story that wasn’t pretty was poetry. Usually poetry is about lofty things and this was the poetry of speech and the movement of everyday people. I found a little bit of it off-putting to tell you the truth, because it was so angry when I saw it. And I think Tyler Perry has added an element here that wasn't in the original stage production, and that is the necessity for taking responsibility for one's own self otherwise you are just living to die. That is where he wrote the line [in the film], 'You gotta take some responsibility in this. Otherwise you are just living to die.'"


title: Phylicia Rashad

text: In 2012, she starred in another Tyler Perry movie, "Good Deeds". Also in 2012, Rashad played Clairee Belcher in the remake of "Steel Magnolias" (the role originated by Olympia Dukakis). This version has an all African American A-list cast, including Queen Latifah as M'Lynn, Jill Scott as Truvy, Condola Rashād as Shelby, Adepero Oduye as Annelle, and Alfre Woodard as Ouiser.


title: Phylicia Rashad

text: In 2016, Rashad was cast as a recurring guest star in the role of Diana DuBois in the third season of the Lee Daniels-produced "Empire" television series on Fox.


title: Phylicia Rashad

text: In 2017, Rashad portrayed Bishop Yvette A. Flunder, pastor of The City of Refuge Church in San Francisco, Calif., as part of the Dustin Lance Black mini-series "When We Rise". Her appearance in the show highlighted the reputed compassion of the church, the commitment of its leadership, and the loving home the church provides to minister in the tough, primarily African-American community in San Francisco.


title: Phylicia Rashad

text: In 2020, Rashad provided the voice of Libba Gardner, the mother of Joe Gardner (voiced by Jamie Foxx), in Pixar's "Soul".


title: Phylicia Rashad

text: In May 2021, Rashad was appointed as dean of Howard University's Chadwick A. Boseman College of Fine Arts. In June 2021, her comments supporting the release of former co-star Bill Cosby from prison were criticized. Some called for Howard University to revoke her appointment, and Howard University stated that "Personal positions of University leadership do not reflect Howard University's policies." Rashad later apologized in an email to Howard University students and their parents.


title: Phylicia Rashad

text: Rashad's first marriage, in 1972, was to dentist William Lancelot Bowles, Jr. They had one son, William Lancelot Bowles III, who was born the following year. The marriage ended in 1975. Rashad married Victor Willis (original lead singer of the Village People in 1978 they had met during the run of "The Wiz"). They divorced in 1982.


title: Phylicia Rashad

text: She married a third time, to Ahmad Rashad on December 14, 1985. He was a former NFL wide receiver and sportscaster. It was a third marriage for each of them, and she took his last name. He proposed to her during a pregame show for a nationally televised Thanksgiving Day football game between the New York Jets and the Detroit Lions on November 28, 1985. Their daughter, Condola Phylea Rashād, was born on December 11, 1986, in New York. The couple divorced in early 2001, and she has retained the surname Rashad.


title: Phylicia Rashad

text: Rashad faced widespread criticism after she posted the following tweet in support of Bill Cosby after he was released from jail on a technicality: "FINALLY!!!! A terrible wrong is being righted- a miscarriage of justice is corrected!" This support was characterized as rape apologism.


title: Summer Time Rendering

text: Following the death of his parents, Shinpei Ajiro grew up with the Kofune sisters Ushio and Mio before heading to Tokyo to live alone. Two years later, he returns to his hometown of Hitogashima Island, Wakayama Prefecture to attend Ushio's funeral following news of her drowning. However, Shinpei becomes suspicious when he receives news of strangle marks around Ushio's neck, implying that she was murdered intentionally. Now haunted by her "ghost" and assisted by Mio, Shinpei tries to find the answers to what really happened to Ushio and possibly save the residents from a strange dark enigma.


title: Summer Time Rendering

text: "Summer Time Rendering", written and illustrated by , was serialized in Shueisha's digital magazine "Shōnen Jump+" from October 23, 2017, to February 1, 2021. The series was also simultaneously published on the app and website "Manga Plus". Shueisha collected its chapters in thirteen individual "tankōbon" volumes, released from February 2, 2018, to April 2, 2021.


title: Summer Time Rendering

text: In North America, the manga was licensed for English release by Udon Entertainment. They released the series in a in a six-volume paperback omnibus edition from June 1 to September 6, 2022. They also announced a simultaneous hardcover edition; however, it was delayed, and the first volume is set to be released on December 27, 2022.


title: Summer Time Rendering

text: A two-part spin-off, titled , was published on "Shōnen Jump+" on April 14–15, 2022. It was published in English on "Manga Plus". Shueisha released the collected volume on July 4, 2022.


title: Summer Time Rendering

text: An anime adaptation was announced at the end of the series' 139th and final chapter in February 2021. It was later confirmed to be a 25-episode television series. The series is produced by OLM and directed by Ayumu Watanabe, with Hiroshi Seko overseeing the series' scripts, Miki Matsumoto designing the characters, and Kusanagi handling the art. Keiichi Okabe, Ryuichi Takada, and Keigo Hoashi are composing the music at MONACA. It aired from April 15 to September 30, 2022, on Tokyo MX, BS11, and Kansai TV.


title: Summer Time Rendering

text: The first opening theme is by Macaroni Enpitsu, while the first ending theme song is by cadode. The second opening theme song is by Asaka, while the second ending theme song is by Riria. Disney Platform Distribution licensed the anime. The international release dates vary between regions, starting from May 4, 2022, in Indonesia, Malaysia, and Thailand; June 1, 2022 in Australia, Hong Kong, New Zealand, Singapore and Taiwan; July 20, 2022 in South Korea; and on October 19, 2022, in India via Disney+ Hotstar.


title: Summer Time Rendering

text: A live-action adaptation was announced at the end of the series' 139th and final chapter in February 2021.


title: Summer Time Rendering

text: A visual novel, titled was announced by Mages in July 2022. The game retells the events of the anime, and also follows six original stories, with an original ending. In addition to the characters in the series, the game also features an original character designed by the series' author Yasuki Tanaka, named Kaori Koyuba (voiced by Yui Ogura). The cast members from the anime reprised their roles in the game. It is scheduled to be released for PlayStation 4 and Nintendo Switch in Japan on January 26, 2023. The limited edition of the game includes an official guidebook and an original soundtrack CD.


title: Summer Time Rendering

text: Kōhei Horikoshi, "My Hero Academia"s author and Tanaka's ex-assistant, made positive comments about the series.


title: Summer Time Rendering

text: In a review of the first volume, Erica Friedman, writing for Anime News Network called the series a "can't-put-down kind of read", praising its art and story, adding as well that it has a "nice balance between the people, the setting, the action, and the horror." Friedman, however, criticized its fanservice, stating that "[it] can be distracting".


title: Steve Ditko

text: Stephen John Ditko (; November 2, 1927 – June 29, 2018) was an American comics artist and writer best known for being co-creator of Marvel superhero Spider-Man and creator of Doctor Strange. He also made notable contributions to the character of Iron Man with the character's iconic red and yellow design being revolutionized by Ditko.


title: Steve Ditko

text: Ditko studied under Batman artist Jerry Robinson at the Cartoonist and Illustrators School in New York City. He began his professional career in 1953, working in the studio of Joe Simon and Jack Kirby, beginning as an inker and coming under the influence of artist Mort Meskin. During this time, he then began his long association with Charlton Comics, where he did work in the genres of science fiction, horror, and mystery. He also co-created the superhero Captain Atom in 1960.


title: Steve Ditko

text: During the 1950s, Ditko also drew for Atlas Comics, a forerunner of Marvel Comics. He went on to contribute much significant work to Marvel. In 1966, after being the exclusive artist on "The Amazing Spider-Man" and the "Doctor Strange" feature in "Strange Tales", Ditko left Marvel for unclear reasons.


title: Steve Ditko

text: Ditko continued to work for Charlton and also DC Comics, including a revamp of the long-running character the Blue Beetle, and creating or co-creating the Question, the Creeper, Shade the Changing Man, and Hawk and Dove. Ditko also began contributing to small independent publishers, where he created Mr. A, a hero reflecting the influence of Ayn Rand's philosophy of Objectivism. Ditko largely declined to give interviews, saying he preferred to communicate through his work.


title: Steve Ditko

text: Ditko was inducted into the comics industry's Jack Kirby Hall of Fame in 1990, and into the Will Eisner Award Hall of Fame in 1994.


