title: Moons of Jupiter

text: The physical and orbital characteristics of the moons vary widely. The four Galileans are all over in diameter; the largest Galilean, Ganymede, is the ninth largest object in the Solar System, after the Sun and seven of the planets, Ganymede being larger than Mercury. All other Jovian moons are less than in diameter, with most barely exceeding . Their orbital shapes range from nearly perfectly circular to highly eccentric and inclined, and many revolve in the direction opposite to Jupiter's rotation (retrograde motion). Orbital periods range from seven hours (taking less time than Jupiter does to rotate around its axis), to some three thousand times more (almost three Earth years).


title: Moons of Jupiter

text: Jupiter's regular satellites are believed to have formed from a circumplanetary disk, a ring of accreting gas and solid debris analogous to a protoplanetary disk. They may be the remnants of a score of Galilean-mass satellites that formed early in Jupiter's history.


title: Moons of Jupiter

text: Simulations suggest that, while the disk had a relatively high mass at any given moment, over time a substantial fraction (several tens of a percent) of the mass of Jupiter captured from the solar nebula was passed through it. However, only 2% of the proto-disk mass of Jupiter is required to explain the existing satellites. Thus, several generations of Galilean-mass satellites may have been in Jupiter's early history. Each generation of moons might have spiraled into Jupiter, because of drag from the disk, with new moons then forming from the new debris captured from the solar nebula. By the time the present (possibly fifth) generation formed, the disk had thinned so that it no longer greatly interfered with the moons' orbits. The current Galilean moons were still affected, falling into and being partially protected by an orbital resonance with each other, which still exists for Io, Europa, and Ganymede: they are in a 1:2:4 resonance. Ganymede's larger mass means that it would have migrated inward at a faster rate than Europa or Io. Tidal dissipation in the Jovian system is still ongoing and Callisto will likely be captured into the resonance in about 1.5 billion years, creating a 1:2:4:8 chain.


title: Moons of Jupiter

text: The outer, irregular moons are thought to have originated from captured asteroids, whereas the protolunar disk was still massive enough to absorb much of their momentum and thus capture them into orbit. Many are believed to have broken up by mechanical stresses during capture, or afterward by collisions with other small bodies, producing the moons we see today.


title: Moons of Jupiter

text: Chinese historian Xi Zezong claimed that the earliest record of a Jovian moon (Ganymede or Callisto) was a note by Chinese astronomer Gan De of an observation around 364 BC regarding a "reddish star". However, the first certain observations of Jupiter's satellites were those of Galileo Galilei in 1609. By January 1610, he had sighted the four massive Galilean moons with his 20× magnification telescope, and he published his results in March 1610.


title: Moons of Jupiter

text: Simon Marius had independently discovered the moons one day after Galileo, although he did not publish his book on the subject until 1614. Even so, the names Marius assigned are used today: Ganymede, Callisto, Io, and Europa. No additional satellites were discovered until E. E. Barnard observed Amalthea in 1892.


title: Moons of Jupiter

text: With the aid of telescopic photography, further discoveries followed quickly over the course of the 20th century. Himalia was discovered in 1904, Elara in 1905, Pasiphae in 1908, Sinope in 1914, Lysithea and Carme in 1938, Ananke in 1951, and Leda in 1974.


title: Moons of Jupiter

text: By the time that the Voyager space probes reached Jupiter, around 1979, 13 moons had been discovered, not including Themisto, which had been observed in 1975, but was lost until 2000 due to insufficient initial observation data. The Voyager spacecraft discovered an additional three inner moons in 1979: Metis, Adrastea, and Thebe.


title: Moons of Jupiter

text: No additional moons were discovered for two decades, but between October 1999 and February 2003, researchers found another 34 moons using sensitive ground-based detectors. These are tiny moons, in long, eccentric, generally retrograde orbits, and averaging in diameter, with the largest being just across. All of these moons are thought to have been captured asteroidal or perhaps comet bodies, possibly fragmented into several pieces.


title: Moons of Jupiter

text: By 2015, a total of 15 additional moons were discovered. Two more were discovered in 2017 by the team led by Scott S. Sheppard at the Carnegie Institution for Science, bringing the total to 69. On 17 July 2018, the International Astronomical Union confirmed that Sheppard's team had discovered ten more moons around Jupiter, bringing the total number to 79. Among these is Valetudo, which has a prograde orbit, but crosses paths with several moons that have retrograde orbits, making an eventual collision—at some point on a billions-of-years timescale—likely.


title: Moons of Jupiter

text: In September 2020, researchers from the University of British Columbia identified 45 candidate moons from an analysis of archival images taken in 2010 by the Canada-France-Hawaii Telescope. These candidates were mainly small and faint, down to a magnitude of 25.7 or over in diameter. From the number of candidate moons detected within a sky area of one square degree, the team extrapolated that the population of retrograde Jovian moons brighter than magnitude 25.7 is around 600, within a factor of 2. Although the team considers their characterised candidates to be likely moons of Jupiter, they all remain unconfirmed due to their insufficient observation data for determining reliable orbits for each of them.


title: Moons of Jupiter

text: The Galilean moons of Jupiter (Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto) were named by Simon Marius soon after their discovery in 1610. However, these names fell out of favor until the 20th century. The astronomical literature instead simply referred to "Jupiter I", "Jupiter II", etc., or "the first satellite of Jupiter", "Jupiter's second satellite", and so on. The names Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto became popular in the mid-20th century, whereas the rest of the moons remained unnamed and were usually numbered in Roman numerals V (5) to XII (12). Jupiter V was discovered in 1892 and given the name "Amalthea" by a popular though unofficial convention, a name first used by French astronomer Camille Flammarion.


title: Moons of Jupiter

text: The other moons were simply labeled by their Roman numeral (e.g. Jupiter IX) in the majority of astronomical literature until the 1970s. Several different suggestions were made for names of Jupiter's outer satellites, but none were universally accepted until 1975 when the International Astronomical Union's (IAU) Task Group for Outer Solar System Nomenclature granted names to satellites V–XIII, and provided for a formal naming process for future satellites still to be discovered. The practice was to name newly discovered moons of Jupiter after lovers and favorites of the god Jupiter (Zeus) and, since 2004, also after their descendants. All of Jupiter's satellites from XXXIV (Euporie) onward are named after descendants of Jupiter or Zeus, except LIII (Dia), named after a lover of Jupiter. Names ending with "a" or "o" are used for prograde irregular satellites (the latter for highly inclined satellites), and names ending with "e" are used for retrograde irregulars. With the discovery of smaller, kilometre-sized moons around Jupiter, the IAU has established an additional convention to limit the naming of small moons with absolute magnitudes greater than 18 or diameters smaller than . Some of the most recently confirmed moons have not received names.


title: Moons of Jupiter

text: Some asteroids share the same names as moons of Jupiter: 9 Metis, 38 Leda, 52 Europa, 85 Io, 113 Amalthea, 239 Adrastea. Two more asteroids previously shared the names of Jovian moons until spelling differences were made permanent by the IAU: Ganymede and asteroid 1036 Ganymed; and Callisto and asteroid 204 Kallisto.


title: Moons of Jupiter

text: The irregular satellites are substantially smaller objects with more distant and eccentric orbits. They form families with shared similarities in orbit (semi-major axis, inclination, eccentricity) and composition; it is believed that these are at least partially collisional families that were created when larger (but still small) parent bodies were shattered by impacts from asteroids captured by Jupiter's gravitational field. These families bear the names of their largest members. The identification of satellite families is tentative, but the following are typically listed:


title: Moons of Jupiter

text: The moons of Jupiter are listed below by orbital period. Moons massive enough for their surfaces to have collapsed into a spheroid are highlighted in bold. These are the four Galilean moons, which are comparable in size to the Moon. The other moons are much smaller, with the least massive Galilean moon being more than 7,000 times more massive than the most massive of the other moons. The irregular captured moons are shaded light gray when prograde and dark gray when retrograde. The orbits and mean distances of the irregular moons are strongly variable over short timescales due to frequent planetary and solar perturbations, therefore the listed orbital elements of all irregular moons are averaged over a 400-year numerical integration. Their orbital elements are all based on the epoch of 1 January 2000. A number of other moons have only been observed for a year or two, but have decent enough orbits to be easily measurable at present.


title: Moons of Jupiter

text: Nine spacecraft have visited Jupiter. The first were "Pioneer 10" in 1973, and "Pioneer 11" a year later, taking low-resolution images of the four Galilean moons and returning data on their atmospheres and radiation belts. The "Voyager 1" and "Voyager 2" probes visited Jupiter in 1979, discovering the volcanic activity on Io and the presence of water ice on the surface of Europa. "Ulysses" further studied Jupiter's magnetosphere in 1992 and then again in 2000.


title: Moons of Jupiter

text: The "Galileo" spacecraft was the first to enter orbit around Jupiter, arriving in 1995 and studying it until 2003. During this period, "Galileo" gathered a large amount of information about the Jovian system, making close approaches to all of the Galilean moons and finding evidence for thin atmospheres on three of them, as well as the possibility of liquid water beneath the surfaces of Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto. It also discovered a magnetic field around Ganymede.


title: Moons of Jupiter

text: Then the "Cassini" probe to Saturn flew by Jupiter in 2000 and collected data on interactions of the Galilean moons with Jupiter's extended atmosphere. The "New Horizons" spacecraft flew by Jupiter in 2007 and made improved measurements of its satellites' orbital parameters.


title: Moons of Jupiter

text: In 2016, the "Juno" spacecraft imaged the Galilean moons from above their orbital plane as it approached Jupiter orbit insertion, creating a time-lapse movie of their motion.


title: The Boys Presents: Diabolical

text: The Boys Presents: Diabolical, also simply known as The Boys: Diabolical or Diabolical, is an American adult animated superhero anthology series that premiered on Amazon Prime Video on March 4, 2022. It serves as a spin-off of the live action television series "The Boys", and is similarly based on the comic book series of the same name by Garth Ennis and Darick Robertson. The series is created by Eric Kripke, Seth Rogen and Evan Goldberg, all executive producers of "The Boys" television series, alongside Simon Racioppa.


title: The Boys Presents: Diabolical

text: Every episode serves as a stand-alone story set in the universe of the live action series; the tone of the stories can vary from fully comedic to fully dramatic, and each have its own animation style. Writers for the series include Ennis, Racioppa, Rogen, Goldberg, Justin Roiland, Ilana Glazer, Awkwafina, and Andy Samberg; featured voice actors include Antony Starr, Dominique McElligott, Chace Crawford, Elisabeth Shue, and Giancarlo Esposito, all reprising their roles from the live action series.


title: The Boys Presents: Diabolical

text: "Diabolical" received critical acclaim upon release with praise going to the animation, voice acting, writing, humor and themes.


title: The Boys Presents: Diabolical

text: A series of animated shorts telling side stories in the universe of "The Boys" using various animation styles.


