title: Mass Effect

text: "Mass Effect: Andromeda", the first game in a new series, and the fourth major installment overall in the franchise, was revealed at E3 2015. It was released on March 21, 2017. The title utilizes EA DICE's Frostbite 3 engine and was released for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 4 and Xbox One. Andromeda is the first game in the series to feature an open world environment. Set during the 29th century, the player's character is either Sara or Scott Ryder, designated as a Pathfinder – an operative tasked with discovering new planets in the Andromeda Galaxy on behalf of their species.


title: Mass Effect

text: Unlike previous installments, "Andromeda" did not receive single player expansions, though the multiplayer component did receive new content in various updates in 2017 which added new weapons, abilities, maps, and playable characters.


title: Mass Effect

text: As part of the 2020 "N7 Day," BioWare affirmed that a new "Mass Effect" was in development at the studio. An announcement trailer was released on 11 December 2020, hinting at a sequel to the original trilogy. The new entry is also confirmed to be run on the Unreal Engine, which was used in each game of the original trilogy, instead of Frostbite which was used for "Andromeda".


title: Mass Effect

text: "Mass Effect Galaxy" is set between the events of "Mass Effect" and "Mass Effect 2" and exclusively on the iOS platform. The story is focused around a backstory featuring two characters who appear as squad members in "Mass Effect 2": Jacob Taylor and Miranda Lawson. When the passenger liner Arcturian Jade is attacked by batarian raiders with Jacob on it, he takes on the task of defending the ship. After safely arriving at their destination on the Citadel, Jacob's former CO contacts him about an undercover Alliance operation in the Nemean Abyss to investigate the batarians' increasingly aggressive activities. It has since been removed from the iOS App Store.


title: Mass Effect

text: "Mass Effect Infiltrator" is a third-person shooter released on the Android, BlackBerry 10, iOS and Windows Phone 8 platforms. The story for "Infiltrator" involves Randall Ezno, a Cerberus agent, who discovers Cerberus's cruelty and goes rogue, killing Cerberus troopers and freeing prisoners from a hostile base. Players will "receive rewards" for collecting evidence of Cerberus' crimes. According to EA, "Every completed rescue and intelligence discovery in Infiltrator will increase a player's Galactic Readiness rating directly through the 'Galaxy at War' system in "Mass Effect 3"." It has since been removed from all mobile app storefronts.


title: Mass Effect

text: "Mass Effect: Datapad" was a free app for iOS devices. "Datapad" allows players to check the status of the galaxy map in "Mass Effect 3" and receive messages from characters. "Datapad" contains information about the characters, races, vehicles, weapons, and storyline of the "Mass Effect" universe, as well as mini-games that interact with the "Mass Effect 3" 'Galaxy at War' system. It was removed from the iOS App Store and the Google Play Store on June 5, 2013.


title: Mass Effect

text: "APEX HQ" is the official companion app for the "Mass Effect: Andromeda" multiplayer. Supported by iOS and Android devices, "APEX HQ" was released on March 15 in Canada, Ireland, Romania and Singapore, and worldwide on March 20, 2017. Through "APEX HQ", players can view their progress in multiplayer, equip characters, assign skill points, manage Strike Teams, and access their friend list. The app cannot be used while signed into the game.


title: Mass Effect

text: Mass Effect Trilogy is a compilation featuring the first three games of the series, released on December 4, 2012. For the PlayStation 3 version, "Trilogy" also includes the downloadable content for the first two games: "Bring Down the Sky" for "Mass Effect", and "Cerberus Network" content for "Mass Effect 2" along with the "", "" and "" DLC's. The Xbox 360 version includes all DLC that came with the original games, with Cerberus Network for "Mass Effect 2" and "Mass Effect 3" remaining unchanged. The PC version is the same as Xbox 360, except both "Bring Down the Sky" and "" are available for free as per the standalone purchase of the PC version.


title: Mass Effect

text: "Mass Effect Legendary Edition" was officially announced on November 7, 2020 or "N7 Day." The goal of the remaster was "not to remake or reimagine the original games, but to modernize the experience so that fans and new players can experience the original work in its best possible form." The remaster also features almost all previously released downloadable content, enhanced "textures, shaders, models, effects, and technical features of three enormous games." Due to "Mass Effect 1" age, it received the most extensive work for the "Legendary Edition", which BioWare compared it to the quality of a remake, while stating that the other two games were still remasters.


title: Mass Effect

text: The 4K remaster was released on May 14, 2021 for the Xbox One, PlayStation 4, and PC, in addition to the ninth generation of video game consoles—the Xbox Series X/S and the PlayStation 5.


title: Mass Effect

text: "Mass Effect" began as a 2003 pitch for a project codenamed SFX by BioWare project director Casey Hudson to the company's co-founders, Ray Muzyka and Greg Zeschuk. Hudson wanted the company to set a goal on developing its own science fiction intellectual property that is on the same scale and scope as the "Star Wars" setting. On 11 October 2007, shortly before the release of the original "Mass Effect" video game for the Xbox 360 in November 2007, it was announced that EA bought out VG Holding Corp., a partnership between BioWare and Pandemic Studios formed in November 2005. The "Mass Effect" IP was acquired by EA in the process and BioWare continued their role as the IP's developers.


title: Mass Effect

text: The technological outline of the series is based on the theory of dark energy, a form of energy proposed to be the source of the universe’s expansion, and a hypothetical instrument for faster-than-light (FTL) travel. By applying a strong electric current via dark energy to the fictional Element Zero or "eezo", "mass effect" fields could be created and manipulated: a positive current raises the mass of any object currently occupying that spot and help to create artificial gravity effects, while a negative current does the inverse by reducing mass and improves the cost-effective expenditure of fuel for starships that move at FTL speeds. The stronger the current, the greater the magnitude of the dark energy mass effect. Other real world advanced scientific concepts explored in the series include 3D printing for the omni-tool concept, hard light technology, and hypervelocity weaponry. Based on the "underlying idea that real-life scientific discoveries consistently create imagery and concepts that blow away previous notions of what is possible," Hudson opined that "reality will continue to be stranger than fiction" which in his view justifies the developers' creative license with their work.


title: Mass Effect

text: Morality is measured by "Paragon" and "Renegade" points for the first three main series games, which has been described as a more nuanced continuation of the morality system surrounding the light and dark side of the Force BioWare developed for their previous work, the 2003 video game "". A spin-off for the Nintendo DS titled "Mass Effect: Corsair", patterned after the gameplay of "Star Control" and centered around a Han Solo-inspired space pirate character played from a first-person perspective was briefly explored in 2008. The project was to be developed in tandem with the original video game trilogy, although the developers ultimately abandoned the project due to the prohibitive cost of Nintendo DS cartridges as well as the publisher's unoptimistic estimation of the projected sales data for the project, with the team and its resources reassigned to work on "Mass Effect 2". Former BioWare employee Dorian Kieken noted that the central concept of "Corsair" as a narrative adventure which follows a morally ambiguous protagonist would have been an ideal vehicle to explore as an expansion of the "Mass Effect" universe. For 2017's "", the binary Paragon and Renegade morality system was removed entirely.


title: Mass Effect

text: In 2007 BioWare filed a patent for the Dialogue Wheel, described in official documents as a "graphical interface for interactive dialog," which was officially granted to its parent company EA International Studio and Publishing Ltd by the United States Patent & Trademark Office in 2011.


title: Mass Effect

text: Besides "Star Wars", the "Mass Effect" universe is also inspired by several established conventions and tropes found in other science fiction franchises, such as "Star Trek", "Blade Runner", "Firefly", and "Battlestar Galactica". Other intellectual properties which influenced the series' atmosphere and artistic qualities included "Alien", "Starship Troopers", "Dune" and "". Several video games fed into Hudson's vision for the gameplay experience of the series: these include Deus Ex’s choice-based branching storylines, the gunplay mechanics of the "Halo" franchise, and the open-ended galaxy exploration of the MS-DOS game "Starflight".


title: Mass Effect

text: Aspects of Greek mythology have been consistently invoked throughout the series, from the names of in-universe objects and organizations like the planet Elysium or the anthropocentric paramilitary group Cerberus, to the narrative themes of certain story arcs like the Prothean's connection to the contemporary civilizations of the galaxy through the technology they left behind.


title: Mass Effect

text: The music of the series is noted for its similarity in style to the vintage synthesizer score for "Blade Runner", which creates a mood appropriate for the oscillating wonder and terror of unknown space. According to Jack Wall, who served as the composer for the first two "Mass Effect" games, he combined the electronic instrument palette from the late 1970s to early 1980s with organic elements to create the first game's soundscape.


title: Mass Effect

text: On November 23, 2021, "Deadline Hollywood" reported that negotiations were underway to adapt the "Mass Effect" franchise for Amazon's Prime Video streaming service.


title: Mass Effect

text: Two series of action figures were released by DC Direct and Big Fish Toys for "Mass Effect 2" and "Mass Effect 3". Series one included action figures of Commander Shepard, Grunt, Tali, and Thane. Series two included Garrus, Legion, Miranda, and Mordin. Each figure features game-accurate accessories and can be found in game and hobby shops and various online retailers. The figures tied to "Mass Effect 3" include bonus downloadable content, which is exclusive and different for each character.


title: Mass Effect

text: The original "Mass Effect" trilogy has received near-universal critical acclaim across all release platforms, according to review aggregator Metacritic. All three games have received numerous nominations as well as number of year-end awards from video game publications and major award ceremonies. The first two "Mass Effect" titles are widely considered to be among the greatest games of all time. "Mass Effect 2" in particular is the most critically acclaimed game in the series and garnered numerous game of the year awards following its release. It received over 70 perfect review scores. In 2013 "IGN" rated the "Mass Effect Trilogy" the best Xbox 360 game(s) out of a list of 25, and the 7th best PS3 game(s) out of a list of 25.


title: Mass Effect

text: The fourth installment, "Mass Effect: Andromeda" received a less enthusiastic critical reception, with a consensus among critics that it is not up to par with its predecessors in terms of overall quality, although the improved combat received praise.