title: Steve Ditko

text: Stephen John Ditko was born on November 2, 1927 in Johnstown, Pennsylvania. His parents were second-generation Americans: children of Rusyn Byzantine Catholic immigrants from the former Austro-Hungarian Empire (now Slovakia). His father, Stefan ("Stephen"), was an artistically talented master carpenter at a steel mill and his mother, Anna ("née" Balaschak), a homemaker. The second-oldest child in a working-class family, he was preceded by sister Anna Marie, and followed by sister Elizabeth and brother Patrick. Inspired by his father's love of newspaper comic strips, particularly Hal Foster's "Prince Valiant", Ditko found his interest in comics accelerated by the introduction of the superhero Batman in 1939, and by Will Eisner's "The Spirit", which appeared in a tabloid-sized comic-book insert in Sunday newspapers.


title: Steve Ditko

text: Ditko in junior high school was part of a group of students who crafted wooden models of German airplanes to aid civilian World War II aircraft-spotters. Upon graduating from Greater Johnstown High School in 1945, he enlisted in the U.S. Army on October 26, 1945, and did military service in Allied-occupied Germany, where he drew comics for an Army newspaper.


title: Steve Ditko

text: Following his discharge, Ditko learned that his idol, Batman artist Jerry Robinson, was teaching at the Cartoonists and Illustrators School (later the School of Visual Arts) in New York City. Moving there in 1950, he enrolled in the art school under the G.I. Bill. Robinson found the young student "a very hard worker who really focused on his drawing" and someone who "could work well with other writers as well as write his own stories and create his own characters", and he helped Ditko acquire a scholarship for the following year. "He was in my class for two years, four or five days a week, five hours a night. It was very intense." Robinson, who invited artists and editors to speak with his class, once brought in Stan Lee, then editor of Marvel Comics' 1950s precursor Atlas Comics and, "I think that was when Stan first saw Steve's work."


title: Steve Ditko

text: Ditko began professionally illustrating comic books in early 1953, drawing writer Bruce Hamilton's science-fiction story "Stretching Things" for the Key Publications imprint Stanmor Publications, which sold the story to Ajax/Farrell, where it finally found publication in "Fantastic Fears" #5 (cover-dated Feb. 1954). Ditko's first published work was his second professional story, the six-page "Paper Romance" in "Daring Love" #1 (Oct. 1953), published by the Key imprint Gillmor Magazines.


title: Steve Ditko

text: Shortly afterward, Ditko found work at the studio of writer-artists Joe Simon and Jack Kirby, who had created Captain America and other characters. Beginning as an inker on backgrounds, Ditko was soon working with and learning from Mort Meskin, an artist whose work he had long admired. "Meskin was fabulous," Ditko once recalled. "I couldn't believe the ease with which he drew: strong compositions, loose pencils, yet complete; detail without clutter. I loved his stuff". Ditko's known assistant work includes aiding inker Meskin on the Jack Kirby pencil work of Harvey Comics' "Captain 3-D" #1 (Dec. 1953). For his own third published story, Ditko penciled and inked the six-page "A Hole in His Head" in "Black Magic" vol. 4, #3 (Dec. 1953), published by Simon & Kirby's Crestwood Publications imprint Prize Comics.


title: Steve Ditko

text: Ditko then began a long association with the Derby, Connecticut, publisher Charlton Comics, a low-budget division of a company best known for song-lyric magazines. Beginning with the cover of "The Thing!" #12 (Feb. 1954) and the eight-page vampire story "Cinderella" in that issue, Ditko would continue to work intermittently for Charlton until the company's demise in 1986, producing science fiction, horror and mystery stories, as well as co-creating Captain Atom, with writer Joe Gill, in "Space Adventures" #33 (March 1960). He first went on hiatus from the company, and comics altogether, in mid-1954, when he contracted tuberculosis and returned to his parents' home in Johnstown to recuperate.


title: Steve Ditko

text: After he recovered and moved back to New York City in late 1955, Ditko began drawing for Atlas Comics, the 1950s precursor of Marvel Comics, beginning with the four-page "There'll Be Some Changes Made" in "Journey into Mystery" #33 (April 1956); this debut tale would be reprinted in Marvel's "Curse of the Weird" #4 (March 1994). Ditko would go on to contribute a large number of stories, many considered classic, to Atlas/Marvel's "Strange Tales" and the newly launched "Amazing Adventures", "Strange Worlds", "Tales of Suspense" and "Tales to Astonish", issues of which would typically open with a Kirby-drawn monster story, followed by one or two twist-ending thrillers or sci-fi tales drawn by Don Heck, Paul Reinman, or Joe Sinnott, all capped by an often-surreal, sometimes self-reflexive short by Ditko and writer-editor Stan Lee.


title: Steve Ditko

text: These Lee-Ditko short stories proved so popular that "Amazing Adventures" was reformatted to feature such stories exclusively beginning with issue #7 (Dec. 1961), when the comic was rechristened "Amazing Adult Fantasy", a name intended to reflect its more "sophisticated" nature, as likewise the new tagline "The magazine that respects your intelligence". Lee in 2009 described these "short, five-page filler strips that Steve and I did together", originally "placed in any of our comics that had a few extra pages to fill", as "odd fantasy tales that I'd dream up with O. Henry-type endings." Giving an early example of what would later be known as the "Marvel Method" of writer-artist collaboration, Lee said, "All I had to do was give Steve a one-line description of the plot and he'd be off and running. He'd take those skeleton outlines I had given him and turn them into classic little works of art that ended up being far cooler than I had any right to expect."


title: Steve Ditko

text: After Marvel Comics editor-in-chief Stan Lee obtained permission from publisher Martin Goodman to create a new "ordinary teen" superhero named "Spider-Man", Lee originally approached his leading artist, Jack Kirby. Kirby told Lee about his own 1950s character conception, variously called the Silver Spider and Spiderman, in which an orphaned boy finds a magic ring that gives him super powers. Comics historian Greg Theakston says Lee and Kirby "immediately sat down for a story conference" and Lee afterward directed Kirby to flesh out the character and draw some pages. "A day or two later", Kirby showed Lee the first six pages, and, as Lee recalled, "I hated the way he was doing it. Not that he did it badly — it just wasn't the character I wanted; it was too heroic".


title: Steve Ditko

text: Lee turned to Ditko, who developed a visual motif Lee found satisfactory, although Lee would later replace Ditko's original cover with one penciled by Kirby. Ditko said, "The Spider-Man pages Stan showed me were nothing like the (eventually) published character. In fact, the only drawings of Spider-Man were on the splash <nowiki>[</nowiki>i.e., page 1] and at the end [where] Kirby had the guy leaping at you with a web gun... Anyway, the first five pages took place in the home, and the kid finds a ring and turns into Spider-Man."


title: Steve Ditko

text: Ditko also recalled that, "One of the first things I did was to work up a costume. A vital, visual part of the character. I had to know how he looked ... before I did any breakdowns. For example: A clinging power so he wouldn't have hard shoes or boots, a hidden wrist-shooter versus a web gun and holster, etc. ... I wasn't sure Stan would like the idea of covering the character's face but I did it because it hid an obviously boyish face. It would also add mystery to the character..."


title: Steve Ditko

text: Much earlier, in a rare contemporaneous account, Ditko described his and Lee's contributions in a mail interview with Gary Martin published in "Comic Fan" #2 (Summer 1965): "Stan Lee thought the name up. I did costume, web gimmick on wrist & spider signal". He added he would continue drawing Spider-Man "[i]f nothing better comes along." That same year, he expressed to the fanzine "Voice of Comicdom", regarding a poll of "Best Liked" fan-created comics, "It seems a shame, since comics themselves have so little variety of stories and styles that you would deliberately restrict your own creative efforts to professional comics['] shallow range. What is 'Best Liked' by most readers is what they are most familiar in seeing and any policy based on readers likes has to end up with a lot of look-a-like (sic) strips. You have a great opportunity to show everyone a whole new range of ideas, unlimited types of stories and styles—why FLUB it!"


title: Steve Ditko

text: From 1958 to 1968, Ditko shared a Manhattan studio at 43rd Street and Eighth Avenue with noted fetish artist Eric Stanton, an art-school classmate. When either artist was under deadline pressure, it was not uncommon for them to pitch in and help the other with his assignment. Ditko biographer Blake Bell, without citing sources, said, "At one time in history, Ditko denied ever touching Stanton's work, even though Stanton himself said they would each dabble in each other's art; mainly spot-inking", and the introduction to one book of Stanton's work says, "Eric Stanton drew his pictures in India ink, and they were then hand-coloured by Ditko". In a 1988 interview with Theakston, Stanton recalled that although his contribution to Spider-Man was "almost nil", he and Ditko had "worked on storyboards together and I added a few ideas. But the whole thing was created by Steve on his own... I think I added the business about the webs coming out of his hands".