title: The Boys Presents: Diabolical

text: At the 2021 CCXP Worlds panel for Prime Video in Brazil, "The Boys Presents: Diabolical" was first announced. It was revealed to be an animated anthology series set in "The Boys" universe, with executive producers Seth Rogen and Evan Goldberg likening it to "The Animatrix". "Diabolical" is made up of eight brand new stories created by Awkwafina, Garth Ennis, Eliot Glazer and Ilana Glazer, Evan Goldberg and Seth Rogen, Simon Racioppa, Justin Roiland and Ben Bayouth, Andy Samberg, and Aisha Tyler. The series premiered on March 4, 2022.


title: The Boys Presents: Diabolical

text: Eric Kripke stated that the idea to create "Diabolical" arose during the COVID-19 pandemic, when the producers wanted to release something during the wait for season three of "The Boys". Due to the restrictions on most live-action productions, they decided to try and make an animated anthology utilizing different forms and styles.


title: The Boys Presents: Diabolical

text: Several key cast members were revealed with the first teaser trailer in February 2022, which included several of the creators. Later that month, a full trailer with the rest of the large cast was revealed. This included the revelation that Pegg would provide the voice of Hughie Campbell, a character who was long associated with Pegg; however, Pegg could not portray him in live action, having aged too much by the time the series was produced.


title: The Boys Presents: Diabolical

text: Eric Kripke later clarified that the show's production crew only considered 3 episodes to be canon despite the entire show being advertised as such. These are: "Nubian vs Nubian", "John and Sun-Hee" and "One Plus One Equals Two". "I'm Your Pusher" is further set in the universe of the comics.


title: The Boys Presents: Diabolical

text: On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the series holds a 97% approval rating based on 34 reviews, with an average rating of 7.6/10. The website's critics consensus reads, ""Diabolical"s animated shorts pack the same supersized punch as "The Boys", transposing the original series' scabrous social commentary into a cartoonish medium that's just as much devilish fun–and definitely not for kids." Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned a score of 70 out of 100 based on 7 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".


title: Rachel Bloom

text: Rachel Leah Bloom (born April 3, 1987) is an American actress, comedian, writer, singer, and producer. She is best known for co-creating and starring as Rebecca Bunch in The CW musical comedy-drama series "Crazy Ex-Girlfriend" (2015–2019), for which she received numerous accolades, including a Golden Globe Award, a TCA Award, a Critics' Choice Television Award, and a Primetime Emmy Award.


title: Rachel Bloom

text: Bloom first became known for her YouTube comedy music videos, including the Hugo Award-nominated video "Fuck Me, Ray Bradbury". She has also appeared in films, including "Most Likely to Murder" (2018), "The Angry Birds Movie 2" (2019), "Trolls World Tour" (2020), "Bar Fight!" (2022), and "The School for Good and Evil (2022)


title: Rachel Bloom

text: Bloom was born on April 3, 1987, in Los Angeles County, California, and grew up in Manhattan Beach. She is the only child of Shelli (née Rosenberg), a musician, and Alan Bloom, a healthcare lawyer. She is Jewish.


title: Rachel Bloom

text: Bloom attended Manhattan Beach public schools including Mira Costa High School, where she was involved in the school's drama program. According to Bloom, she used performance as a way to try to fit in. In 2009, Bloom graduated from the New York University's Tisch School of the Arts with a BFA in Drama. While at NYU, Bloom was the head writer and director of the school's premier sketch comedy group, Hammerkatz. Post-college, Bloom performed at Upright Citizens Brigade Theatre in New York and Los Angeles. She was once roommates with comedian Ilana Glazer after college in Brooklyn.


title: Rachel Bloom

text: In April 2010, Bloom wrote and sang the song "Fuck Me, Ray Bradbury", which gained a cult following when it was released on Ray Bradbury's 90th birthday in 2010. The song was inspired by her favorite Ray Bradbury book, "The Martian Chronicles". There was a photo of Bradbury posted online that purported to show him watching the video. She worked as an intern for head writer Seth Meyers at "Saturday Night Live". In 2012, she unsuccessfully auditioned for the show, submitting an audition video that included a bit as Katharine Hepburn doing the voice for Bugs Bunny in "Space Jam".


title: Rachel Bloom

text: On May 13, 2013, Bloom released her first album of musical comedy, "Please Love Me", which included the viral songs "Fuck Me, Ray Bradbury" and "You Can Touch My Boobies". On November 19, 2013, she released her second album "Suck It, Christmas", which featured a comedic look at Chanukah and included the song "Chanukah Honey". On December 17, 2013, Bloom was the voice of Princess Peach in the song "Luigi's Ballad" on Starbomb's self-titled debut album. Bloom co-wrote "Super Friend" performed by Melissa Benoist and Grant Gustin, featured on the musical crossover episode of "Supergirl" and "The Flash" titled "Duet" and the soundtrack released from the episode.


title: Rachel Bloom

text: On April 25, 2016, Bloom was awarded the "Visionary Award" at the annual gala held by East West Players, the longest-running professional theatre of color in the United States. The award seeks to honor "individuals who have raised the visibility of the Asian Pacific American (APA) community through their craft”; her show "Crazy Ex-Girlfriend" was lauded for its decision to cast an Asian-American male in a trope and stereotype-subverting lead role.


title: Rachel Bloom

text: In April 2017, Bloom appeared on "The Sexual Spectrum" episode of "Bill Nye Saves the World", performing the song "My Sex Junk" concerning the gender and sexual spectra. The performance and episode were controversial, garnering a mixed response with backlash from conservative groups and on social media, where Bloom was threatened. The episode received an Emmy nomination.


title: Rachel Bloom

text: Bloom co-starred in the film "Most Likely to Murder", opposite Adam Pally and Vincent Kartheiser. The film was directed by Dan Gregor, Bloom's husband. It premiered at the SXSW Film Festival in March 2018, and was released on Digital and on Demand in May 2018.


title: Rachel Bloom

text: On October 10, 2019, she was featured in a 30-minute YouTube documentary called "Laughing Matters", created by SoulPancake in collaboration with Funny or Die, wherein a variety of comedians discuss mental health. She also appeared in the show "My Little Pony", on the episode "Sounds of Silence", playing a kirin named Autumn Blaze.


title: Rachel Bloom

text: On November 18, 2020, Bloom was awarded the Lifesaver Award from ELEM/Youth in Distress in Israel, a nonprofit aiding youth in distress in Israel, at its Hats off to Heroes virtual gala.


title: Rachel Bloom

text: On May 7, 2015, Bloom filmed a half-hour pilot for Showtime with co-executive producer Aline Brosh McKenna ("The Devil Wears Prada"), directed by Marc Webb. It was eventually picked up by The CW for the fall 2015–2016 season. "Crazy-Ex Girlfriend" became a critically acclaimed hour-long series with more network-friendly content when it transitioned from cable to network TV and features musical numbers. The show premiered on October 12, 2015.


title: Rachel Bloom

text: On January 10, 2016, Bloom won the Golden Globe Award for Best Actress in a Television Series, Musical or Comedy. The following week, Bloom won the Critics' Choice Television Award for Best Actress in a Comedy Series. On September 23, 2019, Bloom won the 71st Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Original Music and Lyrics for her work on "Crazy Ex-Girlfriend."


title: Rachel Bloom

text: "Holy Shit (You've Got to Vote)" is a 2016 video created by Rachel Bloom to encourage people to vote in the 2016 election. The star-filled cast sang profanity laced lyrics directed at Donald Trump such as "Donald Trump is human syphilis/we could be the antidote". The video caught the attention of many news outlets, though some questioned its effectiveness retrospectively.


title: Rachel Bloom

text: In 2015, Bloom married her boyfriend of six years, writer, actor, producer and director Dan Gregor. Her cousin, a rabbi, performed the ceremony. They have a daughter, born in 2020.


title: Rachel Bloom

text: Bloom has a history of mental illness, having been diagnosed with depression, anxiety, and OCD, about which she has candidly spoken. Bloom's character in "Crazy Ex-Girlfriend" has borderline personality disorder, and the show addresses these issues.


title: Rachel Bloom

text: In November 2020, it was announced that Bloom would be releasing a memoir, titled "I Want To Be Where The Normal People Are", published by Grand Central Publishing. The book was released on November 17, 2020. It explores Bloom's own mental health struggles and experiences with bullying, both as a child and as an adult in the entertainment industry, along with her experiences in the 2020 COVID-19 pandemic in the United States.


title: Bobby Flay

text: Robert William Flay (born December 10, 1964), is an American celebrity chef, restaurateur, and reality television personality. Flay is the owner and executive chef of several restaurants and franchises, including Bobby's Burger Palace, Bobby's Burgers, and Amalfi. He has worked with Food Network since 1995, which won him four Daytime Emmy Awards and a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame.


title: Bobby Flay

text: Flay was born on December 10, 1964, in New York City to Bill and Dorothy Barbara (McGuirk) Flay. He was raised on the Upper East Side neighborhood of Manhattan. He is a fourth generation Irish American and was raised Catholic, attending denominational schools.


title: Bobby Flay

text: At age 8, Flay asked for an Easy-Bake Oven for Christmas. His father thought that a G.I. Joe would be more gender-appropriate. Despite his father's objections, he received them both.


title: Bobby Flay

text: Flay dropped out of high school at age 17. He has said his first jobs in the restaurant industry were at a pizza parlor and Baskin-Robbins. He then took a position making salads at Joe Allen Restaurant in Manhattan's Theater District, where his father was a partner. The proprietor, Joe Allen, was impressed by Flay's natural ability and agreed to pay his partner's son's tuition at the French Culinary Institute.


title: Bobby Flay

text: Flay received a degree in culinary arts and was a member of the first graduating class of the French Culinary Institute in 1984. After culinary school, he started working as a sous-chef, quickly learning the culinary arts. At the Brighton Grill on Third Avenue, Flay was handed the executive chef's position after a week when the executive chef was fired. Flay quit when he realized he was not ready to run a kitchen. He took a position as a chef working for restaurateur Jonathan Waxman at Bud and Jams. Waxman introduced Flay to southwestern and Cajun cuisine, which came to define his culinary career.


title: Bobby Flay

text: After working for a short time on the floor at the American Stock Exchange, Flay returned to the kitchen as the executive chef at Miracle Grill in the East Village, where he worked from 1988 to 1990. He caught the attention of restaurateur Jerome Kretchmer, who was looking for a southwestern-style chef. Impressed by Flay's food, Kretchmer offered him the position of executive chef at Mesa Grill, which opened on January 15, 1991. Shortly after, he became a partner. In November 1993, Flay partnered with Laurence Kretchmer to open Bolo Bar & Restaurant in the Flatiron District, just a few blocks away from Mesa Grill.