title: Mass Effect

text: The "Mass Effect" franchise has been successful commercially. The first game in the franchise sold over one million units worldwide in less than three weeks after launch. Sales rose to 1.6 million copies after six weeks of availability by January 2009. Its sequel, "Mass Effect 2" shipped two million copies to retailers two weeks after the game was released. The game sold over 500,000 copies in the month of release, despite being released at the end of the month. Before the release of the third game, the series sold a combined total of 7 million copies worldwide. "Mass Effect 3" was the most commercially successful game of the series: it sold over 800,000 copies in its first 24 hours, and its opening month sales were twice that of its predecessor's, selling over 900,000 copies on the Xbox 360 version, outselling the PlayStation 3 version 4 to 1 and bringing in over $200 million in revenue. By April 2012 it sold over twice as many copies as "Mass Effect 2" in their respective launch months and generated lifetime sales of over six million copies. The "Mass Effect" series had sold a total of 14 million units by July 5, 2014.


title: Mass Effect

text: "Mass Effect: Andromeda" continued the sales success of its predecessors. By May 2017, an analyst noted that at least 2.5 million retail copies of "Mass Effect: Andromeda" had been shipped for $110 million in revenue. Additionally, $53 million in net sales from digital and special editions for "Andromeda" were generated in March 2017 but deferred to a later date.


title: Mass Effect

text: Tauriq Moosa from "The Guardian" lauded the "Mass Effect" franchise as some of the best science fiction ever made, describing its overarching theme of "aspiration and connection in the face of an indifferent cosmos" to be "as cerebral as "Star Trek", as hopeful as Asimov and as dramatic as "Battlestar Galactica"". Jessi Sampson from "PCGamesN" concurred and called "Mass Effect" an "impressive melting pot of ideas" from various seminal science fiction works, and that the ambition of the first game and its developers shaped the video game industry and "left behind a legacy as bright as the stars it had so vividly imagined". Writing for "Wired", Jonathan Wood said the first "Mass Effect" set a high bar for storytelling in the video game medium unmatched by most of its contemporaries. Benjamin Bullard from "Syfy" noted that the first game debuted at a time when science fiction video games mainly revolved around persistent conflict and violence between alien and human characters, and the franchise had since grown from a niche RPG into a "full-scale AAA gaming phenomenon."


title: Mass Effect

text: In 2010, GamesRadar called "Mass Effect" the best new franchise of the (then seventh) generation, with a galaxy setting "so well-constructed that it felt like a decades-old franchise and represented a high-water mark for video games as a story-telling medium." Colin Moriarty stated that "the "Mass Effect" series is one of the defining video game franchises of [the seventh] generation". Kyle Munkittrick from "Gizmodo" argued that "Mass Effect", based on several factors articulated in his article, is the most important science fiction universe of the contemporary generation. Patrick Carlson from "PC Gamer" called "Mass Effect" one of the grandest and most personal science fiction epics across all mediums due to the successful combination of classic space opera's best elements with an RPG adventure structure that "encourages both playful and serious challenges to traditional science fiction". Cian Maher from "TheGamer" credited the series' well-written codex entries as playing an instrumental role in building "one of the most fascinating universes in the history of video games".


title: Mass Effect

text: N7 Day is an informal commemorative day observed annually on November 7 by BioWare, Electronic Arts and "Mass Effect" fandom. It originated as a marketing initiative by BioWare in 2012 to celebrate the "Mass Effect" media franchise. "N7" refers to Commander Shepard's in-universe military designation code worn on the character's armor: "N" is the classification for special forces and "7" is for Shepard's highly prestigious in-universe rank.


title: Mass Effect

text: The "Mass Effect" series has been the subject of several major video game controversies. A cutscene from the first "Mass Effect", which contains depictions of partial nudity and sexual activity, was accused by neoconservative media outlets of being obscene content in late 2007. Controversy over the cutscene, especially one version which depicts a potential intimate scene between Liara T'Soni and a female Commander Shepard, attracted at least one instance of government scrutiny, which led to the game being briefly banned in Singapore. The controversy prompted an intervention from BioWare management into the development of "Mass Effect 2" to remove planned same sex romantic content for companion characters like Jacob Taylor and Jack.


title: Mass Effect

text: Although "Mass Effect 3" garnered critical acclaim like its predecessors, controversy surrounded its release. The most notable incident involved the public's reaction and refusal to accept the game's (and the trilogy's) ending. Several players organized themselves around internet campaigns to demand a better ending to the game. Both the US Federal Trade Commission and the British Advertising Standards Authority (ASA) received complaints alleging that BioWare misled consumers under existing law which governs product advertising and consumer rights. BioWare later released an "extended cut" patch which would expand upon, but not replace, the endings of "Mass Effect 3". BioWare also faced accusations of unethical business practices over its handling of the release for the "" DLC pack, as well as potential conflict of interest over video game media personality Jessica Chobot's involvement in "Mass Effect 3".


title: Mass Effect

text: Other noteworthy controversies surrounding the series include public outrage over the alleged link between the series' in-game combat violence to the perpetrator of the Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting, which was later debunked; the appropriation of assets from "Mass Effect 2" into a propaganda video to support the 2016 presidential campaign of Donald Trump, which was promoted by Trump's social media accounts shortly before it was taken down over claims of copyright infringement by publisher EA; and reactions to the portrayal and representation of women as well as sexual minorities.


title: Andrew Luck

text: Andrew Austen Luck (born September 12, 1989) is a former American football quarterback who played in the National Football League (NFL) for seven seasons with the Indianapolis Colts. One of the most highly touted amateur prospects during his college football career at Stanford, Luck won the Maxwell, Walter Camp, and Johnny Unitas Golden Arm Awards as a senior. Following his collegiate success, he was selected first overall by the Colts in the 2012 NFL Draft.


title: Andrew Luck

text: Luck made an impact within his first year by setting the rookie records for most passing yards in a season and game, while leading a Colts team that went 2–14 the previous year to an 11–5 record and playoff berth. Establishing himself as a dual-threat quarterback, he guided Indianapolis to consecutive division titles in his following two seasons. In the postseason, Luck oversaw the NFL's second-largest playoff comeback during the 2013 playoffs and helped the Colts reach the 2014 AFC Championship Game. He earned Pro Bowl honors during his first three years and led the league in passing touchdowns in 2014.


title: Andrew Luck

text: Over the next three seasons, Luck struggled with injuries that eventually sidelined him for the entirety of 2017. He returned to form the following year by setting several career highs and bringing the Colts back to the playoffs. For his success, Luck was named Comeback Player of the Year and voted to a fourth Pro Bowl. However, citing the injuries he sustained, Luck retired ahead of the 2019 season. He was inducted to the College Football Hall of Fame in 2022.


title: Andrew Luck

text: Luck was born in Washington, D.C. to Kathy (née Wilson) and Oliver Luck, who was the commissioner of the XFL, former executive vice president for regulatory affairs at the NCAA, former quarterback (as well as athletic director) at West Virginia University, and a former NFL quarterback for the Houston Oilers. Luck was raised as a Roman Catholic and was involved in his church's youth group.


title: Andrew Luck

text: Oliver Luck was general manager of two World League of American Football teams before becoming president of the league, so Andrew spent his early childhood in London and Frankfurt, Germany, where he attended Frankfurt International School. He is the oldest of four children, including sisters Mary Ellen and Emily and brother Addison. Mary Ellen is a Stanford graduate who played volleyball there, Emily is a current Stanford student, and Addison lived in Morgantown, West Virginia before their father's job took him to the Indianapolis area. In London, Andrew attended The American School in London. As a result of his childhood in London, he is a fan of soccer. Although supporters of London clubs Arsenal and Tottenham have reached out to him believing he was a fellow fan, Luck said, "I try to support as many of the American fellows playing [in the Premier League] as possible." Luck said the Houston Dynamo was the "number one team in my heart" because his father was the club's founding president and general manager.


title: Andrew Luck

text: The Lucks returned to Texas when Oliver Luck was named CEO of the Harris County-Houston Sports Authority. In Houston, Andrew attended Stratford High School, where he threw for 7,139 yards and 53 touchdowns in his high school career, and rushed for another 2,085 yards. Luck was also co-valedictorian of his graduating class in 2008. Regarded as a four-star recruit by "Rivals.com", Luck was listed as the No. 4 pro-style quarterback in the class of 2008. He played in the 2008 U.S. Army All-American Bowl. A highly rated high school recruiting target, he chose Stanford over offers from Northwestern, Oklahoma State, Purdue, Rice, and Virginia, after being recruited by Stanford head coach Jim Harbaugh.


title: Andrew Luck

text: After accepting an athletic scholarship to attend Stanford University, Luck played for coach Jim Harbaugh and coach David Shaw's Cardinal teams from 2008 to 2011.


title: Andrew Luck

text: After redshirting during his freshman year in 2008, he earned the starting quarterback job in 2009 over the returning starter, Tavita Pritchard, thereby becoming the first Stanford freshman to earn the starting quarterback job since Chad Hutchinson in 1996. In his first season, Luck led the Cardinal to victories over top-10 Oregon and USC teams and a berth in the 2009 Sun Bowl. Playing in a run-oriented offense featuring Heisman Trophy runner-up Toby Gerhart, Luck threw for 2,575 yards. Luck had 2,929 yards of total offense, the fifth-highest total in Stanford history. He led the Pac-10 in pass efficiency rating with a rating of 143.5, and finished second in the Pac-10 in total offense.


title: Andrew Luck

text: Luck injured a finger on his throwing hand in the Cardinal's final regular season game against Notre Dame. He had surgery prior to the Sun Bowl and did not play in the game.


title: Andrew Luck

text: In 2010, Luck emerged as one of the top players in the nation. Luck was named the Pac-10 Offensive Player of the Year and was unanimously selected to the All-Pac-10 First Team. Luck led Stanford to a 12–1 record, a #4 ranking in the final AP Poll, and a victory in the Orange Bowl. Luck was named the Orange Bowl MVP after throwing four touchdown passes in Stanford's 40–12 win over Virginia Tech. Luck led the Pac-10 in pass efficiency for the second straight year with a quarterback rating of 170.2. He also led the conference in total offense with 3,791 yards, in passing yards with 3,338 yards, and in touchdown passes with 32. Luck rushed for 453 yards, a record for Stanford quarterbacks, with three runs of over 50 yards. Luck's 32 touchdown passes are a new Stanford record, breaking the old record of 27 held by John Elway and Steve Stenstrom. Luck's 3,791 yards of total offense also are a school record, breaking the old record of 3,398 yards held by Stenstrom. Luck also set new Stanford single-season records for completion percentage (70.7%) and pass efficiency rating (170.2). He won the Pac-10 Offensive Player of the Week award for his performances against Arizona and California.