title: Steve Ditko

text: Spider-Man debuted in "Amazing Fantasy" #15 (Aug. 1962), the final issue of that science-fiction/fantasy anthology series. When the issue proved to be a top seller, Spider-Man was given his own series, "The Amazing Spider-Man". Lee and Ditko's collaboration on the series saw the creation of many of the character's best known antagonists including Doctor Octopus in issue #3 (July 1963); the Sandman in #4 (Sept. 1963); the Lizard in #6 (Nov. 1963); Electro in #9 (March 1964); and the Green Goblin in #14 (July 1964). Increasingly irritated by his perception that he was not receiving his due or proper compensation, Ditko demanded credit for the plotting he was contributing under the Marvel Method. Lee acquiesced, and starting with #25 (June 1965), Ditko received plot credit for the stories.


title: Steve Ditko

text: One of the most celebrated issues of the Lee-Ditko run is #33 (Feb. 1966), the third part of the story arc "If This Be My Destiny...!", and featuring the dramatic scene of Spider-Man, through force of will and thoughts of family, escaping from being pinned by heavy machinery. Comics historian Les Daniels noted, "Steve Ditko squeezes every ounce of anguish out of Spider-Man's predicament, complete with visions of the uncle he failed and the aunt he has sworn to save." Peter David observed, "After his origin, this two-page sequence from "Amazing Spider-Man" #33 is perhaps the best-loved sequence from the Stan Lee/Steve Ditko era." Steve Saffel stated the "full page Ditko image from "The Amazing Spider-Man" #33 is one of the most powerful ever to appear in the series and influenced writers and artists for many years to come." Matthew K. Manning wrote that "Ditko's illustrations for the first few pages of this Lee story included what would become one of the most iconic scenes in Spider-Man's history." The story was chosen as #15 in the 100 Greatest Marvels of All Time poll of Marvel's readers in 2001. Editor Robert Greenberger wrote in his introduction to the story, "These first five pages are a modern-day equivalent to Shakespeare as Parker's soliloquy sets the stage for his next action. And with dramatic pacing and storytelling, Ditko delivers one of the great sequences in all comics."


title: Steve Ditko

text: In this series, Ditko also had a lasting effect on Marvel's branding when he inserted a small box on the upper left-hand corner of issue #2 that featured a picture of Spider-Man's face along with the company name and price. Stan Lee approved of this visual motif and soon made it a standard feature on all of Marvel's subsequent comic books that would last for decades.


title: Steve Ditko

text: Ditko created the supernatural hero Doctor Strange in "Strange Tales" #110 (July 1963). Ditko in the 2000s told a visiting fan that Lee gave Dr. Strange the first name "Stephen".


title: Steve Ditko

text: Though often overshadowed by his Spider-Man work, Ditko's Doctor Strange artwork has been equally acclaimed for its surrealistic mystical landscapes and increasingly psychedelic visuals that helped make the feature a favorite of college students. "People who read 'Doctor Strange' thought people at Marvel must be heads [i.e. drug users]," recalled then-associate editor and former Doctor Strange writer Roy Thomas in 1971, "because they had had similar experiences high on mushrooms. But ... I don't use hallucinogens, nor do I think any artists do."


title: Steve Ditko

text: Eventually Lee & Ditko would take Strange into ever-more-abstract realms. In an epic 17-issue story arc in "Strange Tales" #130–146 (March 1965 – July 1966), Lee and Ditko introduced the cosmic character Eternity, who personified the universe and was depicted as a silhouette whose outlines are filled with the cosmos. As historian Bradford W. Wright describes,


title: Steve Ditko

text: In addition to Dr. Strange, Ditko in the 1960s also drew comics starring the Hulk and Iron Man. He penciled and inked the final issue of "The Incredible Hulk" (#6, March 1963), then continued to collaborate with writer-editor Lee on a relaunched Hulk feature in the omnibus "Tales to Astonish", beginning with issue #60 (Oct. 1964). Ditko, inked by George Roussos, penciled the feature through #67 (May 1965). Ditko designed the Hulk's primary antagonist, the Leader, in #63 (Jan. 1965).


title: Steve Ditko

text: Ditko also penciled the Iron Man feature in "Tales of Suspense" #47–49 (Nov. 1963 – Jan. 1964), with various inkers. The first of these debuted the initial version of Iron Man's modern red-and-golden armor.


title: Steve Ditko

text: Whichever feature he drew, Ditko's idiosyncratic, cleanly detailed, instantly recognizable art style, emphasizing mood and anxiety, found great favor with readers. The character of Spider-Man and his troubled personal life meshed well with Ditko's own interests, which Lee eventually acknowledged by giving the artist plotting credits on the latter part of their 38-issue run. But after four years on the title, Ditko left Marvel; he and Lee had not been on speaking terms for some time, with art and editorial changes handled through intermediaries. The details of the rift remain uncertain, even to Lee, who confessed in 2003, "I never really knew Steve on a personal level." Ditko later claimed it was Lee who broke off contact and disputed the long-held belief that the disagreement was over the true identity of the Green Goblin: "Stan never knew what he was getting in my Spider-Man stories and covers until after [production manager] Sol Brodsky took the material from me ... so there couldn't have been any disagreement or agreement, no exchanges ... no problems between us concerning the Green Goblin or anything else from before issue #25 to my final issues". Spider-Man successor artist John Romita, in a 2010 deposition, recalled that Lee and Ditko "ended up not being able to work together because they disagreed on almost everything, cultural, social, historically, everything, they disagreed on characters. ..." A friendly farewell was given to Ditko in the "Bullpen Bulletins" of comics cover-dated July 1966, including "Fantastic Four" #52: "Steve recently told us he was leaving for personal reasons. After all these years, we're sorry to see him go, and we wish the talented guy success with his future endeavors."


title: Steve Ditko

text: Regardless, said Lee in 2007, "Quite a few years ago I met him up at the Marvel offices when I was last in New York. And we spoke; he's a hell of a nice guy and it was very pleasant. ... I haven't heard from him since that meeting."


title: Steve Ditko

text: Back at Charlton—where the page rate was low but creators were allowed greater freedom—Ditko worked on such characters as the Blue Beetle (1967–1968), the Question (1967–1968), and Captain Atom (1965–1967), returning to the character he had co-created in 1960. In addition, in 1966 and 1967, he drew 16 stories, most of them written by Archie Goodwin, for Warren Publishing's horror-comic magazines "Creepy" and "Eerie", generally using an ink-wash technique.


title: Steve Ditko

text: In 1967, Ditko gave his Objectivist ideas ultimate expression in the form of Mr. A, published in Wally Wood's independent title "witzend" # 3. Ditko's hard line against criminals was controversial and he continued to produce Mr. A stories and one-pagers until the end of the 1970s. Ditko returned to Mr. A in 2000 and in 2009.


title: Steve Ditko

text: Ditko moved to DC Comics in 1968, where he co-created the Creeper in "Showcase" #73 (April 1968) with Don Segall, under editor Murray Boltinoff. DC Comics writer and executive Paul Levitz observed that Ditko's art on the "Creeper" stories made "them look unlike anything else being published by DC at the time." Ditko co-created the team Hawk and Dove in "Showcase" #75 (June 1968), with writer Steve Skeates. Around this time, he penciled the lead story, written and inked by Wally Wood, in Wood's early mature-audience, independent-comics publication "Heroes, Inc. Presents Cannon" (1969).


title: Steve Ditko

text: Ditko's stay at DC was short—he would work on all six issues of the Creeper's own title, "Beware the Creeper" (June 1968 – April 1969), though leaving midway through the final one—and the reasons for his departure uncertain. But while at DC, Ditko recommended Charlton staffer Dick Giordano to the company, who would go on to become a top DC penciller, inker, editor, and ultimately, in 1981, the managing editor.


title: Steve Ditko

text: From this time up through the mid-1970s, Ditko worked exclusively for Charlton and various small press/independent publishers. Frank McLaughlin, Charlton's art director during this period, describes Ditko as living "in a local hotel in Derby for a while. He was a very happy-go-lucky guy with a great sense of humor at that time, and always supplied the [female] color separators with candy and other little gifts".


