Protectionism - wikipedia Protectionism `` Protectionist '' redirects here. For other uses, see Protectionist ( disambiguation ). It has been suggested that Market - preserving federalism be merged into this article. ( Discuss ) Proposed since December 2017. This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. ( June 2017 ) Part of a series on World trade Policy Import Export Balance of trade Trade law Trade pact Trade bloc Trade creation Trade diversion Export orientation Import substitution Trade finance Trade facilitation Trade route Domestic trade Tax, tariff and trade Restrictions Trade barriers Tariffs Non-tariff barriers Import quotas Tariff - rate quotas Quota share Import licenses Customs duties Export subsidies Technical barriers Bribery Exchange rate controls Embargo Safeguards Countervailing duties Anti-dumping duties Voluntary export restraints History Mercantilism Protectionism Laissez - faire Free trade Economic nationalism Economic integration Organizations International Monetary Fund International Trade Centre World Trade Organization World Customs Organization Economic integration Preferential trading area Free trade area Customs union Single market Economic union Monetary union Fiscal union Customs and monetary union Economic and monetary union Issues Intellectual property rights Smuggling Competition policy Government procurement Outsourcing Globalization Fair trade Trade justice Emissions trading Trade sanctions War Currency Trade costs Customs Trade Trade and development Lists Imports Exports Tariffs Largest consumer markets Leading trade partners By country Trade mission Trading nation United States Argentina Pakistan Romania Vietnam India Theory Comparative advantage Competitive advantage Heckscher -- Ohlin model New trade theory Economic geography Intra-industry trade Gravity model of trade Ricardian trade theories Balassa -- Samuelson effect Linder hypothesis Leontief paradox Lerner symmetry theorem Terms of trade Part of a series on Economic systems By ideology Anarchist Capitalist Corporate Dirigist Laissez - faire Mercantilist Neo-mercantilist Protectionist Social market State capitalist Democratic Fascist Feminist Georgist Green Religious Christian Islamic Socialist Communist Market socialist Mutualist Participatory Socialist market Syndicalist Traditionalist Communalist Corporatist Distributist Feudalism By coordination Closed ( autarky ) Decentralized Digital Dual Gift Informal Market Mixed Natural Open Planned Robinson Crusoe Subsistence Underground Vertical archipelago Virtual By regional model Asian East Asian Chinese Singaporean European Anglo - Saxon German Nordic Rhenish Soviet Latin America Socialism of the 21st century Sectors Common property Private Public Voluntary Property types Collective ownership Commons Private ownership Public ownership Social ownership Transition Collectivization Communization Corporatization Demutualization Deregulation Expropriation Financialization Liberalization Marketization Municipalization Mutualization Nationalization Privatization Socialization Coordination Barter Market Free Open Regulated Planned In kind Cybernetic Indicative Material balancing Price Self - managed Peer - to - peer Shared Open access Other types Expeditionary Hunter - gatherer Inclusive Democracy Information Islamic economics Manorialism Newly industrialized Palace Plantation Plutonomy Post-capitalist Post-industrial Post-scarcity Resource - based Token Traditional Transition World Business and economics portal Protectionism is the economic policy of restricting imports from other countries through methods such as tariffs on imported goods, import quotas, and a variety of other government regulations. Proponents claim that protectionist policies shield the producers, businesses, and workers of the import - competing sector in the country from foreign competitors. However, they also reduce trade and adversely affect consumers in general ( by raising the cost of imported goods ), and harm the producers and workers in export sectors, both in the country implementing protectionist policies, and in the countries protected against. There is a universal consensus among economists that protectionism has a negative effect on economic growth and economic welfare, while free trade, deregulation, and the reduction of trade barriers has a positive effect on economic growth. However, trade liberalization can sometimes result in large and unequally distributed losses and gains, and can, in the short run, cause significant economic dislocation of workers in import - competing sectors. Contents 1 Protectionist policies 2 History 2.1 In the United States 2.2 In Europe 2.3 In Canada 2.4 In Latin America 3 Impact 3.1 Living standards 3.2 Growth 3.3 Developing world 3.4 Conflict 4 Current world trends 5 See also 6 References Protectionist policies Main article : Tariff A variety of policies have been used to achieve protectionist goals. These include : Protection of technologies, patents, technical and scientific knowledge Prevent foreign investors from taking control of domestic firms Tariffs : Typically, tariffs ( or taxes ) are imposed on imported goods. Tariff rates usually vary according to the type of goods imported. Import tariffs will increase the cost to importers, and increase the price of imported goods in the local markets, thus