Christian cross - wikipedia Christian cross A Greek cross A Latin cross Latin cross from the 6th - century mosaic in the Basilica of Sant ' Apollinare in Classe, Ravenna The Christian cross, seen as a representation of the instrument of the crucifixion of Jesus, is the best - known symbol of Christianity. It is related to the crucifix ( a cross that includes a usually three - dimensional representation of Jesus ' body ) and to the more general family of cross symbols. The basic forms of the cross are the Latin cross ( ✝ ) and the Greek cross ( ✚ ), with numerous variants used in text, visual art, heraldry, and in various confessional contexts. Contents 1 History of use 1.1 Pre-Christian 1.2 Instrument of execution 1.3 Early Christian 2 In contemporary Christianity 3 Exclusion 4 Notable individual crosses 5 See also 6 References 7 External links History of use Pre-Christian Main article : Cross This section may stray from the topic of the article. Please help improve this section or discuss this issue on the talk page. ( July 2016 ) The cross-shaped sign, represented in its simplest form by a crossing of two lines at right angles, greatly predates the introduction of Christianity, in both East and West. It goes back to a very remote period of human civilization. It is supposed to have been used not just for its ornamental value, but also with religious significance. It may have represented the apparatus used in kindling fire, and thus as the symbol of sacred fire or as a symbol of the sun, denoting its daily rotation. It has also been interpreted as the mystic representation of lightning or of the god of the tempest, or the emblem of the Aryan pantheon and the primitive Aryan civilization. Ankh Another associated symbol is the ansated cross ( ankh or crux ansata ) used in ancient Egypt. It was often depicted in the hands of the goddess Sekhmet, and as a hieroglyphic sign of life or of the living. Egyptian Christians ( Copts ) adopted it as the emblem of the cross. In his book, The Worship of the Dead, Colonel J. Garnier wrote : `` The cross in the form of the ' Crux Ansata '... was carried in the hands of the Egyptian priests and Pontiff kings as the symbol of their authority as priests of the Sun god and was called ' the Sign of Life '. '' Ndj & nfr Another Egyptian symbol is the Ndj ( Cross-ndj ( hieroglyph ) ) - Uses for the hieroglyph : 1 -- `` to protect, guard, avenge '', and `` protector, advocate, avenger '' 2 -- `` homage to thee '', ( a form of salutation to gods ) 3 -- `` discuss a matter with someone '', `` to converse '', `` to take counsel ''. Yet another Egyptian symbol is the nfr - meaning : beauty or perfect. In the Bronze Age a representation of the cross as conceived in Christian art appeared, and the form was popularised. The more precise characterization coincided with a corresponding general change in customs and beliefs. The cross then came into use in various forms on many objects : fibulas, cinctures, earthenware fragments, and on the bottom of drinking vessels. De Mortillet believed that such use of the sign was not merely ornamental, but rather a symbol of consecration, especially in the case of objects pertaining to burial. In the proto - Etruscan cemetery of Golasecca every tomb has a vase with a cross engraved on it. True crosses of more or less artistic design have been found in Tiryns, at Mycenæ, in Crete, and on a fibula from Vulci. According to W.E. Vine, the cross was used by worshipers of Tammuz, an Ancient Near East deity of Babylonian origin who had the cross-shaped taw ( tau ) as his symbol. Instrument of execution Further information : Instrument of Jesus ' crucifixion, crux simplex, and tau cross John Pearson, Bishop of Chester ( c. 1660 ) wrote in his commentary on the Apostles ' Creed that the Greek word stauros originally signified `` a straight standing Stake, Pale, or Palisador '', but that, `` when other transverse or prominent parts were added in a perfect Cross, it retained still the Original Name '', and he declared : `` The Form then of the Cross on which our Saviour suffered was not a simple, but a compounded, Figure, according to the Custom of the Romans, by whose Procurator he was condemned to die. In which there was not only a straight and erected piece of Wood fixed in