title: Andrew Luck

text: Luck finished the 2010 season with two years of college eligibility remaining. He was eligible to declare for the 2011 NFL Draft, but announced on January 6, 2011, that he would remain at Stanford to complete his degree. He was viewed by many TV sportscasters and ESPN writers as the top pro quarterback prospect in college football. In December 2010, "Sporting News" projected Luck as the No. 1 selection in the 2011 NFL Draft, had he entered.


title: Andrew Luck

text: In 2011, Luck led Stanford to a record of 11–2, a berth in a BCS bowl, the 2012 Fiesta Bowl against Oklahoma State, and a # 7 ranking in the final AP Poll. He won the Maxwell Award and the Walter Camp Player of the Year Award. He was the runner-up for the Heisman Trophy for the second consecutive year, becoming the fourth player to finish second in the Heisman voting twice. He was named a First Team All America (AFCA, Walter Camp, ESPN.com, Pro Football Weekly). He was the Pac-12 Offensive Player of the Year, becoming only the fifth player to win that award twice (after John Elway, Charles White, Reggie Bush, and Rueben Mayes). He was named First Team All-Pac-12 for the second straight year. Luck set a new Stanford record for career touchdown passes with 82, breaking John Elway's record of 77. Luck also set a new school record for touchdown passes in a season with 37, breaking his own record of 32. Luck set another school record for career total offense with 10,387 yards, breaking Steve Stenstrom's mark of 9,825 yards. Luck became Stanford's all-time leader in wins by a starting quarterback, with 31 wins through the end of the regular season. Luck also became Stanford's all-time leader in winning percentage by a starting quarterback, with a winning percentage of .816 (31–7). Luck broke the Pac-12 records for career passing efficiency rating (162.8) and career completion percentage (67.0%). He also broke his own Pac-12 record for highest completion percentage in a season (71.3%). Luck was named Pac-12 Offensive Player of the Week for his performance against Washington State. He earned the 2011 Academic All-America of the Year award.


title: Andrew Luck

text: For Stanford fans, though, Luck's individual honors were secondary to his transformative impact on the program:


title: Andrew Luck

text: In 2012, an anonymous donor endowed a permanent chair for Stanford's offensive coordinator position to be known as the "Andrew Luck Director of Offense."


title: Andrew Luck

text: In September 2010, before Luck's sophomore season, "Sports Illustrated" Tony Pauline considered him "the most NFL-ready of all the draft-eligible quarterback prospects." After a stellar sophomore year, Luck was widely projected to be the No. 1 pick in the 2011 NFL Draft, but decided to return for his junior year. In May 2011, he was unanimously projected as the top prospect for the 2012 NFL Draft. By midseason, Pauline described him as "the best quarterback since Peyton Manning" in 1998, while "ESPN" Mel Kiper Jr. went even further, calling Luck the best quarterback prospect since John Elway in 1983. Despite Robert Griffin III's impressive Heisman Trophy-winning season, Luck's status as the No. 1 overall draft prospect was never questioned.


title: Andrew Luck

text: Throughout the 2011 NFL season, some fans called for their teams to try to lose their remaining games (or "Suck for Luck") in order to improve their chances at the first pick in the draft. By midseason the Miami Dolphins were believed to be the "frontrunners" for the No. 1 pick and drew criticism from their former franchise quarterback Dan Marino. The Indianapolis Colts, who were without starting quarterback Peyton Manning, won the "Luck sweepstakes" with a 2–14 record.


title: Andrew Luck

text: Ending speculations on April 24, Colts general manager Ryan Grigson announced the team would take Luck with their first overall draft pick. The decision became official on draft day, April 26, 2012. Luck was the fourth Stanford quarterback to be selected first overall, after Bobby Garrett in 1954, Jim Plunkett in 1971, and Elway in 1983. Luck was also the second Stanford quarterback taken first overall by the Colts after Elway, although Elway did not play for the Colts.


title: Andrew Luck

text: On July 19, 2012, Luck signed a four-year contract with the Indianapolis Colts worth $22 million. The deal made Luck the fourth starting quarterback for the Colts in the past two NFL seasons, following Kerry Collins, Curtis Painter, and Dan Orlovsky. In his debut, a preseason game against the St. Louis Rams, Luck's first pass was a 63-yard touchdown to running back Donald Brown. He also threw a touchdown pass to receiver Austin Collie. In his second preseason game, a 26–24 loss to the Pittsburgh Steelers, Luck played the first half and ran for one touchdown, with two interceptions.


title: Andrew Luck

text: In his regular-season debut, Luck threw his first career interception to Chicago Bears cornerback Tim Jennings and his first career touchdown pass to Donnie Avery. Ultimately, Luck completed 23 of 45 passes for 309 yards, a touchdown, and three interceptions, as the Colts lost 41–21. The next week against the Minnesota Vikings, Luck threw for 224 yards and two touchdowns with no interceptions. He got his first career win and did it by completing the first game-winning drive of his professional career. Luck won his first career road and overtime game during a week 8 game against the division rival Tennessee Titans. A touchdown pass to running back Vick Ballard on the first drive of overtime gave the Colts a 19–13 victory. In a Week 9 win against the Miami Dolphins, Luck threw for 433 yards, a new record for most yards in a game by a rookie quarterback (surpassing Cam Newton's 432 against the Green Bay Packers in 2011). He later sent his jersey from the Dolphins game to the Pro Football Hall of Fame. Through Week 9, Luck had thrown for the same number of yards as his predecessor, Peyton Manning. In Week 13 against the Detroit Lions, Luck and the Colts were trailing 33–21 with 2:39 left. After throwing a touchdown to fellow rookie LaVon Brazill, Luck and the Colts were able to get the ball back and get to the Lions' 14-yard line, facing a 4th down with four seconds left. Luck then threw a screen pass to Donnie Avery, who got free and ran in for the winning score, a big moment in Luck's early career. The win gave Luck his eighth of the season—the most wins by a rookie quarterback drafted first overall in NFL history—as well as his fifth game-winning drive on the season, tying Vince Young and Ben Roethlisberger for the most by a rookie quarterback.


title: Andrew Luck

text: Starting every game, Luck led the Colts to 11 wins—a record for rookie quarterbacks drafted first overall, where the previous record was 8—and reached the playoffs with a team that had gone 2–14 the year before. Playing against the Kansas City Chiefs on December 23, 2012, Luck broke the record for most passing yards in a season by a rookie, throwing 205 to bring his season total to 4,183. Cam Newton held the previous record with 4,051 yards.


title: Andrew Luck

text: In 2013, Luck was reunited with offensive coordinator Pep Hamilton, who was his offensive coordinator and quarterback coach at Stanford. In week 1 against the Oakland Raiders, Luck capped off another comeback win by scoring a 20-yard rushing touchdown in a 21–17 win. After a Week 2 loss to the Miami Dolphins, Luck defeated his former Stanford coach Jim Harbaugh in a 27–7 win against the San Francisco 49ers in Week 3. After falling behind early to the Jacksonville Jaguars in Week 4, Luck and the Colts scored 37 unanswered points to win 37–3. The win gave Luck a 14–6 record through his first 20 games, tying him with John Elway for the best record through 20 games for a quarterback selected first overall.


title: Andrew Luck

text: On October 6, Luck led the Colts to a 34–28 win over the then-undefeated Seattle Seahawks in his first game against fellow sophomore quarterback Russell Wilson. Luck also recorded his ninth career fourth-quarter comeback in the win, handing Seattle their first regular-season loss since November 25, 2012. The Colts traveled to San Diego to face the Chargers for a Week 6 "Monday Night Football" match, the first of Luck's career. Indianapolis was dominated in time of possession and lost 19–9. In week 7, Peyton Manning made his return to Lucas Oil Stadium to play Luck on "NBC Sunday Night Football". The Colts lead at halftime 26–14 and survived a near comeback by the previously undefeated Denver Broncos to win 39–33, going into a bye week. The win also snapped Denver's 17-game regular-season winning streak. Luck won his second AFC Offensive Player of the Week for his performance against the Broncos, going 21–38 for 228 yards with 3 touchdown passes, 1 rushing touchdown, and no interceptions. After a Week 8 bye, Luck engineered his tenth career fourth-quarter comeback, scoring 15 points in the quarter to defeat the Houston Texans by a score of 27–24. He threw three touchdowns, all to fellow sophomore Colt T. Y. Hilton, and finished with 271 passing yards with no interceptions. During Week 14, the Colts won their first division championship under Luck and were the first team to clinch their division that season. The next week, Luck threw for 2 touchdowns in a 25–3 victory over the Houston Texans in their second divisional matchup.


title: Andrew Luck

text: During a Week 16 23–7 victory over the Kansas City Chiefs, Luck threw for 241 yards and a touchdown. In doing so, he passed Peyton Manning for second place for quarterback passing yards through 2 seasons with 7,914 (Manning had 7,874 in his first 2 seasons). In week 17, Luck broke Cam Newton's record for yards passing in the first two seasons of a career, with 8,196 yards (Newton had 7,920 yards) in a win against the Jacksonville Jaguars.


title: Andrew Luck

text: Luck played his first NFL home playoff game on January 4, 2014, against the fifth-seeded Kansas City Chiefs in the . After the Colts fell back by 28 points, he led a historic comeback, capping the game with a 64-yard touchdown pass to T. Y. Hilton to take the lead for the first time, 45–44. The Colts defense would then deny Alex Smith a chance to get Kansas City within field goal range to end the game. Luck completed 29 passes for 433 yards and 4 touchdowns, in addition to recovering a fumble for a key touchdown, to record the second-biggest comeback in NFL playoff history and the largest comeback to end in regulation. This game was ranked #1 on NFL.com's Top Games of 2013. The Colts lost to the New England Patriots 43–22 in the of the playoffs the following week. Luck threw for 331 yards, two touchdowns, and four interceptions.


title: Andrew Luck

text: Luck was named to his second Pro Bowl on January 19, 2014, replacing Russell Wilson due to Wilson's participation in Super Bowl XLVIII. He went on to be taken first overall by Deion Sanders. He was ranked 30th by his fellow players on the NFL Top 100 Players of 2014.