lowering the quantity of goods imported, to favour local producers. Tariffs may also be imposed on exports, and in an economy with floating exchange rates, export tariffs have similar effects as import tariffs. However, since export tariffs are often perceived as `` hurting '' local industries, while import tariffs are perceived as `` helping '' local industries, export tariffs are seldom implemented. Import quotas : To reduce the quantity and therefore increase the market price of imported goods. The economic effects of an import quota is similar to that of a tariff, except that the tax revenue gain from a tariff will instead be distributed to those who receive import licenses. Economists often suggest that import licenses be auctioned to the highest bidder, or that import quotas be replaced by an equivalent tariff. Administrative barriers : Countries are sometimes accused of using their various administrative rules ( e.g. regarding food safety, environmental standards, electrical safety, etc. ) as a way to introduce barriers to imports. Anti-dumping legislation : `` Dumping '' is the practice of firms selling to export markets at lower prices than are charged in domestic markets. Supporters of anti-dumping laws argue that they prevent import of cheaper foreign goods that would cause local firms to close down. However, in practice, anti-dumping laws are usually used to impose trade tariffs on foreign exporters. Direct subsidies : Government subsidies ( in the form of lump - sum payments or cheap loans ) are sometimes given to local firms that can not compete well against imports. These subsidies are purported to `` protect '' local jobs, and to help local firms adjust to the world markets. Export subsidies : Export subsidies are often used by governments to increase exports. Export subsidies have the opposite effect of export tariffs because exporters get payment, which is a percentage or proportion of the value of exported. Export subsidies increase the amount of trade, and in a country with floating exchange rates, have effects similar to import subsidies. Exchange rate control : A government may intervene in the foreign exchange market to lower the value of its currency by selling its currency in the foreign exchange market. Doing so will raise the cost of imports and lower the cost of exports, leading to an improvement in its trade balance. However, such a policy is only effective in the short run, as it will lead to higher inflation in the country in the long run, which will in turn raise the real cost of exports, and reduce the relative price of imports. International patent systems : There is an argument for viewing national patent systems as a cloak for protectionist trade policies at a national level. Two strands of this argument exist : one when patents held by one country form part of a system of exploitable relative advantage in trade negotiations against another, and a second where adhering to a worldwide system of patents confers `` good citizenship '' status despite ' de facto protectionism '. Peter Drahos explains that `` States realized that patent systems could be used to cloak protectionist strategies. There were also reputational advantages for states to be seen to be sticking to intellectual property systems. One could attend the various revisions of the Paris and Berne conventions, participate in the cosmopolitan moral dialogue about the need to protect the fruits of authorial labor and inventive genius... knowing all the while that one 's domestic intellectual property system was a handy protectionist weapon. '' Political campaigns advocating domestic consumption ( e.g. the `` Buy American '' campaign in the United States, which could be seen as an extra-legal promotion of protectionism. ) Preferential governmental spending, such as the Buy American Act, federal legislation which called upon the United States government to prefer US - made products in its purchases. In the modern trade arena many other initiatives besides tariffs have been called protectionist. For example, some commentators, such as Jagdish Bhagwati, see developed countries efforts in imposing their own labor or environmental standards as protectionism. Also, the imposition of restrictive certification procedures on imports are seen in this light. Further, others point out that free trade agreements often have protectionist provisions such as intellectual property, copyright, and patent restrictions that benefit large corporations. These provisions restrict trade in music, movies, pharmaceuticals, software, and other manufactured items to high cost producers with quotas from low cost producers set to zero. History Tariff Rates in Japan ( 1870 -- 1960 ) Tariff Rates in Spain and Italy ( 1860 -- 1910 ) Historically, protectionism was associated with economic theories such as mercantilism ( which focused on achieving positive trade balance and accumulating gold ), and import substitution. In the 18th century, Adam Smith famously warned against the `` interested sophistry '' of industry, seeking to gain advantage at the cost of the consumers. Friedrich List saw Adam Smith 's views on free trade as disingenuous, believing that Smith advocated for freer trade so that British industry could lock out underdeveloped foreign competition. Some have argued that no major country has ever