title: Bobby Flay

text: Flay opened a second Mesa Grill at Caesars Palace in Las Vegas in 2004, and in 2005 he opened Bar Americain, an American Brasserie, in Midtown Manhattan. He continued to expand his restaurants by opening Bobby Flay Steak in the Borgata Hotel Casino & Spa in Atlantic City, New Jersey. This was followed by a third Mesa Grill in the Bahamas, located in The Cove at Atlantis Paradise Island, which opened on March 28, 2007. The Las Vegas Mesa Grill earned Flay his only Michelin Star in 2008, which was taken away in the 2009 edition. Michelin did not publish a 2010 or 2011 Las Vegas edition, so the star could not be re-earned.


title: Bobby Flay

text: Aside from his restaurants and television shows, Flay has been a master instructor and visiting chef at the French Culinary Institute. Although he is not currently teaching classes, he occasionally visits when his schedule permits.


title: Bobby Flay

text: Flay established the Bobby Flay Scholarship in 2003. This full scholarship to the French Culinary Institute is awarded annually to a student in the Long Island City Culinary Arts Program. Flay personally helps select the awardee each year.


title: Bobby Flay

text: Flay opened Bobby's Burger Palace (BBP) in Lake Grove, Long Island on July 15, 2008. The restaurant is located at the Smith Haven Mall. A second location opened on December 5, 2008, at the Monmouth Mall in Eatontown, New Jersey, and a third location opened March 31, 2009, in The Outlets at Bergen Town Center in Paramus, New Jersey. His fourth shop opened at the Mohegan Sun Casino in southeast Connecticut on July 1, 2009, which is also the location of his second Bar Americain, which opened on November 18, 2009. His fifth location of the burger chain opened in Philadelphia's University City on April 6, 2010. The sixth location of Bobby's Burger Palace opened in Washington, D.C., at 2121 K Street in Northwest on August 16, 2011. On December 5, 2011, Flay opened the ninth location of Bobby's Burger Palace in Roosevelt Field Mall in Garden City, New York. Flay opened the tenth and largest Bobby's Burger Palace site at Maryland Live! Casino in Hanover, Maryland, on June 7, 2012. Bobby's Burger Palace also has an 11th location, in College Park, Maryland. In total, BBP has nineteen locations in eleven states and the District of Columbia.


title: Bobby Flay

text: The original Mesa Grill in New York closed in September 2013 following a proposed rent increase by the landlord.


title: Bobby Flay

text: In May 2021, Mesa Grill in Caesars Palace was converted to an Italian restaurant called Amalfi by Bobby Flay. He also updated the menu and changed the name of his Las Vegas Bobby's Burger Palace to Bobby's Burgers. He now has four locations of Bobby's Burgers in Caesars Palace Las Vegas, Paris Hotel Las Vegas, Harrah's Las Vegas, and Yankee Stadium in New York City


title: Bobby Flay

text: Flay served as a judge on "Wickedly Perfect", "The Next Food Network Star", and "The Next Iron Chef". He has cooked on "Emeril Live" and "Paula's Party".


title: Bobby Flay

text: On "Throwdown! with Bobby Flay", the chef challenges cooks renowned for a specific dish or type of cooking to a cook-off of their signature dish. On Episode 5 of Season 4, Harlem chef Melba Wilson and Bobby squared off over who had the best chicken and eggnog waffles. While being interviewed on "Conversations with Allan Wolper" on WGBO 88.3FM, Wilson confessed that she had been nervous because Bobby brought a cast-iron skillet. Having grown up in a family that used cast-iron skillets, Wilson was nonetheless forced to use a deep fryer because her restaurant was too small for a cast-iron skillet. Towards the end of the anecdote, she explained, "Can I tell you? When he pulled out the skillet, it was a rough day. Girlfriend started sweating bullets. But at the end of the day, we threw down – I don't know, I think it was the eggnog – and I won."


title: Bobby Flay

text: Flay was an Iron Chef on the show "Iron Chef America". In 2000, when the original "Iron Chef" show traveled to New York for a special battle, he challenged Iron Chef Masaharu Morimoto to battle rock crab. After the hour battle ended, Flay stood on top of his cutting board and raised his arms in what one journalist wrote was "in premature victory". As Morimoto felt that real chefs consider cutting boards and knives as sacred, and being offended by Flay's flamboyant gesture, he criticized his professionalism, saying that Flay was "not a chef". Flay went on to lose the battle. Flay challenged Morimoto to a rematch in Morimoto's native Japan. This time, Flay won.


title: Bobby Flay

text: Flay and Morimoto, both Iron Chefs on "Iron Chef America" teamed – took on and won – against fellow Iron Chefs Mario Batali and Hiroyuki Sakai in the "Iron Chef America: Battle of the Masters" "Tag Team" battle.


title: Bobby Flay

text: On a special of "Iron Chef America" originally airing on November 12, 2006, Flay and Giada De Laurentiis faced off against, and were defeated by, Batali and Rachael Ray. This was the highest rated show ever broadcast on Food Network. Flay and Michael Symon defeated the team of Iron Chefs Cat Cora and Masaharu Morimoto in a special titled "Thanksgiving Showdown," which originally aired on November 16, 2008. On November 29, 2009, Iron Chefs Morimoto and Flay faced off one-on-one again in Battle Egg Nog. The battle, which featured ice-carvers, was won by Morimoto by a single point.


title: Bobby Flay

text: In an episode recorded in July 2010 and broadcast in March 2011, Montreal cooking show host Chuck Hughes beat Flay to become the youngest Canadian champ. In an interview afterward, Hughes recalled, "When I met him I said, 'Hi Bobby,' and my voice cracked a bit and I gave him an official [Montreal] Canadiens jersey, to which he replied, 'Thank you so much — but it's not going to help.'"


title: Bobby Flay

text: "Beat Bobby Flay" pits select chefs against host Flay to see if they can create dishes that are better than his. As Flay's most successful series on Food Network the prior season, episode 5 of season 17, featuring Debbie Gibson and Katie Lee, was chosen as the 2018 lead-out show for season 14 of "Food Network Star".


title: Bobby Flay

text: In October 2021, "Variety" reported that Flay would leave Food Network after a 27-year run, after he and the network failed to reach an agreement on a new contract. "People" reported that Flay had sought $100 million as part of the proposal. In November 2021, it was reported that Flay had signed a new three-year deal with Food Network.


title: Bobby Flay

text: In 1996, Flay hosted "The Main Ingredient with Bobby Flay" on Lifetime Television. Twice a month, he hosts a cooking segment on CBS' "The Early Show". He hosted the reality television show "America's Next Great Restaurant" on NBC from March 2011 to May 2011 in which in the end he picks one restaurant team with whom to open a restaurant. The reality show was canceled after the first season due to low ratings.


title: Bobby Flay

text: Flay had a cameo appearance in the Disney Channel original movie "Eddie's Million Dollar Cook-Off" as the host of the cook-off. He appeared on the television game show "Pyramid" with fellow Iron Chef Mario Batali as the guest celebrities in an episode originally airing on November 18, 2003. He appeared as a judge on the CBS television show "Wickedly Perfect" during the 2004–05 season.


title: Bobby Flay

text: He also appeared in the "" episode "Design", which originally aired on September 22, 2005. He had a small role as himself in the 2006 film "East Broadway", in which his wife, Stephanie March, had a larger role.


title: Bobby Flay

text: "Jeopardy!" featured a special "Throwdown with Bobby Flay" category during the March 12, 2008, episode, in which each of the clues featured Flay. He participated in the 2008 Taco Bell All-Star Legends and Celebrity Softball Game played at Yankee Stadium after the 2008 MLB All Star Game; Flay played for the National League. Flay is mentioned in the 2008 film "Step Brothers" in the "Derek comes for dinner" scene.


title: Bobby Flay

text: In 2010, Flay was impersonated in the "South Park" cartoon episode Crème Fraiche. In 2011, Flay had recurring appearances in the final season of "Entourage" as the boyfriend of Ari Gold's wife. In 2012, Flay appeared on "Portlandia", in a director's cut of the episode . He showed director Jonathan Krisel how to make marionberry pancakes. Flay guest stars as himself on season two of the TV series "Younger", which initially aired in 2016.


title: Bobby Flay

text: In 2009, Flay hosted a weekly call-in show on Sirius XM Satellite Radio. He offered advice to men on "everything from sports to current issues", although food was the focus.


title: Bobby Flay

text: In April 2021, Flay, with Elly Truesdell and Katja Lang, launched Made by Nacho, a premium cat food company named for his Maine Coon, Nacho Flay. The brand sells wet cat food, dry kibble, and freeze-dried protein treats. Made by Nacho sells cat food from their website and in PetSmart in addition to offering a subscription service. Flay has also founded the Made By Nacho Charitable Fund as part of the New York Community Trust.


title: Bobby Flay

text: Flay married Debra Ponzek, also a chef, on May 11, 1991. Flay and Ponzek divorced in 1993, and Flay married his second wife, Kate Connelly, in 1995. They have a daughter named Sophie. Flay and Connelly separated in 1998, and later divorced. Flay married actress Stephanie March, on February 20, 2005. According to media reports, March and Flay separated in March 2015 and their divorce was final on July 17, 2015. Flay dated Heléne Yorke from February 2016 to early 2019.


title: Bobby Flay

text: Flay is a self-proclaimed 'cat person' and has lived with cats most of his life. He has two Maine Coons, Nacho, an orange tabby Maine Coon, and Stella, a brown tabby Maine Coon five years younger than Nacho.


title: Bobby Flay

text: Flay has a personal interest in Thoroughbred horse racing, and is the owner of multiple graded stakes race winners:


title: Motorcycle

text: A motorcycle (motorbike, bike, or trike (if three-wheeled)) is a two or three-wheeled motor vehicle steered by a handlebar. Motorcycle design varies greatly to suit a range of different purposes: long-distance travel, commuting, cruising, sport (including racing), and off-road riding. Motorcycling is riding a motorcycle and being involved in other related social activity such as joining a motorcycle club and attending motorcycle rallies.


title: Motorcycle

text: The 1885 Daimler Reitwagen made by Gottlieb Daimler and Wilhelm Maybach in Germany was the first internal combustion, petroleum-fueled motorcycle. In 1894, Hildebrand & Wolfmüller became the first series production motorcycle.


title: Motorcycle

text: Globally, motorcycles are comparably popular to cars as a method of transport. In 2021, approximately 58.6 million new motorcycles were sold around the world, fewer than the 66.7 million cars sold over the same period.


title: Motorcycle

text: In 2014, the three top motorcycle producers globally by volume were Honda (28%), Yamaha (17%) (both from Japan), and Hero MotoCorp (India). In developing countries, motorcycles are considered utilitarian due to lower prices and greater fuel economy. Of all the motorcycles in the world, 58% are in the Asia-Pacific and Southern and Eastern Asia regions, excluding car-centric Japan.