the Earth, but also a transverse Beam fastned unto that towards the top thereof ''. In this he was in accord with the Early Christian descriptions of the execution cross. A cross in Kerala Early Christian See also : Early Christian descriptions and Early Christian symbols The Alexamenos graffito The Sinai icon of Christ Pantocrator ( 6th century ), showing Christ with a cruciform halo and holding a book adorned with a crux gemmata During the first two centuries of Christianity, the cross was rare in Christian iconography, as it depicts a purposely painful and gruesome method of public execution and Christians were reluctant to use it. A symbol similar to the cross, the staurogram, was used to abbreviate the Greek word for cross in very early New Testament manuscripts such as P66, P45 and P75, almost like a nomen sacrum ( nomina sacra ). The extensive adoption of the cross as Christian iconographic symbol arose from the 4th century. However, the cross symbol was already associated with Christians in the 2nd century, as is indicated in the anti-Christian arguments cited in the Octavius of Minucius Felix, chapters IX and XXIX, written at the end of that century or the beginning of the next, and by the fact that by the early 3rd century the cross had become so closely associated with Christ that Clement of Alexandria, who died between 211 and 216, could without fear of ambiguity use the phrase τὸ κυριακὸν σημεῖον ( the Lord 's sign ) to mean the cross, when he repeated the idea, current as early as the apocryphal Epistle of Barnabas, that the number 318 ( in Greek numerals, ΤΙΗ ) in Genesis 14 : 14 was interpreted as a foreshadowing ( a `` type '' ) of the cross ( T, an upright with crossbar, standing for 300 ) and of Jesus ( ΙΗ, the first two letter of his name ΙΗΣΟΥΣ, standing for 18 ), and his contemporary Tertullian could designate the body of Christian believers as crucis religiosi, i.e. `` devotees of the Cross ''. In his book De Corona, written in 204, Tertullian tells how it was already a tradition for Christians to trace repeatedly on their foreheads the sign of the cross. The crucifix, a cross upon which an image of Christ is present, is not known to have been used until the 6th century AD. The oldest extant depiction of the execution of Jesus in any medium seems to be the second - century or early third - century relief on a jasper gemstone meant for use as an amulet, which is now in the British Museum in London. It portrays a naked bearded man whose arms are tied at the wrists by short strips to the transom of a T - shaped cross. An inscription in Greek on the obverse contains an invocation of the redeeming crucified Christ. On the reverse a later inscription by a different hand combines magical formulae with Christian terms. The catalogue of a 2007 exhibition says : `` The appearance of the Crucifixion on a gem of such an early date suggests that pictures of the subject ( now lost ) may have been widespread even in the late second or early third century, most likely in conventional Christian contexts ''. The Jewish Encyclopedia says : The cross as a Christian symbol or `` seal '' came into use at least as early as the second century ( see `` Apost. Const. '' iii. 17 ; Epistle of Barnabas, xi. - xii. ; Justin, `` Apologia, '' i. 55 - 60 ; `` Dial. cum Tryph. '' 85 - 97 ) ; and the marking of a cross upon the forehead and the chest was regarded as a talisman against the powers of demons ( Tertullian, `` De Corona, '' iii. ; Cyprian, `` Testimonies, '' xi. 21 -- 22 ; Lactantius, `` Divinæ Institutiones, '' iv. 27, and elsewhere ). Accordingly the Christian Fathers had to defend themselves, as early as the second century, against the charge of being worshipers of the cross, as may be learned from Tertullian, `` Apologia, '' xii., xvii., and Minucius Felix, `` Octavius, '' xxix. Christians used to swear by the power of the cross In contemporary Christianity Further information : Cross necklace A crucifix on the wall of a church Christian crosses at a joint service for the Week of Prayer for Christian Unity A man holding several Orthodox Catholic pectoral crosses Catholics, Orthodox Catholic, Oriental Orthodox, members of the major branches of Christianity with other adherents as Lutheranism and Anglicans, and others often