successfully industrialized without some form of economic protection. Economic historian Paul Bairoch wrote that `` historically, free trade is the exception and protectionism the rule ''. According to economic historians Douglas Irwin and Kevin O'Rourke, `` shocks that emanate from brief financial crises tend to be transitory and have little long - run effect on trade policy, whereas those that play out over longer periods ( early 1890s, early 1930s ) may give rise to protectionism that is difficult to reverse. Regional wars also produce transitory shocks that have little impact on long - run trade policy, while global wars give rise to extensive government trade restrictions that can be difficult to reverse. '' One paper notes that sudden shifts in comparative advantage for specific countries have led said countries to become protectionist : `` The shift in comparative advantage associated with the opening up of New World frontiers, and the subsequent `` grain invasion '' of Europe, led to higher agricultural tariffs from the late 1870s onwards, which as we have seen reversed the move toward freer trade that had characterized mid-nineteenth - century Europe. In the decades after World War II, Japan 's rapid rise led to trade friction with other countries. Japan 's recovery was accompanied by a sharp increase in its exports of certain product categories : cotton textiles in the 1950s, steel in the 1960s, automobiles in the 1970s, and electronics in the 1980s. In each case, the rapid expansion in Japan 's exports created difficulties for its trading partners and the use of protectionism as a shock absorber. '' According to some political theorists, protectionism is advocated mainly by parties that hold far - left or left - wing economic positions, while economically right - wing political parties generally support free trade. In the United States Main articles : Protectionism in the United States and Tariffs in United States history Tariff Rates ( France, UK, US ) Average Tariff Rates in US ( 1821 -- 2016 ) US Trade Balance ( 1895 -- 2015 ) According to economic historian Douglas Irwin, a common myth about U.S. trade policy is that low tariffs harmed American manufacturers in the early 19th century and then that high tariffs made the United States into a great industrial power in the late 19th century. A review by the Economist of Irwin 's 2017 book Clashing over Commerce : A History of US Trade Policy notes : Political dynamics would lead people to see a link between tariffs and the economic cycle that was not there. A boom would generate enough revenue for tariffs to fall, and when the bust came pressure would build to raise them again. By the time that happened, the economy would be recovering, giving the impression that tariff cuts caused the crash and the reverse generated the recovery. Mr Irwin also methodically debunks the idea that protectionism made America a great industrial power, a notion believed by some to offer lessons for developing countries today. As its share of global manufacturing powered from 23 % in 1870 to 36 % in 1913, the admittedly high tariffs of the time came with a cost, estimated at around 0.5 % of GDP in the mid-1870s. In some industries, they might have sped up development by a few years. But American growth during its protectionist period was more to do with its abundant resources and openness to people and ideas. According to Paul Bairoch, the United States was `` the mother country and bastion of modern protectionism '' since the end of the 18th century and until the post-World War II period. The Bush administration implemented tariffs on Chinese steel in 2002 ; according to a 2005 review of existing research on the tariff, all studies found that the tariffs caused more harm than gains to the US economy and employment. The Obama administration implemented tariffs on Chinese tires between 2009 and 2012 as an anti-dumping measure ; a 2016 study found that these tariffs had no impact on employment and wages in the US tire industry. In Europe Europe became increasingly protectionist during the eighteenth century. Economic historians Findlay and O'Rourke write that `` the immediate aftermath of the Napoleonic Wars, European trade policies were almost universally protectionist, '' with the exceptions being smaller countries such as the Netherlands and Denmark. Europe increasingly liberalized its trade during the 19th century. Countries such as Britain, the Netherlands, Denmark, Portugal and Switzerland, and arguably Sweden and Belgium, had fully moved towards free trade prior to 1860. Economic historians see the repeal of the Corn Laws in 1846 as the decisive shift toward free trade in Britain. A 1990 study by the Harvard economic historian Jeffrey Williamsson showed that the Corn Laws ( which imposed restrictions and tariffs on imported grain ) substantially increased the cost of living for unskilled and skilled British workers, and hampered the British manufacturing sector by reducing the disposable incomes that British workers could have spent on manufactured goods. The shift towards liberalization in Britain occurred in part due to `` the influence of economists like David Ricardo '', but also due to `` the growing power of urban interests ''. Findlay and O'Rourke characterize the 1860 Cobden Chevalier treaty between France and the United