title: Andrew Luck

text: Opening the season with his second game against his predecessor, Peyton Manning, Luck passed for 370 yards and 2 touchdowns with 2 interceptions. After rallying from a 24–0 deficit following halftime, the Colts fell short of the comeback and lost to the Denver Broncos 31–24. In a Week 2 loss against the Philadelphia Eagles, Luck threw for 3 touchdowns, passing Jim Harbaugh for fourth on the Colts' all-time list. Looking to avoid losing three consecutive games for the first time in his career, Luck completed 31 of 39 passes for 370 yards and 4 touchdowns against the Jacksonville Jaguars to win 44–17 in Week 3. He was named the AFC Offensive Player of the Week for his performance, the third time he has won the award.


title: Andrew Luck

text: In a Week 4 win against the Tennessee Titans, Luck became the first quarterback in NFL history to throw for 370 yards or more, 4 touchdowns, and have a completion percentage 70 percent or above in consecutive games. He would continue his winning ways in Week 5 against the Baltimore Ravens, throwing 312 yards with a touchdown pass, as well as 1 rushing touchdown, to win 20–13. Luck would record his fourth-consecutive 300 yard game on "Thursday Night Football" against the Houston Texans. Indianapolis jumped out to a 24–0 lead after 1 quarter, and would hold on to beat the Texans 33–28. Through Week 6, Luck had thrown for 1,987 yards and 17 touchdowns, leading the league in both, and establishing career-highs through 6 games.


title: Andrew Luck

text: Luck continued his excellent play in Week 7 against the Cincinnati Bengals, passing for over 300 yards for the 5th consecutive game, tying the Colts record set by Peyton Manning. He would finish the day with 344 passing yards and 2 touchdowns, as Indianapolis defeated the Bengals, 27–0. The shutout victory was the first for Indianapolis since a 23–0 win over the Tennessee Titans in December 2008. Luck broke his single-season touchdown mark in the Colts Week 9 game against the New York Giants, throwing four to bring his total to 26. He also became the first quarterback in 2014 to reach 3,000 passing yards.


title: Andrew Luck

text: In Week 13, Luck threw a career-high 5 touchdown passes in a 49–27 win over the Washington Redskins. In addition, he also became the first quarterback to reach 4,000 passing yards in 2014. On December 4, Luck was named the AFC Offensive Player of the Month for November. In the month, Luck passed for 1,280 yards, 12 touchdowns, and had a quarterback rating of 112.0. Entering a Week 14 matchup with the Cleveland Browns, Luck needed only 81 yards to surpass Peyton Manning for the most passing yards by a quarterback in their first 3 seasons. Luck passed for 294 yards to take the record, and engineered a fourth-quarter comeback by throwing a 1-yard touchdown pass to T. Y. Hilton to win the game 25–24.


title: Andrew Luck

text: After a Week 15 win against the Texans, Luck successfully led the Colts to the playoffs for the third straight year. Along with the division title, Luck also earned his third straight Pro Bowl berth. In Week 17, Luck broke Peyton Manning's franchise record for passing yards in a single-season. In addition, he became the 8th quarterback in NFL history to throw for 40 or more touchdowns in a single season. In the Colts' game against the Cincinnati Bengals, Luck completed 31 of 44 passes for 376 yards and 1 touchdown, leading the team to a 26–10 victory. He then went on to complete 27 of 43 passes and throw for 265 yards, 2 touchdowns, and 2 interceptions in a 24–13 Indianapolis victory over the Denver Broncos in the AFC . In the , infamously dubbed Deflategate, Luck and the Colts fell to the New England Patriots, 45–7. Luck was also the league's leader in passing touchdowns for the first time in his career. He was ranked seventh by his fellow players on the NFL Top 100 Players of 2015.


title: Andrew Luck

text: On April 9, the Colts announced they had picked up the fifth-year option on Luck's contract, which will pay him a guaranteed $16.55 million in 2016. In Weeks 4 and 5, Luck missed the first two games of his career with an injured shoulder. Backup Matt Hasselbeck played in his place and led the team to a 16–13 overtime win over the Jacksonville Jaguars, followed by a 27–20 "Thursday Night Football" victory over the Houston Texans. Luck returned to the lineup on October 18 in a 34–27 loss to the New England Patriots. On November 2, Luck led the Colts back from a 17-point deficit in the fourth quarter to force overtime against the Carolina Panthers, but his third interception of the game helped lead to the Panthers' 29–26 win. On November 10, it was announced that Luck would miss 2–6 weeks with a lacerated kidney and a partially torn abdominal muscle, suffered during the fourth quarter of the Colts 27–24 win over the previously undefeated Denver Broncos two days prior. However, the recovery process took much longer than expected and Luck did not return for the rest of the season. The Colts failed to make the playoffs for the first time with Luck, ending the season 8–8. He was ranked 92nd by his fellow players on the NFL Top 100 Players of 2016.


title: Andrew Luck

text: On June 29, the Colts announced Luck had signed a six-year extension worth $140 million, with $87 million guaranteed, making him the highest paid player in the league. In a 41–10 win over the New York Jets in Week 13, Luck passed for 278 yards and four touchdowns, which earned him the AFC Offensive Player of the Week award. In the 2016 season, Luck threw for 4,240 yards and 31 touchdowns, and a career-high 63.5 completion percentage, despite missing one game due to a concussion. He was also ranked 51st by his peers on the NFL Top 100 Players of 2017. Shortly following the 2016 season, Luck underwent surgery to repair an issue with his right (throwing) shoulder that had been lingering since 2015.


title: Andrew Luck

text: Following surgery on his shoulder during the off-season, Luck was held out of training camp and the preseason, and it was announced he was to miss regular season games. Scott Tolzien started for the season opener against the Los Angeles Rams, and the newly acquired Jacoby Brissett took over as the starter in Week 2 against the Arizona Cardinals. Following the Colts' Week 4 loss to the Seattle Seahawks, Colts' general manager Chris Ballard stated that Luck would begin practicing but was not ready to fully return to games. On November 2, the Colts placed Luck on injured reserve, meaning that he was ruled out for the 2017 season. On November 11, it was revealed that Luck was traveling to Europe to seek additional treatment for his previously injured shoulder. After returning to the U.S., Luck was put through a throwing program. This led him to travel to Los Angeles to go through rehab with a throwing coach. Ballard stated on February 7, 2018, that Luck would not need an additional surgery.


title: Andrew Luck

text: Luck started Week 1 on September 9, 2018, against the Cincinnati Bengals, his first game in 616 days. He had 319 passing yards, two touchdowns, and an interception, and set a career-high in completions with 39, but the Colts lost 34–23. In Week 3 against the Philadelphia Eagles, with the Colts down 20–16 with seconds left in the game, Luck, who had thrown for just 164 yards in the game, was replaced by backup Jacoby Brissett to attempt a Hail Mary pass from his own 46-yard line. Brissett overthrew several players in the back of the end zone and the Colts lost the game. The move was questioned by some journalists and fans, and led to some speculation about the health of Luck's shoulder, although head coach Frank Reich and Luck both said it was purely because Brissett had a stronger throwing arm. The following week against the Houston Texans, Luck threw for four touchdowns and career-highs in completions (40), attempts (62) and yards (464). He led the Colts back from down 28–10 in the third quarter, including a game-tying two point conversion with :51 left. However the team lost in overtime, 37–34, after Indianapolis failed to convert a 4th and 4 on their own 43 and the Texans kicked the game-winning field goal. In Week 5, on "Thursday Night Football" against the New England Patriots, he was 38-of-59 for 365 passing yards, three touchdowns, and two interceptions as the Colts fell 38–24. Luck's 121 passing attempts in Weeks 4–5 were the most over a two-game span in NFL history. In Week 6, against the New York Jets, he had 301 passing yards, four touchdowns, and three interceptions in the 42–34 loss.


title: Andrew Luck

text: After the 1–5 start to the season, Luck and the Colts went on a five-game winning streak. In Week 7, he passed for 156 yards and four touchdowns in a 37–5 victory over the Buffalo Bills. In the next two games, victories over the Oakland Raiders and Jacksonville Jaguars, he passed for three touchdowns in both games. In Week 11, Luck completed 23 of 29 passes for 297 yards and three touchdowns, posting a 143.8 passer rating, in a 38–10 win over the Titans, earning him AFC Offensive Player of the Week. In a Week 12 27–24 victory over the Miami Dolphins, Luck had his eight consecutive game with at least three passing touchdowns. In Week 16, Luck led a double-digit comeback against the New York Giants, the 21st fourth quarter comeback of his career, throwing a go-ahead score to Chester Rogers with 55 seconds left, and winning 28–27. The win put the Colts in position for a chance to earn a Wild Card playoff berth the following week in their matchup with the Titans. Luck also set a new record in single-season completions in the game, passing his previous mark of 380 in 2014. The Colts defeated the Titans, earning a Wild Card berth and end the season winning nine of ten games. Luck finished his first season back from injury with 4,593 passing yards, 39 touchdowns, and 15 interceptions. Luck and the Colts upset the AFC South division champion Houston Texans in the by a score of 21–7. In the victory, Luck passed for 222 yards, two touchdowns, and one interception. In the , the Colts faced off against the AFC West champion Kansas City Chiefs. In what ended up being his final game, Luck passed for 203 yards and one touchdown, but the Colts fell to the Chiefs by a score of 31–13.


title: Andrew Luck

text: At the completion of the season, Luck was named to the fourth Pro Bowl of his career, as well as being given the National Football League Comeback Player of the Year Award by the Pro Football Writers Association. He was ranked 20th by his fellow players on the NFL Top 100 Players of 2019.


title: Andrew Luck

text: On August 24, 2019, after seven seasons and at the age of 29, Luck abruptly announced his retirement two weeks before the start of the season. At a press conference, he cited his recurrent cycle of injuries and rehabilitation as the primary reason, saying:I've been stuck in this process. I haven't been able to live the life I want to live. It's taken the joy out of this game. The only way forward for me is to remove myself from football. This is not an easy decision. It's the hardest decision of my life. But it is the right decision for me.


title: Andrew Luck

text: Due to retiring at the age of 29, Luck is considered by some to be among the best professional athletes to end their career during their prime. After news of Luck’s planned retirement broke during the Colts’ preseason loss to the Chicago Bears, Colts fans booed Luck as he left the field.