make the Sign of the Cross upon themselves. This was already a common Christian practice in the time of Tertullian. The Feast of the Cross is an important Christian feast. One of the twelve Great Feasts in Orthodox Catholic is the Exaltation of the Cross on September 14, which commemorates the consecration of the basilica on the site where the original cross of Jesus was reportedly discovered in 326 by Helena of Constantinople, mother of Constantine the Great. The Catholic Church celebrates the feast on the same day and under the same name ( In Exaltatione Sanctae Crucis ), though in English it has been called the feast of the Triumph of the Cross. Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox and Anglican bishops place a cross ( + ) before their name when signing a document. The dagger symbol ( † ) placed after the name of a dead person ( often with the date of death ) is sometimes taken to be a Christian cross. Exclusion Death on a pole, one of the many forms presented in Justus Lipsius 's De Cruce See also : Instrument of Jesus ' crucifixion Although Christians accepted that the cross was the gallows on which Jesus died, they had already begun in the 2nd century to use it as a Christian symbol. During the first three centuries of the Christian era the cross was `` a symbol of minor importance '' when compared to the prominence given to it later, but by the second century it was nonetheless so closely associated with Christians that Tertullian could designate the body of Christian believers as crucis religiosi, i.e. `` devotees of the Cross ''. and it was already a tradition for Christians to trace repeatedly on their foreheads the sign of the cross. Martin Luther at the time of the Reformation retained the cross and crucifix in the Lutheran Church. Luther wrote : `` The cross alone is our theology. '' He believed one knows God not through works but through suffering, the cross, and faith. The crucifixion of Jesus as presented in Justus Lipsius 's De Cruce The Protestant Reformation spurred a revival of iconoclasm, a wave of rejecting sacred images, which in some localities ( such as England ) included polemics against using the cross in worship. For example, during the 16th century, a minority of theologians in the Anglican and Reformed traditions Nicholas Ridley, James Calfhill, and Theodore Beza, rejected practices that they described as cross worship. Considering it a form of idolatry, there was a dispute in 16th century England over the baptismal use of the sign of the cross and even the public use of crosses. There were more active reactions to religious items that were thought as ' relics of Papacy ', as happened for example in September 1641, when Sir Robert Harley, pulled down and destroyed the cross at Wigmore. Writers during the 19th century indicating a pagan origin of the cross included Henry Dana Ward, Mourant Brock, and John Denham Parsons. David Williams, writing of medieval images of monsters, says : `` The disembodied phallus is also formed into a cross, which, before it became for Christianity the symbol of salvation, was a pagan symbol of fertility. '' The study, Gods, Heroes & Kings : The Battle for Mythic Britain states : `` Before the fourth century CE, the cross was not widely embraced as a sign of Christianity, symbolizing as it did the gallows of a criminal. '' Jehovah 's Witnesses do not use the symbol of the cross in their worship, which they believe constitutes idolatry. They believe that Jesus died on a single upright torture stake rather than a two - beam cross, arguing that the Greek term stauros indicated a single upright pole. Although early Watch Tower Society publications associated with the Bible Student movement taught that Christ was executed on a cross, it no longer appeared on Watch Tower Society publications after the name Jehovah 's witnesses was adopted in 1931, and use of the cross was officially abandoned in 1936. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter - day Saints teaches that Jesus died on a cross, however, their prophet Gordon B. Hinckley stated that `` for us the cross is the symbol of the dying Christ, while our message is a declaration of the living Christ. '' When asked what was the symbol of his religion, Hinckley replied `` the lives of our people must become the only meaningful expression of our faith and, in fact, therefore, the symbol of our worship. '' Prophet Howard W. Hunter encouraged Latter - day Saints `` to look to the temple of the Lord as the great symbol of your membership. '' Images of LDS temples and the Angel Moroni ( who is found in statue on most temples ) are commonly used to symbolize the LDS faith. Notable individual crosses A wooden cross at Coventry Cathedral, constructed of the remnants of beams found after the Coventry Blitz Cross of Sacrifice or War Cross, from a Commonwealth War Graves Commission cemetery Cross in Valle de los Caídos near Madrid, the highest cross in the world Kottakkavu Sliva, a Persian cross founded by Mar Sabor and Mar Proth, is preserved at Kottakkavu Mar Thoma Syro - Malabar Pilgrim Center, North Paravur, India. The Millennium Cross in Skopje, Republic of Macedonia, one of the biggest crosses in the world The Cross on the Hill, a 199 - foot ( 61 m ) cross located in Bossier City, Louisiana Tile cross from Rødtvet Church in Oslo, Norway, built in 1978 The Ruthwell Cross, a stone Anglo - Saxon cross located in Ruthwell, Dumfriesshire The World Trade Center Cross rises from the World Trade Center wreckage. Altar and cross in the Chapel at Callaway Gardens USVA headstone emblem 1 USVA headstone emblem 14 Holly Cross with which the city of Santa Cruz de Tenerife was founded in Spain. See also Christianity portal Wikimedia Commons has media related to Crosses. Christian symbolism Christian cross variants Crosses in heraldry Cross burning Cross of All Nations Khachkar Market cross Memorial cross Mount Samat Roodmas Rood screen Ichthys Alpha and Omega Staurogram Chi Rho IH Monogram IX Monogram Scientology cross Rose Cross References ^ Jump up to : Christianity : an introduction by Alister E. McGrath 2006 ISBN 1 - 4051 - 0901 - 7 pages 321 - 323 ^ Jump up to : Marucchi, Orazio. `` Archeology of the Cross and Crucifix. '' The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 4. New York : Robert Appleton Company, 1908 Retrieved 13 February 2010. Cf. `` Various objects, dating from periods long anterior to the Christian era, have been found, marked with crosses of different designs, in almost every part of the old world. India, Syria, Persia and Egypt have all yielded numberless examples... The use of the cross as a religious symbol in pre-Christian times and among non-Christian peoples may probably be regarded as almost universal, and in very many cases it was connected with some form of nature worship '' ( Encyclopædia Britannica ( 1946 ), Vol. 6, p. 753. Jump up ^ John Garnier ( 1904 ). The worship of the Dead. p. 226. Retrieved 2011 - 12 - 10. Jump up ^ Vine 's Expository Dictionary of New Testament Words, `` Cross, Crucify ''. See, also, Abram Herbert Lewis, Paganism surviving in Christianity, G.P. Putnam 's sons, 1892, pp 237, 238. Jump up ^ John Pearson, An Exposition of the Creed ( London 1715, 5th edition ), p. 203 Jump up ^ Hutado, Larry ( 2006 ). `` The staurogram in early Christian manuscripts : the earliest visual reference to the crucified Jesus ? ''. In Kraus, Thomas. New Testament Manuscripts. Leiden : Brill. pp. 207 -- 26. ISBN 978 - 90 - 04 - 14945 - 8. Jump up ^ Stranger, James ( 2007 ). `` Archeological evidence of Jewish believers ? ''. In Skarsaune, Oskar. Jewish Believers in Jesus The Early Centuries. City : Baker Academic. p. 715. ISBN 9780801047688. Jump up ^ `` ' ' Octavius ' ' ''. Ccel.org. 2005 - 06 - 01. Retrieved 2011 - 12 - 10. Jump up ^ Minucius Felix speaks of the cross of Jesus in its familiar form, likening it to objects with a crossbeam or to a man with arms outstretched in prayer ( Octavius of Minucius Felix, chapter XXIX ). Jump up ^ `` Stromata, book VI, chapter XI ''. Earlychristianwritings.com. 2006 - 02 - 02. Retrieved 2011 - 12 - 10. Jump up ^ Apology., chapter xvi. In this chapter and elsewhere in the same book, Tertullian clearly distinguishes between a cross and a stake. Jump up ^ `` At every forward step and movement, at every going in and out, when we put on our clothes and shoes, when we bathe, when we sit at table, when we light the lamps, on couch, on seat, in all the ordinary actions of daily life, we trace upon the forehead the sign '' ( De Corona, chapter 3 ) Jump up ^ Stott, John ( 2006 ). The Cross of Christ ( 20th Anniversary ed. ). Downers Grove : InterVarsity Press. p. 27. ISBN 0 - 8308 - 3320 - X. Jump up ^ The Magic Crucifixion Gem in the British Museum Jump up ^ Extract from The Earliest Christian Art ( Yale University Press, 2007 ), pp. 227 - 232 Jump up ^ First depiction of Jesus on cross - the Bloodstone amulet Jump up ^ British Museum Collection online : magical gem / intaglio Jump up ^ `` Jewish Encyclopedia ''. Jewish Encyclopedia. Retrieved 2011 - 12 - 10., ( see Apocalypse of Mary, viii., in James, `` Texts and Studies, '' iii. 118 ). Jump up ^ De Corona, chapter 3, written in 204. Jump up ^ Keith Houston, Shady Characters ( W.W. Norton & Company 2013 ISBN 978 - 0 - 39306442 - 1 ), pp. 97 and 106 Jump up ^ The perhaps 1st - century Epistle of Barnabas sees the letter T as indicating the cross of Christ ( Chapter 9, 7 ) Jump up ^ The Jewish Encyclopedia states : `` The cross as a Christian symbol or ' seal ' came into use at least as early as the 2nd century ( see ' Apost. Const. ' iii. 17 ; Epistle of Barnabas, xi. - xii. ; Justin, ' Apologia, ' i. 55 - 60 ; ' Dial. cum Tryph. ' 85 - 97 ) ; and the marking of a cross upon the forehead and the chest was regarded as a talisman against the powers of demons ( Tertullian, ' De Corona, ' iii. ; Cyprian, ' Testimonies, ' xi. 21 - 22 ; Lactantius, ' Divinæ Institutiones, ' iv. 27, and elsewhere ). Accordingly the Christian Fathers had to defend themselves, as early as the 2nd century, against the charge of being worshipers of the cross, as may be learned from Tertullian, ' Apologia, ' xii., xvii., and Minucius Felix, ' Octavius, ' xxix '' 9 ( Jewish Encyclopedia, article `` Cross '' ). Jump up ^ Jan Willem Drijvers, Helena Augusta : The mother of Constantine the Great and the legend of her finding of the True Cross, Brill 1992, p. 81. Jump up ^ Tertullian, Apology., chapter xvi. Jump up ^ `` At every forward step and movement, at every going in and out, when we put on our clothes and shoes, when we bathe, when we sit at table, when we light the lamps, on couch, on seat, in all the ordinary actions of daily life, we trace upon the forehead the sign '' ( Tertullian, De Corona, chapter 3 ) Jump up ^ Martin Luther : Catholic Critical Analysis and Praise Jump up ^ Nicholas Ridley, A Treatise on the Worship of Images, written before 1555. Jump up ^ James Calfhill, An aunsvvere to the Treatise of the crosse ( An answer to John Martiall 's Treatise of the cross ) at 1565. Jump up ^ Theodore Beza, in his Answer to the Colloquium of Montheliard at 1588, according to Jaroslav Pelikan, The Christian Tradition : A History of the Development of Doctrine, Vol. 4, University of Chicago Press 1985, p. 217. Jump up ^ Peter Blickle, Macht und Ohnmacht der Bilder. : Reformatorischer Bildersturm im Kontext der europäischen Geschichte, Oldenbourg Verlag, 2002, pp. 253 - 272. Jump up ^ Religious Politics in Post-Reformation England : Essays in Honour of Nicholas Tyacke, Boydell & Brewer, 2006, p. 26. Jump up ^ Henry Dana Ward, History of the cross, the pagan origin, and idolatrous adoption and worship of the image, at 1871. Jump up ^ Mourant Brock, The cross, heathen and Christian : A fragmentary notice of its early pagan existence and subsequent Christian adoption, London 1879. Jump up ^ John Denham Parsons, The non-Christian cross ; an enquiry into the origin and history of the symbol eventually adopted as that of our religion, at 1896. Jump up ^ David Williams, Deformed Discourse : The function of the Monster in Mediaeval thought and literature, McGill - Queen 's Press 1999, p. 161. Jump up ^ Christopher R. Fee & David Adams Leeming, Gods, Heroes & Kings : The battle for mythic Britain, Oxford University Press, 2001, p. 113. Jump up ^ What Does the Bible Really Teach ?. Watch Tower Society. pp. 204 -- 205. Jump up ^ New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures, appendix 5C, page 1577 Jump up ^ Franz 2007, p. 150 Jump up ^ Riches, by J.F. Rutherford, Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society, 1936, page 27. Jump up ^ Hinckley, Gordon B ( May 1975 ). `` The Symbol of Christ ''. Ensign. Jump up ^ Hinckley, Gordon B ( April 2005 ). `` The Symbol of Our Faith ''. Ensign. Jump up ^ Hunter, Howard W. ( November 1994 ). `` Exceeding