Kingdom as `` a decisive shift toward European free trade. '' This treaty was followed by numerous free trade agreements : `` France and Belgium signed a treaty in 1861 ; a Franco - Prussian treaty was signed in 1862 ; Italy entered the `` network of Cobden - Chevalier treaties '' in 1863 ( Bairoch 1989, 40 ) ; Switzerland in 1864 ; Sweden, Norway, Spain, the Netherlands, and the Hanseatic towns in 1865 ; and Austria in 1866. By 1877, less than two decades after the Cobden Chevalier treaty and three decades after British Repeal, Germany `` had virtually become a free trade country '' ( Bairoch, 41 ). Average duties on manufactured products had declined to 9 -- 12 percent on the Continent, a far cry from the 50 percent British tariffs, and numerous prohibitions elsewhere, of the immediate post-Waterloo era ( Bairoch, table 3, p. 6, and table 5, p. 42 ). '' Some European powers did not liberalize during the 19th century, such as the Russian Empire and Austro - Hungarian Empire which remained highly protectionist. The Ottoman Empire also became increasingly protectionist. In the Ottoman Empire 's case, however, it previously had liberal free trade policies during the 18th to early 19th centuries, which British prime minister Benjamin Disraeli cited as `` an instance of the injury done by unrestrained competition '' in the 1846 Corn Laws debate, arguing that it destroyed what had been `` some of the finest manufactures of the world '' in 1812. The countries of Western Europe began to steadily liberalize their economies after World War II and the protectionism of the interwar period. In Canada Since 1971 Canada has protected producers of eggs, milk, cheese, chickens, and turkeys with a system of supply management. Though prices for these foods in Canada exceed global prices, the farmers and processors have had the security of a stable market to finance their operations. Since Canadian milk is free of bovine somatotropin, the program relates to public health and consumer protection. In Quebec, the Federation of Quebec Maple Syrup Producers manages the supply of maple syrup. In Latin America According to one assessment, tariffs were `` far higher '' in Latin America than the rest of the world in the century prior to the Great Depression. Impact There is a broad consensus among economists that protectionism has a negative effect on economic growth and economic welfare, while free trade and the reduction of trade barriers has a positive effect on economic growth. Protectionism is frequently criticized by economists as harming the people it is meant to help. Mainstream economists instead support free trade. The principle of comparative advantage shows that the gains from free trade outweigh any losses as free trade creates more jobs than it destroys because it allows countries to specialize in the production of goods and services in which they have a comparative advantage. Protectionism results in deadweight loss ; this loss to overall welfare gives no - one any benefit, unlike in a free market, where there is no such total loss. According to economist Stephen P. Magee, the benefits of free trade outweigh the losses by as much as 100 to 1. Protectionists believe that there is a legitimate need for government restrictions on free trade in order to protect their country 's economic, and therefore political independence. Living standards A 2016 study found that `` that trade typically favors the poor '', as they spend a greater share of their earnings on goods, and as free trade reduces the costs of goods. Other research found that China 's entry to the WTO benefitted US consumers, as the price of Chinese goods were substantially reduced. Harvard economist Dani Rodrik argues that while globalization and free trade does contribute to social problems, `` a serious retreat into protectionism would hurt the many groups that benefit from trade and would result in the same kind of social conflicts that globalization itself generates. We have to recognize that erecting trade barriers will help in only a limited set of circumstances and that trade policies will rarely be the best response to the problems ( of globalization ) ''. Growth According to economic historians Findlay and O'Rourke, there is a consensus in the economics literature that protectionist policies in the interwar period `` hurt the world economy overall, although there is a debate about whether the effect was large or small. '' Economic historian Paul Bairoch argued that economic protection was positively correlated with economic and industrial growth during the 19th century. For example, GNP growth during Europe 's `` liberal period '' in the middle of the century ( where tariffs were at their lowest ), averaged 1.7 % per year, while industrial growth averaged 1.8 % per year. However, during the protectionist era of the 1870s and 1890s, GNP growth averaged 2.6 % per year, while industrial output grew at 3.8 % per year, roughly twice as fast as it had during the liberal era of low tariffs and free trade. One study found that tariffs imposed on manufactured goods increase economic growth in developing countries, and this growth impact remains even after the tariffs are repealed. According to Dartmouth economist Douglas Irwin, `` that there is a correlation between high tariffs and growth in the late nineteenth century can