title: Steve Ditko

text: For Charlton in 1974 he did Liberty Belle backup stories in "E-Man" and conceived Killjoy. Ditko produced much work for Charlton's science-fiction and horror titles, as well as for former Marvel publisher Martin Goodman's start-up line Atlas/Seaboard Comics, where he co-created the superhero the Destructor with writer Archie Goodwin, and penciled all four issues of the namesake series (Feb.–Aug. 1975), the first two of which were inked by Wally Wood. Ditko worked on the second and third issues of "Tiger-Man" and the third issue of "Morlock 2001", with Bernie Wrightson inking.


title: Steve Ditko

text: Ditko returned to DC Comics in 1975, creating a short-lived title, "Shade, the Changing Man" (1977–1978). Shade was later revived, without Ditko's involvement, in DC's mature-audience imprint Vertigo. With writer Paul Levitz, he co-created the four-issue sword and sorcery series "Stalker" (1975–1976). Ditko and writer Gerry Conway produced the first issue of a two-issue "Man-Bat" series. He also revived the Creeper and did such various other jobs as a short Demon backup series in 1979 and stories in DC's horror and science-fiction anthologies. Editor Jack C. Harris hired Ditko as guest artist on several issues of "The Legion of Super-Heroes", a decision which garnered a mixed reaction from the title's readership. Ditko also drew the Prince Gavyn version of Starman in "Adventure Comics" #467–478 (1980). He then decamped to do work for a variety of publishers, briefly contributing to DC again in the mid-1980s, with four pinups of his characters for "Who's Who: The Definitive Directory of the DC Universe" and a pinup for "Superman" #400 (Oct. 1984) and its companion portfolio.


title: Steve Ditko

text: Ditko returned to Marvel in 1979, taking over Jack Kirby's "Machine Man", drawing "The Micronauts" and Captain Universe, and continuing to freelance for the company into the late 1990s. Starting in 1984, he penciled the last two years of the space-robot series "Rom". A Godzilla story by Ditko and Marv Wolfman was changed into a Dragon Lord story published in "Marvel Spotlight". Ditko and writer Tom DeFalco introduced the Speedball character in "The Amazing Spider-Man Annual" #22 (1988) and Ditko drew a ten-issue series based on the character.


title: Steve Ditko

text: In 1982, he also began freelancing for the early independent comics label Pacific Comics, beginning with "Captain Victory and the Galactic Rangers" #6 (Sept. 1982), in which he introduced the superhero Missing Man, with Mark Evanier scripting to Ditko's plot and art. Subsequent Missing Man stories appeared in "Pacific Presents" #1–3 (Oct. 1982 – March 1984), with Ditko scripting the former and collaborating with longtime friend Robin Snyder on the script for the latter two. Ditko also created The Mocker for Pacific, in "Silver Star" #2 (April 1983).


title: Steve Ditko

text: For Eclipse Comics, he contributed a story featuring his character Static (no relation to the later Milestone Comics character) in "Eclipse Monthly" #1–3 (Aug.–Oct. 1983), introducing supervillain the Exploder in #2. With writer Jack C. Harris, Ditko drew the backup feature "The Faceless Ones" in First Comics' "Warp" #2–4 (April–June 1983). Working with that same writer and others, Ditko drew a handful of the Fly, Flygirl and Jaguar stories for "The Fly" #2–8 (July 1983 – Aug. 1984), for Archie Comics' short-lived 1980s superhero line; in a rare latter-day instance of Ditko inking another artist, he inked penciler Dick Ayers on the Jaguar story in "The Fly" #9 (Oct. 1984). Western Publishing in 1982 announced a series by Ditko and Harris would appear in a new science-fiction comic, "Astral Frontiers", but that title never materialized.


title: Steve Ditko

text: In the early 1990s Ditko worked for Jim Shooter's newly founded company Valiant Comics, drawing, among others, issues of "Magnus, Robot Fighter", "Solar, Man of the Atom" and "X-O-Manowar". In 1992 Ditko worked with writer Will Murray to produce one of his last original characters for Marvel Comics, the superheroine Squirrel Girl, who debuted in "Marvel Super-Heroes" vol. 2, #8, a.k.a. "Marvel Super-Heroes Winter Special" (Jan. 1992).


title: Steve Ditko

text: In 1993, he did the Dark Horse Comics one-shot "The Safest Place in the World". For the Defiant Comics series "Dark Dominion," he drew issue #0, which was released as a set of trading cards. In 1995, he pencilled a four-issue series for Marvel based on the "Phantom 2040" animated TV series. This included a poster that was inked by John Romita Sr. "Steve Ditko's Strange Avenging Tales" was announced as a quarterly series from Fantagraphics Books, although it only ran one issue (Feb. 1997) due to publicly unspecified disagreements between Ditko and the publisher.


title: Steve Ditko

text: "The New York Times" assessed in 2008 that, "By the '70s he was regarded as a slightly old-fashioned odd-ball; by the '80s he was a commercial has-been, picking up wretched work-for-hire gigs. ...following the example of [Ayn] Rand's John Galt, Ditko hacked out moneymaking work, saving his care for the crabbed Objectivist screeds he published with tiny presses. And boy, could Ditko hack: seeing samples of his "Transformers" coloring book and his Big Boy comic is like hearing Orson Welles sell frozen peas."


title: Steve Ditko

text: Ditko retired from mainstream comics in 1998. His later work for Marvel and DC included such established superheroes as the Sub-Mariner (in "Marvel Comics Presents") and newer, licensed characters such as the "Mighty Morphin Power Rangers". The last mainstream character he created was Marvel's Longarm in "Shadows & Light" #1 (Feb. 1998), in a self-inked, 12-page Iron Man story "A Man's Reach...", scripted by Len Wein. His final mainstream work was a five-page New Gods story for DC Comics, "Infinitely Gentle Infinitely Suffering", inked by Mick Gray and believed to be intended for the 2000–2002 "Orion" series but not published until the 2008 trade paperback "Tales of the New Gods".


title: Steve Ditko

text: Thereafter, Ditko's solo work was published intermittently by Robin Snyder, who was his editor at Charlton, Archie Comics, and Renegade Press in the 1980s. The Snyder publications have included a number of original books as well as reprints such as "Static", "The Missing Man", "The Mocker" and, in 2002, "Avenging World", a collection of stories and essays spanning 30 years.


title: Steve Ditko

text: In 2008, Ditko and Snyder released "The Avenging Mind", a 32-page essay publication featuring several pages of new artwork; and "Ditko, Etc...", a 32-page comic book composed of brief vignettes and editorial cartoons. Releases have continued in that format, with stories introducing such characters as the Hero, Miss Eerie, the Cape, the Madman, the Grey Negotiator, the !? and the Outline. He said in 2012 of his self-published efforts, "I do those because that's all they'll let me do."


title: Steve Ditko

text: In addition to the new material, Ditko and Snyder reprinted earlier Ditko material. In 2010 they published a new edition of the 1973 "Mr. A" comic and a selection of Ditko covers in "The Cover Series". In 2011 they published a new edition of the 1975 comic "...Wha...!? Ditko's H. Series".


title: Steve Ditko

text: Two "lost" stories drawn by Ditko in 1978 have been published by DC in hardcover collections of the artist's work. A Creeper story scheduled for the never published "Showcase" #106 appears in "The Creeper by Steve Ditko" (2010) and an unpublished "Shade, the Changing Man" story appears in "The Steve Ditko Omnibus Vol. 1" (2011). A Hulk and the Human Torch story written by Jack C. Harris and drawn by Ditko in the 1980s was published by Marvel as "Incredible Hulk and the Human Torch: From the Marvel Vault" #1 in August 2011.


title: Steve Ditko

text: As of 2012, Ditko continued to work in Manhattan's Midtown West neighborhood. He mostly declined to give interviews or make public appearances, explaining in 1969 that, "When I do a job, it's not my personality that I'm offering the readers but my artwork. It's not what I'm like that counts; it's what I did and how well it was done. I produce a product, a comic art story. Steve Ditko is the brand name." However, he did contribute numerous essays to Robin Snyder's fanzine "The Comics". Ditko was an ardent supporter of Objectivism. He described himself as an Aristotelian.


title: Steve Ditko

text: He had a nephew who became an artist, also named Steve Ditko. As far as it is known, he never married and had no surviving children at the time of his death. Will Eisner stated that Ditko had a son out of wedlock, but this may have been a confused reference to the nephew.


title: Steve Ditko

text: Politically, Ditko supported a "constitutional republic" and "individual" and "property rights", describing them as "inalienable". He supported neither George W. Bush nor John Kerry in the 2004 presidential election due to believing neither would prioritize them.