title: Andrew Luck

text: After very few public appearances and no interviews following his retirement, A ESPN article written by Seth Wickersham in December 2022 went into more detail about Luck's decision. Luck clarified that while injuries played a role, habits he had developed as an NFL quarterback had created issues with his wife Nicole and he ultimately chose his marriage over his career.


title: Andrew Luck

text: On June 17, 2012, Luck graduated from Stanford with a bachelor's degree in architectural design and received the Al Masters Award, an honor given to an athlete each year, "for the highest standards of athletic performance, leadership and academic achievement."


title: Andrew Luck

text: He has stated that his favorite musician is Bruce Springsteen. An avid reader, Luck became known as "the Colts' very own librarian", giving and suggesting books for his teammates; in 2012, he said his favorite book was Henri Charrière's "Papillon", and he is a fan of Bernard Cornwell's historical fiction.


title: Andrew Luck

text: On the field, Luck perplexed his opponents with comments that may or may not be trash talk: when he is knocked down, he is in the habit of congratulating his opponent on the hit. After a hit by linebacker Ryan Kerrigan that caused a fumble and sent Luck scrambling for the ball, he was not able to congratulate Kerrigan right away and had to wait until later in the game "to tell Kerrigan how great he was doing". Kerrigan's reaction was later captured, "You want to say thank you but then you say 'wait a second—I'm not supposed to like you!'"


title: Andrew Luck

text: On March 31, 2019, Luck married longtime girlfriend Nicole Pechanec. He announced on June 14, 2019, that they were expecting their first child. The couple's first child, a daughter named Lucy, was born in November 2019.


title: Andrew Luck

text: After his retirement, Luck continued to reside in Indianapolis with his family. The family relocated to the Bay Area in 2022. He is known to be very private, still using a flip phone, and has no social media presence. He enjoys cycling.


title: Andrew Luck

text: In August 2022, Stanford coach David Shaw divulged that Luck was going to be returning to Stanford as a graduate student, pursuing a master's degree in education.


title: Andrew Luck

text: In 2013, Luck appeared on the comedy series "Parks and Recreation" as himself alongside teammates Reggie Wayne, Anthony Castonzo, Robert Mathis, and Adam Vinatieri during the show's fifth season.


title: Paris Commune

text: The Paris Commune (, ) was a revolutionary government that seized power in Paris, the capital of France, from 18 March to 28 May 1871.


title: Paris Commune

text: During the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–71, the French National Guard had defended Paris, and working-class radicalism grew among its soldiers. Following the establishment of the Third Republic in September 1870 (under French chief executive Adolphe Thiers from February 1871) and the complete defeat of the French Army by the Germans by March 1871, soldiers of the National Guard seized control of the city on March 18. They killed two French army generals and refused to accept the authority of the Third Republic, instead attempting to establish an independent government.


title: Paris Commune

text: The Commune governed Paris for two months, establishing policies that tended toward a progressive, anti-religious system of social democracy, including the separation of church and state, self-policing, the remission of rent, the abolition of child labor, and the right of employees to take over an enterprise deserted by its owner. All the Roman Catholic churches and schools were closed. Feminist, socialist, communist and anarchist currents played important roles in the Commune. However, the various Communards had little more than two months to achieve their respective goals.


title: Paris Commune

text: The national French Army suppressed the Commune at the end of May during "La semaine sanglante" ("The Bloody Week") beginning on 21 May 1871. The national forces killed in battle or quickly executed between 10,000 and 15,000 Communards, though one unconfirmed estimate from 1876 put the toll as high as 20,000. In its final days, the Commune executed the Archbishop of Paris, Georges Darboy, and about one hundred hostages, mostly gendarmes and priests. 43,522 Communards were taken prisoner, including 1,054 women. More than half were quickly released. Fifteen thousand were tried, 13,500 of whom were found guilty. Ninety-five were sentenced to death, 251 to forced labor, and 1,169 to deportation (mostly to New Caledonia). Thousands of other Commune members, including several of the leaders, fled abroad, mostly to England, Belgium and Switzerland. All the prisoners and exiles received pardons in 1880 and could return home, where some resumed political careers.


title: Paris Commune

text: Debates over the policies and outcome of the Commune had significant influence on the ideas of Karl Marx (1818–1883) and Friedrich Engels (1820–1895), who described it as the first example of the dictatorship of the proletariat. Engels wrote: "Of late, the Social-Democratic philistine has once more been filled with wholesome terror at the words: Dictatorship of the Proletariat. Well and good, gentlemen, do you want to know what this dictatorship looks like? Look at the Paris Commune. That was the Dictatorship of the Proletariat."


title: Paris Commune

text: On 2 September 1870, France was defeated in the Battle of Sedan, and Emperor Napoleon III was captured. When the news reached Paris the next day, shocked and angry crowds came out into the streets. Empress Eugénie, the acting Regent, fled the city, and the government of the Second Empire swiftly collapsed. Republican and radical deputies of the National Assembly proclaimed the new French Republic, and formed a Government of National Defence with the intention of continuing the war. The Prussian army marched swiftly toward Paris.


title: Paris Commune

text: In 1871 France was deeply divided between the large rural, Catholic and conservative population of the French countryside and the more republican and radical cities of Paris, Marseille, Lyon and a few others. In the first round of the 1869 parliamentary elections held under the French Empire, 4,438,000 had voted for the Bonapartist candidates supporting Napoleon III, while 3,350,000 had voted for the republicans or the legitimists. In Paris, however, the republican candidates dominated, winning 234,000 votes against 77,000 for the Bonapartists.


title: Paris Commune

text: Of the two million people in Paris in 1869, according to the official census, there were about 500,000 industrial workers, or fifteen per cent of all the industrial workers in France, plus another 300,000–400,000 workers in other enterprises. Only about 40,000 were employed in factories and large enterprises; most were employed in small industries in textiles, furniture and construction. There were also 115,000 servants and 45,000 concierges. In addition to the native French population, there were about 100,000 immigrant workers and political refugees, the largest number being from Italy and Poland.


title: Paris Commune

text: During the war and the Siege of Paris, various members of the middle and upper classes departed the city. At the same time, there was an influx of refugees from parts of France occupied by the Germans. The working class and immigrants suffered the most from the lack of industrial activity due to the war and the siege; they formed the bedrock of the Commune's popular support.


title: Paris Commune

text: The Commune resulted in part from growing discontent among the Paris workers. This discontent can be traced to the first worker uprisings, the Canut revolts (a was a Lyonnais silk worker, often working on Jacquard looms), in Lyon and Paris in the 1830s. Many Parisians, especially workers and the lower-middle classes, supported a democratic republic. A specific demand was that Paris should be self-governing with its own elected council, something enjoyed by smaller French towns but denied to Paris by a national government wary of the capital's unruly populace.


title: Paris Commune

text: Socialist movements, such as the First International, had been growing in influence with hundreds of societies affiliated to it across France. In early 1867, Parisian employers of bronze-workers attempted to de-unionise their workers. This was defeated by a strike organised by the International. Later in 1867, a public demonstration in Paris was answered by the dissolution of its executive committee and the leadership being fined. Tensions escalated: Internationalists elected a new committee and put forth a more radical programme, the authorities imprisoned their leaders, and a more revolutionary perspective was taken to the International's 1868 Brussels Congress. The International had considerable influence even among unaffiliated French workers, particularly in Paris and the large cities.


title: Paris Commune

text: The killing of journalist Victor Noir incensed Parisians, and the arrests of journalists critical of the Emperor did nothing to quiet the city. The German military attaché, Waldersee, wrote in his diary in February: "Every night isolated barricades were thrown up, constructed for the most part out of disused conveyances, especially omnibuses, a few shots were fired at random, and scenes of disorder were taken part in by a few hundreds of persons, mostly quite young". He noted, however, that "working-men, as a class, took no part in the proceedings." A coup was attempted in early 1870, but tensions eased significantly after the plebiscite in May. The war with Prussia, initiated by Napoleon III in July, was initially met with patriotic fervour.


title: Paris Commune

text: Paris was the traditional home of French radical movements. Revolutionaries had gone into the streets and overthrown their governments during the popular uprisings of July 1830 and the French Revolution of 1848, as well as subsequent failed attempts such as the June Rebellion and the June 1848.


title: Paris Commune

text: Of the radical and revolutionary groups in Paris at the time of the Commune, the most conservative were the "radical republicans". This group included the young doctor and future prime minister Georges Clemenceau, who was a member of the National Assembly and Mayor of the 18th arrondissement. Clemenceau tried to negotiate a compromise between the Commune and the government, but neither side trusted him; he was considered extremely radical by the provincial deputies of rural France, but too moderate by the leaders of the Commune.


title: Paris Commune

text: The most extreme revolutionaries in Paris were the followers of Louis Auguste Blanqui, a charismatic professional revolutionary who had spent most of his adult life in prison. He had about a thousand followers, many of them armed and organized into cells of ten persons each. Each cell operated independently and was unaware of the members of the other groups, communicating only with their leaders by code. Blanqui had written a manual on revolution, "Instructions for an Armed Uprising", to give guidance to his followers. Though their numbers were small, the Blanquists provided many of the most disciplined soldiers and several of the senior leaders of the Commune.


title: Paris Commune

text: By 20 September 1870, the German army had surrounded Paris and was camped just from the French front lines. The regular French Army in Paris, under General Trochu's command, had only 50,000 professional soldiers of the line; the majority of the French first-line soldiers were prisoners of war, or trapped in Metz, surrounded by the Germans. The regulars were thus supported by around 5,000 firemen, 3,000 gendarmes, and 15,000 sailors. The regulars were also supported by the Garde Mobile, new recruits with little training or experience. 17,000 of them were Parisian, and 73,000 from the provinces. These included twenty battalions of men from Brittany, who spoke little French.


title: Paris Commune

text: The largest armed force in Paris was the , or National Guard, numbering about 300,000 men. They also had very little training or experience. They were organised by neighbourhoods; those from the upper- and middle-class arrondissements tended to support the national government, while those from the working-class neighbourhoods were far more radical and politicised. Guardsmen from many units were known for their lack of discipline; some units refused to wear uniforms, often refused to obey orders without discussing them, and demanded the right to elect their own officers. The members of the National Guard from working-class neighbourhoods became the main armed force of the Commune.