not be denied. But correlation is not causation... there is no reason for necessarily thinking that import protection was a good policy just because the economic outcome was good : the outcome could have been driven by factors completely unrelated to the tariff, or perhaps could have been even better in the absence of protection. '' Irwin furthermore writes that `` few observers have argued outright that the high tariffs caused such growth. '' According to Oxford economic historian Kevin O'Rourke, `` It seems clear that protection was important for the growth of US manufacturing in the first half of the 19th century ; but this does not necessarily imply that the tariff was beneficial for GDP growth. Protectionists have often pointed to German and American industrialization during this period as evidence in favour of their position, but economic growth is influenced by many factors other than trade policy, and it is important to control for these when assessing the links between tariffs and growth. '' A prominent 1999 study by Jeffrey A. Frankel and David H. Romer found, contrary to free trade skeptics ' claims, while controlling for relevant factors, that trade does indeed have a positive impact on growth and incomes. Developing World See also : Infant industry argument There is broad consensus among economists that free trade helps workers in developing countries, even though they are not subject to the stringent health and labour standards of developed countries. This is because `` the growth of manufacturing -- and of the myriad other jobs that the new export sector creates -- has a ripple effect throughout the economy '' that creates competition among producers, lifting wages and living conditions. The Nobel laureates, Milton Friedman and Paul Krugman, have argued for free trade as a model for economic development. Alan Greenspan, former chair of the American Federal Reserve, has criticized protectionist proposals as leading `` to an atrophy of our competitive ability... If the protectionist route is followed, newer, more efficient industries will have less scope to expand, and overall output and economic welfare will suffer. '' Protectionists postulate that new industries may require protection from entrenched foreign competition in order to develop. This was Alexander Hamilton 's argument in his `` Report on Manufactures '', and the primary reason why George Washington signed the Tariff Act of 1789. Mainstream economists do concede that tariffs can in the short - term help domestic industries to develop, but are contingent on the short - term nature of the protective tariffs and the ability of the government to pick the winners. The problems are that protective tariffs will not be reduced after the infant industry reaches a foothold, and that governments will not pick industries that are likely to succeed. Economists have identified a number of cases across different countries and industries where attempts to shelter infant industries failed. Economists such as Paul Krugman have speculated that those who support protectionism ostensibly to further the interests of workers in least developed countries are in fact being disingenuous, seeking only to protect jobs in developed countries. Additionally, workers in the least developed countries only accept jobs if they are the best on offer, as all mutually consensual exchanges must be of benefit to both sides, or else they would n't be entered into freely. That they accept low - paying jobs from companies in developed countries shows that their other employment prospects are worse. A letter reprinted in the May 2010 edition of Econ Journal Watch identifies a similar sentiment against protectionism from 16 British economists at the beginning of the 20th century. Conflict Protectionism has also been accused of being one of the major causes of war. Proponents of this theory point to the constant warfare in the 17th and 18th centuries among European countries whose governments were predominantly mercantilist and protectionist, the American Revolution, which came about ostensibly due to British tariffs and taxes, as well as the protective policies preceding both World War I and World War II. According to a slogan of Frédéric Bastiat ( 1801 -- 1850 ), `` When goods can not cross borders, armies will. '' Current World trends Protectionist measures taken since 2008 according to Global Trade Alert. Since the end of World War II, it has been the stated policy of most First World countries to eliminate protectionism through free trade policies enforced by international treaties and organizations such as the World Trade Organization Certain policies of First World governments have been criticized as protectionist, however, such as the Common Agricultural Policy in the European Union, longstanding agricultural subsidies and proposed `` Buy American '' provisions in economic recovery packages in the United States. Heads of the G20 meeting in London on 2 April 2009 pledged `` We will not repeat the historic mistakes of protectionism of previous eras ''. Adherence to this pledge is monitored by the Global Trade Alert, providing up - to - date information and informed commentary to help ensure that the G20 pledge is met by maintaining confidence in the world trading system, detering beggar - thy - neighbor acts, and preserving the