title: Steve Ditko

text: Ditko said in 2012 that he had made no income on the four "Spider-Man" films released to that time. However, a neighbor of Ditko stated that Ditko received royalty checks. Those involved with creating the 2016 film "Doctor Strange" purposely declined to contact him during production, believing they would not be welcome.


title: Steve Ditko

text: Ditko was found unresponsive in his apartment in New York City on June 29, 2018. Police said he had died within the previous two days. He was pronounced dead at the age of 90, with the cause of death initially deemed as a result of a myocardial infarction, brought on by arteriosclerotic and hypertensive cardiovascular disease.


title: Steve Ditko

text: The final words of Ditko's last essay, published posthumously in "Down Memory Lane" in February 2019, quoted an "old toast": "Here's to those who wish me well, and those that don't can go to hell."


title: Steve Ditko

text: In June 2021, Ditko's nephew Mark Ditko was interviewed and discussed his history with his uncle and his legacy, dispelling myths about him while also discussing his work with the Bottleworks Exhibition which houses a Steve Ditko Exhibition. He also shared rare photos among many other facts.


title: Steve Ditko

text: In September 2007, presenter Jonathan Ross hosted a one-hour documentary for BBC Four titled "In Search of Steve Ditko". The program covers Ditko's work at Marvel, DC, and Charlton Comics and at Wally Wood's "witzend", as well as his following of Objectivism. It includes testimonials by writers and artists Alan Moore, Mark Millar, Jerry Robinson and Stan Lee, among others. Ross, accompanied by writer Neil Gaiman, met Ditko briefly at his New York office, but he declined to be filmed, interviewed or photographed. He did, however, give the two a selection of some comic books. At the end of the show, Ross said he had since spoken to Ditko on the telephone and, as a joke, that he was now on first name terms with him.


title: Pete Burns

text: Peter Jozzeppi Burns (5 August 1959 – 23 October 2016) was an English singer, songwriter and television personality. In 1979, he founded the band Nightmares in Wax; in 1980 changes were made to the band's line-up and the name was changed to Dead or Alive. Burns was the band's lead vocalist and principal songwriter. The band rose to mainstream success with their 1984 single "You Spin Me Round (Like a Record)".


title: Pete Burns

text: Burns rose to further celebrity status in the British media following his appearance on "Celebrity Big Brother 4", in which he finished in fifth place. He appeared on further television reality shows, including as a presenter. He was known for his ever-changing (and often androgynous) appearance, which he freely admitted was greatly modified by cosmetic surgery that eventually bankrupted him and caused health problems later in his life.


title: Pete Burns

text: Peter Jozzeppi Burns was born on 5 August 1959 in Port Sunlight, Cheshire. He had an older brother named Tony (born 1948). Although the two scarcely saw each other, they got on well and liked to listen to records together. Like Burns, Tony was an aspiring pop star. Burns' mother, Evelina Maria Bettina Quittner von Hudec (1913–1987) was German-born (Heidelberg) and, according to Burns' autobiography "Freak Unique", her first marriage was to a German "Freiherr". As her father was Jewish, she moved to Vienna to escape the Nazis. At a tea dance in Vienna, she met an English soldier from Liverpool named Francis Burns. Evelina was 46 years old when she gave birth to Burns. He later wrote of his childhood in his autobiography in which he described his mother's alcoholism and suicide attempts but maintained that she was "absolutely the best mother in the world".


title: Pete Burns

text: Burns spoke German until he was five, which resulted in local children spending days outside his house shouting "Heil Hitler". According to Burns, school was "almost non-existent", and his mother frequently kept him away so he could spend the day with her. He dropped out of school at the age of 14 after being summoned to the headmaster's office because he had arrived at school with "no eyebrows, Harmony-red hair, and one gigantic earring". At around this age, he was raped by a man who took him for a drive. He later recalled that he was not upset by the experience, although he knew that people would expect him to be. He stated that he already knew the man, who drove him to Raby Mere and threatened him with an air gun.


title: Pete Burns

text: While building his career, Burns worked at a Liverpool record shop, Probe Records, which became a meeting place for local musicians. Burns was notorious for his maltreatment of customers, sometimes throwing their purchases at them because he disapproved of their selection. Burns first performed as a member of the short-lived punk band Mystery Girls, which included Pete Wylie and Julian Cope, who gave only one performance, supporting Sham 69 at Eric's Club in November 1977. Cope stated that Burns's performing style drew on that of the transgender punk performer Wayne County.


title: Pete Burns

text: Burns was next in Nightmares in Wax, a group that formed in Liverpool in 1979; they released a 12" single, "Black Leather", and a 7" single, "Birth of a Nation", each containing the same three songs, but never produced an album. In 1980, after replacing several members, Burns changed the band's name to Dead or Alive.


title: Pete Burns

text: After a minor hit in 1984 with a cover version of "That's the Way (I Like It)", the band had a number-one hit in the UK in 1985 with "You Spin Me Round". The song went on to become a worldwide hit.


title: Pete Burns

text: Burns did not have ambition to be a singer. He said that he hated the sound of his voice, and wished he had been able to sing falsetto like Sylvester. He had an uncomfortable relationship with the corporate music industry, and expressed disgust at the way it functioned. He always refused to allow record company staff to hear his music before it was completed, which "didn't make [the executives] very pleased".


title: Pete Burns

text: In December 2003 the BBC apologised to its viewers after Burns swore once on its pre-9pm watershed "Liquid News" show when asked about his views on the Michael Jackson trial.


title: Pete Burns

text: In January 2006 Burns appeared on Channel 4's "Celebrity Big Brother 4", eventually reaching fifth on the show's final episode. It was on this show that he declared that one of his coats was made out of gorilla fur – this caused outrage amongst animal rights activists and unlicensed gorilla fur is illegal in the United Kingdom. Police subsequently confiscated the coat and tests were performed on it that revealed that it was not gorilla, but was made out of the fur of colobus monkeys. Colobus monkeys are also an endangered species whose fur requires a licence, although experts believed that the fur had been imported in the 1930s or '40s, before it became illegal to import colobus fur in 1975.


title: Pete Burns

text: Burns appeared in the first episode of the ninth series of the UK version of "Celebrity Wife Swap". His partner Michael Simpson went to live with former Page 3 model Leah Newman, while Burns lived with Newman's partner, the footballer Neil Ruddock. Burns was featured in a documentary, with a medium, exploring his rough and harmful childhood.


title: Pete Burns

text: In the mid-1990s Burns collaborated with the Italian Eurodance duo Glam to produce the single "Sex Drive", which was later re-recorded for Dead or Alive's album "Nukleopatra". In the early 2000s Burns recorded the single "Jack and Jill Party" with the Pet Shop Boys.


title: Pete Burns

text: On 7 September 2010 Burns's solo single "Never Marry an Icon", produced and co-written by the Dirty Disco, was released to the iTunes Store. The single was released by fellow Dead or Alive member Steve Coy's label, Bristar Records. Burns's final musical appearance was on "Big Brother's Bit on the Side", where he sang "You Spin Me Round". His last appearance itself was on Celebrity Botched Up Bodies in September 2016.


title: Pete Burns

text: Burns married Lynne Corlett in Liverpool on 8 August 1980. He met Corlett in a Liverpool hair salon where they both worked. They divorced in 2006.


title: Pete Burns

text: He entered a civil partnership with his boyfriend Michael Simpson shortly afterward in 2007. Burns stated in a Howard Stern interview that his husband has a daughter.


title: Pete Burns

text: On the topic of his sexuality, Burns stated, "[People] always want to know – am I gay, bi, trans or what? I say, forget all that. There's got to be a completely different terminology and I'm not aware if it's been invented yet. I'm just Pete." He also stated that he always identified himself as male and never had intentions of being a woman: "It freaks me that someone could think I was a woman. Don't get me wrong – I love women; I love men, too, and I'm very proud to be a man."


title: Pete Burns

text: Burns was known for his ever-changing, often androgynous appearance, which he freely admitted was greatly modified by cosmetic surgery. Burns had extensive polyacrylamide injections into his lips, cheek implants, several rhinoplasties and many tattoos. Burns at one time accused fellow pop star Boy George of appropriating his unique image.


title: Pete Burns

text: In early 2006 Burns revealed in an interview that he had spent most of his life savings on 18 months of reconstructive surgery after a cosmetic procedure on his lips went wrong. In January 2007, he announced that he was planning to sue the cosmetic surgeon, Maurizio Viel, who performed his faulty lip surgery, for £1 million. Surgery-related health problems experienced by Burns included pulmonary embolisms and near-fatal blood clots.