title: Paris Commune

text: As the Germans surrounded the city, radical groups saw that the Government of National Defence had few soldiers to defend itself, and launched the first demonstrations against it. On 19 September, National Guard units from the main working-class neighbourhoods—Belleville, Ménilmontant, La Villette, Montrouge, the Faubourg Saint-Antoine, and the Faubourg du Temple—marched to the centre of the city and demanded that a new government, a Commune, be elected. They were met by regular army units loyal to the Government of National Defence, and the demonstrators eventually dispersed peacefully. On 5 October, 5,000 protesters marched from Belleville to the Hôtel de Ville, demanding immediate municipal elections and rifles. On 8 October, several thousand soldiers from the National Guard, led by Eugène Varlin of the First International, marched to the centre chanting 'Long Live the Commune!", but they also dispersed without incident.


title: Paris Commune

text: Later in October, General Louis Jules Trochu launched a series of armed attacks to break the German siege, with heavy losses and no success. The telegraph line connecting Paris with the rest of France had been cut by the Germans on 27 September. On 6 October, Defense Minister Léon Gambetta departed the city by balloon to try to organise national resistance against the Germans.


title: Paris Commune

text: On 28 October, the news arrived in Paris that the 160,000 soldiers of the French army at Metz, which had been surrounded by the Germans since August, had surrendered. The news arrived the same day of the failure of another attempt by the French army to break the siege of Paris at Le Bourget, with heavy losses. On 31 October, the leaders of the main revolutionary groups in Paris, including Blanqui, Félix Pyat and Louis Charles Delescluze, called new demonstrations at the Hôtel de Ville against General Trochu and the government. Fifteen thousand demonstrators, some of them armed, gathered in front of the Hôtel de Ville in pouring rain, calling for the resignation of Trochu and the proclamation of a commune. Shots were fired from the Hôtel de Ville, one narrowly missing Trochu, and the demonstrators crowded into the building, demanding the creation of a new government, and making lists of its proposed members.


title: Paris Commune

text: Blanqui, the leader of the most radical faction, established his own headquarters at the nearby Prefecture of the Seine, issuing orders and decrees to his followers, intent upon establishing his own government. While the formation of the new government was taking place inside the Hôtel de Ville, however, units of the National Guard and the Garde Mobile loyal to General Trochu arrived and recaptured the building without violence. By three o'clock, the demonstrators had been given safe passage and left, and the brief uprising was over.


title: Paris Commune

text: On 3 November, city authorities organized a plebiscite of Parisian voters, asking if they had confidence in the Government of National Defence. "Yes" votes totalled 557,996, while 62,638 voted "no". Two days later, municipal councils in each of the twenty arrondissements of Paris voted to elect mayors; five councils elected radical opposition candidates, including Delescluze and a young Montmartrean doctor, Georges Clemenceau.


title: Paris Commune

text: In September and October Adolphe Thiers, the leader of the National Assembly conservatives, had toured Europe, consulting with the foreign ministers of Britain, Russia, and Austria, and found that none of them were willing to support France against the Germans. He reported to the Government that there was no alternative to negotiating an armistice. He travelled to German-occupied Tours and met with Bismarck on 1 November. The German Chancellor demanded the cession of all of Alsace, parts of Lorraine, and enormous reparations. The Government of National Defence decided to continue the war and raise a new army to fight the Germans. The newly organized French armies won a single victory at Coulmiers on 10 November, but an attempt by General Auguste-Alexandre Ducrot on 29 November at Villiers to break out of Paris was defeated with a loss of 4,000 soldiers, compared with 1,700 German casualties.


title: Paris Commune

text: Everyday life for Parisians became increasingly difficult during the siege. In December temperatures dropped to , and the Seine froze for three weeks. Parisians suffered shortages of food, firewood, coal and medicine. The city was almost completely dark at night. The only communication with the outside world was by balloon, carrier pigeon, or letters packed in iron balls floated down the Seine. Rumours and conspiracy theories abounded. Because supplies of ordinary food ran out, starving denizens ate most of the city zoo's animals, then resorted to feeding on rats.


title: Paris Commune

text: By early January 1871, Bismarck and the Germans themselves were tired of the prolonged siege. They installed seventy-two 120- and 150-mm artillery pieces in the forts around Paris and on 5 January began to bombard the city day and night. Between 300 and 600 shells hit the centre of the city every day.


title: Paris Commune

text: Between 11 and 19 January 1871, the French armies had been defeated on four fronts and Paris was facing a famine. General Trochu received reports from the prefect of Paris that agitation against the government and military leaders was increasing in the political clubs and in the National Guard of the working-class neighbourhoods of Belleville, La Chapelle, Montmartre, and Gros-Caillou.


title: Paris Commune

text: At midday on 22 January, three or four hundred National Guards and members of radical groups—mostly Blanquists—gathered outside the Hôtel de Ville. A battalion of from Brittany was inside the building to defend it in case of an assault. The demonstrators presented their demands that the military be placed under civil control, and that there be an immediate election of a commune. The atmosphere was tense, and in the middle of the afternoon, gunfire broke out between the two sides; each side blamed the other for firing first. Six demonstrators were killed, and the army cleared the square. The government quickly banned two publications, of Delescluze and of Pyat, and arrested 83 revolutionaries.


title: Paris Commune

text: At the same time as the demonstration in Paris, the leaders of the Government of National Defence in Bordeaux had concluded that the war could not continue. On 26 January, they signed a ceasefire and armistice, with special conditions for Paris. The city would not be occupied by the Germans. Regular soldiers would give up their arms, but would not be taken into captivity. Paris would pay an indemnity of 200 million francs. At Jules Favre's request, Bismarck agreed not to disarm the National Guard, so that order could be maintained in the city.


title: Paris Commune

text: The national government in Bordeaux called for national elections at the end of January, held just ten days later on 8 February. Most electors in France were rural, Catholic and conservative, and this was reflected in the results; of the 645 deputies assembled in Bordeaux on February, about 400 favoured a constitutional monarchy under either Henri, Count of Chambord (grandson of Charles X) or Prince Philippe, Count of Paris (grandson of Louis Philippe).


title: Paris Commune

text: Of the 200 republicans in the new parliament, 80 were former Orléanists (Philippe's supporters) and moderately conservative. They were led by Adolphe Thiers, who was elected in 26 departments, the most of any candidate. There were an equal number of more radical republicans, including Jules Favre and Jules Ferry, who wanted a republic without a monarch, and who felt that signing the peace treaty was unavoidable. Finally, on the extreme left, there were the radical republicans and socialists, a group that included Louis Blanc, Léon Gambetta and Georges Clemenceau. This group was dominant in Paris, where they won 37 of the 42 seats.


title: Paris Commune

text: On 17 February the new Parliament elected the 74-year-old Thiers as chief executive of the Third Republic. He was considered to be the candidate most likely to bring peace and to restore order. Long an opponent of the Prussian war, Thiers persuaded Parliament that peace was necessary. He travelled to Versailles, where Bismarck and the German Emperor were waiting, and on 24 February the armistice was signed.


title: Paris Commune

text: At the end of the war, 400 obsolete muzzle-loading bronze cannons, paid for by the Paris public via a subscription, remained in the city. The new Central Committee of the National Guard, now dominated by radicals, decided to put the cannons in parks in the working-class neighborhoods of Belleville, Buttes-Chaumont and Montmartre, to keep them away from the regular army and to defend the city against any attack by the national government. Thiers was equally determined to bring the cannons under national-government control.


title: Paris Commune

text: Clemenceau, a friend of several revolutionaries, tried to negotiate a compromise; some cannons would remain in Paris and the rest go to the army. However, neither Thiers nor the National Assembly accepted his proposals. The chief executive wanted to restore order and national authority in Paris as quickly as possible, and the cannons became a symbol of that authority. The Assembly also refused to prolong the moratorium on debt collections imposed during the war; and suspended two radical newspapers, of Jules Valles and of Henri Rochefort, which further inflamed Parisian radical opinion. Thiers also decided to move the National Assembly and government from Bordeaux to Versailles, rather than to Paris, to be farther away from the pressure of demonstrations, which further enraged the National Guard and the radical political clubs.


title: Paris Commune

text: On 17 March 1871, there was a meeting of Thiers and his cabinet, who were joined by Paris mayor Jules Ferry, National Guard commander General D'Aurelle de Paladines and General Joseph Vinoy, commander of the regular army units in Paris. Thiers announced a plan to send the army the next day to take charge of the cannons. The plan was initially opposed by War Minister Adolphe Le Flô, D'Aurelle de Paladines, and Vinoy, who argued that the move was premature, because the army had too few soldiers, was undisciplined and demoralized, and that many units had become politicized and were unreliable. Vinoy urged that they wait until Germany had released the French prisoners of war, and the army returned to full strength. Thiers insisted that the planned operation must go ahead as quickly as possible, to have the element of surprise. If the seizure of the cannon was not successful, the government would withdraw from the centre of Paris, build up its forces, and then attack with overwhelming force, as they had done during the uprising of June 1848. The Council accepted his decision, and Vinoy gave orders for the operation to begin the next day.


title: Paris Commune

text: Early in the morning of 18 March, two brigades of soldiers climbed the butte of Montmartre, where the largest collection of cannons, 170 in number, were located. A small group of revolutionary national guardsmen were already there, and there was a brief confrontation between the brigade led by General Claude Lecomte, and the National Guard; one guardsman, named Turpin, was shot, later dying. Word of the shooting spread quickly, and members of the National Guard from all over the neighbourhood, along with others including Clemenceau, hurried to the site to confront the soldiers.


title: Paris Commune

text: While the Army had succeeded in securing the cannons at Belleville and Buttes-Chaumont and other strategic points, at Montmartre a crowd gathered and continued to grow, and the situation grew increasingly tense. The horses that were needed to take the cannon away did not arrive, and the army units were immobilized. As the soldiers were surrounded, they began to break ranks and join the crowd. General Lecomte tried to withdraw, and then ordered his soldiers to load their weapons and fix bayonets. He thrice ordered them to fire, but the soldiers refused. Some of the officers were disarmed and taken to the city hall of Montmartre, under the protection of Clemenceau. General Lecomte and his staff officers were seized by the guardsmen and his mutinous soldiers and taken to the local headquarters of the National Guard under the command of captain Simon Charles Mayer at the ballroom of the Chateau-Rouge. The officers were pelted with rocks, struck, threatened, and insulted by the crowd. In the middle of the afternoon, Lecomte and the other officers were taken to 6 Rue des Rosiers by members of a group calling themselves The Committee of Vigilance of the 18th , who demanded that they be tried and executed.