title: Motorcycle

text: According to the US Department of Transportation, the number of fatalities per vehicle mile traveled was 37 times higher for motorcycles than for cars.


title: Motorcycle

text: There are three major types of motorcycle: street, off-road, and dual purpose. Within these types, there are many sub-types of motorcycles for different purposes. There is often a racing counterpart to each type, such as road racing and street bikes, or motocross including dirt bikes.


title: Motorcycle

text: Street bikes include cruisers, sportbikes, scooters and mopeds, and many other types. Off-road motorcycles include many types designed for dirt-oriented racing classes such as motocross and are not street legal in most areas. Dual purpose machines like the dual-sport style are made to go off-road but include features to make them legal and comfortable on the street as well.


title: Motorcycle

text: Each configuration offers either specialised advantage or broad capability, and each design creates a different riding posture.


title: Motorcycle

text: The first internal combustion, petroleum fueled motorcycle was the Daimler "Reitwagen". It was designed and built by the German inventors Gottlieb Daimler and Wilhelm Maybach in Bad Cannstatt, Germany, in 1885. This vehicle was unlike either the safety bicycles or the boneshaker bicycles of the era in that it had zero degrees of steering axis angle and no fork offset, and thus did not use the principles of bicycle and motorcycle dynamics developed nearly 70 years earlier. Instead, it relied on two outrigger wheels to remain upright while turning.


title: Motorcycle

text: The inventors called their invention the "Reitwagen" ("riding car"). It was designed as an expedient testbed for their new engine, rather than a true prototype vehicle.


title: Motorcycle

text: The first commercial design for a self-propelled cycle was a three-wheel design called the Butler Petrol Cycle, conceived of Edward Butler in England in 1884. He exhibited his plans for the vehicle at the Stanley Cycle Show in London in 1884. The vehicle was built by the Merryweather Fire Engine company in Greenwich, in 1888.


title: Motorcycle

text: The Butler Petrol Cycle was a three-wheeled vehicle, with the rear wheel directly driven by a , displacement, bore × stroke, flat twin four-stroke engine (with magneto ignition replaced by coil and battery) equipped with rotary valves and a float-fed carburettor (five years before Maybach) and Ackermann steering, all of which were state of the art at the time. Starting was by compressed air. The engine was liquid-cooled, with a radiator over the rear driving wheel. Speed was controlled by means of a throttle valve lever. No braking system was fitted; the vehicle was stopped by raising and lowering the rear driving wheel using a foot-operated lever; the weight of the machine was then borne by two small castor wheels. The driver was seated between the front wheels. It wasn't, however, a success, as Butler failed to find sufficient financial backing.


title: Motorcycle

text: Many authorities have excluded steam powered, electric motorcycles or diesel-powered two-wheelers from the definition of a 'motorcycle', and credit the Daimler "Reitwagen" as the world's first motorcycle. Given the rapid rise in use of electric motorcycles worldwide, defining only internal-combustion powered two-wheelers as 'motorcycles' is increasingly problematic. The first (petroleum fueled) internal-combustion motorcycles, like the German "Reitwagen", were, however, also the first practical motorcycles.


title: Motorcycle

text: If a two-wheeled vehicle with steam propulsion is considered a motorcycle, then the first motorcycles built seem to be the French Michaux-Perreaux steam velocipede which patent application was filed in December 1868, constructed around the same time as the American Roper steam velocipede, built by Sylvester H. Roper of Roxbury, Massachusetts,


title: Motorcycle

text: who had been demonstrating his machine at fairs and circuses in the eastern U.S. since 1867. Roper built about 10 steam cars and cycles from the 1860s until his death in 1896.


title: Motorcycle

text: In 1894, Hildebrand & Wolfmüller became the first series production motorcycle, and the first to be called a motorcycle (). Excelsior Motor Company, originally a bicycle manufacturing company based in Coventry, England, began production of their first motorcycle model in 1896.


title: Motorcycle

text: The first production motorcycle in the US was the Orient-Aster, built by Charles Metz in 1898 at his factory in Waltham, Massachusetts.


title: Motorcycle

text: In the early period of motorcycle history, many producers of bicycles adapted their designs to accommodate the new internal combustion engine. As the engines became more powerful and designs outgrew the bicycle origins, the number of motorcycle producers increased. Many of the nineteenth-century inventors who worked on early motorcycles often moved on to other inventions. Daimler and Roper, for example, both went on to develop automobiles.


title: Motorcycle

text: At the end of the 19th century the first major mass-production firms were set up. In 1898, Triumph Motorcycles in England began producing motorbikes, and by 1903 it was producing over 500 bikes. Other British firms were Royal Enfield, Norton, Douglas Motorcycles and Birmingham Small Arms Company who began motorbike production in 1899, 1902, 1907 and 1910, respectively. Indian began production in 1901 and Harley-Davidson was established two years later. By the outbreak of World War I, the largest motorcycle manufacturer in the world was Indian,


title: Motorcycle

text: During the First World War, motorbike production was greatly ramped up for the war effort to supply effective communications with front line troops. Messengers on horses were replaced with despatch riders on motorcycles carrying messages, performing reconnaissance and acting as a military police. American company Harley-Davidson was devoting over 50% of its factory output toward military contract by the end of the war. The British company Triumph Motorcycles sold more than 30,000 of its Triumph Type H model to allied forces during the war. With the rear wheel driven by a belt, the Model H was fitted with a air-cooled four-stroke single-cylinder engine. It was also the first Triumph without pedals.


title: Motorcycle

text: The Model H in particular, is regarded by many as having been the first "modern motorcycle". Introduced in 1915 it had a 550 cc side-valve four-stroke engine with a three-speed gearbox and belt transmission. It was so popular with its users that it was nicknamed the "Trusty Triumph".


title: Motorcycle

text: By 1920, Harley-Davidson was the largest manufacturer, with their motorcycles being sold by dealers in 67 countries.


title: Motorcycle

text: Amongst many British motorcycle manufacturers, Chater-Lea with its twin-cylinder models followed by its large singles in the 1920s stood out. Initially, using converted a Woodmann-designed ohv Blackburne engine it became the first 350 cc to exceed 100 mph (160 km/h), recording 100.81 mph (162.24 km/h) over the flying kilometre during April 1924.[7] Later, Chater-Lea set a world record for the flying kilometre for 350 cc and 500 cc motorcycles at 102.9 mph (165.6 km/h) for the firm. Chater-Lea produced variants of these world-beating sports models and became popular among racers at the Isle of Man TT. Today, the firm is probably best remembered for its long-term contract to manufacture and supply AA Patrol motorcycles and sidecars.


title: Motorcycle

text: In the 1950s, streamlining began to play an increasing part in the development of racing motorcycles and the "dustbin fairing" held out the possibility of radical changes to motorcycle design. NSU and Moto Guzzi were in the vanguard of this development, both producing very radical designs well ahead of their time.


title: Motorcycle

text: NSU produced the most advanced design, but after the deaths of four NSU riders in the 1954–1956 seasons, they abandoned further development and quit Grand Prix motorcycle racing.


title: Motorcycle

text: Moto Guzzi produced competitive race machines, and until the end of 1957 had a succession of victories. The following year, 1958, full enclosure fairings were banned from racing by the FIM in the light of the safety concerns.


title: Motorcycle

text: From the 1960s through the 1990s, small two-stroke motorcycles were popular worldwide, partly as a result of East German MZs Walter Kaaden's engine work in the 1950s.


title: Motorcycle

text: In the 21st century, the motorcycle industry is mainly dominated by Indian and Japanese motorcycle companies. In addition to the large capacity motorcycles, there is a large market in smaller capacity (less than 300 cc) motorcycles, mostly concentrated in Asian and African countries and produced in China and India. A Japanese example is the 1958 Honda Super Cub, which went on to become the biggest selling vehicle of all time, with its 60 millionth unit produced in April 2008.


title: Motorcycle

text: Today, this area is dominated by mostly with Hero MotoCorp emerging as the world's largest manufacturer of two wheelers. Its Splendor model has sold more than 8.5 million to date. Other major producers are Bajaj and TVS Motors.


title: Motorcycle

text: Motorcycle construction is the engineering, manufacturing, and assembly of components and systems for a motorcycle which results in the performance, cost, and aesthetics desired by the designer. With some exceptions, construction of modern mass-produced motorcycles has standardised on a steel or aluminium frame, telescopic forks holding the front wheel, and disc brakes. Some other body parts, designed for either aesthetic or performance reasons may be added. A petrol-powered engine typically consisting of between one and four cylinders (and less commonly, up to eight cylinders) coupled to a manual five- or six-speed sequential transmission drives the swingarm-mounted rear wheel by a chain, driveshaft, or belt. The repair can be done using a Motorcycle lift.


title: Motorcycle

text: Motorcycle fuel economy varies greatly with engine displacement and riding style. A streamlined, fully faired Matzu Matsuzawa Honda XL125 achieved in the Craig Vetter Fuel Economy Challenge "on real highways in real conditions".


title: Motorcycle

text: Due to low engine displacements (), and high power-to-mass ratios, motorcycles offer good fuel economy. Under conditions of fuel scarcity like 1950s Britain and modern developing nations, motorcycles claim large shares of the vehicle market. In the United States, the average motorcycle fuel economy is 44 miles per US gallon (19 km per liter).


title: Motorcycle

text: Very high fuel economy equivalents are often derived by electric motorcycles. Electric motorcycles are nearly silent, zero-emission electric motor-driven vehicles. Operating range and top speed are limited by battery technology. Fuel cells and petroleum-electric hybrids are also under development to extend the range and improve performance of the electric drive system.


title: Motorcycle

text: A 2013 survey of 4,424 readers of the US "Consumer Reports" magazine collected reliability data on 4,680 motorcycles purchased new from 2009 to 2012. The most common problem areas were accessories, brakes, electrical (including starters, charging, ignition), and fuel systems, and the types of motorcycles with the greatest problems were touring, off-road/dual sport, sport-touring, and cruisers. There were not enough sport bikes in the survey for a statistically significant conclusion, though the data hinted at reliability as good as cruisers. These results may be partially explained by accessories including such equipment as fairings, luggage, and auxiliary lighting, which are frequently added to touring, adventure touring/dual sport and sport touring bikes. Trouble with fuel systems is often the result of improper winter storage, and brake problems may also be due to poor maintenance. Of the five brands with enough data to draw conclusions, Honda, Kawasaki and Yamaha were statistically tied, with 11 to 14% of those bikes in the survey experiencing major repairs. Harley-Davidsons had a rate of 24%, while BMWs did worse, with 30% of those needing major repairs. There were not enough Triumph and Suzuki motorcycles surveyed for a statistically sound conclusion, though it appeared Suzukis were as reliable as the other three Japanese brands while Triumphs were comparable to Harley-Davidson and BMW. Three-fourths of the repairs in the survey cost less than US$200 and two-thirds of the motorcycles were repaired in less than two days. In spite of their relatively worse reliability in this survey, Harley-Davidson and BMW owners showed the greatest owner satisfaction, and three-fourths of them said they would buy the same bike again, followed by 72% of Honda owners and 60 to 63% of Kawasaki and Yamaha owners.