contribution that exports could play in the future recovery of the world economy. Although they were reiterating what they had already committed to, last November in Washington, 17 of these 20 countries were reported by the World Bank as having imposed trade restrictive measures since then. In its report, the World Bank says most of the world 's major economies are resorting to protectionist measures as the global economic slowdown begins to bite. Economists who have examined the impact of new trade - restrictive measures using detailed bilaterally monthly trade statistics estimated that new measures taken through late 2009 were distorting global merchandise trade by 0.25 % to 0.5 % ( about $50 billion a year ). Since then however, then - President - elect Donald Trump announced in November 2016 that he would abandon the TPP ( Trans - Pacific Partnership ) deal, placing the protectionist policies reflected in Trumponomics very much on the table, despite the wishes of all the other G20 nations. See also American System ( economic plan ) Brexit Developmentalism Digital Millennium Copyright Act Economic nationalism Free trade debate Globalization Henry C. Carey Imperial Preference International trade National Policy Not Invented Here Project Labor Agreement Protected Geographical Status Protection or Free Trade Protectionism in the United States Protective tariff Rent seeking Resistive economy Tariff Reform League United Kingdom general election, 1923 Voluntary export restraint Washington Consensus References Jump up ^ Fairbrother, Malcolm ( 2014 - 03 - 01 ). `` Economists, Capitalists, and the Making of Globalization : North American Free Trade in Comparative - Historical Perspective ''. American Journal of Sociology. 119 ( 5 ) : 1324 -- 1379. doi : 10.1086 / 675410. ISSN 0002 - 9602. ^ Jump up to : N. Gregory Mankiw, Economists Actually Agree on This : The Wisdom of Free Trade, New York Times ( April 24, 2015 ) : `` Economists are famous for disagreeing with one another... But economists reach near unanimity on some topics, including international trade. '' Jump up ^ `` Economic Consensus On Free Trade ''. PIIE. 2017 - 05 - 25. Retrieved 2018 - 02 - 27. Jump up ^ Poole, William. `` Free Trade : Why Are Economists and Noneconomists So Far Apart ? ''. Retrieved 2018 - 02 - 27. ^ Jump up to : See P. Krugman, `` The Narrow and Broad Arguments for Free Trade '', American Economic Review, Papers and Proceedings, 83 ( 3 ), 1993 ; and P. Krugman, Peddling Prosperity : Economic Sense and Nonsense in the Age of Diminished Expectations, New York, W.W. Norton & Company, 1994. ^ Jump up to : `` Free Trade ''. IGM Forum. March 13, 2012. ^ Jump up to : `` Import Duties ''. IGM Forum. October 4, 2016. Jump up ^ `` Trade Within Europe IGM Forum ''. www.igmchicago.org. Retrieved 2017 - 06 - 24. Jump up ^ William Poole, Free Trade : Why Are Economists and Noneconomists So Far Apart, Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Review, September / October 2004, 86 ( 5 ), pp. 1 : `` most observers agree that ' ( t ) he consensus among mainstream economists on the desirability of free trade remains almost universal. ' '' Jump up ^ Wong, Edward ; Tatlow, Didi Kirsten ( 5 June 2013 ). `` China Seen in Push to Gain Technology Insights ''. Nytimes.com. Retrieved 16 October 2017. Jump up ^ Markoff, John ; Rosenberg, Matthew ( 3 February 2017 ). `` China 's Intelligent Weaponry Gets Smarter ''. Nytimes.com. Retrieved 16 October 2017. Jump up ^ `` The Unpleasant Truth About Chinese Espionage ''. Observer.com. 22 April 2016. Retrieved 16 October 2017. Jump up ^ `` Why Access To China Can Be Suicide For U.S. Companies ''. thefederalist.com. 2 August 2016. Retrieved 16 October 2017. Jump up ^ `` What it 's like to rub shoulders with Chinese student spies ''. Businessinsider.com. Retrieved 16 October 2017. Jump up ^ Peter Drahos ; John Braithwaite ( 2002 ). Information Feudalism : Who Owns the Knowledge Economy ?. London : Earthscan. p. 36. ISBN 9781853839177. Jump up ^ ( 1 ) Archived October 17, 2006, at the Wayback Machine. ^ Jump up to : Free to Choose, Milton Friedman Jump up ^ The National System of Political Economy, by Friedrich List, 1841, translated by Sampson S. Lloyd M.P., 1885 edition, Fourth Book, `` The Politics '', Chapter 33. Jump up ^ Shafaeddin, Mehdi ( 1998 ). `` How did Developed Countries Industrialize ? The History of Trade and Industrial Policy : the Cases of Great Britain and the USA ''. United Nations Conference on Trade and Development. Jump up ^ Reinert, Eric ( 2007 ). How Rich Countries got Rich and Why Poor Countries Stay Poor. New York : Carroll & Graf. Jump up ^ `` Archived copy '' ( PDF ). Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 2012 - 03 - 22. Retrieved 2017 - 06 - 02. ^ Jump up to : C, Feenstra, Robert ; M, Taylor, Alan ( 2013 - 12 - 23 ). `` Globalization in an Age of Crisis : Multilateral Economic Cooperation in the Twenty - First Century ''. NBER. Jump up ^ Murschetz, Paul ( 2013 ). State Aid for Newspapers : Theories, Cases, Actions. Springer Science + Business Media. p. 64. ISBN 978 - 3642356902. Parties of the left in government in adopt protectionist policies for ideological reasons and because they wish to save worker jobs. Conversely, right - wing parties are predisposed toward free trade policies. Jump up ^ Peláez, Carlos ( 2008 ). Globalization and the State : Volume II : Trade Agreements, Inequality, the Environment, Financial Globalization, International Law and Vulnerabilities. United States : Palgrave MacMillan. p. 68. ISBN 978 - 0230205314. Left - wing parties tend to support more protectionist policies than right - wing parties. Jump up ^ Mansfield, Edward ( 2012 ). Votes, Vetoes, and the Political Economy of International Trade Agreements. Princeton University Press. p. 128. ISBN 978 - 0691135304. Left - wing governments are considered more likely than others to intervene in the economy and to enact protectionist trade policies. Jump up ^ Warren, Kenneth ( 2008 ). Encyclopedia of U.S. Campaigns, Elections, and Electoral Behavior : A-M, Volume 1. SAGE Publications. p. 680. ISBN 9781412954891. Yet, certain national interests, regional trading blocks, and left - wing anti-globalization forces still favor protectionist practices, making protectionism a continuing issue for both American political parties. Jump up ^ `` Trump Repeats Nixon 's Folly ''. The Atlantic. 2018 - 03 - 02. Retrieved 2018 - 03 - 03. ^ Jump up to : `` A historian on the myths of American trade ''. The Economist. Retrieved 2017 - 11 - 26. Jump up ^ Chang, Ha - Joon ; Gershman, John. `` Kicking Away the Ladder : The `` Real '' History of Free Trade ``. ips-dc.org. Institute for Policy Studies. Retrieved 1 September 2017. Jump up ^ Read, Robert ( 2005 - 08 - 01 ). `` The Political Economy of Trade Protection : The Determinants and Welfare Impact of the 2002 US Emergency Steel Safeguard Measures ''. World Economy. 28 ( 8 ) : 1119 -- 1137. doi : 10.1111 / j. 1467 - 9701.2005. 00722. x. ISSN 1467 - 9701. Jump up ^ `` Did China tire safeguard save U.S. workers ? ''. European Economic Review. 85 : 22 -- 38. 2016 - 06 - 01. doi : 10.1016 / j. euroecorev. 2015.12. 009. ISSN 0014 - 2921. ^ Jump up to : `` Power and Plenty ''. Press.princeton.edu. Retrieved 16 October 2017. ^ Jump up to : Findlay, Ronald ; O'Rourke, Kevin H. ( 2003 - 01 - 01 ). `` Commodity Market Integration, 1500 -- 2000 ''. NBER. Jump up ^ `` 7 -- Trade : discovery, mercantilism and technology ''. The Cambridge Economic History of Modern Britain. Cambridge Core. Retrieved 2017 - 06 - 27. Jump up ^ Williamson, Jeffrey G ( 1990 - 04 - 01 ). `` The impact of the Corn Laws just prior to repeal ''. Explorations in Economic History. 27 ( 2 ) : 123 -- 156. doi : 10.1016 / 0014 - 4983 ( 90 ) 90007 - L. Jump up ^ Daudin, Guillaume ; O'Rourke, Kevin H. ; Escosura, Leandro Prados de la ( 2008 ). `` Trade and Empire, 1700 -- 1870 ''. Jump up ^ Paul Bairoch ( 1995 ). Economics and World History : Myths and Paradoxes. University of Chicago Press. pp. 31 -- 32. Jump up ^ Blattman, Christopher ; Clemens, Michael A. ; Williamson, Jeffrey G. ( 2003 - 06 - 01 ). `` Who Protected and Why ? Tariffs the World Around 1870 -- 1938 ''. Rochester, NY. Jump up ^ Coatsworth, John H. ; Williamson, Jeffrey G. ( 2004 ). `` The Roots of Latin American Protectionism : Looking Before the Great Depression ''. In Estevadeordal, A. ; Rodrik, D. ; Taylor, A. ; Velasco, A. Integrating the Americas : FTAA and Beyond. Cambridge : Harvard University Press. doi : 10.3386 / w8999. ISBN 0 - 674 - 01484 - 7. Jump up ^ William Poole, Free Trade : Why Are Economists and Noneconomists So Far Apart, Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Review, September / October 2004, 86 ( 5 ), pp. 1 : `` most observers agree that ' ( t ) he consensus among mainstream economists on the desirability of free trade remains almost universal. ' '' Jump up ^ `` Trade Within Europe IGM Forum ''. Igmchicago.org. Retrieved 2017 - 06 - 24. Jump up ^ Krugman, Paul R. ( 1987 ). `` Is Free Trade Passe ? ''. The Journal of Economic Perspectives. 1 ( 2 ) : 131 -- 44. doi : 10.1257 / jep. 1.2. 131. JSTOR 1942985. Jump up ^ Krugman, Paul ( January 24, 1997 ). The Accidental Theorist. Slate. Jump up ^ Magee, Stephen P. ( 1976 ). International Trade and Distortions In Factor Markets. New York : Marcel - Dekker. Jump up ^ Fajgelbaum, Pablo D. ; Khandelwal, Amit K. ( 2016 - 08 - 01 ). `` Measuring the Unequal Gains from Trade ''. The Quarterly Journal of Economics. 131 ( 3 ) : 1113 -- 80. doi : 10.1093 / qje / qjw013. ISSN 0033 - 5533. Jump up ^ Amiti, Mary ; Dai, Mi ; Feenstra, Robert ; Romalis, John ( 2017 - 06 - 28 ). `` China 's WTO entry benefits US consumers ''. VoxEU.org. Retrieved 2017 - 06 - 28. Jump up ^ Rodrik, Dani. `` Has Globalization Gone Too Far ? '' ( PDF ). Institute for International Economics. Jump up ^ Bairoch, Paul ( 1993 ). Economics and World History : Myths and Paradoxes. Chicago : University of Chicago Press. p. 47. Jump up ^ DeJong, David ( 2006 ). `` Tariffs and Growth : an empirical exploration of contingent relationships ''. The Review of Economics and Statistics. 88 : 625 -- 40. doi : 10.1162 / rest. 88.4. 625. ^ Jump up to : Irwin, Douglas A. ( 2001 - 01 - 01 ). `` Tariffs and Growth in Late Nineteenth Century America ''. World Economy. 24 ( 1 ) : 15 -- 30. doi : 10.1111 / 1467 - 9701.00341. ISSN 1467 - 9701. Jump up ^ H. O'Rourke, Kevin ( 2000 - 11 - 01 ). `` British trade policy in the 19th century : a review article ''. European Journal of Political Economy. 16 ( 4 ) : 829 -- 42. doi : 10.1016 / S0176 - 2680 ( 99 ) 00043 - 9. Jump up ^ Frankel, Jeffrey A ; Romer, David ( June 1999 ). `` Does Trade Cause Growth ? ''. American Economic Review. 