title: Paris Commune

text: At 5:00 in the afternoon, the National Guard had captured another important prisoner: General Jacques Leon Clément-Thomas. An ardent republican and fierce disciplinarian, he had helped suppress the armed uprising of June 1848 against the Second Republic. Because of his republican beliefs, he had been arrested by Napoleon III and exiled, and had only returned to France after the downfall of the Empire. He was particularly hated by the national guardsmen of Montmartre and Belleville because of the severe discipline he imposed during the siege of Paris. Earlier that day, dressed in civilian clothes, he had been trying to find out what was going on, when he was recognized by a soldier and arrested, and brought to the building at Rue des Rosiers. At about 5:30 on 18 March, the angry crowd of national guardsmen and deserters from Lecomte's regiment at Rue des Rosiers seized Clément-Thomas, beat him with rifle butts, pushed him into the garden, and shot him repeatedly. A few minutes later, they did the same to General Lecomte. Doctor Guyon, who examined the bodies shortly afterwards, found forty bullets in Clément-Thomas's body and nine in Lecomte's back. By late morning, the operation to recapture the cannons had failed, and crowds and barricades were appearing in all the working-class neighborhoods of Paris. General Vinoy ordered the army to pull back to the Seine, and Thiers began to organise a withdrawal to Versailles, where he could gather enough troops to take back Paris.


title: Paris Commune

text: On the afternoon of 18 March, following the government's failed attempt to seize the cannons at Montmartre, the Central Committee of the National Guard ordered the three battalions to seize the Hôtel de Ville, where they believed the government was located. They were not aware that Thiers, the government, and the military commanders were at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, where the gates were open and there were few guards. They were also unaware that Marshal Patrice MacMahon, the future commander of the forces against the Commune, had just arrived at his home in Paris, having just been released from imprisonment in Germany. As soon as he heard the news of the uprising, he made his way to the railway station, where national guardsmen were already stopping and checking the identity of departing passengers. A sympathetic station manager hid him in his office and helped him board a train, and he escaped the city. While he was at the railway station, national guardsmen sent by the Central Committee arrived at his house looking for him.


title: Paris Commune

text: On the advice of General Vinoy, Thiers ordered the evacuation to Versailles of all the regular forces in Paris, some 40,000 soldiers, including those in the fortresses around the city; the regrouping of all the army units in Versailles; and the departure of all government ministries from the city.


title: Paris Commune

text: In February, while the national government had been organising in Bordeaux, a new rival government had been organised in Paris. The National Guard had not been disarmed as per the armistice, and had on paper 260 battalions of 1,500 men each, a total of 390,000 men. Between 15 and 24 February, some 500 delegates elected by the National Guard began meeting in Paris. On 15 March, just before the confrontation between the National Guard and the regular army over the cannons, 1,325 delegates of the federation of organisations created by the National Guard elected a leader, Giuseppe Garibaldi (who was in Italy and respectfully declined the title), and created a Central Committee of 38 members, which made its headquarters in a school on the Rue Basfroi, between Place de la Bastille and . The first vote of the new Central Committee was to refuse to recognise the authority of General D'Aurelle de Paladines, the official commander of the National Guard appointed by Thiers, or of General Vinoy, the Military Governor of Paris.


title: Paris Commune

text: Late on 18 March, when they learned that the regular army was leaving Paris, units of the National Guard moved quickly to take control of the city. The first to take action were the followers of Blanqui, who went quickly to the Latin Quarter and took charge of the gunpowder stored in the Pantheon, and to the Orleans railway station. Four battalions crossed the Seine and captured the prefecture of police, while other units occupied the former headquarters of the National Guard at the Place Vendôme, as well as the Ministry of Justice. That night, the National Guard occupied the offices vacated by the government; they quickly took over the Ministries of Finance, the Interior, and War. At eight in the morning the next day, the Central Committee was meeting in the Hôtel de Ville. By the end of the day, 20,000 national guardsmen camped in triumph in the square in front of the Hôtel de Ville, with several dozen cannons. A red flag was hoisted over the building.


title: Paris Commune

text: The extreme-left members of the Central Committee, led by the Blanquists, demanded an immediate march on Versailles to disperse the Thiers government and to impose their authority on all of France; but the majority first wanted to establish a more solid base of legal authority in Paris. The Committee officially lifted the state of siege, named commissions to administer the government, and called elections for 23 March. They also sent a delegation of mayors of the Paris , led by Clemenceau, to negotiate with Thiers in Versailles to obtain a special independent status for Paris.


title: Paris Commune

text: On 22 March 1871, demonstrators holding banners declaring them to be "Friends of Peace" were blocked from entering the Place Vendôme by guardsmen who, after being fired on, opened fire on the crowd. At least 12 people were killed and many wounded. The event was labeled the Massacre in the Rue de la Paix.


title: Paris Commune

text: In Paris, hostility was growing between the elected republican mayors, including Clemenceau, who believed that they were legitimate leaders of Paris, and the Central Committee of the National Guard. On 22 March, the day before the elections, the Central Committee declared that it, not the mayors, was the legitimate government of Paris. It declared that Clemenceau was no longer the Mayor of Montmartre, and seized the city hall there, as well as the city halls of the 1st and 2nd , which were occupied by more radical national guardsmen. "We are caught between two bands of crazy people," Clemenceau complained, "those sitting in Versailles and those in Paris."


title: Paris Commune

text: The elections of 26 March elected a Commune council of 92 members, one for every 20,000 residents. Ahead of the elections, the Central Committee and the leaders of the International gave out their lists of candidates, mostly belonging to the extreme left. The candidates had only a few days to campaign. Thiers' government in Versailles urged Parisians to abstain from voting. When the voting was finished, 233,000 Parisians had voted, out of 485,000 registered voters, or forty-eight percent. In upper-class neighborhoods many abstained from voting: 77 percent of voters in the 7th and 8th arrondissements; 68 percent in the 15th, 66 percent in the 16th, and 62 percent in the 6th and 9th. But in the working-class neighborhoods, turnout was high: 76 percent in the 20th arrondissement, 65 percent in the 19th, and 55 to 60 percent in the 10th, 11th, and 12th.


title: Paris Commune

text: A few candidates, including Blanqui (who had been arrested when outside Paris, and was in prison in Brittany), won in several . Other candidates who were elected, including about twenty moderate republicans and five radicals, refused to take their seats. In the end, the council had just 60 members. Nine of the winners were Blanquists (some of whom were also from the International); twenty-five, including Delescluze and Pyat, classified themselves as "Independent Revolutionaries"; about fifteen were from the International; the rest were from a variety of radical groups. One of the best-known candidates, Georges Clemenceau, received only 752 votes. The professions represented in the council were 33 workers; five small businessmen; 19 clerks, accountants and other office staff; twelve journalists; and a selection of workers in the liberal arts. 20 members are Freemasons. All were men; women were not allowed to vote. The winners were announced on 27 March, and a large ceremony and parade by the National Guard was held the next day in front of the Hôtel de Ville, decorated with red flags.


title: Paris Commune

text: The new Commune held its first meeting on 28 March in a euphoric mood. The members adopted a dozen proposals, including an honorary presidency for Blanqui; the abolition of the death penalty; the abolition of military conscription; a proposal to send delegates to other cities to help launch communes there; and a resolution declaring that membership in the Paris Commune was incompatible with being a member of the National Assembly. This was aimed particularly at Pierre Tirard, the republican mayor of the 2nd arrondissement, who had been elected to both Commune and National Assembly. Seeing the more radical political direction of the new Commune, Tirard and some twenty republicans decided it was wisest to resign from the Commune. A resolution was also passed, after a long debate, that the deliberations of the council were to be secret, since the Commune was effectively at war with the government in Versailles and should not make its intentions known to the enemy.


title: Paris Commune

text: Following the model proposed by the more radical members, the new government had no president, no mayor, and no commander in chief. The Commune began by establishing nine commissions, similar to those of the National Assembly, to manage the affairs of Paris. The commissions in turn reported to an Executive Commission. One of the first measures passed declared that military conscription was abolished, that no military force other than the National Guard could be formed or introduced into the capital, and that all healthy male citizens were members of the National Guard. The new system had one important weakness: the National Guard now had two different commanders. They reported to both the Central Committee of the National Guard and to the Executive Commission, and it was not clear which one was in charge of the inevitable war with Thiers' government.


title: Paris Commune

text: The Commune adopted the discarded French Republican Calendar during its brief existence and used the socialist red flag rather than the republican tricolor. Despite internal differences, the council began to organise public services for the city which at the time consisted of two million residents. It also reached a consensus on certain policies that tended towards a progressive, secular, and highly democratic social democracy. Because the Commune met on fewer than sixty days before it was suppressed, only a few decrees were actually implemented. The decrees included:


title: Paris Commune

text: The decrees separated the church from the state, appropriated all church property to public property, and excluded the practice of religion from schools. In theory, the churches were allowed to continue their religious activity only if they kept their doors open for public political meetings during the evenings. In practice, many churches were closed, and many priests were arrested and held as hostages, in the hope of trading them for Blanqui, imprisoned in Brittany since 17 March.


title: Paris Commune

text: The workload of the Commune leaders was usually enormous. The Council members (who were not "representatives" but delegates, subject in theory to immediate recall by their electors) were expected to carry out many executive and military functions as well as their legislative ones. Numerous organisations were set up during the siege in the localities () to meet social needs, such as canteens and first-aid stations. For example, in the 3rd "arrondissement", school materials were provided free, three parochial schools were "laicised", and an orphanage was established. In the 20th "arrondissement", schoolchildren were provided with free clothing and food. At the same time, these local assemblies pursued their own goals, usually under the direction of local workers. Despite the moderate reformism of the Commune council, the composition of the Commune as a whole was much more revolutionary. Revolutionary factions included Proudhonists (an early form of moderate anarchism), members of the international socialists, Blanquists, and more libertarian republicans.