title: Pete Burns

text: In March 2009 Burns was admitted to a London hospital after collapsing from a kidney ailment. He was diagnosed with seven large kidney stones, which were removed with laser surgery.


title: Pete Burns

text: Paparazzi followed Burns around after his arrest for assault in 2006 (the charges were later dropped) and his attempts to revive his career premiered in the documentary "Pete Burns Unspun" on Living TV, which alleged he briefly lived with a fan due to bail conditions.


title: Pete Burns

text: Burns was declared bankrupt in December 2014 and was evicted from a rented flat in April 2015 for non-payment of over £34,000 in rent.


title: Pete Burns

text: Burns died in London following a sudden cardiac arrest on 23 October 2016, at the age of 57. People who paid tribute to him after his death included Boy George, who described Burns as "one of our great true eccentrics", and former MP George Galloway, who had appeared with him on "Celebrity Big Brother" and said Burns was "a cross between Oscar Wilde and Dorothy Parker... you don't get more brilliant than that".


title: Pete Burns

text: On 29 October the opening celebrity dance routine for BBC's "Strictly Come Dancing" was performed to Dead or Alive's "You Spin Me Round (Like a Record)". After the number, hosts Claudia Winkleman and Tess Daly paid tribute to Burns and sent their condolences to his family.


title: Pete Burns

text: Boy George paid for the costs of Burns' funeral, despite the two artists' rivalry during their parallel music careers.


title: Aztec Empire

text: The Aztec Empire or the Triple Alliance (, ]) was an alliance of three Nahua city-states: , , and . These three city-states ruled that area in and around the Valley of Mexico from 1428 until the combined forces of the Spanish and their native allies who ruled under defeated them in 1521.


title: Aztec Empire

text: The alliance was formed from the victorious factions of a civil war fought between the city of and its former tributary provinces. Despite the initial conception of the empire as an alliance of three self-governed city-states, the capital became dominant militarily. By the time the Spanish arrived in 1519, the lands of the alliance were effectively ruled from , while other partners of the alliance had taken subsidiary roles.


title: Aztec Empire

text: The alliance waged wars of conquest and expanded after its formation. The alliance controlled most of central Mexico at its height, as well as some more distant territories within Mesoamerica, such as the Xoconochco province, an Aztec exclave near the present-day Guatemalan border. Aztec rule has been described by scholars as "hegemonic" or "indirect". The Aztecs left rulers of conquered cities in power so long as they agreed to pay semi-annual tribute to the alliance, as well as supply military forces when needed for the Aztec war efforts. In return, the imperial authority offered protection and political stability and facilitated an integrated economic network of diverse lands and peoples who had significant local autonomy.


title: Aztec Empire

text: Aztec religion was a monistic pantheism in which the Nahua concept of teotl was construed as the supreme god Ometeotl, as well as a diverse pantheon of lesser gods and manifestations of nature. The popular religion tended to embrace the mythological and polytheistic aspects, and the empire's state religion sponsored both the monism of the upper classes and the popular heterodoxies. The empire even officially recognized the largest cults such that the deity was represented in the central temple precinct of the capital . The imperial cult was specifically that of the distinctive warlike patron god of the Mexica . Peoples were allowed to retain and freely continue their own religious traditions in conquered provinces so long as they added the imperial god to their local pantheons.


title: Aztec Empire

text: The word "Aztec" in modern usage would not have been used by the people themselves. It has variously been used to refer to the Aztecs or Triple Alliance, the Nahuatl-speaking people of central Mexico prior to the Spanish conquest, or specifically the Mexica ethnicity of the Nahuatl-speaking tribes (from ). The name comes from the singular Nahuatl word () that means "[people] from Aztlan", reflecting the mythical place of origin for Nahua peoples.


title: Aztec Empire

text: Nahua peoples descended from Chichimec peoples, who migrated to central Mexico from the north (mainly centered sparsely around present-day states of Zacatecas, San Luis Potosí, and Guanajuato) in the early 13th century. The migration story of the Mexica is similar to those of other polities in central Mexico, with supernatural sites, individuals, and events, joining earthly and divine history, as they sought political legitimacy. Pictographic codices in which the Aztecs recorded their history say that the empire's place of origin was called Aztlán. Early migrants settled the Basin of Mexico and surrounding lands by establishing a series of independent city-states. These early Nahua city-states or were ruled by dynastic heads called (singularly ). Most of the existing settlements had been established by other indigenous peoples before the Mexica migration.


title: Aztec Empire

text: These early city-states fought various small-scale wars with each other but no individual city gained dominance due to shifting alliances. The Mexica were the last of the Nahua migrants to arrive in Central Mexico. They entered the Basin of Mexico around the year 1250, and, by then, most of the good agricultural land had already been claimed. The Mexica persuaded the king of Culhuacan, a small city-state but important historically as a refuge of the Toltecs to make them settle in a relatively infertile patch of land called Chapultepec ("Chapoltepēc," "in the hill of grasshoppers"). The Mexica served as mercenaries for Culhuacan.


title: Aztec Empire

text: After the Mexica served Culhuacan in battle, the ruler appointed one of his daughters to rule over the Mexica. Mythological native accounts say that the Mexica instead sacrificed her by flaying her skin on the command of their god Xipe Totec. The ruler of Culhuacan attacked and used his army to drive the Mexica from Tizaapan by force when he learned of this. The Mexica moved to an island in the middle of Lake Texcoco where an eagle nested on a nopal cactus. The Mexica interpreted this as a sign from their gods and founded their new city Tenochtitlan on this island in the year (or "Two House", 1325 AD).


title: Aztec Empire

text: The Mexica rose to prominence as fierce warriors and were able to establish themselves as a military power. The importance of warriors and the integral nature of warfare in Mexica political and religious life helped propel them to emerge as the dominant military power, prior to the arrival of the Spanish in 1519.


title: Aztec Empire

text: The new Mexica city-state allied with the city of Azcapotzalco and paid tribute to its ruler Tezozomoc. Azcapotzalco began to expand into a small tributary empire with Mexica assistance. The Mexica ruler was not recognized as a legitimate king until this point. Mexica leaders successfully petitioned one of the kings of Culhuacan to provide a daughter to marry into the Mexica line. Their son Acamapichtli was enthroned as the first of Tenochtitlan in 1372.


title: Aztec Empire

text: The Tepanecs of Azcapotzalco expanded their rule with help from the Mexica, while the Acolhua city of Texcoco grew in power in the eastern portion of the lake basin. Eventually, war erupted between the two states, and the Mexica played a vital role in the conquest of Texcoco. By then, Tenochtitlan had grown into a major city and was rewarded for its loyalty to the Tepanecs by receiving Texcoco as a tributary province.


title: Aztec Empire

text: Mexica warfare was marked by a focus on capturing enemies rather than killing them from its tactics to arms. Capturing enemies was important for religious ritual and provided a means by which soldiers could distinguish themselves during campaigns.


title: Aztec Empire

text: In 1426, the Tepanec king Tezozomoc died, and the resulting succession crisis precipitated a civil war between potential successors. The Mexica supported Tezozomoc's preferred heir Tayahauh, who was initially enthroned as king. But his son Maxtla soon usurped the throne and turned against factions that opposed him, including the Mexica ruler Chimalpopoca. The latter died shortly thereafter, possibly assassinated by Maxtla.


title: Aztec Empire

text: The new Mexica ruler Itzcoatl continued to defy Maxtla, and he blockaded Tenochtitlan and demanded increased tribute payments. Maxtla similarly turned against the Acolhua, and the king of Texcoco Nezahualcoyotl fled into exile. Nezahualcoyotl recruited military help from the king of Huexotzinco, and the Mexica gained the support of a dissident Tepanec city called Tlacopan. In 1427, Tenochtitlan, Texcoco, Tlacopan, and Huexotzinco went to war against Azcapotzalco, emerging victorious in 1428.


title: Aztec Empire

text: After the war, Huexotzinco withdrew, and, in 1430, the three remaining cities formed a treaty now known as the Triple Alliance. The Tepanec lands were carved up among the three cities, whose leaders agreed to cooperate in future wars of conquest. Land acquired from these conquests was to be held by the three cities together. A tribute was divided so that two kings of the alliance would go to Tenochtitlan and Texcoco and one would go to Tlacopan. The three kings assumed the title "huetlatoani" ("Elder Speaker", often translated as "Emperor") in turn. Each temporarily held a position above the rulers of other city-states ("tlatoani") in this role.