89 ( 3 ) : 379 -- 99. doi : 10.1257 / aer. 89.3. 379. ISSN 0002 - 8282. Jump up ^ Krugman, Paul ( March 21, 1997 ). In Praise of Cheap Labor. Slate. Jump up ^ Sicilia, David B. & Cruikshank, Jeffrey L. ( 2000 ). The Greenspan Effect, p. 131. New York : McGraw - Hill. ISBN 0 - 07 - 134919 - 7. Jump up ^ `` The Case for Protecting Infant Industries ''. Bloomberg.com. 2016 - 12 - 22. Retrieved 2017 - 06 - 24. ^ Jump up to : Baldwin, Robert E. ( 1969 ). `` The Case against Infant - Industry Tariff Protection ''. Journal of Political Economy. 77 ( 3 ) : 295 -- 305. doi : 10.1086 / 259517. Jump up ^ O, Krueger, Anne ; Baran, Tuncer ( 1982 ). `` An Empirical Test of the Infant Industry Argument ''. American Economic Review. 72 ( 5 ). Jump up ^ Choudhri, Ehsan U. ; Hakura, Dalia S. ( 2000 ). `` International Trade and Productivity Growth : Exploring the Sectoral Effects for Developing Countries ''. IMF Staff Papers. 47 ( 1 ) : 30 -- 53. Jump up ^ Baldwin, Richard E. ; Krugman, Paul ( June 1986 ). `` Market Access and International Competition : A Simulation Study of 16K Random Access Memories ''. NBER Working Paper No. 1936. doi : 10.3386 / w1936. Jump up ^ Luzio, Eduardo ; Greenstein, Shane ( 1995 ). `` Measuring the Performance of a Protected Infant Industry : The Case of Brazilian Microcomputers ''. The Review of Economics and Statistics. 77 ( 4 ) : 622 -- 633. doi : 10.2307 / 2109811. Jump up ^ `` US Tire Tariffs : Saving Few Jobs at High Cost ''. PIIE. 2016 - 03 - 02. Retrieved 2017 - 06 - 24. Jump up ^ Krugman, Paul ( November 21, 1997 ). A Raspberry for Free Trade. Slate. Jump up ^ `` Convictions Opposed to Certain Popular Opinions : The 1903 Anti-Protectionism Letter Supported by 16 British Economists ''. Econ Journal Watch 7 ( 2 ) : 157 -- 61, May 2010. econjwatch.org Jump up ^ DiLorenzo, T.J., Frederic Bastiat ( 1801 -- 1850 ) : Between the French and Marginalist Revolutions. accessed at ( Ludwig Von Mises Institute ) 2012 - 04 - 13 Jump up ^ `` Independent monitoring of policies that affect world trade ''. Global Trade Alert. Retrieved 2016 - 12 - 16. Jump up ^ Fouda, Regine ( October 2012 ). `` Protectionism and Free Trade : A Country 's Glory or Doom ? '' ( PDF ). International Journal of Trade, Economics and Finance. 5. 3 : 351. Retrieved 13 April 2014... Jump up ^ `` A French Roadblock to Free Trade ''. The New York Times. 2003 - 08 - 31. Retrieved 2010 - 05 - 22. Jump up ^ `` Brussels Warns US on Protectionism ''. Dw-world.de. 2009 - 01 - 30. Retrieved 16 October 2017. Jump up ^ `` Global Trade Alert ''. Globaltradealert.org. Retrieved 16 October 2017. Jump up ^ `` Trade and the Crisis : Protect or Recover '' ( PDF ). Imf.org. Retrieved 16 October 2017. International trade Terminology Absolute advantage Balance of payments Balance of trade Capital account Comparative advantage Current account Export - oriented industrialization Fair trade Foreign exchange reserves Globalization Import substitution industrialization Net capital outflow Outsourcing Tariff Trade justice Trade war Trading nation Organizations and policies International Monetary Fund ( IMF ) United Nations Conference on Trade and Development World Bank Group World Trade Organization ( WTO ) International Trade Centre Bilateral investment treaty Economic integration Free - trade zone Special economic zone Trade agreement Trade barrier Trade bloc Political economy Free trade ( Adam Smith, The Wealth of Nations, Repeal of the Corn Laws ) Mercantilism Protectionism ( Economic nationalism, Autarky ) Regional organizations ACU ASEAN CACM CAN CARICOM CEMAC CUBKR EAC EAU EU GCC Mercosur RCEP SAARC SACU WAEMU Exports by product Aircraft & Spacecraft Aircraft parts Aluminium Cars Car parts Coal Coffee Computers Copper Corn Cotton Diamonds Electricity Engines Gas turbines Gold Integrated circuits Iron ore Natural gas Oil Petrol Pharmaceuticals Ships Steel Telecommunications equipment Telephones Trucks Wheat Wine Commons Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Protectionism&oldid=833494134 '' Categories : Economic ideologies Protectionism Trade policy Localism ( politics ) Hidden categories : Webarchive template wayback links Articles to be merged from December 2017 All articles to be merged Articles needing additional references from June 2017 All articles needing additional references All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from June 2017 Talk Contents About Wikipedia Asturianu Azərbaycanca Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская ( тарашкевіца ) ‎ Български Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ಕನ್ನಡ Қазақша Latviešu Lietuvių Magyar Македонски Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk Norsk nynorsk Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча پښتو Polski Português Română Русский Scots Shqip Simple English Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska தமிழ் Татарча / tatarça తెలుగు ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 49 more Edit links This page was last edited on 31 March 2018, at 22 : 21. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. About Wikipedia

Question: 2. what are the reasons states impose protectionists policies on other countries
Answer: shield the producers, businesses, and workers of the import-competing sector in the country from foreign competitors