title: Paris Commune

text: Women played an important role in both the initiation and the governance of the Commune, though women could not vote in the Commune elections and there were no elected women members of the Commune itself. Their participation included building barricades and caring for wounded fighters. Joséphine Marchias, a washer woman, picked up a gun during the battles of May 22–23rd and said, "You cowardly crew! Go and Fight! If I'm killed it will be because I've done some killing first!" She was arrested as an incendiary, but there is no documentation that she was a (female arsonist). She worked as a with the . While carrying back the laundry she was given by the guardsmen, she carried away the body of her lover, Jean Guy, who was a butcher's apprentice. There were reports in various newspapers of female arsonists, but evidence remains weak. The "Paris Journal" reported that soldiers arrested 13 women who allegedly threw petrol into houses. There were rumours that were paid 10 francs per house. While it was clear that communard arsonists burned the Tuileries Palace, the Hotel de Ville and other landmarks, the reports of women participating were exaggerated at the time.


title: Paris Commune

text: Some women organised a feminist movement, following earlier attempts in 1789 and 1848. Thus, Nathalie Lemel, a socialist bookbinder, and Élisabeth Dmitrieff, a young Russian exile and member of the Russian section of the First International, created the Women's Union for the Defence of Paris and Care of the Wounded on 11 April 1871. The feminist writer André Léo, a friend of Paule Minck, was also active in the Women's Union. Believing that the situation of women could only be improved through a global struggle against capitalism, the association demanded gender and wage equality, the right of divorce for women, the right to secular education, and professional education for girls. They also demanded suppression of the distinction between married women and concubines, and between legitimate and illegitimate children. They advocated the abolition of prostitution (obtaining the closing of the maisons de tolérance, or legal brothels). The Women's Union also participated in several municipal commissions and organised cooperative workshops. Along with Eugène Varlin, Nathalie Lemel created the cooperative restaurant , which served free food for indigents, and then fought during the Bloody Week on the barricades.


title: Paris Commune

text: Paule Minck opened a free school in the Church of Saint Pierre de Montmartre and ran the in the Church of Saint-Sulpice on the Left Bank. The Russian Anne Jaclard, who declined to marry Dostoyevsky and finally became the wife of Blanquist activist Victor Jaclard, founded the newspaper with André Léo. She was also a member of the , along with Louise Michel and Paule Minck, as well as of the Russian section of the First International. Victorine Brocher, close to the IWA activists, and founder of a cooperative bakery in 1867, also fought during the Commune and the Bloody Week. Louise Michel, the famed "Red Virgin of Montmartre" (see photo), who would later be deported to New Caledonia, was one of those who symbolised the active participation of a small number of women in the insurrectionary events. A women's battalion of the National Guard defended the Place Blanche during the repression.


title: Paris Commune

text: The Commune named François Jourde as the head of the Commission of Finance. A former clerk of a notary, accountant in a bank and employee of the city's bridges and roads department, Jourde maintained the Commune's accounts with prudence. Paris's tax receipts amounted to 20 million francs, with another six million seized at the Hôtel de Ville. The expenses of the Commune were 42 million, the largest part going to pay the daily salary of the National Guard. Jourde first obtained a loan from the Rothschild Bank, then paid the bills from the city account, which was soon exhausted.


title: Paris Commune

text: The gold reserves of the Bank of France had been moved out of Paris for safety in August 1870, but its vaults contained 88 million francs in gold coins and 166 million francs in banknotes. When the Thiers government left Paris in March, they did not have the time or the reliable soldiers to take the money with them. The reserves were guarded by 500 national guardsmen who were themselves Bank of France employees. Some Communards wanted to appropriate the bank's reserves to fund social projects, but Jourde resisted, explaining that without the gold reserves the currency would collapse and all the money of the Commune would be worthless. The Commune appointed Charles Beslay as the Commissaire of the Bank of France, and he arranged for the Bank to loan the Commune 400,000 francs a day. This was approved by Thiers, who felt that to negotiate a future peace treaty the Germans were demanding war reparations of five billion francs; the gold reserves would be needed to keep the franc stable and pay the indemnity. Jourde's actions were later condemned by Karl Marx and other Marxists, who felt the Commune should have confiscated the bank's reserves and spent all the money immediately.


title: Paris Commune

text: From 21 March, the Central Committee of the National Guard banned the major pro-Versailles newspapers, and . Their offices were invaded and closed by crowds of the Commune's supporters. After 18 April other newspapers sympathetic to Versailles were also closed. The Versailles government, in turn, imposed strict censorship and prohibited any publication in favour of the Commune.


title: Paris Commune

text: At the same time, the number of pro-Commune newspapers and magazines published in Paris during the Commune expanded exponentially. The most popular of the pro-Commune newspapers was , published by Jules Vallès, which was published from 22 February until 23 May. Another highly popular publication was , inspired by a similar paper of the same name published from 1790 until 1794; after its first issue on 6 March, it was briefly closed by General Vinoy, but it reappeared until 23 May. It specialised in humour, vulgarity and extreme abuse against the opponents of the Commune.


title: Paris Commune

text: A republican press also flourished, including such papers as of Henri Rochefort, which was both violently anti-Versailles and critical of the faults and excesses of the Commune. The most popular republican paper was , which condemned both Thiers and the killing of generals Lecomte and Clement-Thomas by the Communards. Its editor Auguste Vacquerie was close to Victor Hugo, whose son wrote for the paper. The editors wrote, "We are against the National Assembly, but we are not for the Commune. That which we defend, that which we love, that which we admire, is Paris."


title: Paris Commune

text: From the beginning, the Commune had a hostile relationship with the Catholic Church. On 2 April, soon after the Commune was established, it voted a decree accusing the Catholic Church of "complicity in the crimes of the monarchy." The decree declared the separation of church and state, confiscated the state funds allotted to the Church, seized the property of religious congregations, and ordered that Catholic schools cease religious education and become secular.


title: Paris Commune

text: Over the next seven weeks, some two hundred priests, nuns and monks were arrested, and twenty-six churches were closed to the public. At the urging of the more radical newspapers, National Guard units searched the basements of churches, looking for evidence of alleged sadism and criminal practices. More extreme elements of the National Guard carried out mock religious processions and parodies of religious services. Some churches, like Saint-Germain-l'Auxerrois, were turned into socialist meeting clubs.


title: Paris Commune

text: Early in May, some of the political clubs began to demand the immediate execution of Archbishop Darboy and the other priests in the prison. The Archbishop and a number of priests were executed during Bloody Week, in retaliation for the execution of Commune soldiers by the regular army.


title: Paris Commune

text: The destruction of the Vendôme Column honouring the victories of Napoleon I, topped by a statue of the Emperor, was one of the most prominent civic events during the Commune. It was voted on 12 April by the executive committee of the Commune, which declared that the column was "a monument of barbarism" and a "symbol of brute force and false pride." The idea had originally come from the painter Gustave Courbet, who had written to the Government of National Defence on 4 September calling for the demolition of the column. In October, he had called for a new column, made of melted-down German cannons, "the column of peoples, the column of Germany and France, forever federated." Courbet was elected to the Council of the Commune on 16 April, after the decision to tear down the column had already been made. The ceremonial destruction took place on 16 May. In the presence of two battalions of the National Guard and the leaders of the Commune, a band played "La Marseillaise" and the "Chant du Départ". The first effort to pull down the column failed, but at 5:30 in the afternoon the column broke from its base and shattered into three pieces. The pedestal was draped with red flags, and pieces of the statue were taken to be melted down and made into coins.


title: Paris Commune

text: On 12 May a crowd organised by the Commune destroyed the residence of Adolphe Thiers, the leader of the Third Republic, on Place Saint-Georges. Proposed by Henri Rochefort, editor of the , on 6 April, it was not voted upon by the Commune until 10 May.


title: Paris Commune

text: In Versailles, Thiers had estimated that he needed 150,000 men to recapture Paris, and that he had only about 20,000 reliable first-line soldiers, plus about 5,000 gendarmes. He worked rapidly to assemble a new and reliable regular army. Most of the soldiers were prisoners of war who had just been released by the Germans, following the terms of the armistice. Others were sent from military units in all of the provinces. To command the new army, Thiers chose Patrice MacMahon, who had won fame fighting the Austrians in Italy under Napoleon III, and who had been seriously wounded at the Battle of Sedan. He was highly popular both within the army and in the country. By 30 March, less than two weeks after the Army's Montmartre rout, it began skirmishing with the National Guard on the outskirts of Paris.


title: Paris Commune

text: In Paris, members of the Military Commission and the executive committee of the Commune, as well as the Central Committee of the National Guard, met on 1 April. They decided to launch an offensive against the Army in Versailles within five days. The attack was first launched on the morning of 2 April by five battalions who crossed the Seine at the Pont de Neuilly. The National Guard troops were quickly repulsed by the Army, with a loss of about twelve soldiers. One officer of the Versailles army, a surgeon from the medical corps, was killed; the National Guardsmen had mistaken his uniform for that of a gendarme. Five national guardsmen were captured by the regulars; two were Army deserters and two were caught with their weapons in their hands. General Vinoy, the commander of the Paris Military District, had ordered any prisoners who were deserters from the Army to be shot. The commander of the regular forces, Colonel Georges Ernest Boulanger, went further and ordered that all four prisoners be summarily shot. The practice of shooting prisoners captured with weapons became common in the bitter fighting in the weeks ahead.


title: Paris Commune

text: Despite this first failure, Commune leaders were still convinced that, as at Montmartre, French army soldiers would refuse to fire on national guardsmen. They prepared a massive offensive of 27,000 national guardsmen who would advance in three columns. They were expected to converge at the end of 24 hours at the gates of the Palace of Versailles. They advanced on the morning of 3 April—without cavalry to protect the flanks, without artillery, without stores of food and ammunition, and without ambulances—confident of rapid success. They passed by the line of forts outside the city, believing them to be occupied by national guardsmen. In fact the army had re-occupied the abandoned forts on 28 March. The National Guard soon came under heavy artillery and rifle fire; they broke ranks and fled back to Paris. Once again national guardsmen captured with weapons were routinely shot by army units.


title: Paris Commune

text: Commune leaders responded to the execution of prisoners by the Army by passing a new order on 5 April—the Decree on Hostages. Under the decree, any person accused of complicity with the Versailles government could be immediately arrested, imprisoned and tried by a special jury of accusation. Those convicted by the jury would become "hostages of the people of Paris." Article 5 stated, "Every execution of a prisoner of war or of a partisan of the government of the Commune of Paris will be immediately followed by the execution of a triple number of hostages held by virtue of article four." Prisoners of war would be brought before a jury, which would decide if they would be released or held as hostages.