title: Motorcycle

text: Two-wheeled motorcycles stay upright while rolling due to a physical property known as conservation of angular momentum in the wheels. Angular momentum points along the axle, and it "wants" to stay pointing in that direction.


title: Motorcycle

text: Different types of motorcycles have different dynamics and these play a role in how a motorcycle performs in given conditions. For example, one with a longer wheelbase provides the feeling of more stability by responding less to disturbances. Motorcycle tyres have a large influence over handling.


title: Motorcycle

text: Motorcycles must be leaned in order to make turns. This lean is induced by the method known as countersteering, in which the rider momentarily steers the handlebars in the direction opposite of the desired turn. This practice is counterintuitive and therefore often confusing to novices and even many experienced motorcyclists.


title: Motorcycle

text: With such short wheelbase, motorcycles can generate enough torque at the rear wheel, and enough stopping force at the front wheel, to lift the opposite wheel off the road. These actions, if performed on purpose, are known as wheelies and stoppies (or endos) respectively.


title: Motorcycle

text: Various features and accessories may be attached to a motorcycle either as OEM (factory-fitted) or aftermarket. Such accessories are selected by the owner to enhance the motorcycle's appearance, safety, performance, or comfort, and may include anything from mobile electronics to sidecars and trailers.


title: Motorcycle

text: Motorcycles have a higher rate of fatal accidents than automobiles or trucks and buses. United States Department of Transportation data for 2005 from the Fatality Analysis Reporting System show that for passenger cars, 18.62 fatal crashes occur per 100,000 registered vehicles. For motorcycles this figure is higher at 75.19 per 100,000 registered vehicles four times higher than for cars.


title: Motorcycle

text: The same data shows that 1.56 fatalities occur per 100 million vehicle miles travelled for passenger cars, whereas for motorcycles the figure is 43.47 which is 28 times higher than for cars (37 times more deaths per mile travelled in 2007).


title: Motorcycle

text: Furthermore, for motorcycles the accident rates have increased significantly since the end of the 1990s, while the rates have dropped for passenger cars.


title: Motorcycle

text: The most common configuration of motorcycle accidents in the United States is when a motorist pulls out or turns in front of a motorcyclist, violating their right-of-way. This is sometimes called a , an acronym formed from the motorists' common response of "Sorry mate, I didn't see you".


title: Motorcycle

text: Motorcyclists can anticipate and avoid some of these crashes with proper training, increasing their visibility to other traffic, keeping to the speed limits, and not consuming alcohol or other drugs before riding.


title: Motorcycle

text: The United Kingdom has several organisations dedicated to improving motorcycle safety by providing advanced rider training beyond what is necessary to pass the basic motorcycle licence test. These include the Institute of Advanced Motorists (IAM) and the Royal Society for the Prevention of Accidents (RoSPA). Along with increased personal safety, riders with these advanced qualifications may benefit from reduced insurance costs


title: Motorcycle

text: In South Africa, the Think Bike campaign is dedicated to increasing both motorcycle safety and the awareness of motorcycles on the country's roads. The campaign, while strongest in the Gauteng province, has representation in Western Cape, KwaZulu Natal and the Free State. It has dozens of trained marshals available for various events such as cycle races and is deeply involved in numerous other projects such as the annual Motorcycle Toy Run.


title: Motorcycle

text: Motorcycle safety education is offered throughout the United States by organisations ranging from state agencies to non-profit organisations to corporations. Most states use the courses designed by the Motorcycle Safety Foundation (MSF), while Oregon and Idaho developed their own. All of the training programs include a Basic Rider Course, an Intermediate Rider Course and an Advanced Rider Course.


title: Motorcycle

text: In Ireland, since 2010, in the UK and some Australian jurisdictions, such as Victoria, New South Wales,


title: Motorcycle

text: and the Northern Territory, it is compulsory to complete a basic rider training course before being issued a Learners Licence, after which they can ride on public roads.


title: Motorcycle

text: In Canada, motorcycle rider training is compulsory in Quebec and Manitoba only, but all provinces and territories have graduated licence programs which place restrictions on new drivers until they have gained experience. Eligibility for a full motorcycle licence or endorsement for completing a Motorcycle Safety course varies by province. Without the Motorcycle Safety Course the chance of getting insurance for the motorcycle is very low. The Canada Safety Council, a non-profit safety organisation, offers the Gearing Up program across Canada and is endorsed by the Motorcycle and Moped Industry Council. Training course graduates may qualify for reduced insurance premiums.


title: Motorcycle

text: The motorcyclist's riding position depends on rider body-geometry (anthropometry) combined with the geometry of the motorcycle itself. These factors create a set of three basic postures.


title: Motorcycle

text: Factors of a motorcycle's ergonomic geometry that determine the seating posture include the height, angle and location of footpegs, seat and handlebars. Factors in a rider's physical geometry that contribute to seating posture include torso, arm, thigh and leg length, and overall rider height.


title: Motorcycle

text: A motorcycle is broadly defined by law in most countries for the purposes of registration, taxation and rider licensing as a powered two-wheel motor vehicle. Most countries distinguish between mopeds of 49 cc and the more powerful, larger vehicles (scooters do not count as a separate category). Many jurisdictions include some forms of three-wheeled cars as motorcycles.


title: Motorcycle

text: In Nigeria, motorcycles, popularly referred to as "Okada" have been subject of many controversies with regards to safety and security followed by restriction of movement in many states. In 2020, it was banned in Lagos, Nigeria's most populous city.


title: Motorcycle

text: Motorcycles and scooters' low fuel consumption has attracted interest in the United States from environmentalists and those affected by increased fuel prices.


title: Motorcycle

text: Piaggio Group Americas supported this interest with the launch of a "Vespanomics" website and platform, claiming lower per-mile carbon emissions of 0.4 lb/mile (113 g/km) less than the average car, a 65% reduction, and better fuel economy.


title: Motorcycle

text: However, a motorcycle's exhaust emissions may contain 10–20 times more oxides of nitrogen (NOx), carbon monoxide, and unburned hydrocarbons than exhaust from a similar-year passenger car or SUV.


title: Motorcycle

text: This is because many motorcycles lack a catalytic converter, and the emission standard is much more permissive for motorcycles than for other vehicles. While catalytic converters have been installed in most gasoline-powered cars and trucks since 1975 in the United States, they can present fitment and heat difficulties in motorcycle applications.


title: Motorcycle

text: United States Environmental Protection Agency 2007 certification result reports for all vehicles versus on highway motorcycles (which also includes scooters), the average certified emissions level for 12,327 vehicles tested was 0.734. The average "Nox+Co End-Of-Useful-Life-Emissions" for 3,863 motorcycles tested was 0.8531. 54% of the tested 2007-model motorcycles were equipped with a catalytic converter.


title: Motorcycle

text: The following table shows maximum acceptable legal emissions of the combination of hydrocarbons, oxides of nitrogen, and carbon monoxide for new motorcycles sold in the United States with 280 cc or greater piston displacement.


title: Motorcycle

text: The maximum acceptable legal emissions of hydrocarbon and carbon monoxide for new Class I and II motorcycles (50 cc–169 cc and 170 cc–279 cc respectively) sold in the United States are as follows:


title: Motorcycle

text: European emission standards for motorcycles are similar to those for cars. New motorcycles must meet Euro 5 standards, while cars must meet Euro 6D-temp standards. Motorcycle emission controls are being updated and it has been proposed to update to Euro 5+ in 2024.


title: Ghee

text: Ghee is a type of clarified butter, originating from India. It is commonly used in India for cooking, as a traditional medicine, and for religious rituals.


title: Ghee

text: Ghee is typically prepared by simmering butter, which is churned from cream (traditionally made by churning the topmost layer of curd, which is also called the "Bilona" method), skimming any impurities from the surface, then pouring and retaining the clear liquid fat while discarding the solid residue that has settled to the bottom. Spices can be added for flavor. The texture, color, and taste of ghee depend on the quality of the butter, the milk source used in the process, and the duration of boiling time.


title: Ghee

text: The word "ghee" comes from ("", ) 'clarified butter', from "ghṛ-" 'to sprinkle'. In Dravidian languages, it is also known as '('neyyi"), or துப்பகம் ("tuppakam"), ("ney") and ("thuppa").


title: Ghee

text: Traditionally, ghee is always made from bovine milk either being from cow or water buffalo. Ghee has been used in rituals since the Vedic period and it is a sacred requirement in Vedic "yajña" and "homa" (fire rituals), through the medium of Agni (fire) to offer oblations to various deities (See: Yajurveda).


title: Ghee

text: Fire rituals are utilized for ceremonies such as marriage and funerals. Ghee is required in Vedic worship of "mūrtis" (divine deities), with "aarti" (offering of ghee lamp) called" diyā" or "dīpa" and for "Pañcāmṛta" (Panchamruta) where ghee along with mishri, honey, milk, and "dahi" (curd) is used for bathing the deities on the appearance day of Krishna on Janmashtami, "Śiva" (Shiva) on "Mahā-śivarātrī" (Maha Shivaratri). There is a hymn to ghee. In the "Mahabharata", the "kaurava" were born from pots of ghee.


title: Ghee

text: Finding ghee pure enough to use for sacred purposes is a problem these days for devout Hindus, since many large-scale producers add salt to their product. Ghee is also used in "bhang" in order to heat the cannabis to cause decarboxylation, making the drink psychoactive.


title: Ghee

text: In Buddhist scripture, stages of dairy production are used as metaphors for stages of enlightenment. The highest-stage product, sarpir-maṇḍa, is theorised to be ghee or clarified butter.


title: Ghee

text: Ghee is common in cuisines from the Indian subcontinent, including traditional rice preparations (such as "biryani"). In Maharashtra, polis or Indian breads are accompanied with ghee. For example, 'Puranpoli', a typical Maharashtrian dish is eaten with much ghee. In Rajasthan, ghee often accompanies "baati". All over north India, ghee tops "roti". In Karnataka and Tamil Nadu, ghee tops dosa, and kesari bhath. In Bengal (both West Bengal and Bangladesh) and Gujarat, "khichdi" is a traditional evening meal of rice with lentils, cooked in curry made from dahi (yogurt), cumin seeds, curry leaves, cornflour, turmeric, garlic, salt and ghee. It is also an ingredient in "kadhi" and Indian sweets, such as "Mysore pak" and varieties of "halva" and "laddu". Indian restaurants typically incorporate large amounts of ghee, sometimes brushing "naan" and "roti" with it, either during preparation or just before serving. In the state of Odisha ghee is widely used in regional Odia cuisines such as "Khechedi" and "Dalma". Particularly the satwik type of food prepared in most temples in Odisha uses ghee as a major ingredient in their culinary tradition. Ghee is widely used in South Indian cuisine for tempering curries and in preparation of rice dishes and sweets. South Indians have a habit of adding ghee to their rice before eating it with pickles and curries. South Indians are among the biggest consumers of ghee. The people from Andhra Pradesh especially use ghee for preparation of savoury and sweet dishes alike. Ghee is important to traditional North Indian cuisine, with "parathas, daals" and curries often using ghee instead of oil for a richer taste. The type of ghee, in terms of animal source, tends to vary with the dish; for example, ghee prepared from cow's milk () is traditional with rice or "roti" or as a finishing drizzle atop a curry or "daal" (lentils) whereas buffalo-milk ghee is more typical for general cooking purposes.