title: Aztec Empire

text: In the following 100 years, the Triple Alliance of Tenochtitlan, Texcoco, and Tlacopan dominated the Valley of Mexico and extended its power to the shores of the Gulf of Mexico and the Pacific. Tenochtitlan gradually became the dominant power in the alliance. Two of the primary architects of this alliance were the half-brothers and nephews of Itzcoatl Tlacaelel and Moctezuma. Moctezuma eventually succeeded Itzcoatl as the Mexica in 1440. Tlacaelel occupied the newly created "Cihuacoatl" title, equivalent to something between "Prime Minister" and "Viceroy".


title: Aztec Empire

text: Shortly after the formation of the Triple Alliance, Itzcoatl and Tlacopan instigated sweeping reforms on the Aztec state and religion. It has been alleged that Tlacaelel ordered the burning of some or most of the extant Aztec books, claiming that they contained lies and that it was "not wise that all the people should know the paintings". If he ordered book-burnings, it would have been primarily limited to documents containing political propaganda from previous regimes. He rewrote the history of the Aztecs thereafter, naturally placing the Mexica in a more central role.


title: Aztec Empire

text: After Moctezuma I succeeded Itzcoatl as the Mexica emperor, more reforms were instigated to maintain control over conquered cities. Uncooperative kings were replaced with puppet rulers loyal to the Mexica. A new imperial tribute system established Mexica tribute collectors that taxed the population directly, bypassing the authority of local dynasties. Nezahualcoyotl also instituted a policy in the Acolhua lands of granting subject kings tributary holdings in lands far from their capitals. This was done to create an incentive for cooperation with the empire; if a city's king rebelled, he lost the tribute he received from foreign land. Some rebellious kings were replaced by or appointed governors rather than dynastic rulers.


title: Aztec Empire

text: Moctezuma issued new laws that separated nobles from commoners and instituted the death penalty for adultery and other offenses. A religiously supervised school was built in every neighborhood by royal decree. Commoner neighborhoods had a school called a "" where they received basic religious instruction and military training. A second, more prestigious type of school called a "" served to teach the nobility, as well as commoners of high standing seeking to become priests or artisans. Moctezuma also created a new title called "" that could be conferred on commoners. This title was a form of non-hereditary lesser nobility awarded for outstanding military or civil service (similar to the English knight). Commoners who received this title rarely married into royal families and became kings.


title: Aztec Empire

text: One component of this reform was the creation of an institution of regulated warfare called the Flower Wars. Mesoamerican warfare overall is characterized by a strong preference for capturing live prisoners as opposed to slaughtering the enemy on the battlefield, which was considered sloppy and gratuitous. The Flower Wars are a potent manifestation of this approach to warfare. These highly ritualized wars ensured a steady, healthy supply of experienced Aztec warriors as well as a steady, healthy supply of captured enemy warriors for sacrifice to the gods. Flower wars were pre-arranged by officials on both sides and conducted specifically for the purpose of each polity collecting prisoners for sacrifice. Native historical accounts say that these wars were instigated by Tlacaelel as a means of appeasing the gods in response to a massive drought that gripped the Basin of Mexico from 1450 to 1454. The flower wars were mostly waged between the Aztec Empire and the neighboring cities of their arch-enemy Tlaxcala.


title: Aztec Empire

text: After the defeat of the Tepanecs, Itzcoatl and Nezahualcoyotl consolidated power in the Basin of Mexico and began to expand beyond its borders. The first targets for imperial expansion were Coyoacan in the Basin of Mexico and Cuauhnahuac and Huaxtepec in the modern Mexican state of Morelos. These conquests provided the new empire with a large influx of tribute, especially agricultural goods.


title: Aztec Empire

text: Itzcoatl died, and Moctezuma I was enthroned as the new Mexica emperor. The expansion of the empire was briefly halted by a major four-year drought that hit the Basin of Mexico in 1450, and several cities in Morelos had to be re-conquered after the drought subsided. Moctezuma and Nezahualcoyotl continued to expand the empire east towards the Gulf of Mexico and south into Oaxaca. In 1468, Moctezuma I died and was succeeded by his son Axayacatl. Most of Axayacatl's thirteen-year reign was spent consolidating the territory acquired under his predecessor. Motecuzoma and Nezahualcoyotl had expanded rapidly and many provinces rebelled.


title: Aztec Empire

text: Also, as the Aztec Empire was expanding and consolidating power, the Purépecha Empire in West Mexico was similarly expanding. In 1455, the Purépecha under their king Tzitzipandaquare had invaded the Toluca Valley, claiming lands previously conquered by Motecuzoma and Itzcoatl. In 1472, Axayacatl re-conquered the region and successfully defended it from Purépecha's attempts to take it back. In 1479, Axayacatl launched a major invasion of the Purépecha Empire with 32,000 Aztec soldiers. Purépecha met them just across the border with 50,000 soldiers and scored a resounding victory, killing or capturing over 90% of the Aztec army. Axayacatl himself was wounded in the battle, retreated to Tenochtitlan, and never engaged the Purépecha in battle again.


title: Aztec Empire

text: In 1472, Nezahualcoyotl died, and his son Nezahualpilli was enthroned as the new huetlatoani of Texcoco. This was followed by the death of Axayacatl in 1481. Axayacatl was replaced by his brother Tizoc. Tizoc's reign was notoriously brief. He proved to be ineffectual and did not significantly expand the empire. Tizoc was likely assassinated by his own nobles five years into his rule, apparently due to his incompetence.


title: Aztec Empire

text: Tizoc was succeeded by his brother Ahuitzotl in 1486. Like his predecessors, the first part of Ahuitzotl's reign was spent suppressing rebellions that were commonplace due to the indirect nature of Aztec rule. Ahuitzotl then began a new wave of conquests including the Oaxaca Valley and the Soconusco Coast. Ahuitzotl conquered the border city of Otzoma and turned the city into a military outpost due to increased border skirmishes with the Purépecha. The population of Otzoma was either killed or dispersed in the process. The Purépecha subsequently established fortresses nearby to protect against Aztec expansion. Ahuitzotl responded by expanding further west to the Pacific Coast of Guerrero.


title: Aztec Empire

text: By the reign of Ahuitzotl, the Mexica were the largest and most powerful faction in the Aztec Triple Alliance. Building on the prestige the Mexica had acquired over the course of the conquests, Ahuitzotl began to use the title "huehuetlatoani" ("Eldest Speaker") to distinguish himself from the rulers of Texcoco and Tlacopan. The alliance still technically ran the empire. But the Mexica Emperor now assumed nominal if not actual seniority.


title: Aztec Empire

text: Ahuitzotl was succeeded by his nephew Moctezuma II in 1502. Moctezuma II spent most of his reign consolidating power in lands conquered by his predecessors. In 1515, Aztec armies commanded by the Tlaxcalan general Tlahuicole invaded the Purépecha Empire once again. The Aztec army failed to take any territory and was mostly restricted to raiding. The Purépecha defeated them and the army withdrew.


title: Aztec Empire

text: Moctezuma II instituted more imperial reforms. The death of Nezahualcoyotl caused the Mexica Emperors to become the rulers of the alliance. Moctezuma II used his reign to attempt to consolidate power more closely with the Mexica Emperor. He removed many of Ahuitzotl's advisors and had several of them executed. He also abolished the class, destroying the chance for commoners to advance to the nobility. His reform efforts were cut short by the Spanish Conquest in 1519.


title: Aztec Empire

text: The Spanish expedition leader Hernán Cortés landed in Yucatán in 1519 with approximately 630 men (most armed with only a sword and shield). Cortés had actually been removed as the expedition's commander by the governor of Cuba Diego Velásquez but had stolen the boats and left without permission. At the island of Cozumel, Cortés encountered a shipwrecked Spaniard named Gerónimo de Aguilar who joined the expedition and translated between Spanish and Mayan. The expedition then sailed west to Campeche, where, after a brief battle with the local army, Cortés was able to negotiate peace through his interpreter Aguilar. The King of Campeche gave Cortés a second translator, a bilingual Nahua-Maya slave woman named La Malinche (she was known also as Malinalli [maliˈnalːi], Malintzin [maˈlintsin] or Doña Marina [ˈdoɲa maˈɾina]). Aguilar translated from Spanish to Mayan, and La Malinche translated from Mayan to Nahuatl. Malinche became Cortés' translator for both language and culture once she learned Spanish, and she was a key figure in interactions with Nahua rulers.