Great and Precious Promises ''. Ensign. Jump up ^ McKeever, Bill. `` Why No Crosses ? ''. Mormonism Research Ministry. Retrieved 1 April 2013. External links Wikisource has the text of the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia article Archæology of the Cross and Crucifix. Wikisource has the text of the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia article The Cross and Crucifix in Liturgy. The Christian Cross of Jesus Christ, Symbols of Christianity, and representations of it as objects of devotion MSN Encarta ( Archived 2009 - 10 - 31 ), `` Cross '' Philip Schaff, History of the Christian Church, Ch. 6th, `` Christian Art : § 77. The Cross and the Crucifix '' An Explanation of the Russian Orthodox Three - Bar Cross Variations of Crosses - Images and Meanings Christian cross variants In modern use Anchored / St. Clement 's Cross Anuradhapura cross Cross of the Archangels Archiepiscopal cross Armenian Cross Arrow / Barby Cross Bolnisi cross Cross bottony Branch cross Byzantine cross Calvary cross Canterbury cross Catherine wheel Caucasian Albanian Cross Celtic cross Cercelée Cross of St. Chad Coptic cross Cross crosslet Cross crosslet fitchy Crucifix Cruciform halo Double cross Cross of the Evangelists Cross fitchy Cross fleury Cross fleury fitchy St. Florian Cross Forked cross Cross fourchy Fylfot St. George 's Cross Globus cruciger Gnostic cross Grapevine / St. Nino 's Cross Greek cross Huguenot cross St. James / Santiago Cross Jerusalem / Crusaders ' cross Jerusalem cross ( variant ) Kingdom of Jerusalem cross Cross of St. John Latin / Roman cross Macedonian Cross Maltese cross Marian Cross Maronite Cross Cross moline Nordic Cross Cross of Novgorod Occitan cross Orthodox cross ( Bulgarian ) Orthodox cross ( Greek ) Orthodox cross ( Slavic ) Orthodox cross ( Serbian ) Papal cross Cross patonce St. Patrick 's Saltire Cross pattée Cross pattée fitchée Patriarchal cross Cross of St. Peter Cross of St. Philip Pommy cross Portate cross / Cross of St. Gilbert Cross potent Ringed cross Cross quadrate Cross of Salem Saltire / St. Andrew 's Cross Serbian cross Tau / St. Anthony 's Cross St. Thomas Cross Syriac cross Historical Avellane cross Avis cross Brigid 's cross Carolingian cross Consecration crosses Coptic cross Cross and Crown Cuthbert 's pectoral cross Early Coptic cross Engrailed cross Cross erminée Gammadion Crux gemmata Saint Julian 's cross Lazarus ' cross Lorraine cross Cross of Neith Cross of Peñalba Pierced cross Pierced cross quarterly Knights Templar cross Teutonic Order cross Two - barred cross Victory Cross Voided cross By function Altar cross Blessing cross Conciliation cross Crosses in heraldry Nordic Pisan High cross Market cross Mercat cross Memorial cross Mission cross Monumental cross Pectoral cross Plague cross Processional cross Rood / Triumphal cross Summit cross Wayside cross Christograms, Chrismons Chi Rho Christogram IX monogram Labarum Signum manus Staurogram / Monogrammatic cross / Tau Rho See also Ankh Armenian eternity sign Balkenkreuz Irminsul Kolovrat Mjölnir Rose Cross Sauwastika Scientology cross Shamrock Shield of the Trinity Sunwheel swastika Sun cross Swastika Triskelion / Triskele Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Christian_cross&oldid=837348224 '' Categories : Christian crosses Christian symbols Cross symbols Hidden categories : Wikipedia articles that may have off - topic sections Articles containing Ancient Greek - language text Wikipedia articles needing factual verification from October 2013 Commons category with local link different than on Wikidata Pages using div col without cols and colwidth parameters Talk Contents About Wikipedia Bân - lâm - gú Català Deutsch Español Esperanto فارسی Français 客家 語 / Hak - kâ - ngî 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano ಕನ್ನಡ Lietuvių Limburgs Lingála Македонски Mìng - dĕ̤ng - ngṳ̄ Nederlands 日本 語 Português Română Русский Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Suomi Svenska தமிழ் اردو Vèneto Tiếng Việt West - Vlams 粵語 中文 28 more Edit links This page was last edited on 20 April 2018, at 08 : 05. 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Question: when did the crucifix become the symbol of christianity
Answer: 4th century; the 4th century; in the 2nd century