title: Ghee

text: Ghee is an ideal fat for deep frying because its smoke point (where its molecules begin to break down) is , which is well above typical cooking temperatures of around and above that of most vegetable oils.


title: Ghee

text: The main flavour components of ghee are carbonyls, free fatty acids, lactones, and alcohols. Along with the flavour of milk fat, the ripening of the butter and temperature at which it is clarified also affect the flavour. For example, ghee produced by the clarification of butter at or less results in a mild flavour, whereas batches produced at produce a strong flavour.


title: Ghee

text: Ghee differs slightly in its production from that of clarified butter. The process of creating clarified butter is complete once the water is evaporated and the fat (clarified butter) is separated from the milk solids. However, the production of ghee includes simmering the butter, which makes it nutty-tasting and aromatic.


title: Ghee

text: A traditional Ayurvedic recipe for ghee is to boil raw milk, let it cool to . After leaving it covered at room temperature for around 12 hours, add a bit of dahi (yogurt) to it and leave it overnight. This makes more yogurt. This is churned with water, to obtain cultured butter, which is used to simmer into ghee.


title: Ghee

text: Like any clarified butter, ghee is composed almost entirely of fat, 62% of which consists of saturated fats. It is also rich in oxidized cholesterol: 259 μg/g, or 12.3% of total cholesterol. It has negligible amounts of lactose and casein and is, therefore, acceptable to most who have a lactose intolerance or milk allergy.


title: Ghee

text: Several communities outside the Indian subcontinent make ghee. Egyptians make a product called "samna baladi", meaning 'countryside butter', identical to ghee in terms of process and result, but commonly made from water buffalo milk instead of cow's milk, and white in color. The recipe is considered to have come from South Asia during ancient times of the Pharaoh as revealed in inscriptions and could be the result of Mitanni and Hittite kingdoms, which predate the existence of Greeks. Also, the darkened milk solids that are created during the process are considered a delicacy called "morta", which is a salty condiment used sparingly as a spread, or as an addition on fava dishes. Regular "samna" is also made from cow's milk in Egypt and is often yellowish.


title: Ghee

text: Ghee is also used by various peoples in the Horn of Africa. Tesmi (in Tigrinya language) is the clarified butter prepared in the country of Eritrea. The preparation is similar to that of ghee, but the butter is oftentimes combined with garlic and other spices found native to the area. In Ethiopia, "niter kibbeh" is used in much the same way as ghee, but with spices added during the process that result in distinctive tastes. In North Africa, Maghrebis take this one step further, ageing spiced ghee for months or even years, resulting in a product called "smen".


title: Ghee

text: It's also common in Western Africa especially among the Hausa and Fulanis. It's called Manshanu meaning Cow's oil.


title: Ghee

text: There are five common methods through which ghee is prepared. Industrial preparation on the other hand is done by using "white butter", usually sourced from other dairies and contractors.


title: Ghee

text: Sour raw milk is churned into butter. The butter is boiled in an open pan to allow the water to evaporate. The hot ghee is transferred and stored.


title: Ghee

text: Fresh cream, cultured or washed cream is directly converted to ghee. This method requires a long heating time and produces a caramelized flavor.


title: Ghee

text: Milk is separated into cream which is then churned into butter. The butter undergoes heat clarification to produce ghee.


title: Ghee

text: This method is suitable for large quantities of butter. Butter is melted at for 30 minutes. Layers of protein particles, fat and buttermilk are induced. The buttermilk is drained out. The remaining layers of fat are heated to a temperature of to remove moisture and develop flavor.


title: Ghee

text: A traditional Ayurvedic recipe for ghee is to boil raw milk, let it cool to . After leaving it covered at room temperature for around 12 hours, add a bit of dahi (yogurt) to it and leave it overnight. This makes more yogurt. This is churned with water, first to create butter milk then to obtain cultured butter, which is used to simmer into ghee.


title: Ghee

text: Ghee is generally found to be packaged in airtight glass jars. They should be kept away from direct sunlight as sunlight can cause moisture to build inside the jar. Moisture can cause deterioration to the ghee's quality as well as reduce its shelf life. To prevent the acceleration of the oxidation process, they should be protected from anything that causes it, such as UV rays from sunlight and fluorescent lights. If the jar is unopened, it does not need to be refrigerated as long as the previously mentioned conditions are met. Once opened, they can be stored in a kitchen cabinet for up to three months. Afterwards, it may be left in the refrigerator for up to a year. The refrigerator causes ghee to harden but if it is left at room temperature for a while, it will soften up again.


title: Ghee

text: Ghee may be made of milk from various domesticated ungulates, such as cows, buffaloes and sheep. The composition of ghee varies depending on the animal whose milk has been used. The vitamin A content ranged from 315 to 375 μg per 100 grams. Palmitic acid and oleic acid were two of the main fatty acids found in both cow and sheep ghee. The saturated fatty acid profile was 53.9 to 66.8%, the unsaturated fatty acid profile was 22.8 to 38.0% and the other fatty acids was 3.5 to 10.4%. Cholesterol amounts ranged from 252 to 284 mg/100 grams.


title: Ghee

text: The market size of ghee in India is 10,000 crores or US$1.5 billion as of 2016. India is the world's largest producer of buffalo and cow milk and consequently also the largest producer and consumer of ghee.


title: Shrek Forever After

text: Shrek Forever After is a 2010 American computer-animated comedy film loosely based on the 1990 picture book "Shrek!" by William Steig, produced by DreamWorks Animation and distributed by Paramount Pictures. The sequel to "Shrek the Third" (2007) and the fourth film in the "Shrek" film franchise, it was directed by Mike Mitchell from a screenplay written by Josh Klausner and Darren Lemke. It stars Mike Myers, Eddie Murphy, Cameron Diaz, Antonio Banderas, Julie Andrews, and John Cleese reprising their voice roles from the previous films, with Walt Dohrn, Jane Lynch, Jon Hamm, Craig Robinson, Lake Bell, Mary Kay Place, Kathy Griffin, and Kristen Schaal joining the cast. The plot follows Shrek who, as he struggles with the responsibilities and stress of being a domesticated family man, signs a contract from Rumpelstiltskin to temporarily revert to his previous lifestyle, unknowing of the damaging consequences.


title: Shrek Forever After

text: "Shrek Forever After" premiered at the Tribeca Film Festival on April 21, 2010, and was theatrically released in the United States on May 21 in 2D, 3D, and IMAX 3D formats. The film debuted as the top-grossing film at the box office, a position it held for three consecutive weeks in the United States and Canada. It received mixed reviews from critics, but grossed a worldwide total of $752 million and becoming the fifth-highest-grossing film of 2010. In addition, "Shrek Forever After" became DreamWorks Animation's second-highest-grossing film at the foreign box office. Although originally intended to be the final main entry in the series, a fifth "Shrek" film reportedly entered development in the years following the release of "Forever After", but it has experienced multiple delays.


title: Shrek Forever After

text: Years ago, King Harold and Queen Lillian were going to sign the kingdom of Far Far Away over to Rumpelstiltskin ("Rumpel"), in exchange for lifting the curse of their daughter, Princess Fiona, who was cursed as a child to become an ogre, and was locked in a tower until her "true love" could rescue her. However, the deal is cancelled when they're informed that she's been saved. Rumpel laments his loss and wishes that Fiona's rescuer, Shrek, was never born


title: Shrek Forever After

text: In the present, Shrek has grown tired of being a family man and celebrity, longing for the days when he was feared and had privacy, and Rumpel has since become an outcast. While celebrating his children's first birthday at a restaurant in Far Far Away, an escalating series of events causes him to walk out in anger and lash out at Fiona. Having seen the outburst, Rumpel follows Shrek into the forest and invites him into his carriage. Inside Rumpel's carriage, Shrek laments that he is no longer a "real ogre", so Rumpel offers him a deal to receive a day as a "real ogre" in exchange for a day from his past. Shrek signs a contract fulfilling this wish, and is taken to an alternate reality.


title: Shrek Forever After

text: Now feared by the villagers, Shrek causes some lighthearted mischief, until he discovers that Fiona is a fugitive and his swamp is deserted. Captured by witches, Shrek is taken to Rumpel, who's now the king of Far Far Away. Rumpel reveals to Shrek that he took the day he was born, meaning Shrek never existed in this altered timeline. Consequently, Harold and Lillian were forced to sign the kingdom over to Rumpel, causing them to disappear, and when the day ends, Shrek will cease to exist.


title: Shrek Forever After

text: Shrek escapes Rumpel's castle with an enslaved Donkey, who is initially terrified of him, but befriends him after seeing him cry over his erased history, and the two realize that Rumpel's contract can be nullified by "true love's kiss". The pair soon encounter a still-cursed Fiona leading an army of ogres in a resistance against Rumpel, and a lazy and overweight Puss in Boots being kept as Fiona's pet. Shrek unsuccessfully tries to woo Fiona, who has since lost hope of finding true love after not being rescued, and is too busy preparing an ambush on Rumpel.


title: Shrek Forever After

text: During the ambush, most of the ogres are captured by the Pied Piper, who was hired by Rumpel, but Shrek and Fiona escape with Puss and Donkey. Shrek insists that Fiona kiss him, assuring her that it will fix everything, she reluctantly obliges, but nothing happens, making Shrek realize that Fiona doesn't love him. Later on, Rumpel publicly offers a wish to anyone who brings Shrek to him, and after hearing this, Shrek turns himself in. Rumpel is forced to grant Shrek's wish, and he uses it to free the other ogres. As Shrek is locked up, Rumpel reveals that Fiona was not released, since she is still a human by day. Rumpel tries to have them killed by Dragon, but Donkey, Puss, and the freed ogres storm the castle, capture Rumpel, and defeat his witch army, while Shrek and Fiona take down Dragon.