title: Aztec Empire

text: Cortés then sailed from Campeche to Cempoala, a tributary province of the Aztec Triple Alliance. Nearby, he founded the town of Veracruz where he met with ambassadors from the reigning Mexica emperor Motecuzoma II. When the ambassadors returned to Tenochtitlan, Cortés went to Cempoala to meet with the local Totonac leaders. The Totonac ruler told Cortés of his various grievances against the Mexica, and Cortés convinced the Totonacs to imprison an imperial tribute collector. Cortés subsequently released the tribute collector after persuading him that the move was entirely the Totonac's idea and that he had no knowledge of it. The Totonacs provided Cortés with 20 companies of soldiers for his march to Tlaxcala, having effectively declared war on the Aztecs. At this time, several of Cortés' soldiers attempted to mutiny. When Cortés discovered the plot, he had his ships scuttled and sank them in the harbor to remove any possibility of escaping to Cuba.


title: Aztec Empire

text: The Spanish-led Totonac army crossed into Tlaxcala to seek the latter's alliance against the Aztecs. However, the Tlaxcalan general Xicotencatl the Younger believed them to be hostile and attacked. After fighting several close battles, Cortés eventually convinced the leaders of Tlaxcala to order their general to stand down. Cortés then secured an alliance with the people of Tlaxcala and traveled from there to the Basin of Mexico with a smaller company of 5,000-6,000 Tlaxcalans and 400 Totonacs in addition to the Spanish soldiers. During his stay in the city of Cholula, Cortés claims he received word of a planned ambush against the Spanish. In a pre-emptive response, Cortés directed his troops to attack and kill a large amount of unarmed Cholulans gathered in the main square of the city.


title: Aztec Empire

text: Following the massacre at Cholula, Cortés and the other Spaniards entered Tenochtitlan, where they were greeted as guests and given quarters in the palace of former emperor Axayacatl. After staying in the city for six weeks, two Spaniards from the group left behind in Veracruz were killed in an altercation with an Aztec lord named Quetzalpopoca. Cortés claims that he used this incident as an excuse to take Motecuzoma prisoner under threat of force. Motecuzoma continued to run the kingdom as a prisoner of Cortés for several months. A second, larger Spanish expedition then arrived in 1520 under the command of Pánfilo de Narváez sent by Diego Velásquez with the goal of arresting Cortés for treason. Before confronting Narváez, Cortés secretly persuaded Narváez's lieutenants to betray him and join Cortés.


title: Aztec Empire

text: Cortés was away from Tenochtitlan dealing with Narváez, while his second-in-command Pedro de Alvarado massacred a group of Aztec nobility, in response to a ritual of human sacrifice honoring Huitzilopochtli. The Aztecs retaliated by attacking the palace where the Spanish were quartered. Cortés returned to Tenochtitlan and fought his way to the palace. He then took Motecuzoma up to the roof of the palace to ask his subjects to stand down. However, by this point, the ruling council of Tenochtitlan had voted to depose Motecuzoma and had elected his brother Cuitlahuac as the new emperor. One of the Aztec soldiers struck Motecuzoma in the head with a sling stone, and he died several days later, though the exact circumstances of his death are unclear.


title: Aztec Empire

text: The Spaniards and their allies attempted to retreat without detection in what is known as the "Sad Night" or La Noche Triste, realizing that they were vulnerable to the hostile Mexica in Tenochtitlan following Moctezuma's death. Spaniards and their Indigenous allies were discovered clandestinely retreating and were then forced to fight their way out of the city with heavy loss of life. Some Spaniards lost their lives by drowning, loaded down with gold. They retreated to Tlacopan (now Tacuba) and made their way to Tlaxcala where they recovered and prepared for the second, successful assault on Tenochtitlan. After this incident, a smallpox outbreak hit Tenochtitlan. The outbreak alone killed more than 50% of the region's population, including the emperor Cuitláhuac, as the indigenous of the New World had no previous exposure to smallpox. The new emperor Cuauhtémoc dealt with the smallpox outbreak, while Cortés raised an army of Tlaxcalans, Texcocans, Totonacs, and others discontent with Aztec rule. Cortés marched back to the Basin of Mexico with a combined army of up to 100,000 warriors. The overwhelming majority of warriors were indigenous rather than Spanish. Cortés captured various indigenous city-states or altepetl around the lake shore and surrounding mountains through numerous subsequent battles and skirmishes, including the other capitals of the Triple Alliance, Tlacopan and Texcoco. Texcoco, in fact, had already become firm allies of the Spaniards and the city-state and subsequently petitioned the Spanish crown for recognition of their services in the conquest similar to Tlaxcala.


title: Aztec Empire

text: Cortés used boats constructed in Texcoco from parts salvaged from the scuttled ships to blockade and lay siege to Tenochtitlan for a period of several months. Eventually, the Spanish-led army assaulted the city both by boat and using the elevated causeways connecting it to the mainland. The attackers took heavy casualties, although the Aztecs were ultimately defeated. The city of Tenochtitlan was thoroughly destroyed in the process. Cuauhtémoc was captured as he attempted to flee the city. Cortés kept him prisoner and tortured him for a period of several years before finally executing him in 1525.


title: Aztec Empire

text: The Aztec Empire was an example of an empire that ruled by indirect means. It was ethnically very diverse like most European empires but was more a system of tributes than a single unitary form of government unlike them. In the theoretical framework of imperial systems posited by American historian Alexander J. Motyl, the Aztec empire was an informal type of empire in that the Alliance did not claim supreme authority over its tributary provinces. It merely expected to pay tributes. The empire was also territorially discontinuous, i.e. land did not connect all of its dominated territories. For example, the southern peripheral zones of Xoconochco were not in immediate contact with the central part of the empire. The hegemonic nature of the Aztec empire can be seen in the fact that generally local rulers were restored to their positions once they conquered their city-state, and the Aztecs did not interfere in local affairs as long as the tribute payments were made.


title: Aztec Empire

text: The form of government is often referred to as an empire, yet most areas within the empire were, in fact, organized as city-states (individually known as in Nahuatl, the language of the Aztecs). These were small polities ruled by a king or (literally "speaker", plurally ) from an aristocratic dynasty. The Early Aztec period was a time of growth and competition among altepeme. After the Nahuas formed the empire in 1428 and the empire began its program of expansion through conquest, the altepetl remained the dominant form of organization at the local level. The efficient role of the altepetl as a regional political unit was largely responsible for the success of the empire's hegemonic form of control.


title: Aztec Empire

text: The term "Aztec empire" is actually modern and not one used by the Aztecs themselves. The Aztec realm was at its core composed of three Nahuatl-speaking city-states in the densely populated Valley of Mexico. Asymmetries of power elevated one of those city states Tenochtitlan above the other two over time. The "Triple Alliance" came to establish hegemony over much of central Mesoamerica, including areas of great linguistic and cultural diversity. The Nahuas performed administration of the empire through largely traditional, indirect means. Something of a nascent bureaucracy, however, may have been beginning to form over time, insofar as the state organization became increasingly centralized.


title: Aztec Empire

text: Before the reign of Nezahualcoyotl (1429–1472), the Aztec empire operated as a confederation along traditional Mesoamerican lines. Independent altepetl were led by (lit., "speakers"), who supervised village headmen, who in turn supervised groups of households. A typical Mesoamerican confederation placed a (lit., "great speaker") at the head of several tlatoani. Following Nezahualcoyotl, the Aztec empire followed a somewhat divergent path, with some tlatoani of recently conquered or otherwise subordinated altepetl becoming replaced with stewards charged with collecting tribute on behalf of the Huetlatoani rather than simply replacing an old tlatoque with new ones from the same set of local nobility.


title: Aztec Empire

text: Yet the Huey tlatoani was not the sole executive. It was the responsibility of the Huey tlatoani to deal with the "external" issues of empire; the management of tribute, war, diplomacy, and expansion were all under the purview of the Huey tlatoani. It was the role of the to govern a given city itself. The Cihuacoatl was always a close relative of the Huey tlatoani; Tlacaelel, for example, was the brother of Moctezuma I. Both the title "Cihuacoatl", which means "female snake" (it is the name of a Nahua deity), and the role of the position, somewhat analogous to a European Viceroy or Prime Minister, reflect the dualistic nature of Nahua cosmology. Neither the position of Cihuacoatl nor the position of Huetlatoani were priestly, yet both did have important ritual tasks. Those of the former were associated with the "female" wet season, those of the latter with the "male" dry season. While the position of Cihuacoatl is best attested in Tenochtitlan, it is known that the position also existed the nearby altepetl of Azcapotzalco, Culhuacan, and Tenochtitlan's ally Texcoco. Despite the apparent lesser status of the position, a Cihuacoatl could prove both influential and powerful, as in the case of Tlacaelel.