title: Shrek Forever After

text: As the sun rises, Shrek begins to fade from existence, but Fiona, having finally fallen in love with him, kisses him just before he disappears. Seeing that she is still an ogre in the sunlight, Fiona realizes that her curse was broken and now she has assumed "love's true form" just as the alternate reality disintegrates, making everyone disappear, and they are then transported back to the original timeline at the moment before Shrek lost his temper at the party. Instead of lashing out, Shrek embraces his family, now with a newfound appreciation for his calmer life, while Rumpel is caged for his crimes.


title: Shrek Forever After

text: Following the success of "Shrek 2", a third and fourth "Shrek" film, along with plans for a fifth and final film, were announced in May 2004 by Jeffrey Katzenberg. In October 2006, DreamWorks Animation revealed that the fourth film would be released in 2010.


title: Shrek Forever After

text: In October 2007, Katzenberg announced a title for the fourth film, "Shrek Goes Fourth", explaining that "Shrek goes out into the world, forth!" In May 2009, however, DreamWorks Animation retitled the film to "Shrek Forever After", indicating that it would be the last in the "Shrek" series. In November 2009, Bill Damaschke, head of creative production at DreamWorks Animation, confirmed with "All that was loved about Shrek in the first film is brought to the final film."


title: Shrek Forever After

text: Tim Sullivan was hired to write the script in March 2005, but was later replaced by Darren Lemke and Josh Klausner. Klausner, about the script's evolution, said, "When I first came onto the project, it wasn't supposed to be the final chapter—there were originally going to be 5 "Shrek" movies. Then, about a year into the development, Jeffrey Katzenberg decided that the story that we'd come up with was the right way for Shrek's journey to end, which was incredibly flattering." In May 2007, shortly before the release of the third film, it was announced Mike Mitchell would be on board to direct the new installment. Much of the film was written and recorded in New York City.


title: Shrek Forever After

text: Like the other "Shrek" films, the film's original score was composed by British composer Harry Gregson-Williams.


title: Shrek Forever After

text: "Shrek Forever After" premiered at the Tribeca Film Festival on April 21, 2010. It was publicly released on May 20, 2010, in Russia, while the American release followed the next day. The film was also released in IMAX 3D format. In July 2014, the film's distribution rights were purchased by DreamWorks Animation from Paramount Pictures and transferred to 20th Century Fox before reverting to Universal Pictures in 2018.


title: Shrek Forever After

text: "Shrek Forever After" (marketed as "Shrek Forever After: The Final Chapter") was released on DVD and Blu-ray on December 7, 2010. As of April 24, 2011, the movie has made $75 million in DVD and Blu-ray sales. The film is also included in "Shrek: The Whole Story", a box set released on the same day that included all four "Shrek" movies and additional bonus content. As of May 2012, 10.0 million home entertainment units were sold worldwide.


title: Shrek Forever After

text: "Shrek Forever After" earned $238.7 million in North America, and $513.9 million in other countries, for a worldwide total of $752.6 million, making it the fifth highest-grossing film of 2010.


title: Shrek Forever After

text: "Shrek Forever After" had the widest release for an animated film (4,359 theaters, later expanded to 4,386) in North America. On its opening day (May 21, 2010), it ranked No.1, grossing $20.8 million, which was lower than the opening days of the last two "Shrek" films. The film then opened in three days with $70.8 million, lower than box office analysts' predictions of an opening of $105 million and also lower than the two previous films of the franchise. Anne Globe, head of worldwide marketing for DreamWorks Animation, said they were "happy with the film's opening" since it debuted at No. 1 and also had the fourth-best opening for an animated film, at the time, in the United States and Canada. "Shrek Forever After" was No.1 for three consecutive weekends.


title: Shrek Forever After

text: In North America, executives at DreamWorks Animation were impressed because the film earned $238.7 million in North America, although it was the fourth film in the series, seemingly being outgrown by its fans.


title: Shrek Forever After

text: Outside North America, it topped the weekend box office once on July 16–18, 2010 with $46.3 million. In Russia and CIS, its second-highest-grossing country, it had a $19.7 million opening weekend which was a record among animated films. It earned $51.4 million in total. Third in total earnings came the United Kingdom, Ireland and Malta, where it opened with £8.96 million ($13.6 million) and finished its box office run with £31.1 million ($51.1 million).


title: Shrek Forever After

text: On review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes, "Shrek Forever After" had an approval rating of 57% based on 201 reviews and an average rating of 5.90/10. The site's critical consensus read, "While not without its moments, "Shrek Forever After" too often feels like a rote rehashing of the franchise's earlier entries." On Metacritic, the film had a weighted average score of 58 out of 100, based on 35 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A" on an A+ to F scale, the same score earned by "Shrek" and "Shrek 2" and a step up from the "B+" earned by "Shrek the Third".


title: Shrek Forever After

text: Stephen Holden of "The New York Times" stated "What fortifies “Shrek Forever After” are its brilliantly realized principal characters, who nearly a decade after the first “Shrek” film remain as vital and engaging fusions of image, personality and voice as any characters in the history of animation." Pete Hammond of "BoxOffice" gave the film 4.5 stars out of 5 and wrote, "Hilarious and heartfelt from start to finish, this is the best "Shrek" of them all, and that's no fairy tale. Borrowing liberally from Frank Capra's "It's a Wonderful Life", this edition blends big laughs and emotion to explore what Far Far Away might have been like if Shrek never existed." James Berardinelli of "Reelviews" awarded the film three out of four stars and wrote, "Even though "Shrek Forever After" is obligatory and unnecessary, it's better than "Shrek the Third" and it's likely that most who attend as a way of saying goodbye to the Jolly Green Ogre will not find themselves wishing they had sought out a more profitable way of spending 90-odd minutes."


title: Shrek Forever After

text: James White of "Empire" gave the film four out of four stars, saying, "DreamWorks could be entering a period of fresh creativity. With "How to Train Your Dragon" and a balanced, darker-hued and very funny "Shrek" finale, they've found the magic again". Lisa Schwarzbaum of "Entertainment Weekly" gave the film a "B−" grade, saying "Everyone involved fulfills his or her job requirements adequately. But the magic is gone and "Shrek Forever After" is no longer an ogre phenomenon to reckon with." Peter Travers of "Rolling Stone" wrote "It's a fun ride. What's missing is the excitement of a new interpretation." Mary Pols of "Time" stated in her review "Can an ogre jump a shark? I think so." Giving the film one star out of four, Kyle Smith of the "New York Post" wrote, "After the frantic spurt of fairy-tale allusions and jokes in the first three "Shrek"s, this one inches along with a few mostly pointless action scenes and the occasional mild pun."


title: Shrek Forever After

text: "Shrek Forever After" is an action-adventure video game based on the movie of the same name. It was released by Activision on May 18, 2010.


title: Shrek Forever After

text: In 2014, a Fox Business Network interview with Dreamworks CEO Jeffrey Katzenberg implied that more "Shrek" films would eventually be made saying, "But I think you can be confident that we'll have another chapter in the Shrek series. We're not finished and, more importantly, neither is he." Following NBCUniversal acquisition of DreamWorks Animation in 2016, President and CEO Steve Burke discussed plans to revive the franchise. In July 2016, "The Hollywood Reporter" cited sources saying that a fifth film was planned for a 2019 release. By late 2016, reports surfaced that the script had been completed.


title: Shrek Forever After

text: "Puss in Boots" is a computer-animated adventure comedy film that was released on October 28, 2011. The movie is based on and follows the character of the same name on his adventures with Kitty Softpaws and mastermind Humpty Dumpty.


title: Shrek Forever After

text: A sequel titled "" is set to be released on December 21, 2022 and takes place after the events of "Shrek Forever After". It follows a plot with the title character down to his last life and seeking to restore his previous eight lives with the mystical Last Wish that he lost while escaping new enemies who plan to hunt him down, with the help of his friends.


title: Sarah Baartman

text: Sarah Baartman (; 1789– 29 December 1815), also spelt Sara, sometimes in the diminutive form Saartje (), or Saartjie, and Bartman, Bartmann, was a Khoikhoi woman who was exhibited as a freak show attraction in 19th-century Europe under the name Hottentot Venus, a name which was later attributed to at least one other woman similarly exhibited. The women were exhibited for their steatopygic body type uncommon in Western Europe which not only was perceived as a curiosity at that time, but became subject of scientific interest as well as of erotic projection. She is thought to have suffered from lipedema.


title: Sarah Baartman

text: "Venus" is sometimes used to designate representations of the female body in arts and cultural anthropology, referring to the Roman goddess of love and fertility. "Hottentot" was the colonial-era term for the indigenous Khoikhoi people of southwestern Africa, now usually considered an offensive term. The Sarah Baartman story is often regarded as the epitome of racist colonial exploitation, and of the commodification of the dehumanization of black people.


title: Sarah Baartman

text: Baartman was born to a Khoekhoe family in the vicinity of the Camdeboo in what is now the Eastern Cape of South Africa (then the Dutch Cape Colony; a British colony by the time she was an adult). Saartjie is the diminutive form of Sarah; in Cape Dutch the use of the diminutive form commonly indicated familiarity, endearment or contempt. Her birth name is unknown. Her surname has also been spelt Bartman and Bartmann. Her mother died when she was an infant and her father was later killed by Bushmen (San people) while driving cattle.


title: Sarah Baartman

text: Baartman spent her childhood and teenage years on Dutch European farms. She went through puberty rites, and kept the small tortoise shell necklace, most likely given to her by her mother, until her death in France. In the 1790s, a free black (a designation for individuals of enslaved descent) trader named Peter Cesars (also recorded as Caesar) met her and encouraged her to move to Cape Town. Records do not show whether she was made to leave, went willingly, or was sent by her family to Cesars. She lived in Cape Town for at least two years working in households as a washerwoman and a nursemaid, first for Peter Cesars, then in the house of a Dutch man in Cape Town. She finally moved to be a wet-nurse in the household of Peter Cesars' brother, Hendrik Cesars, outside of Cape Town in present day Woodstock. There is evidence that she had two children, though both died as babies. She had a relationship with a poor Dutch soldier, Hendrik van Jong, who lived in Hout Bay near Cape Town, but the relationship ended when his regiment left the Cape.


title: Sarah Baartman

text: Hendrik Cesars began to show her at the city hospital in exchange for cash, where surgeon Alexander Dunlop worked. Dunlop, (sometimes wrongly cited as William Dunlop), a Scottish military surgeon in the Cape slave lodge, operated a side business in supplying showmen in Britain with animal specimens, and suggested she travel to Europe to make money by exhibiting herself. Baartman refused. Dunlop persisted, and Baartman said she would not go unless Hendrik Cesars came too. He also refused, but he finally agreed in 1810 to go to Britain to make money by putting Baartman on stage. The party left for London in 1810. It is unknown whether Baartman went willingly or was forced.


title: Sarah Baartman

text: Dunlop was the frontman and conspirator behind the plan to exhibit Baartman. According to a British legal report of 26 November 1810, an affidavit supplied to the Court of King's Bench from a "Mr. Bullock of Liverpool Museum" stated: "some months since a Mr. Alexander Dunlop, who, he believed, was a surgeon in the army, came to him to sell the skin of a Camelopard, which he had brought from the Cape of Good Hope... Some time after, Mr. Dunlop again called on Mr. Bullock, and told him, that he had then on her way from the Cape, a female Hottentot, of very singular appearance; that she would make the fortune of any person who shewed her in London, and that he (Dunlop) was under an engagement to send her back in two years..." Lord Caledon, governor of the Cape, gave permission for the trip, but later said regretted it after he fully learned the purpose of the trip.


title: Sarah Baartman

text: Hendrik Cesars and Alexander Dunlop brought Baartman to London in 1810. The group lived together in Duke Street, St. James, the most expensive part of London. In the household were Sarah Baartman, Hendrik Cesars, Alexander Dunlop, and two African boys, probably brought illegally by Dunlop from the slave lodge in Cape Town.


title: Sarah Baartman

text: Dunlop had to have Baartman exhibited and Cesars was the showman. Dunlop exhibited Baartman at the Egyptian Room at the London residence of Thomas Hope at No. 10 Duchess Street, Cavendish Square, London. Dunlop thought he could make money because of Londoners' lack of familiarity with Africans and because of Baartman's pejoratively perceived large buttocks. Crais and Scully say: "People came to see her because they saw her not as a person but as a pure example of this one part of the natural world". She became known as the "Hottentot Venus" (as was at least one other woman, in 1829). A handwritten note made on an exhibition flyer by someone who saw Baartman in London in January 1811 indicates curiosity about her origins and probably reproduced some of the language from the exhibition; thus the following origin story should be treated with skepticism: "Sartjee is 22 Years old is 4 feet 10 Inches high, and has (for a Hottentot) a good capacity. She lived in the occupation of a Cook at the Cape of Good Hope. Her Country is situated not less than 600 Miles from the Cape, the Inhabitants of which are rich in Cattle and sell them by barter for a mere trifle. A Bottle of Brandy, or small roll of Tobacco will purchase several Sheep – Their principal trade is in Cattle Skins or Tallow. – Beyond this Nation is an other, of small stature, very subtle & fierce; the Dutch could not bring them under subjection, and shot them whenever they found them. 9 Jany, 1811. [H.C.?]" The tradition of freak shows was well established in Europe at this time, and historians have argued that this is at first how Baartman was displayed. Baartman never allowed herself to be exhibited nude, and an account of her appearance in London in 1810 makes it clear that she was wearing a garment, albeit a tight-fitting one. She became a subject of scientific interest, albeit of racist bias frequently, as well as of erotic projection. She was marketed as the "missing link between man and beast".


title: Sarah Baartman

text: Her exhibition in London just a few years after the passing of the 1807 Slave Trade Act, which abolished the slave trade, created a scandal. A British abolitionist society, the African Association, conducted a newspaper campaign for her release. The British abolitionist Zachary Macaulay led the protest, with Hendrik Cesars protesting in response that Baartman was entitled to earn her living, stating: "has she not as good a right to exhibit herself as an Irish Giant or a Dwarf?" Cesars was comparing Baartman to the contemporary Irish giants Charles Byrne and Patrick Cotter O'Brien. Macaulay and The African Association took the matter to court and on 24 November 1810 at the Court of King's Bench the Attorney-General began the attempt "to give her liberty to say whether she was exhibited by her own consent." In support he produced two affidavits in court. The first, from a William Bullock of Liverpool Museum, was intended to show that Baartman had been brought to Britain by individuals who referred to her as if she were property. The second, by the Secretary of the African Association, described the degrading conditions under which she was exhibited and also gave evidence of coercion. Baartman was then questioned before an attorney in Dutch, in which she was fluent, via interpreters.


title: Sarah Baartman

text: Historians have subsequently stated doubts on the veracity and independence of the statement that Baartman then made. She stated that she in fact was not under restraint, had not been sexually abused and had come to London on her own free will. She also did not wish to return to her family and understood perfectly that she was guaranteed half of the profits. The case was therefore dismissed. She was questioned for three hours. The statements directly contradict accounts of her exhibitions made by Zachary Macaulay of the African Institution and other eyewitnesses. A written contract was produced, which is considered by some modern commentators to be a legal subterfuge.


title: Sarah Baartman

text: The publicity given by the court case increased Baartman's popularity as an exhibit. She later toured other parts of England and was exhibited at a fair in Limerick, Ireland in 1812. She also was exhibited at a fair at Bury St Edmunds in Suffolk. On 1 December 1811 Baartman was baptised at Manchester Cathedral and there is evidence that she got married on the same day.


title: Sarah Baartman

text: A man called Henry Taylor took Baartman to France around September 1814. Taylor then sold her to a man sometimes reported as an animal trainer, S. Réaux, but whose name was actually Jean Riaux and belonged to a ballet master who had been deported from the Cape Colony for seditious behaviour. Riaux exhibited her under more pressured conditions for 15 months at the Palais Royal in Paris. In France she was in effect enslaved. In Paris, her exhibition became more clearly entangled with scientific racism. French scientists were curious about whether she had the elongated labia which earlier naturalists such as François Levaillant had purportedly observed in Khoisan at the Cape. French naturalists, among them Georges Cuvier, head keeper of the menagerie at the Muséum national d'Histoire naturelle and founder of the discipline of comparative anatomy, visited her. She was the subject of several scientific paintings at the Jardin du Roi, where she was examined in March 1815: as naturalist Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire and Frédéric Cuvier, a younger brother of Georges, reported: "she was obliging enough to undress and to allow herself to be painted in the nude". This was not really true: Although by his standards she appeared to be naked, she wore a small apron-like garment which concealed her genitalia throughout these sessions, in accordance with her own cultural norms of modesty. She steadfastly refused to remove this even when offered money by one of the attending scientists.


title: Sarah Baartman

text: She was brought out as an exhibit at wealthy people's parties and private salons. In Paris, Baartman's promoters did not need to concern themselves with slavery charges. Crais and Scully state: "By the time she got to Paris, her existence was really quite miserable and extraordinarily poor. Sara was literally treated like an animal. There is some evidence to suggest that at one point a collar was placed around her neck." At the end of her life she was a prostitute, and penniless.


title: Sarah Baartman

text: Baartman died on 29 December 1815 around age 26, of an undetermined inflammatory ailment, possibly smallpox, while other sources suggest she contracted syphilis, or pneumonia. Cuvier conducted a dissection but no autopsy to inquire into the reasons for Baartman's death.


title: Sarah Baartman

text: The French anatomist Henri Marie Ducrotay de Blainville published notes on the dissection in 1816, which were republished by Georges Cuvier in the "Memoires du Museum d'Histoire Naturelle" in 1817. Cuvier, who had met Baartman, notes in his monograph that its subject was an intelligent woman with an excellent memory, particularly for faces. In addition to her native tongue, she spoke fluent Dutch, passable English, and a smattering of French. He describes her shoulders and back as "graceful", arms "slender", hands and feet as "charming" and "pretty". He adds she was adept at playing the Jew's harp, could dance according to the traditions of her country, and had a lively personality. Despite this, Cuvier interpreted her remains, in accordance with his theories on racial evolution, as evidencing ape-like traits. He thought her small ears were similar to those of an orangutan and also compared her vivacity, when alive, to the quickness of a monkey. He was part of a movement of scientists who were aiming to codify a hierarchy of races with the white man at the top.


title: Sarah Baartman

text: Saint-Hilaire applied on behalf of the Muséum d' Histoire Naturelle to retain her remains (Cuvier had preserved her brain, genitalia and skeleton), on the grounds that it was of a singular specimen of humanity and therefore of special scientific interest. The application was approved and Baartman's skeleton and body cast were displayed in Muséum d'histoire naturelle d’Angers. Her skull was stolen in 1827 but returned a few months later. The restored skeleton and skull continued to arouse the interest of visitors until the remains were moved to the Musée de l'Homme, when it was founded in 1937, and continued up until the late 1970s. Her body cast and skeleton stood side by side and faced away from the viewer which emphasised her steatopygia (accumulation of fat on the buttocks) while reinforcing that aspect as the primary interest of her body. The Baartman exhibit proved popular until it elicited complaints for being a degrading representation of women. The skeleton was removed in 1974, and the body cast in 1976.


title: Sarah Baartman

text: From the 1940s, there were sporadic calls for the return of her remains. A poem written in 1978 by South African poet Diana Ferrus, herself of Khoisan descent, entitled "I've come to take you home", played a pivotal role in spurring the movement to bring Baartman's remains back to her birth soil. The case gained world-wide prominence only after American paleontologist Stephen Jay Gould wrote "The Mismeasure of Man" in the 1980s. Mansell Upham, a researcher and jurist specializing in colonial South African history, also helped spur the movement to bring Baartman's remains back to South Africa. After the victory of the African National Congress (ANC) in the 1994 South African general election, President Nelson Mandela formally requested that France return the remains. After much legal wrangling and debates in the French National Assembly, France acceded to the request on 6 March 2002. Her remains were repatriated to her homeland, the Gamtoos Valley, on 6 May 2002, and they were buried on 9 August 2002 on "Vergaderingskop", a hill in the town of Hankey over 200 years after her birth.


title: Sarah Baartman

text: Baartman became an icon in South Africa as representative of many aspects of the nation's history. The Saartjie Baartman Centre for Women and Children, a refuge for survivors of domestic violence, opened in Cape Town in 1999. South Africa's first offshore environmental protection vessel, the "Sarah Baartman", is also named after her.


title: Sarah Baartman

text: On 8 December 2018, the University of Cape Town made the decision to rename Memorial Hall, at the centre of the campus, to Sarah Baartman Hall. This follows the earlier removal of "Jameson" from the former name of the hall.


title: Sarah Baartman

text: Sarah Baartman was not the only Khoikhoi to be taken from her homeland. Her story is sometimes used to illustrate social and political strains, and through this, some facts have been lost. Dr. Yvette Abrahams, professor of women and gender studies at the University of the Western Cape, writes, "we lack academic studies that view Sarah Baartman as anything other than a symbol. Her story becomes marginalized, as it is always used to illustrate some other topic." Baartman is used to represent African discrimination and suffering in the West although there were many other Khoikhoi people who were taken to Europe. Historian Neil Parsons writes of two Khoikhoi children 13 and six years old respectively, who were taken from South Africa and displayed at a holiday fair in Elberfeld, Prussia, in 1845. "Bosjemans", a travelling show including two Khoikhoi men, women, and a baby, toured Britain, Ireland, and France from 1846 to 1855. P. T. Barnum's show "Little People" advertised a 16-year-old Khoikhoi girl named Flora as the "missing link" and acquired six more Khoikhoi children later.